,,british ,,manufacturing ,,industries4 
,,edited ,,by ,g4 ,,phillips ,,bevan1   
,f4,g4,s4   ,,pottery1 ,,by ,l4         
,,arnoux1 ,art ,director and            
,superintendent of ,minton's ,factory4  
,,glass ,,and ,,silicates1 ,,by         
,,professor ,,barff1 ,m4,a4  ,,furniture
 ,,and ,,woodwork1 ,,by ,j4 ,h4         
,,pollen1 ,m4,a41 ,south ,kensington    
,museum4   ,,second ,,edition4          
,,london3 ,,edward ,,stanford1 #ee1     
,,charing ,,cross4 #ahgg4               
,transcriber's ,note3 ,printer's        
inconsistencies in spelling1 punctuation
 and hyphenation have been retained4 ,in
 the text ,mn4,o#b1 the underline 77 is 
used to indicate that the #b is printed 
as subscript4     ,,preface4   ,the     
object of this series is to bring into  
one focus the leading features and      
present position of the most important  
industries of the kingdom1 so as to     
enable the general reader to comprehend 
the enormous development that has taken 
place within the last twenty or thirty  

years4 ,it is evident that the great    
increase in education throughout the    
country has tended largely to foster a  
simultaneous interest in technical      
knowledge1 as evinced by the spread of  
,art and ,science ,schools1 ,trade      
,museums1 ,international ,exhibitions1  
c42 and this fact is borne out by a     
perusal of the daily papers1 in which   
the prominence given to every           
improvement in trade or machinery       
attests the desire of the reading public
 to know more about these matters4      
,here1 however1 the difficulty          
commences1 for the only means of        
acquiring this information are from     
handbooks to the various manufactures   
7which are usually too minute in detail 
for general instruction71 from trade    
journals and the reports of scientific  
societies2 and to obtain and systematize
 these scattered details is a labour and
 a tax upon time and patience which     
comparatively few persons care to       
surmount4 ,in these volumes all these   

facts are gathered together and         
presented in as readable a form as is   
compatible with accuracy and a freedom  
from superficiality2 and though they do 
not lay claim to being a technical guide
 to each industry1 the names of the     
contributors are a sufficient guarantee 
that they are a reliable and standard   
work of reference4 ,great stress is laid
 on the progressive developments of the 
manufactures1 and the various           
applications to them of the collateral  
arts and sciences2 the history of each  
is truly given1 while present processes 
and recent inventions are succinctly    
described4     ,,british ,,manufacturing
 ,,industries4     ,,pottery4  ,,by ,l4 
,,arnoux1 ,art ,director and            
,superintendent of ,minton's ,factory4  
,without entering into an elaborate     
dissertation on the antiquity of the    
,art of ,pottery1 which would be out of 
place in so short an article as this1 ,i
 will briefly state that the practice of
 making vessels from plastic clays1 for 

holding liquids and provisions1 first   
resulted from the exertions made by man 
to emerge from his primary condition4   
,it is a well known fact that vessels of
 clay1 only partially baked1 have been  
found1 together with stone implements   
belonging to prehistoric times1 and that
 those vessels1 unfinished as they were1
 had peculiar characteristics4 ,but     
supposing that this was not so1 it must 
strike everybody that1 after providing  
himself with those rude instruments     
wherewith to obtain his food and protect
 his life1 man must have taken advantage
 of his power of observation to notice  
the property of plastic clay to retain  
water1 and to find out to what useful   
purpose it might be brought for making  
vessels better suited to his wants1 than
 the skins of animals or pieces of wood 
roughly hollowed out4 ,if not probable1 
it is however not impossible1 that the  
first man1 taking in his hand a lump of 
soft clay1 should have tried to give it 
a defined shape1 in which case the art  

of pottery would be as ancient as the   
human race4 ,it may have been anterior  
to the use of fire1 for a sound and     
useful pottery may be made with clay    
hardened in the sun1 as still practised 
in ,egypt and ,india4 ,at all events1 it
 existed previous to the working of the 
first metal1 as one can hardly          
understand how bronze could have been   
melted1 without the assistance of       
vessels made of fired clay carefully    
selected4 ,consequently it is admitted  
by everybody1 that this is one of the   
earliest of human inventions1 and that  
the material has proved most durable4   
,this durability1 secured by the        
application of heat1 is a very          
remarkable phenomenon2 for while many   
other materials1 apparently very hard1  
have been found unable to stand the     
atmospheric changes or the continuous   
contact with a damp soil1 it was        
sufficient to submit this one to a very 
moderate heat1 to be enabled to resist  
these various agencies for several      

thousands of years4 ,this is            
particularly noticeable in the black    
,greek pottery1 which1 while possessing 
all its former appearance1 can1 however1
 be scratched by the nail or broken by a
 gentle pressure between the fingers4   
,it is thus that we are indebted to the 
art of pottery for innumerable works of 
art1 many of which have proved most     
useful in elucidating historical facts1 
and making us acquainted with the       
habits1 dresses1 and ceremonies of      
ancient peoples4  ,one can understand   
how difficult it is to decide who were  
the earliest potters4 ,it is a question 
that arch,aologists have often tried to 
answer1 but which is not likely to be   
ever solved4 ,pottery was created to    
meet a special want of the human race1  
and we find early pottery existing in   
almost every part of the world1 in      
unknown ,america1 as well as in ,europe 
or ,asia4 ,it is1 however1 easier to    
decide which people first excelled in   
it1 and in this respect we must give    

equal credit to the ,egyptians and the  
,chinese4 ,it is mentioned in sacred    
history that more than #bjjj years      
,b4,c4 the ,egyptian potters were       
celebrated for their skill1 and if we   
can believe ,chinese tradition1 the     
manufacturers in ,china were at this    
same time under the control of a        
superintendent appointed by the         
government4 ,unfortunately1 we have very
 little information respecting the      
history of the art in ,china1 previous  
to the sixteenth century2 and although  
we have a notion of what they did and   
how they did it1 it is wiser1 with our  
imperfect knowledge1 to abstain from    
speculating as to when the different    
sorts of ,chinese ware were produced4   
,but as regards the ,egyptians1 there is
 no uncertainty2 some of their ceramic  
relics bear their own inscriptions1 and 
others have been found associated with  
objects or monuments whose dates have   
been carefully ascertained4 ,we may well
 believe in their skill1 when we know   

that they were acquainted with the most 
difficult processes for making the      
bodies and glazes1 and that they used   
the same metallic oxides for colouring  
their ornaments that we are now using1  
though often1 let us acknowledge1 with  
less success4 ,during a period of at    
least eleven hundred years1 from the    
eighteenth to the twenty-fourth dynasty1
 they displayed considerable ingenuity  
in the production of small figures1     
jewellery ornaments1 and hieroglyphic   
tablets1 in which several sorts of      
pottery mixtures and differently        
coloured glazes were most cleverly      
associated4 ,it is from ,egypt that     
sound principles of pottery making seem 
to have spread to the different nations2
 first to the ,phoenicians1 who in their
 turn became famous for their knowledge 
in the art of vitrifying mineral        
substances2 and then to the ,assyrians1 
who seem to have applied pottery more   
specially to the ornamentation of their 
buildings4  ,greece1 who shortly after  

received her first notions of art from  
the two former nations1 did not devote  
her energies so much to improvement of  
material and richness of colour1 as to  
the refined beauty of the shape and the 
excellence of the painting4  ,in        
pottery1 the material is of little      
value1 and it is only by the art        
displayed in shaping and decorating it1 
that its price can be increased4 ,in    
this respect the ,greeks proved to what 
enormous value it could be raised1 by   
making it the groundwork of their art1  
since sums equivalent to several        
thousand pounds of our money were       
readily paid by ,roman patricians for a 
single ,corinthian vase4 ,in this1 as in
 the other branches of art1 the         
recognized taste of the ,greeks will    
never be surpassed2 and if at the       
present time little attention is paid by
 collectors to their ceramic            
productions1 it is probably owing as    
much to the versatility of our tastes   
and fancies1 as to our inability of     

showing the articles to their advantage4
  ,the ,greeks seem to have monopolized 
the ceramic production of these fine    
works for seven or eight centuries at   
the least2 for although vessels of the  
same description were largely produced  
in ,italy1 it was invariably by the     
,greeks1 following closely the          
traditions and mode of decorations of   
their own country4 ,it was only about a 
century ,b4,c4 that the ,romans began to
 create a pottery on which they         
impressed their stamp1 a pottery really 
their own2 ,i mean that which is so     
improperly called ,samian1 and so easily
 known by its reddish colour and the    
embossed ornaments by which it is       
profusely covered4 ,it is1 however1     
genuine and characteristic1 neatly      
executed1 and possessing some standing  
qualities which did not belong to the   
,greek4 ,on the other hand1 the         
refinement is deficient2 the forms are  
derived from the circle instead of the  
ellipse2 the plain surfaces are replaced

 by embossments1 and the painting is    
absent4 ,for four centuries1 the ,romans
 seem to have made this class of pottery
 in several of their ,european          
settlements1 chiefly in ,italy and in   
the provinces adjoining the ,rhine4 ,in 
the operation they seem to have required
 some special material1 which imparted  
to its bright red surface a semi-shining
 lustre or glaze1 and which has proved  
remarkably durable4 ,after this1 the art
 of pottery experienced a time of       
darkness1 when all the refined processes
 seem to have been neglected1 and       
primitive vessels1 like those produced  
by the ,saxons1 ,gauls1 and ,celts1     
ranked amongst the best examples4 ,the  
decorations1 if any1 are rudimentary2   
not only is the painting reduced in a   
few instances to some lines or spots    
made of a different clay1 but even the  
embossed ornaments are replaced by lumps
 of clay or impressed lines in a kind of
 geometrical disposition4 ,art was not  
quite dead1 but it scarcely breathed4   

