material from the ,google ,print        
project47         ,,the ,,conduct ,,of  
,,mind ,,series  ,,edited ,,by  ,,joseph
 ,,jastrow  ,,vocational ,,psychology   
,,vocational ,,psychology  ,,its        
,,problems ,,and ,,methods  ,,by  ,h4   
,l4 ,,hollingworth  ,,associate         
,,professor ,,of ,,psychology1          
,,columbia ,,university  ,,with ,a      
,,chapter ,,on ,,the ,,vocational       
,,aptitudes ,,of ,,women ,,by ,,leta    
,,stetter ,,hollingworth1 ,,ph4,d4      
,,clinical ,,psychologist1 ,,bellevue   
,,hospital1 ,,new ,,york ,,city  ,d4    
,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,,new ,,york 
,,london #aibb   ,,copyright1 #aiaf1    
,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company     
,printed in the ,united ,states of      
,america  ,,to  ,,thaddeus ,l4 ,,bolton 
,,friend ,,and ,,vocational             
,,counsellor ,,of ,,youth         99    
99       99       99       99  ,it is   
our business to make both a science and 
an art of human nature4 ,as in the      
physical world we select first the      

material suited to our purpose1 then    
turn the iron into steel and temper the 
steel for the knife1 so in the world of 
human action we must learn to select the
 right man1 to educate him and to fit   
him for his exact task4 ,this indeed we 
try to do in all our social             
institutions1 religions1 commerce1      
systems of education and government4    
,but we work by the rule of             
thumb--blind1 deaf and wasteful4 ,the   
nineteenth century witnessed an         
extraordinary increase in our knowledge 
of the material world and in our power  
to make it subservient to our ends2 the 
twentieth century will probably witness 
a corresponding increase in our         
knowledge of human nature and in our    
power to use it for our welfare4--,j4   
,,mckeen ,,cattell1 ,homo ,scientificus 
,americanus1 ,science1 ,april #aj1      
#aijc4     ,,preface   ,this book has   
developed from the material presented in
 a course on ,psychological ,tests in   
,vocational ,guidance and ,selection    

which the writer was invited to conduct 
in ,teachers' ,college1 ,columbia       
,university4 ,the widespread interest in
 vocational psychology which has grown  
up in recent years1 the eagerness with  
which even the most superficial and     
absurd systems of character analysis are
 being adopted and tried out1 and       
especially the lack of references1      
offering conservative evaluation1 to    
which inquirers may be directed1 have   
made it seem advisable to publish the   
material in systematic form4 ,the book  
is essentially a presentation of the    
problems and methods of that branch of  
applied psychology which deals with     
individual differences in mental        
constitution4 ,in the present instance  
only those differences are considered   
which may seem to be significant in     
determining the individual's choice of a
 vocation1 or in influencing the        
selection of workers from among a group 
of applicants or candidates4 ,it is the 
writer's hope that the book may be      

suggestive to the individual who seeks  
to know himself better1 helpful to the  
student and parent who may desire to    
avoid the wiles of the charlatan1       
encouraging to the investigator or      
counsellor who is engaged in carrying   
forward the solution of vocational      
problems1 and useful to the practical   
man who may be mainly interested in     
surrounding himself with competent      
associates and employees4 ,to all those 
whose published works are referred to in
 the bibliography1 as well as to many   
not therein mentioned1 the writer is    
under heavy obligations4 ,he is         
especially indebted to ,professor ,f4   
,g4 ,bonser1 of ,teachers' ,college1 for
 the original invitation to formulate   
the material1 and to ,professor ,joseph 
,jastrow1 editor of the ,conduct of     
,mind series1 for most patient and      
helpful editorial criticism and         
suggestion4  ,h4 ,l4 ,,hollingworth4    
,columbia ,university4         99       
99       99       99       99           

,transcriber's note3  ,for ,text3 ,a    
word surrounded by underscores like this
 signifies the word is italics in the   
text4  ,for ,numbers and ,equations3    
,parentheses have been added to clarify 
fractions4 ,superscripts are designated 
with a caret and brackets1 e4g4 #aa4ac  
is #aa4a to the third power4 ,greek     
letters in equations are translated to  
their ,english version4  ,minor typos   
have been corrected and footnotes moved 
to the end of the sections4         99  
99       99       99       99           
,,contents   ,,chapter                  
,,page  ,i4--,,motives ,,and            
,,antecedents ,,of ,,vocational         
,,psychology                 #a         
,,ii4--,,the ,,search ,,for             
,,phrenological ,,and ,,physiognomic    
,,principles       #ba  ,,iii4--,,the   
,,development ,,of ,,psychological      
,,tests                        #eg      
,,iv4--,,the ,,psychographic ,,methods  
#hj  ,v4--,,special ,,vocational ,,tests
 ,,and ,,methods                        

#aji  ,,vi4--,,self-,,analysis ,,and    
,,the ,,judgment ,,of ,,associates      
#abb  ,,vii4--,,experimental ,,study    
,,of ,,self-,,analysis1 ,,estimates ,,of
 ,,associates ,,and ,,the ,,results ,,of
 ,,the ,,tests                          
#adc  ,,viii4--,,the ,,school           
,,curriculum ,,as ,a ,,vocational ,,test
                  #agd  ,,ix4--,,the    
,,determinants ,,of ,,vocational        
,,aptitude                       #bjh   
,x4--,,the ,,vocational ,,aptitudes ,,of
 ,,women                                
#bbb  ,,xi4--,,theory ,,and ,,principle 
,,of ,,psychological ,,tests ,,as       
,,applied ,,to ,,vocational ,,analysis  
#bde  ,,xii4--,,conclusion              
#bff  ,,appendix                        
#bge  ,,tests1 ,,blanks1 ,,standards1   
,,forms                                 
#bhc  ,,index                           
#cjc     ,,introduction   ,in the       
present volume ,professor ,hollingworth 
makes a distinctive and notable         
contribution to applied psychology4 ,the

 problem is an ancient one3 that of     
determining the qualities of men with   
reference to their fitness for the work 
of the world4 ,the general problem      
precedes the special one alike in theory
 and in practice4 ,the earliest         
solutions were in the nature of         
ambitious attempts to read the ear-marks
 of mental ability in outward signs2    
under the incentive of the growth of    
science these gave way to such systems  
as phrenology and physiognomy4 ,such    
revelations1 decisive if sound1 proved  
to be vain hopes or hopelessly          
irrelevant4 ,the impressionistic        
verdicts gained from actual experience  
reflected the cumulative acumen of      
discernment which ever was and remains  
the issue of wisdom1 empirical but      
authentic4 ,it furnishes suggestive     
clues to investigation and a check upon 
its results4 ,the problem came to its   
own when the modern science of          
psychology gave it its setting in the   
rapid accumulation of knowledge and     

technique for the interpretation of     
mental qualities4 ,it at once           
established the futility of ambitious   
leads and the necessity of careful1     
patient and discerning analysis4 ,the   
present volume surveys the field of     
attained results and the method of their
 attainment1 in this engaging research4 
,central in interest and promise stands 
the psychological test4 ,in so far as   
psychology has laid bare the fundamental
 qualities upon which achievement       
depends1 its application has developed a
 series of tests to determine how the   
individual compares with the others or  
with the average in respect to this1    
that1 and the other constituent quality4
 ,professor ,hollingworth presents the  
results of such analysis1 both in       
relation to the variety of human traits 
and in the grading of individuals by    
reference to the measure of the quality 
which each possesses4 ,the enumeration  
is at best provisional1 but in its      
totality cannot go far wrong in         

establishing the measure of a man4 ,it  
includes the qualities which can hardly 
be determined otherwise than by an      
impressionistic judgment1 as well as    
those appraised by actual achievement   
under test4 ,there results a mental     
scale of general ability1 adequate to   
gauge normality and to suggest practical
 standards of superiority or deficiency4
  ,the question at once arises3 how far 
are the qualities desirable for this or 
that vocation of a general order1 and   
how far are they specific in their      
demands4 ,in this respect vocations     
differ widely4 ,the musical vocation    
exemplifies a specialized profession    
depending upon a proficiency that is    
largely a dower of heredity2 yet within 
this field the psychological test has   
proved its efficiency by determining the
 still more specialized facilities that 
jointly compose the psychology of the   
musician4 ,in further pursuit of insight
 the psychological laboratory has       
undertaken to analyze the qualities     

needed for the several specialties of   
modern vocational life1 by setting up   
test counterparts of practical          
occupations1 by reducing them to their  
underlying facilities1 by testing the   
correlation of quality and achievement1 
and by combining the clues or verdicts  
of several methods4 ,conclusions depend 
for their value upon logical caution and
 the technical methods which have been  
developed to meet these applications4   
,all this is as yet but a program or a  
limited beginning in its execution2 but 
it is a program well founded in         
principle and already in part available 
in practice4  ,a group of collateral    
interests supports the enterprise and   
yields valuable results4 ,the interest  
in unusual men has led to the           
psychograph or psychological analysis of
 the qualities of great men1 as an      
individual study4 ,men fall into types1 
by temperament and achievement1 by      
heredity and career4 ,the type makes    
definite the larger contours of human   

differences and reveals their specific  
combination2 the charm of biography is  
psychological as well as historical4    
,the vital import of                    
heredity--practically expressed in the  
eugenic movement--finds recognition in  
the study of correlation of traits in   
those near of kin4 ,evolution leads to  
prediction2 early taste1 talent1        
achievement1 precocity foreshadow       
ultimate capacity2 we learn how far the 
child is father to the man1 how far we  
may see the future in the early         
expressions and with what limitations   
the environment molds character4 ,the   
most valued because most authentic type 
of biography is autobiography4          
,self-analysis is intimate if           
unreliable1 but by this token worthy of 
study4 ,professor ,hollingworth's       
contribution to the measure of reliance 
to be placed upon one's judgment of self
 in comparison with one's judgment of   
others and others' judgment of him forms
 an interesting original study--one of  

many--incorporated in these chapters4   
,of distinctive status are the tests of 
ability presented by life itself and by 
the conventional institutions which     
compose the social environment4 ,the    
processes of education1 the rate of     
advance1 the comparative readiness with 
which one or another discipline is      
absorbed and mastered3 these are at once
 preparations for life and accredited   
tests of ability4 ,for these reasons    
such school qualities are subjected to a
 special study2 and fairly conclusive   
results indicate to what measure they   
must be supplemented1 if not superseded1
 by the designed psychological test1 to 
meet the conditions of actual selection 
and employment of men4 ,at this point   
the several methods converge2 for the   
vocations have a vital interest in the  
school1 as has the school in vocational 
application of its discipline and       
training4 ,the actual comparison of     
results1 especially by the method of    
correlation1 has already established the

 degree of relation--and eventually of  
cooperation--to be expected of the two4 
,in all these ways has painstaking      
method supplemented and replaced        
impressionism1 haphazard opinion been   
supported or overturned by accumulation 
of fact1 and the scientific approach to 
the study of vocational fitness become  
firmly established4 ,the road from      
theory to practice1 if it is to be well 
built and enduring1 must be laid on     
careful foundation4 ,to such an end this
 volume is a worthy contribution4  ,no  
question of vocational fitness has been 
more eagerly discussed than the         
contrasted fitness of men and women1 and
 the consequent basis of differentiation
 of career desirable or necessary for   
the two1 both as wage-earners and in    
every other relation of life4 ,a        
discussion of this problem from the     
point of view of this volume is wisely  
included1 and in turn a definite        
negative conclusion reached4 ,it is     
shown that in the main capacities       

tested--with several and significant    
exceptions--men and women1 boys and     
girls1 are comparable2 individual       
differences outweigh sex differences4   
,the interpretation of this result will 
not be uniform1 even when due allowance 
is made for the range of tests          
responsible for the conclusion4 ,the    
biologist will continue to insist upon  
the significance of fundamental         
differences2 the experiences of life    
reinforce as they express the fact that 
men and women live with as well as upon 
a different perspective of psychological
 equipment2 the psychologist may suggest
 that the tests and comparisons--based  
in large measure upon comparable and    
derivative facilities--naturally bring  
forth the parallel measure in which     
secondary qualities yield similar       
issues4 ,it must be noted how largely a 
large share of conventional vocations   
call upon specialized and late varieties
 of intellectual traits2 for these      
precisely1 men and women may have       

comparable fitness1 while none the less 
psychologically contrasted in realms    
closer to natural function4 ,women have 
proved that they are as fit to          
study--and1 if you like1 to vote--as are
 men2 as fit to enter and succeed in    
vocations in terms of tested            
qualifications4 ,how far the less       
measurable and collateral qualities make
 them fit and successful on a different 
basis1 and still leave them contrasted  
in fundamental reactions1 is a very     
different question4 ,it is well to      
understand the bearing as well as the   
range of the ascertained facts of the   
case4  ,the modern man and the modern   
woman live upon the upper ranges of     
their qualities1 and in no respect more 
momentously than in respect to those    
qualities exercised and demanded by     
vocational fitness4 ,in the biological  
sense they are all highly specialized1  
refined1 derivative1 secondary issues of
 qualities that had a limited scope in  
the primitive form of life in which the 

race achieved its maturity and          
established its psychology4 ,the problem
 of civilization is to train these      
original traits of man to the specific  
cherished purposes of the work of the   
world4 ,the life of the mind is as      
highly artificial as the life of the    
cities2 for such is the condition of the
 twentieth century4 ,yet the primitive  
man survives and asserts his own2 life  
is not all vocation4 ,social and        
industrial complexity dominates the     
expressions of human psychology4 ,to    
unite a comprehension of their          
foundations with skill in applying their
 demands is the business of the applied 
psychologist4 ,the present contribution1
 it is hoped1 will prove a helpful aid  
to those who are striving to understand 
as well as to those who must apply with 
what wisdom they command1 the available 
resources of human nature4  ,,joseph    
,,jastrow4     ,,vocational ,,psychology
     ,,chapter ,i  ,,motives ,,and      
,,antecedents ,,of ,,vocational         

,,psychology   ,,vocational ,,efforts   
,,of ,,primitive ,,magic  ,among very   
primitive people we find the recognition
 already established that the course of 
the individual's fortune depends on two 
distinct factors3 external forces and   
personal characteristics4 ,individuals  
similar in type experience different    
fortunes because of the different       
external events that attend their       
respective careers4 ,equally1           
individuals of however diverse          
characteristics suffer the same fortunes
 at the hands of some common or         
identical external occurrence4 ,two     
combatants of equal skill and valor are 
rendered unequal by a defective lance2  
two runners equally swift are made      
unequal by a pebble in the path2 a      
vigorous babe fails to mature properly  
because of pestilence1 war1 or famine4  
,on the other hand1 both old and young1 
weak and strong1 stupid and cunning1 are
 alike reduced to helplessness in the   
face of flood1 earthquake1 and forest   

fire4  ,primitive thinking1 in its      
attempts to control the course of       
personal fortune1 thus had its attention
 directed to two groups of factors1 each
 of which it sought to control by such  
means as it could at the moment devise4 
,a very early stage of such thinking    
took the form of the belief that desire 
could impress itself on the course of   
physical events and also on the         
development of personal characteristics4
 ,the expression of desire1 either of   
the individual immediately concerned or 
of others more remotely involved1 was   
consequently invoked and declared in    
more or less emphatic and overt form as 
a determining factor in personal        
fortune4 ,in many cases this expression 
was given some indirect or symbolic     
form1 as in gesture1 ritual1 tableau1   
masquerade1 and imitative portrayal4    
,on the side of physical factors this   
attempt took the form of crude magic1   
adjuration1 sacrifice1 and incantation1 
all of which were calculated to dispose 

the physical elements favorably toward  
the individual concerned in the         
ceremonials4 ,crude ritual observances  
and ceremonies1 such as sacrifice1      
mimicry1 and tableau1 were believed to  
influence in some occult way the growth 
of crops1 the changes in weather1 the   
health of enemies1 the movements of     
game1 the supply of fish1 etc4 ,a       
typical fishing expedition among the    
natives of the ,caroline ,islands aptly 
illustrates this point of view4 ,the    
chief official is not an expert boatman 
nor a fisher1 but the medicine man of   
the tribe4 ,he owes his authority not to
 his knowledge of the habits and haunts 
of fish1 but to his store of            
incantations and exorcisms4 ,various    
rites are conducted before embarking4   
,the fishermen must leave the island    
without speaking2 and especially1 the   
purpose of the expedition must not be   
mentioned aloud4 ,a luck formula is     
pronounced over the boat4 ,sacrifices of
 special foods are offered1 lest the    

lines be broken by sharks or tangled in 
the rocks4 ,in ,mexico1 an elaborate    
pantomime1 representing the harvesting  
of crops1 was staged annually at a      
religious festival4 ,this was believed  
sufficient to produce the good crops    
which were desired for the next season4 
,special dances were performed by       
persons representing the various        
vegetables which were particularly      
coveted4  ,among primitive races in     
almost every part of the world one finds
 magical properties attributed to a sort
 of toy which anthropologists call the  
bull roarer4 ,it consists merely of a   
flat stick1 attached to the end of a    
cord4 ,when whirled around it produces a
 roaring or humming sound which easily  
reminds one of the rumble of wind1 the  
roll of thunder1 or the distant cry of  
an animal4 ,in various quarters this    
instrument is used in a ceremonial way4 
,since its sound resembles thunder1 it  
is used as a charm against that form of 
physical violence4 ,because of its      

resemblance to both thunder and wind1 it
 is incorporated in elaborate           
rain-making mysteries4 ,sometimes it is 
used to drive or call wild or           
domesticated animals1 and hence comes to
 be used as a means of bringing luck to 
hunters4 ,figures and emblems1 carved on
 the slab of wood1 are supposed to      
specify the particular kind of luck or  
fortune which the individual seeks4  ,on
 the side of personal characteristics   
the same endeavor took the form of      
blessings1 incantations1 dedications1   
curses1 prayers and petitions1 the      
wearing of symbolic charms and the      
submission of the infant or youth to a  
variety of prenatal and childhood       
experiences and ceremonials4 ,thus it is
 believed that by appropriating a dead  
man's spear and thereby expressing a    
desire for his skill and valor1 these   
traits of character will pass to the new
 owner4 ,boys are tossed into the air to
 make them grow tall1 and rubbed with   
crystals and snake-skins to make them   

clever and intrepid medicine men4 ,by   
scratching lifelike sketches of bison1  
deer1 and fish on rocks1 walls1 and     
weapons1 the savage hunter sought to    
acquire otherwise unattainable          
adroitness and success4 ,disease or     
death may be produced by operating on   
the cuttings of a person's hair1 the    
parings of his nails1 or the remains of 
his food1 when the person himself is far
 away4 ,by wearing tiger's teeth a man  
may make himself brave and fierce4 ,by  
drinking the blood of bulls he may      
become stalwart and powerful4 ,the      
,ojibway ,indian1 in order to hurt his  
enemy and thus further his own          
interests1 makes a small image of him   
and pierces it with a needle in the     
faith that the enemy will suffer4 ,in   
order to terminate the latter's career  
he burns or buries the effigy1 uttering 
magic words as he does so4  ,remnants of
 this primitive magic still persist in  
the psychological underworld1 and many  
an old-wives' practice and incantation  

is in various quarters still believed or
 professed to further the course of the 
individual's fortune1 or to jeopardize  
it1 by rendering natural forces more    
benign or malignant1 or by exerting some
 occult molding influence on the        
infantile abilities and propensities4   
,thus it is not at all uncommon1 even in
 these days1 for children to be         
dedicated at birth to the ministry1 the 
missionary field1 the service of the    
king1 or to some particular cause or    
propaganda4 ,a woman of the writer's    
acquaintance1 solicitous for the future 
welfare of her babe1 read solid and     
serious books during gestation in order 
to balance the emotional influences due 
to her absorption in music teaching     
during that period4 ,many practices of  
the most superstitious kind are resorted
 to in order to predetermine the sex1   
and hence the vocational prospects1 of  
children yet unborn4 ,reliance on prayer
 as an effective agent in changing the  
course of events or the disposition and 

habits of some other individual is by no
 means confined to savages4 ,petitions  
that a neighbor may lose his appetite   
for drink1 recover his lost eyesight1 or
 find his wallet are as current in      
modern times as are official days of    
prayer for rain4 ,seeking to influence  
public opinion by the passing of formal 
resolutions1 and modifying character1   
curing diseases and prolonging life     
through absent treatment1 the laying on 
of hands1 the contemplation of relics1  
visitation of shrines1 and concerted    
supplication1 are practices which find  
high warrant in contemporary life4 ,the 
essential idea behind all these         
practices seems to be the simple faith  
that nothing will interfere with the    
realization of desire1 if only that     
desire is indicated by a method which   
has official or traditional sanction4   
,the true nature of cause and effect and
 the conception of natural law are not  
yet realized on this level of thought4  
,,the ,,practices ,,of ,,medieval       

,,clairvoyance  ,a more advanced stage  
in the development of such thinking is  
indicated by the recognition that both  
the series of physical events and the   
individual endowment follow laws which  
transcend the personal desires of men4  
,nature comes to be recognized as a     
system of facts and connections4 ,both  
control and foresight henceforth seek to
 base themselves on the utilization of  
these stable laws and relationships4    
,instead of willing the individual's    
fortune to be thus and so1 there is an  
earnest endeavor to seek for signs and  
clues of what that fortune is inevitably
 destined to be4 ,fortune-making becomes
 fortune-telling4 ,the accidents and    
accompaniments of birth1 the momentary  
positions of the planets1 the calendar  
incidents1 the hour or day of birth1 the
 local meteorological conditions1       
birth-marks1 stigmata1 physiognomic and 
anthropometric characteristics1 the     
folds of the flesh1 the lines of the    
hand1 the mode of birth3 every fact that

 can participate in a relation of       
coincidence with the birth of the       
individual is selected as a sign of some
 future state of affairs1 desirable or  
untoward1 in the fortune of the         
individual1 of his personal1 domestic   
and occupational career4  ,thus1 in a   
recently published guide to character   
analysis based on ancient astrological  
pretensions1 the following              
characteristics are asserted to belong  
to those who are born in the month of   
,february3  ,those born in this month   
are very intuitive and good judges of   
character and human nature4 ,they are   
successes in mercantile interests and   
enterprises4 ,it is said that the best  
wives are born in this month1 being     
always faithful and devoted4 ,great     
sincerity and power are possible for    
those born in this month4 ,they rise to 
great heights and on the other hand are 
inclined to sink to the lowest depths4  
,at times they are inclined to be       
melancholy1 a tendency which they may   

overcome4  ,most ,february persons have 
good taste1 are quick at absorbing      
information1 and intuitive4 ,one of     
their great faults is that they are     
inclined to be intolerant and cannot    
make themselves think from another's    
point of view4  ,their most common      
diseases are of the nervous and         
rheumatic orders4 ,they should guard    
their actions on the ninth and sixteenth
 day of each month4 ,luck day1          
,saturday4 ,favorite colors1 all shades 
of blue1 pink1 and ,nile green4 ,lucky  
stones1 sapphire1 opal1 or turquoise4   
,lucky numbers1 #e and #g4 ,they will   
excel in music and art1 and should marry
 with those born in ,october1 ,january1 
or ,june4  ,hardly less common than     
faith in the horoscope is belief in the 
detailed prophecies of palmistry4 ,the  
following is a direct reproduction of   
paragraphs from a well-known            
metropolitan ,american newspaper1 of the
 year #aiae 7,a4 ,d471 headed1 ,what    
,your ,fingers ,mean3  ,shorter palm and

 longer fingers1 these show an aptitude 
for doing small things well4 ,their     
owners analyze everything1 are          
supersensitive over trifles1 often      
feeling unintentional slights4 ,when    
these fingers are slim1 as well as      
longer than the palm1 they give to one  
the quality of diplomacy4 ,card sharps  
and gamblers have these long1 slim1     
smooth fingers4 ,the average-length     
fingers with an ordinary-sized palm show
 a well-balanced mind1 with a thoroughly
 commonplace nature4 ,when long fingers 
7with shorter palm7 are knotted at the  
joints we find an extreme love for the  
minor parts of construction1 whether it 
be in the building of a bridge or the   
endless tasks pertaining to a kitchen4  
,the same thing happens in the case of  
the individual's own acts4 ,every petty 
move and caper is taken to be           
significant of his future disposition1  
powers1 or achievements4 ,the first word
 the child utters1 the first object for 
which he reaches1 the animal he first   

imitates1 the form of his earliest play 
activities1 nothing that can be         
identified and described but comes to   
possess1 in someone's mind1 some        
peculiar significance and prognostic    
value4 ,homely in the cradle1 lovely at 
the table1 is an oft-quoted maxim among 
hopeful mothers4 ,happy is the bride    
that the sun shines on1 has doubtless   
served to postpone more than one nuptial
 ceremony1 and being born under an      
unlucky star has equally often afforded 
a certain consolation for personal      
awkwardness4 ,a father of the writer's  
acquaintance believed his boy destined  
to follow the career of a druggist or   
pharmacologist1 because1 as a child1 he 
was so fond of playing with bottles and 
of pouring water from one into the      
other4 ,any lack of submissive devotion 
to a rubber doll is calculated to fill  
the parent's heart with apprehension and
 dire forebodings for the domestic peace
 of his daughter4 ,war-babies and       
infants born on the high seas are envied

 for their romantic prospects4          
,illegitimate children are expected to  
be idiotic or else to be especially     
gifted with some poetic form of talent4 
,belief in vocational magic and         
clairvoyance is clearly not entirely    
confined to medieval days4 ,nor is it   
true that such instances as those just  
cited arise only as material for        
frivolous conversations or as           
journalistic space-fillers in a dearth  
of more serious copy4 ,so firmly are    
these superstitions established among   
large classes of people that special    
legislation is required to prevent their
 exploitation at the hands of crafty    
fakers4 ,the fortune-teller is far from 
being a romantic and vestigial          
institution2 and the type of prophecy   
which medieval clairvoyance represents  
continues to provide many with a        
substitute for more rigorous and less   
exciting inquiry4   ,,modern ,,period   
,,of ,,guidance ,,and ,,selection       
,however1 as knowledge develops1 a third

 stage is reached1 in which we may be   
said to be moving1 even though somewhat 
slowly1 in our own scientific and       
educational work4 ,this stage is marked 
by relative inattention to the series of
 physical events and by special emphasis
 on the original nature of the          
individual and on changes wrought in    
that original nature through the        
experiences of school life and other    
forms of educational process4 ,the      
conditions and environmental factors of 
life have become so plastic that        
individuals can fairly easily find      
congenial environment and occupational  
material near at home or far from it1 if
 only they know for what environment and
 material their natural powers are best 
adapted4 ,modern life1 whether in city  
or in country1 has become so diversified
 and labor so divided1 that a small     
community affords the vocational variety
 which only a few years ago was quite   
unfamiliar to it4 ,moreover1 the various
 avenues of communication1              

transportation and cooperation have     
become so elaborate that workers in one 
part of a nation can with little        
difficulty profit by activities and     
opportunities existing in distant       
places4 ,each branch of industry1       
commerce and art1 as well as each       
professional and occupational activity1 
provides not only for a larger number of
 workers but for a greater variety as   
well4 ,there is thus a tendency for the 
individual at an early point in his     
career1 not only to adapt himself to an 
environment already provided1 but to a  
certain degree to select that           
environment for which his abilities and 
interests seem best to fit him4         
,attempts at controlling fortune1 as now
 exercised1 are neither magical nor     
clairvoyant4 ,they take the rational1   
selective form of fitting the individual
 to the place for which his natural     
aptitudes best adapt him1 so far as     
these facts of adaptability are         
discoverable1 and so far as the         

environment is plastic or optional4     
,this is at least the description of the
 process in democratic conditions of    
society4 ,in countries in which         
hereditary aristocracy and caste systems
 still exist1 the fortune of the        
individual is determined to a           
considerable extent by his birthright1  
by the occupation of his father1 above  
all by sex--all dominated by tradition4 
,within this field of guidance and      
selection1 activity has developed rather
 independently in two different         
directions4 ,there has been on the one  
hand the notion that all the individual 
needs for a satisfactory occupational   
adjustment is knowledge of available    
opportunities1 and appropriate technical
 training for the occupation of his     
choice4 ,this point of view is seen in  
our own country in the popularizing of  
general education4  ,under this         
conception general education1 instead of
 being the prerogative of the ruling or 
moneyed class1 is urged as a common     

right1 a social duty and an economic    
necessity4 ,learning is not limited to  
those who expect to enter the           
theological1 medical1 legal1 or academic
 professions4 ,a certain amount of      
elementary school-knowledge1 or at least
 of school-attendance1 comes to be      
required of every prospective worker4   
,even the feeble-minded are labored with
 in the attempt to bring them up to     
their highest possible academic level4  
,boys and girls alike are not only urged
 but compelled to equip themselves with 
the knowledge of the elementary formal  
subjects2 and the community taxes itself
 to furnish the teachers1 the books1 and
 the necessary physical paraphernalia4  
,in this earlier form of educational    
theory little effort is made to give    
immediate applicability to the          
subject-matter of the curriculum4       
,classical studies with very little     
relevance to contemporary life2 dead    
languages1 with only a feeble claim to  
concrete serviceability2 formal         

exercises in designing and constructing 
useless bric-a-brac2 trivial            
geographical1 astronomical1 anatomical1 
and military details3 these are the     
subject-matter of the general education4
 ,back of their selection lies of course
 the doubtful conception that the       
general powers or faculties of the      
student are thereby cultivated1 and that
 these may then be brought to bear      
effectively on any vocational activity  
which may be chosen4  ,the              
subject-matter is selected1 not because 
of its interest or its utility1 but     
mainly because of its difficulty and its
 formal character4 ,parental compulsion1
 vague social tendencies and impulses1  
petty personal rivalries1 fondness for  
the teacher1 and general cultural       
aspiration are relied on to facilitate  
the work of administration and to       
provide incentive4 ,the life-career     
motive is but little utilized1 and tends
 on the whole to be discouraged as      
sordid and commercial4 ,but it is       

nevertheless believed that the          
grammatical1 geographical1 historical1  
and arithmetical elements will in the   
long run enable the pupil not only to   
enjoy life but to find it as well1 or at
 least to be of the greatest possible   
service in the work into which he or she
 drifts4 ,only in the case of those who 
are utterly incompetent to deal with the
 general subject-matter1 the            
feeble-minded1 the blind1 and the deaf1 
is this formal education willingly      
abandoned in favor of some definitely   
serviceable industrial training4   ,,the
 ,,methods ,,of ,,industrial ,,education
  ,quickly following this effort of the 
public schools to guide every boy and a 
few girls into successful careers       
through general education1 came the     
realization that literary1 linguistic1  
and mathematical information alone is   
inadequate to this task4 ,it was felt by
 many that industrial or vocational     
education1 calculated to fit the        
individual directly for his or her life 

occupation1 should be begun at a much   
earlier age than that at which the group
 choosing the professions entered upon  
their further studies in the higher     
technical schools4 ,it became obvious   
that many pupils terminated their       
public-school education as soon as they 
had satisfied the minimal requirements  
of the compulsory education law4 ,these 
engaged at the earliest possible        
opportunity in some immediately gainful 
occupation4 ,the occupations into which 
they commonly drifted were such as      
called for only a slight amount of      
intelligence and promised               
proportionately little by way of further
 equipment or promotion4 ,they have come
 to be called blind alley occupations1  
and refer to such work as that of errand
 boys1 elevator and telephone operators1
 small clerks1 domestic servants1       
nursemaids1 messengers1 delivery boys1  
and teamsters4  ,meanwhile those who had
 continued in school and completed the  
high-school curriculum emerged without  

special vocational fitness1 and even    
without any knowledge of the vocational 
possibilities of their age and locality4
 ,the further development of vocational 
and industrial education of special     
sorts was then supplemented by general  
instruction in the vocational           
opportunities available4 ,vocational    
surveys were initiated for the purpose  
of acquiring information which could be 
placed in the hands of pupils and of    
those in charge of their training4      
,these surveys made systematic inquiry  
into the vocational opportunities       
afforded to young people by the         
industries and enterprises of the       
vicinity4 ,the assistance of employers  
was sought in the effort to learn the   
requirements of the various types of    
work2 the nature of the labor involved2 
the wages2 the general conditions1 such 
as healthfulness1 danger1 companionship1
 and instruction2 the rate of promotion2
 the prospect of future advancement4    
,such information has in many cases been

 published in pamphlets and bulletins   
and thus made accessible to teachers1   
pupils1 and parents4  ,along with this  
tendency went the attempt to give the   
pupil some first-hand knowledge of and  
immediate experience with the materials1
 implements1 and products of the various
 industries from among which he or she  
might be expected to choose after       
leaving the school4 ,this has been a    
difficult step to bring about1 partly   
because of the various technical and    
administrative difficulties which it    
involved4 ,occasional hasty visits to   
mills1 factories1 stores1 shops1        
offices1 laboratories1 and similar busy 
places give the pupil but a superficial 
notion of the actual work of the        
operations there observed4 ,more        
extended and intensive observation1 on  
the other hand1 with perhaps an actual  
trial at the work1 means a corresponding
 limitation of the range of institutions
 inspected4 ,talks by managers and      
foremen are likely to give only a       

dramatized view of the facts4 ,school   
industries1 on the other hand1 cannot   
easily be organized and conducted in a  
manner technically complete and         
industrially representative4 ,the result
 has been a growing tendency to push the
 vocational training further and further
 back into the earlier years of the     
curriculum1 thus displacing much of the 
purely formal subject-matter4 ,with this
 change have come various experiments in
 study-practice methods1 in which part  
of the day or term is spent at the      
general academic work1 and part in      
actual service in a tentatively chosen  
form of industrial or commercial        
activity4  ,in this movement but little 
recognition was given to the            
psychological differences and           
peculiarities of the individuals        
concerned4 ,knowledge of personal       
aptitudes and capacities1 interests1 and
 satisfactions1 was more or less taken  
for granted in each case1 or at least   
left to develop in its own way4 ,it was 

assumed either that any individual could
 satisfactorily pursue any vocation in  
which he might become interested1 or    
else that industrial and vocational     
information alone was needed in order to
 enable the individual to make a        
suitable choice4 ,nor was there any     
doubt that the work which the youth     
found interesting and attractive at the 
time was the work in which he might find
 a maximum of ultimate success1         
satisfaction1 and serviceableness4 ,with
 the vocational surveys1 the industrial 
schools1 and the part-time practice     
methods of education we shall not be    
concerned1 in what is to follow4 ,they  
represent a movement of tremendous      
social and educational significance1 but
 their development does not immediately 
concern that other field of work which  
we have designated vocational           
psychology4 ,they proceed mainly by     
giving the individual a knowledge of the
 external series of facts and events1   
thus replacing the era of               

fortune-telling and clairvoyance1 with  
its search for signs and omens1 just as 
fortune-telling had1 in its own day1    
replaced the practices of crude         
objective magic4 ,but the methods of    
industrial and occupational training    
have been found to solve only one aspect
 of the vocational problem2 and it is   
more and more coming to be realized that
 a thorough understanding of the        
aptitudes which the individual brings to
 his work is as important as the        
knowledge of the opportunities which the
 environment affords4 ,in the remainder 
of this book we shall be concerned with 
the various systematic efforts that have
 been made or are now being made to     
study the individual himself1 and to    
judge from a determination of his mental
 characteristics the type of vocational 
activity which he is best fitted to     
undertake with success4     ,,chapter   
,,ii  ,,the ,,search ,,for              
,,phrenological ,,and ,,physiognomic    
,,principles   ,,the ,,rise ,,of        

,,experimental ,,science  ,the primitive
 magic1 directed toward the formation of
 individual character1 was displaced by 
the personal clairvoyance which         
attempted to diagnose the individual's  
mental and moral constitution on the    
basis of his own early acts1            
expressions1 and physical               
characteristics4 ,this soon gave way to 
a tendency to abandon1 for the most     
part1 such signs as did not relate in   
some actual or fancied way1 to the      
individual's brain4 ,this limitation of 
the field of significant signs may be   
related to the widespread interest in   
human physiology1 historically          
associated with the knowledge of        
anatomy4 ,the invention of the          
microscope1 ,harvey's proof of the      
circulation of the blood1 the discussion
 centering about the automaton theory of
 ,descartes1 and the rapid development  
of surgical technique1 brought about a  
most interesting spread of curiosity    
concerning the nature and mechanism of  

the human body4 ,balls and tournaments  
gave way to dissections and             
demonstrations as means of courtly      
entertainment4 ,celebrated surgeons     
exhibited their skill and knowledge1 and
 lectured on the facts of physiology and
 anatomy in the formal presence of      
royalty and society4 ,court painters    
executed pictures such as ,the ,anatomy 
,lesson1 some of them now cherished as  
famous masterpieces4  ,especially keen  
became the interest in the skull and    
brain in which1 as ,descartes taught1   
might be found the seat of the soul4    
,among the earliest of the rough        
discoveries was that concerned with the 
localization of special sensory and     
motor functions of the organism in      
particular regions of the brain4 ,it was
 observed that irritation of certain    
parts of the surface or cortex of the   
brain1 in cases where a portion of the  
skull had been removed1 was followed by 
movement of particular parts of the     
body1 and that individuals who had      

suffered from injury to certain parts of
 the brain seemed1 on recovery1 to be   
quite their usual selves1 except that   
certain special capacities1 as for      
instance the function of speech1 were   
interfered with or quite destroyed4 ,the
 unitary soul1 described by ,descartes  
as probably having its seat in the      
pineal gland1 now bade fair to          
disintegrate into various minor         
faculties1 each with its separate brain 
mechanism and its particular abode in   
some region of the skull4  ,the         
discovery of these elementary facts of  
brain localization was at once hit upon 
with zeal by those most interested in   
the means of foresight into human       
fortunes4 ,ignoring the fact that the   
localized features were simply the      
control of other parts of the body1 as  
eyes1 ears1 limbs1 speech organs1 and   
the like1 these enthusiasts leaped to   
the conclusion that every trait of      
character and every mental aptitude1    
every virtue and vice1 ability1 interest

 and capacity1 had each its own shelf or
 pew in the brain area4 ,moreover1 it   
was taken for granted that the relative 
development of these various            
characteristics was indicated by the    
depressions1 projections and proportions
 of the skull bones4 ,here was light    
indeed on the destinies of men1 their   
fitnesses and propensities1 their       
appropriate choice of work and play6    
,the enthusiasm and ardor that went into
 the elaboration of the new clairvoyance
 of phrenology would have meant most    
valuable increase in our knowledge of   
brain physiology had it been directed   
exclusively toward further legitimate   
inquiry4 ,but the urgent desire for     
control and foresight was too great for 
practice to keep the slow pace of       
scientific fact4  ,hastily the prophets 
drew up complicated and minute maps of  
the surface of the cranium and assigned 
to each recognizable patch some faculty 
which stood for an important mental or  
moral trait4 ,casual examination of the 

skulls of friends who chanced to possess
 particularly marked traits to an       
extreme degree was in some cases relied 
on to give guidance in the assignment of
 these patches to the respective traits4
 ,in some of the schemes the human      
traits conceived were so numerous that  
the bilateral symmetry and functions of 
the brain were ignored1 and the two     
sides of the skull were assigned quite  
different functions4 ,thus arose        
phrenology1 one of the most persistent  
fallacies of vocational analysis4 ,this 
movement was founded by ,gall and       
,spurzheim1 two physicians and          
anatomists1 in the latter part of the   
eighteenth century4#a ,with the         
customary naivete of the medical science
 of their time1 they overestimated the  
significance of casual observations and 
fragmentary discoveries1 and thus gave  
impetus to the exaggerated and          
extravagant claims made by their        
enthusiastic followers4 ,phrenological  
societies developed so rapidly and so   

widely that the movement became         
relatively independent of the scientific
 investigations which should have served
 to qualify and criticize its doctrines4
 ,its propaganda were so vigorous and   
the practical needs which it promised to
 satisfy were so insistent1 that even   
today many people hold tenaciously to   
its dicta4 ,scores of professionals     
thrive on their lucrative practice of   
its dogmas1 and university graduates    
smile in a guilty way when asked1 ,do   
you believe in phrenology8  ,the        
tenacious persistence of phrenology1 the
 degree to which it is resorted to and  
paid for by inquiring and earnest       
seekers after satisfactory paths through
 life1 make it seem worth while to      
present a brief statement of the        
numerous errors and flagrant stupidities
 on which the practice of phrenology is 
based4 ,it may also be worth while to   
suggest some of the rather interesting  
subsidiary reasons for its persistence  
as a cherished popular delusion and even

 as a topic for current scientific      
discussions and papers4   ,,the         
,,assumptions ,,and ,,errors ,,of       
,,phrenology  ,underlying all of the    
various phrenological systems were four 
common assumptions which briefly stated1
 were3  #a4 ,that such cerebral         
localization as exists is of fundamental
 and specific traits of character or    
types of ability1 such as secretiveness1
 circumspection1 love of babies1        
generosity1 veneration1                 
constructiveness1 etc4  #b4 ,that the   
more developed any one of these given   
traits is1 the larger will be the       
supposed area of the brain which        
contains its supposed organ4  #c4 ,that1
 since the skull fits fairly closely to 
the brain surface1 the relative         
development of a given portion of the   
brain will be indicated by the relative 
prominence or size of the different     
parts of the cranium1 so that the degree
 of possession of the trait may be      
judged from an examination of the       

exterior of the skull4  #d4 ,that the   
occasional casual observation of        
coincidence between particularly marked 
mental qualities and particular cranial 
characteristics is a sufficient basis   
for inferring universal and necessary   
connection between these two features4  
,each of these assumptions involves     
obvious error and misapprehension in the
 light of what is now known concerning  
the nature of the human mind and the    
structure and functions of the brain4   
,in order that these fallacies may be   
clearly disclosed the four main         
assumptions will be examined            
independently in the order in which we  
have here presented them4  #a4 ,in the  
first place1 the only sort of           
localization of functions that has been 
authentically established is the        
projection1 upon the brain structure1 of
 the other parts of the organism1 and   
the localization of sensory-motor       
centers which function in the connection
 of these various organs4 ,thus it is   

known that each of the principal groups 
of muscles of the body has its so-called
 center in the brain4 ,from this part of
 the brain to the muscles concerned run 
bundles of motor-nerve fibers1 so that  
activity in that particular part of the 
brain may result in the conduction of   
nervous impulses to these muscles1 and  
in their consequent contraction4 ,thus  
the hand1 the foot1 the eyes1 the       
speech-organs1 etc41 may be said to be  
functionally represented1 and in this   
sense localized1 in particular regions  
of the brain4 ,the same thing is true of
 the sense-organs1 as the eye1 ear1 etc4
 ,each incoming sensory nerve tract runs
 to or through some portion of the      
brain4 ,injury to this part of the brain
 results in functional incapacity of the
 corresponding sense-organ4 ,the cortex1
 or outer surface of the brain1 may thus
 be conceived as a sort of terminal     
station for nerves from other portions  
of the organism1 a sort of              
projection-center which enables them all

 to take part in a functional unity of  
action4 ,the functions which can be said
 in this sense to be localized in the   
brain are such sensory-motor capacities 
as the ability to raise the right arm1  
the ability to balance the body when    
standing erect with eyes closed1 the    
ability to see1 the ability to move the 
eyeball1 the ability to feel pain in a  
certain area of the skin1 the ability to
 articulate words1 to understand spoken 
or written language1 to call up a visual
 memory of a particular thing previously
 seen1 etc4  ,the integrity of various  
parts of the brain is essential to the  
proper coordination of all the          
sensibilities and responses of the      
individual4 ,traits of character and    
types of ability1 however1 depend on the
 characteristic modes of reaction of the
 organism as a whole to the factors of  
its environment4 ,thus generosity as a  
human trait does not depend on the      
massiveness of any set of muscles1 nor  
on the keenness of any sense-organ1 but 

upon the characteristic type of reaction
 and motivation which the individual as 
a whole displays4 ,jealousy1 love of    
children1 destructiveness1 etc41 are    
characteristic modes of behavior of the 
whole organism1 and depend upon         
reactions which the given situation     
evokes1 and not upon some special organ4
  #b4 ,as to the supposed correspondence
 between size and functional capacity1  
no evidence has been presented which    
demonstrates that even the strength of a
 muscle or the keenness of a sense-organ
 depends in any way on the absolute size
 of the brain-area concerned with it4   
,nor has evidence been presented to     
prove the existence1 within any given   
species1 of correlation between volume1 
shape1 or weight of the brain-tissues   
and even the more general traits of     
character or ability4 ,in the absence of
 such evidence we are led to believe    
that functional capacity depends on     
complexity of structure1 chemical1      
molecular1 and functional1 rather than  

on the factors of mass or shape4 ,but   
even the nature of these correlations is
 as yet largely unknown4 ,the           
persistence of the faith in the         
significance of mass and shape probably 
rests in part on the apparent existence 
of such correlation when different      
species are roughly compared with one   
another4 ,thus1 among the higher        
vertebrates there seems to be a relation
 between what we may call the general   
intelligence of the species and the     
erect carriage of the body4 ,from the   
quadrupeds1 with their horizontal       
position1 through the apes1 with their  
semiperpendicular mode of life1 to the  
human being1 with his erect carriage1   
there is also a progression in          
prominence of the forehead1 opposition  
of thumb and finger1 relatively greater 
development of the cerebral mass1 and   
also in mental capacity4 ,the           
intelligent human being walks in a more 
erect posture than does the stupid ape4 
,but no one has ventured to assert that 

a relation exists between erectness of  
carriage and mental ability when human  
beings are compared with one another1 or
 when apes are compared with one        
another4 ,similarly in the case of the  
physical features of the brain1 the     
crude relationships which exist         
empirically1 as between different       
species1 seem to be quite slight in     
significance when compared with the     
differences in chemical1 molecular and  
functional complexity which are found   
among members of the same species4      
,attempts to discover correlations      
between mental and moral characteristics
 and various brain constants we may     
expect to continue for a long time4     
,what discoveries may be in store for us
 we do not know4 ,but the important     
point in the present connection is that1
 for the purposes of vocational         
psychology1 the practices of phrenology 
are based on evidence no more relevant  
to its pretensions than were the proofs 
pointed to by palmistry1 horoscopy1 and 

prenatal magic4 ,through cranial        
measurements alone it is impossible to  
determine with certainty the race1 age1 
or sex of an individual1 or even1       
indeed1 whether he was a prehistoric    
savage1 an idiot1 or a gorilla4  #c4 ,as
 for the third assumption of phrenology1
 namely1 that brain development is      
reflected in the cranial size or        
protuberances1 it should be sufficient  
to point out that even if this were so  
it would be meaningless for our purpose1
 since we are compelled to abandon the  
belief in a relation between mass of    
tissue and even the simplest sensory or 
motor capacity4 ,but such further       
disproof as may be required is readily  
furnished by an actual attempt to remove
 from their cranial boxes the brains of 
various animals1 and by noting that the 
shape and thickness of the bones gives  
little indication as to whether brain   
tissue1 cerebrospinal fluid1 or         
supporting tissues are to be found      
underneath a given protuberance or      

depression4  #d4 ,the fourth assumption 
of phrenology1 that sparse and casual   
observation of striking cases is        
sufficient ground for generalization1 we
 should be able to dismiss at once as   
utterly inadequate and miscalculated4   
,it is impossible to find consistent    
recorded instances in which groups of   
individuals1 selected at random1 with   
definitely determined and measured      
mental or moral characteristics1 have   
been shown to confirm1 by their cranial 
geography1 even the most elementary     
doctrines of that phrenology which still
 offers to diagnose the individual's    
psychic constitution and to commend to  
his future consideration the vocation of
 engineering1 publishing1 or preaching1 
as the case may be4 ,practicing         
phrenologists have repeatedly been      
invited to submit one bit of objective  
evidence for their pretensions1 or to   
submit themselves to tests under        
controlled conditions4 ,the invitations 
are refused1 and the inquirer is        

referred instead to the dogma of some   
foreign and deceased authority4 ,such   
investigations as have been recorded    
have resulted in negative conclusions1  
or in contradictory data1 or in         
coefficients with such high probable    
errors as to make the figures           
unreliable4   ,,the ,,pseudo-,,science  
,,of ,,physiognomy  ,very often         
practicing phrenologists and            
phrenological vocational experts seek to
 justify their operations and           
pretensions by pointing out that they do
 not rely solely on the cranial         
geography1 but more often on other      
characteristics of the individual's     
body1 such as the concavity or convexity
 of his profile1 the shape of his jaw1  
the texture of his skin1 the shape of   
his hands1 the color of his hair and    
eyes1 the proportions of his trunk1 etc4
 ,contemporary vocational counsellors   
who have enjoyed considerable vogue and 
commercial repute are especially given  
to citing these criteria2 several       

recently published tables of these clues
 are available4 ,historically1 the      
attempts to formulate principles of     
physiognomy antedate phrenology by many 
centuries4 ,logically1 however1         
physiognomy follows phrenology1 as a    
transition from the formulation of      
structure to the formulation of         
behavior4 ,there is a very widespread   
belief that many mental and moral       
characteristics betray themselves in    
special facial items4 ,the shifting eye1
 lofty brow1 massive jaw1 thin lips1    
large ear1 protruding or receding chin1 
dimple1 wrinkle1 tilted nose1 thin skin1
 prominent veins1 and many other        
characteristics have come1 in fiction   
and in table-talk1 to symbolize specific
 characteristics4 ,the same thing is    
true of the shuffling gait1 the erect   
body1 the protruding paunch1 the curved 
shoulders1 enlarged knuckles1 stubby or 
elongated fingers1 the short neck1 the  
long arm1 and the manner and rate of    
stride4 ,it is but a step from these to 

the signs afforded by clothing1 its     
selection1 care1 and mode of wearing4   
,here is indeed a most confused mass of 
fact and fancy which finds credence in  
varying degrees on diverse occasions4   
,seldom has it been analyzed into the   
definite types of material which it     
really contains1 and its evaluation is  
commonly left to the haphazard opinion  
of each individual4 ,there is no doubt  
that we all tend to form our opinion of 
a stranger's probable characteristics   
partly on the basis of these            
physiognomic1 physical1 and sartorial   
factors4 ,to what degree can these items
 be formulated so as to afford reliable 
criteria in the analysis of personality1
 as in the case of vocational selection 
and employment8 ,we may perhaps best    
answer this question by noting the      
various sources of the belief in the    
validity of physiognomic and similar    
signs4  #a4 ,it is first of all true    
that many of these marks are the result 
of habitual activity1 and in so far as  

they originate in the expression of a   
trait1 they may be said to be signs of  
it4 ,that the studious come to be       
round-shouldered1 the cheerful to have  
smooth countenances1 the guilty to have 
furtive eye-movements1 may well be      
expected4 ,but it is quite another thing
 to reverse the proposition and to take 
stooped shoulders as a universal sign of
 academic interests1 dimples as a sign  
of guilelessness1 and nystagmus as the  
symptom of a criminal past4 ,it is1     
however1 often safe to use these traits 
as reliable signs of the established    
general habits and attitude which they  
express4 ,we have all done this since   
earliest childhood2 yet any attempt to  
classify formally the signs and effects 
of habit and constant expression would  
be pedantic4 ,unfortunately for the     
purposes of vocational guidance of      
youth1 these expressions require for    
their formation habits of fairly long   
standing1 and the critical period for   
psychological guidance is likely to be  

passed long before these settled habits 
have set the features into their        
identifiable molds4  ,somewhat more     
hopeful is the reliance on expressive   
movements as indicative of passing and  
transient emotional states and          
attitudes4 ,not easily can we conceal   
from the astute observer the momentary  
passion that may be stirring us4        
,prolonged intimate acquaintance with an
 individual's emotional experiences and 
expressions may in time reveal to such  
an observer the deeper lying and more   
permanent affective trends1 the moods   
and sentiments which indicate what we   
are accustomed to call the temperament  
of the individual4 ,insight into the    
nature of these expressive movements is 
one of the useful things to be derived  
from long and patient study of human    
nature1 both at first hand and through  
the classical descriptions of emotional 
expression4 ,the more one observes and  
the more individuals he observes1 the   
more he is impressed with the final     

variety and informal complexity of these
 expressive movements1 and their        
dependence on a vast detail of          
circumstance1 which again forbid        
rule-of-thumb formulation4  #b4 ,another
 apparent source of these beliefs is in 
analogy4 ,the clammy hand1 the fishy    
eye1 the bull neck1 the blotting paper  
voice1 the asinine ear1 the willowy     
figure1 the feline tread1 and scores of 
such phrases indicate that these        
characteristics remind us definitely of 
various species or objects other than   
the human being1 and that we expect to  
find back of them the characteristic    
traits1 habits1 and instinctive         
tendencies of those species4 ,we seldom 
proceed so far as to check up our       
expectations with facts1 under          
controlled conditions4  #c4 ,the        
affective value of these analogies and  
their incorporation in poetry1 song1 and
 fiction as adequate figures of speech  
lead us to react to these traits in ways
 determined largely by the traditional  

usage4 ,we are humble before the        
high-brow1 merry in the presence of the 
dimpled1 cautious and prudent before him
 of the shifting eye4 ,in so far as     
human reactions are determined by the   
implied expectations of associates and  
the demands of immediate circumstances1 
we should be surprised indeed if the    
high-brow did not1 on the strength of   
his cranium1 evade our office-door      
sentinel1 the dimpled one respond to our
 facetious comment1 and he of the       
shifting eye be forced to steal for a   
living4  #d4 ,another source of these   
notions is mainly responsible for such  
of them as refer to definitely          
undesirable traits4 ,this is the belief1
 so well played upon by the school of   
,lombroso in criminology1 that many of  
these characteristics1 along with the   
so-called physical stigmata1 are        
indicative of a degenerative or         
atavistic trend in the constitution of  
the individual4 ,among these stigmata   
were enumerated every conceivable       

extreme variation of every identifiable 
part of the human anatomy4 ,lombroso was
 inclined to believe not only that the  
presence of such traits was a certain   
mark of criminal propensities1 but even 
that various types of criminals could be
 recognized by the cataloging of their  
stigmata1 as thieves1 murderers1        
forgers1 etc4 ,the history of the       
criticism of this view need not be      
repeated here4 ,suffice it to say that  
we now understand that the underlying   
truth of the matter is only that these  
stigmata are somewhat more frequent     
among the vicious1 degenerate1 and      
defective groups than they are among    
people selected on the basis of their   
morality and intelligence4 ,the         
criminally inclined individual may      
possess no stigmata1 while an ,abraham  
,lincoln may possess several of them1   
and in marked degree4 ,to be sure1 when 
an unusual number of stigmata are       
presented by an individual1 we feel     
disposed to suspect that the abnormal   

condition is not confined to his bones  
and peripheral organs alone1 but is     
probably so deep-seated as to involve   
his nervous system as well4 ,but on the 
basis of these stigmata alone we are    
quite unable to decide whether he is an 
imbecile1 a degenerate criminal1 a      
pervert1 a genius1 or only an average   
man1 with an undue burden of physical   
infirmity2 still less can we diagnose   
his special mental or moral qualities4  
#e4 ,a further source of these          
physiognomic beliefs may be discerned3  
namely1 the fact that the features of a 
stranger are very likely to call more or
 less clearly to our memory some other  
acquaintance whose traits we know1 to   
our sorrow perhaps1 and whose features  
or manner or voice or apparel chance to 
be very similar to that of the stranger4
 ,at once we are inclined to endow the  
stranger with the character of the      
individual he resembles4 ,we seldom     
accurately check up these impressions on
 the basis of subsequent discovery4     

,indeed we are much more likely to evoke
 the suspected traits by our own        
attitude and by our treatment of the    
stranger1 and we are eager to pounce    
upon any act that may be construed as a 
confirmation of our snap judgment4 ,it  
is obvious that these impressions will  
vary from individual to individual and  
that any attempt to formulate them would
 expose their fallaciousness4  #f4      
,finally1 in this analysis of the origin
 of our belief in the signs of          
physiognomy1 is the mere insistence that
 as a matter of fact there are definite 
relationships discoverable and          
formulable between typical features and 
typical characteristics of personality4 
,beliefs of this dogmatic kind are most 
likely to be exploited by the           
professional counsellor1 since they     
appear to the examinee to be unknown1   
mysterious1 esoteric facts4 ,the        
following formulations1 taken from an   
account of the performance of one of the
 most widely advertised of professional 

vocational counsellors1 may serve as an 
example of this type of dogmatic        
physiognomic doctrine4  ,the sensitive1 
delicate-minded man usually has a       
fine-textured skin2 the coarse-minded   
man a coarse-textured skin4 ,it is an   
embryological fact that the skin was and
 is the original seat of all sensations1
 and that spinal cords and nerves are   
but modified and specialized in-turned  
skin4 ,of necessity a man's skin        
indicates the texture of his brain4     
,texture is a great classifier of       
humanity4 ,the individual of fine hair1 
fine-textured skin1 delicately chiseled 
features1 slender1 graceful body and    
limbs1 as a general rule1 is refined1   
loves beauty and grace1 and likes work  
either purely mental in its nature or   
offering an opportunity to handle fine1 
delicate materials and tools4 ,on the   
other hand the man with coarse hair1    
coarse-textured skin1 and large1        
strongly formed features inclines as a  
general rule to occupations in which    

strength1 vigor1 virility1 and ability  
to live and work in the midst of harsh1 
rough and unbeautiful conditions are    
prime requirements4  ,it is no secret to
 observant employers of labor that      
blondes1 as a general rule1 are         
changeable1 variety loving1 optimistic1 
and speculative1 while brunettes are    
consistent1 steady1 dependable1 serious1
 and conservative4  ,it turns out as one
 might naturally expect that the man who
 resembles the greyhound in form is     
quicker1 keener1 more responsive1 and   
less enduring than the man who resembles
 the bulldog in form4  ,a most cursory  
examination of the portraits of poets1  
educators1 and essayists will show a    
marked tendency in them to resemble the 
triangle in structure of the head and   
body--both head and body wide above and 
narrower in the lower portions4 ,an     
examination of the portraits of a       
hundred great generals1 pioneers1       
builders1 engineers1 explorers1         
athletes1 automobile racers1 aeronauts1 

and others who lead a life of great     
activity will show a general tendency   
toward structure on the lines of the    
square--square face1 square body1 square
 hands4 ,reference to the portraits of  
great judges1 financiers1 organizers1   
and commercial kings will show a general
 tendency toward structure upon the     
lines of the circle--round face1 rounded
 body and a tendency to roundness in    
hands and limbs4  ,anything which is    
hard in consistency has comparatively   
great resistance and persistence4 ,that 
which is elastic in consistency is      
adaptable and seems to have spring1     
life1 and energy within it4 ,these      
principles have been found to apply to  
human beings4  ,the existence of quite  
definite beliefs in these relations     
between character and physiognomy is    
readily shown by experiments in which   
groups of ten people were asked to      
arrange twenty photographs of women in  
an order of merit4 ,on different        
occasions and by varying groups of      

mature college students1 these          
photographs were arranged on the basis  
of seven different traits1 viz43        
intelligence1 humor1 perseverance1      
kindness1 conceit1 courage1 and         
deceitfulness4 ,different judges show   
quite striking agreement in their       
estimates of the characteristics        
suggested by a given photograph4 ,thus1 
if the average position assigned to each
 photograph be taken as the standard and
 the divergences of the ten judges from 
this standard be averaged in the case of
 all the photographs1 the average       
divergences for the different traits are
 as follows#b3        ,intelligence     
#b4hf places       ,perseverance        
#c4cb          ,kindliness      #c4ee   
,conceit         #c4eg          ,courage
         #c4fi          ,humor          
#c4ij          ,deceitfulness   #d4ad   
,this means that in the long run a      
stranger will place a given individual  
in a group of twenty persons not over   
three or four positions away from the   

place to which other strangers would    
assign him4 ,the individual's           
physiognomy1 however little it may      
actually reveal of his personality1     
nevertheless suggests rather definite   
characteristics to those whom he meets1 
and to that degree determines their     
reaction toward him1 expectations of    
him1 and belief in him4 ,the            
definiteness or agreement of these      
impressions seems also to vary with the 
trait in question2 it is high for       
intelligence and perseverance1 low for  
humor and deceitfulness1 and            
intermediate for kindliness1 conceit1   
and courage4 ,our own results1 however1 
must be taken only as suggestive1 rather
 than as general1 since they may easily 
have been determined partly by the      
particular set of photographs we used   
and by our particular and diverse sets  
of judges4#c  ,results of this          
character1 and many similar ones which  
we are accumulating1 suggest1 however1  
an interesting set of problems4 ,it is  

psychologically as interesting to       
inquire just what impressions people    
actually receive from one's physiognomy 
and expression1 as it is to ask whether 
these impressions are correct4 ,one's   
ultimate vocational accomplishment often
 depends on the first impression he     
creates1 the type of reception his      
appearance invites1 even though there   
may be no necessary connection whatever 
between appearance and mental           
constitution4 ,vocational success       
depends not only on the traits one      
really possesses1 but also somewhat on  
the traits one is believed to possess4  
,it is also interesting to observe that 
high correlations exist between some of 
the traits as judged merely on the basis
 of photographs4 ,let #a4jj be taken to 
indicate complete correspondence between
 two orders of merit1 so that the       
highest in the one scale is also the    
highest in the other scale1 the second  
in one the second in the other1 and so  
on2 then -#a4jj will indicate a         

completely reversed order1 the best in  
one class being the poorest in the      
other1 etc42 a coefficient of #j will   
mean only a chance relationship1 i4 e41 
none at all4 ,then from #a4jj through #j
 to -#a4jj we have represented all      
possible degrees of correspondence4#d   
,these figures are called coefficients  
of correlation1 and can easily be       
computed by proper statistical methods4 
,in the present case the coefficients   
for all combinations of two traits are  
as follows3                             
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------      
,intelligence ,humor                    
,perseverance,kindliness,conceit,courage
                                        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------- ,humor     
4#dg                                    
,perseverance     4#hh       4#cc       
,kindliness       4#gf       4#fe       
4#ci                       ,conceit     
4#bh      -4#jc      4#jh        -4#ef  

,courage          4#hi       4#dc       
4#gi         4#gb    -4#be              
,deceitfulness   -4#aa      -4#bh       
-4#jb        -4#fi     4#ff    -4#di    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------  ,it 
will be seen that the intelligent1      
humorous1 persevering1 kindly1 and      
courageous countenances tend to be the  
same ones1 and that the faces suggesting
 the opposites or low degrees of these  
traits also tend to be very much the    
same ones4 ,this is indicated by the    
high positive coefficients between these
 traits4 ,but conceit and deceitfulness 
show negative or very low positive      
correlation with all traits except each 
other4 ,in this latter case the         
correlation is positive and high 74#ff74
 ,other interesting relations between   
these judgments of character can be     
inferred from the table of coefficients4
 ,but it should be remembered that we   
are not here dealing with traits as     
demonstrably present1 but only as judged

 on the basis of facial characteristics 
and expression4 ,the actual relation    
between the physiognomic details and the
 true character of the individual       
displaying them is a totally different  
matter4 ,the close correlations between 
the several desirable traits and between
 the several undesirable traits1 as     
found in this table of coefficients1    
seem to have a further significance and 
suggest that the observers do not judge 
each trait on the basis of particular   
and specific physiognomic details4 ,they
 seem1 rather1 to get a general         
impression of favorableness or          
unfavorableness1 and to rank the        
photographs on the basis of this general
 impression1 no matter which trait is   
being judged4  ,it is a common practice 
for employers1 superintendents1         
agencies1 etc41 to request the applicant
 for a position to send his or her      
photograph for inspection4 ,the urgency 
of some of these requests and the       
emphasis placed on them seem to indicate

 that the photograph is believed to be  
valuable not only for its service in    
revealing the general features but also 
for some further and more specific      
indications which it affords4 ,very few 
attempts seem to have been made to test 
actually the value of judgments of      
character when they are based on        
photographs rather than on acquaintance4
 ,experiments recently conducted yield  
some interesting preliminary data on    
this question4 ,the question proposed   
was3 ,what relation exists between the  
judgments which strangers form1 on the  
basis of an individual's photograph1 and
 the judgments which acquaintances make 
on the basis of daily familiarity and   
long observation8#e  ,all the members of
 a group of college women were judged by
 twenty-four of their associates1 for a 
number of more or less definite         
characteristics4 ,the twenty-five       
individuals constituting the group were 
arranged in an order of merit for each  
trait1 by each of the twenty-four       

judges4 ,only one arrangement1 for one  
trait1 was made by any one judge within 
a given week4 ,the judgments were thus  
distributed over a considerable interval
 so that judgments for one trait might  
influence as slightly as possible the   
judgments of later traits4 ,all these   
twenty-four judgments were then averaged
 for each trait1 and the final position 
of each person in each trait thus       
determined by the consensus of opinion  
of the judges4 ,this measure is then a  
combined estimate on the basis of actual
 conduct and behavior4  ,photographs of 
all the members of the group were then  
secured1 all of them taken by the same  
photographer1 in the same style and     
size4 ,these photographs were now       
judged1 by a group of twenty-five men   
and a group of twenty-five women1 all of
 whom were totally unacquainted with the
 individuals who were being judged4     
,these strangers arranged the           
photographs in order of merit for the   
various traits of character1 just as the

 earlier group of judges had arranged   
the names of the members of the group1  
with all of whom they were acquainted4  
,the various arrangements of the        
photographs were then averaged1 yielding
 for each photograph an average position
 in each trait4 ,we thus have three     
measures of the group of college women3 
7#a7 the judgments of their intimate    
associates2 7#b7 the judgments of       
twenty-five men1 on the basis of        
photographs1 and 7#c7 the judgments of  
twenty-five women1 on the basis of      
photographs4 ,all of these measures may 
be compared with each other1 and        
correlated so as to show their          
respective amounts of correspondence4   
,the results are as follows3            
----------------------------------------
------------               ,judgments by
 ,associates ,compared with             
the ,judgments of the ,photographs      
,trait                                  
--------------------------------------  
,by #be ,men   ,by #be ,women   ,average

                                        
----------------------------------------
--------- ,neatness         4#jc        
4#jg          4#je ,conceit             
4#aj         4#bg          4#ai         
,sociability      4#bi         4#bi     
4#bi ,humor            4#ba         4#de
          4#cc ,likeability      4#cj   
4#de          4#ch ,intelligence        
4#db         4#fa          4#ea         
,refinement       4#ej         4#eb     
4#ea ,beauty           4#fj         4#di
          4#ee ,snobbishness     4#eh   
4#ec          4#ef ,vulgarity           
4#fa         4#fi          4#fe         
------------------------------------    
,average      4#cf         4#dc         
4#dj                                    
----------------------------------------
------------  ,the correspondence       
between judgments of acquaintance and   
judgments of photographs is seen to vary
 with the trait in question4 ,such      
traits as neatness1 conceit1            
sociability1 humor1 and likeability1    

important as they are for vocational    
success or failure1 show very low       
correlation4 ,the judgments of the      
photographs tell almost nothing at all  
of the nature of the impression which   
the individual makes on her             
acquaintances1 her true character4 ,with
 the remaining traits--beauty1          
intelligence1 refinement1 snobbishness1 
and vulgarity--the coefficients are     
considerably larger1 and suggest that   
the photographs tend to be judged by the
 strangers in somewhat the same way as  
the individuals are judged by their     
acquaintances4  ,two points of special  
importance should be noted in this      
connection4 ,the first is that these    
correlations are not between the        
judgments of single individuals4 ,it is 
the combined or group judgment of       
twenty-five judges which is required to 
yield these coefficients which even then
 average only about 4#dj correlation    
with the estimates of associates4 ,the  
following table shows the ability of ten

 judges1 chosen at random1 to estimate  
these characteristics through the       
examination of the photographs4 ,in     
securing this table the arrangement made
 by each individual judge was correlated
 with the established order as          
determined by the estimates of          
associates1 in the case of the three    
traits--intelligence1 neatness and      
sociability4                            
----------------------------------------
------          ,individual ,correctness
 of ,judges in                          
,estimating               ,judge        
--------------------------------------  
,intelligence  ,neatness ,sociability   
----------------------------------------
----     ,i     4#ea           4#aa     
4#ci            ,,ii     4#aa           
4#aj      4#jh           ,,iii     4#ae 
4#bi      4#je            ,,iv    -4#bg 
4#jf      4#di             ,v     4#jh  
4#bd      4#jh            ,,vi     4#dc 
4#da      4#bh           ,,vii     4#jd 
4#aa      4#jb          ,,viii     4#ci 

-4#ji      4#cb            ,,ix     4#bb
          -4#jh      4#jj             ,x
     4#cj           4#jb      4#ee      
----------------------------------------
---- ,average   4#ai           4#aa     
4#bb                                    
----------------------------------------
----  ,these random samples of          
individual judicial capacity show at    
once how unreliable individual judgment 
is in these matters4 ,the individual    
judges vary widely among themselves and 
they also depart widely from the        
established order4 ,moreover1 a judge   
who may happen to show a reasonable     
degree of correctness in judging        
sociability may be very far away from   
correctness in judging the other traits1
 or may1 indeed1 judge in quite the     
reverse of the correct order4 ,to have  
accepted the verdicts of a single judge 
would not only have been manifestly     
unfair to the individual but also       
hazardous to the employer4 ,the combined
 impressions of twenty-five judges is   

here required for the correlations for  
even half of the traits to reach over   
4#ch4  ,the second point to be noted is 
that even under these circumstances the 
coefficients are far from perfect1 even 
for those traits in which they are the  
highest4 ,only if beauty1 snobbishness1 
or vulgarity are the traits which are   
crucial1 are judgments of the           
photographs reliable enough to be worth 
considering4 ,it would appear that the  
vocations which depend markedly on these
 characteristics are exceedingly few4   
,and even here1 although the reliance on
 coefficients of 4#ee might in all      
probability aid the employer in         
decreasing the percentage of the        
snobbish or the vulgar among his        
employees1 grave injustice would most   
certainly be done to those many         
individuals who constitute exceptions   
and keep the correlations from being    
perfect4 ,only when correlation         
coefficients are very high can their    
indications be applied in the guidance  

of individuals 7as distinguished from   
the selection of groups7 with safety and
 justice4  ,dean ,schneider reports an  
attempt to verify the principles of a   
certain system of physiognomics by      
putting them to an actual test4 ,he     
writes3  ,a group in the scientific     
management field affirmed that an       
examination of physical characteristics 
such as the shape of the fingers and    
shape of the head1 disclosed aptitudes  
and abilities4 ,for example1 a          
directive1 money-making executive will  
have a certain shaped head and hand4 ,a 
number of money-making executives were  
picked at random and their physical     
characteristics charted4 ,we do not find
 that they conform at all to any law4   
,also we found men who had the physical 
characteristics that ought to make them 
executives1 but they were anything but  
executives4 ,a number of tests of this  
kind gave negative results4 ,we were    
forced to the conclusion that this      
system was not reliable4  ,we must      

content ourselves on this point by      
insisting that the formulated facts of  
physiognomy are so unsupported1         
contradictory1 and extravagant that the 
vocational psychologist cannot afford to
 trifle with them4 ,general impressions 
on the basis of the totality of an      
individual's appearance1 bearing1 and   
behavior we shall always tend to        
receive4 ,whether one judges more       
accurately by an analytic recording of  
each detail or by ignoring these in     
favor of his own more or less unanalyzed
 total impression has never been        
demonstrated4 ,under any circumstances  
one is likely to look about for such    
details as may lend support to the total
 impression4 ,but it is quite           
unjustifiable--though perhaps           
commercially expedient--to pretend that 
the judgment is really based on the     
details selected4  ,the life of him who 
bases his expectations of human conduct 
on the physiognomy of his neighbors is  
bound to be full of delightful as well  

as fearful surprises4 ,i shall never    
forget the practical lesson in the      
principles of physiognomics ,i learned  
when watching a shipload of immigrants  
pass the physical and mental            
examinations at ,ellis ,island4         
,admission to the new land1 and to the  
theater of their vocational plans1      
depended on the results of these        
examinations4 ,ellis ,island is perhaps 
the one place in the world where        
principles of individual psychology are 
most in demand1 and where such          
principles as are relied on lead to     
results of the most serious human       
consequences4 ,i watched the line file  
past the preliminary gate1 by the       
inspectors who scrutinized them still   
more carefully1 and on into the inner   
room where the suspected ones were      
submitted to more searching examination4
 ,one young woman stood out among her   
companions as easily the most comely and
 attractive of the women4 ,she was the  
only one of that shipload who was       

finally certified as an imbecile1 and   
refused admission to the mainland4  ,the
 physiognomic analyses1 then1 do not    
merit serious consideration as          
instruments of vocational guidance and  
selection4 ,the mere facts of physical  
structure1 contour1 shape1 texture1     
proportion1 color1 etc41 yield no more  
information concerning capacities and   
interests than did the incantations of  
the primitive medicine-man or the absurd
 charts of the phrenologists4 ,in so far
 as character and ability may be        
determined by facts of structure1 it is 
by the minute structure of the          
microscopic elements of the brain and   
other vital tissues1 about which we now 
know exceedingly little4 ,we shall      
therefore dismiss from further          
consideration the futile attempts to    
diagnose mental constitution on the     
basis of bodily structure1 and turn to  
the more reliable and scientifically    
conceived methods of inferring the      
individual's mental traits from his     

behavior or his actual performance when 
tests are made under controlled         
conditions4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,an       
interesting review of the origin and    
development of phrenology and other     
systems of character analysis is given  
by ,joseph ,jastrow1 in an article in   
,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,june1      
#aiae4  #b ,to make clear the way in    
which these figures are secured1 and to 
show concretely what they mean1 suppose 
that the twenty photographs are lettered
 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 etc4 ,they are to be   
arranged in an order by each judge      
according to his judgment of the        
intelligence of the individuals1 the    
individuals being unknown to the judges4
 ,suppose that the ten judges place     
photograph ,a respectively in the       
following positions3 #i1 #aa1 #e1 #h1   
#i1 #ab1 #g1 #h1 #g1 #ad4 ,the average  
of these ten positions is #i1 which we  
then take as the standard or most       
probable position of photograph ,a4     
,only two of the judges actually place  

,a in the ninth position4 ,the other    
eight judges all vary more or less from 
this position4 ,we then find how much   
each judge varies from the average of   
the group1 and the ten variations are   
respectively #j1 #b1 #d1 #a1 #j1 #c1 #b1
 #a1 #b1 #e positions4 ,the average of  
these individual variations is #b4j     
positions4 ,this figure indicates how   
closely the ten judges agree in their   
estimates of photograph ,a1 a small     
average deviation indicating close      
agreement4 ,in this way we find for each
 of the twenty photographs its average  
deviation2 and if the twenty figures    
thus secured are in their turn averaged 
we secure an approximate measure of the 
disagreement of the judges when         
estimating the intelligence suggested by
 the photographs4 ,similarly we may     
compute average deviations for any other
 trait which is judged4 ,these final    
figures are the ones which are given in 
the table1 each of them being the       
average of twenty photographs as judged 

by ten persons4  #c ,in such experiments
 the actual magnitude of the measure of 
variation becomes larger as the number  
of judges is reduced1 the number of     
photographs increased1 or the           
photographs so selected as to resemble  
one another more closely4  #d ,since    
such coefficients of correlation will be
 frequently used throughout the book as 
measures of the amount of correspondence
 or relationship between two things1 it 
may be well at this point to indicate   
briefly how they are computed4 ,suppose 
that1 as arranged in order on the basis 
of their final averages1 the photographs
 stand in the following positions for   
the two traits--courage and kindliness4 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------ ,photo   
,courage ,kindliness d d#b              
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,a        #b 
#e      #c   #i  ,when the several      
values  ,b        #e        #a      #d  
#af  under d#b are added their  ,c      

#aj       #ac      #c   #i  sum is #cgf4
 ,this1 multiplied  ,d        #a        
#d      #c   #i  by #f1 according to the
  ,e        #g        #f      #a   #a   
formula1 gives #bbef4 ,the  ,f       #aa
        #h      #c   #i  denominator of 
the fraction  ,g       #ad       #aj    
#d  #af  is1 since there are #bj cases1 
,h       #bj       #ae      #e  #be     
#gihj4 ,dividing #bbef by  ,i       #af 
#ab      #d  #af  #gihj gives us 4#bh2  
for #gihj is  ,j        #d        #b    
#b   #d  #bj times #cii1 which in turn  
is  ,k        #h       #ad      #f  #cf 
#bjb--a4 ,when this is subtracted  ,l   
#c        #c      #j   #j  from #a4jj it
 gives us  ,m       #ab       #bj       
#h  #fd  4#gb1 which is the measure of  
,n       #ae       #aa      #d  #af     
correlation between the two  ,o         
#ag       #ah      #a   #a  orders4     
,since it is very high  ,p        #i    
#g      #b   #d  it suggests that the   
two  ,q        #f       #ag      #i  #ha
  traits are judged in much  ,r         

#ac        #i      #d  #af  the same    
way4  ,s       #ah       #af      #b    
#d   ,t       #ai       #ai      #j   #j
                                        
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,a      
formula is provided by mathematicians   
which enables us to compute the degree  
of resemblance between these two orders4
 ,there are1 in fact1 several formulae  
for such purposes1 all of which yield   
substantially the same results4 ,the one
 used in this case was r  #a4jj-7f      
,sigma d#b7_/7n7n#b-a774 ,in this       
formula r stands for the coefficient of 
correlation for which we are working2 d 
is the difference between the positions 
which each of the photographs receives  
in the two traits2 ,sigma means the sum 
of these differences when each has been 
squared or multiplied by itself2 n means
 the number of cases1 which is in this  
case #bj1 since there are that number of
 photographs4 ,when these substitutions 
are made and the equation solved1 the   

result will be the measure of           
resemblance1 which will lie somewhere   
between #a4jj and -#a4jj1 as explained  
in the text4 ,this calculation is       
carried out here for the two sample     
traits1 for the convenience of readers  
who may not be familiar with statistical
 methods4  #e ,these experiments were   
conducted by ,lucy ,g4 ,cogan1 ,m4 ,a41 
to whom ,i am indebted for permission to
 use the results in advance of their    
more detailed publication in her        
forthcoming paper on ,judgments of      
,character on the ,basis of             
,photographs4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the
 ,,development ,,of ,,psychological     
,,tests  ,,origin ,,and ,,history ,,of  
,,tests   ,barren as phrenology and     
physiognomics were of formulable and    
useful results1 they nevertheless served
 the purpose of directing attention     
toward the study of individual          
differences in mental characteristics as
 a distinct branch of inquiry4 ,the next
 step consisted in the semi-experimental

 plan of observing the individual's     
behavior under a variety of uncontrolled
 circumstances or on more carefully     
planned occasions1 in the endeavor to   
secure more or less exact quantitative  
expressions of the degree to which he   
displayed certain types of ability4     
,underlying the various abilities and   
involved in them there were assumed to  
lie a limited number of faculties or    
powers of the mind4 ,each individual was
 conceived to possess much the same     
faculties1 but in varying degrees or    
amounts or forms4 ,attention1 memory1   
apperception1 reasoning1 will1 feeling1 
etc41 were the fundamental faculties2   
and differences in character were       
thought of as depending upon the varying
 amounts and interrelations of these    
fundamental faculties4 ,in the endeavor 
to discover types of experiment which   
would measure these faculties it was    
found1 in time1 that a given faculty did
 not appear1 on close examination1 to be
 as unitary as it was formerly supposed 

to be4 ,it was seen that to have a good 
memory for one kind of material did not 
at once signify a good memory for every 
sort of thing4 ,determination in one    
direction did not imply the general     
quality of resoluteness4 ,it began to be
 realized that attention1 memory1       
discrimination1 and the other faculties 
are very much more highly specialized   
than these general names indicate4 ,the 
unitary soul had early been split up    
into the list of faculties or           
categories1 and now these in turn came  
each to be split up into finer and finer
 aptitudes and tendencies1 until1 in the
 radical reaction of recent years1 we   
find the human mind described as made up
 of an infinite number of independent   
connections or bonds between more or    
less specific stimulus and more or less 
definite response4 ,the old faculties   
came now to be looked on as descriptive 
terms for certain rather general and    
abstracted characteristics of these     
multitudinous and detailed reaction     

tendencies1 rather than as in themselves
 agents or powers or forces1 as they    
were formerly conceived4  ,during this  
change in theoretical description and   
continuing into our present era of      
compromise and revision1 methods were   
developed of measuring the amount and   
quality1 or1 more simply conceived1 the 
speed1 strength and regularity of mental
 and motor ability4 ,beginning in the   
form of experiments on sensory          
discrimination1 reaction time and       
imagery type1 and combined with         
physiological measurements of motor     
strength1 rapidity and fatigue1 these   
experiments developed1 in certain hands1
 into what are now known as mental      
tests4 ,since the principle and method  
of mental and physical tests is the     
chief characteristic of the present     
status of vocational psychology1 and    
since the work of the immediate future  
seems destined to develop mainly in this
 same direction1 we may profitably      
consider at this point the history and  

development of the mental test4 ,we may 
later take up the general principle and 
theory of the test as an instrument of  
psychological analysis and diagnosis1   
with special reference to the           
requirements and implications of such   
tests as may be of service in vocational
 psychology4 ,we shall then be in       
position to review the special          
vocational tests that have as yet been  
proposed1 to evaluate their outstanding 
results1 and to point to some of the    
more immediate prospects and problems   
under consideration by those interested 
in the application of psychological     
tests in vocational analysis and        
guidance4  ,we may begin with an account
 of the first definite attempt to       
explore systematically the personality  
of individuals by the method of tests4  
,the ,columbia ,freshman ,tests are of  
especial interest in the history of     
vocational psychology1 since in their   
formulation and plan explicit thought   
was given to the practical use to which 

the results of tests might be put by the
 individuals examined1 and by the       
statistical study of the results by     
students of the subject4 ,in #ahid1     
under the guidance of ,professor        
,cattell1 there was instituted the plan 
of testing the students of ,columbia    
,college during their first and fourth  
academic years4 ,a description of the   
tests employed was published by ,cattell
 and ,farrand in #ahif1 and a           
statistical study of results was        
published by ,wissler in #aija4  ,the   
motive back of these tests is well      
expressed in the following paragraph    
which was also used as material for a   
test of logical memory3  ,tests such as 
we are now making are of value both for 
the advancement of science and for the  
information of the student who is       
tested4 ,it is of importance for science
 to learn how people differ and on what 
factors these differences depend4 ,if we
 can disentangle the complex influences 
of heredity and environment we may be   

able to apply our knowledge to guide    
human development4 ,then it is well for 
each of us to know in what way he       
differs from others4 ,we may thus in    
some cases correct defects and develop  
aptitudes which we might otherwise      
neglect4  ,the nature of these ,columbia
 tests and the method of recording and  
reporting them are indicated in the     
forms which were printed and used for   
this special purpose4 7,samples of these
 are given in the ,appendix47 ,they are 
given here not so much for the sake of  
the enumeration of the tests1 since many
 of these are no longer in common use1  
but because of their historic interests 
for vocational psychology and because of
 the general plan outlined in them4 ,in 
general this plan is that of            
accumulating measurements of a large    
number of individuals and thus showing  
each one how he compares with the normal
 or average1 or where he stands in the  
general curve of distribution of the    
members of the group4 ,these tests were 

applied to the same individuals on their
 entrance to and their graduation from  
college1 in order to indicate changes   
that might have been made during the    
intervening period4  ,especially        
interesting also are other blanks       
containing additional data1 such as age1
 health1 physical characteristics1      
physiognomic features1 enumeration of   
stigmata1 etc4 ,in addition to the tests
 and measurements1 the examiner1 both   
before and after the interview1 recorded
 his general impression of the          
individual1 in the terms indicated on   
the blank form4 ,we shall have occasion 
to refer to these judgments of general  
impression in more detail when we come  
to consider the use of the interview and
 the testimonial in vocational          
psychology4 ,account was also taken of  
the gymnasium records of the student1 as
 to nationality1 birth1 parentage1      
habits1 health1 etc4  ,the ,columbia    
tests may be thought of as              
representative of several similar       

projects developed in this country and  
in ,germany1 ,france and ,england by    
many workers4 ,the names of ,galton1    
,cattell1 ,kraepelin1 ,binet1 ,henri1   
and ,jastrow stand out conspicuously in 
the early history of mental tests4 ,the 
first step was thus the invention1      
description and trial of a great number 
of miscellaneous tests1 with little     
analysis of the tests themselves1 the   
nature of the functions tested by them1 
or their relation to each other4 ,aside 
from the strictly motor and physical    
tests those devised were mainly of      
so-called intellectual character3       
measurements of speed and accuracy with 
which certain definite tasks could be   
accomplished4 ,they were1 moreover1 very
 simple in character1 not necessarily   
related to the work of daily life1 with 
only a single or but a few trials made  
on each individual4 ,tests of affective 
and volitional factors were slower in   
developing4 ,little account was taken of
 interests1 instinctive and emotional   

characteristics1 attitudes1 adaptation1 
methods of attack1 limits of ability    
after practice1 or many other aspects of
 individuality which later work has     
shown to be important4  ,the next step  
in the development of tests consisted in
 the cooperative effort to standardize  
the nature and methods1 the conditions  
and mode of record4 ,many hands had part
 in this process1 until in recent years1
 through publication1 comparison and    
discussion of the subject1 fairly       
uniform principles of technique1 record1
 and treatment of measures have been    
agreed upon4 ,this made possible the    
comparison of results secured by        
different investigators1 and facilitated
 the statistical treatment of the data1 
so that later work might profit by what 
had already been tried or accomplished  
by earlier workers4 ,after many years of
 this sort of cooperative work1 another 
series of studies was inaugurated to    
attempt what has come to be known as    
testing the tests4 ,these studies       

proceeded by examining into the degree  
to which the various tests correlate    
with each other1 with other indications 
of the individual's ability1 with age1  
sex1 health1 education1 school standing1
 special training1 etc4 ,such questions 
as the following will suggest the       
problems involved in testing the tests4 
#a4 ,which of the various tests         
correlate with each other8  #b4 ,what   
correlation exists between mental and   
motor abilities8  #c4 ,do the tests     
measure fundamental qualities or general
 powers of the individual1 or           
specialized capacities1 or perhaps      
mainly the effect of general or special 
training8  #d4 ,if they measure general 
qualities1 which of the existing tests  
are the best for this purpose8  #e4 ,how
 many trials are needed to afford a     
reliable index of the individual's      
ability8  #f4 ,what are the principal   
incidental factors that influence the   
result of tests8  #g4 ,which tests are  
most easily influenced or disturbed by  

extraneous factors8  #h4 ,can tests of  
the simpler laboratory type be used to  
indicate the individual's ability as    
shown in his daily work and play8  #i4  
,how simple or complex should the       
various tests be in order to give the   
best results8  #aj4 ,how many tests1 and
 which1 are required to give a fairly   
correct picture of the individual's     
psychological make-up8  #aa4 ,to what   
degree do preliminary trials indicate   
the final capacity of an individual8    
#ab4 ,does the intercorrelation of tests
 change in any way with practice1       
repetition1 and familiarity with the    
material8  #ac4 ,just what mental       
functions may the particular tests be   
said to measure8  #ad4 ,how important   
are these functions in practical1       
educational and vocational life8  #ae4  
,by what amounts and in what various    
ways do individuals differ among        
themselves in such abilities as the     
tests measure8  #af4 ,are there other   
important aspects of psychological      

constitution and equipment for which    
there now exist no adequate tests8  ,the
 investigation of these numerous        
problems has resulted in the            
accumulation of a considerable          
literature of mental tests4 ,many of the
 earlier forms of tests were abandoned  
because of their unsatisfactory or      
meaningless character4 ,others have been
 retained and improved in form1 and many
 new ones are constantly being devised  
and elaborated1 described and           
standardized4 ,the precautions to be    
observed1 the instructions to be given1 
and the methods of record and           
interpretation have been presented in   
various books and manuals4 ,the tests   
have been developed for more and more   
complex functions1 and now relate not   
only to relatively simple capacities but
 to highly elaborate and subtle forms of
 achievement4 ,as rapidly as is         
consistent with accuracy1 norms and     
standards of performance for different  
ages1 school grades1 vocational         

requirements1 etc41 are being           
accumulated and reported4 ,typical      
charts of age norms in selected tests   
are given in the ,appendix4  ,as the    
tests have thus developed they have been
 organized for a variety of special     
purposes1 such as for school            
measurement1 educational diagnosis1     
clinical examination1 laboratory        
experiment1 and more recently for the   
purposes of vocational guidance and     
selection4 ,among the first of these to 
develop systematically1 and also the    
ones with the most immediate vocational 
application1 are the graded intelligence
 scales1 which shall be our next        
concern4   ,,graded ,,intelligence      
,,scales ,,and ,,norms  ,an important   
step in the history of general tests is 
represented by the accumulation of norms
 and standards of performance for the   
different selected tests1 and the       
arrangement of scales of tests with     
increasing difficulty1 as further aids  
in fixing the individual's status4      

,after a standardized and tested form of
 test has been selected1 norms of       
performance are accumulated by applying 
the test to large numbers of persons of 
the same general type4 ,the             
classification may be on the basis of   
age1 school grade1 occupation1          
nationality1 etc4 ,in this way it       
becomes possible to determine for a     
given individual how he compares with   
other members of his group2 whether he  
is above or below the average1 and how  
far2 whether he would belong among the  
best ten1 or the poorest ten1 or the    
third ten1 etc41 of one hundred selected
 at random4 ,such norms also reveal to  
what degree the tested ability varies   
with the other factors1 on the basis of 
which the group was selected1 as age1   
sex1 education1 size1 health1 race1 etc4
  ,as rapidly as reliable norms are     
established1 it becomes possible to     
select for each age1 school grade1      
occupation1 etc41 a set of tests which  
the average person of that age1         

schooling or calling should be able to  
perform to a certain known degree of    
proficiency4 ,failure to accomplish this
 indicates performance lower than that  
expected and in so far as success is    
dependent solely on mental ability1     
indicates inferior capacity4 ,similarly1
 ability to do more than the average or 
normal record requires indicates a      
capacity that is precocious1 rare1 and  
superior4  ,in this way are derived     
standard graded scales which represent a
 decided advance in the science of      
psychological diagnosis4 ,there are     
three rather different forms in which   
attempts have been made to secure such  
scales4 ,in one form the scale consists 
of a series of steps1 each step         
consisting of different sorts of        
performance2 that is1 different tests or
 tasks are used4 ,these tasks are       
arranged in groups1 each group          
representing tests which should be      
passed acceptably by individuals of the 
given age1 school grade1 etc4 ,in       

another form of scale the type of task  
is the same throughout1 but the         
different points on the scale are       
represented by increasingly difficult   
specimens of material4 ,the scale thus  
presents graded steps of difficulty in  
doing the same general sort of thing4   
,in the third form the task remains     
precisely the same throughout1 and      
performance is measured in terms of the 
time in which the task can be completed 
and the accuracy which is displayed4    
,sometimes1 in scales of this type1     
although the instructions are always the
 same1 the test is performed with       
varying degrees of approximation to a   
qualitative standard1 and the steps may 
then consist of these graded qualitative
 achievements4  ,as representative of   
the first form of scale we may refer to 
the widely used ,binet-,simon scale for 
the determination of mental age4        
,whatever we mean by intelligence1 it is
 a characteristic which is essential to 
vocational activity4 ,it is furthermore 

a characteristic which normally tends to
 increase in its degree or manifestation
 from infancy up to at least ten or     
twelve years of age4 ,beyond that point 
there are1 to be sure1 striking         
individual differences in that          
characteristic which we call            
intelligence1 but beyond this point it  
does not seem so dependent on the       
physical age of the organism4           
,five-year-old children tend to be      
pretty much alike in intelligence4 ,at  
least1 the change from five years to    
seven years is commonly attended by very
 apparent growth in this respect1 and a 
five-year-old is more like other        
five-year-olds in the things he can do  
than he is like seven-year-olds4        
,experiment and observation show that   
the ages up to ten or twelve tend to    
indicate rather definite mental status1 
in the long run1 although1 to be sure1  
children of a given age vary            
considerably from one another4 ,but     
beyond this point the age of an         

individual is not by any means an       
indication of the sort or degree of     
ability to be expected of him4 ,the     
further we go beyond this point1 the    
less significant becomes the mere       
statement of the individual's age4 ,we  
may thus indicate the mental attainment 
of a child of less than twelve years by 
stating the average age of children who 
can do the things1 know the facts1      
display the abilities that he can4 ,this
 figure we will use to indicate his     
mental age as distinguished from his    
chronological or physical or actual age4
 ,a record-blank which enumerates the   
tests comprising the ,binet-,simon scale
 is given in the ,appendix4 ,those who  
may be interested in using this or      
similar scales should familiarize       
themselves with some of the many books  
and manuals that have been written      
concerning them1 the methods of using   
them1 their characteristic results and  
their evaluation4 ,these scales will be 
again considered in a later section1    

when we discuss the measures of general 
intelligence as they relate to          
vocational guidance and selection4      
,other scales than the ,binet-,simon    
series have been proposed1 and this     
series has itself undergone             
modifications at the hands of later     
investigators--changes calculated to    
render it more reliable and adaptable4  
,much work is now being done in the     
attempt to develop scales or sets of    
tests which will reveal characteristic  
differences among people whose mentality
 has gone beyond the point which the    
juvenile scales reach4  ,the work of    
,trabue in standardizing the completion 
test so that individuals may be         
quantitatively compared on the basis of 
it may serve as an example of the second
 form of scale4 ,this particular test   
consists in requiring the individual to 
supply meaningful words or phrases in   
the blank spaces formed by mutilating   
logical text4 ,it is similar to the     
simple exercise sometimes found in      

elementary text books of grammar and    
spelling4 ,it seems that the ability to 
supply the missing words or phrases     
quickly in such mutilated material calls
 for the exercise of a type of ability  
which correlates to a high degree with  
most other measures of intelligence4    
,individual differences as shown by     
school grades1 age1 opinion of teachers1
 estimates of associates1 results of    
other mental tests1 etc41 are readily   
and with considerable reliability       
revealed in the individual's ability to 
perform this type of test4 ,this        
investigator has1 after much preliminary
 labor1 constructed a form of this test 
in which the material gradually         
increases in difficulty from beginning  
to end4 ,efficiency in the test may be  
measured by the point one can reach in  
the text in a given time4 ,this test has
 been standardized1 not on the basis of 
physical age1 as in the case of the     
,binet-,simon scale1 but on the basis of
 school grade1 from the second grade    

through the high school1 some four or   
six years beyond the point where the    
,binet-,simon scale ceases to be useful4
 ,a copy of this test is also given in  
the ,appendix4 ,those who wish to use it
 should consult the original description
 of it1 for technique1 precautions1     
norms1 and interpretation4  ,a good     
example of the third form of scale is to
 be found in ,sylvester's               
standardization of the form-board test4 
,the form-board is one of the most      
useful tests in detecting intellectual  
defect that is so pronounced as to      
constitute the individual a mental      
defective4 ,out of a solid base board   
are cut various geometrical forms1 such 
as diamonds1 stars1 squares1 triangular 
blocks1 etc4 ,these blocks are placed   
alongside the base from which they have 
been cut4 ,the task is that of replacing
 all the blocks in their appropriate    
places1 with the greatest possible      
speed4 ,the test tends to reveal        
characteristic defects in understanding 

instructions1 perceiving the general and
 specific situations1 profiting by      
experience1 recognizing form and size   
and other space relations1 etc4 ,the    
individual may work blind-folded or may 
use his eyes4  ,in the standardized form
 the sizes1 shapes and positions are    
uniformly adopted and the technique of  
instruction and procedure is specified4 
,under these conditions the time        
required to complete the task by normal 
children of the ages five to fourteen   
years has been recorded4 ,sylvester     
presents a curve based on the           
examination of #a1ecg normal children4  
,the curve shows the average time of    
performance for each age and also       
indicates the range of performance for  
each age4 ,in the case of a given       
individual it is thus easy1 by referring
 to the standard table of norms1 to     
determine whether he is up to the normal
 record for his age1 whether he is      
within the normal range of variation for
 this age1 and how deficient or         

precocious he may be in this respect4   
,tables of this type are now being      
accumulated for a great variety of      
single standard tests4  ,in addition to 
scales of this type1 which proceed by   
setting for the individual a graded     
series of tasks and determining his     
success in their accomplishment1 there  
is a further type of graded scale which 
is now represented by several standard  
specimens4 ,this is the type of scale   
which is designed to afford an          
instrument for the measurement of such  
products as the actual work of the      
individual incidentally yields4         
,thorndike's ,scale for the ,measurement
 of ,handwriting is the model on which  
many of the later scales of this type   
have been based4 ,in this scale actual  
specimens of handwriting are arranged in
 a graduated series in such a way that  
the steps from specimen to specimen are 
equally appreciable or noticeable1 and  
in this sense uniform4 ,when such a     
scale extends from an actual zero point1

 it is possible to measure the quality  
of handwriting in quite the same way as 
that in which one measures the height of
 an individual or the length of a table4
 ,the quantitative measure consists in  
the statement of the number of stages   
which intervene between that quality of 
product represented by the specimen and 
the zero point of the scale4 ,the       
position assigned to the specimen being 
measured is determined by moving the    
specimen along the graded series of     
standards until a point is reached where
 the specimen seems1 on the basis of    
direct inspection1 to belong4 ,such     
scales have been formulated for various 
special forms of school work1 such as   
handwriting1 drawing1 arithmetic1       
literary composition1 mechanical        
construction1 etc4 ,by such means it is 
possible not only to measure the general
 intelligence of the worker1 but also   
his actual ability in creating a        
definite type of product4 ,there seems  
to be no limit to the possibilities of  

scales of this form1 and their value in 
determining the more definite and       
particular capacities1 whether from the 
point of view of original endowment or  
from the point of view of the effects of
 training1 is obvious4  ,these various  
scales for measuring general            
intelligence have been used chiefly for 
the purposes of educational diagnosis1  
in determining the degree of            
backwardness of children in the grades1 
their need for special educational      
attention1 or the hopelessness of       
further pedagogical effort with them4   
,but it is obvious at once that tests of
 this type are of great use to an       
employer in eliminating1 from among the 
candidates for work1 those who are      
hopelessly mentally defective1          
feeble-minded1 and irresponsible4 ,there
 are many sorts of work in which the    
employment of feeble-minded persons1    
unrecognizable as such by their physical
 traits or by a casual inspection1 not  
only entails loss and annoyance but may 

constitute a positive danger and        
constant menace to those who rely on the
 defective individual4 ,such work as    
that of delivery boys1 messengers1      
domestic servants1 nurses1 elevator     
operators1 drivers1 motormen1 etc41 may 
be cited as instances of work into which
 the feeble-minded easily slip1 unless  
there is some standardized means of     
recognizing them4  ,the importance of   
detecting these incompetents and keeping
 them from work in which their          
irresponsibility means economic waste   
and personal and social danger is of    
distinct vocational interest4 ,studies  
of cases brought to the ,clearing ,house
 for ,mental ,defectives in ,new ,york  
,city show that of the first two hundred
 and eighty-one feeble-minded women of  
child-bearing age1 about two-thirds had 
been engaged in some form of economic   
labor in which their incompetence was   
distinctly dangerous to those associated
 with them4 ,the following table shows  
how these two hundred and eighty-one    

feeble-minded women had been employed3  
,living at home and assisting at simple 
tasks     #id      ,domestic service    
7families1 bars1 hotels1 etc47  #fg     
,engaged in factory operations          
#ba      ,living in institutions1       
reformatories1 asylums   #bj            
,prostitutes                            
#cj      ,laundresses                   
#e      ,working in stores1 clerking1   
errands1 etc4        #e      ,nursemaids
                                        