,however1 these specimens are not       
altogether uninteresting1 for they were 
the first efforts of our forefathers1   
and there is always a certain pleasure  
in witnessing the feeblest attempts made
 in the research of art4  ,but the time 
came when pottery was to accomplish     
another revolution1 no less remarkable  
than the first4 ,strangely enough1 it   
was again from the ,east1 in nearly the 
same province in which it originally    
took its rise1 that it was revived1 and 
it is not unlikely that some faint      
tradition of the old processes was the  
source whence sprung the new ceramic    
era1 which was to extend to our own     
time4  ,the precise date of this revival
 is not positively ascertained2 but it  
was probably contemporary with the      
establishment of ,islamism amongst the  
,arabs4 ,the energy displayed by this   
people in improving and adapting the    
different fabrics to the requirements of
 their new religion1 was no doubt       
beneficial to the art of pottery1 and   

with their fanaticism and spirit of     
proselytism1 they carried their new     
ideas to every country which they       
conquered4 ,syria became a great        
industrial centre1 and some of its      
towns1 such as ,damascus1 were soon     
famous for the perfection of their      
wares4 ,to reach ,europe1 however1 this 
new movement did not take its course    
through ,greece and ,italy1 as in the   
first instance2 it was through ,egypt   
and the ,north of ,africa that1 at the  
beginning of the eighth century1 it made
 its way to ,spain1 where it became     
firmly established4 ,as regards pottery1
 nowhere were better specimens produced 
than in the towns of ,malaga1 ,grenada1 
,cordova1 and others1 going northwards  
as far as ,valencia and ,toledo4 ,the   
newest feature of the ,arabian or       
,saracenic pottery 7called              
,hispano-,moresco ware1 when made in    
,spain7 was the introduction of the     
oxide of tin in the glaze1 to render it 
opaque4 ,previous to this innovation1   

when white was required for a design    
executed on a clay which did not take   
that colour in firing1 these parts had  
to be covered with a silicious mixture1 
and subsequently coated over with a     
transparent glaze4 ,this was the        
,assyrian and ,persian process4 ,to find
 a white opaque enamel1 which could be  
applied direct on a coloured clay and   
adhere firmly to it1 was a great        
discovery4  ,everyone now knows how     
successfully these people used pottery  
for the ornamentation of their          
buildings1 and how ingeniously they     
mixed transparent and opaque enamels to 
obtain an unprecedented harmony of      
effect4 ,not only did they use this tin 
enamel in parts1 but also all over the  
ware1 making it more or less opaque as  
they wished2 and this was the origin of 
the pottery called majolica1 which1     
according to tradition1 was imported    
from ,majorca to ,italy1 at the         
beginning of the fifteenth century1 and 
for the introduction of which credit is 

given to ,lucca ,della ,robia4 ,terra   
in-vitriata was the first name given by 
this sculptor to his works1 when they   
were coated with this opaque mixture4   
,there was at that time such an earnest 
desire to find suitable materials for   
art decorations1 that the new enamels   
soon ceased to be exclusively applied to
 architectural purposes4 ,under the     
beneficial influence of the revival of  
taste for ancient art1 and the          
encouragements with which it met from   
the princes at that time ruling the     
,italian ,republics1 majolica attained  
its beauty1 though its external         
appearance reminded us but little of its
 ,spanish or ,oriental origin4 ,during  
the course of the fifteenth and         
sixteenth centuries1 the most famous in 
the history of modern art1 the influence
 of the great painters of that period   
was soon felt by those whom we may call 
the artists of pottery1 for the name of 
potters could hardly do them justice2   
and several of them applied their       

talents to the reproduction1 on that    
ware1 of their most celebrated          
paintings4 ,it was reported that        
,perugino1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,raphael1  
and many others painted majolica ware1  
probably on account of their cartoons   
being often reproduced2 and it is       
sufficient to say that such talented men
 as ,francisco ,xanto da ,rovigo1       
,orazia ,fontana1 and ,georgio          
,andreoli1 devoted their energies to the
 improvement of this branch of art4     
,most of the ,italian towns had their   
manufactory1 each of them possessing a  
style of its own4 ,beginning at         
,caffagiolo and ,deruta1 they extended  
rapidly to ,gubbio1 ,ferrara1 and       
,ravenna1 to be continued to            
,casteldurante1 ,rimini1 ,urbino1       
,florence1 ,venice1 and many other      
places4  ,after the sixteenth century1  
majolica soon degenerated in appearance 
and quality1 the producers being more   
anxious to supply the market1 than to   
devote to their ware the care and       

attention bestowed on it by their       
predecessors4 ,in increasing the        
quantity of tin in their enamel1 to make
 it look more like porcelain1 they      
impoverished their colours1 and this    
alteration1 however prejudicial to      
majolica1 assisted greatly in the new   
transformation which it was subsequently
 to undergo4 ,it was under the name of  
fa,a-ence that it continued to be known1
 and ,france and ,holland became the    
principal centres of its manufacture4   
,at ,nevers1 it still resembled slightly
 the ,italian ware1 though at ,delft1 in
 ,holland1 it was principally made to   
imitate the blue and white ware of the  
,chinese1 in which attempt the makers   
were often remarkably successful4 ,at   
,rouen1 the blue ornamentation was      
relieved with touches of red1 green1 and
 yellow2 at ,moustiers1 the monochrome  
designs were light and uncommonly       
elegant2 at ,paris1 ,marseilles1 and    
many other places1 the flower decoration
 of the old ,,savres and ,dresden ware  

was imitated with a freedom of touch and
 a freshness of colour which is really  
charming4 ,this pottery1 which was a    
great favourite in the seventeenth and  
eighteenth centuries1 declined rapidly  
soon after our present earthenware made 
its appearance2 the chief inducement for
 the change1 on the part of the         
manufacturers1 being the excessive price
 of tin1 which is the principal         
ingredient of enamel4  ,except in the   
provinces contiguous to ,france1        
,germany was never a producer of        
majolica4 ,it created1 however1 a       
pottery entirely of its own1 full of    
originality in its general appearance1  
and which1 by the peculiarity of the    
process1 was really a very distinct     
type4 ,i am alluding to the ,flemish and
 ,german stoneware4 ,there is a         
tradition1 that the first pieces were   
made in ,holland at the very beginning  
of the fifteenth century4 ,the principal
 centre of its production was1 however1 
in ,germany1 at ,nuremberg1 ,ratisbon1  

,bayreuth1 ,mansfeld1 and other places2 
but the best were made in the           
neighbourhood of the ,lower ,rhine1     
where the clays most fitted for that    
class of pottery were easily to be      
found4 ,here we find1 for the first time
 in ,europe1 the body of the ware partly
 vitrified by the high temperature to   
which it was submitted1 and also the    
remarkable peculiarity1 that it was     
glazed by the volatilization of common  
salt1 thrown into the oven when the     
temperature had reached its climax4 ,the
 combination of these two processes had 
never been effected before1 and it would
 be difficult on that account to find   
any connection between stoneware and    
some of the ,egyptian potteries4 ,this  
stoneware varied in colour3 some were   
almost white1 some brown1 others of a   
light grey1 the last being the most     
valuable when the effect was increased  
by blue or purple grounds1 harmonizing  
admirably with the foundation colour of 
the ware4 ,the shapes are generally     

elaborate1 with a great many mouldings1 
enriched with embossed ornaments in good
 taste1 some of which were designed by  
no less an artist than ,t4 ,hopfer4 ,the
 decline of this stoneware began with   
the seventeenth century1 and from that  
time to the present1 this material was  
only used for wares of the commonest    
kind4 ,it is only very lately1 that it  
was revived successfully by ,messrs4    
,doulton and ,co41 of ,lambeth4         
,france1 which had not as yet any ideas 
about the process for imitating the     
,italian majolica1 created towards the  
same time two new sorts of pottery1 one 
of which is the ,palissy ware1 the other
 the fa,a-ence d',oiron4 ,palissy1 a    
very inquisitive and intelligent man1 is
 said to have been possessed by a strong
 desire to reproduce some ,italian ware1
 which he had the opportunity of seeing2
 whether it was a piece of majolica or  
of graffito1 is not known4 ,left to his 
own resources--for there was nobody to  
instruct him--he succeeded by           

perseverance and industry in finding out
 the process for making the different   
coloured glazes that the ,moors had used
 long before him4 ,there was no         
discovery in this1 but the talent which 
he displayed in the mixing and blending 
of these vitreous colours1 combined with
 the incontestable originality of his   
compositions1 have made this ware very  
difficult to imitate4  ,the time of its 
production was limited to the life of   
,palissy1 for there is not really a     
single good piece which can be traced to
 his successors4 ,in the fa,a-ence      
d',oiron1 incorrectly called ,henri     
,deux ware1 we find a real              
cream-coloured earthenware taking       
precedence of two hundred years over our
 own4 ,it was made between the years    
#aebd and #aefg1 and we have now every  
proof that three persons co-operated in 
this invention3 ,hel,a7,c7ne de         
,hangest1 who had been formerly         
entrusted by ,fran,a,sec4ois ,i4 with   
the education of his son1 afterwards    

,henry ,,ii42 her potter at ,oiron1     
named ,fran,a,sec4ois ,charpentier2 and 
her secretary ,jehan ,bernart4 ,the     
charming pieces resulting from the      
combination of these three intellects   
were few1 and only intended to be       
offered as presents to the friends of   
the noble lady at court4 ,this          
sufficiently explains the monograms and 
devices1 which are found associated with
 the elaborate ornaments profusely      
spread over their surface4 ,no ware was 
ever made before or after this1 which   
required more care and delicate         
manipulation1 and this explains why the 
highest prices paid in our generation   
for an article of pottery have been     
freely given for several of these       
curiosities4 ,their principal feature   
consists in inlaying differently        
coloured clays one into the other1 a    
process not quite new1 as it had been   
extensively used in medi,aval times for 
making encaustic tiles for the flooring 
of our churches1 but they were so       

minutely and neatly executed1 and the   
designs so well distributed1 that they  
are justly considered as marvels of     
workmanship4 ,in speaking of these      
fa,a-ences d',oiron1 we can hardly      
admire sufficiently the variety in the  
productions of this period of the       
,renaissance2 and if we select four of  
these specimens1 such as a piece of     
,faenza ware1 one of stoneware1 one of  
,palissy1 and another of ,oiron1 they   
may fairly stand as good illustrations  
of the ingenuity of man4  ,the progress 
realized in these times seems to have   
undergone a sort of lull1 and if we     
accept the ,french and ,delft           
fa,a-ences1 which were a transformation 
of majolica1 we find that the greatest  
portion of the seventeenth century was  
not marked by any new discovery or      
decided improvement4 ,towards its close1
 however1 we begin to notice in ,germany
 and the western countries of ,europe   
several attempts at making a ware1      
possessing the three standard qualities 

of whiteness1 hardness1 and transparency
 of the ,chinese1 and these were the    
precursors of the great movement which  
occupied the whole of the eighteenth    
century4 ,as might be expected1         
inquiries made in different countries by
 persons unacquainted with each other1  
brought different results2 and if they  
failed in so much1 that a porcelain     
identical to the ,oriental was not      
reproduced1 all of them succeeded in    
making a white ware of their own1       
adapted to the materials which they had 
at their disposal4 ,and thus arose in   
each country the source of a prosperous 
trade4  ,it is only at that period1 that
 ,england began to take her position    
amongst the producers of pottery1 at    
least in a manner deserving of that     
name4 ,up to that time1 if we were to   
judge by the quality of her work1 she   
did not seem fitted for it1 no more than
 for any sort of manufacture which      
required taste or a certain knowledge of
 the arts of design4 ,in fact1 it is    

easy to notice in looking at our        
collections of art manufactures1 that   
the ,english samples are deficient in   
many respects2 they may be gaudy without
 harmony of colour1 or elaborate without
 refinement1 exhibiting a certain amount
 of roughness in execution1 when placed 
side by side with ,italian1 ,french1 or 
,german specimens of the same class4 ,it
 is likely1 with certain exceptions1    
that the ,anglo-,saxon race did not feel
 much the want of all those niceties1   
and did not make great exertion to excel
 in the practice of those arts1 for the 
appreciation of which its mind was not  
yet sufficiently cultivated4 ,it has    
been remarked1 that as the progress of  
art was constantly from ,east to ,west1 
the geographical position of ,england   
might account in some respects for her  
backwardness4 ,however1 like children of
 slow growth whose understanding does   
not seem quick or acute1 but who        
afterwards derive the benefit of their  
reserved strength1 ,england1 coming     

almost the last in the production of    
pottery1 seems as though she did so for 
maturing her capabilities4 ,in this1 as 
in the practice of other arts1 she is   
slow1 and her first steps are clumsy4   
,experimenting for some time1 with mixed
 or indifferent success1 she seems to   
hesitate1 till she begins to feel that  
she holds the thing in her grasp1 and   
then the day soon comes when she teaches
 the world what she can make of it4 ,we 
can scarcely give her credit in the     
preceding review for some ,staffordshire
 pottery made with the yellow or red    
marl1 thickly glazed with the galena    
extracted from the ,derbyshire mines1   
the decoration of these pieces being    
effected by pouring the light clay on   
the dark one in a symmetrical manner4   
,this pottery was in use from the time  
of ,queen ,elizabeth down to the year   
#agge1 the date of the latest specimen  
that ,i have seen4 ,some pieces         
preserved in the ,british ,museum1 in   
the ,museum of ,geology1 and in ,m4     

,solon's collection1 are to be noticed  
for their quaintness4  ,up to the       
eighteenth century1 no other clays than 
those extracted from the coal measures  
seem to have been used in               
,staffordshire2 and the advantages      
derived from an abundant supply of both 
clay and fuel must have powerfully      
contributed to the settlement of this   
industry in that county4 ,in ,shaw's    
',history of the ,staffordshire         
,potteries1' which with ,plot's         
',history of ,staffordshire1' are the   
only books to afford information on the 
then state of this trade1 and whose most
 interesting extracts have been given by
 ,sir ,henry de la ,beche in his        
excellent catalogue of the pottery      
exhibited in the ,museum of ,practical  
,geology1 we gather this fact1 that so  
far back as #affa1 an ,act of           
,parliament regulated the dimensions and
 quality of earthen vessels manufactured
 at ,burslem1 for holding the butter    
brought to the markets4  ,towards #afhj1

 a radical change seems to have taken   
place in the way of making the ware1 by 
substituting common salt for the galena 
in the glazing process4 ,this new       
production was called crouch ware1 and  
there is every probability that the     
substitution was first made by a person 
acquainted with the manufacture of the  
,german and ,flemish stoneware1 which at
 a former period had been tried in      
,england4 ,at that time ,burslem        
possessed twenty-two ovens1 and ,shaw   
says1 that when these were at work1 the 
vapours emanating from the salt were    
such as to produce a dense fog in the   
town4 ,these assertions leave no doubt  
as to the date of the commencement of   
this manufacture in ,staffordshire1 and 
that ,burslem was its first seat4  ,two 
,german brothers1 of the name of ,elers1
 who settled near this town in #afhh1   
seem to have been the first to try to   
produce pottery of a better class than  
the crouch ware4 ,their first attempt   
resulted in the production of a well    

finished red stoneware1 which probably  
resembled the red ware made in ,saxony  
by ,bottger at the same time4 ,those who
 have left any written information about
 it1 say that for general appearance and
 careful execution1 it was quite equal  
to any similar article made by the      
,chinese2 but ,i must confess1 that the 
specimens that ,i had the opportunity of
 seeing are rather porous and far from  
being highly baked4 ,these foreigners   
paid also great attention to the        
improvement of the white ware1 and they 
were the first to employ the plastic    
clay from ,dorsetshire for the purpose  
of whitening the cane marl of the       
locality4 ,their ware was generally     
light and well-shaped1 and though the   
plaster moulds were wholly unknown at   
the time1 and were only introduced fifty
 years later1 the impressions taken from
 metal moulds are neat1 and show the    
ornaments standing sharply out from the 
surface4 ,this1 combined with the       
peculiar appearance given to the surface

 by the sublimation of the salt1 and its
 light colour1 are the principal feature
 of the ,burslem ware1 which continued  
in existence till #aghj1 although before
 that date more perfected articles had  
found their way to the market4 ,the     
brothers ,elers used to make a great    
secret of their mixtures1 and left the  
district as soon as the other           
manufacturers became acquainted with    
them4 ,astbury1 who had been            
instrumental in robbing them of their   
processes1 was one of the most          
intelligent amongst these potters1 and  
it was he who1 in #agbj1 introduced the 
flint1 calcined and ground1 for         
whitening the body of the ware1 one of  
the greatest improvements in the making 
of earthenware4 ,he seems to have been a
 thoughtful and persevering man1 and it 
is said that the idea of this new       
material was suggested to him1 by seeing
 a shoeing smith calcining a flint1 for 
the purpose of blowing the dust into the
 eyes of his horse1 suddenly afflicted  

with a kind of blindness4 ,this is      
probably only a fiction1 as the idea    
must have originated from witnessing the
 change undergone by flint when brought 
to a red heat4  ,as the pottery trade   
was taking root in the district1 it is  
no wonder that we find many intelligent 
manufacturers doing their best to       
improve it and make it profitable4      
,eminent amongst them was ,josiah       
,wedgwood1 whose name as a potter is    
never likely to perish4 ,for particulars
 concerning his private life1 trade1 and
 manufacture1 there are two excellent   
books1 by ,miss ,meteyard and ,mr4      
,llewellyn ,jewitt1 in which every      
matter of interest about him has been   
carefully entered4 ,born at ,burslem1 in
 #agcj1 of a family of potters1 he began
 by serving his apprenticeship as a     
thrower under his brother1 and must have
 settled in business very early1 as he  
had had already two partners when he set
 up on his own account1 in #agei1 being 
then only twenty-nine years of age4 ,his

 first attempts seem to have been       
directed to making a green ware1 that   
is1 a white ware covered with a glaze of
 that colour1 which he succeeded in     
getting particularly bright2 and also to
 the tortoiseshell1 which had its       
surface mottled with glazes differently 
stained1 and which1 by their blending   
when they are fused in the oven1 present
 some analogy with the works of         
,palissy4  ,one of ,wedgwood's decided  
successes was1 perfecting the white     
cream-colour ware1 which was so superior
 to anything done before1 that it       
commanded at once a great sale at home  
and abroad4 ,queen ,charlotte admired it
 much1 and1 in consequence of her       
patronage1 it took the name of ,queen's 
ware1 under which it was known for a    
long time4 ,it is light1 of a pleasing  
colour1 elegantly shaped1 and in the    
hands of artists has proved an admirable
 material to paint upon4  ,it would take
 too long to enumerate all the          
improvements which ,wedgwood effected in