#i      ,odd jobs                       
#f      ,married and keeping house      
#aa      ,housework1 with relatives     
#ac  ,the investigators originally      
reporting these data write as follows3  
,these defective women had borne        
eighty-nine illegitimate children1 which
 were acknowledged and could be somewhat
 definitely located1 and sixteen women  
were illegitimately pregnant at the time
 of their examination at the ,clearing  
,house4 ,twenty-four of the two hundred 
and eighty-one had married and these had

 borne forty-six legitimate children4   
,the average mental age of the          
illegitimate mothers was nine years4    
,the employment of feeble-minded women  
as domestics1 factory operatives1       
laundresses1 clerks1 and nursemaids     
constitutes not only a nuisance to the  
general public1 but a real source of    
inefficiency and danger to the          
community4 ,graded scales for the       
measurement of intelligence will have   
amply repaid the labor devoted to their 
formulation if they aid us in the proper
 segregation and vocational supervision 
of the mentally defective4 ,the         
feeble-minded boy is more likely to be  
observed in the natural course of       
things1 because of the more strictly    
competitive types of work into which    
boys customarily go1 but it is far from 
realized how much loss of property1     
life1 and general happiness is entailed 
upon the community by the indiscriminate
 employment of untested boys and men as 
floating employees4  ,but the vocational

 value of the graded intelligence scales
 and norms is not limited to the work of
 detecting and eliminating the          
feeble-minded4 ,many of the tests as now
 standardized yield measures of         
intelligence1 capacity and comprehension
 ranging far above the level which      
constitutes the borderline of mental    
defect4 ,some of them reach somewhat    
higher than the average intelligence and
 capacity of the college freshman4 ,it  
is thus possible1 through the use of the
 graded scales1 to measure in           
quantitative terms the general          
intelligence as well as various more    
special capacities of applicants and    
candidates for positions for which      
general intelligence is the chief       
requisite4 ,such tests are now used in  
many places in the selection of clerical
 workers1 telephone operators1          
stenographers1 waitresses1 motormen1    
salesmen1 office help1 inspectors1      
watchmen1 soldiers1 and special types of
 factory workers4 ,thus ,trabue reports 

a study in which ,professor ,scott      
tested thirty efficiency experts        
employed by a large industrial concern  
in ,new ,england4 ,ten psychological    
tests were used1 including a completion 
test4 ,the men were also judged on the  
basis of their relative abilities by the
 members of the firm4 ,the combined     
tests correlated with the combined      
judgments1 giving the very high         
coefficient of 4#hg4 ,the completion    
test alone yielded a coefficient of     
4#fd4 ,from the point of view of        
vocational selection we may expect the  
principle of the graded intelligence    
scale to become increasingly valuable as
 more and more norms are established4   
,the first definite contribution of     
vocational psychology is thus not so    
much toward the guidance of the         
individual worker as for the guidance of
 the employer who may be required to    
select from a number of applicants those
 whose general intellectual equipment is
 most adequate4 ,but we shall later have

 occasion to point out a further        
contribution which this makes possible1 
in so far as it may enable us to        
classify the operations involved in     
various types of work and to align these
 operations and tasks along the general 
intelligence scale4 ,such alignment will
 enable us to specify the approximate   
degree of general intelligence which a  
given position demands1 and thus1 in the
 case of the simpler tasks1 afford a    
means of vocational guidance as well as 
vocational selection4     ,,chapter ,,iv
  ,,the ,,psychographic ,,methods  ,,the
 ,,individual ,,psychograph   ,another  
application of mental tests has a very  
direct interest for vocational          
psychology4 ,this is the method of the  
psychograph1 as it is commonly called4  
,the ,french and ,german psychologists  
especially have been active in          
advocating the practice of submitting to
 careful and detailed experimental      
examination the physical and mental     
characteristics of men who have achieved

 marked success in their chosen         
vocations4 ,by the application of this  
clinical method to men of superior      
attainment it is hoped that light may be
 thrown on the psychological foundations
 of their genius and1 in general1 on the
 relation between mental traits1 as     
shown in the results of psychological   
tests1 and actual success in life's     
work4 ,this psychographic method        
represents the earliest methodical      
attempt to differentiate the various    
vocations from one another on the basis 
of special aptitudes and                
characteristics1 as distinguished from  
the factor of general intelligence4 ,dr4
 ,e4 ,toulouse has already published    
reports of such examinations or         
psychographs in the cases of ,zola1     
,dalou1 and ,henri ,poincare4 ,it is the
 intention of this investigator to      
continue this line of work1 utilizing   
from time to time such refinements of   
technique as may be available4 ,as an   
illustration of the psychographic       

method1 an account of the study of the  
eminent mathematician1 ,poincare1 may be
 given in some detail4  ,the            
investigation of ,poincare took account 
of such special topics as heredity1     
development1 physical condition1 sensory
 acuity1 various kinds of memory1       
attention1 imagery1 reaction time1      
association of ideas1 language and      
handwriting1 character1 habits and      
opinions4 ,although the tests followed a
 technique which the investigator       
recognized to have been quite imperfect 
and fragmentary1 they are said to have  
yielded results quite sufficient to     
characterize the intellectual type of   
the man4 ,the account of the tests is   
followed by a synthesis in which is     
attempted a general picture of          
,poincare's type and an interpretation  
of the conditions of invention and      
speculative genius4  ,from the point of 
view of heredity1 development and       
general vital characteristics ,poincare 
was found to resemble most his mother   

and grandmother1 who1 with collateral   
relatives1 are said to have shown       
special aptitude in mathematical        
calculation4 ,several male members of   
the family have had successful careers  
in neurology1 law1 meteorology1 politics
 and mathematics4 ,poincare's           
development was not precocious1 although
 he was bright and showed1 when quite   
young1 mathematical ability of an       
unusual order4 ,his history1 up the age 
of thirty years1 at which time he was   
elected to the ,academy of ,sciences1   
was not unlike that of many other       
mathematicians whose freedom from the   
necessity of experiment allows them to  
make rapid progress4 ,he was at one time
 troubled with rheumatism1 and in his   
childhood suffered from an attack of    
diphtheria1 followed by paralysis4 ,this
 attack is said to have profoundly      
modified his nervous system1 perhaps    
providing the neuropathic basis for     
traits shown later in life1 such as     
awkwardness1 restlessness1 flighty      

attention1 distractibility and general  
sensori-motor deficiency4  ,a physical  
examination which dealt mainly with     
anthropometric measurements1 strength   
tests1 and with an inquiry into habits  
of eating1 sleeping1 and the use of     
narcotics1 revealed nothing very        
unusual4 ,poincare had head measurements
 somewhat larger than the average4 ,he  
was troubled with indigestion1 also with
 insomnia4 ,he did not use tobacco1 and 
indulged only sparingly in wine and     
coffee4 ,he was able to work for but    
four hours a day1 in two-hour periods1  
and the tendency to automatisms and the 
perseverance of psychic activity        
compelled him to cease work for some    
time before retiring4 ,he disliked      
muscular exercise except for the        
automatic processes involved in walking4
 ,his absent-mindedness was a matter of 
common comment among his associates4    
,the examination of his sensory and     
motor capacity showed ,poincare to have 
been rather feeble from a sensory point 

of view4 ,hearing was defective for low 
tones1 but auditory orientation and     
localization were fair4 ,he was         
shortsighted1 but had no astigmatism2   
tests of the field of vision showed no  
abnormality4 ,muscular weakness of the  
eyes was present1 which led to          
accommodation spasms4 ,his general      
bodily movements were characterized by  
uncertainty1 irregularity1 awkwardness  
and hesitancy1 and his muscular reflexes
 were prominent4  ,the greater number of
 the tests had to do with more strictly 
mental characteristics4 ,poincare had no
 visual images or memories1 except in   
the transition state between waking and 
sleeping1 when he had frequent visual   
hallucinations of remarkable            
distinctness4 ,in his waking life he    
relied chiefly on motor images and      
tendencies1 thinking of geometrical     
forms in terms of optical or manual     
movements4 ,he had no visual schemes1   
but represented time1 in his thinking1  
by a rotation of the eyes on their axes4

 ,in his youth he had pronounced colored
 hearing1 which was evoked not by the   
form but by the sound of letters and    
words4 ,he had no other synesthesias4   
,tests of recognition memory for length 
of lines1 reproduction of drawings seen 
once1 etc41 are said to have shown      
exceptional memory capacity4 ,the       
memories were held with the aid of motor
 imagery1 and the reproduction was often
 not from the image but on the basis of 
an analysis of the material which had   
been presented to him4 ,he had a memory 
span for digits of about eleven1 as     
compared with the ordinary record of    
about eight4 ,in the case of letters he 
had an auditory memory span of nine1 and
 a visual span of seven4 ,mechanical    
memory did not seem to be particularly  
good1 and much emphasis is laid on      
,poincare's tendency to use memory      
devices when remembering this           
non-logical material2 he employed       
analysis and incidental schemes whenever
 possible4 ,he had a remarkable facility

 in mental calculation1 which is said   
not to be the rule with mathematicians4 
,in tests of logical memory he was      
superior to both ,zola and ,dalou1 and  
here again his memory was found to be   
analytical and artificial rather than   
mechanical4 ,all material was arranged  
in a coherent scheme or system1 and it  
was this system1 rather than the        
material1 that was remembered4  ,a      
series of cancellation and reaction-time
 tests showed that the simple sensory   
reactions were slower and more regular  
than those of the average person1 but   
the motor reactions were much quicker4  
,this accords with previous indications 
as to ,poincare's general motor type4   
,the most significant thing about the   
reactions is said to be the wandering   
and unstable attention which they       
disclosed4 ,it was difficult to keep    
,poincare's mind on the tests1 because  
his attention constantly wandered to the
 apparatus4 ,in receiving instructions  
for such experiments he did not seem to 

comprehend what was being said1 but     
appeared distracted and uninterested4   
,this is the same impression he is said 
to have given to those whom he met in   
his daily relations4 ,he was restless1  
could not remain in one position or stay
 by one task1 had no patience and       
abandoned his work whenever it seemed to
 require any voluntary effort4 ,tests of
 reverie associations and of free paired
 associates showed absence of voluntary 
attention and predominance of purely    
verbal association tendencies4 ,binet's 
cigarette description test was used1 and
 ,poincare was found to belong to       
,binet's first type of observer 7simple 
description1 with no evidence of        
reflection or judgment1 no display of   
erudition1 no expression of fancy or    
sentiment74 ,his description was        
remarkably lucid and clear4 ,poincare   
spoke correctly1 never learned his      
addresses by heart1 and made few        
corrections either in writing or in     
speaking4 ,indications of his           

temperament and type are said to be     
suggested by his handwriting4           
,poincare's opinions on various topics  
are given1 and several peculiar habits  
of daily life are recorded1 chiefly for 
the sake of emphasizing his constant air
 of distraction1 his impatience and     
restlessness4 ,he loved music2 sketched 
a little2 did not sleep soundly2 and    
often began to work on a problem only to
 abandon it in the faith that it would  
in some way solve itself unconsciously  
or that the right idea would come       
spontaneously on some later occasion4   
,he often began a memoir without having 
any conclusion in mind4 ,he often wrote 
formulae automatically for the sake of  
the chance associations which they might
 bring4  ,these tests of ,poincare      
showed him to present a striking        
contrast to ,zola1 the novelist4 ,zola's
 type was found to be characterized by  
prominent voluntary intellectual        
activity1 clearly conscious and intense1
 concentrated effort1 with no tendency  

to perseveration of ideas after         
cessation of work4 ,his thought1 as     
disclosed by the tests1 was logical1    
methodical1 and seemed preeminently     
fitted for the work of mathematical     
deduction4 ,his method of work was quite
 the opposite of that of ,poincare1 who1
 when he met with a difficulty or with a
 point requiring voluntary effort1      
abandoned his work or proceeded to      
another part of it which would develop  
more spontaneously4 ,the surprising     
thing was that a methodical1 logical and
 persistent worker1 such as ,zola1      
should have become the prince of romance
 that he was4 ,one might have expected  
that the mental processes of ,poincare1 
which were shown to be flighty1         
uncontrolled1 spontaneous1 unstable and 
spasmodic1 would have particularly      
fitted him for the activity of the      
romancer4 ,instead1 they found their    
outlet in severe mathematical and       
philosophical creation4 ,poincare's     
genius is thus said to be incapable of  

explanation on the basis of his         
sensori-motor equipment1 his imagination
 and memory1 and the speed or control of
 his psychic activity4 ,if his case is  
taken as typical1 it suggests the quite 
unexpected result that tendency to      
distraction1 automatisms1 oscillating   
attention1 restlessness1 uncontrolled   
association and reliance on chance      
syntheses and spontaneous ideas are     
significant for the type of genius      
required in mathematics and             
philosophical speculation4 ,certainly in
 ,poincare's case they seem to have     
constituted a definite method of        
research4  ,the chief value of this     
examination of ,poincare does not lie in
 the particular results which it        
yielded1 but in its initiation of such  
attempts to study in a more or less     
intimate and intensive way the          
psychological processes and type of     
individuals of marked achievement in    
special lines of work4 ,for the purposes
 of vocational psychology it would be   

valuable to know the ways in which such 
admittedly superior individuals as those
 now being studied by ,dr4 ,toulouse1   
differing as they do in their types of  
achievement1 would react to the simple  
and complex tests now employed by those 
interested in the measurement of        
intelligence and special aptitudes4 ,it 
is true that these psychographic methods
 do not yet yield results which are     
sufficient to inform us why the         
particular individuals examined were so 
much more successful in their work than 
were others who seem to have been       
equally favored and equally diligent4   
,nor have they yet revealed in any      
adequate way the nature or degree of the
 qualifications requisite for success in
 the vocations from which the           
representative men have been selected4  
,nevertheless the individual psychograph
 constitutes a suggestive method of     
research for the vocational psychology  
of the future4 ,it represents the       
intensive development of the older type 

of biography1 based on direct           
observational data rather than on       
hearsay1 conjecture and anecdote4  ,it  
is on some variation of this method that
 we must largely rely in our efforts to 
learn to what degree vocational success 
depends on the presence of demonstrable 
personal characteristics1 rather than on
 the accidents of time1 place and       
circumstance4 ,it was inevitable that   
the first attempts to give psychographic
 accounts of the personality of         
individuals of genius should be more or 
less fragmentary1 incomplete and        
experimental4 ,this has been due partly 
to the rapidity with which our knowledge
 of mental tests has developed1 and     
partly to the very complex and subtle   
types of achievement toward which these 
early psychographic methods have been   
directed4 ,various investigations are   
now under way in which these same       
methods are being used in the intensive 
examination of individuals who have     
engaged in simpler and more common forms

 of activity1 with varying degrees of   
success4 ,in some of these researches1  
for example1 men who have made their    
life work the marketing of a specific   
type of commodity through direct and    
personal salesmanship are being         
submitted to intensive psychological    
examinations4 ,the problem is to        
discover whether there is a more or less
 specific and recognizable type of      
personality which characterizes the     
successful salesman and differentiates  
him from the mediocre salesman and the  
utter failure4 ,directed toward these   
more familiar and more easily accessible
 occupations1 the individual psychograph
 constitutes one of the most interesting
 forms of vocational psychology4        
,closely related to it1 though          
sufficiently distinct in aim and method 
to merit separate presentation1 is the  
method of the vocational psychograph1 in
 which the work1 rather than the worker1
 is made the object of analysis4   ,,the
 ,,vocational ,,psychograph  ,closely   

related to the method of intensive      
examination described in the preceding  
section1 and profitable in a somewhat   
different direction1 is the type of     
psychograph represented in ,professor   
,seashore's reports on ,the ,measurement
 of a ,singer4 ,this may be called the  
vocational psychograph as contrasted    
with the psychograph of the individual  
of genius4 ,it proceeds by discovering  
first the necessary abilities and       
capacities which a given sort of        
performance demands4 ,in the case of    
singing1 rather more than in almost any 
other vocation1 certain definite and    
fairly identifiable abilities are quite 
obviously required1 and the degree to   
which they must be present for definite 
attainments is rather more easily       
discoverable4  ,thus1 ,seashore writes3 
,musical power is generally admitted to 
embrace certain well-recognized and     
fairly concrete capacities4 ,in our     
commonplace judgments about ourselves   
and others we say3 ',i have no ear for  

music4' ',i cannot tell a chord from a  
discord4' ',i cannot keep time4' ',i    
have no sense of rhythm4' ',i cannot    
tell a two-step from a waltz4' ',i      
cannot remember music4' ',i cannot image
 sounds4' ',i am not moved by music4'   
',i do not enjoy music4' ,or1 if        
speaking of someone who has musical     
ability1 we say3 ',he has a deep1 rich  
voice4' ',he never forgets an air4' ',he
 lives in song4' ,such judgments have   
reference to generally admitted specific
 factors involved in musical capacity by
 virtue of a musical organization4      
,corresponding to these judgments of    
native capacity we have judgments about 
musical education1 about musical        
environment1 about special influences   
and stimuli for the development of      
musical talent1 and about technique and 
success in the rendition of music4 ,when
 judgments of this kind are based upon  
measurements1 classified and adequately 
interpreted1 they may constitute a      
measure of the individual as a singer4  

,the measure of a singer should consist 
of a relatively small number of         
representative measurements upon        
specific capacities and achievements4   
,these measurements must be set in a    
full survey by systematic observation   
and other verified information bearing  
upon the variation of the individual as 
a singer4 ,the classification of the    
measurements must be based upon 7#a7 the
 attributes of sound which constitute   
the objective aspect of music1 and 7#b7 
upon fundamental and essential processes
 in the singer's appreciation and       
expression of music4 ,from the point of 
view of the objective sound1 we must    
take into account pitch 7with its       
complexes of timbre and harmony71       
intensity1 and duration4 ,from the point
 of view of mental processes we may     
group the tests under the heads1        
sensory1 motor1 associational1 and      
affective1 each of these furnishing     
natural subdivisions4  ,the writer then 
presents an arrangement of these        

proposed measurements in a program1     
which is also recommended as the outline
 for a systematic description of the    
individual in his capacity as a singer4 
,the sensory group of tests includes    
five tests under pitch1 two under       
intensity1 and one under time           
discrimination4 ,the motor group        
includes seven tests under pitch1 two   
under intensity1 and four under time4   
,the associational group includes two   
tests under imagery1 three under memory1
 and four under ideation4 ,the affective
 group contains three tests under       
musical appeal1 and one each under      
reaction to musical effect and power of 
interpretation in singing4 ,a copy of   
this program of tests is given in the   
,appendix4  ,in a chapter of his        
,psychology in ,daily ,life1#f ,seashore
 describes these special tests4 ,he     
indicates their significance and        
suggests approximate norms for those    
cases for which they are at present     
available4 ,for the accumulation of many

 of these norms1 and for the conduct of 
the tests1 special and elaborate        
apparatus and methods are required4 ,for
 several years the workers in           
,seashore's laboratory have busied      
themselves with the problems concerned  
in the measurement and accumulation of  
norms for pitch discrimination1         
vividness of tone imagery1 span of tone 
memory1 consonance and dissonance1      
rhythmic action1 intensity              
discrimination1 voluntary control of the
 pitch of the voice1 and the singing of 
intervals4  ,reference to norms thus    
acquired shows1 for example1 that in the
 case of discrimination in voluntary    
control of the pitch of the voice a     
record of 4#i vd4 means that this       
ability is within three per cent of the 
best record for individuals under       
similar conditions1 and that those who  
have such control are thoroughly        
qualified to render a high class of     
music in this respect2 while a record of
 #i vd4 falls within eight per cent of  

the poorest ability measured1 and is    
characteristic of an individual who     
cannot sing2 whereas #c vd4 represents  
the average ability of an untrained     
individual4  ,again1 in another         
connection1 and with reference this time
 to the discrimination of tones when    
heard1 the same investigator has        
suggested that one who can discriminate 
a difference1 from a given standard     
pitch1 of #c vd4 or less may become a   
musician2 one whose threshold falls     
between #c and #h vd4 should have a     
plain musical education2 one whose      
discrimination is so poor that #i to #ag
 vd4 is the measure should have a plain 
musical education only if special       
inclination for some kind of music is   
shown2 while a measure of #ah vd4 or    
above indicates that the individual     
should have nothing to do with music4   
,these suggestions were proposed for    
individuals of equal age1 advancement   
and general ability4  ,that is to say1  
there are but three persons in a hundred

 who1 having just sung the tone which is
 produced by a tuning fork vibrating two
 hundred and fifty-six times per second1
 can then voluntarily and accurately    
change the pitch of the voice to        
represent the tone of a fork vibrating  
#bef4i times per second1 a change of 4#i
 of a vibration4 ,but fifty persons of  
the hundred can produce voluntarily a   
change of three vibrations1 and         
ninety-two of the hundred can produce   
the very large change of nine           
vibrations4 ,seashore1 of course1 points
 out that in addition to these various  
measurements1 there must be other       
measurements1 statistical data1         
biographical information1 and free      
observations concerning musical         
training1 traits of temperament and     
attitude1 spontaneous tendencies in the 
pursuit of music1 general education and 
non-musical accomplishments1 social     
circumstances and physique1 and that all
 these in their unity must be considered
 in the light of expert knowledge and   

expert technical insight before they can
 be said to give an adequate estimate of
 the particular individual's various    
capacities and qualifications as a      
singer4 ,those interested in the use of 
psychological tests in connection with  
musical ability should familiarize      
themselves with the many original       
reports from ,seashore's laboratory4    
,the methods there being followed may   
well serve as models for future analyses
 of vocational demands and individual   
tests4  ,if the highly specialized work 
of singing calls for such complex       
analysis and for such varied            
measurements1 technical skill1 and      
arduous collection of norms and         
standards1 one realizes the utter folly 
of such vocational counsel as that which
 vaguely recommends the candidate to be 
a musician1 be a writer1 etc4 ,indeed1  
we may now begin to see that it is only 
when each particular aspect of each     
particular calling is thoroughly        
analyzed into its elementary            

requirements1 when reliable tests for   
the detection and measurement of these  
abilities are available1 and adequate   
norms and standards accumulated in each 
case1 only then can the method of the   
vocational psychograph come to have     
practical application in vocational     
analysis and guidance4  ,how far1 we may
 now ask1 has such analysis been able1  
as a matter of fact1 to proceed with the
 representative types of work8 ,so far  
as recorded enterprise is concerned     
there have been three different ways of 
attempting such analyses4 ,one of these 
methods is that used by the various     
vocational bureaus in endeavoring to    
learn what type of individual is most in
 demand in the different occupations4   
,futile as these endeavors have been1 it
 is nevertheless well to have them      
before us for our future reference and  
guidance4 ,in the main the questionnaire
 method has been used in this           
connection2 employers have been asked to
 state1 in much their own way1 the      

necessary or desirable mental and moral 
qualifications of those who might expect
 to succeed in the various kinds of     
work4  ,these replies have been collated
 and attempts made to secure clinical   
pictures of the type of individuals4    
,these methods result in such           
characterizations as the following4 ,the
 words specifying the vocation itself   
are omitted1 and the reader is invited  
to guess which of the large number of   
possible callings is being described4   
,the girl who enters ---- should be able
 to use good language1 and should dress 
neatly and appropriately in order to    
impress people agreeably4 ,she should be
 able to write a legible hand1 make     
clear figures1 and spell correctly2 a   
practical knowledge of arithmetic1      
especially fractions1 is very important4
 ,prime requisites for success are      
interest and enthusiasm and a knowledge 
of human nature4 ,the born ---- takes a 
vital interest in her ----1 in her ----1
 and in her ----4 ,she studies her ----1

 learns something of their ----1 knows  
what their good points are1 and is able 
to ---- about them intelligently and    
truthfully4 ,she is a good judge of     
people1 and she has the sincerity and   
the tact which enable her to help a ----
 so to ---- as to go away satisfied and 
come to her again4 ,such a ---- is      
alert1 energetic1 and gives strongly the
 impression that she is in her place to 
---- and therefore never displays an    
indifferent manner toward anyone who may
 ask her service4 ,loyal to her work1   
she is always courteous1 for loss of    
temper means loss of ---- ----4  ,now1  
if one but insert suitable words where  
the omissions occur1 the paragraph      
remains equally applicable and          
illuminating when applied to any of the 
following occupations1 diverse as they  
seem to be3 housekeeper1 waitress1      
stenographer1 milliner1 teacher1 mother1
 doctor1 nurse1 cashier1 sales-woman1   
insurance agent1 bookkeeper1 clinical   
psychologist1 private secretary4 ,the   

following paragraph is equally          
illuminating3  ,if a girl wishes to     
succeed in ---- she must be possessed   
with intelligence ,how much81 good      
judgment and common sense4 ,she must    
have good eyesight1 good hearing and a  
good memory4 ,she must have good        
perception and be able to concentrate   
her attention completely on any matter  
in hand4 ,in addition to these she must 
be neat in executing ---- work and      
accurate to the last degree4 ,it is     
absolutely necessary that she have a    
good education4  ,it would require      
several trials to guess of what         
particular occupation this is a         
psychographic picture4  ,it is clear at 
once that this method yields little     
information of the kind we are here     
considering1 beyond the cataloging of   
the general sterling virtues of mankind4
 ,the peculiar and distinctive mental   
functions presumably involved in the    
various types of work are just the ones 
that no one not an expert in            

psychological analysis could be expected
 adequately to portray4 ,the so-called  
special qualifications1 such as honesty1
 patience1 attention1 neatness1         
perseverance1 etc41 do not represent    
elementary psychological categories4    
,moreover1 they are qualifications with 
which no legitimate sphere of human     
activity can afford to dispense4 ,in the
 long run they are characteristics which
 correlate to a high degree or1 indeed1 
perhaps help to make up and constitute  
what we call general intelligence4 ,in  
no case is there any specification of   
the precise amount of these various     
traits that may be needed4 ,since the   
days of the faculty psychology we have  
ceased to think of attention1 memory1   
will1 etc41 as homogeneous powers which 
play in a general sort of way on all    
sorts of material4 ,we usually find that
 when an individual is inattentive to   
one set of facts this is largely due to 
his being attentively preoccupied with  
some other set4 ,still further1 no tests

 have been proposed which satisfactorily
 measure such traits as honesty1        
perseverance1 promptness4 ,nor is it    
certainly known to what degree such     
traits are fixed characteristics of     
individuals and to what degree they     
represent present habits and tendencies 
modifiable in many ways if the          
circumstances call for such change4     
,turning from the employer himself1 and 
his description of the ideal worker1 we 
may inquire what happens when the       
professional psychologist undertakes    
this analysis8 ,the only case in which  
an expert psychologist has attempted    
this is to be found in ,muensterberg's  
recent book on ,vocation and ,learning4 
,it is there pointed out that every act 
and experience has its threefold aspect1
 the aspect of knowing1 that of feeling1
 and that of doing4 ,corresponding to   
these three aspects1 there are to be    
pointed out in the case of each         
occupation the required information1 the
 necessary technical skill1 and the     

special guiding personal interests and  
social satisfactions4 ,in order to      
clarify our knowledge of the special    
needs of the various vocations1 and     
presumably to aid in the guidance of    
individuals in their vocational choices1
 eleven different representative        
vocations are analyzed on this threefold
 basis4 ,two or three of the analyses   
may be given here as an indication of   
the results arrived at by this method at
 the hands of the avowed applied        
psychologist4 ,the specification of the 
particular technical knowledge we need  
not include for our purpose1 since this 
consists of information supplied through
 some form of education4 ,the outline on
 the following page brings together the 
requisite abilities and the implied     
motives and interests1 as stated for the
 occupations of domestic worker1        
architect1 physician1 and journalist4   
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,occupation ,domestic ,worker           

,architect     ,physician   ,journalist 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------- ,abilities   
,joyful work     ,esthetic sense,social 
dealing,sociability ,required  ,energy  
,imagination   ,energy        ,energy   
,patience        ,industry              
,discretion    ,memory                  
,teaching        ,drawing       ,tact   
,accuracy           ,economy            
,modeling      ,judgment      ,judgment 
,physique        ,specification         
,observation                            
,employment                             
of men                                  
,housekeeping    ,architecture          
,dissection    ,typewriting             
,sewing          ,engineering           
,microscopical ,quick           ,cooking
         ,heating         ,observation  
,expression           ,nursing          
,ventilating   ,psychotherapy ,forceful 
,house furnishing,construction          
,clinical        style                  
,activity                               

,surgical                               
,technique                              
----------------------------------------
-------------------------- ,implied     
,morality        ,honor         ,honor  
,honor ,personal  ,beauty               
,beauty        ,truth         ,truth    
,motives   ,position        ,position   
,position      ,influence and           
,social,support         ,fees           
,fees          ,salary ,interests ,home 
,life       ,comfort       ,influence   
,progress           ,family ,welfare    
,progress                               
,comfort of      ,housing       ,welfare
 of    ,politics           ,community   
,community   ,education                 
,family ,comfort                ,health 
,information                            
,prevention of ,entertain-              
,disease        ment                    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------  ,it 
is obvious that such analysis is        
inadequate for our purpose4 ,for the    

most part the various vocations are said
 to be actuated by much the same        
motives1 the leading satisfactions being
 honor1 truth1 position1 beauty1        
progress1 fees or salary1 and welfare4  
,these enumerations1 of course1 help us 
in no way to distinguish between the    
particular satisfactions or interests   
involved in the different types of work4
 ,quite the same thing is true of the   
abilities required4 ,most of them call  
for energy1 industry1 judgment and      
ability to deal with people4 ,the same  
might be said of prize-fighting1        
plumbing and peddling4 ,and do not the  
journalist and the housekeeper require  
tact as well as the physician8 ,is it   
true that the architect alone1 of the   
four examples here given1 has use for   
imagination and an esthetic sense1 that 
the domestic alone needs physical       
development and joyfulness8 ,accuracy is
 perhaps more necessary to success in   
architecture than to the pursuit of     
journalism1 while judgment1 discretion  

and observation would seem to be of     
occasional value even to the housekeeper
 and the architect4  ,in short1 this    
type of analysis1 which1 whether        
accepted seriously or not1 represents   
the latest word from a distinguished    
psychologist on the differences among   
the occupations1 gives us no more       
assistance toward the basis of a        
vocational psychograph than did the     
catalogs of sterling virtues provided by
 the employers in their replies to the  
questionnaires4  ,various other types of
 analysis have been proposed1 as well as
 different criteria1 on the basis of    
which the occupations might be thrown   
under some form of psychological        
classification4 ,thus it has been       
pointed out that the traditional        
distinctions on the basis of materials  
handled or type of product produced1    
give little indication of the type of   
activity involved or of the             
characteristics necessary for success4  
,as ,schneider has remarked3 ,if a boy  

were successful in wood-shop work1 he   
was told he would make a good carpenter2
 however1 wood-turning in a shop and    
outdoor carpentry are dissimilar types1 
while wood-turning in a shop and        
metal-turning in a shop are similar     
types4  ,schneider has for many years   
considered the problems involved in     
adjusting human beings to congenial     
types of work1 and prefers to classify  
both men and jobs on the basis of       
certain broad characteristics which     
refer more particularly to interests1   
habits1 preferences and similar         
temperamental factors than to the       
technical psychological mechanisms      
employed in the work4 ,he writes3 ,every
 individual has certain broad           
characteristics and every type of work  
requires certain broad characteristics4 
,the problem1 then1 is to state the     
broad characteristics1 to devise a      
rational method to discover these       
characteristics 7or talents7 in         
individuals1 to classify the types of   

jobs by the talents they require and to 
guide the youth with certain talents    
into the type of job which requires     
those talents4 ,this is a big problem1  
but one possible of measurable solution1
 or1 at worst1 possible of a solution   
immeasurably superior to our present    
haphazard methods4  ,as an illustration 
of what ,schneider means by broad       
characteristics1 take his distinction   
between the settled and the roving      
types4 ,there is a type of man who wants
 to get on the same car every morning1  
get off at the same corner1 go to the   
same shop1 ring up at the same clock1   
stow his lunch in the same locker1 go to
 the same machine and do the same class 
of work1 day after day4 ,another type of
 man would go crazy under this routine2 
he wants to move about1 meet new people1
 see and do new things4 ,the first is   
settled2 the second is roving4 ,the     
first might make a good man for a shop  
manufacturing a standard product2 the   
second might make a good railroad man or

 a good outdoor carpenter4  ,or1 again1 
consider his distinction on the basis of
 scope4 ,then there are two types--one  
of which likes to fuss with an intricate
 bit of mechanism1 while the other wants
 the task of big dimensions--the        
watchmaker1 the engraver1 the inlayer1  
the painter of miniatures1 on the one   
hand2 the bridge builder1 the steel-mill
 worker1 the train dispatcher1 the      
circus man on the other4 ,one has small 
scope1 the other large scope4  ,basing  
his analyses mainly on the enterprises  
of manufacture1 construction and        
transportation1 and recognizing that    
other broad characteristics would       
probably be listed if different types of
 occupation were also considered1       
,schneider gives a list of sixteen      
classifications which may be applied    
either to the individual or to the type 
of work4 ,these are as follows3         
a--,physical strength2 physical         
weakness4     b--,mental2 manual4       
c--,settled2 roving4     d--,indoor2    

outdoor4     e--,directive2 dependent4  
f--,original 7creative72 imitative4     
g--,small scope2 large scope4           
h--,adaptable2 self-centered4           
i--,deliberate2 impulsive4     j--,music
 sense4     k--,color sense4            
l--,manual accuracy2 manual inaccuracy4 
m--,mental accuracy 7logic72 mental     
inaccuracy4     n--,concentration       
7mental focus72 diffusion4     o--,rapid
 mental coordination2 slow mental       
coordination4     p--,dynamic2 static4  
,it must be said that the               
characteristics of the various types of 
work here enumerated are pretty much the
 features which have in the past guided 
such individuals as really chose their  
vocation rather than found it waiting   
for them1 made a random selection1 or   
seized the first available opportunity4 
,the paired adjectives probably afford  
truer descriptions of various types of  
work than they do of types of           
individuals4 ,most individuals of one's 
acquaintance one would have to group    

neither under the one nor the other     
extreme1 but in an average group which  
would show each of the opposed          
tendencies under special circumstances  
or would show no particularly marked    
degree of either tendency4 ,observation 
of such individuals for long periods of 
time and under a variety of             
circumstances would be required before  
these classifications could be made out 
by a stranger or by a professional      
counsellor4 ,even then such a           
classification could hardly be said to  
be psychological in any technical sense 
of the word1 and it is not very probable
 that psychological training or         
experience would facilitate or render   
more reliable such classification4 ,the 
question of to what degree the          
individual's judgment of his own        
characteristics may be relied on in such
 an analysis we must defer until a later
 section where that is taken up as the  
main subject of discussion4  ,the       
reliable vocational psychograph1 which  

proceeds by means of a careful          
preliminary analysis of the qualities   
required in the given work1 and uses    
specially adapted tests with reliable   
norms for their evaluation1 is not yet  
available for any single occupation4    
,the preliminary analyses so far made1  
whether by employer1 psychologist1 or   
engineer1 give us little guidance1 and  
until such guidance is forthcoming the  
special adaptation of tests and the     
accumulation of norms and standards     
cannot make much practical progress4    
,the inadequacy of the analyses already 
offered should not discourage further   
effort in this direction4 ,the alignment
 of the simple industrial processes     
along the general intelligence scale has
 already been begun4 ,the description of
 the more complex tasks in terms of     
identifiable mental characteristics is a
 much more difficult task1 but this very
 difficulty is at once a sign of the    
importance of the problem4  ,,footnotes3
  #f ,conduct of ,mind ,series1 ,d4     

,appleton  ,co41 ,new ,york4            
,,chapter ,v  ,,specialized ,,vocational
 ,,tests ,,and ,,methods   ,the absence 
of complete vocational psychographs has 
not retarded the search for tests which1
 though more or less fragmentary1 may   
have vocational significance4 ,in fact1 
there are some twenty types of work for 
which tests have already been proposed1 
recommended1 and more or less           
tentatively tried out4 ,a brief account 
of these1 with references to the more   
complete literature1 will be given here1
 and some attempt made to evaluate the  
tests themselves4  ,substitutes for the 
vocational psychograph1 in the way of   
partial and suggestive tests1 have been 
proposed in four different forms4 ,since
 the work of the immediate future will  
probably develop along these same lines1
 these four forms will be indicated     
here1 and typical illustrations cited in
 each case4  ,a4 ,there is first what   
may be called the method of the         
vocational miniature4 ,here the entire  

work1 or some selected and important    
part of it1 is reproduced on a small    
scale by using toy apparatus or in some 
such way duplicating the actual         
situation which the worker faces when   
engaged at his task4 ,thus ,mc,comas1 in
 testing telephone operators1           
constructed a miniature switchboard and 
put the operators through actual calls  
and responses1 meanwhile measuring their
 speed and accuracy by means of         
chronometric attachments4 ,stern and    
others recommend tests of the fidelity  
of report of a witness in court by      
letting him observe some rehearsed      
scene1 some motion picture              
representation of a series of events1 or
 some pictorial portrayal of a scene or 
episode1 and examining into the         
faithfulness with which he can describe 
what he there saw4  ,b4 ,closely related
 to this method of miniature performance
 is that of taking an actual piece of   
the work to be performed and sampling   
the candidate's ability by his success  

in this trial4 ,thus1 in connection with
 the recommendation of clerks and       
assistants from among the boys in       
commercial high schools it is common to 
test their ability from time to time    
throughout their course by assigning    
them small pieces of work similar to    
that which they might later be required 
to perform in business offices and      
shops4 ,finding addresses and numbers in
 a telephone directory1 carrying out    
involved verbal instructions and        
directions from memory1 computing       
calculations1 recommending action on the
 basis of their figures1 making out a   
trial balance1 a trial chemical         
analysis1 etc41 are common forms of this
 type of test4 ,in certain cases such   
specimens of work have been devised in  
or taken into the psychological         
laboratory and the worker watched more  
closely and measured more exactly4 ,this
 has been done1 for instance1 by        
,thorndike in the case of clerical      
workers and salesmen1 by ,paynter in the

 case of judges of trade-mark           
infringements1 by ,scott in the case of 
salesmen1 and by others in the case of  
tests for handwriting experts4  ,c4 ,a  
third method has been that of analogy4  
,some test is devised which bears real  
or supposed resemblance to the sort of  
situation met by the worker in the given
 occupational activity4 ,the material is
 new1 but the attitude and endeavor of  
the worker seem to be much the same4    
,there is indeed usually a tacit or     
expressed belief that the same simple or
 complex mental processes or            
psychological functions are involved in 
the two cases1 although the precise     
nature of this function has seldom been 
clearly stated4 ,thus girls employed in 
sorting steel ball-bearings1 and also   
typesetters1 have been selected on the  
basis of their speed of reaction to a   
sound stimulus4 ,muensterberg has       
suggested that marine officers who can  
quickly perceive a situation and choose 
an appropriate mode of reaction to it   

may be selected by letting candidates   
sort into their appropriate piles a deck
 of cards bearing different combinations
 of letters4 ,the same investigator has 
described a test for motormen which1    
while being neither a miniature of their
 required work nor yet a sample of it1  
is said to produce in them much the same
 mental attitude4 ,in another case      
telephone operators were tested for     
speed in canceling certain letters from 
a newspaper page1 in the belief that    
this work involved an ability that was  
also required at the switchboard1       
although there directed to different    
material4 ,mc,comas has described a     
dot-striking test for measuring accuracy
 of aim or motor coordination1 which    
forms an essential factor in            
manipulating a switchboard4  ,d4        
,finally there are cases in which tests 
having vocational significance have been
 sought by purely haphazard and         
empirical ways4 ,thus ,lough1 having    
devised a form of substitution test in  

which certain characters had always to  
be replaced by certain others1 according
 to a prescribed key1 then proceeded to 
apply it to groups of commercial        
students4 ,speed of improvement was     
chosen as the thing of interest in      
respect to the test4 ,measures of this  
capacity1 as shown by repeated trials   
with the same test day after day1 were  
then compared with measures of ability  
in different types of work in which the 
students were engaged4 ,it was found    
that the test records agreed very       
closely with the abilities in           
typewriting1 fairly closely with        
abilities in business correspondence and
 stenography1 whereas there was not such
 definite relation found between the    
test records and ability in learning the
 ,german language or in mathematics4    
,the test is consequently recommended as
 a useful means of detecting typewriting
 and stenographic ability4 ,it is not   
pretended that the test is a miniature  
of the work of such calling1 nor that it

 is a fair sample of such work1 nor even
 that it involves precisely the same    
mental functions that come into play in 
such work4 ,the test records and ability
 in the particular type of work show    
high positive correlation1 which means  
that an individual who is good or medium
 or poor in the one is1 as a mere matter
 of fact1 also found to be good1 medium 
or poor in the other4 ,hence1 without   
further analysis1 the one may be used as
 the sign of the other4  ,another good  
illustration of the use of this method  
is the study of ,lahy1 who put good1    
average and poor typewriters through a  
great number of tests of different      
sorts4 ,he found that the only tests    
correlating closely with ability in the 
practical work were those for memory    
span1 tactile and muscular sensibility1 
sustained attention1 and equality of    
strength in the two hands4  ,perhaps the
 most perfect example of this purely    
empirical procedure is the investigation
 which has now been conducted for       

several years by ,mrs4 ,woolley and her 
co-workers in ,cincinnati4 ,children who
 leave the grades to enter directly into
 some sort of industrial occupation are 
examined by a miscellaneous assortment  
of simple mental tests4 ,these records  
are preserved1 and the subsequent       
successes or failures of the pupils in  
the various sorts of work undertaken by 
them in later life are as carefully     
recorded as is possible4 ,it is hoped   
that when a sufficient amount of        
material of this nature has been        
accumulated the two sets of data may be 
compared and information thereby secured
 concerning the relation between ability
 in the tests and the types and degrees 
of industrial fitness4 ,at present only 
the test records have been published4   
,in a recent investigation an attempt   
was made to discover1 by this empirical 
method1 a set of mental tests which     
would aid in the selection of efficient 
workers in a specific field4 ,thirty    
workers who were already employed under 

fairly comparable conditions of work    
were taken as subjects in a preliminary 
search for tests of value4 ,these thirty
 people were each put through a series  
of association tests1 of the familiar   
laboratory form1 naming opposites1      
naming colors and forms1 completing     
mutilated passages1 following hard      
directions1 giving responses bearing    
specified relations to stimulus words1  
cancellation and number checking1 etc4  
,while these tests were in progress1    
during a period of several days1 the    
thirty workers were rated by three      
supervisors who were familiar with their
 work at the actual task1 and who had   
for some time been observing their      
performance with a view to making       
subsequent judgments4 ,each supervisor  
arranged the thirty workers in an order 
of merit1 according to his or her       
impression of their relative efficiency4
 ,the judgments of these three          
supervisors were then averaged and each 
worker assigned a final position on the 

basis of these averages4 ,this was      
believed to be as accurate a measure of 
actual ability as could be secured under
 the complex conditions of work4  ,the  
results of these ratings were then      
compared with the results of the mental 
tests4 ,some of the tests were found not
 to correlate with the ratings for      
actual working efficiency4 ,three tests 
showed definite and positive            
correlations1 as follows3 ,color-,naming
 7thirty-seven per cent71 ,hard         
,directions 7forty per cent71           
,completion 7thirty-three per cent74    
,when results from these three tests    
were combined1 the records correlated   
with the ratings by a coefficient of    
fifty-five per cent4 ,these three tests 
were then accepted as having value in   
the selection of good operators1 and    
search was continued for further tests  
which might also yield positive         
correlations4 ,this investigation is    
again an illustration of the purely     
empirical method4  ,these four          

procedures in the search for useful     
vocational tests1 in the absence of     
complete vocational psychographs1 are   
quite generally recognized to be but    
tentative expedients of an explorative  
character4 ,individual workers have not 
always clearly recognized the principles
 involved in their work1 but have       
proceeded as best they could under the  
special circumstances4 ,each method has 
its own defects and advantages4 ,the    
miniature model has the advantage of    
concreteness and apparent relevance1    
but1 as ,muensterberg points out1 a     
reduced copy of an external apparatus   
may arouse ideas1 feelings and volitions
 which have little in common with the   
processes of actual life4 ,this writer  
is inclined to believe1 on the basis of 
his experiments so far1 that experiments
 with small models of the actual        
industrial mechanism are hardly         
appropriate for investigations in the   
field of economic psychology4 ,the      
essential point for the psychological   