 his trade in the second half of the    
last century1 but ,i must mention as    
prominent amongst his works1 the black  
,egyptian and jasper wares1 in making   
which he had no assistance whatever1 and
 which constitute two new and perfect   
types in pottery4 ,from ,wedgwood's     
origin and early labours1 it is easy to 
guess that his instruction must have    
been limited2 but he was a clear-minded 
and inquiring man1 possessing that sort 
of intuition by which he could easily   
understand things1 which in other people
 would have required preliminary        
studies2 besides1 he had a natural taste
 for art and a systematic way of going  
through his experiments1 which were sure
 to bring them to a successful issue4   
,it was his good fortune to be assisted 
by two men of superior intelligence1    
viz4 ,flaxman1 the sculptor1 who        
designed many of his shapes1 and        
modelled for him an almost innumerable  
number of subjects for slabs and cameos2
 and ,thomas ,bentley1 a distinguished  

scholar1 with whom he was commercially  
connected1 and whose knowledge of art he
 found of great utility4  ,when         
,wedgwood died1 in #agie1 the ceramic   
manufacture had extensively developed1  
and had extended from ,burslem to the   
small towns in the neighbourhood4 ,from 
all this it must appear that1 although  
,wedgwood was the most brilliant type   
amongst the ,english potters of that    
period1 the trade was already well      
established when he entered the         
business1 and there was every           
probability1 that it would become one of
 the staple industries of this country4 
,to give all the credit to him would be 
an injustice to several men1 who1 like  
the two ,josiah ,spodes1 effected great 
improvements1 or brought into play new  
and useful materials4  ,when ,i speak of
 the china manufacture1 it will be seen 
that1 besides the ,staffordshire        
potters1 several very clever men at     
,bow1 ,chelsea1 ,plymouth1 ,worcester1  
,derby1 and other places1 were at work  

to establish the manufacture of the soft
 and hard porcelain1 proving beyond a   
doubt1 that most energetic efforts were 
being made to raise the pottery trade of
 ,england to the same level as that of  
,france or ,germany4 ,if we did not then
 succeed in making soft china like that 
of ,,savres1 or hard porcelain as good  
as the ,dresden1 we soon became the     
masters of the market as regards        
earthenware--a position that we are not 
likely to lose for many years to come4  
,amongst the circumstances which combine
 to make our position particularly      
strong1 it is enough to mention our     
independence as regards the supply of   
the raw materials1 and the abundance of 
our clays and fuel1 of a better quality 
than those at the disposal of our       
competitors4 ,besides1 the localization 
of this manufacture in ,staffordshire   
has caused the concentration in this    
spot of an intelligent population1      
acquainted with the traditions1 from    
which the different branches of the     

trade can be easily fed4  ,the soil of  
,staffordshire produces a variety of    
clays which are used for common ware2   
but the most important is the one called
 marl1 which is fire-clay from the beds 
of the coal measures1 used for making   
the saggers1 or clay boxes1 in which the
 ware is placed before it is sent to the
 ovens4 ,the quantity required for this 
purpose is very large1 and it was of the
 utmost importance that such material   
should be good1 cheap1 and easily       
procured4  ,at present1 however1 the    
clays necessary to make china or        
earthenware are not found in            
,staffordshire1 but are sent from the   
counties of ,dorset1 ,devon1 and the    
,duchy of ,cornwall1 where they         
constitute an important branch of       
commerce4 ,it is a common occurrence to 
hear people1 visiting ,staffordshire for
 the first time1 wonder at the          
apparently abnormal fact of an industry 
settling in a district where none of the
 requisite materials are to be found4 ,i

 have mentioned in the preceding pages  
how it happened that the trade first    
settled in ,burslem2 and a short        
explanation will show that1 although    
more perfect clays from distant counties
 had to be used1 there was no need to   
change4  ,for baking pottery1 the       
quantity of fuel required is            
comparatively large4 ,when1             
independently of the ovens and kilns1 we
 take into account what is absorbed by  
the steam-engines1 preparation of       
materials1 and warming of the shops1 we 
find that for every ton of manufactured 
goods1 at least three tons of coals are 
wanted1 and that for decorated goods1 it
 will take twice that quantity1 and even
 more4 ,as the districts from which the 
clays are sent have no coals1 the       
advantage of paying the carriage on the 
smallest number of tons to be brought to
 the works becomes evident4  ,the       
potter's clay derives its origin from   
several felspathic rocks1 which under   
various influences have been decomposed1

 and the finest portion washed away1 to 
be collected in natural depressions of  
the soil1 where it has formed beds of   
various thickness4 ,chemically speaking1
 it is a silicate of alumina in         
combination with water1 with the        
addition1 in small quantities1 of       
different materials1 such as potash1    
soda1 lime1 or iron1 acting as fluxes on
 the silicate1 which otherwise would    
give no signs of vitrification4 ,the    
iron1 which may exist in different      
states1 has a colouring effect injurious
 to the clay1 which1 to be useful1 must 
be almost free from it4 ,when this      
condition occurs1 the excellence of the 
clay is determined by the quantity of   
alumina that it contains4 ,pure silica1 
in the form of quartz1 flint1 or sand1  
is a very easy material to procure when 
wanted1 but as no geological formation  
yields alumina in the pure state1 no    
other can be got1 besides that which    
already exists in the clays4 ,it is a   
common error to say1 that it is the     

silica which renders them refractory4   
,it is true that pure silica can stand  
any amount of heat without fusing1 but  
its readiness to combine with alkaline  
matter1 and to form vitreous compounds1 
renders its use objectionable when      
heated with metallic oxides4 ,an excess 
makes the wares brittle and unable to   
resist sudden changes of temperature1   
while alumina1 on the contrary1 gives   
these qualities1 and with them the      
plasticity required for the working of  
the ware4 ,from it the clays derive the 
property of absorbing and retaining a   
large quantity of water1 and such is its
 affinity for it1 that sometimes a red  
heat will hardly suffice to expel it    
completely4 ,alumina is a light         
material--silica a heavy one2 and a     
potter ought to know approximatively in 
testing the density of a sample1 whether
 it is rich or poor in either of the    
two4 ,the reason why the clay deposits  
are richer in alumina than the rocks    
from which they originated1 is explained

 by the lightness of this element1      
which1 being kept in suspension in water
 for a longer time1 was consequently    
carried farther1 leaving the silicious  
refuse to settle on its way4  ,for      
earthenware or china1 the ,english      
potters use only two sorts of clays3 the
 ball clay1 also called blue clay1 and  
the kaolin4 ,for porcelain the last only
 is used2 for earthenware1 both4 ,the   
ball clay1 exported from ,teignmouth and
 ,poole1 comes from the lower tertiary  
clays of ,devon and ,dorset1 and is     
remarkably good and plastic1 the        
quantity of iron being comparatively    
very small4 ,the ball clay from ,poole  
is dug in the neighbourhood of ,wareham1
 by ,mr4 ,pike4 ,it is of a very        
superior kind1 and more than #gj1jjj    
tons are sent from that harbour alone to
 the potteries1 besides smaller         
quantities to the ,continent4 ,as it    
possesses a little more alumina than    
those from ,teignmouth1 which are dug at
 ,teigngrace and ,whiteway1 near ,bovey 

,heathfield1 they ought to have a little
 superiority over these1 although in    
practice the difference is not always   
perceptible4  ,kaolin is the ,chinese   
word given to the clay from which hard  
porcelain is made1 though here it is    
generally called ,china or ,cornish     
clay4 ,this material is found in some   
granitic rocks in an advanced state of  
decomposition2 the felspar1 their most  
important element1 having under external
 influence lost the greatest portion of 
its alkali1 and become converted into a 
kind of earth4 ,by agitation in a large 
quantity of water it dissolves readily2 
the refuse1 composed of quartz1 mica1   
schorl1 and undecomposed felspar1 sinks 
by its own weight to the bottom of the  
tank where the liquid mixture is to run2
 and the finest part1 which is the      
kaolin1 is carried farther to large     
receptacles1 where it accumulates4 ,when
 these are full1 the clay is removed and
 dried for export4 ,in that state it is 
very white1 and although not so plastic 

as the ball clay1 contains a little more
 alumina and less iron1 which accounts  
for its resisting much better the action
 of fire4 ,it is principally obtained at
 ,st4 ,stephens and ,st4 ,austell1 in   
,cornwall2 ,lee ,moor1 near ,dartmoor1  
in ,devon1 and a few other places2 the  
whole of them sending to the potteries  
about #acj1jjj tons annually4  ,from the
 same districts comes another granite1  
in a less advanced state of             
decomposition1 called ,cornish stone1   
which is used fresh from the mine       
without further preparation4 ,in it the 
felspar retains its alkaline element1 so
 that it can be easily melted1 and is   
found a useful and cheap flux for the   
vitrification of the different mixtures4
 ,the composition of these rocks varies 
considerably1 so that it requires       
constant experiments to determine in    
what proportion the quartz and the      
fusible parts stand to each other4      
,flints are also largely used in the    
manufacture of earthenware4 ,they are   

found abundantly in the chalk districts1
 the brown sort being considered the    
best4 ,under a moderate red heat they   
become white and opaque1 and may be     
easily crushed between iron rollers4 ,in
 that state they are placed in pans of  
water and ground by large stones of     
chert1 till they become sufficiently    
divided to remain in suspension in the  
liquid without sinking and hardening at 
the bottom of the tanks1 which1 by the  
way1 are called arks4 ,flints are       
comparatively a cheap material1 and     
their carriage to ,staffordshire        
represents a large portion of their     
cost4  ,such are the four materials     
essential for making earthenware4 ,the  
respective quantities in which they are 
used vary in each manufactory1 but the  
principle is always the same3 the ball  
clay being the foundation1 and flint the
 whitening material2 but as an excess of
 this would make the body difficult to  
work1 ,cornish clay assists in making it
 whiter and less liable to break under a

 heavy weight or sudden changes of      
temperature4 ,the ,cornish stone is used
 in a small quantity as a flux1 to      
render the ware more compact and of a   
closer texture4 ,when the mixture of    
these materials is completed1 the colour
 taken by earthenware when fired would  
not be a perfect white2 the quantity of 
oxide of iron existing in the clays1    
however small1 would be still sufficient
 to impart a yellowish tint1            
particularly after the glazing of the   
ware4 ,this is counteracted by the      
addition of a small quantity of oxide of
 cobalt1 the power of which over the    
iron1 as a staining material1 is such as
 to neutralize it completely2 the       
result1 in fact1 being the same as that 
obtained by washerwomen1 who use blue to
 the linen with the object of making it 
look white4  ,from the moment that the  
materials are extracted1 to the time    
when the goods are perfected1 the number
 of distinct operations to perform is so
 great1 that ,i can only give a summary 

description of the most important4 ,the 
grinding of those materials which are   
not already in a fine state of division 
is one of the most essential1 for upon  
it depends the soundness of the ware1   
and without it the difficulties of      
workmanship would be greatly increased4 
,it must be so perfect1 that when the   
different components are put together in
 the slip state1 they should mix readily
 and form a homogeneous compound4 ,the  
grinding for the use of potters is a    
trade of itself2 but good quality is of 
such importance1 that the manufacturers 
who can afford it prefer having mills of
 their own4 ,in these1 the different    
materials are ground in water in        
separate pans1 till they can pass freely
 through fine silk lawn1 and are        
afterwards stored in distinct           
reservoirs1 and the excess of water     
removed1 so that a quart measure of each
 should weigh a determined number of    
ounces4 ,as the potter knows beforehand 
the proportion of solid matter contained

 in each liquid measure1 it only remains
 for him to count the number of quarts  
or gallons which must be introduced into
 the body of the ware4 ,this being done1
 the liquid mass must be deprived of its
 superabundance of water4 ,till lately  
it was the custom to effect this by     
running the slip #aj or #ab inches thick
 over the surface of long kilns1 paved  
with bricks and provided with flues     
underneath4 ,the heat which was         
maintained in these1 assisted by the    
porous nature of the bricks1 was        
sufficient to bring it to the proper    
state of toughness2 but the kilns could 
not be filled more than once a day1 and 
required besides a large quantity of    
fuel1 much of which was wasted in the   
form of dense smoke4 ,now1 thanks to the
 new apparatus of ,messrs4 ,needham and 
,kyte1 the same result is obtained with 
great saving in space1 time1 and fuel4  
,the process is simple1 and easy to     
manage4 ,as soon as the final mixture is
 sifted1 the slip is directed to a well1

 whence it is raised by an hydraulic    
pump and sent to the presses1 which are 
composed of a variable number of large  
wooden frames4 ,these are closely ribbed
 on both faces1 and1 when placed side by
 side in a vertical position1 they leave
 in the middle an interval of about     
three-quarters of an inch in thickness4 
,each of these hollow compartments is   
lined with a sheet of strong cotton     
stuff1 folded in such a way as to form a
 bag1 in the middle of which a small    
metal fitting passes through the upper  
part of the frames1 and forms the spring
 by which the slip can be admitted into 
the interior4 ,when the bags are tied   
together1 the slip is admitted into     
their interior and submitted to such    
pressure from the pump1 that the water  
filters through the interstices of the  
stuff1 and escapes by the small         
intervals left between the ribs of the  
frames4 ,after allowing a sufficient    
time for the action of the pump1 the    
presses are dismounted1 and the solid   

clay is found in the middle of the bags1
 ready for use in the various           
departments4  ,the processes for shaping
 the different articles are many4 ,for  
the more expeditious preparation of the 
wares1 it was necessary that each       
workman should devote the whole of his  
time to a special branch of his art4    
,for this reason we have several classes
 of potters1 called according to their  
avocation3 throwers1 turners1 handlers1 
hollow and flat ware pressers1 figure   
and ornament makers1 tile makers1       
modellers1 mould and sagger makers1     
besides those who are employed in the   
decoration of the goods4 ,of all these  
various branches1 the most attractive   
for those who are witnessing it for the 
first time1 is the throwing2 and it is a
 source of amazement for them to see how
 quickly1 in the hands of the potter1   
the same lump of clay can be transformed
 in a variety of ways4  ,the potter's   
wheel is of great antiquity4 ,in some   
,egyptian hieroglyphics from the tombs  

of ,beni-,hassan1 known to have been    
made during the twelfth dynasty1 the    
different occupations of the potter are 
painted with great distinctness4 ,in one
 of these1 two potters are using the    
wheel for making their vessels--implying
 that this contrivance has been in use  
for something like four thousand years4 
,the forms and proportions of the wheels
 may be varied without altering the     
principle4 ,a spindle1 finished at its  
lower end in the form of a pointed      
pivot1 is placed on a hard substance on 
which it can easily revolve4 ,the upper 
end is furnished with a wooden head or  
small platform1 on which the lump of    
clay is to be placed1 and between this  
head and pivot is fixed an horizontal   
wooden disc of large diameter1 which    
acts as a fly-wheel and keeps the       
spindle in motion for a certain length  
of time4 ,the motion may be given by the
 hand1 the foot1 or mechanical power1   
which causes the spindle to revolve with
 great velocity4 ,a good thrower        

requires a great deal of practice1 as he
 is expected to throw several hundred   
pieces a day1 although the art is far   
from being what it was in the olden     
times4 ,in consequence of the new plan  
of pressing all large pieces in plaster 
moulds1 the thrower has but small or    
moderate size pieces to work1 and these 
he finishes only in the inside1 leaving 
the outside to be done by the turner1   
when the pieces are in a more advanced  
state of dryness4 ,this division of     
work1 brought about by the exigencies of
 the trade1 is very much to be          
regretted1 for the old thrower was      
really an artist1 who could impress his 
feeling on the work which was entrusted 
to him from beginning to end4 ,he has   
not now the same opportunity of showing 
his skill1 and cannot take in his work  
the pride and interest which he would   
have felt1 if circumstances had not been
 altered4 ,the same may be said of the  
turner1 who finishes the outside on a   
lathe like that used for turning wood4  

,the thrower prepares the pieces of a   
thicker bulk than is required1 and it is
 the turner's business to bring them to 
a proper thickness1 by removing the     
excess of material and giving to the    
exterior a smooth and highly finished   
surface4 ,if the handles are ornamented1
 they are pressed in plaster moulds2 if 
plain1 they are squeezed from a brass   
cylinder1 filled with clay1 with a small
 aperture at the bottom1 from which it  
escapes under the pressure in long      
ribbons4 ,these are placed side by side 
on a board1 cut across at the required  
length1 and bent in the form of handles 
when they get sufficiently hard4 ,they  
are afterwards fitted1 and made to      
adhere to the pieces by means of a      
little water or slip dropped from the   
point of a brush4  ,flat pieces1 such as
 plates1 dishes1 saucers1 and the like1 
are made in plaster moulds1 on which a  
bat of soft clay is tightly compressed  
by a hand tool1 called a polisher4 ,the 
process is very expeditious1 although   

the presser is obliged to repeat the    
operation1 to give more pressure and    
finish4 ,for this kind of ware1 the     
potter's wheel called a jigger1 is      
simplified so far1 that the iron spindle
 resting on its point and fixed to a    
bench1 is provided only with a round    
plaster head on which the moulds are    
placed4 ,the presser keeps this in      
motion with his left hand1 whilst with  
the right he guides the polisher4  ,in  
those manufactories which have adopted  
the latest improvements1 the jiggers are
 worked by steam power1 and the stoves  
in which the pieces are sent to dry are 
heated by steam pipes4 ,these are       
constructed on a new principle1         
consisting of a number of shelves which 
revolve round a central spindle1 so that
 by a gentle push of the hand1 each     
section is successively brought in front
 of the door1 giving the opportunity of 
removing or putting in the moulds4 ,this
 simple contrivance does away with the  
necessity for the assistant boy entering

 the stove1 and feeling the bad effects 
of the heat4  ,when the pieces are not  
exactly round1 and cannot be thrown or  
pressed on jiggers1 it is the custom to 
have them made in plaster moulds1 which 
have been cast on models prepared for   
the purpose4 ,as long as the clay keeps 
soft1 it takes the shape of any hard    
substance against which it is pressed1  
and for that reason1 plaster1 which has 
the property of absorbing moisture      
readily1 is preferred4 ,the use of      
plaster for moulds is comparatively     
recent1 and although its properties were
 known in early times1 there is no      
evidence that it was ever employed for  
that object4 ,greeks1 ,etruscans1 and   
,romans1 had their moulds made of fired 
clay2 the ,chinese1 in raw clay         
thoroughly dried4 ,in ,staffordshire1   
before the use of plaster1 they were    
made of fired clay or metal2 but plaster
 is more economical than any of these1  
although moulds made of this material do
 not last long1 and require constant    