experiment is not the external          
similarity of the apparatus1 but        
exclusively the inner similarity of the 
mental attitude4 ,the more the external 
mechanism with which or on which the    
action is carried out becomes           
schematized1 the more the action itself 
will appear in its true character4  ,the
 second method we have described1 viz41 
that of using as the test a real sample 
of the work done1 has certain very      
obvious advantages4 ,on the other hand1 
for the vocational test of this type to 
be at all significant1 either the sort  
of work involved in the occupation must 
be fairly uniform and homogeneous in all
 its different circumstances 7as in the 
case of typewriting at dictation1 or in 
the work of filing clerks1 accountants1 
etc471 or else there must be included a 
large number of samples representing all
 the various unrelated sorts of work4   
,moreover1 in neither case is the test  
in any peculiar sense psychological4    
,such tests could perhaps be best       

conducted by the employer himself4 ,in  
fact1 employment on trial1 which is a   
common method of selecting operatives   
and assistants1 is a time-honored form  
of this test1 which is not necessarily  
improved either by calling it           
psychological or by putting it in charge
 of a general expert or by removing it  
to the laboratory4  ,the third form of  
procedure is full of all sorts of       
difficulties and sources of error1 many 
of which are1 at the present stage of   
our knowledge1 irremediable4 ,in        
selecting a new test which will involve 
the same mental attitude and call for   
the exercise of the same psychological  
functions as are needed in the work     
itself1 we are handicapped by the       
unreliability of the introspection of   
the examinee and also by our inadequate 
ability to recognize1 identify and      
classify psychological functions even   
when we are confident that these are    
present4 ,the statement of motormen that
 the manipulation of a crank in         

connection with a strip of checkered    
paper makes them feel quite as they do  
when guiding their cars through a       
crowded thoroughfare is far from a      
guaranty that the mental function which 
they were going through had the greatest
 possible similarity with their         
experience on the front platform of the 
electric car4 ,it is much more          
conceivable that the mental attitude    
referred to was merely the vague feeling
 that ,something is happening now1 ,this
 keeps me busy1 or ,what a nuisance this
 thing is4 ,and even if we knew the     
mental functions involved1 as would be  
demanded by the vocational psychograph  
method1 we are still a long way from the
 time when we can exhibit even a single 
psychological test and state just what  
function or functions its performance   
does or does not1 may or may not1       
involve4 ,indeed we do not even know    
what the various distinct mental        
functions are1 or whether1 as a matter  
of fact1 there are such distinct        

functions4  ,after all1 the             
miscellaneous1 random1 and purely       
empirical method of ,lough1 ,lahy and   
,woolley seems to be the most promising 
experimental procedure for the immediate
 present1 and perhaps for some time to  
come4 ,this method is1 to be sure1 but a
 rough1 provisional and unanalyzed      
expedient4 ,it calls for long and       
patient cooperative labor4 ,it does not 
at once afford us the systematic        
scientific insight which we may wish we 
possessed4 ,but it will at least save us
 from the delusion that we already      
possess such insight1 and it should     
serve to check the fervent and          
semi-religious zeal that leads us to    
mistake prophecy for service4 ,analysis 
and classification of the results which 
this method yields are possible when the
 results are accumulated in adequate    
measure4  ,it is essential that interest
 in this eminently practical use of the 
psychological laboratory be sustained   
among those who are responsible for the 

further promotion of its methods and    
problems4 ,but it is undesirable that   
public expectation should be strenuously
 directed toward the laboratory until it
 has done more than the outlining of a  
series of problems and the initiation of
 preliminary efforts toward their       
solution4 ,these specialized vocational 
methods1 the miniature1 the sampling1   
the analogy1 and the empirical          
procedure1 constitute four definite and 
promising instruments of research4 ,they
 have yielded results of such           
demonstrable practical value1 in the    
selection of special types of workers   
and in the detection of particular      
aptitudes and abilities1 that the       
application of selected mental tests has
 already come to play an important role 
in the placement and training           
departments of a considerable number of 
industrial and commercial concerns4     
,while the more slowly developing       
individual and vocational psychographs  
are being perfected1 these specialized  

vocational tests will not only serve the
 purposes of temporary assistance and   
expedience1 but the results derived from
 their intelligent use and their further
 patient elaboration will contribute    
materially toward the establishment of  
more complete and systematic            
technique4#g  ,,footnotes3  #g ,in the  
,appendix is given a list of references 
to books and articles which describe    
numerous tests worth trying out by the  
empirical method4 ,instructions should  
be carefully followed so that results   
may be comparable with those secured by 
other workers4     ,,chapter ,,vi       
,,self-,,analysis ,,and ,,the ,,judgment
 ,,of ,,associates  ,,the               
,,self-,,analysis ,,of ,,the            
,,individual   ,we have now reviewed the
 vocational efforts of primitive magic1 
medieval clairvoyance1 phrenology1      
physiognomics1 industrial education1 the
 vocational survey1 the individual      
psychograph of genius1 the vocational   
psychograph1 the graded scales of       

intelligence tests1 and the four        
proposed types of specialized vocational
 tests4  ,we have yet to consider three 
further methods available for the       
purposes of vocational psychology1 that 
of self-analysis1 and that of the       
consensus of opinion of one's           
associates1 and that of inferring the   
characteristics of the individual from  
his achievement in the work of the      
school curriculum4 ,in the absence of   
more reliable ways of determining the   
capacities1 interests and vocational    
aptitudes of individuals in the past1   
and whenever there was any question of  
selection1 fitness1 or choice1 four     
vague methods have often been followed4 
7#a7 ,either the individual undertook   
the first available type of employment1 
tried it out1 and then persevered in it 
or abandoned it for a trial at some     
other type of work until a suitable     
occupation was found2 or 7#b7 he        
continued at the original work and made 
the most of the results and of the      

ensuing satisfactions or                
dissatisfactions2 or 7#c7 he felt more  
or less clearly drawn to some particular
 occupation because of a keen interest  
in it or because he believed himself to 
be particularly likely to succeed in it 
because of his own analysis of his      
aptitudes and characteristics2 or 7#d7  
he consulted friends and associates1    
asking them to advise him on the basis  
of their impression of his individuality
 and powers4  ,the unsatisfactoriness1  
waste and misery of the first two of    
these methods are largely responsible   
for the development of a conscious      
attempt at the vocational guidance of   
youth4 ,perhaps if more use were made of
 the two remaining methods we should    
never have been moved to initiate the   
laborious work called for by the        
psychographic and the test methods4 ,not
 enough critical attention has been     
given to the methods of self-analysis   
and to the validity of the judgments    
passed on us by our associates4 ,the    

difficulty encountered when one seeks   
for information on such questions as the
 following indicates the desirability of
 further and closer study of these      
matters4  #a4 ,in the individual's      
analysis of his own personality1 are    
formal guidance and method needed1 is   
special terminology useful1 and the     
recorded experience of others an aid8   
#b4 ,if so1 what sort of guide or scheme
 or system may such self-analysis       
profitably follow8  #c4 ,have such      
guides to the introspective analysis of 
the self been formulated1 and by whom1  
where1 and when8  #d4 ,how reliable and 
consistent are an individual's judgments
 of his own characteristics1 interests1 
and aptitudes8 ,has one any constant    
tendency to overestimate or             
underestimate himself8  #e4 ,do the     
degree of reliability and consistency1  
and this constant error vary in any way 
with the individual1 with the           
circumstances1 and with the particular  
trait that is being estimated8  #f4 ,how

 is the individual's judgment of himself
 likely to compare with the impression  
of him which his associates form8 ,to   
what degree does this vary with the     
individual1 the trait1 and the          
associates8  #g4 ,what relation exists  
between the individual's opinion of     
himself and the results of objective    
measurements of him1 such as those      
afforded by psychological tests8 ,how do
 the results of tests compare with the  
judgments of associates8  #h4 ,are      
individuals who themselves possess a    
given trait in high degree better judges
 of that trait in themselves or in      
others than are those who possess the   
trait in less degree8  #i4 ,what        
intercorrelations exist between the     
estimates of self and others1 when      
different traits are compared8  #aj4 ,in
 the case of people in school1 what     
relations exist between the             
self-estimate1 the estimate of others1  
and the results of tests1 on the one    
hand1 and school standing1 academic     

success1 and extra-academic activities8 
,what relation between these factors and
 successfulness in later life8  ,on the 
first three of these questions ,i shall 
indicate in following sections such     
material as is available1 pointing out  
where the more valuable and detailed    
information may be found4 ,on the       
remaining seven questions recorded      
information is much rarer4 ,here ,i     
shall summarize the available material  
and shall also present tentative answers
 based on an original investigation     
which was conducted for the express     
purpose of calling more definite        
attention to the problems1 as well as to
 suggest fruitful methods1 and at least 
make a beginning in the accumulation of 
facts concerning these very interesting 
features of human nature4  ,there is    
perhaps no proof required that complete 
and systematic self-analysis is more    
desirable than random and undirected    
introspections1 whatever value may be   
attached to the results of such         

analysis4 ,whatever be the purpose of   
self analysis1 it will be the more      
useful and suggestive the more          
completely it compasses the total range 
of capacities and inclinations4         
,comparison of different analyses by    
different individuals should result in a
 synthesis of traits1 an acceptable     
terminology and a mode of statement     
better calculated to throw light on     
individual equipment than is secured by 
the methods of casual and unguided      
rumination4 ,so far as possible such    
analyses should proceed in terms of     
identifiable1 comparable and measurable 
characteristics rather than by the vague
 categories of conversation and literary
 description4 ,such categories1 traits  
and terminology should be used as will  
best enable the individual not only to  
state his own reactions in figures of   
speech1 but also to compare himself with
 his immediate associates and with      
characters less directly known4  ,one of
 the first attempts to draw up a list of

 fundamental qualities as an aid in the 
inventory of a given individual's       
particular nature was made by ,professor
 ,cattell in an article concerning the  
characteristics of men of science4      
,twenty-four traits are enumerated1 as  
follows3       ,physical ,health        
,reasonableness      ,mental ,balance   
,clearness      ,intellect              
,independence      ,emotions            
,cooperativeness      ,will             
,unselfishness      ,quickness          
,kindliness      ,intensity             
,cheerfulness      ,breadth             
,refinement      ,energy                
,integrity      ,judgment               
,courage      ,originality              
,efficiency      ,perseverance          
,leadership  ,of this list ,thorndike   
has written3 ,these elements of manhood 
or components in mental structure hail  
from a mixture of psychological theory  
and general reflection on human         
behavior4 ,it is regrettable that the   
list has not been published more widely 

and used in a variety of connections4   
,it seems probable that these           
significant nouns may in many cases be  
paralleled by natural units of mental   
organization-atoms in the human         
compound4 ,i venture to suggest also1 as
 at least a provisional principle of    
organization1 the instincts or original 
tendencies of man as a species1 it being
 my opinion that some of the terms of   
the above list refer to rather complex  
concatenations of traits in man's nature
 which have only the artificial unity of
 producing some defined result in human 
life4  ,partridge1 in his ,outline of   
,individual ,study1 gives an account of 
methods whereby the teacher may assist  
the young child in discovering his or   
her particular physical and mental      
constitution4 ,the book contains a brief
 outline for such study and enumerates  
many pages of words descriptive of human
 nature4 ,the main aspects of the mental
 life of children are taken up in       
successive chapters and discussed in a  

general way1 with suggestions in the way
 of tests1 problems1 questions1 points  
of observation1 etc4  ,the ,family      
,history ,book 7,bulletin ,no4 #g7 of   
the ,eugenics ,record ,office contains a
 scheme1 arranged by ,drs4 ,hoch and    
,amsden1 for the examination of the     
personality of persons suspected of     
mental abnormality4 ,this scheme is     
further elaborated by ,wells in an      
outline to be referred to at a later    
point in this chapter4 ,in the ,trait   
,book 7,bulletin ,no4 #f7 of this same  
office there is to be found a long list 
of traits descriptive of human beings1  
including physical and physiological as 
well as nervous and mental              
characteristics4 ,these traits are      
classified for convenient reference and 
record according to a decimal key4 ,the 
pamphlet also contains classified lists 
of diseases1 crimes1 and occupations4   
,various other bulletins issued by the  
,eugenics ,record ,office will also be  
found both interesting and suggestive to

 those interested in the study of       
self-analysis1 heredity and individual  
differences4 ,they contain nothing1     
however1 of immediate vocational        
applicability4  ,dr4 ,f4 ,l4 ,wells has 
made a comparative study and synthesis  
of the schemes proposed by ,cattell1    
,hoch and ,amsden1 ,heymans and         
,wiersma1 and ,davenport1 supplementing 
these at certain points and suggesting a
 method of giving more or less          
quantitative form to the                
characterizations4 ,it is obvious that  
an outline of this sort can be used in  
expressing the personality of another   
individual as well as for the purposes  
of self-analysis4 ,such an outline is of
 value not only for general knowledge or
 for vocational study but also in the   
examination into questions of mental    
health1 pathological tendencies and     
trends1 predispositions leading to or   
favoring mental instability1 etc4 ,wells
 describes fourteen phases or aspects of
 human personality1 and under each phase

 presents guiding questions1 suggestive 
clues1 and sub-features4 ,especially    
convenient and helpful is the method of 
giving an approximate quantitative      
statement which facilitates comparison  
and summation4 ,suitable marks assigned 
to the several different characteristics
 under each of the fourteen main        
headings 7there are in all about        
ninety-five subtraits7 serve to indicate
 marked1 distinct or doubtful presence1 
or marked1 distinct or doubtful         
deficiency or aversion4  ,the main      
headings given by ,wells are as follows3
      #a4 ,intellectual ,processes 7#e  
subtopics7     #b4 ,output of ,energy   
7#d subtopics7     #c4 ,self ,assertion 
7#g subtopics7     #d4 ,adaptability 7#e
 subtopics7     #e4 ,general ,habits of 
,work 7#e subtopics7     #f4 ,moral     
,sphere 7#f subtopics7     #g4          
,recreative ,activities 7#af subtopics7 
#h4 ,general ,cast of ,mood 7#c         
subtopics7     #i4 ,attitude ,toward    
,self 7#d subtopics7     #aj4 ,attitude 

,toward ,others 7#g subtopics7     #aa4 
,reactions to ,attitude ,toward ,self   
and ,others 7#ab subtopics7     #ab4    
,position ,towards ,reality 7#e         
subtopics7     #ac4 ,sexual ,sphere 7#i 
subtopics7     #ad4 ,balancing ,factors 
7#f subtopics7  ,the complete outline1  
accompanied by much suggestive          
discussion and comment on the           
constitution1 development and types of  
human personality1 is published in the  
issue of the ,psychological ,review for 
,july1 #aiad4 ,it should be carefully   
read by all interested in this type of  
individual analysis4  ,one of the most  
carefully planned1 easily available and 
concretely serviceable outlines for     
self-analysis is that recently          
formulated and published by ,yerkes and 
,la,rue under the title ,outline of a   
,study of the ,self 7,harvard           
,university ,press1 #aiad74 ,the authors
 of this outline have found that a study
 of ancestry1 development and present   
constitution is an extremely profitable 

task4 ,they present this guide as an aid
 to such systematic and thorough study4 
,the purpose of such study is threefold3
 7#a7 to help the individual understand 
himself or herself2 7#b7 to help the    
individual understand and sympathize    
with others2 7#c7 to arouse interest in 
the study of heredity1 environmental    
influences1 eugenics and euthenics4     
,the ,outline is put together on the    
looseleaf system1 with blank pages for  
records and replies4 ,under the heading 
,ancestral ,history of the ,self are    
given the ,record of ,family ,traits of 
the ,eugenics ,record ,office1 and many 
supplementary questions concerning      
physical1 mental1 moral and social      
traits of near relatives1 with          
suggestions as to their classification  
and evaluation4 ,under ,development or  
,growth of the ,self and ,the ,self of  
,today the prenatal1 infantile1         
childhood and adolescent periods and the
 present time are each provided with    
questions concerning characteristics1   

influences1 growth1 temperament1        
inclinations1 habits1 capacities and    
social relations4 ,under ,the           
,significance of the ,characteristics of
 the ,self are given questions          
concerning vocational demands1          
equipment1 and ambitions2 marital       
propensities and fitness2               
responsibilities and preparation for    
parenthood2 and the ,index to the ,germ 
,plasm of the ,eugenics ,record ,office 
is considered4 ,a final section invites 
reflection on ,the ,duties of the ,self 
as a ,member of ,social ,groups in the  
light of physical and mental            
constitution1 moral and religious       
tendencies1 vocational abilities1 and   
marital and parental relations and      
duties4  ,such attempts to present      
suggestive outlines for self-analysis or
 for the inventory of the traits of     
others are both commendable and timely4 
,that they are but beginnings in the    
right direction their authors commonly  
recognize4 ,their supporting idea is not

 that employers1 teachers or physicians 
should take the individual's replies to 
these questions as embodying information
 which the individual did not previously
 know about himself4 ,the individual1 in
 attempting to express and analyze his  
inclinations and reactions1 may find    
them clarified and ordered in the       
process4 ,he is likely to discover at a 
very early point in his record how      
little he is really able to say about   
himself with assurance4 ,if this should 
induce a humility which would lead him  
to more careful self-scrutiny1 such     
value as this subjective stock-taking   
may have will surely tend to be         
enhanced4   ,,the ,,judgment ,,of       
,,associates  ,no less important than   
the correct evaluation of the           
individual's self-analysis is the       
problem of evaluating the judgments     
which his acquaintances pass on his     
mental constitution and qualifications4 
,not only does the youth often determine
 his choice of a vocation by relying on 

the advice of his associates1 teachers1 
and friends1 but his success in securing
 an opportunity to undertake any kind of
 work whatsoever often depends on the   
oral or written estimate of some other  
person of whom inquiry is made4         
,selection on the basis of the          
testimonial and the recommendation has  
come to be a traditional vocational     
step4  ,the problem of judgment of      
character is one which is continually   
confronting people of all classes and   
stations4 ,in many instances the correct
 estimate of a person's character is of 
vital importance4 ,the success of       
officers of administration from the     
,president of the ,united ,states to the
 school superintendent of a small       
village depends often on their ability  
to choose for their subordinates persons
 of the proper character4 ,in everyday  
life one's happy choice of friends1     
one's ability to sell goods1 to persuade
 people to accept a new point of view or
 doctrine1 to get on harmoniously with  

people in general in all the various    
occupations of life1 depend upon one's  
ability to estimate the powers1         
capacities1 and characteristics of      
people4 ,to those who have to make      
personal recommendations or to make use 
of those made by others1 this question  
of judgment of character is a grave one4
 ,is it possible for one to judge at all
 fairly the character of another8#h  ,we
 are concerned here not with inference  
from physiognomic features and          
anthropometric measurements1 but with   
impressions based on the observed       
conduct1 expression and achievement of  
the individual who is in question1 his  
or her characteristic behavior1         
attitudes1 activities1 reactions1 and   
accomplishments4 ,when the individual   
being judged is a total stranger and the
 judgment is immediate1 estimates of    
character are of course merely of the   
type discussed in preceding sections on 
phrenology and physiognomy4  ,professor 
,cattell once requested twelve          

acquaintances of five scientific men to 
grade these five men in the various     
traits of character to which we have    
referred on page #abg4 ,the grades      
assigned were to represent the position 
of the individual in his group4 ,thus a 
grade of twenty-five per cent would mean
 that the individual belonged in the    
lowest one-quarter of the total group of
 scientific men in the country1 in the  
trait so marked1 three-fourths of the   
group being superior to him in this     
trait4 ,a grade of one hundred per cent 
would mean that the individual so graded
 would belong among the highest one per 
cent of all the scientific men in the   
country1 in the trait so marked4 ,when  
these records were compiled it was seen 
that in the case of certain traits1 such
 as energy1 perseverance1 efficiency1   
the twelve judges differed much less    
among themselves than when judging other
 traits1 such as cheerfulness1          
kindliness1 unselfishness4 ,it is       
interesting to note that the traits on  

which the judges agreed closely         
represent the individual's reactions to 
objective things1 whereas the traits on 
which they disagreed most represent the 
individual's reactions toward other     
people4  ,there are1 of course1 several 
reasons for this result4 ,in the first  
place the reactions of an individual to 
objects1 as displayed in his daily work1
 are matters of common knowledge and are
 likely to leave objective and even     
measurable evidence such as wealth1     
books1 buildings1 etc4 ,reactions to    
other individuals are more likely to    
vary with the occasion and with the     
companion1 and are also likely to be    
deliberately controlled1 inhibited or   
assumed1 in the interest of more        
objective and remote ends4 ,this would  
mean that whereas in the first case all 
the judges were dealing with much the   
same material1 in the form of actual    
products of the traits in question1 in  
the second case they were more or less  
likely to have in mind rather different 

reactions or occasions of a more        
strictly personal character4  ,the      
problem of the validity of judgments of 
the various traits was considered in a  
more detailed way by ,norsworthy1 from  
whose account of her inquiry we have    
already quoted4 ,she chose the traits   
enumerated by ,cattell1 and performed   
several experiments to determine the    
reliability of judgments of this sort4  
,thus she had five intimate             
acquaintances independently grade a     
sixth person for her possession of these
 twenty-four traits1 on two different   
occasions several weeks apart4  ,two    
things were clearly shown4 ,in the first
 place the individual judges1 in their  
second trials1 did not diverge far from 
their first ratings4 ,in the second     
place the double judgments of the five  
different judges did not diverge far    
from each other4 ,these two facts prove 
that the ratings do stand for some      
actual quantitative value and are not   
subject to mere chance4 ,the validity of

 the judgments1 in the sense of their   
correspondence with the actual character
 of ,x is then only a matter of the     
impartiality of the group of judges4    
,similar results were found in the      
judgments of nine members of a college  
society by five of their comrades1 and  
in the judgments of a teacher by two    
hundred college students4 ,it was       
apparent also that judges differ from   
one another in the general accuracy of  
their gradings4 ,some of them agree     
closely with the consensus of opinion1  
while others depart1 in varying degrees1
 from the average or correct estimate4  
,it was also seen that1 in estimating   
certain individuals1 judges with        
presumably equal acquaintance with those
 being judged agreed closely with one   
another4 ,other persons had produced    
quite different impressions on the      
different judges and this was revealed  
in the greater divergence of the grades 
assigned to such persons4  ,as in the   
case of ,cattell's results1 figures are 

presented showing the degree of         
divergence among the judges in          
estimating the different traits4 ,in the
 table on page #aci these figures are   
given1 as shown in the records of five  
judges in one of ,norsworthy's          
experiments1 and the records of the     
twelve judges in ,cattell's             
investigation4 ,the average variability 
or degree of divergence for all the     
twenty-four traits is taken as the      
standard and each trait compared with   
this standard4 ,a variability of one    
hundred thus indicates the average      
amount of disagreement4 ,figures smaller
 than one hundred indicate that the     
agreement was closer than average1 and  
figures larger than one hundred indicate
 that here the judges disagreed by more 
than the average amount4  ,naturally1   
there is not perfect agreement in these 
two cases1 since the one set of data is 
from a group of girls judging one       
another on the basis of their           
acquaintance as social comrades and     

fellow students1 while the other set is 
from scientific men judging one another 
on the basis of less constant           
association and largely on acquaintance 
in lecturing1 research1 teaching and the
 writing of articles and books4         
,moreover1 results from groups of only  
five judges in the one case and only    
twelve in the other are subject to      
considerable variable error4 ,in spite  
of these facts1 interesting suggestions 
are afforded by the comparison4         
,,table #a  ,,variability ,,in ,,judging
 ,,different ,,traits                   
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,relative ,divergence of ,different     
,judges     ,trait                      
----------------------------------------
---                   ,cattell1         
,norsworthy1 ,average of ,both          
#ab ,judges   #e ,judges                
,experiments                            
----------------------------------------
----------------- ,efficiency           

#ge4j       #ib4d       #hc4g 7,close   
,originality         #ie4b       #gg4b  
#hf4b ,agreement7 ,quickness            
#ij4j       #hh4j       #hi4j ,intellect
           #ie4b       #ib4j       #ic4f
                                        
,perseverance        #ge4j      #aja4j  
#hh4a ,judgment           #ajj4j        
#gh4g       #hi4d 7,fair ,will          
#he4a       #ih4a       #ia4h           
,agreement7 ,breadth            #ajj4j  
#ib4d       #if4b ,leadership           
#ij4j      #ajb4i       #if4e           
,clearness          #ajd4i       #ge4g  
#ij4c ,mental ,balance     #aaj4b       
#ha4h       #if4j ,intensity            
#he4a      #aac4g       #ii4d           
,reasonableness     #aae4j       #hf4d  
#ajj4g 7,slight ,independence           
#ajd4i       #ih4e      #aja4g          
,agreement7 ,refinement          #ij4j  
#aaf4e      #ajc4e ,physical ,health    
#aae4j       #ib4d      #ajc4g ,emotions
           #abj4j       #ia4j           
#aje4e ,energy              #ge4j       

#aji4j       #ia4j ,courage             
#ajj4j      #aai4e      #aji4h          
,unselfishness      #aae4j      #ajf4j  
#aaj4e ,integrity          #ajd4i       
#acj4a      #aag4e 7,little             
,cooperativeness    #abe4j      #aac4e  
#aai4c ,agreement7 ,cheerfulness        
#acj4j      #aab4j      #aba4j          
,kindliness         #abj4j      #abe4g  
#abb4i                                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,it is to be noted
 that certain traits show small         
divergence in both cases4 ,thus         
intellect1 quickness1 originality and   
efficiency have low measures of         
variability1 both for the sorority      
members and for the men of science4 ,the
 average percentages of these four      
traits are1 in the order named1 #ic4f1  
#hi4j1 #hf4b1 and #hc4g4 ,these1 it is  
to be observed1 are the traits which are
 likely to yield objective products4    
,the more personal1 social and moral    
traits1 however1 such as                

cooperativeness1 unselfishness1         
kindliness1 cheerfulness1 and integrity1
 show large divergence of the individual
 judgment with both groups4 ,the average
 measures of variability for these      
traits1 in the order named1 are #aai4c1 
#aaj4e1 #abb4i1 #aba4j1 and #aag4e4     
,there is another group of traits which1
 while showing only about average       
variability with one group1 show close  
agreement in the other3 such as will1   
judgment1 perseverance1 leadership and  
breadth4 ,these1 it is clear1 are more  
nearly like the objective than they are 
like the personal traits4 ,then there   
are several traits which1 while showing 
only average variability with one group1
 show large divergences in the other1   
such as courage and independence4 ,these
 would seem to be more nearly like the  
more strictly personal traits4          
,norsworthy points out that the traits  
about which inquiries are commonly made 
in recommendation blanks sent out by    
teachers' agencies1 employment bureaus1 

and employers1 tend to be those on      
which1 according to her results1        
individual opinion is least reliable4   
,traits such as originality1 judgment1  
clearness and quickness1 on which       
judgments are most unanimous and        
consistent1 are usually omitted from    
these blanks4 ,this indicates the       
desirability of a more careful          
examination into the general validity of
 this type of judgment4  ,here1 then1 as
 in all the other topics that we have   
had occasion to discuss1 we find that   
our present knowledge is far from       
adequate to meet the demands of         
practical life4 ,available results are  
tentative only1 but they are so         
suggestive as to afford a series of     
interesting problems for further        
investigation4 ,the validity of         
judgments of associates varies with the 
judge1 with the trait in question1 and  
with the person who is being estimated4 
,but it does not vary at random2 it     
varies in what seem to be fairly        

definite1 common1 and determinable ways4
 ,that we do not know more about the    
precise nature of these variations means
 merely that few persons have taken the 
trouble to inquire into the matter4     
,the use of oral and written            
recommendations1 testimonials1          
characters1 and letters of introduction 
should be based on a careful study of   
these materials4 ,especially should we  
know more than we now do concerning the 
reliability of judgment in the case of  
the different traits1 the likelihood    
that the verdict of a single judge will 
agree with the consensus of opinion1 the
 relation of these judgments to the     
individual's self-estimate1 and the     
accordance of both these with the       
results of objective performance4 ,in   
the following chapter some of these     
questions will be further considered4   
,,footnotes3  #h ,norsworthy1 ,the      
,validity of ,judgments of ,character1  
in ,essays in ,honor of ,william ,james1
 p4 #eec4     ,,chapter ,,vii           

,,experimental ,,study ,,of             
,,self-,,analysis1 ,,estimates ,,of     
,,associates ,,and ,,the ,,results ,,of 
,,tests   ,as we have already remarked1 
it would be of scientific interest and  
of practical value in vocational        
psychology if we knew something more or 
less precise concerning the reliability 
of the individual's self-analysis4 ,it  
would be of equal interest and value to 
know in what ways the results of such   
introspection compare with the judgments
 of friends and the results of actual   
measurement4 ,by way of initiating      
investigations of these and related     
questions the following experiments have
 been carried out4 ,the results to be   
reported are so suggestive as to make   
very desirable a continuation and       
extension of researches of this kind4   
,from a list of about one hundred and   
fifty students in their third college   
year each member of the group was asked 
to indicate by marking1 as #c1 #b1 #a1  
or #j1 the degree of her acquaintance   

with each of the others4 ,from the total
 list a group of twenty-five were       
selected1 all of whom were acquainted   
with one another4 ,at intervals varying 
from two weeks to a month each          
individual was given twenty-five slips  
of paper bearing the names of these     
acquaintances and including the         
individual's own name4 ,she was asked to
 arrange the members of the group in    
order of merit1 on each occasion1       
according to their degree of possession 
of some one trait1 such as neatness1    
humor1 intelligence1 conceit1 etc4 ,thus
 in the case of neatness1 for example1  
the twenty-five persons were to be      
placed in a series with the neatest at  
one end1 the most slovenly at the other 
end1 and all the others arranged in     
their appropriate intermediate          
positions1 as based on the judge's      
personal opinion of them4 ,the judge was
 to include her own name in the series1 
placing herself where she believed      
herself to belong in relation to her    

twenty-four acquaintances4 ,the record  
was then handed in1 in an apparently    
anonymous way1 but1 unknown to the      
individuals1 accurate record was kept1  
identifying each arrangement4 ,this was 
done in order that the judges might be  
encouraged to the greatest degree of    
frankness both in judging their         
acquaintances and in recording their    
self-estimates4 ,the different          
arrangements were separated by          
considerable intervals of time1 so that 
the judgments of the various traits     
should be influenced as little as       
possible by the memory of where the     
different individuals in the list had   
been placed for other traits on previous
 occasions4  ,in addition to this part  
of the experiment1 each person was put  
through a series of seven psychological 
tests1 all of which had been rather     
generally found to give results which   
revealed1 to a very high degree of      
correctness1 the general intelligence of
 people when this was determined in     

other ways1 as by mental age1 school    
grade1 academic marks1 opinions of      
teachers1 judgments of friends1 etc4    
,the particular tests used were the     
,graded ,completion ,test1 described in 
a previous section1 and six so-called   
,association ,tests1 recommended by the 
,committee on ,standardization of ,tests
 of the ,american ,psychological        
,association4 ,they are usually known as
 ,directions ,test1 ,opposites ,test1   
,supraordinate ,concept ,test1          
,whole-,part ,test1 ,action-,agent      
,test1 and ,mixed ,relations ,test4     
,copies of the forms used in these tests
 are given in the ,appendix4  ,all of   
these tests involve the demand for the  
quick and accurate perception of and    
reaction to the relations of things or  
ideas to each other4 ,everything        
indicates that this ability is most     
important and determining in the        
composition of that characteristic which
 we vaguely call general intelligence1  
especially if we are dealing with people

 with school experience4  ,furthermore1 
the academic marks of scholarship       
assigned to these twenty-five students  
by their instructors in different       
college branches during three terms of  
college work were secured from the      
official records4 ,judgments of the     
degree to which the different students  
had been prominent in extra-academic    
activities during their college career  
were made by officers of the college who
 had known them during this time4       
,photographs of the twenty-five persons1
 of the same general style and size1    
were secured also1 as well as           
characteristic specimens of their       
handwriting4  ,this experiment having   
been completed1 a similar investigation 
was undertaken with twenty-five members 
of the senior class4 ,the same method of
 procedure was followed as in the first 
case1 the same traits judged1 the same  
tests administered1 etc4 ,this second   
investigation thus affords a check on   
the results of the first study4 ,when   

the results from the two investigations 
are averaged we have figures of         
considerable reliability1 and fairly    
accurate data on numerous interesting   
questions4  ,probably never before have 
such diverse ways been employed in      
attempting to get intensive measurements
 of the individuality4 ,the material    
enables us to throw preliminary and     
suggestive light on many of the         
questions we have already raised4 ,it   
should of course be fully recognized    
that the results of this little         
investigation cannot be generalized into
 final conclusions which will be true in
 other cases1 without further           
verification of them4 ,the results show 
only what happened in this case1 and    
only to that degree do they suggest what
 we may expect to be generally true4    
,many similar studies must be made1     
under all sorts of conditions and by a  
variety of methods1 before we shall have
 the final answers to our questions4    
,but the results are no less valuable   

because of their lack of finality4      
,tentative as they may be1 they         
nevertheless show what happened in the  
only recorded attempt to find answers to
 the questions we have been considering4
 ,if the reader will now turn back to   
page #abd he will note how numerous1    
important1 and complex these questions  
are1 and how little is at present known 
about them4  ,turning now to our        
experiment1 it will be observed that    
only in the case of intelligence do we  
have what purport to be objective       
measures of a trait1 viz41 the results  
of the psychological tests and the      
academic records4 ,but we have1 in the  
average of the judgments of the         
twenty-five individuals1 in the case of 
this and also of the various other      
traits1 what constitutes as valid a     
measurement as it is possible to secure 
under the circumstances4 ,neatness1     
conceit1 humor1 beauty1 etc41 are not to
 be conceived as substances of which the
 different individuals possess different

 amounts4 ,these traits are mainly ways 
of behaving or ways of impressing our   
neighbors4 ,no better measure of them   
exists than the actual statement of what
 this impression is4 ,just as the value 
of a commodity depends entirely on what1
 as a matter of fact1 people can be     
persuaded to pay for it1 so the beauty1 
conceit1 neatness1 etc41 of an          
individual are mainly constituted by the
 kind of impression the individual makes
 on those about him4 ,at least we may be
 sure that only to the degree that such 
traits actually manifest themselves and 
thus determine the reactions of others  
toward the individual concerned1 only to
 that degree do the traits have         
vocational significance4 ,lovableness is
 just the degree to which people        
actually have affection for us2 eminence
 is just the degree to which the        
individual becomes approvingly known2   
and kindliness and benevolence are      
present to just the degree that people  
are actually gratified and comforted by 

our conduct4  ,let us turn at once to   
the actual results of our experiments4  
,it will perhaps be best to ask specific
 questions about them and in the case of
 each question present the data and draw
 such conclusions as the figures        
warrant4 ,in the figures which follow ,i
 have averaged together the results from
 the two investigations1 so that our    
conclusions or suggestions may have the 
highest possible validity4 ,in some     
other connection it would be interesting
 to compare the two sets of data1 and to
 attempt to explain certain differences 
which are to be found between them4 ,but
 in the present instance it is our chief
 concern to exhibit the method of       
procedure and to indicate the type of   
information which may be secured from   
such investigations4 ,many more such    
studies must be made before the results 
can be said to apply to human nature at 
large1 or before the tendencies         
discovered can legitimately be expected 
to be present in the case of any        

particular individual4  ,i4 ,how do the 
self-estimates of these fifty persons   
agree with the judgments passed on them 
by their acquaintances8 ,the following  
table gives1 in the case of each of the 
nine traits studied1 the average        
deviation of the self-estimates of the  
various individuals from the median     
position assigned them by their         
twenty-four associates1 and also the    
average deviation#i among these         
twenty-four associates in their         
judgments of each individual4 ,the      
figure given is in terms of the number  
of positions in the total scale of      
twenty-five possible positions4 ,thus1  
in the case of neatness1 the figures    
mean that1 whereas each individual1 in  
the long run1 displaces herself by #e4h 
positions from her true or median       
position1 the twenty-four associates    
deviate on the average by only #d4e     
places in their judgments of another    
person4 ,that is to say1 the            
individual's error in judging herself is

 somewhat greater than the average error
 of her friends in their judgments of   
her4 ,the individual does not judge     
herself as accurately as she is judged  
by her friends4   ,,table #b  ,,error   
,,of ,,self-,,estimates ,,compared      
,,with ,,error ,,of ,,judgments ,,of #bd
 ,,associates                           
----------------------------------------
----------                    ,a4 ,d4 of
 ,assoc4 ,a4 ,e4 of ,self-,est4         
----------------------------------------
--------      ,neatness           #d4e  
#e4h      ,intelligence       #c4g      
#f4j      ,humor              #d4e      
#g4c      ,conceit            #d4a      
#e4g      ,beauty             #c4h      
#f4j      ,vulgarity          #c4e      
#f4a      ,snobbishness       #d4h      
#e4a      ,refinement         #e4i      
#g4b      ,sociability        #d4g      
#e4d                                    
----------------------------------------
----------  ,in all cases the individual
 places herself farther from her true   

position than do her friends on the     
average4 ,the average of all the        
deviations of associates is #d4d places2
 that of all the individual             
self-estimates is #f4a places4 ,that is 
to say1 in general the error of         
self-estimation tends to be half again  
as great as the average error of the    
judgments of associates4 ,in other      
words1 these students do not judge      
themselves as accurately as their       
friends judge them1 if the average      
position assigned the individual by the 
group of twenty-four associates may be  
taken as a fair measure of the          
individual's true status in the group4  
,,ii4 ,is there any constant tendency   
toward overestimation or                
underestimation1 in the case of the     
individual's self-estimates1 and if so1 
how does this tendency vary with the    
trait in question8 ,it may be said in   
answer to this question1 first1 that in 
the case of none of the traits do all   
the individuals consistently either     

overrate or underrate themselves4 ,but  
if the self-displacements be averaged   
algebraically1 certain very definite    
tendencies toward constant errors are   
revealed4 ,the following table shows the
 constant error in the case of each     
trait4 ,in the case of undesirable      
traits 7conceit1 vulgarity and          
snobbishness7 this constant error is    
toward underestimation4 ,on the average1
 these individuals rank themselves as   
less conceited1 less vulgar and less    
snobbish than they really are1 as judged
 by the combined opinion of their       
associates4 ,in the case of all the     
remaining traits 7the desirable ones7   
the general tendency is toward          
overestimation4 ,the amount or degree of
 this overestimation varies considerably
 from trait to trait4 ,it is greatest in
 the cases of refinement and humor1 in  
which traits there are constant errors  
of #f4c and #e4b places4 ,in the cases  
of neatness1 intelligence1 and          
sociability the overestimation is only  

about half as large as in these two     
traits1 while in the case of beauty     
there is really no constant error4      
,,table #c  ,showing ,constant          
,tendencies ,toward ,overestimation 77  
and ,underestimation 7-7 of ,self       
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,number        ,number    ,trait        
,constant                               
,error,overestimating,underestimating   
,themselves    ,themselves              
----------------------------------------
----------------- ,refinement      #f4c 
#dj            #aj ,humor           #e4b
           #ci            #aa           
,intelligence    #c4j           #cd     
#af ,sociability     #b4b           #cd 
#af ,neatness        #a4h           #be 
#be ,beauty          #j4b           #be 
#be ,conceit         -#a4g           #bd
            #bf ,snobbishness    -#b4j  
#ah            #cb ,vulgarity           
-#d4b           #ag            #cc      
----------------------------------------

--------------------  ,another way of   
expressing these constant tendencies is 
to give in each case the number of      
people in the group of fifty observers  
who tend in each direction4 ,these      
figures are given in the last two       
columns of the above table4 ,it is clear
 at once that in the case of the first  
four traits the tendency is             
predominantly in the direction of       
overestimation2 in the next three traits
 the two tendencies are evenly balanced1
 while in the last two the general      
tendency is strongly toward             
underestimation4  ,it is of course      
difficult to say1 in this connection1   
just how accurately the figures given   
portray the real self-estimation of the 
different individuals1 and to what      
degree they indicate merely what the    
individual will do with her own name in 
the case of such an experiment4 ,natural
 modesty might easily lead one to place 
her own name lower in the scale for a   
given trait than she really believed    

herself to belong4 ,if this were the    
case1 we might then infer that the      
figures we have presented1 although     
qualitatively suggestive1 were not      
quantitatively reliable4 ,they would1 in
 other words1 express smaller degrees of
 overestimation and underestimation than
 were really present in the             
consciousness of our observers4 ,here1  
as in all the results of this           
investigation1 the figures are given    
only as indicating what individuals     
actually do when asked to rank          
themselves among their associates4 ,our 
conclusion on this point is that they   
tend to overestimate or to underestimate
 themselves1 according to the           
desirableness or undesirableness of the 
trait in question4 ,individual          
differences in these tendencies are     
everywhere apparent4 ,thus1 in neatness1
 individuals ,s and ,h stand about      
equally high 7,s being ninth and ,h     
being thirteenth71 but ,s underestimates
 herself by thirteen places1 while ,h   

overestimates herself by ten places4    
,in a third experiment of this same kind
 another group of twenty-five college   
seniors1 in the same school and during  
the preceding year1 had judged each     
other1 including themselves1 for the    
traits1 efficiency1 energy1 kindliness  
and originality4 ,the data from this    
experiment are not given here in full1  
since the method was precisely that of  
the two investigations we have just     
described1 and since all of the results 
must be held as only suggestive of what 
may be expected to happen in the long   
run4 ,these seniors also showed a       
general tendency to rate themselves     
somewhat higher than they were rated by 
their associates4 ,the amount of        
overestimation varied with the trait1   
all the traits in this case being of the
 desirable sort4 ,since the conditions  
of this third experiment were quite the 
same as those of the investigation just 
described in greater detail1 except that
 a different group of individuals were  

concerned1 it is perhaps fair to treat  
the results as comparable1 and to       
include the measures of constant error  
along with the preceding records4 ,the  
results from all the groups are included
 in the following table1 which shows the
 constant tendency in the case of       
thirteen traits4   ,,table #d           
,,constant ,,tendencies ,,of            
,,self-,,estimation ,,in ,,thirteen     
,,traits                                
----------------------------------------
-------     ,trait    ,constant         
,trait     ,constant                    
,error                 ,error           
----------------------------------------
--- ,refinement     #f4c   ,neatness    
#a4h ,humor          #e4b   ,originality
    #a4b ,kindliness     #d4j   ,beauty 
#j4b ,energy         #c4h   ,conceit    
-#a4g ,intelligence   #c4j              
,snobbishness   -#b4j ,sociability      
#b4b   ,vulgarity      -#d4b ,efficiency
     #b4a                               
----------------------------------------

-------  ,data from certain other       
investigations also tell us something   
about these tendencies in judging       
ourselves and others4 ,thus1 in an      
investigation by the writer1#aj a number
 of persons were set to work at the     
continuous performance of a series of   
mental and physical tests4 ,after each  
trial the performer was required to     
judge whether he had done better or     
worse than usual on this occasion4 ,in  
each case another person was required to
 watch the performer1 and to judge1 in  
the capacity of witness1 whether the    
performance had been better or worse    
than usual for the individual who was   
doing the work4  ,the data showed that  
although an observer is no more         
sensitive to gain in efficiency than he 
is to loss1 he is predisposed to judge  
both himself and another performer whom 
he is watching as having done better    
than usual rather than worse than usual4
 ,the consequence is that smaller       
degrees of superiority tend to be judged

 as better with higher degrees of       
confidence1 and that a certain slight   
degree of inferiority tends to be       
incorrectly judged as better4 ,we seem  
predisposed to judge better rather than 
worse1 and in this experiment the       
observers were1 furthermore1 predisposed
 in favor of the other person1 somewhat 
more than in favor of themselves4 ,they 
were disinclined to judge any trial as  
worse than usual1 and this              
disinclination was stronger when judging
 as witness than when judging as        
performer4 ,this results in a           
combination of altruism and optimism    
which1 if found to be a common          
occurrence1 would seem to have          
interesting implications4 ,further      
investigation will perhaps show that    
these attitudes are conditioned1 under  
different circumstances1 by a variety of
 factors1 such as competition1          
education1 motive1 age or sex of        
performer and witness1 and perhaps by   
individual differences of a             

temperamental sort4  ,when ,cattell had 
scientific men arrange their colleagues 
and themselves on the basis of          
scientific merit1 he found no constant  
tendency either to overestimate or to   
underestimate oneself4 ,he remarks1     
concerning this result3 ,it thus appears
 that there is no constant error in     
judging ourselves--we are about as      
likely to overestimate as to            
underestimate ourselves1 and we can     
judge ourselves slightly more accurately
 than we are likely to be judged by one 
of our colleagues4 ,we can only know    
ourselves from the reflected opinion of 
others1 but it seems that we are able to
 estimate these more correctly than can 
those who are less interested4 ,there   
are1 however1 wide individual           
differences2 several observers          
overestimate themselves decidedly1 while
 others underestimate themselves to an  
equal degree4#aa  ,since these          
individual differences1 in all the      
investigations that have been reported1 

are so conspicuous1 we may next inquire 
whether the individual who possesses a  
given trait in high degree is a better  
or worse judge of that trait in himself 
and in others1 than is a person in whom 
the trait itself is less marked4  ,,iii4
 ,is one who possesses a given trait in 
high degree a better or worse judge of  
that trait than is an individual in whom
 the trait is less conspicuous8 ,on the 
basis of the combined judgments of the  
group we have secured a final position  
for each individual1 which indicates her
 most probable standing in the various  
traits4 ,since each individual judged   
all the others of the group1 we can1 by 
correlating#ab the judgments of each    
individual with the combined judgments  
of the group1 secure a coefficient of   
correlation which will indicate the     
judicial capacity of the given          
individual4 ,this figure will be a      
measure of the correctness or           
representative character of her         
judgments of her friends4 ,if the figure

 is low1 it will mean that her own      
judgments do not agree closely with the 
combined or true judgments4 ,if the     
figure is high it will indicate that    
there is close correspondence1 and that 
the individual's judgments of her       
friends agree closely with the combined 
judgment4 ,having secured these measures
 of judicial capacity1 and having also  
measures of the degree to which each    
individual possesses the various traits1
 we may by correlating these two        
measures determine whether or not any   
relation exists between possession of   
the trait and ability to judge others   
with respect to that trait4 ,in the same
 way we may determine the relation      
between possession of the trait and     
ability to judge oneself in that trait4 
,the table on page #afj gives these     
coefficients of correlation in the case 
of all the traits4  ,in the cases of    
neatness1 intelligence1 humor1          
refinement and sociability the          
coefficients are all positive and fairly

 high4 ,thus in the case of humor the   
coefficients of 4#ei and 4#hg indicate  
that that individual whom others        
consider humorous tends to be the most  
correct or representative of the group  
in her judgments of the humor of herself
 and of others4 ,the coefficients of    
4#di and 4#ei in the case of            
intelligence indicate that that         
individual who impresses others as being
 intelligent is a good judge of         
intelligence both in herself and in     
others4 ,the same is to be said of      
neatness1 refinement and sociability4   
,in the case of beauty the coefficients1
 although positive1 are very low and    
hence not very reliable4 ,they seem to  
indicate that in this case there is no  
relation of any sort between the        
possession of the trait and the ability 
to judge it4   ,,table #e  ,,showing    
,,the ,,relation ,,between ,,possession 
,,of ,a ,,trait ,,and ,,ability ,,to    
,,judge ,,self ,,and ,,others ,,in      
,,that ,,trait 7,all coefficients are   

positive unless otherwise indicated7    
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,judgment,judgment                      
,judgment,judgment    ,trait       of   
of      ,trait       of      of         
,others   ,self               ,others   
,self                                   
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,neatness       4#bb   
4#de  ,vulgarity      -4#bd   -4#cg     
,intelligence   4#di     4#ei           
,snobbishness    4#cc   -4#bg ,humor    
4#ei     4#hg  ,conceit         4#ai    
-4#bb ,beauty         4#bc     4#ae     
,refinement     4#ch     4#hc           
,sociability    4#dh     4#dg           
----------------------------------------
----------------------  ,in the cases of
 the definitely undesirable traits1     
vulgarity1 snobbishness and conceit1 the
 coefficients tend to be negative1 and  
although none of them is very high1 they
 suggest that the possession of these   
traits to a given degree tends to       

disqualify the individual to that degree
 as a judge of those traits1 whether in 
herself or in others4 ,these results    
also confirm the results in the case of 
certain of the desirable traits1 since  
vulgarity and snobbishness1 with low or 
negative coefficients1 are1             
grammatically at least1 the opposites of
 refinement and sociability1 which have 
high and positive coefficients4  ,in    
general1 then1 our results suggest that1
 in the case of desirable traits1       
ability to judge a quality accompanies  
possession of that quality1 whereas in  
the case of the undesirable traits the  
reverse of this is the case4  ,,iv4     
,what relation exists between these     
estimated traits and the more objective 
measurements of the individuals         
concerned8 ,on the basis of the mental  
tests we have secured measures which may
 be compared with these estimated       
traits4 ,the same comparison may be made
 in the case of the academic records    
received by the individuals in their    

college courses4 ,the following table   
shows the correlation of all the        
estimated traits with these two         
objective measurements4   ,,table #f    
,,showing ,,the ,,relation ,,between    
,,estimated ,,traits ,,and 7,a7 ,,the   
,,results ,,of ,,mental ,,tests2 7,b7   
,,the ,,academic ,,records ,,of ,,each  
,,individual ,,in ,,college ,,subjects  
7,all coefficients are positive unless  
otherwise indicated7                    
----------------------------------------
--------             ,correlation       
,correlation     ,trait    with         
,mentalwith ,academic  ,average         
,tests       ,record                    
----------------------------------------
----- ,intelligence   4#fb          4#eb
        4#eg ,humor          4#ee       
4#ae        4#ce ,refinement     4#cd   
4#cd        4#cd ,snobbishness   4#ec   
4#ac        4#cc ,neatness       4#cf   
4#bd        4#cj ,conceit        4#ed   
4#jc        4#bh ,beauty         4#dj   
4#jf        4#bc ,sociability    4#be   