renewing4  ,the making of moulds1 well  
adapted for pressing the various shapes1
 is a very important part of the        
potter's business4 ,they must allow of a
 certain amount of contraction1 and1 at 
the same time1 must easily dislocate    
without pulling away any part of the    
piece1 which is still sufficiently soft 
to be distorted by careless handling4   
,some pieces will require moulds made in
 one or two parts2 others1 a large      
quantity of them1 the various fragments 
being in that case pressed separately1  
and carefully put together afterwards4  
,the pressing is done in this way3 the  
potter begins to flatten a lump of clay 
in the form of a bat1 and transfers it  
to the inside of the mould2 then1 by the
 repeated blows of a sponge in his right
 hand1 he compels the soft material to  
take the exact form of the mould1 and1  
of course1 of any ornamentation which   
may be on its inner surface4 ,a good    
presser ought to be systematic in his   
work1 and not to apply more pressure to 

one part than to another1 otherwise the 
different portions of the pieces would  
not contract alike1 and would be liable 
to show an irregular surface1 or even   
crack in the drying or firing processes4
  ,for several reasons1 there are pieces
 which cannot be pressed3 they may be   
required very thin1 or their shape is   
such1 that the potter cannot reach all  
the parts to take the impression        
conveniently4 ,in this case he must     
adopt the following plan4 ,the mould is 
tied up1 and filled with liquid clay    
through an opening left in the top4 ,the
 plaster rapidly absorbs the water1 and 
a deposit of solid clay adheres to the  
surface4 ,this soon increases in        
thickness2 and when the potter thinks it
 is sufficient1 he pours out the slip   
which is in excess4 ,the piece soon     
hardens1 and when it begins to contract1
 it is then time to remove it from the  
mould4 ,this process has the advantage  
of giving a uniform thickness1 and as   
there is no other pressure than that    

caused by the absorption of the plaster 
surface1 there is a better chance for   
the piece to contract equally1 and on   
this account this method 7called        
casting7 is preferred for articles which
 require a neat execution4 ,in some     
cases it is cheaper than ordinary       
pressing2 but the drawback is1 the      
excessive contraction or diminution of  
bulk to which the ware thus made is     
subjected4 ,an irregular contraction is 
the source of most of the defects       
attending the ceramic manufacture1 and  
it is worth explaining the causes1 of   
which there are three4 ,i have already  
mentioned that natural clays1 which have
 remained in a damp soil for ages1      
contain materials in a hydrous state1   
i4e4 combined with water1 which         
sometimes increases their bulk          
considerably4 ,these are unstable       
compounds1 and may be destroyed by      
thoroughly drying them4 ,some other     
materials used in pottery may be        
artificially combined with water1 as    

would be the case1 if ground in it for  
an unnecessary length of time4 ,the     
second reason is1 the interposition of  
the uncombined water between the solid  
particles of the clay1 and as this      
cannot be worked without it1 this cause 
of shrinking cannot be avoided4 ,it will
 be easily understood1 that when the    
water in the mixture evaporates1 the    
solid particles1 under atmospheric      
pressure1 will move to take its place1  
and this effect will continue as long as
 they find enough moisture to assist in 
their free motion4 ,the consequence is1 
that the mass shrinks more and more1    
till the contraction is stopped by the  
inability of the particles to move      
farther2 and this happens before the    
pieces are completely dry4 ,from that   
state to complete dryness1 the          
evaporation of the remaining water will 
leave small holes1 which will make the  
texture of the ware porous1 and prone to
 absorb any liquid with which it may    
come in contact4  ,the shrinkage in the 

raw state then is mechanical1 and       
distinct from that which takes place in 
the oven under the influence of heat4   
,under this agency the particles enter  
into combination1 and if the process is 
carried far enough1 the ware may become 
partially vitrified and acquire a       
certain amount of transparency4 ,the    
more perfect the vitrification1 the     
closer will be the contact of the       
particles1 and consequently the greater 
the diminution of bulk4 ,from these     
causes1 the total contraction may vary  
from one-sixteenth to one-fifth of the  
original model4 ,the least will belong  
to ware pressed with stiff clay gently  
fired2 the greatest1 to that cast with  
liquid slip and brought to the vitrified
 state4 ,in these last1 the shrinkage is
 greater in height than in width1 a fact
 explained by the weight of the upper   
portions acting vertically to assist the
 closer contact of the particles in the 
under-structure1 when the same opposes  
their free action in an horizontal      

direction4 ,in making the models1 care  
should be taken to bring the contraction
 to a common centre1 or if there are    
several1 to strengthen sufficiently the 
connecting parts4  ,after the drying of 
the ware1 the next operation consists in
 placing it in saggers1 which1 as ,i    
have said1 are made of common fire-clay1
 and of a form and size to suit the     
different articles which they are       
intended to hold4 ,a certain thickness  
of flint or sand is placed at their     
bottom for the purpose of giving them a 
firm bed1 and as it is the interest of  
the manufacturer to make the same firing
 answer for the greatest quantity of    
goods1 care is taken to fill the saggers
 as far as is safe4 ,the placing of the 
ware is done at the outside of the      
ovens1 and when these are to be filled1 
the saggers are quickly arranged one    
over the other in columns1 called bungs1
 each sagger forming the cover for the  
one immediately underneath4 ,a small    
roll of soft clay placed between makes  

them stand better1 and at the same time 
prevents the ashes carried by the       
draught from finding their way into the 
interior1 and damaging the contents4    
,in ancient times1 the ovens1 intended  
to hold few pieces1 were very small2 but
 as the potters became more experienced1
 the sizes were gradually increased1 and
 now-a-days some of them are not less   
than #ai feet in diameter4 ,the quality 
of fuel had1 of course1 a great deal to 
do with their mode of construction4     
,now1 however1 that coals are           
acknowledged to contain more heat1 and  
to be cheaper than wood1 the ovens are  
generally built in a cylindrical form1  
with several mouths or feeders disposed 
at equal distances on the outer         
circumference1 the upper part being     
covered by a semi-spherical dome or     
vault1 to keep the heat inside and      
reverberate it downwards4 ,this         
construction is very simple1 the only   
complication being in the arrangement of
 flues under the bottom of the oven1 so 

as to throw into that part a portion of 
the heat1 which otherwise would be      
liable to accumulate towards the top4   
,the firing must be conducted very      
slowly at first1 to prevent a too sudden
 evaporation of the damp1 which would   
cause the splitting of the goods4 ,this 
being done1 the heat is raised          
gradually1 care being taken to feed the 
mouths with fuel as quickly as it is    
consumed4 ,it requires an experienced   
fireman1 to see that one part of the    
oven does not get in advance of the     
other4 ,he manages this by throwing in a
 certain quantity of air through small  
openings in the brick-work1 which are   
shut or left open according to          
circumstances4 ,whatever may be the     
construction of the oven1 the quantity  
of air mixed with the gas produced by   
the combustion of fuel causes the       
atmosphere to be reductive of oxidizing2
 which means that the different         
materials submitted to the heat would1  
in consequence of an abundance of       

carbon1 have a tendency to be deprived  
of their oxygen and return to a metallic
 state1 or that by firing in presence of
 an excess of air or carbonic acid1 they
 would be kept in a high state of       
oxidation4 ,it is fortunate that all    
classes of ,english pottery1 without    
exception1 require1 or are not injured  
by1 an oxidizing fire1 which is the most
 economical way of firing1 since by it  
all the gases are completely burnt      
inside the oven without any waste of    
fuel4 ,by a better application of this  
principle1 ,messrs4 ,minton have        
introduced a new oven1 in which the fuel
 is so completely utilized1 that it     
requires only one half of the usual     
quantity of coals1 besides doing away   
with the dense smoke1 which is the      
annoyance of the district4  ,by the     
first fire to which it is exposed1 the  
ware is converted into what is termed1  
from the ,french1 biscuit--an incorrect 
name1 as it seems to imply that it has  
already been fired twice1 when1 in fact1

 it has been only fired once4 ,some     
classes of pottery do not require more  
than a single firing1 as1 for instance1 
the common terra cotta and stoneware4   
,however1 for all our ,english ware it  
is necessary to have two fires1 for the 
following reasons3 ,first1 the necessity
 for getting a denser texture of the    
ware by submitting it to a strong heat1 
lest the glazes which are to be melted  
on their surface1 and which thereby     
become very dense and most contractible1
 should not agree with the more open    
texture of the body1 and should crack or
 craze when exposed to changes of       
temperature4 ,secondly1 that for coating
 the ware with the glaze1 it is         
necessary to dip the article in the     
vitreous mixture finely ground1 and kept
 in suspension in water2 consequently1  
if it were in the raw state when this   
was done1 the adhesion of the particles 
would be so small1 that they would      
readily dissolve in the liquid4 ,it is  
customary1 therefore1 to expose the     

goods first to a hard fire1 which1      
according to the size of the ovens and  
the quality of the ware1 may last from  
forty to fifty hours4  ,from the biscuit
 oven1 the goods1 if they are to be left
 white1 may be sent to be glazed2 but if
 they are to be decorated with a printed
 pattern1 they must be forwarded to the 
printing department4 ,printing on       
pottery is comparatively a modern       
invention1 its chief advantage being the
 cheap rate of production4 ,up to the   
last century1 the goods were always     
painted by hand3 a slow1 but it must be 
confessed1 a more artistic process1 as  
the work executed in this way1 even of  
an inferior kind1 will exhibit a freedom
 of touch and facility of execution1    
which will make it attractive and       
preferable to the formality of a printed
 pattern1 however rich or complicated it
 may be4 ,this superiority is           
sufficiently illustrated by comparing   
monochrome patterns of ,italian         
majolica1 ,delft1 and ,chinese1 with the