-4#jg        4#ji ,vulgarity      4#bi  
-4#ca       -4#ja                       
----------------------------------------
--------  ,in the case of the mental    
tests all the coefficients are positive 
and fairly high in most cases4 ,the     
correlation is highest of all with      
estimated intelligence1 whatever that   
may mean4 ,as we have used the term it  
perhaps means the impression of general 
capacity which an individual makes on   
her associates4 ,it is interesting to   
find that the mental tests1 which can be
 administered in a few minutes1 give us 
so close a measure of what this         
impression will be2 a measure1 it should
 be noted1 which is higher than that    
afforded by the academic records1 in    
spite of the fact that these academic   
records had been from term to term      
announced in a public way and might have
 been expected to contribute toward the 
general impression on the basis of which
 the judgments of intelligence were     
passed4 ,the high correlation between   

tests and estimates suggests that the   
abilities displayed in these tests      
correspond very closely to those        
characteristics on which our associates 
base their estimates of our             
intelligence4 ,this is an encouraging   
result for those interested in the      
vocational use of mental tests4  ,but it
 is equally interesting that the results
 of the mental test correlate to so high
 a degree with the estimates of various 
other traits1 notably humor1            
snobbishness1 conceit1 beauty1 neatness 
and refinement4 ,this result suggests   
either or both of two interpretations4  
,it may be1 on the one hand1 that these 
characteristics are only partial        
components of that more general trait1  
intelligence 7with which the correlation
 of the tests is still higher71 at least
 so far as the estimates of our         
associates are concerned4 ,this would   
mean that a sense of humor1 a tendency  
toward self-esteem1 physical            
attractiveness and a gentle manner      

dispose one's associates to think       
favorably of her general mental         
endowment4 ,on the other hand the result
 may mean that an individual who has    
sufficient distinction to stand out     
prominently in any of the estimated     
traits here considered is possessed of a
 nervous system which enables her to    
accomplish the work of these mental     
tests with corresponding efficiency4    
,such a characteristic as general       
stand-out-ishness may perhaps be a trait
 which calls for recognition1 not only  
in daily life but also in the narrower  
categories of psychological             
classification4  ,in the case of the    
academic records this general tendency  
toward positive correlation is not      
present4 ,the only high correlation is  
with estimated intelligence4 ,it is     
impossible to say how far this high     
coefficient is due to general knowledge 
of academic attainments on the part of  
the individuals composing the groups4   
,refinement and neatness are the only   

other traits which show any claim at all
 for correlation with academic records4 
,the positive direction of these        
coefficients may afford some consolation
 to those who put their faith in the    
vocational significance of academic     
records of college students1 but their  
low values constitute a somewhat less   
encouraging commentary4  ,v4 ,how do the
 various measures of intelligence       
compare with one another1 and what is   
the reliability of these various        
measures8 ,frequent studies have been   
made of the relation between teachers'  
estimates of the general intelligence of
 pupils and their intelligence as shown 
by their performance in psychological   
tests4 ,the teacher's estimate is       
perhaps very likely to be based on that 
sort of intelligence which shows itself 
in academic performance only1 since in  
many cases the acquaintance is limited  
to contact in class room and laboratory4
 ,in our own case we have teachers'     
estimates only in the form of the actual

 class records4 ,these are1 then1 not   
estimates of general intelligence in the
 strict sense1 but are conditioned      
presumably for the most part by the     
student's performance in the class room4
  ,the academic marks were reported     
according to a letter system1 in which  
,a means very good1 ,b means good1 ,c   
means fair1 ,d means poor and ,f means  
failed4 ,having secured these marks for 
all the students in ,english1 ,german1  
,logic1 ,psychology1 ,economics and     
,history1 we averaged the marks for each
 student1 by giving ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d and  
,f values of #ij1 #hj1 #gj1 #fj and #ej4
 ,this gave us final averages for all   
the students1 on the basis of which     
averages they were arranged in order of 
merit1 the two groups being separately  
treated4  ,we have now the three        
following measures of intelligence3     
a4 ,the results of the psychological    
tests4     b4 ,the opinion of fellow    
students4     c4 ,the academic records4 
,the correlations between these various 

measures are given in the following     
tabulation3   ,,table #g  ,,showing     
,,the ,,correlations ,,between ,,various
 ,,measures ,,of ,,intelligence         
----------------------------------------
----------------                        
#be     #be                             
,juniors,seniors                        
----------------------------------------
-------------- ,correlation of          
psychological tests with                
estimated ,intelligence                 
4#gj    4#ec ,correlation of            
psychological tests with                
,academic ,records                      
4#db    4#eg ,correlation of ,academic  
,records with              estimated    
,intelligence                  4#bb     
4#cg                                    
----------------------------------------
----------------  ,the most striking    
result here is the rather low           
correlation of the academic records with
 the other measures of intelligence4    
,the psychological tests agree closely  

with the results of the estimates by    
associates4 ,the correlation of the     
tests with the records is considerably  
lower1 while the correlation of records 
with estimates is exceedingly low4 ,the 
full significance of these results will 
of course depend on the attitude one    
takes toward the various measures4 ,one 
who has faith in the value of academic  
records must of course reject the       
estimates of associates and be very     
sceptical of the value of the mental    
tests4 ,but vocationally the estimates  
of associates must always have value1   
since these determine or indicate the   
reactions of others toward a given      
individual1 and vocational success will 
depend to a considerable degree on these
 reactions4 ,the ultimate value of the  
mental tests is still to be determined2 
in fact1 it was partly in order to aid  
in their evaluation that these          
experiments were performed4 ,inasmuch as
 the tests and the estimates agree      
closely1 the tests and the records less 

closely1 while the records do not       
correlate to any marked degree with     
either of the two other measures1 the   
significance of the academic marks1 or  
their reliability in this instance1 must
 be seriously called into question4     
,,table #h  ,,showing ,,the ,,relation  
,,between ,,judicial ,,capacity ,,and   
7,a7 ,,ability ,,in ,,mental ,,tests2   
7,b7 ,,academic ,,records               
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,correlation of ,judicial,correlation of
 ,judicial    ,trait      ,capacity and 
,ability   ,capacity and ,academic      
in ,mental ,tests            ,records   
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,neatness           
4#je                    4#ji            
,intelligence         4#ee              
4#bf ,humor                4#dh         
-4#jb ,conceit              4#bj        
4#ji ,beauty               4#ae         
4#ad ,vulgarity            4#ah         
4#ad ,snobbishness         4#bj         

-4#jb ,refinement           4#ae        
4#be ,sociability          4#bf         
4#jc                                    
----------------------------------------
---------------------  ,,vi4 ,does the  
ability to judge the traits of others   
7judicial capacity7 stand in any        
relation to proficiency in mental tests 
or to success in college work8 ,the     
following table shows the correlation of
 judicial capacity in the case of each  
trait with standing in the tests and    
with academic records4  ,in the case of 
academic records there is seen to be    
absolutely no correlation with judicial 
capacity1 in any of the traits          
estimated4 ,in the case of the mental   
tests1 only two of the traits yield high
 coefficients4 ,in intelligence and in  
humor there is fairly high correlation  
74#ee and 4#dh74 ,the suggestion here is
 that those who do well in the mental   
tests are good judges of the            
intelligence and the humor of their     
friends1 but that in the case of the    

other traits there is no necessary or   
probable relation4  ,question ,,vii4 ,is
 the individual who is a good judge of  
others also one whose self-estimates    
have high reliability8 ,if the          
individuals are placed in an order of   
merit with respect to their judicial    
capacity in estimating the              
characteristics of their friends1 and   
placed also in another order of merit on
 the basis of the accuracy of their     
self-estimates1 what relation will be   
found between the two arrangements8 ,the
 following table gives the coefficients 
of correlation when such arrangements   
are compared in the case of each of the 
traits4   ,,table #i  ,,showing ,,the   
,,relation ,,between ,,ability ,,to     
,,judge ,,others ,,and ,,ability ,,to   
,,judge ,,oneself                       
----------------------------------------
--              ,correlation between    
,judicial    ,trait     ,capacity and   
,accuracy of the                        
,individual's ,self-,estimates          

----------------------------------------
- ,refinement             4#ed ,humor   
4#ec ,beauty                 4#dg       
,sociability            4#df            
,intelligence           4#dd ,conceit   
4#bf ,neatness               4#bb       
,vulgarity              4#bb            
,snobbishness           4#ae            
----------------------------------------
--  ,all the coefficients are positive1 
their median value being 4#dd4 ,in the  
long run it is true that she who knows  
herself best is the best judge of       
others4 ,the degree to which this is    
true1 however1 varies with the trait in 
question4 ,with the undesirable traits  
of snobbishness1 conceit and vulgarity1 
the coefficients are so low as to be    
quite unreliable and perhaps represent  
only chance4 ,the same is true of       
neatness4 ,but in the cases of          
refinement1 humor1 beauty1 sociability  
and intelligence the coefficients are   
fairly high4  ,,viii4 ,what correlations
 are found among various traits of      

character1 as these are estimated by    
associates8 ,for example1 is an         
individual who is judged intelligent    
also likely to be judged to be humorous1
 or refined1 or snobbish1 etc48 ,if     
there are such correlations between     
estimated traits1 what is their         
direction and amount8 ,the following    
table shows the average correlations    
7from the two groups7 in the case of all
 the traits3   ,,table #aj  ,,showing   
,,the ,,intercorrelation ,,or           
,,estimated ,,traits7#a7                
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,neat4,intel4,hum4,con4,beau4,vulg4,snob
4,refin4,socia4                         
----------------------------------------
------------------ ,neatness      --    
4#ci   4#bi 4#ea 4#ej  4#ji  4#eg  4#cb 
4#aj ,intelligence 4#ci   --   4#ei 4#dd
 4#cd  4#jf  4#dc  4#di   4#be ,humor   
4#bi  4#ei    -- 4#cb 4#ej  4#dj  4#ej  
4#bc   4#ee ,conceit      4#ea  4#dd    
4#cb  -- 4#ea  4#bd  4#ge  4#cc   4#jg  

,beauty       4#ej  4#cd   4#ej 4#ea  --
 -4#ji  4#da  4#ef   4#cb ,vulgarity    
4#ji  4#jf   4#dj 4#bd-4ji   --  4#dj   
-4#cg   4#ah ,snobbishness 4#eg  4#dc   
4#ej 4#ge 4#da  4#dj   --  4#bj  -4#ab  
,refinement   4#cb  4#di   4#bc 4#cc    
4#ef  -4#cg 4#bj   --   4#cd            
,sociability  4#aj  4#be   4#ee 4#jg    
4#cb  4#ah -4#ab  4#cd    --            
----------------------------------------
---------------------------  ,note #a3  
,the upper parts of this table and the  
one following repeat the figures given  
in the lower parts1 for greater         
convenience in making comparisons and in
 presenting averages4  ,interesting as  
these coefficients are to one who has   
the passion for correlation1 it is      
peculiarly difficult to state precisely 
what they mean4 ,neatness correlates1 in
 varying degrees1 with all the traits   
except vulgarity and sociability2       
intelligence with all except vulgarity  
and perhaps sociability2 humor with all 
except neatness1 conceit and refinement1

 where the coefficients are low2 conceit
 correlates especially closely with     
neatness1 beauty and snobbishness2      
beauty with neatness1 humor1 conceit and
 refinement2 vulgarity correlates       
positively with only humor and          
snobbishness1 and negatively with       
refinement2 refinement1 with everything 
except humor1 snobbishness and          
vulgarity2 snobbishness with all but    
refinement and sociability2 while       
sociability correlates with nothing     
except humor4 ,how far these figures    
measure definite relations between      
different and specific traits1 how far  
they measure the degree to which one's  
impressions of various traits conspire  
to make up one's notion of other        
characteristics1 or how far they measure
 only the degree of confusion that      
exists as to the precise meaning of the 
various words1 it is exceedingly        
difficult to say4  ,,ix4 ,what degree of
 correlation exists among the academic  
records in the various college subjects8

 ,is the individual who stands high in  
certain subjects likely to stand either 
high or low in other subjects or in all 
subjects8 ,the following table shows the
 intercorrelations between eight        
subjects as calculated by the rather    
rough mode of grading and averaging     
previously described4 ,since the        
correlations are by the method of       
relative position1 the fallacy of       
treating the various grades as          
susceptible of quantitative treatment is
 of very slight importance4   ,,table   
#aa  ,,showing ,,the ,,intercorrelations
 ,,among ,,grades ,,in ,,eight ,,college
 ,,subjects1 ,,on ,,the ,,basis ,,of    
,,the ,,records ,,of ,,the #ej          
,,students                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
,psych4,log4,hist4,econ4,eng4,germ4,chem
4,math4,avge4                           
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,psychology    --  4#fj 
4#cf  4#eb  4#dh 4#di  4#cc  4#ed  4#dg 

,logic        4#fj   -- 4#dh  4#eg  4#dg
 4#da  4#be  4#eg  4#dh ,history        
4#cf  4#ed  --  4#dd  4#fb 4#df  4#eb   
4#fa  4#ea ,economics    4#eb  4#eg 4#dd
   --  4#ea 4#dc  4#de  4#ga  4#eb      
,english      4#dh  4#dg 4#fb  4#ea  -- 
4#be  4#bf  4#df  4#dd ,german          
4#di  4#da 4#df  4#dc  4#be  --  4#ci   
4#ch  4#dj ,chemistry    4#cc  4#be 4#eb
  4#de  4#bf 4#ci   --  4#eg  4#dj      
,mathematics  4#ed  4#eg 4#fa  4#ga     
4#df 4#ch  4#eg   --  4#ee              
----------------------------------------
-----------------------  ,the           
correlations between the various college
 subjects are all positive1 and argue   
against the commonly expressed belief in
 rather close specialization of         
abilities2 the student who does well in 
one of these subjects tends to do well  
in all of them4  ,as has been frequently
 stated in this discussion1 the data and
 conclusions here presented are by no   
means to be taken as final answers even 
to the specific questions asked4 ,one   

cannot argue from what these groups of  
students do under the special conditions
 of this investigation to what they or  
others will do in other circumstances or
 in general4 ,the results are presented 
mainly by way of suggesting the type of 
investigation which must be carried much
 further before we are in position to   
evaluate properly the self-analysis of  
an individual or the judgments of       
associates as presented in testimonials1
 interviews1 or other indications based 
on general acquaintance4 ,in the case of
 the psychological tests1 a long program
 of selection1 standardization1 and     
accumulation of norms is laid out for   
those interested in the further advance 
of vocational psychology4 ,so also from 
the point of view of introspective      
analysis1 consultation1 advice of       
friends1 the methods of interview1      
testimonial1 etc41 there is an equally  
inviting though arduous program which   
must be carried through before even the 
most general principles of evaluation   

and selection are known4  ,it should    
also be insisted that the personal      
experience of this or that interviewer1 
adviser1 teacher or expert is by no     
means a sufficient basis for general    
practice4 ,magic1 clairvoyance1         
phrenology1 physiognomics1 were all     
founded on the treacherous basis of     
personal observation and occasional     
striking coincidence4 ,vocational       
psychology will be safe from prophets   
and charlatans only when it is made to  
rest on a stable structure of consistent
 and verifiable experimental data4      
,,footnotes3  #i ,see footnote on p4 #db
 for an explanation of the computation  
and meaning of such measures of         
deviation or error4  #aj ,experimental  
,studies in ,judgment1 ,archives of     
,psychology1 ,no4 #bi1 #aiac1 #aai pp4  
#aa ,american ,men of ,science4 ,second 
edition1 p4 #edb4  #ab ,see p4 #de for  
explanation of the meaning and technique
 of correlation4     ,,chapter ,,viii   
,,the ,,school ,,curriculum ,,as ,a     

,,vocational ,,test   ,with certain     
qualifications the work of the school   
curriculum may be said to constitute an 
elaborate mental test4 ,one important   
function of the curriculum is that of   
selecting and identifying individuals   
who possess a certain type of mental    
alertness or patience4 ,another function
 is that of supplying the individual    
with certain implements1 facts and      
ideas1 certain subject matter1 which may
 or may not be of direct value in his   
later life but which is at least in this
 way perpetuated and preserved4 ,a third
 function is that of affording          
opportunity for the exercise of such    
specific or general abilities as the    
curriculum may call into play4  ,all    
three of these functions have more or   
less direct vocational relevance4 ,in   
the hands of industrial and technical   
interests1 subject matter becomes more  
and more prominent as the important     
item4 ,as this happens the older idea of
 discipline and exercise becomes        

subordinate or implicit4 ,but1 whatever 
be the underlying educational           
philosophy1 the selective value of the  
curriculum is an inescapable fact4 ,the 
public school system1 by its processes  
of grading1 promotion and certification1
 tends always to mark off as a distinct 
group those individuals who can and will
 meet its demands4 ,it also attempts to 
differentiate the members of this group 
from one another on the basis of their  
ability or their inclination4 ,the high 
schools1 colleges1 professional and     
technical courses continue this process 
of elimination1 identification and      
selection4 ,according to the student's  
ability and inclination to satisfy the  
requirements of the curriculum1 he or   
she is dropped1 graded1 retarded1       
promoted or passed with honors4         
,extending1 as it commonly does1 over   
many years of the individual's life1    
conducted by a considerable number and  
variety of examiners1 and presented in a
 diversity of forms and methods1 school 

work constitutes a type of mental test  
which is unequaled in its completeness4 
,it is highly important for vocational  
psychology to ascertain the degree of   
correlation between the individual's    
record in the curriculum test and his   
success or fitness in later life4 ,to   
what degree is the individual's academic
 record prognostic of his industrial1   
domestic and professional future8  ,as  
definite as this question is and as easy
 of solution as it may seem1 it is only 
very recently that reliable data1 as    
distinguished from unsupported opinions1
 have begun to be accumulated4 ,the     
problem is complicated by the difficulty
 of securing satisfactory measures of   
success in later life1 and by the       
difficulties encountered in following up
 the careers of those individuals whose 
early records are known4 ,shall success 
be measured by the obstacles overcome1  
the income earned1 the sacrifices made1 
the social usefulness accomplished1 the 
amount of local and contemporary        

publicity received1 the public          
recognition accorded1 the scope of      
activities attempted1 or the historical 
eminence merited8 ,and if more than one 
of these elements are to be considered1 
how are they to be treated              
commensurately8 ,certainly success may  
be achieved in any or several or all of 
these and other forms4 ,for the present 
our information is limited to a few     
studies in which one or other of these  
aspects has been treated separately4 ,as
 work in this field progresses we may be
 better able to sum up all the partial  
results into a statement of the general 
tendencies4  ,for our present purpose it
 may be best to bring together from     
various sources the data bearing on     
certain specific questions which have   
been propounded4 ,at least three of     
these questions are distinctly relevant 
to the work of vocational psychology4   
,i4 ,with respect to school work itself1
 what relation exists between the early 
success in elementary subjects and the  

later success in handling more advanced 
subject matter8 ,this question is       
important to all those who may be       
concerned in advising individuals       
concerning the desirability and probable
 profit of continuing their school      
experience1 and of entering occupations 
in which scholastic abilities may be    
requisite4  ,kelley has recently        
reported a careful study of the relation
 between the marks in the fourth1 fifth1
 sixth and seventh grades and the marks 
received in the first year of high      
school work4 ,the results1 in the case  
of fifty-nine pupils followed through   
the six years1 were as follows3         
,,correlation ,,between ,,marks ,,in    
,,the ,,grades ,,and ,,marks ,,in       
,,first ,,high ,,school ,,year      #gth
 grade   4#gb     #fth grade   4#gc     
#eth grade   4#ec     #dth grade   4#fb 
,his study further seeks to show the    
relative weight to be attributed to the 
work of each grade1 by applying a       
formula known in statistics as a        

regression equation4 ,he says1 ,the net 
conclusion which may be drawn from these
 coefficients of correlation is that it 
is possible to estimate a person's      
general ability in the first year ,h4   
,s4 class from the marks he has received
 in the last four years of elementary   
school with accuracy represented by a   
coefficient of correlation of 4#ghi1 and
 that individual idiosyncrasies may be  
estimated1 in the case of mathematics   
and ,english1 with an accuracy          
represented by a coefficient of         
correlation of 4#eae4444 ,indeed1 it    
seems that an estimate of a pupil's     
ability to carry high school work when  
the pupil is in the fourth grade may be 
nearly as accurate as a judgment given  
when the pupil is in the seventh grade4 
,miles finds that the correlation       
between the average elementary school   
grade and the high school grade is 4#ga4
 ,dearborn also finds that high school  
efficiency is closely correlated with   
success in university work4 ,he studied 

various groups of high school students1 
the groups containing from ninety-two to
 four hundred and seventy-two students  
each4 ,these were grouped into quartiles
 on the basis of high school standing1  
and compared with similar               
classifications on the basis of         
university work4 ,dearborn summarizes   
his results in the following words3  ,we
 may say then1 on the basis of the      
results secured in this group 7#dgb     
pupils7 which is sufficiently large to  
be representative1 that if a pupil has  
stood in the first quarter of a large   
class through high school the chances   
are four out of five that he will not   
fall below the first half of his class  
in the university4444 ,the chances are  
but about one in five that the student  
who has done poorly in high school--who 
has been in the lowest quarter of his   
class--will rise above the median or    
average of the freshman class at the    
university1 and the chances that he will
 prove a superior student at the        

university are very slim indeed4444 ,the
 ,pearson coefficient of correlation of 
the standings in the high schools and in
 the freshman year1 for this group of   
#dgb pupils1 is 4#hj4444 ,a little over 
#hj per cent of those who were found in 
the lowest or the highest quarter of the
 group in high school are found in their
 respective halves of the group         
throughout the university4444           
,three-fourths of the students who enter
 the university from these high schools 
will maintain throughout the university 
approximately the same rank which they  
held in high school4  ,lowell's         
investigation1 which is discussed in    
later paragraphs1 also bears directly on
 the question of the relation between   
college entrance records1 college       
grades1 and later work in professional  
schools4 ,a rather different method of  
procedure was adopted by ,van ,denburg1 
who studied the relation between the    
first-term marks of high school pupils  
in ,new ,york ,city and the length of   

time the pupils continued in school     
work4 ,the following table gives a      
general idea of his results3  ,,table   
#ab  ,,showing ,,the ,,relation         
,,between ,,first-,,term ,,marks ,,in   
,,high ,,school ,,and ,,the ,,length    
,,of ,,time ,,pupils ,,remain ,,in      
,,school 7,,van ,,denburg7              
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,percentage ,leaving ,school in ,various
 ,years ,after                          
,entrance into the ,high ,school        
,first-,term                            
----------------------------------------
-------- ,mark           ,left     ,left
 in #bnd1 #crd1 or            ,during   
,first #dth ,years1 or ,failed          
,graduated                ,year     to  
,graduate in #dth                       
----------------------------------------
----------------- ,below #ej       #fa  
#ci               #j #ej to #ei         
#di              #df               #e   
#fj to #fi       #ci              #eh   

#c #gj to #gi       #bj              #fb
              #ah #hj to #hi       #ag  
#df              #cg #ij to #ajj        
#f              #dj              #ed    
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,thorndike1 in    
referring to the significance of such   
results1 says3 ,ten times as many of    
those marked below #ej leave in the     
first year as of those marked #ij or    
above4 ,of #aae pupils marked below #ej 
not one remained to graduate in four    
years4 ,as the marks rise the percentage
 leaving in the early years steadily    
falls and the percentage graduating     
rises4 ,such prophecies444 could easily 
be worked out for any community4 ,they  
show that in the important matter of the
 length of stay in school a pupil's     
career is far from being a matter of    
unpredictable fortuity4444 ,it will not 
be long before we will remember with    
amusement the time when education waited
 for the expensive tests of actual trial
 to tell how well a boy or girl would   

succeed with a given trade1 with the    
work of college and professional school1
 or with the general task of leading a  
decent1 law-abiding1 humane life4       
,prompted by ,dearborn's study of the   
relation between work in high school and
 work in the university1 ,smith made a  
somewhat more intensive study of a group
 of students in the ,university of      
,iowa4 ,dearborn had investigated the   
academic careers of pupils from eight   
large and four small high schools in    
,wisconsin1 and concluded that          
three-fourths of the students entering  
the university from these high schools  
would maintain throughout the university
 approximately the same rank as they had
 held in high school4 ,when the groups  
were divided into upper and lower       
halves1 about seventy per cent of those 
in the upper high school section were   
found in the upper half of the          
university section2 about the same      
number of those in the lower high school
 half were found in the lower university

 half4  ,smith's data showed almost     
precisely the same figures as those of  
,dearborn4 ,from the ,liberal ,arts     
class of #aiaj 7one hundred and sixty   
students7 those were chosen whose       
records were complete in both high      
school and university4 ,this gave a     
total of one hundred and twenty         
students4 ,on the basis of their        
standing1 as based on the grades        
assigned in all subjects studied1 they  
were ranked in order for each year of   
high school and university4 ,they were  
then separated into quintiles on the    
basis of these rankings1 and their      
standing in these various quintiles     
observed from year to year4  ,when the  
students1 on the basis of their general 
high school average 7for the four       
years71 are distributed through their   
respective quintiles in the university  
7general average again7 the results are 
as shown in the table on page #ahc4     
,,table #ac  ,,showing ,,the ,,relations
 ,,between ,,high ,,school ,,records    

,,and ,,university ,,records 7,,smith74 
,see ,text for ,explanation             
----------------------------------------
--------                                
,university ,average ,h4 ,s4            
,average--------------------------------
--               #ast   #bnd   #crd     
#dth   #eth                             
,quint4,quint4,quint4,quint4,quint4     
----------------------------------------
--- #ast ,quintile   #ed   #ag   #ag    
#d    #h #bnd ,quintile   #be   #bi     
#ag   #ac   #af #crd ,quintile   #ag    
#be   #bj   #ba   #ag #dth ,quintile    
#j   #be   #be   #cc   #ag #eth         
,quintile    #d    #d   #ba   #bi   #db 
----------------------------------------
--------  ,in considering this table it 
is apparent that if the high school     
students were distributed through the   
various university quintiles on a purely
 chance basis1 and without any reference
 to their high school records1 there    
would tend to be twenty per cent of each
 high school quintile in each of the    

university quintiles4 ,any percentage   
higher than this twenty per cent thus   
indicates some significant relation     
between the two sets of grades4 ,on the 
whole there is a close relation         
indicated4 ,the tendency is clear for   
those in a given high school quintile to
 be found in or near the same quintile  
in their university work4 ,the relation 
is particularly close in the highest and
 lowest quintiles4 ,in the intermediate 
quintiles there is more or less shifting
 about4  ,in the same way it is possible
 to classify all students in quintiles  
during their first high school year1 and
 then to trace their careers through the
 following three years of high school   
and four years of college4 ,the         
following tabulation shows the results  
when this was done4 ,the figures show   
the percentage of each quintile in first
 year high school who were found in the 
same quintile in the various later      
years4   ,,table #ad  ,,showing ,,the   
,,relation ,,between ,,records ,,in     

,,the ,,first ,,high ,,school ,,year1   
,,and ,,records ,,in ,,subsequent       
,,years ,,in ,,high ,,school ,,and      
,,college 7,,smith7                     
----------------------------------------
-----------------                ,high  
,school            ,university          
,quintiles------------------------------
----------------             #a   #b    
#c    #d    #a    #b    #c    #d        
----------------------------------------
--------- ,first     #ajj #gj  #fg  #fg 
#eb  #cf  #dc  #be ,second    #ajj #ed  
#cc  #bi  #ce  #cc  #bb   #h ,third     
#ajj #da  #cg  #ba  #ce  #bj  #bb  #ba  
,fourth    #ajj #bi  #be  #ba  #dh  #bh 
#ag  #be ,fifth     #ajj #ej  #ei  #ej  
#de  #cb  #ci  #ch                      
----------------------------------------
  ,averages #ajj #di  #dd  #ch  #dc  #cj
  #bi  #bc                              
----------------------------------------
-----------------  ,here again1 if the  
subsequent distributions were on a      
chance basis with respect to the first  

year high school grades1 there would    
tend to be but twenty per cent in each  
of the various quintiles4 ,as a matter  
of fact1 the percentages never fall so  
low as twenty per cent1 although in the 
senior college year they approach very  
close to this figure4  ,it is to be     
noted that changes so small as from one 
quintile to the immediately adjacent one
 are not taken into account in this     
table4 ,the figures show only those who 
were in precisely the same quintile all 
the way through4 ,the indication is then
 that a student's performance in the    
first high school year is very          
significant of what his performance will
 be through the rest of the high school 
course1 and also of significance with   
respect to what he will do in his       
university work4 ,the significance of   
the early work1 as has appeared in other
 studies also1 becomes less and less the
 farther through the course one goes1 so
 that in the senior year in college     
there is approximately a chance         

distribution with reference to the work 
of the first year high school4  ,smith  
also presents his results in the form of
 coefficients of correlation between    
various rankings4 ,the following are the
 most interesting in the present        
connection3   ,,table #ae               
,,correlations 7,,smith7      ,h4 ,s4   
,average and ,univ4 ,freshman ,average  
4#dh     ,h4 ,s4 ,average and ,univ4    
,sophomore ,average  4#ci     ,h4 ,s4   
,average and ,univ4 ,junior ,average    
4#dg     ,h4 ,s4 ,average and ,univ4    
,senior ,average     4#bh     #ast and  
#bnd ,year ,high ,school                
4#gg     #ast and #crd ,year ,high      
,school               4#fg     #ast and 
#dth ,year ,high ,school                
4#ff     ,university ,freshman and      
,sophomore          4#gc     ,university
 ,freshman and ,junior             4#fa 
,university ,freshman and ,senior       
4#de  ,these figures of course indicate 
the same facts as those derived from the
 previous methods of expressing the     

data4 ,the high school 7,h4 ,s47 average
 correlates throughout with the college 
ranking1 the correspondence becoming    
less apparent in the later college      
years4 ,similarly1 the good students in 
the first high school year are the good 
ones all through the high school course1
 and the able college freshmen are able 
as sophomores1 juniors and seniors4 ,but
 both in high school and in college the 
significance of early standing becomes  
less and less as the years progress4    
,a4 ,l4 ,jones#ac compared college      
entrance examinations with work done    
later in the college course1 in the     
freshman and sophomore years4 ,two      
hundred men from the entering classes of
 #aijg1 #aiaa and #aiab1 in ,columbia   
,college1 were selected for study4      
,these men were arranged in four groups1
 fifty in each group1 on the basis of   
7a7 their marks in entrance             
examinations1 7b7 their college marks in
 the first and second college years4    
,group ,i contains the best fifty       

individuals1 ,group ,,ii the fifty next 
best1 etc4 ,the following compiled table
 shows where the members of each group  
in entrance examinations stood in their 
college work3   ,,table #af  ,,showing  
,,relations ,,between ,,entrance        
,,records ,,and ,,college ,,standing    
7,,jones7  ,see ,text for ,explanation  
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,on ,basis of ,freshman ,ranking ,on    
,basis of                               
,entrance-------------------------------
--------    ,examinations       ,group  
,i  ,group ,,ii,group ,,iii ,group ,,iv 
----------------------------------------
----------------- ,group   ,i 7#ej men7 
#cj       #ac       #e         #b ,group
  ,,ii 7#ej men7      #af       #ag     
#ab         #e ,group ,,iii 7#ej men7   
#c       #ac      #af        #ah ,group 
,,iv 7#ej men7       #a        #g       
#ag        #be                          
----------------------------------------
-------------------- ,on ,basis of      

,entrance     ,examinations         ,on 
,basis of ,sophomore ,ranking           
----------------------------------------
----------------- ,group   ,i 7#ac men7 
#g         #d       #b         #j ,group
  ,,ii 7#ac men7      #d         #e     
#b         #b ,group ,,iii 7#ac men7    
#b         #d       #c         #d ,group
  ,,iv 7#ad men7      #j         #j     
#f         #h                           
----------------------------------------
---------------------  ,it appears from 
this table that there is a fairly       
well-marked tendency for the men to     
remain in the group in which they start4
 ,at least the larger number of men are 
found in college in about the same group
 in which they occurred on the basis of 
entrance examinations4 ,jones writes1   
,it is evident from an examination of   
these444 data that entrance             
examinations1 aside from other important
 uses claimed for them by their         
advocates1 may fitly be taken as an     
important indication of the future      

career of the candidate for admission4  
,they should of course be supplemented1 
and so should any other means of        
determining preparation for college4    
,those who have studied the question    
tell us that there is a high degree of  
correlation between intellectual        
qualities and others4 ,a good test of   
intellectual fitness is1 therefore1 in  
some degree a test of other qualities   
also4 ,entrance examinations have their 
imperfections but there can be no doubt 
that they may serve as a solid          
foundation on which to build4           
,thorndike1 on the other hand1 in       
studying the relation between entrance  
marks and later college standing        
7,columbia ,college classes entering in 
#aija1 #aijb and #aijc71 finds results  
which lead him to say1 ,the important   
facts concerning the relationship of    
success in entrance examinations to     
success in college work444 prove that we
 cannot estimate the latter from the    
former with enough accuracy to make the 

entrance examinations worth taking or to
 prevent gross and intolerable injustice
 being done to many individuals4444 ,the
 records of eleven entrance examinations
 give a less accurate prophecy of what a
 student will do in the latter half of  
his college course than does the college
 record of his brother6 ,the correlation
 between brothers in intellectual       
ability is approximately 4#dj1 but that 
between standing in entrance            
examinations and standing in college of 
the same person is only 4#dg for junior 
year 7#acj cases7 and 4#be for senior   
year 7#ef cases74444 ,from many facts   
such as these444 it is certain that the 
traditional entrance examinations1 even 
when as fully safeguarded as in the case
 of those given by the ,college         
,entrance ,examination ,board1 do not   
prevent incompetence from getting into  
college2 do not prevent students of     
excellent promise from being discouraged
 or barred out altogether2 do not       
measure fitness for college well enough 

to earn the respect of students or      
teachers2 and do intolerable injustice  
to individuals4  ,the apparent striking 
contradiction between these two reports 
is not1 however1 so serious when it is  
noted that the records of ,jones were   
taken from freshman and sophomore years1
 while ,thorndike's1 as here quoted1    
were taken from junior and senior years4
 ,thorndike has also presented1 in      
another connection1 comparisons of      
entrance examinations with the work of  
freshman and sophomore years1 and in    
these cases his correlations are        
considerably higher1 more nearly        
approximating the results of ,jones4    
,the correlations1 for the four college 
years1 were as follows3 freshman year1  
4#fb2 sophomore year1 4#ej2 junior year1
 4#dg2 senior year1 4#be4  ,apparently  
the only safe conclusion at present is  
that the entrance examinations are      
fairly useful in predicting the early   
college work1 their prognostic value    
becoming less and less as the interval  

between the two measures is increased4  
,this result is of course to be         
expected4 ,in another section of this   
book occasion is taken to show that     
preliminary trials are of little value  
in indicating the relative abilities of 
individuals when they have reached or   
approximated their limit of practice4   
,,ii4 ,are the school subjects in which 
one is most interested in any way an    
indication of the interests and values  
of later life8 ,what1 in general1 are   
the facts concerning the permanence of  
interests and the relation between      
interest and ability8 ,these questions  
are of immediate interest to parents1   
teachers and vocational counsellors4    
,here again we must turn to the work of 
,thorndike for almost the only available
 information1 and even this is only     
preliminary and tentative1 the results  
being subject to various sources of     
error4 ,this investigator studied the   
interests and abilities in mathematics1 
history1 literature1 science1 music1    

drawing and manual work4 ,the original  
records are the judgments of one hundred
 individuals concerning the order of    
their own interests and abilities in    
these subjects at each of three periods 
in their school career1 elementary      
school1 high school and college4 ,these 
various judgments having been made as   
conscientiously as possible1            
correlations were determined between    
interests at different times1 interests 
and abilities1 etc4  ,individual        
relative interests at different times1  
according to these records1 do not vary 
according to mere caprice4 ,a           
correlation of 4#fj or 4#gj seems to be 
approximately the true degree of        
resemblance between the relative degree 
of an interest in a child of from ten to
 fourteen and the same person at        
twenty-one4 ,the resemblance between    
ability in elementary years and ability 
in college is found to be 4#fe4 ,the    
correlation between interest in the last
 three years of elementary school and   

capacity in the college period is       
computed to be about 4#fj4 ,this would  
mean that the early interest would serve
 as a useful indicator of adult         
capacity4 ,the correlation between an   
individual's order of subjects for      
interest and his order for ability is   
one of the closest of any that are known
 7about 4#ij74 ,a person's relative     
interests are an extraordinarily        
accurate symptom of his relative        
capacities4  ,in concluding his report  
,thorndike writes1 ,interests are shown 
to be not only permanent but also       
symptomatic1 to a very great extent1 of 
present and future capacity or ability4 
,either because one likes what he can do
 well1 or because one gives zeal and    
effort to what he likes1 or because     
interest and ability are both symptoms  
of some fundamental feature of the      
individual's original nature1 or because
 of the combined action of all three of 
these factors1 interest and ability are 
bound very close together4 ,the bond is 

so close that either may be used as a   
symptom for the other almost as well as 
for itself4 ,the importance of these    
facts for the whole field of practice   
with respect to early diagnosis1        
vocational guidance1 the work of social 
secretaries1 deans1 advisers1 and others
 who direct students' choices of        
schools1 studies1 and careers is        
obvious4 ,they should be taken account  
of in such practice until they are      
verified or modified by data obtained by
 a better method2 and such data should  
soon be collected4 ,the better method   
is1 of course1 to get the measurements  
of relative interest and of relative    
ability1 not from memory1 but at the    
time1 and not from individuals' reports 
alone1 but by objective tests4  ,,iii4  
,is there any relation between general  
or particular academic aptitude or      
inclination and general or particular   
proficiency in the later domestic1      
industrial1 commercial1 professional or 
civic activities8 ,this question is of  

importance not only to the individual   
and his guide but also to employers1    
agencies and society at large4  ,an     
interesting and significant study       
bearing on this question has been       
reported by ,nicholson1 who investigated
 the relation between academic success  
and prominence in later life4 ,the men  
graduating from ,wesleyan ,university   
during the years #ahcc to #ahii1 #a1ffg 
in number1 were arranged in three       
groups4 ,in the first group were the    
#adj honor men1 who were valedictorians 
or salutatorians of their classes4 ,in  
the second group were placed all the men
 elected to ,phi ,beta ,kappa1 on the   
basis of high scholarship4 ,of these    
there were #dfa4 ,in the third group    
were placed the remaining #a1bjf men4   
,it was then determined how many of     
these men were found in the current     
edition of ,who's ,who1 or were judged1 
by faculty or fellow students1 as having
 been or about to be of sufficient      
distinction to be included in such a    

directory4 ,the results are given in the
 following tabulation4   ,,table #ag    
,,showing ,,the ,,relation ,,between    
,,college ,,honors ,,and ,,inclusion    
,,in ,who's ,who 7,,nicholson7  ,see    
,text for ,explanation                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------  #fdc ,students1 of   
the ,per ,cent ,judged by ,faculty to   
years #ahcc-ahei       be of ,who's ,who
 ,rank                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,honor ,men            
7#ec7           #ej ,p4,b4,k4 ,men      
7#afg7           #cb ,remainder         
7#dgf7            #f                    
----------------------------------------
----------------  #fjd ,students of the 
,per ,cent ,found in #aiad-ae    ,years 
#ahfj-ahhi       ,edition of ,who's ,who
                                        
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,honor ,men            
7#ei7           #dh ,p4,b4,k4 ,men      
7#ahe7           #ca ,remainder         

7#dai7           #aj                    
----------------------------------------
----------------  #dbj ,students of the 
,per ,cent in ,who's ,who or ,judged by 
,years #ahij-ahii   ,classmates as about
 to be ,there4                          
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,honor ,men            
7#bh7           #ej ,p4,b4,k4 ,men      
7#aji7           #cj ,remainder         
7#caa7           #aa                    
----------------------------------------
----------------   ,total of #affg      
,per ,cent with ,distinction ,entitling 
,students            to ,inclusion in   
,who's ,who4                            
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,honor ,men            
7#adj7           #ej ,p4,b4,k4 ,men     
7#dfa7           #ca ,remainder         
7#abjf7            #i                   
----------------------------------------
-----------------  ,referring to these  
results1 ,nicholson remarks1 ,from this 
study of the careers of sixteen hundred 

and sixty-seven graduates1 living and   
dead1 where three different methods are 
employed in determining distinction in  
after life1 it appears that the results 
are fairly constant1 and we are         
justified in assuming that1 for this    
college at least1 the chances of        
distinction for a high honor graduate1  
one of the two or three leading scholars
 of the class1 are just even2 that one  
out of three of those elected to ,phi   
,beta ,kappa is likely to achieve       
pronounced success in life2 and that    
each of the remaining members of the    
class has less than one chance in ten to
 become famous4 ,in other words1 roughly
 speaking1 the quarter 7or the fifth7 of
 the class elected to ,phi ,beta ,kappa 
are likely to supply just as many       
distinguished men as are the remaining  
three-quarters 7now four-fifths7 of the 
class4  ,the study of ,nicholson        
includes only that type of success which
 would be likely to lead to inclusion in
 ,who's ,who1 viz41 the more strictly   

literary1 professional1 political1 and  
academic success4 ,the commercial1      
industrial and business careers are not 
so likely to lead to inclusion in this  
directory1 and yet success in them is no
 less definite than in the professional 
work4 ,it is rather difficult to        
determine the degree to which success in
 these fields is determined by ability  
alone1 and to what degree it is a       
function of chance1 inheritance1 social 
charm1 prestige1 and geographical and   
economic circumstance4 ,nevertheless it 
would be interesting to know whether    
such measure of success as can be       
secured correlates in any way with      
success in the work of school years4    
,in an unpublished study of the         
graduates of ,pratt ,institute1 ,dr4 ,d4
 ,e4 ,rice has compared the grades      
achieved by students in the courses in  
,mechanical ,engineering and ,electrical
 ,engineering with the salaries the men 
were receiving several years after      
graduation4 ,there were in all six      

classes of men1 numbering about forty   
each--three classes from ,mechanical    
,engineering and three from ,electrical 
,engineering1 for the years of #aijg1   
#aijh1 #aiji4 ,the salary reports were  
asked for in #aiac1 four to six years   
after graduation4  ,the men were ranked 
according to the grades they received in
 the eight different subjects included  
in the curriculum1 the grades being #aj1
 #i1 #h1 and #g1 corresponding to the   
ordinary grade system of ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4
 ,they were then ranked according to the
 salary reported at the time of the     
investigation4 ,results for each class  
were treated separately so that the time
 elapsing since graduation was not a    
factor in the results4 ,the following   
table gives the results when these two  
rankings were correlated by two         
statistical methods of computing        
correlation4  ,in every case the        
correlation between grades and salary is
 positive1 although the coefficients are
 all small4 ,this means that in the long

 run there is a general tendency for the
 good salaries to go to the men whose   
grades were high1 but that there are    
many exceptions to the rule4 ,certainly 
in no class is the opposite tendency    
shown1 for the good salaries to go to   
the poor students4 ,it is probable that 
the correlations found here are as low  
as they are partly because in this      
technical school there is no special    
effort made to encourage high grades for
 their own sake1 the emphasis being     
rather on getting a good average rating4
   ,,table #ah  ,,showing ,,the         
,,correlation ,,between ,,school        
,,standing ,,and ,,salaries ,,earned    
,,in ,,later ,,life 7,,rice7  ,see ,text
 for ,explanation                       
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,correlation by    ,correlation by      
,class and ,year ,cases  ,pearson       
,method1 ,per ,cent of ,unlike          
and ,p4,e4       ,signs1 and ,p4,e4     
----------------------------------------

----------------- ,mechanical '#jg   #ce
     4#cf     4#jh     4#bb     4#ji    
,mechanical '#jh   #da     4#be     4#ji
     4#cd     4#jh ,mechanical '#ji     
#ci     4#ba     4#ji     4#jf     4#aj 
,electrical '#jg   #bf     4#af     4#ac
     4#be     4#ab ,electrical '#jh     
#cf     4#df     4#jh     4#ea     4#jh 
,electrical '#ji   #da     4#af     4#aj
     4#bh     4#ji                      
,averages              4#bfg            
4#bgg                                   
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,just what these  
degrees of correlation mean is made     
somewhat more apparent if we treat the  
data in another way4 ,if instead of     
computing coefficients of correlation we
 divide each class of men into four     
quartiles1 and determine the average    
salaries of the men in these quartiles1 
we get very definite results4 ,the upper
 quartile or group will now contain that
 fourth of the class whose grades were  
highest4 ,the second1 third and fourth  

quartiles will in turn represent        
decreasing degrees of academic          
proficiency4 ,if the average salaries   
are the same for all quartiles1 this    
will mean that there is no relation     
between salary and school grades4 ,but  
if the salary varies with the grades1   
this will be a significant result4 ,the 
actual data are as follows3   ,,table   
#ai  ,,rice',s ,,data ,,presented ,,in  
,a ,,revised ,,form                     
----------------------------------------
--------------------                    
,average ,salaries of the  ,class and   
,year,cases-----------------------------
---------                       #ast    
#bnd     #crd     #dth                  
,quartile,quartile,quartile,quartile    
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,mechanical '#jg   #ce 
#ahjj   #afge   #acfb   #achg           
,mechanical '#jh   #da   #adej    #aeab 
#aeab    #abge ,mechanical '#ji   #ci   
#acge    #abfb    #acac    #aacg        
,electrical '#jg   #bf   #agej    #afge 

#afge    #adab ,electrical '#jh   #cf   
#badg    #adcg    #abfb    #abfb        
,electrical '#ji   #da   #adfb    #abab 
#achg    #abjj                          
,averages           #affd   #adfb       
#adah   #abgi                           
,percentages         #ajj     #hg       
#he     #gf                             
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,if the separate  
classes be now considered the results   
are seen to be more or less irregular1  
although the general tendency is        
apparent4 ,if the average results from  
all six classes are considered the      
results are more reliable as well as    
more uniform4 ,the average salary varies
 in the same way as do the grades4 ,if  
the average salary of the men of the    
first quartile 7#a1ffd7 be taken as a   
basis of comparison and considered one  
hundred per cent1 then the salaries of  
the men in the second1 third and fourth 
quartiles are respectively only         
eighty-seven1 eighty-five and           

seventy-six per cent of this amount4 ,in
 general terms1 the salary of the men in
 the lower or poorest quarter of the    
class1 from the point of view of school 
grades1 will be only three-fourths the  
salary of the men in the upper or best  
quarter4 ,the two middle quartiles will 
differ but little from each other1      
although the second has the advantage1  
by two per cent1 or #dd1 over the third 
quarter4  ,if the class be divided into 
a better and a poorer half1 then the    
average salary of the men in the upper  
half is seen to be #a1efc1 while that of
 the men in the lower half is only      
#a1cdh4 ,the men in the upper half earn 
#bae more in a year than the men in the 
lower half4 ,this way of expressing the 
results is both clearer and more        
concrete than the mere statement of the 
coefficient of correlation4             
,interesting data on all three of these 
preceding questions are to be found in  
,a4 ,lawrence ,lowell's study of the    
academic careers of students in ,harvard

 ,college1 ,law ,school and ,medical    
,school4 ,this investigation included an
 examination into the college entrance  
examinations1 the records attained      
during the college course1 the subjects 
elected in this course1 and the         
subsequent achievement of the men in the
 professional schools of law and        
medicine4 ,the statistics cover the     
cases of all men who took the degree of 
,a4 ,b4 at ,harvard and then graduated  
from the two professional schools       
connected with ,harvard4 ,only men who  
had taken at least three years of       
college work in residence were included4
 ,the records for the ,law ,school cover
 the twenty years from #ahia to #aiaj4  
,those for the ,medical ,school cover   
the sixteen years from #ahie forward4   
,the college gives degrees indicating   
four grades of distinction on the basis 
of scholarship4 ,these are indicated as 
plain1 cum laude1 magna cum laude and   
summa cum laude4 ,the two professional  
schools grant degrees with two grades of

 distinction1 viz41 plain and cum laude4
  ,lowell assumes that the grade        
attained on the college entrance        
examinations indicates with a certain   
degree of correctness the natural       
scholarly abilities of the student4 ,the
 course of studies elected during       
college reflects roughly the general    
interests of the student at that time4  
,the college records indicate his       
ability in the pursuit of those studies1
 including under ability such things as 
persistence1 patience1 fidelity1 zeal1  
as well as native intelligence4 ,the    
records in the professional schools are 
taken as indicating quite approximately 
the student's real ability to achieve   
success in the particular professional  
work of the technical sort4  ,all       
students are consequently classified    
according to these various factors4 ,the
 entrance examinations are divided into 
clear and conditioned4 ,the college     
degrees and the professional degrees are
 classified on the basis of the degree  

of distinction awarded4 ,all students   
are also classified on the basis of     
their election of the four possible     
college courses3 7a7 literature and     
languages2 7b7 natural sciences2 7c7    
history and political science2 7d7      
philosophy and mathematics4 ,the        
relations between these various         
classifications are then presented1 and 
analyzed in various ways4  ,thus it is  
shown that there is very little or no   
relation between the college course     
elected and the probability of achieving
 a degree cum laude in the professional 
schools4 ,the figures are summed up in  
the following table3   ,,table #bj      
,,showing ,,relation ,,between ,,course 
,,elected ,,in ,,college ,,and ,,honors 
,,received ,,in ,,subsequent ,,years    
,,in ,,professional ,,schools 7,,lowell7
                                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------                       
,degree in ,law   ,degree in ,medical   
,school          ,school  ,course       

,pursued                                
-----------------------------------     
,plain,cum ,laude,plain,cum ,laude      
----------------------------------------
------------- ,lit4 and ,lang4          
#hja #ahj 7#ah4d7 #ade #aff 7#ec4d7     
,nat4 ,science          #ai   #c 7#ac4f7
  #ge  #ha 7#ea4i7 ,hist4 and ,pol4     
,sci4  #fbg #abi 7#ag4a7  #cj  #bj      
7#dd4d7 ,phil4 and ,math         #h  #aa
 7#eg4i7   #f   #g 7#ec4h7              
----------------------------------------
-----------------  ,the figures suggest 
that as a preparation for the study of  
law or medicine it makes comparatively  
little difference what subject is mainly
 pursued in college4 ,that is to say1   
college interests in natural sciences1  
as indicated by the election of that    
course1 does not indicate special       
aptitude for the work of medicine2 nor  
does the election of courses in history 
and political science indicate a        
necessary superiority in the more or    
less related work of law4 ,lowell shows 

that only during the first year or so of
 the medical school do those who have   
already specialized in natural sciences 
have any advantage over those medical   
students who have specialized in other  
subjects4  ,what is the relation between
 the men's records in college and their 
achievement in the professional schools8
 ,in the following table are given the  
number of college men of each degree of 
distinction who were awarded cum laude  
in the professional schools3   ,,table  
#ba  ,,showing ,,relation ,,between     
,,college ,,honors ,,and ,,honors ,,in  
,,the ,,professional ,,schools          
7,,lowell7                              
----------------------------------------
-------   ,record in ,college ,number   
,awarded ,cum ,laude                    
in ,law                                 
----------------------------------------
------ #fji ,plain ,degree       #dj    
#f4f #cje ,cum ,laude          #fh      
#bb4c #bjj ,magna ,cum ,laude    #hj    
#dj4j  #cc ,summa ,cum ,laude    #bj    

#fj4j                                   
----------------------------------------
------   ,record in ,college ,number    
,awarded ,cum ,laude                    
in ,medicine                            
----------------------------------------
------ #bci ,plain              #hf     
#cf4j  #he ,cum ,laude          #fe     
#gf4e  #ci ,magna ,cum ,laude    #cd    
#hg4b   #b ,summa ,cum ,laude     #b    
#ajj4j                                  
----------------------------------------
-------  ,it is apparent at once that   
there is a close relation between the   
college records and the records in the  
professional schools4 ,both in law and  
in medicine those who are awarded honors
 tend largely to be those who were      
awarded honors in college4 ,and the     
higher the college honors1 the greater  
the percentage of men receiving honors  
in the professional schools4  ,we may   
now ask how far back in the academic    
careers of these men it is possible to  
predict their probable achievement in   

the professional schools4 ,have those   
who are awarded the professional honors 
already distinguished themselves from   
their fellows at the time of their      
entrance into college8 ,the following   
summary of the results presented by     
,lowell in much more detail will help   
answer this question3   ,,table #bb     
,,showing ,,relations ,,between         
,,various ,,academic ,,records          
7,,lowell7  ,men ,graduating from the   
,law ,school and ,receiving ,cum ,laude 
in ,law                                 
,per cent                               
----------------------------------------
-------------------- ,entered college   
clear                                   
#bf4d ,entered college conditioned      
#i4j ,graduated from college with       
distinction               #ca4b         
,graduated from college without         
distinction             #f4e ,entrance  
clear and college distinction           
#cg4i ,entrance conditioned and college 
with distinction     #ah4a ,entrance    

clear and college without distinction   
#aa4a ,entrance conditioned and college 
without distinction   #b4i              
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,men ,graduating  
from the ,medical ,school and ,receiving
 ,cum ,laude in ,medicine               
,per cent                               
----------------------------------------
-------------------- ,entered college   
clear                                   
#ei4a ,entered college conditioned      
#dc4j ,graduated from college with      
distinction               #hj4a         
,graduated from college without         
distinction            #cf4j ,entrance  
clear and college distinction           
#gh4a ,entrance conditioned and college 
distinction          #hd4f ,entrance    
clear and college without distinction   
#db4d ,entrance conditioned and college 
without distinction  #ca4d              
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,here the result  
is clearly suggested that early merit in

 academic work means success in the     
professional schools1 whether one       
considers entrance examinations or      
college records4 ,and the most probable 
group for professional honors is made up
 of those men who combined both entrance
 and college distinction4 ,this is      
especially striking in the case of the  
law school4 ,in the case of the medical 
school the differences are not quite so 
great1 although the general tendency is 
quite the same4 ,this is said to be due 
to the lower standard required for      
medical honors during these years4      
,lowell concludes3 ,the men who are     
destined to take the highest rank in the
 law and medical schools are markedly   
better scholars1 both in the preparatory
 schools and in college1 than their     
fellows4 ,in intellectual power1 as in  
other things1 the boy is father to the  
man4  ,on the whole1 then1 all these    
studies point in a consistent direction2
 those who are destined to achieve      
distinction and success begin to do so  

at an early age4 ,whether measured by   
achievement in academic courses1 honors 
in professional and technical courses1  
salary earned after graduation1 or      
inclusion among lists and directories of
 eminent men1 success in later life is  
suggested by success in the early work  
of the school curriculum4 ,in spite of  
frequent comments to the contrary1 the  
school curriculum would seem to         
constitute a useful test in             
prognosticating at least the most       
probable quality of the individual's    
later work4  ,but our original three    
questions are at present answered with  
very unequal reliability4 ,with respect 
to the relation between early success or
 failure in elementary school subjects  
and success or failure in handling more 
advanced subject matter1 the evidence is
 clear and definite4  ,on the question  
as to the permanence of interests and   
the relation between interest and       
ability1 the evidence is far from       
adequate for vocational purposes4 ,while

 the conclusion suggested is positive in
 ,thorndike's study1 the investigator   
recognizes that the results require     
confirmation or refutation at the hands 
of more reliable and verifiable         
information4 ,it has appeared fairly    
certain that interest1 as reflected in  
choice of college subjects1 bears no    
relation to ability to undertake the    
work of at least two definite branches  
of professional training4  ,on the third
 question1 concerning the relation      
between general or particular academic  
aptitude or inclination and general or  
particular proficiency in later         
domestic1 industrial1 commercial1       
professional or civic activities1 the   
data1 although consistent1 are far from 
complete4 ,here1 then1 as in so many    
other aspects of vocational psychology1 
we find an inviting field of research   
and an abundance of interesting         
problems4  ,,footnotes3  #ac            
,educational ,review1 ,september1 #aiad4
     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the              

,,determinants ,,of ,,vocational        
,,aptitude   ,without attempting to     
distinguish between the different       
detailed occupations1 either on the     
basis of materials dealt with1 the      
social or individual purposes realized1 
or the special qualifications demanded1 
we can still divide vocations broadly   
into five general types1 depending on   
the degree to which they are likely to  
call for complete and normal            
psychological equipment4 ,such a        
classification is of little service in  
the concrete guidance of individuals1   
since the general types include work of 
the most diverse sorts2 but it may be   
useful in suggesting the various types  
of qualities that are of vital          
importance in determining aptitude for  
any work at all1 and may in this way aid
 in outlining the work of further       
investigation4  #a4 ,in the first place 
there are many useful and remunerative  
types of labor which can be performed by
 a domesticated animal or an imbecile1  

when working under constant or close    
supervision4 ,hauling loads1 mowing     
grass1 felling timber1 sawing wood1     
digging holes1 breaking stone1 weaving  
doormats1 and the simple types of work  
commonly performed in institutions for  
the mentally deficient are instances4   
,the detection of individuals thus      
poorly equipped1 their congregation and 
segregation under supervision1 and their
 useful employment1 are at once         
psychologically easy and economically   
desirable1 as has already been indicated
 in detail in ,chapter ,,iii4  #b4      
,somewhat more abundant and diversified 
are those forms of employment for the   
unspecialized mental competent4 ,this   
requires only a sufficient degree of    
intelligence to enable the individual to
 escape classification as a mental      
incompetent4 ,one who is capable of     
earning a living under favorable        
circumstances1 in the absence of        
aggressive competition and without close
 supervision1 can find his or her level 

in the blind alley occupations4 ,these  
offer no prospects of promotion to      
positions of responsibility and skill1  
and by definition1 this group of        
individuals afford suitable workers for 
these occupations4 ,they fill the gap   
between the feeble-minded and that      
degree of intelligence which the most   
moderately endowed average individual   
typifies4 ,rough clerking and attending1
 simple personal and domestic service1  
delivering goods of small value1 laundry
 work of the mechanical sort1 supervised
 manual and agricultural labor1 waiting 
on domesticated animals1 standardized   
and mechanical factory operations1      
wrapping1 cleaning1 polishing1 petty    
shop-keeping1 running errands and       
freight elevators1 street cleaning1     
janitorial assistance1 etc41 are forms  
of work about equally difficult and     
satisfying4 ,they do not involve the    
acquisition of special skill or         
technical knowledge and they are capable
 of performance1 in the main1 by almost 

any physically able person above the    
status of feeble-mindedness4 ,we may    
expect that in the very near future     
there will be provided standardized     
scales for the determination of general 
intelligence of this degree4 ,even now  
it is fairly easy to select from a group
 of children those who1 while not       
positively mentally defective1 are      
nevertheless slow of comprehension1     
stupid1 unable to acquire new knowledge 
and skill with facility1 and perhaps    
disinclined or unable to form the moral 
and social habits of honesty1           
cleanliness1 promptness1 truthfulness   
and economy4 ,since these can fill the  
blind alley occupations with fair       
satisfaction they should be guided into 
the first available positions of this   
kind4  ,thorndike has advocated a series
 of tests1 experience with which leads  
him to say3  ,suppose that the general  
intellectual ability of the dullest men 
who are able to support and look after  
themselves 7men who though temperate and

 strong earn say #djj a year in good    
times in ,new ,york ,city7 be           
represented by a and that of ,aristotle 
or ,goethe by ab1 the difference1 b1    
being #ajj4 ,then the amount of such    
ability assigned by the tests alone     
would not1 on the average1 vary from the
 individual's true amount by more than  
#e2 and would not vary therefrom by more
 than #ad in one case out of a hundred4 
,the #e and #ad are very cautious       
estimates1 #d and #aa being probably    
nearer what such an experiment would in 
fact reveal4  ,he further remarks1      
,there is excellent reason to believe   
that it is literally true that the      
result of two hours' tests properly     
chosen from those already tested gives a
 better diagnosis of an educated adult's
 general intellectual ability than the  
result of the judgments of two teachers 
or friends who have observed him in the 
ordinary course of life each for a      
thousand hours4#ad ,interesting         
applications of tests of this general   

character have been reported by ,scott4 
,workers of various kinds1 such as      
salesmen and clerks1 were graded by     
their employers or supervisors on the   
basis of their actual ability at their  
task4 ,it was possible in some cases to 
get very accurate objective measures of 
ability to sell goods1 etc41 by keeping 
records of achievement over a           
considerable period of time4 ,these     
objective measures have been compared   
with the results of psychological tests 
administered at the time the men were   
employed4 ,positive correlations ranging
 in several instances as high as 4#hj to
 4#ij were secured4 ,this means that    
ability in the performance of the       
particular mental tests used was a very 
reliable sign of ability in the field4  
,various instances similar to these have
 already been described in ,chapter #e4 
#c4 ,if1 as seems quite likely1 it be   
ultimately demonstrated that there are  
some characteristics1 aptitudes and     
capacities that depend directly on      

congenital endowment1 special nervous   
and sensory characteristics of a        
valuable kind1 we may mark off another  
group of occupations for which          
particular individuals are well adapted1
 though not exclusively so1 by original 
nature4 ,among the traits which have    
been said to occur in some such direct  
hereditary way1 or as the result of     
unexplained mutation or deviation from  
type1 are3 mathematical aptitude1       
ability in drawing1 musical composition1
 singing1 poetic reaction1 military     
strategy1 chess playing4 ,maternity1 as 
a vocation1 is of course strictly sex   
limited4 ,pitch discrimination seems to 
depend on structural factors which are  
not susceptible of improvement by       
practice4 ,the same may be said of      
various forms of professional athletic  
achievement4 ,color blindness seems to  
be an instance of the conspicuous       
absence of such a unit characteristic4  
,poets1 it is said1 are born1 not made4 
,many of these apparent unit            

characteristics are so relatively       
independent that they often occur in    
quite surprising degree in individuals  
who are otherwise imbecilic4            
,mathematical1 musical1 graphic and     
decorative aptitudes1 mechanical memory1
 and certain types of manual dexterity  
and mechanical cunning are frequently   
exhibited by the idiot savant4 ,by the  
idiot savant is meant an individual who 
is in most respects mentally defective1 
who perhaps cannot dress himself1 cannot
 adequately learn to speak or write1 but
 who possesses some particular ability  
to a surprising degree4 ,such           
individuals may be able to perform on   
various musical instruments1 to compose 
music1 to sketch designs and objects in 
an imitative manner1 to remember long   
lists of disconnected names or numbers1 
to weave acceptably such articles as    
rugs and scarfs1 or to construct        
complicated mechanical objects such as  
furniture1 pumps1 and sailing vessels4  
,cases of rare possession of unit       

characters constitute the genius of     
ordinary conversation4 ,these seem to   
present no problem for vocational       
psychology4 ,their marked unusualness   
renders them sufficiently obvious1 even 
to the individual who does not          
systematically analyze himself4 ,such a 
prodigy requires a generous friend and  
an opportunity rather than a vocational 
expert4  #d4 ,there remain two further  
types of work1 in which vocational      
psychology really finds its true task4  
,there are on the one hand a large      
number of occupations that require      
neither unusual intelligence1 special   
aptitude1 nor technical training1 such  
as those of the small tradesmen1        
responsible clerks1 collectors1         
watchmen1 agents1 solicitors1 motormen1 
conductors1 soldiers1 cashiers1 cooks1  
nursemaids1 etc4 ,above all1 these types
 of work require the moral and social   
virtues1 such as honesty1 courtesy1     
truthfulness1 patience1 promptness1     
cleanliness1 etc4 ,their lack of need of

 special technical knowledge is         
indicated by the apprenticeship method  
by which most of them are commonly      
begun4 ,also1 the absence of simple and 
direct tests of the presence of these   
moral and social virtues and habits     
requires that for a long time to come   
this method of trial1 combined with the 
judgments of associates in the form of  
testimonial1 personal recommendation1   
etc41 must be continued4 ,if psychology1
 in the immediate or remote future1     
shall ever discover or invent expedient 
tests for the measurements of these     
moral characteristics1 it will have done
 a work that is at present equaled only 
by the formation of the various graded  
scales for measuring more strictly      
intellectual capacities4 ,at present no 
such tests are vouched for by even the  
most enthusiastic of prophets4  #e4     
,finally1 and closely related to these  
occupations calling mainly for moral    
habits and social reactions1 come the   
bulk of the world's occupations1 those  

adequately performed by and constituting
 the permanent task of the man or woman 
of average intelligence4 ,by average    
intelligence we do not of course imply  
any uniform or standardized homogeneous 
equipment4 ,we mean those varying       
degrees of intellectual proficiency1    
educative docility1 social              
cooperativeness and instinctive adequacy
 which fill the major section of the    
curve of distribution1 that between the 
feeble-minded and obviously stupid1 on  
the one hand1 and on the other the      
genius1 with special and distinguished  
traits or capacities4  ,in these        
occupations the degree of intelligence  
is by no means the sole determinant of  
either successful or satisfactory       
performance4 ,temperamental             
characteristics1 such as those          
enumerated by ,schneider and by         
,thorndike1 the local and wandering     
inclinations1 active and sedentary      
dispositions1 tendencies to             
competitiveness1 imitation1             

suggestibility1 sympathy1 curiosity1 and
 the entire series of instinctive       
propensities1 dominant original or      
acquired types of satisfaction and      
annoyance1 attitudinal1 volitional and  
emotional differences1 and the moral and
 social traits1 such as persistence1    
frankness1 piety1 loyalty1 zeal1 all    
these may be expected to combine in     
varying relations of compensation and   
reenforcement1 substitution and         
facilitation4 ,what one lacks in        
quickness it is often possible to make  
up in persistence2 what another lacks in
 ambition and competitiveness he may    
supply in the form of loyalty and zeal2 
relative intellectual inferiority is    
often and easily balanced by the display
 of social charm2 persistent1           
well-directed and enthusiastic effort or
 even a good vocabulary may enable one  
to compete successfully with the        
exceptional genius who does not display 
these incentives or advantages4  ,in the
 proposals to direct individuals into   

their proper life careers1 the advocates
 have quite commonly failed to make     
sufficient allowance for the            
overwhelming importance of incentive1   
motive1 attitude and purpose1 and the   
large role they play in determining the 
possible achievements of a nervous      
system4 ,it is well enough to test the  
memory span1 attention type1 and        
reaction time of an applicant for a job 
as motorman on a street car4 ,it is     
still more important to learn the       
strength of his instinctive competitive 
reactions1 to measure the degree of his 
belief in hell or in socialism1 or the  
firmness of his intention to effect the 
higher education of his children4 ,by   
more important ,i mean better calculated
 to reveal his fitness for the work4 ,i 
would rather trust my life and limb to a
 motorman whose feeble memory span is   
reenforced by a loyal devotion to the   
comfort of his grandmother than to a    
mnemonic prodigy whose chief actuating  
motive in life is to be a good fellow4  

,these comments should not be construed 
as an underestimation of the usefulness 
of the simple intellectual test as a    
preliminary precaution in engaging      
employees or in detecting extreme       
departures from the mode or average4    
,the use of such tests in discovering   
such departures and variants as idiocy1 
imbecility and general stupidity has    
been amply justified by experience with 
them4 ,but we are primarily concerned   
here with the determination of          
individual differences and              
qualifications within the large middle  
range of the curve of distribution4 ,my 
conviction is that1 in the case of the  
average individual1 we must either3  #a4
 ,demonstrate that these important      
non-rational determinants of vocational 
aptitude and satisfaction correlate     
very1 very closely with more strictly   
intellectual capacity2  #b4 ,postpone   
the entire work of vocational guidance  
in these cases1 on the basis of         
psychological examination1 until that   

distant day when these characteristics  
can be approached by means of scales and
 norms2 or  #c4 ,otherwise guidance must
 rest1 as it now largely does in        
democratic communities1 on the broad    
knowledge of opportunity afforded by    
industrial and pre-vocational training1 
the encouragement of thorough and       
systematic self-scrutiny1 and the method
 of repeated trials4  ,the first of     
these alternatives has scarcely been    
attempted2 the second will probably not 
occur in our immediate generation2 the  
third we have had always with us4  ,it  
is important to note that the           
employments here referred to are not    
blind alley occupations4 ,they all offer
 possibilities of promotion and         
advancement which in the main are so    
open to competition that the individual 
inevitably tends to reach that level of 
responsibility1 independence1           
opportunity and remuneration which his  
total equipment merits4 ,it is also     
important that promotion or advancement 

by no means implies the continued use of
 the particular traits which            
distinguished the individual from his   
fellows on the lower levels of          
achievement4 ,thus the boy who enters   
business as a responsible clerk may     
often move on through the work of sales 
management1 buying1 general promotion1  
superintendency1 and ultimate           
partnership4 ,the capable artisan or    
mechanic may proceed from the work of   
general helper to that of special expert
 workman1 foreman1 superintendent1      
inspector1 contractor1 and commissioner 
of public works or postmaster general4  
,marked boyhood propensities for        
wood-work indicate neither that the lad 
is capable of moving through these very 
diverse steps of promotion1 nor1 on the 
other hand1 that he must forever remain 
a journeyman or an expert workman4      
,progress in these vocations does not   
then imply1 in fact almost never does   
imply1 merely increasing the quantity or
 quality of the work at which one       

starts4 ,the promotion of a teacher is  
often from teaching and disciplining    
classes satisfactorily1 to clerical     
assistance in the principal's office1   
the principalship1 general school       
superintendence1 administrative         
counselling and public lecturing1 or the
 college or national presidency4 ,the   
case of the teacher of biology who      
becomes the principal of a commercial   
high school is not at all unprecedented4
 ,for occupations of this character and 
for this main group of average          
individuals it is indeed hopeless to    
seek for vocational psychographs4 ,it is
 here if anywhere that the general      
principle holds that one who does       
anything well could have done almost    
anything else well if he had cared to   
try4 ,but the degree to which one cares 
is not measured by reaction time or     
cancellation tests4 ,the question of the
 degree to which ability of one sort    
implies ability of other sorts is one of
 the several matters to be considered in

 a later chapter4  ,this fivefold       
division of the vocations is based on   
the degree to which the tasks involved  
require complete and normal             
psychological equipment4 ,the foregoing 
consideration of these five main        
occupational groups may be said to      
constitute a brief summary of the       
present outstanding results of          
vocational psychology4 ,the mentally    
incompetent can easily be discovered at 
an early age by the use of the graded   
intelligence scales4 ,their subsequent  
direction into forms of useful work     
appropriate to their degree of defect is
 not a psychological enterprise1 but1   
rather1 a civic obligation and          
industrial economy4 ,the apparently     
small group of individuals who are by   
original nature fitted for the pursuit  
of work involving special or unit       
characters will1 whether otherwise      
incompetent or generally capable1       
commonly demonstrate their unique       
abilities without the application of    

psychological technique4 ,the much      
larger group of unspecialized workers1  
requiring rather higher degrees of      
mental competence1 may be chosen without
 difficulty with the aid of the standard
 mental scales and norms1 their academic
 records1 and the judgments of their    
associates4 ,these may be guided into   
such tasks as involve mainly a moderate 
degree of intellectual capacity and make
 no notable demand for the exercise of  
the social and moral virtues4 ,the      
vocational psychology of the future will
 find its chief problems in dealing with
 the numerous and permanent tasks       
requiring workers who1 in addition to   
their varying degrees of strictly       
intellectual proficiency1 possess       
particular or complete instinctive1     
emotional and volitional equipment1 and 
who are amenable to those social and    
educational agencies which seek to      
impress upon them the moral virtues of  
their community and age4  ,,footnotes3  
#ad ,the series of tests proposed1 and  

an especially clear discussion of the   
problems1 methods and characteristic    
results of these tests1 is to be found  
in ,science1 ,jan4 #bd1 #aiac1 pp4      
#acc-adb1 in ,thorndike's article on    
,educational ,diagnosis4     ,,chapter  
,x  ,,the ,,vocational ,,aptitudes ,,of 
,,women  ,by  ,,leta ,,stetter          
,,hollingworth1 ,,ph4 ,d4  ,bellevue    
,hospital1 ,new ,york ,city   ,it is    
customary for authors1 in discussing    
vocational problems1 to assume that the 
vocational future of girls is determined
 in advance by the fact of sex4 ,not    
infrequently the lack of provision for  
domestic training in our high schools   
and colleges is indicated at length1 and
 suggestions for establishing the       
domestic arts and sciences on a firmer  
basis in the educational system are     
advanced4 ,some paragraphs may be       
devoted to a discussion of the          
statistics which show that thousands of 
girls go from school into industry1 and 
to an inquiry as to what training is    

best fitted to assist them in earning a 
living for the period intervening       
between graduation and matrimony4 ,with 
this the discussion of vocational       
problems ends1 so far as girls are      
concerned1 and the remaining space is   
given over to more adequate             
consideration of the vocational         
aptitudes and guidance of boys4  ,it is 
the purpose of this chapter to inquire  
whether there are any innate and        
essential sex differences in tastes and 
abilities1 which would afford a         
scientific basis for the apparently     
arbitrary and traditional assumption    
that the vocational future of all girls 
must naturally fall in the domestic     
sphere1 and consequently presents no    
problem1 while the future of boys is    
entirely problematical1 and may lie in  
any one of a score of different         
callings1 according to personal fitness4
 ,we shall try to determine whether the 
present expectation that all women will 
follow the same vocation1 i4 e41        

housekeeping1 is founded on any fact or 
facts of human intellect1 or whether it 
arises merely from ideas of traditional 
expediency connected with the care of   
the young1 and whether it leads to a    
waste of energy and of intellectual     
talents4  ,the discussion will take the 
form of five general questions1 together
 with the answers which are to be made  
to each in the light of experimental    
psychology3 7#a7 ,are there innate sex  
differences in average intelligence8    
7#b7 ,is either sex more variable than  
the other in mental traits8 7#c7 ,are   
there any special causes of intellectual
 inefficiency affecting one sex but not 
the other8 7#d7 ,are there any sex      
differences in affective or instinctive 
equipment which would naturally lead to 
vocational differentiation of the sexes8
 7#e7 ,what explanation is to be given  
of the traditional division of labor    
between the sexes8  ,it will be         
necessary at the outset to draw a clear 
distinction between the literature of   

opinion and the literature of fact4 ,the
 literature of opinion includes all     
written statements1 made by scientific  
men and others1 not based on            
experimental evidence4 ,the literature  
of opinion on the subject of sex        
differences in mental traits is         
voluminous4 ,it appears in the writings 
of ,nietzsche1 ,schopenhauer1 ,mill1    
,moebius1 and others4 ,by the literature
 of fact is meant those written         
statements based on experimental data1  
which have been obtained under carefully
 controlled conditions1 and which may be
 verified by anyone competent to        
understand and criticize them4 ,in this 
chapter we shall seek the answers to the
 propounded questions in the literature 
of fact alone1 neglecting as irrelevant 
to the discussion the entire literature 
of opinion4  ,since the discussion is   
limited to the literature of fact1 it   
will of necessity refer only to         
literature of a comparatively recent    
date4 ,until about fifteen years ago    

there had been practically no attempt to
 collect precise data on the subject of 
sex differences in mental abilities4    
,before experimental data were sought   
the hypothesis was accepted that human  
females are1 by original nature1        
different from and inferior to human    
males1 intellectually4 ,the factor of   
sex determined everything2 the way to   
discover whether a given individual was 
capable of any given intellectual task  
was not to let the individual undertake 
the task and to judge by the result1 but
 to indicate the sex of the person in   
question4  ,coincident with the intense 
controversy which rose in the nineteenth
 century over the higher education of   
women1 a number of statistical studies  
were carried on by the questionnaire    
method4 ,these were followed by         
experimental studies1 and at the opening
 of the twentieth century several       
experiments were being made to          
investigate the matter of sex           
differences in intellect4 ,about this   

time also the idea began to gain headway
 that whatever differences exist between
 the sexes as we find them in the world 
may be due to training and not to       
original nature2 and it began to be     
pointed out that this aspect of the     
matter complicates even experimental    
investigation in ways difficult to      
control4  ,we may speak here of the     
experiments on brain weight which were  
published and much discussed about      
thirty years ago4 ,romanes1 among       
others1 insisted that the male brain    
was1 on the average1 several grams      
heavier than the female brain1 and for a
 time it was supposed that the fact of  
innate female inferiority had been thus 
satisfactorily established4 ,however1 it
 was later demonstrated that relative to
 total body weight the female brain is  
as heavy as the male brain4 ,it was also
 found that no positive correlation can 
be established between brain weight and 
intellect4  ,in #aijf ,helen ,bradford  
,thompson published her dissertation1   

from ,chicago ,university1 entitled ,the
 ,mental ,traits of ,sex4 ,this volume  
gives a summary of the scattered bits of
 experimental work done previous to that
 time1 and presents her numerous        
experiments on a group of men and a     
group of women at ,chicago ,university4 
,the result of her tests in various     
mental traits is that the differences   
between the sexes were in no case as    
great as the individual differences     
within either sex4 ,men differed from   
each other in these experiments 7as did 
women also1 among themselves71 as much  
as men differed from women4 ,in only two
 of the many traits tested was a        
reliable difference found between the   
central tendencies of the sexes4 ,in    
speed of voluntary movement 7tapping7   
men were quicker than women1 and in     
memory women were superior to men4 ,on  
the whole1 however1 the result indicated
 equality of mental ability between the 
sexes4#ae ,it will be enough for the    
present purposes to say that after about

 twenty years of collecting data by     
scientific experiment1 the hypothesis   
that there is any innate sex difference 
in average intellectual ability has been
 abandoned by all psychologists who base
 their statements on scientific         
evidence4 ,for example1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,l4    
,thorndike1 in the most recent edition  
of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiad71    
writes as follows1 in summing up the    
experimental work on sex differences in 
average intellectual ability3  ,the most
 important characteristic of these      
differences is their small amount4 ,the 
individual differences within either sex
 so enormously outweigh any difference  
between the sexes that for all practical
 purposes any such difference may be    
disregarded4444 ,as is well known the   
experiments of the past generation in   
educating women have shown their equal  
competence in school work of elementary1
 secondary and collegiate grade4444 ,the
 psychologist's measurements lead to the
 conclusion that this equality of       

achievement comes from an equality of   
natural gifts1 not from an overstraining
 of the lesser talents of women4  ,thus 
our first question1 ,are there innate   
sex differences in average intelligence1
 which would call for differentiation of
 vocations on the ground of sex8 may be 
thus answered3 ,so far as the literature
 of fact tells us1 we know of no        
considerable sex differences in average 
mental ability4 ,the evidence of        
experimental science 7and on this point 
there is now a large amount of evidence 
available7 shows that by the test of    
averages the sexes have equal ability to
 perform mental tasks4  ,our second     
question1 ,is there a sex difference in 
variability in mental traits which would
 call for a differentiation of vocation 
on the ground of sex8 has not been so   
long1 nor so thoroughly investigated by 
experimentalists as has the first       
question4 ,what we are trying to        
discover here is whether1 when tested in
 any given mental trait1 a group of boys

 will differ more from one another than 
will a group of girls 7similarly        
selected and equal in number7 differ    
from one another4 ,in other words1 are  
the members of one sex very much alike  
in tastes1 interests and abilities1     
while the members of the other sex      
differ over a wide range of tastes1     
interests and abilities8 ,obviously this
 might be the case1 though the two      
groups yielded an average exactly the   
same in such traits4 ,the answer to this
 second question will be of decided     
significance for vocational guidance4   
,for example1 if it were shown by       
experimental data that human females    
are1 by original nature1 rather closely 
alike1 whereas human males differ from  
one another by wide extremes1 we should 
have scientific grounds for concluding  
that social justice and social economy  
are well served by the present policy of
 guiding all females into a single      
occupation1 while males are encouraged  
to enter the greatest possible variety  

of callings4  ,the first discussion of  
the comparative variability of the sexes
 was broached about a century ago by an 
anatomist1 ,meckel4 ,it is very         
interesting 7as well as amusing71 in    
view of subsequent ideas about          
variability1 to note what ,meckel said4 
,he thought the human female to be more 
variable than the human male1 and he    
opined that1 since woman is the inferior
 animal and variability is a sign of    
inferiority1 the conclusion was         
justified6 ,fifty years later1 when     
,darwin put a different face upon       
variability1 showing it to be an        
advantage and a characteristic affording
 the greatest hope for progress1 the    
greater variability of the male began to
 be affirmed everywhere in the          
literature of opinion4 ,karl ,pearson   
alone took issue with this view1 which  
was current in the nineteenth century   
and is still widely credited1 and       
pointed out that there existed as yet no
 literature of fact regarding           

comparative variability 7though men of  
science had not on this account         
restrained themselves from uttering the 
most positive statements concerning it74
 ,pearson thereupon actually gathered   
and computed hundreds of measurements of
 human beings1 and presented his results
 in #ahig1 in a comprehensive article   
entitled ,variation in ,man and ,woman4 
,he clearly demonstrated that there is1 
in fact1 no indication of greater male  
variability1 when actual anatomical     
measurements of adult human beings are  
treated with mathematical insight4      
,immediately ,havelock ,ellis1 whose    
opinions were chiefly affected by       
,pearson's article1 replied that when   
adults are made the subject of          
investigation1 no information is gained 
regarding the matter of inherent or     
original differences in variability4    
,since birth1 life and death1 on account
 of social customs1 etc41 affect the    
sexes unequally1 no one can say1 in the 
case of adults1 how much may be due to  

environment and how much to original    
nature4 ,if ,ellis had thought of this  
criticism before he wrote his own book1 
,man and ,woman1 his chapter on ,the    
,variational ,tendency of ,men would    
certainly not have been published4      
,however1 his criticism of ,pearson's   
material is no less just because he     
failed to apply it in his own case4 ,it 
is true that measurements of adults do  
not tell us what might be the case with 
infants1 who have not yet been subjected
 to the formative and selective         
influences of environment and training4 
,yet ,pearson's article remained        
practically the only literature of fact 
regarding the comparative anatomical    
variability of the sexes until the year 
#aiad4 ,in #aiad ,montague and          
,hollingworth published in the ,american
 ,journal of ,sociology an article      
setting forth in full the measurements  
of two thousand new-born infants1 one   
thousand of each sex4 ,the statistical  
result shows no difference whatever in  

variability between the sexes4  ,it may 
seem irrelevant to dwell upon anatomical
 data1 when the purpose of this chapter 
is to deal with mental aptitudes4 ,the  
pertinence of the data cited1 however1  
lies in the fact that if any sex        
difference in physical variability could
 be established1 this would suggest     
7though it would not prove7 the         
existence of a sex difference in mental 
variability also4 ,no experimental      
studies have ever been made for the     
express purpose of determining whether  
there exist sex differences in mental   
variability4 ,such scattered data as we 
possess have come incidentally from     
studies made with some other chief      
purpose in view4 ,such data were        
collected and summarized in the         
,american ,journal of ,sociology for    
,january1 #aiad4 ,there was at that time
 very little evidence that could be     
cited on this subject1 but such as there
 was gave no ground for maintaining the 
existence of any sex difference in      

variability4 ,since #aiad ,trabue's     
experiments1 with completion tests1     
performed on about #a1cjj school        
children1 have been published2 the      
,courtis arithmetic tests on several    
thousands of school children in ,new    
,york have been made public2 ,terman has
 tested #a1jjj unselected children by   
the ,binet-,simon tests2 and ,pyle has  
undertaken his study in the measurement 
of school children4 ,the evidence from  
these extensive experiments is in all   
cases that there is no sex difference in
 mental variability1 as thus measured4  
,it is necessary also for the reader to 
bear in mind that there is as yet much  
controversy among those best equipped to
 understand the problems of variation1  
as to the proper methods of measuring   
comparative variability4 ,the           
mathematical considerations involved    
need not be rehearsed here4 ,but until  
it has been definitely determined just  
how comparative variability can be      
scientifically measured1 it would seem  

premature to make any final statement as
 to sex differences in this respect4    
,we can therefore answer our second     
question thus3 ,there is little or no   
agreement among those best qualified to 
speak1 as to what constitutes the       
scientific method of measuring          
comparative variability4 ,but according 
to the methods now deemed the most      
reliable1 and according to those studies
 wherein presumably correct methods of  
measurement have been employed1 there is
 no reason to suppose that there is any 
sex difference in variability1 so far as
 the numerous traits tested are         
concerned4 ,there has never been an     
experimental study made in which the    
sampling from both sexes was large1     
random1 equal1 and from groups of equal 
homogeneity socially and racially1 that 
showed any reliable sex difference in   
variability4 ,if we adhere to the       
literature of fact1 we must conclude    
that1 so far as we know1 human females  
differ from each other as much as do    

human males in abilities and aptitudes4 
,we now come to the inquiry as to       
whether there are any special causes of 
intellectual inefficiency which affect  
one sex but not the other4 ,under this  
topic we may consider the periodic      
function1 which characterizes girls and 
women1 but which does not characterize  
boys and men4 ,this periodic function   
has always been the object of           
superstition and taboo1 and is such even
 among the civilized peoples of today4  
,the literature of opinion is replete   
with references to it as a source of    
intellectual weakness and               
irresponsibility4 ,we may let ,frederick
 ,harrison speak for a large group of   
writers on this point3  ,supposing all  
other forces equal1 it is just the      
percentage of periodical unfitness which
 makes the whole difference between the 
working capacity of the sexes4 ,it is   
owing to a very natural shrinking from  
hard facts1 and a somewhat misplaced    
conventionality that this fundamental   

point has been kept out of sight4  ,the 
literature of opinion abounds in        
different notions1 inconsistencies1 and 
contradictory instances in the matter of
 the periodic function1 and its alleged 
enormous influence on the intellectual  
and vocational life of women4 ,much of  
the opposition to the education of women
 was based on it1 and it has even been  
exploited as a good reason why political
 freedom should be denied to women4 ,it 
is positively stated that women are on  
this account unfitted to pursue         
professional and commercial life2 yet it
 is not proposed that cooks1 scrub      
women1 mothers1 nursemaids1 housekeepers
 or dancers should be periodically      
relieved from their labors and          
responsibilities4  ,there is almost no  
literature of fact concerning the       
periodic function as related to the     
mental abilities of women4 ,no effort   
had ever been made to subject this      
matter to study by instruments and      
methods of precision until very         

recently4 ,psychologists1 while often   
stating the influence of periodicity on 
mental life to be fundamental and       
characteristic1 entirely neglected to   
consider it when performing experiments 
on women subjects4 ,in #aiji            
,voitsecovsky1 at ,petrograd1 performed 
an experiment on six women by means of  
instruments of precision4 ,he thought he
 found a positive result and that there 
was shown to be an actual influence of  
periodicity on certain mental functions4
 ,his conclusions are1 however1 largely 
invalidated by the fact that all his    
subjects knew the purpose of the        
experiment1 and by the fact that he     
neglected to use1 as a control1 human   
beings not subject to the phenomenon in 
question4 ,he also neglected to present 
his data in full1 so that the           
reliability of his conclusions might be 
calculated4  ,two studies of this       
phenomenon appeared in #aiad4 ,the first
 was a study by ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,arnold1 as
 to the effect of school work on the    

periodic function1 and this is reported 
in the ,january number of the ,american 
,physical ,education ,review4 ,this     
investigator suspected1 from his        
experience as a physician and teacher1  
that much of the incapacity claimed was 
fictitious1 and he determined1 as an    
experiment1 to institute a regime       
whereby no student under his supervision
 would be excused periodically from     
mental or physical duties1 except in    
cases where some pathological condition 
existed4 ,in summing up the data he     
says3 ,so far our results show all      
improvement in the health of students4  
,the second study1 which appeared in    
#aiad1 was by the present writer4 ,she  
made a prolonged and careful            
experimental study of twenty-three women
 7using as a control the records of men 
subjects71 and failed to demonstrate any
 influence of periodicity on those      
mental abilities which she tested4      
,these included speed and accuracy of   
perception1 controlled association1     

steadiness1 speed of voluntary movement1
 fatigability1 and rate of learning4  ,a
 great amount of scientific work remains
 to be done before any final answer of  
any kind can be given to the question1  
,does functional periodicity exercise a 
fundamental and characteristic influence
 on the intellectual abilities of women8
 ,we must answer our third question in  
this way3 ,there is very little         
experimental evidence on which to base a
 reply1 but the few data which we do    
possess show no influence1 either       
detrimental or beneficial4  ,our fourth 
inquiry is this3 ,are there any innate  
sex differences in affective or         
instinctive equipment that would        
naturally lead to a vocational          
differentiation of the sexes8 ,here we  
must acknowledge ourselves to be        
entirely without a literature of fact4  
,the literature of opinion is very      
extensive on the subject1 and it would  
be an interesting and no doubt an       
instructive task to collect and         

summarize the various and conflicting   
opinions of men as to the affective and 
instinctive differences between the     
sexes4 ,men and women as we see them in 
the world do differ in affective        
behavior1 but no one can say whether    
these differences in behavior are       
original or acquired4 ,there are        
different conventional standards of     
emotional behavior for men and for      
women1 but no one would be justified in 
saying that such standards arose from   
inherent affective differences between  
the sexes4 ,the very variety that       
characterizes the statements on this    
subject constitutes proof of the        
ignorance of mankind in regard to it4   
,since exact data are entirely lacking1 
the discussion of this last question    
need not detain us4 ,we may1 however1   
glance at one instinct which has        
repeatedly been stated to characterize  
women1 and to constitute in itself a    
natural justification for               
differentiating the sexes vocationally4 

,this is the maternal instinct4 ,since  
the period of helpless infancy is very  
prolonged in the human animal1 and since
 the care of infants is an exacting and 
onerous labor1 it would be natural for  
those who are not biologically attached 
to infants1 to use all means at their   
disposal to fasten the whole burden of  
infant-tending upon those who are       
originally so attached4 ,we should      
expect this to happen1 and it does      
happen4 ,there has been a continuous    
social effort to establish as a norm the
 woman whose vocational proclivities are
 completely and naturally satisfied by  
child-bearing and child-rearing4  ,in   
the absence of all data1 it would seem  
most reasonable to suppose that if it   
were possible to obtain a quantitative  
measurement of maternal instinct1 we    
should find this trait distributed among
 women just as we have found all other  
traits distributed1 which have yielded  
to quantitative measurement4 ,it is most
 reasonable to assume that we should    

obtain a curve of distribution1 varying 
from an extreme where individuals have a
 zero or negative interest in the care  
of infants1 through a mode where there  
is a moderate amount of impulse to tend 
infants1 to a second extreme where the  
only vocational interest lies in such   
activity4 ,the bearing and rearing of   
children is in many respects analogous  
to the work of soldiers4 ,it is         
necessary to national existence1 it     
means great sacrifice of personal       
advantage1 and it involves suffering and
 danger1 and1 in a certain percentage of
 cases1 the actual loss of life4 ,thus1 
as in the case of soldiers1 every effort
 is and must be made to establish as a  
norm the extreme end of the distribution
 curve1 where there is an all-consuming 
interest in patriotism1 in the one case1
 and in motherhood in the other4 ,in the
 absence of all scientific data1 we     
should1 therefore1 guard against        
accepting as an established fact about  
human nature a doctrine that we might   

expect to find in use as a means of     
social control4 ,it is also fitting to  
raise the question as to just what is   
meant by the term1 maternal instinct4   
,does it mean desire for offspring which
 are as yet non-existent8 ,does it mean 
only the tendency to care for helpless  
offspring after they are actually in    
existence8 ,does it mean an interest in 
children as such1 regardless of their   
origin8 ,or does it consist in a        
mingling of all these elements8 ,above  
all1 does it involve1 as an essential   
element1 an interest in waiting         
personally upon infants8 ,one certainly 
gains the impression from a perusal of  
the extensive literature of opinion that
 to most persons the term is quite      
unanalyzed1 and that it calls for       
analysis4  ,we have now considered four 
of our inquiries in the light of        
experimental evidence4 ,we have         
discovered that a great amount of work  
remains to be done before we can answer 
most of them conclusively1 and that to  

one question1 at least1 no answer at all
 can be given from the literature of    
fact4 ,we can only say that1 so far1    
scientific experiment has revealed no   
sex differences in the original nature  
of intellect that would imply a         
necessary differentiation of vocations  
on the ground of sex4 ,there exist no   
scientific data to show 7#a7 differences
 in average intellect2 7#b7 differences 
in mental variability2 7#c7 special     
causes of intellectual inefficiency     
affecting one sex but not the other2    
7#d7 differences in affective or        
instinctive equipment1 implying a       
natural division of labor4  ,the        
division of labor between the sexes1    
which has existed through historic times
 and still persists1 originated1 so far 
as we know1 in physiological1 not in    
psychological differences4 ,the         
momentous physiological fact that women 
bear and nourish infants and men do not1
 is the great primary sex difference on 
which our economic and vocational       

organization has been built up4 ,it     
might be supposed that natural selection
 would have evolved an intellectual 7or 
unintellectual7 type in women1 which    
could find its complete natural         
satisfaction in the vocation of         
child-bearing and child-rearing4 ,but   
such a selection could take place only  
if mental traits were sex-limited in    
inheritance1 or existed as secondary sex
 characteristics4 ,no mental trait has  
ever been proved to be sex-limited in   
inheritance1 or to exist as a secondary 
sex character4 ,so far as we know1      
daughters inherit mental traits from    
fathers as well as from mothers1 and    
sons inherit them from mothers as well  
as from fathers4 ,under such            
circumstances the law of natural        
selection can never become operative to 
solve the vocational problems of women4 
,the fact that women have not in the    
past equaled men in philosophy1 science1
 art1 invention and management is       
frequently adduced as evidence of their 

innate unfitness for pursuits other than
 the domestic4 ,from such evidence1     
however1 we glean in reality no         
information whatever about the          
vocational aptitudes of women4 ,we      
should not expect any notable           
achievement by women in the fields      
mentioned above1 for the following      
reasons4 ,women must bear and nourish   
infants1 and men cannot4 ,the period of 
gestation and the period of infancy are 
very protracted in the human species1   
together covering1 for each infant      
reared1 about six years4 ,until very    
recently no scientific methods of       
controlling procreation have been       
generally known or utilized4 ,thus women
 have borne great numbers of infants1   
all their youth and maturity being      
consumed by bearing and rearing young4  
,the small minority of women whose lives
 happened not to be so consumed would be
 very unlikely to make any contributions
 in extra-domestic vocational           
achievement for two reasons4 ,in the    

first place1 all women were expected to 
mate and thus to procreate and rear     
offspring1 and no provision was made by 
society for their training in lines     
other than those they would be expected 
to use4 ,in the second place1 those     
women who did not meet the common fate  
failed to do so for some special reason1
 such as ill health1 mental disease1 or 
the necessity of caring for decrepit    
relatives4 ,the very causes of their    
celibacy would operate also against any 
vocational achievement on their part4   
,in the irrational trial and error      
method by which our human institutions  
have been developed1 the logical        
expectation would be that the great     
physiological sex difference in         
reproductive function would probably    
influence vocational activities just as 
it has done4 ,we find in the traditional
 division of labor between the sexes    
exactly what we should expect to find1  
even though there were an identity of   
intellectual abilities and interests4   