 modern printed ware of the same colour4
  ,public taste has so wonderfully      
improved lately1 that1 for my part1 ,i  
have no doubt that we shall soon have a 
special class of artists trained to     
execute1 by hand1 cheap and simple      
decorations for those purchasers who are
 not satisfied with printed decoration4 
,to what extent the introduction of     
printing on pottery has hindered the    
progress of art education in            
,staffordshire1 is a question on which  
people may entertain different opinions2
 but we might ask1 what amount of       
artistic work we might not do1 if at the
 present time we had some hundreds of   
artisans trained from their early years 
to that style of painting8 ,however that
 may be1 the process of transferring    
printed patterns to biscuit ware was    
considered a great step1 and one which  
contributed largely to the extension of 
the earthenware trade4  ,liverpool and  
,worcester claim the priority for this  
invention1 towards the year #ageb4 ,it  

is a fact that shortly after that date1 
,staffordshire potters used to send     
their wares to ,messrs4 ,sadler and     
,guy-,green1 of ,liverpool1 to be       
printed2 and there is also every reason 
to believe that about the same time it  
was introduced at the ,worcester works1 
then under the management of ,dr4 ,wall1
 by an engraver named ,hancock4  ,the   
process of printing on pottery does not 
differ very materially from that used   
for transferring to paper a design from 
an ordinary copper-plate4 ,there are1   
however1 these differences1 that a      
metallic colour is used instead of      
lampblack1 and that a fine tissue paper 
is specially made for that purpose4     
,when that paper1 with the pattern      
printed upon it1 is laid on the ware1   
face downwards1 the colours adhere      
strongly to the biscuit1 which1 being   
porous and aluminous1 has a great       
affinity for the oil with which they    
have been mixed4 ,after rubbing the back
 of the print with a roll of flannel1 to

 secure the adhesion of every portion of
 the pattern1 the biscuit piece is      
plunged in water1 and the paper comes   
off quite freely1 the whole of the      
colour sticking fast to the ware4       
,previous to glazing1 the printed ware  
must be brought to a red heat1 for the  
sole object of burning the oil mixed    
with the colour4 ,this is done in kilns1
 called hardening-on kilns4  ,the       
colours in use for printing under the   
glaze are not many2 as few only of the  
preparations made with metallic oxides  
can1 when brought to a red heat1 stand  
the action of the glazes under which    
they are laid4 ,most of them in this    
case will be dissolved and considerably 
weakened1 if they do not even completely
 disappear4 ,cobalt1 and the            
preparations made from chromates1 are   
the most resisting1 and1 when well      
prepared1 the glaze in melting over them
 will bring out the colour with         
increased beauty4  ,the necessity for   
covering the biscuit with glaze to stop 

the absorption of liquids or greasy     
substances1 which would find their way  
into its interior and would stain it1 is
 so obvious1 that ,i do not think it    
necessary to dwell on the importance of 
this operation4 ,i have stated already  
that it was used by the ,egyptians and  
,assyrians1 who knew most of the saline 
mixtures by which white and coloured    
glazes could be obtained2 but these1    
which for the greatest part were        
alkaline silicates1 could not have      
resisted the action of time as they have
 done1 if a certain amount of silicate  
of lead had not made them permanent4    
,they found this material in the        
sulphide of lead1 which by the silica it
 contains1 or that which it meets on the
 body of the ware1 gives a glaze1 which 
stands exposure to damp better than any 
other4 ,that this mineral was used in   
remote antiquity1 proofs are numerous4  
,i recollect1 amongst others1 some small
 shalti1 or sepulchral figures1 made in 
,egypt more than two thousand years ago1

 of which the red parts1 such as the    
faces and hands1 have been glazed in    
this way4 ,my opinion is1 that it was   
used by the ,greeks1 in connection with 
the black oxide of iron1 to produce the 
black colour used in the decoration of  
their vases1 and it might some day prove
 that it was an indispensable material  
in the preparation of the red smear1    
which is the characteristic feature of  
the ,samian ware4 ,at all events it is  
with this single material1 stained with 
metallic oxides1 that the ,arabs glazed 
their rich-looking pottery1 and the same
 was used afterwards for our encaustic  
tiles and our common pottery1 from the  
time of ,elizabeth down to the middle of
 the last century4 ,lately1 however1 the
 science of making glazes has           
considerably improved1 and a variety of 
new substances have been introduced4 ,to
 prepare a glaze is one of the most     
delicate operations possible1 and       
failures are attended with most serious 
consequences4 ,the conditions to be     

fulfilled are many4 ,it must not be too 
fusible nor too hard1 either of which   
conditions would make it dull or apt to 
craze2 and it must be transparent1      
otherwise the colours underneath would  
not be clear4 ,it may happen that a     
glaze which apparently seems good when  
it comes out from the oven1 will craze  
when a few months1 or perhaps years1    
have elapsed4 ,generally1 the less      
alumina that there is in the biscuit1   
the easier is the adaptation of the     
glaze1 and this accounts for the soft   
porcelains being easier to manage in    
this respect than ordinary earthenwares4
  ,the materials used for the foundation
 of glazes are in principle the same as 
those for the body1 viz4 silica1 in the 
form of flint1 or sand and felspar1 pure
 or mixed with other components in the  
granitic rocks1 called ,cornish stone4  
,these are the hard materials to be     
vitrified by the fluxes1 which are      
carbonate or oxide of lead1 boracic acid
 or borax1 potash or soda1 carbonate of 

lime or barytes4 ,there is no definite  
receipt for mixing1 and they may be     
combined in a variety of ways4 ,every   
manufacturer has receipts of his own1   
and ,i must say that some make their    
glazes a great deal better than others4 
,they are rather expensive1 chiefly     
owing to the increased price of borax1 a
 material of comparatively modern use1  
which1 being apt to promote the         
brilliancy of the wares and the beauty  
of the various colours1 is now          
extensively used4 ,when the components  
of the glazes are not soluble in water1 
it may be sufficient to have them finely
 ground in water4 ,but if any soluble   
salt1 such as borax1 nitre1 or soda1 is 
employed1 it is necessary to render them
 insoluble1 by vitrifying them together 
with other substances4 ,this may be     
effected in crucibles1 or1 still better1
 in reverberatory furnaces1 where a     
large quantity may be melted more       
conveniently4 ,in this case1 when the   
mass is well liquefied by the intensity 

of the heat1 it is run into cold water1 
which1 cooling it suddenly1 causes it to
 break into small fragments4 ,this is   
called a fritt2 and when it is sent to  
the mill1 any other insoluble material  
may be added to it if necessary4 ,to lay
 a thin coat of glaze on the surface of 
earthenware1 is a most expeditious      
process4 ,advantage is taken of the     
porous nature of the biscuit1 which1    
being dipped in the liquid slip1 rapidly
 absorbs the water1 while the solid     
particles of the glaze1 which1 however  
fine1 could not follow the water to its 
interior1 are found coating the surface4
 ,as the pieces are removed from this   
bath before the pores of the clay are   
saturated with water1 they are seen to  
dry almost directly4  ,after this1 the  
last operation consists in firing the   
pieces a second time1 to give them that 
neat and finished look which belongs to 
glazed substances4 ,the saggers1 ovens1 
and the mode of conducting the fire do  
not differ in this case from those used 

for making biscuit4 ,the ovens are1     
however1 smaller1 and the saggers cannot
 be packed so closely with the different
 articles1 as every piece has to be     
isolated1 otherwise the glaze in melting
 would cause them to stick together4 ,to
 provide against this1 small implements 
made of clay cut in different forms are 
used1 and1 not to disfigure the ware1   
are contrived in such a way that the    
points of contact between them and the  
pieces should be as small as possible4  
,this second firing does not take more  
than fifteen or eighteen hours1 and this
 completes the series of operations1 by 
which ordinary earthenware sold in the  
white or printed state may be produced4 
,the reader must understand that the    
majority of these processes are also    
applicable to the manufacture of china1 
or any other glazed pottery1 with some  
modifications which ,i shall take the   
opportunity of noticing1 when speaking  
of these varieties4  ,pottery may be    
decorated in a great number of ways1 and

 the operations are so varied that ,i   
cannot describe them all intelligibly1  
should ,i attempt to do so in my limited
 space4 ,i shall consequently speak only
 of the paintings executed on the       
surface4 ,this necessitates the use of  
colours specially prepared and made from
 two distinct materials2 the bases and  
the fluxes4 ,the bases are generally    
metallic oxides or highly oxidized      
compounds2 the fluxes are vitreous      
substances1 similar to the glazes1 but  
softer1 whose function is1 to fix the   
colours permanently on the ware4 ,when  
both1 after being intimately ground     
together1 are fired at a moderate heat  
on the article1 the fluxes will cause   
the colour of the bases to look more    
vigorous and brighter1 the effect being 
rather similar to that of an oil or     
transparent varnish on ordinary body    
colour4 ,for this object1 they must have
 very little chemical action1 and be    
sufficiently soft to act in a moderate  
quantity4 ,if1 by carelessness or       