,it seems both psychologically and      
socially desirable that the one         
incontestable conditioning factor in the
 vocational differentiation of men and  
women be raised clearly to              
consciousness1 rather than submerged1 as
 in the past1 by an elaborate system of 
defense mechanisms and traditional      
devices of social control4 ,it would be 
going afield from the immediate purpose 
of this chapter to offer constructive   
suggestions for such changes in economic
 and domestic management as might be    
necessary to overcome this conditioning 
factor1 and thus to give free vocational
 opportunity to both sexes alike4 ,to   
effect these changes in such a way that 
the maximum social betterment may be    
achieved thereby will be a task not     
simple but complex4 ,it will call for   
the best thought and the most           
enlightened effort of which we are      
capable1 and will be accomplished only  
with the passing of years and decades4  
,the essential thing at present is to   

know whether any basis for future action
 may now be found in the established    
facts of human nature4 ,in the present  
state of scientific knowledge it would  
be as dogmatic 7and therefore as        
undesirable7 to state that significant  
sex differences in intellect do not     
exist1 as to state that such differences
 do exist4 ,all we can say is that up to
 the present time experimental          
psychology has disclosed no sex         
differences in mental traits which would
 imply a division of labor on           
psychological grounds4 ,the social gain 
would be very great if the public could 
be brought to recognize intelligently   
that to many of the questions regarding 
the vocational aptitudes of women no    
definite answers can at present be      
given1 because the necessary data for   
the formulation of answers have never   
been collected4 ,so far as is at present
 known1 women are as competent          
intellectually as men are1 to undertake 
any and all human vocations4            

,,footnotes3  #ae ,there was published  
in the ,october 7#aiad7 issue of the    
,psychological ,bulletin a summary of   
all important experimental work done on 
sex differences in recent years4 ,any   
reader wishing to take up the evidence  
greatly in detail will do well to       
consult all of the references there     
given4     ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,theory     
,,and ,,principle ,,of ,,psychological  
,,tests ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,vocational
 ,,analysis   ,the more general         
questions of the theory of tests1 their 
selection1 evaluation1 and technique of 
application and record1 need not be     
considered here4 ,the reader unfamiliar 
with these matters will find them fully 
treated in the various standard manuals 
of tests1 and in numerous special       
articles and monographs referred to in  
the bibliography4  ,there are1 however1 
certain particular aspects of the theory
 and use of mental tests which have     
special importance for vocational       
psychology4 ,these are3  #a4 ,the       

question of the degree to which         
proficiency in one respect or ability or
 test implies proficiency in others4    
#b4 ,the degree to which these          
intercorrelations are revealed by       
preliminary trials and modified by      
continued practice4  #c4 ,the question  
of the significance of preliminary      
trials in revealing the relative        
abilities of individuals as these would 
be shown after all the individuals had  
acquired their maximum skill or practice
 level of proficiency2 that is1 the     
relation between momentary capacity and 
ultimate achievement4  ,attempts to     
intercorrelate mental or motor abilities
 as measured by laboratory tests have   
usually produced more or less irregular 
results4 ,some of the coefficients have 
been positive1 some negative1 but in    
only a few cases have many of them been 
large when the individuals tested have  
been chosen at random or with no        
deliberate intention of measuring only  
the extremes of the curve of            

distribution4 ,thus in a recent report  
of the correlations of abilities among  
several hundred adult individuals it is 
remarked that a certain test for logical
 memory is one of the very best tests1  
partly because of its high correlation  
with other tests 7an average correlation
 of 4#bi74  ,two reasons are largely    
responsible for these low coefficients4 
,the first is the fact that the measures
 correlated have usually been initial   
trials1 or at most averages of a very   
few trials4 ,this means great individual
 variability and considerable consequent
 unreliability of the data4 ,a more     
important factor1 perhaps1 is the fact  
that these preliminary trials do not    
necessarily represent the final         
capacities of the individuals4 ,they are
 determined by a host of incidental or  
accidental influences and reveal only   
momentary ability1 not ultimate         
capacity4 ,there is every reason for    
expecting to find positive correlation  
of desirable traits1 and we may well    

expect to find this increasingly true   
the more our measures test the final    
limits of capacity in the various tests4
 ,in other words1 the only real         
correction for unreliable measures is to
 be made by continuing the test until   
the individual has reached the limit of 
practice in it4  ,only occasional       
attempts have been made to determine the
 influence of practice on the           
correlation of abilities1 and those that
 have been reported have been based on  
so few practice trials that no review of
 them need be given4 ,in the present    
chapter ,i shall present the results of 
an experiment in which a group of       
observers were repeatedly tested until  
in each test a practice limit was       
approximated1 a limit which1 in most    
cases1 one hundred further trials failed
 to improve4 ,the results have a real   
interest for vocational psychology4     
,the experiment consisted in putting    
each of thirteen individuals through    
#bje repetitions of seven different     

mental tests4 ,the trials were          
controlled as thoroughly as possible    
with respect to such factors as interim 
occupation1 exercise1 food1 rotation of 
tests1 temperature1 illumination1 and   
incentive and interest4 ,the subjects1  
four women and nine men1 ranging from   
eighteen to thirty-nine years in age1   
were mature1 zealous1 and faithful4     
,competition was stimulated by the award
 of desirable prizes1 and each worker   
received a daily wage4 ,records were    
announced to the subjects only after    
each thirty-five trials4 ,so far as     
previous practice in these particular   
tests is concerned1 all the subjects    
were naive4 ,five trials were made      
daily1 these trials being distributed   
through the day at about two-hour       
intervals4 ,the tests themselves        
occupied about forty minutes at each    
sitting4  ,the tests used were the      
following familiar laboratory forms3    
#a4 ,adding4 ,adding seventeen mentally 
to each of fifty two-place numbers and  

reciting aloud the correct answer4      
,order of numbers random at each trial4 
,record with stop watch1 time required  
for perfect score4  #b4 ,naming         
,opposites4 ,correctly naming opposites 
of each of fifty adjectives which       
occurred each time in random order4     
,record1 time required for a perfect    
score4  #c4 ,color ,naming4 ,the        
,columbia laboratory form of this test1 
with ten repetitions of each of twelve  
colors4 ,position of card changed at    
each trial4 ,record1 time required for  
perfect score4  #d4 ,discrimination     
,reaction4 ,discriminating between red  
and blue1 and reacting correctly with   
appropriate hand4 ,record1 average time1
 in sigma1 and number of false          
reactions4  #e4 ,cancellation4 ,crossing
 out digits from the ,woodworth-,wells  
form of this test4 ,record1 time        
required for #ge correct cancellations  
of equally difficult digits4  #f4       
,coordination4 ,the familiar three-hole 
test1 for accuracy of aim4 ,record1 time

 required for one hundred correct       
strokes4  #g4 ,tapping4 ,executing four 
hundred taps at maximal speed1 with hand
 stylus1 right hand1 elbow support4     
,record1 time required4  ,each test has 
been correlated#af with all the         
remaining tests at various points in the
 curve of practice4 ,correlations were  
made at each of the following points3   
#a4  ,preliminary trial                 
designated     #ast trial #b4  ,median  
of first #e trials     designated       
#eth trial #c4  ,median of trials #bj to
 #be    designated    #beth trial #d4   
,median of trials #ge to #hj            
designated    #hjth trial #e4  ,median  
of trials #bjj to #bje  designated      
#bjeth trial  ,at each of these points  
the thirteen individuals were arranged  
in an order of relative ability for each
 of the tests1 and these orders were    
correlated with each other4 ,table #bc  
gives1 for each test1 at each point1 the
 average correlation with all the other 
tests1 and also the grand average       

correlations of all tests4   ,,table #bc
  ,,showing ,,the ,,average             
,,correlation ,,of ,,each ,,test ,,with 
,,all ,,others1 ,,at ,,various ,,points 
,,in ,,the ,,curve ,,of ,,practice      
----------------------------------------
----------------------                  
,trial,adding,opposites                 
,color,discrim-,coordi-,tapping ,final  
,naming ination nation       ,average   
----------------------------------------
---------------    #a   4#ai   4#aj     
4#ae   -4#jg    -4#ae    4#ag   4#jfe   
#e   4#da   4#bf     4#ae    4#ce       
4#ba    4#cb   4#bhj   #be   4#ej   4#ce
     4#dc    4#bg     4#jc    4#ce      
4#cbj   #hj   4#ee   4#dc     4#ec      
4#ca     4#ah    4#cd   4#cij  #bje     
4#dh   4#fb     4#fa    4#ce     4#cd   
4#eb   4#dij                            
----------------------------------------
----------------------  ,except in the  
case of discrimination the effect of    
practice is to increase to a marked     
degree the intercorrelations of the     

various tests4 ,adding increases        
steadily up to the eightieth trial4     
,opposites and color naming gain even   
more steadily to the very end of the    
experiment1 the increase in the         
coefficients being four to six fold4    
,tapping increases more slowly but no   
less certainly4 ,in coordination the    
increase is very irregular1 but the     
coefficients show1 on the whole1 a      
change from -4#ae at the first trial to 
4#cd at the finish4 ,only in the case of
 discrimination is there failure to     
increase after the fifth trial4 ,in no  
case1 after the preliminary trial1 is   
there a negative coefficient among the  
average correlations1 and indeed in only
 one case is there a coefficient smaller
 than 4#ae4 ,the final averages show    
steady increase from 4#jfe at the       
preliminary to 4#bh at the fifth1 4#cb  
at the twenty-fifth1 4#ci at the        
eightieth1 and 4#di at the              
two-hundred-and-fifth trials4 ,with     
practice1 then1 the average correlations

 of all tests become positive1 and the  
coefficients become greater the longer  
the practice is continued4  ,in         
producing this increase in the          
intercorrelation of specific abilities  
through the medium of practice1 at least
 three different factors probably       
cooperate4 ,these factors have not an   
equal significance for vocational       
psychology and its interests in tests4  
,one of the least important of these    
factors is the variability of individual
 performance4 ,in the beginning of the  
experiment each individual is more      
variable than at later points in the    
curve4 ,this momentary variability need 
not be supposed to affect all the tests 
in the same way nor all individuals in  
the same direction4 ,this fact may then 
tend somewhat to reduce the correlation 
of the preliminary trials and may in    
some cases materially affect the first  
five or ten trials4 ,beyond the         
twenty-fifth trial the variability in   
these tests is much reduced1 and        

particularly so in the measures here    
used1 which are in all cases1 after the 
preliminary trial1 the medians of five  
successive trials4  ,another factor that
 deserves mention is the possibility of 
change in the character of the tests    
themselves1 through practice with them4 
,it is quite probable1 for example1 that
 the opposites test comes1 after many   
repetitions1 to resemble more and more  
that type of process or function        
involved in color-naming4 ,the responses
 become more and more intimately        
associated with the stimulus words1 the 
suggested responses to each word become 
more and more limited in number and in  
most cases reduced to a single word for 
each stimulus4 ,this state of affairs is
 true of color-naming at the very       
beginning of the experiment4 ,as the    
order of the stimulus words is changed  
at each trial1 the test may come to     
involve more and more the simple task of
 giving merely the quickest possible    
association of the right response1 and  

the overcoming of inhibitions and       
interferences of a more or less general 
sort1 with less and less emphasis on the
 element of selection4 ,much the same   
may also be true of the addition test4  
,it is in these three tests that the    
increase in correlation is most marked1 
and the actual coefficients highest at  
the end of the experiment4 ,careful     
analysis of what takes place as one     
improves in these simple tests would no 
doubt yield interesting material4  ,but 
these two factors--decrease in          
variability and change in the character 
of the tests--seem to be far from       
sufficient to account for the results4  
,the tapping test remains much the same 
type of process throughout1 the only    
apparent modifications consisting of    
slight changes in method and perhaps    
some gradual changes in the muscles4    
,there is certainly no reason for       
suspecting that tapping and opposites or
 tapping and discrimination become1 as  
tests1 more alike because of frequent   

repetition4 ,but the increase in        
correlation is clear in both these      
cases4 ,again1 it is well established   
that the discrimination reaction1 in the
 form here used1 also tends to become   
reflex through practice1 the conscious  
discrimination coming only after the    
correct reaction is made4 ,these        
experiments called for between #c1jge   
and #d1ajj single discrimination        
reactions on the part of each observer1 
which would afford ample time for such a
 change to show itself4 ,mere change in 
the character of the test would then    
lead us to expect color-naming1         
opposites1 and adding to come more and  
more to resemble discrimination         
reaction4 ,but they do not1 if the      
coefficients may be taken as evidence4  
,the coefficients of these tests with   
discrimination show no tendency to      
increase1 even by the end of the        
experiment4 ,the assumption of          
increasing similarity in the character  
of these pairs of tests would seem      

gratuitous4 ,moreover1 if there were    
such increase in similarity1 and this be
 also supposed to account for the higher
 correlation of color-naming and        
opposites with adding1 coordination and 
adding should show the same increase in 
correlation4 ,just the reverse is       
actually the case1 the correlation of   
coordination and adding decreasing      
consistently4  ,some further factor must
 then be responsible for the general    
increase in correlation1 aside from     
decrease in variability 7which affects  
only the first few trials7 and          
progressive qualitative approximation of
 the tests 7which is seen to be         
inadequate74 ,the doctrine of general   
ability or general intelligence at once 
suggests itself in this connection4 ,if 
there is such a thing as general ability
 or general intelligence1 we should     
expect all samplings of that ability to 
correlate more and more as the measures 
came to be truer samples4 ,we might     
indeed expect to find evidences of this 

general ability only when measuring the 
ultimate capacity of the individuals    
concerned4 ,the momentary ability       
revealed in initial trials1 or even in  
the first half-dozen trials1 in a given 
set of tests might well be expected to  
show only low degrees of correlation4   
,these trials would not be measures of  
ultimate capacity1 but would be largely 
determined by previous practice1 chance 
variability1 momentary attitude and     
initial method of attack4 ,they would1  
in short1 be samplings only of momentary
 ability1 not of final capacity4  ,or if
 the assumption of a common factor be   
rejected1 the present evidence tends    
strongly to support our earlier         
conclusion concerning the positive      
correlation between desirable mental    
functions4 ,some form of the doctrine of
 general ability1 at any rate1 seems to 
be supported4 ,but the conclusion seems 
to call for the qualification that      
general ability shall have reference to 
final capacity rather than to momentary 

performance1 if the correlations are to 
be high4 ,if each individual be given   
the opportunity to attain his limit of  
efficiency1 his highest level of        
performance1 then1 when these final     
limits are reached1 individuals who     
excel their fellows in one type of work 
will also tend to excel in other types  
of work4  ,the theory and practice of   
tests has in the past been too content  
to rest its claims on the meager results
 of a few preliminary samplings of an   
individual's ability4 ,the fact that1   
even when a great variety of such       
samplings of a given individual are     
aggregated and balanced off against one 
another1 few results of real diagnostic 
value are achieved should be sufficient 
warning against this tendency4 ,my      
conviction is that for this purpose we  
shall find it necessary to determine the
 individual's limit of practice in the  
various tests before we shall secure    
diagnostic results which will be        
verified by the individual's subsequent 

achievement in daily life4 ,we should   
know much more than we now know         
concerning the tendency and meaning of  
such correlations as show close relation
 between initial performance and        
ultimate capacity4 ,this is particularly
 true if we wish to extend the method of
 tests beyond educational diagnosis and 
to use them as a means of vocational    
guidance or of industrial selection4    
,for educational diagnosis we wish      
primarily to know what kind of practice 
the individual most needs4 ,for         
vocational and industrial purposes we   
need rather to know what limits the     
individual can eventually reach1 in     
given kinds of performance1 as the      
result of practice1 and to what degree  
his present equipment of incentive      
renders probable the actual achievement 
of this limit4  ,on the question of the 
significance of preliminary trials and  
the effects of practice on the relative 
standing of individuals in their group1 
there are important facts to be         

considered4 ,in the direct application  
of mental tests it has too often been   
assumed that the actual performance of  
an individual1 in one or a dozen trials 
at a given task1 is in some way or other
 significant of that individual's final 
capacity in such work4 ,it is true that 
several investigators have studied the  
effects of practice on individual       
differences4 ,these workers were        
interested above all in questions as to 
relative rate of improvement1 or amount 
or permanence of gain4 ,such studies    
have produced suggestive results1       
although they have been based1 for the  
most part1 on records of only a few     
subjects or on relatively few practice  
trials4  ,to what degree are individual 
differences after a given number of     
trials indicative of the final maximum  
capacity of the individuals concerned8  
,at what various rates do the           
determining factors enter into the      
practice curves of a group of workers8  
,what manner and amount of displacement 

in their relative order of ability are  
thus produced8 ,at what point or points 
in the curves do the individuals assume 
their final order of relative capacity  
after training8 ,how do the replies to  
these questions vary with the character 
of the task8  ,in the case of the       
experiments already described1 record   
has been here taken of the following    
points in the curves of practice3       
,preliminary trial            called    
initial trial ,median of trials #a to #e
      called     #eth trial ,median of  
trials #bj to #be    called    #beth    
trial ,median of trials #df to #ej      
called    #ejth trial ,median of trials 
#gf to #hj    called    #hjth trial     
,median of trials #abf to #acj  called  
#acjth trial ,median of trials #aga to  
#age  called   #ageth trial  ,at each of
 these points the thirteen subjects were
 arranged in order of relative ability  
for the test at the given stage of      
practice4 ,each of these orders1 or     
cross sections1 of the group of practice

 curves was then correlated with the    
final order of position as shown in     
trials one hundred and seventy to one   
hundred and seventy-five4 ,table #bd    
gives the coefficients of correlation   
derived in this way4 ,a careful study of
 this table will prove instructive4     
,,table #bd  ,,showing ,,the            
,,correlation ,,of ,,ultimate ,,capacity
 ,,with ,,capacity ,,at ,,different     
,,points ,,in ,,the ,,curve ,,of        
,,learning  7,see ,text for             
,explanation7                           
----------------------------------------
-------------------                     
,final   ,the ,test    ,prelim- #eth    
#beth #ejth #hjth #acjth,trial          
inary ,trial,trial,trial,trial          
,trial#ageth                            
----------------------------------------
------------ ,adding          4#ae      
4#ai  4#hg  4#hg  4#ig   4#if  #a4jj    
,opposites      -4#jh   4#fb  4#di  4#hc
  4#id   4#ih  #a4jj ,color ,naming     
4#fh   4#hi  4#hf  4#ia  4#ig   4#ig    

#a4jj ,discrimination  4#fh   4#fb  4#fj
  4#ej  4#ej   4#gi  #a4jj ,cancellation
    4#fg   4#fh  4#hh  4#fi  4#ic       
7#a4jj7  -- ,coordination    4#eb   4#gi
  4#gg  4#ij  4#ie 7#a4jj7  -- ,tapping 
4#bc   4#dh  4#fc  4#fh  4#fi   4#hi    
#a4jj                                   
--------------------------------------  
,averages      4#da   4#fa  4#gc  4#gg  
4#he   4#ib  #a4jj                      
----------------------------------------
-------------------   ,it is at once    
evident that the preliminary trial is by
 no means always a measure of the final 
relative capacities of the individuals  
tested4 ,the average of all seven       
coefficients increases from 4#da at the 
preliminary trial to 4#ib at the one    
hundred and thirtieth trial4 ,as the    
trials proceed then1 the relative       
positions of the thirteen individuals   
become more and more definitely fixed1  
but in the beginning the indication is  
obscure4 ,the rate of this process1     
however1 varies with the test1 and to a 

considerable degree4 ,adding shows      
changes in position which effect a      
correlation of 4#hg only after the      
twenty-fifth trial4 ,beyond this point  
there is little change1 the eightieth   
and one hundred and thirtieth trials    
correlating equally well1 and           
practically perfectly1 with the final   
order4 ,after twenty-five trials1 then1 
the final capacities of the individuals 
in the adding test may be said to be    
indicated fairly accurately4 ,opposites1
 in the fiftieth trial1 yields a        
coefficient equal to that of addition in
 the twenty-fifth trial1 and by the     
eightieth trial the correlation may be  
said to be complete4 ,only after fifty  
trials1 then1 can the test be said to   
yield comparative measures which reflect
 the individual's final capacity in this
 form of controlled association4 ,in the
 case of tapping it is only at the one  
hundred and thirtieth trial that the    
correlation with final position exceeds 
4#fi4  ,these results may be easily     

comprehended by thinking of each test   
7as for instance the tapping test7 as a 
prolonged race1 consisting of a large   
number of heats 7#bje separate trials74 
,all individuals begin with a running   
start1 their respective initial speeds  
depending on the momentum they have     
acquired through a certain amount of    
previous practice1 and on such momentary
 ability and zeal as they possess at the
 time4 ,but as the succeeding heats or  
trials occur some individuals who were  
originally in the lead begin to lose    
ground in relation to others who1 though
 initially slower1 are now speeding up  
and overtaking the leaders4 ,still      
others may retain their original        
relative positions to the end of the    
race4 ,in the table of coefficients1 a  
correlation of #a4jj indicates that at  
that point the ultimate relative        
positions of the contestants have at    
last become established4 ,the nearer the
 figure approaches zero the more        
uncertain are the relative positions at 

the particular trial4 ,to terminate the 
race at a point where the correlation is
 low and to reward the contestants      
according to the position they had      
reached at that point would be          
manifestly unfair to those who were     
still speeding up and partial to those  
who were losing ground4  ,color-naming1 
discrimination1 cancellation1 and       
coordination show up to much greater    
advantage4 ,even the preliminary trials 
in these tests show fairly high         
correlations with the final orders4 ,the
 first two of these show little change  
as practice proceeds4 ,in the case of   
the latter two tests1 although the      
initial correlations are fairly high1   
there is nevertheless considerable      
increase as the trials proceed4  ,the   
meaning of these results seems to be    
that before one attempts to interpret   
individual differences as disclosed by  
performance in such a series of simple  
tests1 he should have clearly in mind   
the distinction between temporary       

proficiency and ultimate capacity4 ,if  
he is interested1 for example1 in       
determining the vocational prospects of 
a youth1 or the relative merits of      
candidates or culprits1 it is important 
that he realize that relative abilities 
in many of these laboratory tests may be
 changed quite beyond recognition by    
continued work4 ,it is highly desirable 
to know more than we now know concerning
 the degree to which initial and        
intermediate trials in these tests      
reflect final capacity4 ,in the past the
 question seems hardly to have been     
asked4 ,individual differences in early 
trials1 in some tests1 are fairly       
significant of the working level to     
which the performer may be brought      
later4 ,in other tests this is not the  
case4 ,on the significance of these     
early trials may depend1 in many cases1 
the vocational value of the particular  
test4  ,changes in the nature of the    
tests1 variations of methods of attack1 
and specific improvement in the         

directness1 independence and rapidity of
 the special nervous connections        
concerned--these three factors would all
 declare themselves in the form of      
changes in ability4 ,a useful piece of  
work in the case of all tests will be   
the analysis of the nature of the       
changes resulting from practice4 ,but in
 any case the presence of these changes 
in correlation shows that we are not1 in
 early trials1 measuring the same       
tendency or capacity in all performers4 
,the concrete tasks of daily life       
doubtless show just such qualitative    
changes1 during practice1 as we may     
suppose to be present in some of these  
tests4 ,just as it is ultimate capacity 
in daily life that is1 with a given set 
of incentives1 most important1 so in the
 laboratory the measurement of ability  
after practice ought to be more         
emphasized than it is at present4  ,if  
it is true that with practice all tests 
correlate with one another1 so that an  
individual who is good in one type of   

work is also1 when his practice level   
has been reached1 good in other types of
 work1 the task of vocational psychology
 is at once enormously simplified4 ,in  
place of further search for special     
occupational tests adapted in some      
peculiar way to particular types of     
work1 our task is rather that of        
extending the general intelligence      
scales until they represent higher and  
higher degrees of general ability4  ,it 
is quite probable that further advance  
in this direction will come1 not from   
the elaboration or invention of more    
tests1 but by the selection of a very   
few tests1 and the examination of the   
final limits of practice with respect to
 them4 ,the problem will then be the    
selection of sets of tests in which     
initial performance shows high          
correlation with ultimate capacity in   
the tests themselves1 or else the       
laborious and undramatic1 but perhaps   
preferable1 alternative of continuing   
every test until the practice limit is  

reached by the individual4 ,in the      
latter case it would be well to learn   
more about the nature and range of these
 limits than we know at present4  ,in so
 far as particular tasks are actually   
found to call for highly specialized    
aptitudes1 for the detection of which   
tests are sought1 there will be the     
further problem of correlating these    
various tests with the particular       
aptnesses or fitnesses toward the       
detection of which diagnosis is         
directed4  ,there will also be the      
problem of the alignment of the various 
types of work along the general         
intelligence scales1 as rapidly as these
 are extended and elaborated4 ,in so far
 as this method is followed1 the task of
 selecting from candidates those best   
fitted for the accomplishment of special
 types of work will be easily handled4  
,vocational selection will readily find 
methods suited to its purposes4 ,but    
vocational guidance1 as distinguished   
from vocational selection1 must for some

 time to come depend largely on the     
determination of interests1 incentives1 
satisfactions1 emotional values and     
preferences1 and the discovery and      
direction of these through general      
channels of information and through the 
methods of industrial and pre-vocational
 education4  ,this is a hard and an     
arduous program4 ,it calls for strenuous
 work on the part of investigators1     
patience and faithfulness on the part of
 observers1 and wide cooperation of     
investigators with each other4 ,from the
 immediately practical point of view it 
also offers an inviting opportunity to  
those foundations and individuals who   
are interested in supporting the further
 development of the arts of social      
control over human nature4  ,,footnotes3
  #af ,for explanation of the technique 
and meaning of correlation see the      
footnote on p4 #de4     ,,chapter ,,xii 
,,conclusion   ,the leading problems of 
vocational psychology we have seen to be
 three in number3 ,first1 how may the   

individual achieve the most adequate    
knowledge of his own peculiar mental and
 instinctive constitution1 his equipment
 of capacities1 tendencies1 interests   
and aptitudes1 and the ways in which he 
compares1 in these respects1 with his   
fellows8 ,second1 how may the individual
 acquire information concerning the     
general or special traits required for  
successful participation in the various 
vocations1 in order to select a line of 
activity for which he is                
constitutionally adapted8 ,third1 how   
may the employer determine the relative 
desirability1 fitness and promise of    
those who may offer themselves as his   
associates and assistants1 or for minor 
positions in his employ8 ,obviously1 if 
vocational psychology were in its       
maturity1 rather than in its infancy1   
these various questions would resolve   
themselves into a single problem4 ,the  
traits required in the various types of 
work would be fully known and specified1
 so that both the choice of the         

individual and the selection by the     
employer would proceed directly1 once   
the individual's characteristics were   
known4  ,from this goal we are very far1
 but by no means hopelessly1 removed4   
,as we have seen in the preceding       
chapters1 the line of attack is being   
advanced very unevenly at its various   
points4 ,it is indeed characteristic of 
any new branch of science that it does  
not advance symmetrically and at a      
uniform rate1 but moves ahead1 now in   
this direction1 now in that1 so that the
 line of complete development is some   
distance behind the outposts of         
exploration4 ,so in the case of         
vocational psychology we may draw a     
rough line which shall represent the    
main region of advance1 and may indicate
 the various points where the line lags 
behind or goes conspicuously forward4   
,the main line of advance has left far  
behind it the magical ritual of         
primitive thought1 the medieval search  
for significant omens and clairvoyant   

signs1 the pseudo-scientific faith in   
the structural characteristics          
elaborated in physiognomy and           
phrenology1 and has taken its stand     
firmly at the point where emphasis is   
laid on the objective study of the      
individual's behavior4 ,educationally   
this position shows itself in the       
abandonment of the purely disciplinary  
ideal of abstract training1 and the     
substitution of training in specific    
forms of conduct1 exercise1 and         
occupation1 accompanied by concrete     
experience with industrial              
opportunities1 rewards1 and             
satisfactions4 ,from the more strictly  
psychological point of view the position
 shows itself in the experimental       
application of mental tests4 ,in the    
measurement of the more strictly        
intellectual capacities1 the line has   
shown a very decided advance since the  
beginning of the present century4 ,the  
available intelligence scales make      
possible the diagnosis of intellectual  

defect1 normality or precocity in units 
of considerable reliability1 in the case
 of pre-adolescents4 ,this step in      
itself is sufficient to put educational1
 industrial and social enterprise deeply
 in debt to the new science of          
experimental psychology4  ,but this by  
no means constitutes the only point of  
marked advance4 ,thanks to the          
elaboration of more complex and more    
diversified tests1 and the gradual      
accumulation of norms1 it is now        
possible to make mental measurements in 
the case of individuals considerably    
beyond the age of adolescence4 ,by means
 of such methods1 degrees of            
sensitivity1 dexterity1 accuracy1 speed1
 comprehension1 docility1               
discrimination1 ingenuity1 information1 
observation1 and numerous other general 
aspects of mental alertness may be      
recognized4 ,comparison of such         
measures1 in the case of adult workers  
with actual success in the field of     
their activity1 tends constantly to show

 high degrees of positive correlation4  
,the fact that the correlations are not 
perfect raises numerous problems1 the   
solution of which is now being          
attempted4  ,the evidence now at hand   
suggests that the incomplete correlation
 comes1 in part at least1 from the fact 
that some of the tests of momentary     
achievement do not fully represent the  
ultimate capacities of the individuals  
measured4 ,at this point the line is    
relatively slow in advancing4 ,the      
obstacles encountered consist partly in 
our incomplete information concerning   
which of the tests at once reveal final 
capacity and which do not4 ,this        
information must necessarily come slowly
 because of the difficulties involved in
 securing the cooperation of subjects   
who will submit to the prolonged series 
of measurements which such              
investigations involve4 ,such data as   
are available1 while inadequate to      
constitute proof1 suggest very strongly 
that those tests which are now in most  

common use correlate closely with each  
other when the limit of practice is     
reached in all of them4 ,if subsequent  
work confirms this suggestion1 the      
determination of the factor of general  
intelligence may proceed on either of   
two bases4 ,either we may use a very few
 trials of tests in which such trials   
may be found to indicate ultimate       
capacity1 or we may use a small number  
of tests1 but continue the measures     
until the limits of practice are        
reached4  ,but there is probably another
 factor in part responsible for the     
incompleteness of the correlations      
between test records and direct measures
 of vocational success4 ,this is the    
fact that characteristics other than    
general intelligence play a conspicuous 
part in daily life4 ,the interests1 the 
incentives1 the emotions1 and the       
equipment of instinct and habit1 which  
show themselves in such traits as       
curiosity1 competition1 honesty1        
loyalty1 promptness1 patience1 the play 

impulse1 etc41 do not count for nothing 
in vocational activity4 ,moreover1 it is
 quite likely that1 in addition to the  
common fund of intelligence1 each       
individual possesses in his or her own  
degree1 certain more specialized        
capacities and aptitudes1 for the       
complete measurement of which the       
available tests are inadequate4 ,the    
graded product scales1 however1         
represent a definite step toward the    
measurement of many of these specific   
capacities4  ,another difficulty        
encountered at this point is the fact   
that such direct measures of vocational 
success as have been utilized in these  
comparisons are in themselves subject to
 very large error4 ,only in recent      
years1 and as a result of the emphasis  
of the human factor in industry1 has it 
come to be the common practice to secure
 adequate records of the work of the    
individual as contrasted with the work  
of the gang4 ,even today such records   
are available in accurate form for only 

the simpler operations1 in which        
standardized conditions of work can be  
maintained4 ,the relative success of    
salesmen1 for example1 is not fairly    
measured in terms of the amounts of     
their sales1 the number of prospects    
interviewed1 or the frequency with which
 the assigned tasks are accomplished1   
unless the local trade conditions of the
 respective territories are fully taken 
into account4 ,inasmuch as such errors  
of measurement tend to reduce the       
apparent correlation between the traits 
measured1 it is extremely probable that 
the psychological tests are even more   
significant than their present results  
indicate4 ,refinement of the tests must 
be accompanied by more accurate and     
precise measurement of the actual       
working efficiency of individuals in the
 industrial field1 if the results of the
 one are ever to represent the amount of
 the other4 ,in this as in many other   
respects1 the development of vocational 
tests depends as much upon the active   

and intelligent cooperation of          
industrial concerns as it does upon the 
enthusiasm and diligence of the         
psychological investigators4  ,from the 
point of view of the employer1 the      
incompleteness of the correlation       
between tests and direct measures is of 
little concern4 ,even a very small      
positive correlation affords him a      
degree of guidance in the selection of  
his workers that was far from           
forthcoming under the haphazard methods 
of employment that have been            
traditional4 ,but from the point of view
 of the individual who is seeking       
guidance1 or who is accepted or rejected
 on the basis of his performance in     
psychological tests1 any correlation    
which is imperfect may lead to          
occasional injustice and misdirection4  
,the diagnosis of the instinctive and   
attitudinal characteristics and the     
recognition of the more specialized     
aptitudes constitute two points at which
 the line of advance is relatively slow4

 ,it is at these points that the        
psychographic methods find their task4  
,as we have already seen in detail1 the 
methods of the individual and the       
vocational psychograph are still in the 
stage of empirical procedure4 ,in this  
stage of their development nearly any   
effort to amplify or apply them is      
certain to contribute results of        
positive value4 ,the recent studies that
 have contributed most notably toward   
the further development of the          
psychographic technique have been in the
 form of the specialized vocational     
tests and methods4 ,such studies1 in    
addition to yielding results of         
immediate applicability in the          
description and analysis of the special 
tasks at which they are directed1 also  
constitute positive progress towards the
 more elaborate psychographic pictures  
of individuals and of tasks4  ,meanwhile
 groups of further problems have been   
definitely organized1 and preliminary   
steps taken toward their solution4 ,the 

formulation of systematic guides to     
self-analysis and introspection and the 
study of the reliability to be placed in
 the individual's estimates of his own  
characteristics are making definite and 
interesting progress4 ,the examination  
of the time-honored recommendation and  
the estimates of associates and friends1
 and the investigation of the accuracy  
of such judgments as are based on these 
testimonials1 on letters of application1
 on the school records1 etc41 have      
already thrown long-desired illumination
 on several aspects of vocational       
psychology4 ,the effort to base the     
vocational endeavors of women on the    
data of exact inquiry1 rather than on   
the maintenance of primitive taboos and 
domestic and literary traditions1 has   
played its own valuable part in one of  
the most vital economic adjustments of  
our age4  ,the very fact that a         
systematic presentation of the problems 
and methods of vocational psychology is 
possible signifies an enormous advance  

beyond the very recent stage in which   
all vocations were mysteries1 all       
choices a serious form of gambling1 and 
all employment confessedly a matter of  
impressionistic prejudice4 ,to those who
 become familiar not only with the      
program of this new branch of applied   
science1 but as well with the           
outstanding definite and positive       
contributions which that program has    
already yielded1 the words of a         
constructive pioneer in this branch of  
scientific inquiry seem to be already   
becoming a statement of fact1 rather    
than the mere expression of a hope4 ,the
 nineteenth century witnessed an        
extraordinary increase in our knowledge 
of the material world1 and in our power 
to make it subservient to our ends2 the 
twentieth century will probably witness 
a corresponding increase in our         
knowledge of human nature1 and in our   
power to use it for our welfare4        
,,appendix  ,,classified ,,bibliography 
,,for ,,vocational ,,psychology   #a4   

,,motives ,,of ,,vocational ,,psychology
  ,bloomfield1 ,m43 ,the ,vocational    
,guidance of ,youth  ---- ,readings in  
,vocational ,guidance  ,davis1 ,j4 ,b43 
,moral and ,vocational ,guidance        
,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l43 ,vocational     
,psychology  ,muensterberg1 ,h43        
,psychology and ,industrial ,efficiency 
,parsons1 ,f43 ,choosing a ,vocation    
,puffer1 ,j4 ,a43 ,vocational ,guidance 
,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43 ,educational       
,diagnosis1 ,science1 ,jan4 #bd #aiac   
#b4 ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,industrial   
,,education  ,bonser1 ,f4 ,g43          
,fundamental ,values in ,industrial     
,education  ,bonser and ,russell3       
,industrial ,education  ,hanus1 ,p43    
,beginnings in ,industrial ,education   
,righter and ,leonard3 ,educational     
,surveys and ,vocational ,guidance      
,weeks1 ,r4 ,m43 ,the ,people's ,school2
 a ,study in ,vocational ,training   #c4
 ,,pseudo-,,psychological ,,methods     
,those interested in the historical     
features of vocational psychology will  

find innumerable books and monographs on
 magic1 clairvoyance1 astrology1        
chiromancy1 palmistry1 phrenology1      
physiognomics1 character-analysis1 etc4 
,all of these have only historical      
interest4 ,see also an interesting      
survey of the development and motives of
 these systems1 by ,prof4 ,joseph       
,jastrow1 in ,popular ,science ,monthly1
 ,june1 #aiae   #d4 ,,history ,,of      
,,psychological ,,tests  ,cattell and   
,farrand3 ,physical and ,mental         
,measurements of the ,students of       
,columbia ,university1 ,psychological   
,review1 ,nov41 #ahif  ,stern1 ,w43 ,die
 ,differentielle ,psychologie  ---- ,the
 ,psychological ,methods of ,testing    
,intelligence  ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43     
,educational ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,iii   
,whipple1 ,g4 ,m43 ,manual of ,mental   
and ,physical ,tests  ,whitley1 ,m4 ,t43
 ,tests for ,individual ,differences    
,wissler1 ,c43 ,correlation of ,mental  
and ,physical ,tests1 ,psychological    
,review ,monograph ,supplement1 ,no4    

#af1 #aija   #e4 ,,graded ,,intelligence
 ,,tests ,,and ,,product ,,scales       
,binet and ,simon3 ,a ,method of        
,measuring the ,development of          
,intelligence of ,young ,children       
,hillegas1 ,m4 ,b43 ,scale for          
,measurement of ,quality in ,english    
,composition by ,young ,people1         
,teachers ,college ,record1 ,sept41     
#aiab  ,pyle1 ,w4 ,h43 ,the ,examination
 of ,school ,children  ,sylvester1 ,r4  
,h43 ,the ,form ,board1 ,psychological  
,review ,monograph ,supplement1 ,no4    
#fe1 #aiac  ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43        
,handwriting1 ,teachers ,college        
,record1 ,march1 #aiaj  ,thorndike1 ,e4 
,l43 ,measurement of ,achievement in    
,drawing1 ,teachers ,college ,record1   
,nov41 #aiac  ,trabue1 ,m4 ,r43 ,a      
,graded ,series of ,completion ,tests1  
,school and ,society1 ,april #aj1 #aiae 
----,completion-test ,language ,scales4 
,contribution to ,education1 ,teachers  
,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,no4   
#gg1 #aiaf  ,whipple1 ,g4 ,m43 ,manual  

of ,mental and ,physical ,tests  ,yerkes
 and ,bridges3 ,point ,scale for        
,measurement of ,intelligence   #f4     
,,the ,,individual ,,psychograph        
,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l43 ,review of      
,toulouse1 ,psychological ,bulletin1    
,nov41 #aiab  ,stern1 ,w43 ,die         
,differentielle ,psychologie  ,toulouse1
 ,e43 ,henri ,poincare   #g4 ,,the      
,,vocational ,,psychograph              
,muensterberg1 ,h43 ,vocation and       
,learning  ,parsons1 ,f43 ,choosing a   
,vocation  ,schneider1 ,h43 ,selecting  
,young ,men for ,particular ,jobs1      
,bulletin #g1 ,national ,association of 
,corporation ,schools  ,seashore1 ,c4   
,e43 ,the ,measurement of a ,singer1    
,science1 ,feb4 #i1 #aiab  ,seashore1   
,c4 ,e43 ,psychology in ,daily ,life    
,trade ,educational ,league ,bulletins1 
,boston   #h4 ,,specialized ,,vocational
 ,,tests ,,and ,,methods  ,ayres1 ,l43  
,psychological ,tests in ,vocational    
,guidance1 ,journal of ,educational     
,psychology1 ,april1 #aiac              

,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l43 ,specialized    
,vocational ,tests and ,methods1 ,school
 and ,society1 ,june #bf1 #aiae  ,lahy1 
,j4 ,m43 ,les conditions                
psychophysiologiques de l'aptitude au   
travail dactylographique1 ,journal de   
,physiology1 #aiac  ,lough1 ,w4 ,h43    
,experimental ,psychology and           
,vocational ,guidance1 ,proceedings     
,second ,conference on ,vocational      
,education  ,mc,comas1 ,h4 ,c43 ,some   
,tests for ,efficiency of ,telephone    
,operators1 ,journal of ,philosophy1    
,psychology and ,scientific ,methods    
,muensterberg1 ,h43 ,psychology and     
,industrial ,efficiency  ---- ,business 
,psychology  ,scott1 ,w4 ,d43 ,the      
,scientific ,selection of ,salesmen1    
,advertising and ,selling1 ,october1    
#aiae  ,taylor1 ,f4 ,a43 ,scientific    
,management  ,woolley and ,fischer3     
,mental and ,physical ,measurements of  
,working ,children1 ,psychological      
,review ,monthly ,supplement1 ,no4 #gg  
#i4 ,,self-,,analysis ,,of ,,the        

,,individual  ,cattell1 ,j4 ,mc,k43     
,homo ,scientificus ,americanus1        
,science1 ,,xvii  ,davenport1 ,c4 ,b43  
,the ,trait ,book1 ,eugenics ,record    
,office  ,partridge1 ,s4 ,e43 ,an       
,outline for ,individual ,study         
,parsons1 ,f43 ,choosing a ,vocation    
,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43 ,the ,original     
,nature of ,man  ---- ,professor        
,cattell's ,relation to the ,study of   
,individual ,differences4 ,in           
,psychological ,researches of ,j4       
,mc,keen ,cattell1 ,archives of         
,psychology1 #cj  ,wells1 ,f4 ,l43 ,the 
,systematic ,observation of the         
,personality1 ,psychological ,review1   
,july1 #aiad  ,yerkes and ,la,rue3      
,outline for a ,study of the ,self      
#aj4 ,,the ,,judgment ,,of ,,associates 
,cattell1 ,j4 ,mc,k43 ,homo             
,scientificus ,americanus1 ,science1    
,,xvii  ,cogan1 ,lucy ,g41 ,conklin1    
,agnes ,m41 and ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l43 
,self-,analysis1 ,estimates of          
,associates1 and ,psychological ,tests1 

,school and ,society1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aiae 
,norsworthy1 ,n43 ,on the ,validity of  
,judgments of ,character1 ,essays in    
,honor of ,william ,james  ,simpson1 ,b4
 ,r43 ,reliability of ,estimates of     
,general ,intelligence1 with            
,applications to ,appointments to       
,positions1 ,journal of ,educational    
,psychology1 ,april1 #aiae   #aa4 ,,the 
,,school ,,curriculum ,,as ,a           
,,vocational ,,test  ,dearborn1 ,w4 ,f43
 ,the ,relative ,standing of ,pupils in 
the ,high ,school and in the            
,university1 ,bull4 #cab1 ,univ4 of     
,wisconsin1 #aiji  ,jones1 ,a4 ,l43 ,the
 ,value of ,college ,entrance           
,examinations1 ,educational ,review1    
,sept41 #aiad  ,kelley1 ,t4 ,l43        
,educational ,guidance  ,lowell1 ,a4    
,l43 ,college ,studies and the          
,professional ,school1 ,harvard         
,graduates' ,magazine1 ,dec41 #aiaj2    
,educational ,review1 ,oct41 #aiaa      
,miles1 ,w4 ,r43 ,comparison of         
,elementary and ,high ,school ,grades1  

,iowa ,studies in ,education1 ,i1 #a    
,nicholson1 ,f4 ,w43 ,success in        
,college and in ,after ,life1 ,school   
and ,society1 ,aug4 #ad1 #aiae  ,smith1 
,f4 ,o43 ,a ,rational ,basis for        
,determining ,fitness for ,college      
,entrance1 ,university of ,iowa ,studies
 in ,education1 ,n4 ,s41 #ea1 ,dec41    
#aiab  ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43 ,educational
 ,diagnosis1 ,science1 ,jan4 #bd1 #aiac 
---- ,the ,future of the ,college       
,entrance ,examination ,board1          
,educational ,review1 ,may1 #aijf4 ,also
 ,science1 ,vol4 #bc1 p4 #bhi  ---- ,the
 ,permanence of ,interests and ,their   
,relation to ,abilities1 ,popular       
,science ,monthly1 ,nov41 #aiab   #ab4  
,,the ,,determinants ,,of ,,vocational  
,,aptitude1 ,,and ,,the ,,vocational    
,,aptitudes ,,of ,,women  ,castle1 ,cora
 ,sutton3 ,a ,statistical ,study of     
,eminent ,women1 ,archives of           
,psychology1 ,no4 #bg1 ,august1 #aiac   
,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s43 ,an ,economic 
,study of ,feeble-minded ,women1        

,medical ,record1 ,june #f1 #aiad  ---- 
,functional ,periodicity1 ,teachers     
,college ,studies1 ,no4 #fi1 #aiad  ----
 ,variability as ,related to ,sex       
,differences in ,achievement1 ,american 
,journal of ,sociology1 ,jan41 #aiad    
,jastrow1 ,j43 ,character and           
,temperament  ,montague1 ,helen1 and    
,hollingworth1 ,l4 ,s43 ,the            
,comparative ,variability of the ,sexes 
at ,birth1 ,american ,journal of        
,sociology1 ,oct41 #aiad  ,muensterberg1
 ,h43 ,vocation and ,learning  ----     
,psychology and ,industrial ,efficiency 
,pearson1 ,k43 ,variation in ,man and   
,woman1 in ,chances of ,death1 #ahig    
,schneider1 ,h43 ,selecting ,young ,men 
for ,particular ,jobs1 ,bulletin #g1    
,national ,association of ,corporation  
,schools  ---- ,the ,problem of         
,selecting the ,right ,job1 ,national   
,association of ,corporation ,schools1  
,bulletin ,june #i1 #aiae  ,thompson1   
,helen ,b43 ,the ,mental ,traits of ,sex
  ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43 ,educational     

,psychology1 ,part ,,iii1 #aiad  ,wells1
 ,f4 ,l43 ,the ,principle of ,mental    
,tests1 ,science1 ,aug4 #bb1 #aiac      
,woolley1 ,helen3 ,sex ,differences in  
,mental ,traits1 ,psychological         
,bulletin1 ,oct41 #aiad   #ac4 ,,theory 
,,and ,,principle ,,of ,,mental ,,tests 
,,as ,,applied ,,in ,,vocational        
,,analysis  ,brown1 ,w43 ,habit         
,interference1 ,university of           
,california ,publication in ,psychology1
 ,i1 #d  ,hollingworth1 ,h4 ,l43        
,correlation of ,abilities as ,affected 
by ,practice1 ,journal of ,educational  
,psychology1 ,jan41 #aiab  ----         
,individual ,differences ,before1       
,during and ,after ,practice1           
,psychological ,review1 ,jan41 #aiad    
,stern1 ,w43 ,die ,differentielle       
,psychologie  ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l43      
,educational ,diagnosis1 ,science1 ,jan4
 #bd1 #aiac  ---- ,mental and ,social   
,measurements  ,wells1 ,f4 ,l43 ,the    
,principle of ,mental ,tests1 ,science1 
,aug4 #bb1 #aiac  ,wells1 ,f4 ,l43      

,systematic ,observation of the         
,personality1 ,psychological ,review1   
,july1 #aiad  ,whipple1 ,g4 ,m43 ,manual
 of ,mental and ,physical ,tests        
,whitley1 ,m4 ,t43 ,tests for           
,individual ,differences     ,,tests1   
,,blanks1 ,,standards1 ,,forms  ,,early 
,,columbia ,,tests  ,,laboratory ,,of   
,,psychology ,,of ,,columbia            
,,university ,,physical ,,and ,,mental  
,,tests   ,on the back of this sheet    
will be found the record of the student 
to whom it is sent1 together with the   
results obtained with about #bej college
 freshmen4 ,the individual student may  
thus see how certain of his physical and
 mental traits compare with those of    
other students4 ,some of the records are
 given in percentages3 ,thus1 in the    
case of eyesight1 if the student has a  
record of #dd cm4 or under he is among  
the third or fourth having the worst    
eyesight and should consult an oculist4 
,others of the records are given in     
averages1 and the student can readily   

see whether he is above or below the    
average4 ,after the average is given a  
number in parenthesis which is the      
probable error4 ,if the record of an    
individual departs from the average by  
less than this quantity he belongs to   
the half of the students who are medium 
or normal4 ,thus in the case of the     
reaction-time1 if a student has a time  
more than #j4jai sec4 below #j4aei sec4 
he is among the quarter of the students 
who are the quickest4  ,in several of   
the tests1 especially sensation-areas1  
force of movement1 perception of pitch1 
of size and of time1 and memory for     
size1 the number of trials is not       
sufficient to establish certainly the   
place of the student among the others4  
,tests such as these are of importance  
for science4 ,they teach us the normal  
type of individual and the normal       
variation from this type4 ,they show us 
how different classes in the community  
differ1 and on what conditions of       
heredity1 education1 etc41 these        

differences depend4 ,they show us how   
physical and mental traits are          
interrelated1 how they alter with       
growth1 and on what conditions          
development depends4 ,the tests should  
be of interest to the individual as they
 show how he compares with his fellows1 
indicating defects and special          
aptitudes1 and if repeated later in the 
college course or in after life the     
comparison may prove of great value4    
,this record should be compared with the
 measurements taken in the gymnasium4   
,,early ,,columbia ,,tests  ,record of  
,together with the averages and         
percentages of about #bej students4     
99       99       99       99       99  
----------------------------------------
------------------------------ ,head3   
length1 #ai4d cm4 7#j4dc7               
breadth1 #ae4c cm4 7#j4ch7              
,vision3 ,right eye1 #gb cm4 and over1  
#ae2 #fa to #eb cm41      #eb2 #dd cm4  
and under1 #cc                          
,vision3 ,left eye1 #gb cm4 and over1   

#af2 #fa to #eb cm41       #fj2 #dd cm41
 and under1 #bd                         
,color vision3 ,normal1 #id4e2          
defective1 #d2 blind1 #a4e ,preference  
for color3 ,blue1 #db2 red1 #bb2 violet1
 #ai2     yellow1 #b2 green1 #g2 white1 
#c12 none1 #e         ,hearing3 ,right  
ear1 abnormal1 #c                       
,left ear1 abnormal1 #b                 
,perception of pitch3 ,error less than  
#a_/aj tone1 #aj2        #a_/aj to one  
tone1 #ec2 more than one tone1 #cg      
,sensation areas3 ,correct #d or #e     
times1 #fc2 #c1 #b1 #a or      #j times1
 #cg                                    
,force of movement3 ,error1 #a4dd cm4   
7#j4ea7               ,sensitiveness to 
,pain3 ,right hand1 #e4i kg4 7#b4d7     
,left       #e4f kg4 7#b4b7             
,strength3 ,right hand1 #cf4c kg4 7#d4i7
                             ,left      
#cc4e kg4 7#d4g7                        
,fatigue3 ,work done #bhd4c kg          
,amount of fatigue1 #fe 7#bg7           
,reaction-time3 #j4aei sec4 7#j4jai7    

,marking #ajj letters3 #ajj sec4 7#ab7  
,naming #ajj colors3 #he sec4 7#ad7     
,making #ajj movements3 #cd sec4 7#d7   
#ajj accurate movements3 time1 #di sec4 
7#dg7                                   
av4 error1 #j4h mm4 7#j4c7              
,perception of size3 ,error1 #b4d mm4   
7#b4j7                ,perception of    
time3                                   
,memory3 ,numerals1 heard1 #g4f 7#j4d7  
seen1 #f4i 7#j4e7                       
logical1 #dd4e 7#aa7                    
retrospective1 error1 #d4e mm4 7#b4f7   
,association time1 #ee4d sec4 7#bb4i7   
,association of opposites               
,imagery3 ,visualization1 distinct1 #hc 
,auditory1 distinct1 #bc                
,,norms ,,and ,,standards  ,the         
following tables illustrate the         
principle of norms and standards for    
mental and physical characteristics4 ,in
 these cases various traits or measures 
of performance have been recorded on    
large numbers of children at each age   
from six years to eighteen years4 ,the  

figures under a given age column        
indicate what should be expected from   
the average or normal person of that    
age1 in the trait in question4 ,if the  
individual is precisely at age in all   
the traits measured1 all his records    
will fall in the vertical column under  
the figure indicating age4 ,deviation   
above or below the average will be      
indicated by position above or below    
this column4 ,for description of the    
tests and instructions for their        
administration the reader should consult
 the references given on pages #bge-bhb4
   ,,psychophysical ,,norms  ,physical  
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
                                        
,year     ,trait                        
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
#f   #g   #h   #i  #aj  #aa  #ab  #ac   
#ad  #ae  #af  #ag  #ah                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------- ,height 7cm7

                                        
,boys          #aaa #aaf #aba #abf #aca 
#ace #adj #adf #aeb #aeh #afd #afh #aga 
,girls         #aaj #aae #abj #abe #acj 
#ace #ada #adh #aed #aeg #aeh #aei #aei 
,weight 7kg7                            
,boys           #bj  #bb  #bd  #bf  #bi 
#ca  #cd  #ch  #dc  #dh  #ec  #eg  #fa  
,girls          #ai  #ba  #bc  #be  #bh 
#ca  #cd  #ci  #dd  #dh  #ea  #eb  #ec  
,skull ,l4 7mm7                         
,boys          #agg #agi #ahj #aha #ahb 
#ahc #ahc #ahd #ahg #ahh #aia #aia #aib 
,girls         #agb #agd #age #agf #agg 
#ahj #ahj #aha #ahc #ahd #ahd #ahe #ahf 
,skull ,w  7mm7                         
,boys         #adb  #adb #adc #add #add 
#ade #ade #adg #adg #adh #adi #aej #aea 
,girls        #aci  #adj #adj #ada #adb 
#adb #adc #add #ade #adf #adf #adf #adg 
,vital ,capacity                        
7cc7 ,boys                              
#ajbcaafhacafadfiafjcagcbahhcbajhbciebfi
gcabjcdhccfee       ,girls              
#iejajfaaafeabhfadjiaebfaffdahbgbjadbafh

bbffbcaibcdc ,tapping                   
7,right ,hand7                          
7#cj sec47                              
,b         444 444 #adg #aea #afa #afi  
#agj #ahd #ahd #aia #aif #aif #aig      
,g         444 444 #adf #adi #aeg #afi  
#afi #agh #aha #aha #ahd #ahh #aic ,grip
 7kg7                                   
,right1 ,boys     #i  #aa  #ab  #ad  #ag
  #ai  #ba  #bd  #bh  #cc  #ci  #de  #di
       ,girls      #h  #aj  #aa  #ac    
#ae  #ag  #ai  #bb  #be  #bg  #bi  #cj  
#cj ,pain ,limen 7kg7                   
,boys          #a4c #a4d #a4g #a4g #a4g 
#b4j #b4j #b4a #b4a #b4d #b4g #b4h #b4i 
,girls         #a4b #j4i #a4b #a4d #a4e 
#a4f #a4e #a4g #a4h #a4h #a4i #a4i #a4h 
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
   ,mental ,tests                       
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------  
,year     ,trait                        
----------------------------------------
------------------------                

#f   #g   #h   #i  #aj  #aa  #ab  #ac   
#ad  #ae  #af  #ag  #ah                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------- ,school ,grade
    #a   #b   #c   #d   #e   #f   #g    
#h   #i  #aj  #aa  #ab    ,form ,board  
7sec47       #bg  #bc  #ba  #ai  #ag    
#ae  #ad  #ac  #ab  #ab          ,knox  
,cube                                   
7lines7       #d   #e   #e   #e   #f    
#f   #f   #f   #g   #g   #h             
,memory1 ,span 4                        
,aud4 ,dig4     #d   #e   #e   #e   #f  
#f   #f   #f   #f   #f   #f   #g   #g   
,memory1                                
,concrete ,words       #ca  #cb  #cf    
#cg  #ch  #ci  #db  #db  #dc  #dc  #ej  
,abstract ,words       #bb  #be  #bi    
#ca  #cb  #cd  #cg  #cg  #dj  #dj  #dj  
,pictures       #e4c #f4a #f4j #g4c #g4e
 #g4e #h4d #i4baj4j            ,logical 
,memory                                 
7,items of #fg7                         
,boys              #bd  #bi  #cj  #cc   
#ce  #cg  #cf  #cg  #cd  #ce  #cg       

,girls             #bi  #ca  #cd  #cf   
#ch  #ci  #ci  #ci  #cg  #cg  #ch       
,visual ,range1                         
under special                           
conditions   444 444  #d  444 444 #ac   
444 444 #ah  444 444 #bg  ,cancellation 
7,a7 7,in #b                            
minutes7    #ah  #ba  #be  #cc  #ce  #da
  #da                   ,size-,weight   
,suggestion                             
7gr7        #db  #de  #dh  #ej  #dd  #dj
  #dj  #ch  #ce  #ce  #cd  #bg          
,association1                           
,percent ,common #ee  #fb  #fh  #ge  #gc
  #hb  #hd  #ha  #hd  #gi  #hf          
,word ,building                         
7#e min47                               
a-e-i-r-l-p         #g   #h   #i  #aa   
#ab  #ad  #ad  #af  #af  #ag  #ah       
,substitution         #ab  #ae  #ag  #ah
  #ba  #bc  #bd  #bf  #bf  #bg  #bh     
,words in #cmin4       #bc  #bi  #ca    
#ce  #ce  #cf  #cf  #dj  #da  #db  #dh  
,part-,whole                            
7#a min47            #e   #f   #g   #i  

#aj  #aa  #ab  #ad  #af  #af  #ai       
,opposites                              
7#a min47            #h   #h   #i  #aa  
#ac  #ae  #af  #ag  #ai  #ai  #bc ,fable
                                        
,interpretation          #ch  #de  #ec  
#ee  #gj  #gc             ,vocabulary1  
,per cent of                            
#ahjjj        #ab  #ad  #ah  #bc  #bf   
#cj  #cf  #db        #ed     #gb        
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------  
,spelling ,ability ,special ,scales1    
,ayres1 ,buckingham4 ,arithmetic        
,ability ,special ,norms1 ,courtis1     
,woody1 ,starch4 ,language ,ability     
,special ,graded ,scales1 ,trabue4      
,composition ,ability ,special ,scale1  
,hillegas4 ,handwriting ,ability        
,special ,scales1 ,thorndike1 ,ayres1   
,starch4 ,general ,mental ,age          
,standardized ,intelligence ,scales1    
,binet1 ,yerkes1 etc4   ,,graded        
,,scales  ,a ,,roughly ,,graded ,,test  
,,for ,,children ,,who ,,are ,,less     

,,than ,,three ,,years ,,old  ,normal   
,course of ,development  7,after        
,preyer1 ,church1 ,peterson and ,paton7 
#ast ,week--,sensitive to light1        
reaction to touch1 evidences     of     
audition1 sensibility to taste4 #bnd    
,week--,notices candle1 facial reaction 
suggesting pleasure4 #crd ,week--,tears4
 #dth ,week--,smiles and vowel sounds4  
#ast ,month--,taste1 smell1 touch1      
sight1 hearing4 ,sleeps     two hours at
 a time1 #af hrs4 out of #bd4 #bnd      
,month--,occasional strabismus1         
recognizes human     voice1 turns head  
toward sound1 pleased with music     and
 with human faces4 ,laughs at tickling4 
,clasps     with four fingers by #hth   
week4 ,first consonants4 #crd           
,month--,cries with joy at sight of     
mother or father4     ,eyelids not      
completely raised when child looks up4  
,knows sound of watch at #ith week4     
,listens with     attention4 #dth       
,month--,eye movements perfect4 ,sees   
objects move     toward eye4 ,joy at    

seeing itself in mirror4 ,opposes       
thumb4 ,head held up permanently4 ,sits 
up     with support to back4 ,begins to 
imitate4 #eth ,month--,discriminates    
strangers4 ,pleasures of     crumpling  
and tearing papers1 pulling hair1 or    
ringing     bell4 ,sleeps #aj or #aa    
hrs4 without food4 ,consonants     l and
 k4 ,seizes and carries objects to      
mouth4 #fth and #gth ,month--,raises    
self to sitting posture4     ,laughs4   
,raises and drops arms when pleasure is 
great4 ,teeth begin to appear4          
,astonishment shown     by open mouth   
and eyes4 ,turns head as sign of        
refusal4 #hth and #ith ,months--,stands 
on feet without support4     ,claps     
hands for joy4 ,has fear of dogs4 ,turns
 over     when laid face down4 ,turns   
head to light when     asked where it   
is4 ,questions understood before child  
can speak4 ,voice more modulated4 #ajth1
 #aath1 #abth ,months--,first attempts  
at walking4     ,sitting has become a   
habit4 ,stands without support4         

,whispering begins4 ,pushes chair4      
,obeys command1     ,give the hand4     
#acth1 #adth1 #aeth ,months--,says ,papa
 and ,mama4     ,raises itself by chair4
 ,imitates coughing1 and     swinging of
 arms4 ,walks without support4          
,understands     ten words4 #afth1      
#agth1 #ahth1 #aith ,months--,sleeps #aj
 hrs4 at a time4     ,associates words  
with objects and movements4     ,blows  
horn1 strikes with hand or foot1 waters 
flowers1     tries to wash hands1 to    
comb and brush hair1 to     execute the 
other imitative movements4 #bjth to     
#bdth ,months--,marks with pencil and   
paper4 ,executes     orders with        
surprising accuracy4 #beth to #cjth     
,months--,distinguishes colors4 ,makes  
sentences     of several words4 ,begins 
to climb and jump     and to ask        
questions4 #cjth to #djth ,months--,goes
 up stairs without help4     ,clauses   
formed4 ,words distinctly spoken4       
,influence     of dialect appears4 ,much
 questioning4 ,beyond #djth ,month--,see

 ,binet-,simon and other tests     and  
norms4   ,,trabue ,,language ,,scale    
,c7#a7  ,write only one word on each    
blank ,seven minutes time allowed       
,name  #a4 ,the sky ---- blue4 #b4 ,men 
---- older than boys4 #c4 ,good boys    
---- kind ---- their sisters4 #d4 ,the  
girl fell and ---- her head4 #e4 ,the   
---- rises ---- the morning and ---- at 
night4 #f4 ,the boy who ---- hard ----  
do well4 #g4 ,men ---- more ---- to do  
heavy work ---- women4 #h4 ,the sun is  
so ---- that one can not ----     ----  
---- directly ---- causing great        
discomfort to the eyes4 #i4 ,the        
knowledge of ---- ---- use fire is ---- 
of     ---- important things known by   
---- but unknown     ---- animals4 #aj4 
,one ought to ---- great care to ----   
the right ----     of ----1 for one who 
---- bad habits ---- it     ---- to get 
away from them4  ,note #a3 ,this scale  
is intended for the measurement of      
children4 ,the steps from sentence to   
sentence are of approximately equal     

difficulty4   ,,trabue ,,language       
,,scale ,k7#b7  ,write only one word on 
each blank ,five minutes time allowed   
,name    #a4 ,the boy will ---- his hand
 if ---- plays with fire4 #b4 ,hot      
weather comes in the ---- and ----      
weather ---- the winter4 #c4 ,the poor  
little ---- has ---- nothing to ----2 he
 is hungry4 #d4 ,very few people ----   
how to spend time and ---- to the best  
advantage4 #e4 ,one ---- not1 as a ----1
 ---- attention ---- uninteresting      
things4 #f4 ,to eat ---- one is ---- is 
a ---- pleasure4 #g4 ---- they ---- us  
---- not1 nature's ---- are ---- and    
unchangeable4  ,note #b3 ,this scale is 
intended for the measurement of young   
people and adults4 ,the steps between   
the sentences are of approximately equal
 difficulty4                            
,,record ,,blank ,,for  ,,name          
,,born              ,,admitted          
,,iii  #a ,points to nose1 eyes1 mouth4 
#b ,repeats ,it rains4 ,i am hungry4 #c 
,repeats #g #b4 #d ,sees in ,picture #a4

                     #e4                
#b4                     #f4             
#c4                     #g4             
#d4                     #h4             
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,iv  #a ,knows sex1 boy or girl4 7girl 
or boy47 #b ,recognizes key1 knife1     
penny4 #c ,repeats #g #d #h4 #d         
,compares lines4                        
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,v  #a ,compares #c and #ab grams4 #f   
and #ae grams4 #b ,copies square4 7,draw
 on back of this sheet47 #c ,repeats1   
,his name is ,john4 ,he is a very good  
boy4 #d ,counts four pennies4 #e        
,patience4                              
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,vi  #a ,morning or afternoon4         
7afternoon or morning47 #b ,defines fork
                horse           table   
mama           chair #c ,puts key on    
chair2 shuts door2 brings box4 #d ,shows

 ,r ,hand4 ,l4 ,ear4 #e ,chooses        
prettier8 #a  #b4    #d  #c4    #e  #f4 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,vii  #a ,counts #ac pennies4 #b       
,describes ,pictures4 7,see ,,iii #d47  
#c ,sees picture lacks eyes1 nose1      
mouth1 arms4 #d ,can copy diamond4      
7over47 #e ,recognises red1 blue1 green1
 yellow4 7,time #f47                    
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,viii  #a ,compares 7,time #bj7        
,butterfly         ,wood       ,paper   
,fly               ,glass      ,cloth #b
 ,counts backward #bj-a4 7,time #bj47 #c
 ,repeats days4 ,m4 ,t4 ,w4 ,t4 ,f4 ,s4 
,s4 7,time #aj47 #d ,counts stamps4     
#aaabbb4 7,time #aj47 #e ,repeats #d #g 
#c #i #e4                               
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,ix  #a ,makes change #bj;c-#d;c4 #b   
,definitions4 7,see ,,vi #b47 #c ,knows 
date4 #d ,months4 ,j4 ,f4 ,m4 ,a4 ,m4   

,j4 ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,o4 ,n4 ,d4 7,time #ae47
 #e ,arranges weights4 7#b correct47 7#a
 min4 each47  #a4   #b4   #c4a          
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,x  #a ,money #a;c4 #e;c4 #aj;c4 #be;c4 
#ej;c4 #a4 #b4 #e4 #aj4 #b ,draws design
 from memory4 7show #aj seconds47 #c    
,repeats #h #e #d #g #b #f4 #b #g #d #f 
#h #a4 #i #d #a #g #c #h4 #d            
,comprehends4   7#ast ,series time #bj7 
7#bnd ,series time #bj7     7#b out of  
#c7                      7#c out of #e7 
a4 7,missed train47                  a4 
7,late to ,school47 b4 7,struck by      
playmate1 etc47       b4 7,important    
affair47 c4 7,broken something47        
c4 7,forgive easier47                   
d4 7,asked opinion47                    
e4 7,actions vs4 words47 #e ,sentence3  
,new ,york1 ,money1 ,river4 7,time #a'47
                                        
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,xi  #a ,sees absurdity4 7#c out of    

#e47 7,time #b'47   a4 ,unfortunate     
painter4          d4 ,r4 ,r4 accident4  
b4 ,three brothers4               e4    
,suicide4   c4 ,locked in room4 #b      
,sentence3 ,new ,york1 ,money1 ,river4  
7,see ,x #e47 #c ,give sixty words in   
three minutes4 7,record on back47 #d    
,rhymes 7,time #a' each47 7#c rhymes    
with each word47             day        
mill             spring #e ,puts        
dissected sentences together4 7,time #a'
 each47   a4                       b4   
c4                                      
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,xii  #b ,repeats #b #i #f #d #c #g #e4
  #i #b #h #e #a #f #d4   #a #c #i #e #h
 #d #g4   ,defines ,charity             
,justice           ,goodness4 #c        
,repeats1 ,i saw in the street a pretty 
little dog4 ,he had curly brown hair1   
short legs and a long tail4 #d ,resists 
suggestion 7,lines74 #a4   #b4  #c4  #d4
  #e4  #f4 #e ,problems3 7a7 ,hanging   
from limb4 7b7 ,neighbor's visitors4    

----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,xv  #a ,interprets picture4 #b ,change
 clock hands4  #f4bj    #b4ef  #c ,code4
 ,,come ,,quickly4 #d ,opposites4   #a  
good     #c quick  #e big    #g white   
#i happy   #b outside  #d tall   #f loud
   #h light  #aj false   ,,adult  #a    
,cutting paper4 #b ,reversed triangle4  
#c ,gives differences of abstract words4
 #d ,difference between president of a  
republic and a king4 #e ,gives sense of 
a selection read4   ,,suggestions       
,,toward ,a ,,vocational ,,psychograph  
,list of ,measurements on a ,singer     
7,prepared by ,c4 ,e4 ,seashore1        
,university of ,iowa7  ,i--,,sensory    
,a--,,pitch   #a--;,discrimination at a1
 #dce vd4   #b--,survey of register of  
discrimination4   #c--,tonal range1 7a7 
,upper1 7b7 ,lower4                     
#d--,timbre--discrimination4            
#e--;,consonance and ,dissonance4       
,b--,,intensity   #a--,sensibility      
#b--;,discrimination ,c--,,time         

discrimination for short intervals      
,,ii--,,motor ,a--,,pitch               
#a--,striking a note   #b--,varying a   
tone   #c--,singing intervals           
#d--,sustaining a tone   #e--,registers 
#f--,timbre       a--purity             
b--richness       c--mellowness         
d--clearness       e--flexibility       
#g--,plasticity2 curves of learning     
,b--,,intensity   #a--,natural strength 
and volume of the voice4                
#b--,voluntary control4 ,c--,,time      
#a--,motor ability   #b--,transition and
 attack   #c--,singing in time          
#d--,singing in rhythm                  
,,iii--,,associational ,a--,,imagery    
#a--,type   #b--,role of auditory and   
motor imagery ,b--,,memory   #a--,memory
 span   #b--,retention                  
#c--,redintegration ,c--,,ideation      
#a--;,association type and musical      
content   #b--,musical grasp            
#c--;,creative imagination              
#d--,plasticity3 curves of learning     
,,iv--,,affective ,a--,,likes ,,and     

,,dislikes1--character of musical appeal
   #a--,pitch1 timbre and harmony       
#b--;,intensity and volume   #c--,time  
and rhythm ,b--,,reaction ,,to ,,musical
 ,,effect ,c--,,power ,,of              
,,interpretation ,,in ,,singing         
,v--,,supplementary                     
,,data1--biographical information1      
musical training1 temperament and       
attitude1 spontaneous tendencies in     
pursuit of music1 general education and 
non-musical accomplishments1 social     
circumstances1 physique4                
,,thorndike',s ,,proposed ,,tests ,,for 
,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,intelligence 
,,of ,,adults  7,science1 ,jan4 #bd1    
#aiac7  ,series to consist of eight     
tests1 four trials of each being given4 
#a4 ,supplying words to make sense in   
mutilated passages1 the four trials     
being of four grades of difficulty4     
7,see ,trabue's ,completion ,test for   
sample of this material47  #b4 ,giving  
the opposites of words1 each trial      
comprising twenty words1 the four trials

 being of four grades of difficulty4    
7,see ,woodworth-,wells3 ,opposites     
,tests for sample47  #c4 ,memorizing a  
given word in connection with a given   
form1 so as to be able to give the      
former when the latter is presented1    
there being #aj pairs in each trial4    
7,see special blanks47  #d4 ,selecting  
from #ej forms a group of #be of these  
which have been previously seen and     
examined for a minute or two4 7,see     
special blanks47  #e4 ,marking the      
necessarily false statements in mixed   
series of false and true statements1 the
 four trials being of four grades of    
difficulty4 7,see special blanks47  #f4 
,addition4 7,see ,woodworth-,wells3     
,addition ,tests47  #g4 ,directions     
,tests4 7,see ,woodworth-,wells3 ,hard  
,directions47  #h4 ,selecting valid from
 invalid reasons for a given fact1 the  
four tests being of four grades of      
difficulty4 7,see special blank47       
,,miscellaneous ,,empirical ,,tests     
,the following samples1 chosen from the 

,report of the ,committee on            
,standardization of ,tests of the       
,american ,psychological ,association   
7see ,woodworth and ,wells3 ,association
 ,tests71 are given as illustrations of 
tests which have been carefully prepared
 and standardized as to content and     
procedure and which are slowly being    
correlated with various types of        
occupational activity4   ,following     
,instructions ,test  ,with your pencil  
make a dot over any one of these        
letters1 ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j1 and a comma    
after the longest of these three words3 
,,boy ,,mother ,,girl4 ,then1 if        
,christmas comes in ,march1 make a cross
 right here ----1 but if not1 pass along
 to the next question1 and tell where   
the sun rises ----4 ,if you believe that
 ,edison discovered ,america1 cross out 
what you just wrote1 but if it was      
someone else1 put in a number to        
complete this sentence3 ,a horse has    
---- feet4 ,write yes1 no matter whether
 ,china is in ,africa or not ----2 and  

then give a wrong answer to this        
question3 ,how many days are there in   
the week8 ----4 ,write any letter except
 ,g just after this comma1 and then     
write ,no if two times five are ten     
----4 ,now1 if ,tuesday comes after     
,monday1 make two crosses here ----2 but
 if not1 make a circle here ---- or else
 a square here ----4 ,be sure to make   
three crosses between these two names of
 boys3 ,,george ---- ,,henry4 ,notice   
these two numbers3 #c1 #e4 ,if iron is  
heavier than water1 write the larger    
number ----1 but if iron is lighter     
write the smaller number ----4 ,now show
 by a cross when the nights are longer3 
in summer8 ----2 in winter8 ----4 ,give 
the correct answer to this question3    
,does water run uphill8 ----1 and repeat
 your answer here ----4 ,do nothing here
 7#e  #g 7 unless you skipped the       
preceding question2 but write the first 
letter of your first name and the last  
letter of your last name at the end of  
this line3      ,naming ,opposites      

,verb-,object ,test  ,in the case of    
each word1 name      ,in the case of    
each verb1 supply the word having the   
,,opposite        an appropriate        
,,object1 as3 ,,meaning1 as3 tall--short
            bake--bread    long         
north                    sing           
read   soft       sour                  
build       tear   white      out       
wear        throw   far        weak     
shoot       paint   up         good     
scold       mail   smooth     after     
win         light   early      above    
answer      sail   dead       sick      
weave       spin   hot        slow      
wink        lock   asleep     large     
mend        wash   lost       rich      
pump        bake   wet        dark      
learn       spill   high       front    
open        kiss   dirty      love      
eat         polish   east       tall    
climb       sweep   day        open     
lend        fill   yes        summer    
smoke       sharpen   wrong      new    
singe       write   empty      come     

dig         chew   top        male      
sift        drive  ,mixed ,relations    
,give a fourth word which shall have the
 same relation to the third word that   
the second has to the first1 as3        
,box--,square 33 ,orange--,round        
,east--,west  33 ,over--,under          
,man--,woman  33 ,boy--,girl  ,eye--see 
33 ,ear--         ,good--bad       33   
,long-- ,monday--,tuesday 33 ,april--   
,eagle--bird     33 ,shark-- ,do--did   
33 ,see--         ,eat--bread      33   
,drink-- ,bird--sings     33 ,dog--     
,fruit--orange   33 ,vegetable--        
,hour--minute    33 ,minute--           
,sit--chair      33 ,sleep-- ,straw--hat
      33 ,leather--     ,double--two    
33 ,triple-- ,cloud--rain     33 ,sun-- 
,england--,london 33 ,france--          
,hammer--tool    33 ,dictionary--       
,chew--teeth     33 ,smell--            
,uncle--aunt     33 ,brother--          
,pen--write      33 ,knife-- ,dog--puppy
      33 ,cat--         ,water--wet     
33 ,fire-- ,little--less    33 ,much--  

,he--him         33 ,she-- ,wash--face  
33 ,sweep--       ,boat--water     33   
,train-- ,house--room     33 ,book--    
,crawl--snake    33 ,swim-- ,sky--blue  
33 ,grass--       ,horse--colt     33   
,cow-- ,swim--water     33 ,fly--       
,nose--face      33 ,toe-- ,once--one   
33 ,twice--       ,bad--worse      33   
,good-- ,cat--fur        33 ,bird--     
,hungry--food    33 ,thirsty-- ,pan--tin
        33 ,table--       ,hat--head    
33 ,glove-- ,buy--sell       33 ,come-- 
,ship--captain   33 ,army--             
,oyster--shell   33 ,banana--           
,man--woman      33 ,boy--              
----------------------------------------
------------------------   ,cancellation
 ,test  ,cancel the specified digit     
whenever it occurs4 ,there are five     
occurrences of each of the digits in    
each of the horizontal lines4           
#eafhdibcgjabgejdhficdahijbefcgagefjhibd
cghfijdcabe                             
#ghjeacdbfibdjigfaechcbjdaegifhdhabfgcij
ecgijhfebad                             

#ceighdfajbeahbcgdifjheicbdajgficdebjhfa
gicafgehdjb                             
#bgcifejhadigcfaejbhdjdgheifbacjicaefdhg
bdbcefgijha                             
#dbecjagihfchfjiaedgbicfgdhjabefdicabjge
hfabgdijech                             
#idgjchefbafjichbgadeghajifdcebebgidafch
jajdhbcgief                             
#jihbefagdchcedfibjagfjbacgiehdbahdiegjc
fjiebahfgdc                             
#ajdfbgiechjfbhdcigeabgdefjchiacejghdbaf
iefhaibdcgj                             
#hfadibcjegdeagbhfcjiaiefhcbgdjhfbjgcedi
abdgcejahfi                             
#fcbagjhdiegidaejchbfefcbgahdjigjfhciaeb
dhejdcabfig                             
#gifbacdjehdbeaichfjgijdhagbcfefbhcjeadi
geidhjgabcf                             
#ifhajecgdbaidecgjbfhjdgbchfeiaijcfhbgae
dgejcbidafh                             
#jgcdbiahfeifabdhgjecaihcjfedgbaegicdhbf
jhceigbfdja                             
#cdgfhabeijfcjgeidhabdheigcabjfgajbifdec
hcdgafebhij                             
#feigcbhdjajhcfadigbebecdfijahgedagbhcij

fabfehcjgdi                             
#hcejidgbafhegjbacidfebajhdgfcibgdeaijfh
cfhigajcebd                             
#ahjigfecbdbghdfeacijcabfiehgdjdhbjeafcg
idahjeficgb                             
#bjdhegfacigafijbedcifgjadbciehjfidgcbha
ebjafdhgiec                             
#dabefhjigcejicgfbahdhfigeadjbchceafgijd
bifbdcaejhg                             
#ebacdjifhgcdbihjfegagcfebjihadcifhdjegb
ajgcbidhfae                             
----------------------------------------
----------   ,,substitution ,,test      
,write in each figure the number        
assigned it in the key line4  ,symbol3  
star #a ,symbol3 ,circle #b ,symbol3    
square #c ,symbol3 cross #d ,symbol3    
triangle #e  circle  star  square  cross
  triangle star  circle  square         
triangle cross square  cross  star      
triangle cross  circle  star  triangle  
square  circle star  circle  square     
star   square  cross  triangle circle   
cross  star cross  square  triangle     
circle  cross  square  star  square     

circle  triangle square  star  cross    
triangle  star  triangle circle  star   
triangle square cross  circle  triangle 
star  circle  square  star  triangle    
cross  circle triangle  cross  circle   
cross  square  star  cross  circle      
square  triangle circle  triangle cross 
square  star  triangle circle  star     
triangle  square star  cross  square    
circle  triangle  star  square  cross   
circle  star triangle  square  circle   
star  circle  cross  triangle square    
star  cross   ,,sources ,,for ,,tests   
,those who desire to make use of mental 
tests for vocational purposes1 or in    
vocational investigations1 will find    
suggestive material1 sets of tests1     
instructions1 norms1 and similar useful 
directions in the following places4 ,the
 list is by no means exhaustive but     
contains those references which in the  
author's experience have been most      
useful4  ,pyle1 ,w4 ,h43 ,the           
,examination of ,school ,children4 ,the 
author describes numerous tests of a    

simple type1 and gives age norms for    
each4  ,reports of ,committee on ,tests 
of the ,american ,psychological         
,association4 ,these appear from time to
 time in the ,psychological ,review     
,monograph ,series1 and contain         
accounts1 instructions and frequently   
norms1 for carefully planned and        
standardized tests4  ,woodworth and     
,wells3 ,association ,tests4 ,this is   
one of the reports mentioned above1 and 
contains an especially suggestive group 
of tests which should have widespread   
use because of their standard character4
  ,woolley1 ,rusk and ,fisher3          
,psychological ,norms of ,working       
,children4 ,this is a monograph in the  
,psychological ,review ,series and gives
 an account of the tests in use in      
,cincinnati1 with tables of norms for   
thirteen- and fourteen-year-olds4       
,simpson1 ,b4 ,r43 ,correlations of     
,mental ,abilities1 ,columbia           
,university ,contributions to           
,education1 ,no4 #ec4 ,the ,appendix    

contains descriptions of the tests used2
 many of them are worth trying out4     
,whipple1 ,g4 ,m43 ,manual of ,mental   
and ,physical ,tests4 ,by far the most  
useful and complete compendium of tests1
 norms1 and bibliography available4     
,contains also chapters on methods of   
using tests and the statistical methods 
of scoring and evaluation4  ,teachers   
,college1 ,columbia ,university1        
,contributions4 ,these monographs appear
 at irregular intervals and frequently  
contain reports of the construction and 
use of mental tests as instruments of   
educational and vocational measurement4 
,several of them in particular are      
concerned with scales and standards for 
the measurement of school abilities4    
,numerous tests may also be secured in  
the form of printed blanks1 from the    
,publication ,bureau of ,teachers       
,college4  ,thorndike ,tests3 ,numerous 
forms of mental tests devised by ,prof4 
,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike and his associates   
may be secured through the ,teachers    

,college ,bureau of ,publications1 ,new 
,york ,city4  ,stoelting and ,co41 #cjdg
 ,carroll ,ave41 ,chicago1 manufacturers
 of scientific apparatus and materials1 
supply material and forms for many of   
the tests described in the above        
references4  ,the ,morningside ,press1  
#cjjj ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city1      
supplies materials1 instructions1 record
 blanks1 and tables of norms for a large
 number of psychological tests1         
especially those intended for           
vocational1 educational and clinical    
application1 and for use in the class   
room and laboratory4     ,,index ,,of   
,,authors   ,,amsden1 #abh  ,,arnold1   
#bcf   ,,binet1 #fb1 #gj1 #gb1 #hf      
,,cattell1 #fj1 #fb1 #abf1 #abi1 #ace1  
#acf1 #ach1 #aeg  ,,cogan1 #dh          
,,courtis1 #bcb   ,,darwin1 #bbi        
,,davenport1 #abi  ,,dearborn1 #agh1    
#aha1 #ahb  ,,descartes1 #ba   ,,ellis1 
#bcj   ,,farrand1 #fj   ,,gall1 #bd     
,,galton1 #fb   ,,harrison1 #bcd        
,,harvey1 #ba  ,,henri1 #fb  ,,huymans1 

#abi  ,,hoch1 #abh  ,,hollingworth1 #bca
   ,,jastrow1 #bd1 #fb  ,,jones1 #ahf1  
#ahi   ,,kelley1 #agg  ,,kraepelin1 #fb 
,,lahy1 #aac1 #aai  ,,larue1 #aca       
,,lombroso1 #cg  ,,lough1 #aab1 #aai    
,,lowell1 #agi1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjd1 
#bje   ,,mccomas1 #aaj1 #aab  ,,meckel1 
#bbi  ,,miles1 #agh  ,,mill1 #bbd       
,m,oe,b,i,u,s1 #bbd  ,,montague1 #bca   
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g1 #ajj1 #aaa1    
#aaf   ,,nicholson1 #aic1 #aie          
,,nietzsche1 #bbd  ,,norsworthy1 #acd1  
#acf1 #ach1 #ada   ,,partridge1 #abh    
,,paynter1 #aaa  ,,pearson1 #bcj        
,,pyle1 #bcb   ,,rice1 #aie  ,,romanes1 
#bbf   ,,schneider1 #ec1 #ajc1 #baf     
,,schopenhauer1 #bbd  ,,seashore1 #ij1  
#ic1 #ie1 #if  ,,simon1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb   
,,smith1 #ahb1 #ahe  ,,spurzheim1 #bd   
,,sylvester1 #gb   ,,terman1 #bcb       
,,thompson1 #bbf  ,,thorndike1 #gd1     
#aaa1 #abg1 #ahj1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1     
#aia1 #bjf1 #baj1 #baf1 #bbg            
,,toulouse1 #ha1 #hh  ,,trabue1 #ga1    
#gh1 #bcb   ,,voitsecovsky1 #bce        

,,vandenberg1 #agi   ,,wells1 #abh1     
#abi1 #acj  ,,wiersma1 #abi  ,,woolley1 
#aad1 #aai   ,,yerkes1 #aca     ,,index 
,,of ,,subjects   ,advancement in       
industry1 #bai  ,analysis1 of belief in 
physiognomic signs1 #cb ff4   of        
character1 #di1 #aba ff41 #acc ff41 #adc
 ff4   of educational changes1 #aa   of 
effects of practice1 #cde ff4   of      
individuals1 #ah1 #aba ff41 #adc ff41   
#bde ff4   of maternal instinct1 #bch   
of medieval clairvoyance1 #g   of mental
 tests1 #fd1 #bde ff4   of occupations1 
#gh1 #hj1 #ib1 #if ff41 #aji ff41 #bjh  
ff4   of phrenology1 #bf ff4   of       
primitive thinking1 #b   of school      
curriculum1 #agd  ,antecedents of       
vocational psychology1 #a   references1 
#bge  ,aptitudes1 of the average        
individual1 #bae   of the feeble-minded1
 #bjh   of the mentally inferior1 #baj  
of the specially gifted1 #bab   of      
women1 #bbb ff4  ,attitudinal factors1  
#ae1 #fc1 #fe1 #ajd1 #adi ff41 #aij ff41
 #baj1 #bad ff41 #bcg1 #bgj   ,behavior1

 judgment of1 #acd   study of1 #eg      
,bibliographies1 #bge-bha  ,binet tests1
 nature of1 #fi   record blank for1 #bij
  ,brain1 functions of1 #bb1 #bg        
measurements of1 #cj   size of1 #bi     
,character analysis1 #h  ,clairvoyance1 
#g ff4  ,correlation1 formula for1 #de  
meaning of1 #dd   of ability to judge   
self and ability to judge others1 #afh  
of elementary school standing and later 
academic achievement1 #agg ff4   of     
estimated traits and objective measures1
 #afa ff4   of initial and final trials1
 #bdf ff4   of judicial capacity and    
possession of traits1 #aeh1 #afg   of   
mental tests and vocational ability1    
#aac1 #aaf1 #bab   of mental traits1    
#df1 #ej1 #eb1 #afa1 #afd1 #afi1 #aga   
of school standing and success in later 
life1 #aib ff4  ,curriculum1 as a       
vocational test1 #agd ff4   bibliography
 on1 #bgi   ,determinants1 bibliography 
on1 #bhj   of vocational aptitude1 #bjh 
ff4  ,division of labor between the     
sexes1 #bbc1 #bdj1 #bdb   ,education1   

industrial1 #ae   popularization of1 #ac
   theory of1 #ad  ,employment bureaus1 
#dg1 #ada  ,experiments1 on abilities   
and interests1 #aij   on brain1 #bb1    
#bbf   on college students1 #fj1 #acg   
on effects of practice1 #bde ff4   on   
eminent men1 #ha1 #hg1 #ace1 #ach   on  
functional periodicity1 #bcf   on       
judgments of character1 #ace-agc   on   
mental defectives1 #gf   on mental      
measurement1 #fg1 #gd   on mental tests1
 #ei1 #fd   on musicians1 #id   on      
photographs1 #da1 #dh   on              
physiognomies1 #ec   on selecting       
employees by psychological methods1 #gh1
 #aaj-aba1 #baa   on self-analysis1 #aad
 ff41 #aef   on sex differences1 #bbf   
ff4  ,form board1 #gb  ,fortune telling1
 #g   ,general intelligence1 #fi1 #bee  
ff4   ,individual differences1 #ah   as 
affected by practice1 #bde ff4   in     
vocational aptitudes1 #bjh ff41 #bbb ff4
  ,intelligence scales1 bibliography on1
 #bgf   nature of1 #fg   types of1 #fi  
vocational use of1 #ge ff4   ,judgment1 

of associates1 #dh1 #gi1 #aba ff41 #acc 
ff41 #adc ff4   of character1 #acc ff41 
#aci ff41 #adc ff4   of photographs1    
#da1 #dg1 #dh   of scientific men1 #ace 
of self1 #abb1 #abd-acc1 #adc ff4   of  
students1 #acg1 #adc ff4   of teachers1 
#acf   ,localization of functions1 #bb1 
#bg   ,magic1 examples of1 #c ff4       
vocational efforts of1 #a ff4  ,maternal
 instinct1 analysis of1 #bch  ,mental   
age1 #gj  ,mental defectives1 detection 
of1 #ge   education of1 #ad   in        
industry1 #ge1 #bac   menace of1 #gg    
vocational aptitudes of1 #bjh1 #bac     
,motives of vocational psychology1 #a   
bibliography on1 #bge   ,norms of       
performance1 #fa1 #ff ff41 #gc1 #gi1    
#ia1 #id1 #bhe-bic   bibliography on1   
#bgf   ,occupations1 analysis of1 #ib1  
#if ff41 #ajb1 #ajc1 #bjh ff4   blind   
alley1 #af1 #baj1 #bah   ,periodicity   
effect of1 on mental and motor ability1 
#bcd ff4  ,photographs1 experiments     
with1 #da1 #dh   judgments of1 #da1 #dg1
 #dh   vocational use of1 #dh1 #eb      

,phrenology1 assumptions of1 #bf        
errors of1 #bg-cb   origin of1 #bc      
practice of1 #be  ,physiognomies1       
analysis of1 #cd   dogmas of1 #ci       
experiments in1 #da1 #di1 #ec   practice
 of1 #cb   vocational futility of1 #ed  
,practice1 effect of1 on individual     
differences1 #beg ff4   limits of1 #bef 
on correlation of abilities1 #bdg       
,primitive thinking1 examples of1 #c    
stages of1 #b ff4   vocational efforts  
of1 #b  ,product scales1 bibliography   
on1 #bgf   nature and use of1 #gd       
,psychograph1 bibliography on1 #bgg     
nature of1 #hj1 #hh   of individuals1   
#hj   of a mathematician1 #ha ff4   of a
 novelist1 #hf   of occupation1 #ij1    
#ig1 #ih1 #ajb   of a singer1 #ib       
vocational use of1 #if1 #ii1 #ajg       
,psychological tests1 bibliography on1  
#bgf   method of1 #fa   of adults1 #baj1
 #bdh   of children1 #fi1 #aad   of     
clerical workers1 #aaj1 #aaa            
,psychological tests1 of college        
students1 #fj1 #ade   of efficiency     

experts1 #gh   of factory operators1    
#aaa1 #aae   of judges1 #aaa   of marine
 officers1 #aab   of motormen1 #aab   of
 musical ability1 #id   of ,poincare1   
#ha ff4   of a singer1 #ib   of         
stenographers1 #aac   of salesmen1 #aaa 
of telephone operators1 #aaj1 #aab   of 
typesetters1 #aaa   of typewriters1     
#aac1 #aad   of ,zola1 #hf   origin and 
history of1 #eg ff4   samples of1       
#bhd-cjj   scales of1 #fg ff4           
standardization of1 #fc1 #fg   sources  
of1 and instructions for1 #cjj-cjb      
tests of1 #fd   theory of1 #bde ff4     
vocational use of1 #fj1 #ff1 #ge1 #gh1  
#hj ff41 #ij1 #aji-aba1 #baj1 #bah1 #bfa
   ,scales1 bibliography on1 #bgf   for 
measuring intelligence1 #fg   for       
measuring special achievement1 #gd ff4  
samples of1 #bhe-bic   use of1 #ge      
,school records1 as indicative of       
interests1 #aij ff4   as related to     
later academic achievement1 #agg ff4    
,school records1 as related to success  
in later life1 #aib ff4   bibliography  

on1 #bgi   correlation of1 with tests1  
#afe   intercorrelation of1 #agb        
vocational significance of1 #agd ff4    
,selection1 of an occupation1 #ab ff41  
#ajb1 #ajd1 #abc   of employees1 #ec1   
#ge1 #gh1 #ii1 #aaj-aac1 #aae1 #acc1    
#baj1 #baa1 #bai1 #bdj  ,self-analysis1 
bibliography on1 #bgh   method of1 #abb 
problems of1 #abd   reliability of1 #adi
 ff4   systematic guides to1 #abe-acc   
,sex differences1 bibliography on1 #bhj 
in average intelligence1 #bbe ff4   in  
instinctive equipment1 #bcg   in        
physiological function1 #bdb   in       
special handicaps1 #bcd   in            
variability1 #bbh ff4   in vocational   
opportunity1 #bdj ff4   ,testimonials1  
#adb1 #agc  ,tests4 ,see ,psychological 
tests  ,theory1 bibliography on1 #bha   
of mental tests1 #bde   ,variation1 in  
ability1 #bbh ff4   in judgment1 #dc1   
#ea1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach ff4  ,variation1  
measures of1 #db   of individual        
performance1 #bea   of self-estimates1  
#adi ff4  ,vocational aptitudes1        

bibliography on1 #bhj   determinants of1
 #bjh ff4   of women1 #bbb ff4          
,vocational guidance1 #aa  ,vocational  
methods1 bibliography on1 #bgh          
specialized forms1 #aji ff4   analogy1  
#aaa1 #aah   correlations1 #aab ff4     
miniature1 #aji1 #aaf   samples1 #aaj1  
#aag  ,vocational psychology1           
bibliography on1 #bge ff4   motives and 
antecedents of1 #a ff4   present status 
of1 #bfg ff4   problems of1 #bff ff4    
progress of1 #bgd  ,vocational surveys1 
#ag  ,vocational training1 #af   ,women1
 bibliography1 #bhj   biological        
handicap of1 #bdb ff4   future of1 #bdd 
in industry1 #bbb   instinctive         
equipment of1 #bcg ff4   mental         
abilities of1 #bbh   special            
disabilities of1 #bcd ff4   variability 
of1 #bbh ff4   vocational aptitudes of1 
#bbc ff4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,,by ,,harry ,l4           
,,hollingworth  ,,judging ,,human       
,,character  ,,the ,,psychology ,,of    
,,functional ,,neuroses  ,,advertising  

,,and ,,selling ,principles of ,appeal  
and ,response  ,,vocational ,,psychology
  ,,applied ,,psychology 7,with ,a4 ,t4 
,poffenberger1 ,jr47   ,d4 ,,appleton   
,,and ,,company  ,publishers ,new ,york