accident1 the temperature is raised to a
 degree higher than the one exactly     
required1 new compounds are formed1 and 
the alteration of the colour is the     
consequence4 ,there are some instances  
in which no fluxes are required2 this is
 the case1 when the ware has been coated
 with a glaze sufficiently fusible to   
allow the bases to sink in it1 as soon  
as it begins to soften under the        
influence of heat4 ,by this process more
 force and effect are obtained4 ,it is1 
however1 seldom used1 for this reason1  
that from the care and attention which  
it requires in the superintendence of   
the firing1 the manufacturer would run  
greater risks1 and1 being unable to use 
large ovens1 would not turn out the same
 quantity of ware4 ,altogether it is a  
very expensive process4  ,modern        
chemistry has placed at the disposal of 
colour makers new compounds which have  
made the preparation of fluxes          
comparatively easy4 ,at the present time
 two classes are required3 those in     

which the oxides of lead predominate1   
and those chiefly made with borax1 which
 on account of its great purity is used 
in almost every flux1 and is of great   
service for those colours which1 like   
the pinks and purples1 would suffer from
 the presence of lead4  ,the preparation
 of painting colours is a little more   
complicated1 and each requires a        
different treatment4 ,the number of     
those found in the trade is rather      
large1 and each artist has his favourite
 maker4 ,in this1 as in any other kind  
of painting1 beginners are apt to think 
that they will be assisted by the use of
 a great variety of tints1 when they    
will learn by more experience1 that a   
very limited number is sufficient4 ,i   
cannot undertake to give any receipts   
for those who might wish to prepare     
these themselves2 ,i only mention the   
name of the substances necessary to     
secure each of the essential colours4   
,white is not a colour1 but when wanted 
on a coloured body1 it is procured by an

 enamel prepared with the oxide of tin4 
,light yellow requires the oxides of    
lead and antimony4 ,orange will require 
the same1 with an addition of deutoxide 
of iron4 ,the hydrate of peroxide of the
 same metal will give a golden buff4    
,the subchromate of lead gives a very   
bright red1 but it is very unsafe and   
mixes badly2 the reds made by calcining 
the common sulphate of iron are         
preferred4 ,from this1 according to the 
degree of fire1 all shades of red may be
 got1 from an orange red to a deep      
purple brown4 ,the pinks1 purples1 and  
crimsons are made from the precipitate  
of cassius2 this is obtained by pouring 
a weak solution of tin in the chloride  
of gold4 ,the dark blue is a triple     
silicate of cobalt1 which1 by the       
admixture of the white oxide of zinc1   
may be converted into a brighter blue4  
,the green oxide of chrome is the base  
of all greens1 the tint of which is     
modified by cobalt for the blue greens1 
and antimony for the yellow greens4 ,the

 chromate of iron1 a mineral coming in  
large quantities from ,south ,america1  
is the base of all browns4 ,the black   
may be got from the mixture of various  
oxides1 but the best is that made from  
the oxide of iridium4 ,besides the      
above1 there is another class of colours
 in which the oxides are thoroughly     
combined with the fluxes1 such as the   
greens made from copper and the         
transparent blues1 which are ground     
colours1 and must be classified with the
 glazes4 ,when painting colours are     
fired with their respective fluxes1 they
 are very permanent1 and will not only  
resist ordinary atmospheric influences1 
but also the action of every gas or     
mineral acid 7the fluoric excepted74    
,this seems an advantage in favour of   
painting on pottery1 and one which ought
 to give them an additional value2 in   
reality1 however1 artistic merit ranks  
above all other considerations1 and     
unless the work is original1            
connoisseurs in pottery will hardly take

 this into account4  ,several oils      
possessing drying properties1 such as   
those of lavender1 aniseed1 or          
turpentine1 are mixed with the colours1 
which1 from the fact of containing      
vitreous substances1 would work badly2  
even with their assistance1 it requires 
a certain amount of skill to master the 
process4 ,we must not make too much1    
however1 of this difficulty1 generally  
exaggerated by the ignorance of         
apprentices in what constitutes the very
 principles of their profession4 ,when  
parents1 in perfect ignorance of the    
abilities of their son1 have decided1   
after putting their heads together1 that
 he shall be a painter1 sometimes for no
 other consideration than that they can 
get him admission into a porcelain      
manufactory1 or that this is the nearest
 to their home1 the boy has not the     
least notion of what is before him1 and 
hardly knows that he will have to learn 
that very difficult thing1 drawing4 ,no 
wonder then1 if his deficiency in this  

will not allow him to produce1 we will  
not say good1 but saleable paintings1   
unless he has spent a dozen years on his
 trial4 ,on the contrary1 to one well   
prepared by the study of art--one who1  
before he sets to his work1 has a clear 
conception of the effect which he wishes
 to produce--the process will not stand 
in the way1 and he will master it in the
 course of a few weeks4  ,to induce     
talented men to devote their time to the
 decoration of pottery1 is perhaps the  
greatest difficulty met with by our     
leading manufacturers4 ,as long as the  
making of the ware only was concerned1  
they had to call for the assistance of  
practical men1 such as potters1         
chemists1 or engineers1 the number of   
whom is fortunately great in ,england1  
and whose services can be secured by    
money4 ,the same thing is not so easy in
 the matter of art4 ,up to a recent     
date1 painting on pottery was not       
considered as the high road to fortune1 
and artists preferred to try their      

chance in oil or water-colour painting1 
fully aware that they would have to     
fight against an army of competitors1   
and to be satisfied with very small     
incomes1 unless1 by their1 then         
problematic1 genius1 they could cut     
their way to the front4 ,since1 however1
 the rage 7there is no other word for   
it7 for well decorated pottery has      
spread in almost every class of society1
 the prices paid for good work are more 
remunerative1 and artists like ,solon1  
,mussill1 and ,coleman1 can make        
artistic pottery their special business4
  ,royal ,academicians like ,poynter and
 ,marks have thought it not beneath them
 to prepare cartoons for ,minton1 and it
 is probable that others would follow in
 the same path if1 with the assistance  
of our chief potters1 they could be     
initiated into some of the mysteries of 
the craft4 ,no doubt they would find the
 study attractive1 and there is no fear 
that1 having once begun1 they would not 
keep faithfully to it4 ,for myself1 ,i  

know of no such example4  ,in addition  
to the painting colours1 there are a few
 metals which are used to enrich        
pottery2 unfortunately1 the number of   
those which can undergo exposure to a   
red heat without oxidizing is very      
limited4 ,there are only three1 viz4    
gold1 silver1 and platinum1 which can   
stand it1 and1 among these1 silver is of
 little use1 on account of its proneness
 to tarnish under the action of         
sulphurous gases4 ,gold1 on the         
contrary1 affords to the decorator one  
of his greatest resources4 ,we cannot   
say when the ,chinese began to use it2  
we only know that in ,europe it was     
thought a great discovery1 when1 in the 
sixteenth century1 it was used in the   
,italian majolica4 ,from that time to   
the introduction of hard and soft       
porcelain in ,europe1 it was rarely and 
sparingly used2 and it was at ,meyssen1 
soon followed by the other continental  
and ,english manufactories1 that they   
began to use it extensively4 ,at the    

present time1 its annual consumption by 
our ,staffordshire potters alone        
represents a very large sum of money4   
,there are several ways of preparing    
gold for pottery purposes2 the oldest   
consists in grinding gold leaves on a   
slab1 adding to it gum water1 honey1 or 
any other mucilaginous liquid4 ,this    
laborious process surpasses all others2 
it has a very artistic effect when used 
thin1 in the ,chinese fashion1 and1 when
 laid thick1 as we find it in the ,old  
,,savres ware1 it answers beautifully   
for chasing2 the only drawback is the   
expense4 ,the most usual way is to have 
it amalgamated with mercury1 and        
afterwards ground in turpentine2 it has 
then the appearance of a blackish       
substance1 which will regain its colour1
 as soon as the mercury is volatilized  
by the application of a gentle heat4    
,when it comes out of the kiln1 the gold
 is dull1 and requires to be burnished  
with agate and bloodstone tools1 to be  
in possession of all its brightness4    

,there is another decorated pottery1    
called lustre ware1 now out of fashion1 
but most successfully executed at one   
time by the ,moors1 the ,persians1 and  
the ,italians on their respective       
majolicas2 the glaze of this ware being 
more favourable than any other for the  
display of the process4 ,it simply      
consisted in painting over the fired    
ware with the protoxide of some metal1  
such as that of copper1 taking care that
 from the moment the kiln began to get  
to the red heat1 a constant supply of   
thick smoke should be kept up4 ,the     
partial reduction of the metal which    
adheres to the surface has a very       
pleasing effect1 as may be noticed in   
the large ,hispano-,moresco dishes1     
considered the finest specimens of this 
class4 ,those produced in ,italy by     
,georgio ,andreoli fetch1 however1 a    
higher price1 on account of the redness 
of their colour2 the process is fully   
described in the celebrated manuscript  
of ,piccolo ,passo1 now in the library  

of the ,south ,kensington ,museum4      
,lessore1 the ,french painter1 lately   
dead1 and ,m4 de ,morgan1 in ,london1   
have succeeded in producing very fair   
specimens of that kind4 ,some of our    
,staffordshire potters can make another 
lustre by mixing chloride of gold with  
lavender oil1 sulphur1 resin1 and other 
carburated ingredients1 and laying this 
mixture very thinly on the surface of   
the glazed ware2 the iridescent pinkish 
colour which it takes when it is fired  
in an ordinary kiln is rather peculiar4 
,this has no connection with the old    
process1 and is only used for the       
commonest kind of goods4  ,the kilns in 
use for firing the painted or gilt ware1
 are called muffles or enamelling kilns2
 they are in the form of a ,d1 laid on  
its straight side1 and of a length      
proportionate to the size and number of 
pieces which they are to hold4 ,the     
fireplaces are arranged on one of the   
sides1 and the flues contrived in such a
 manner1 that the flame should travel   

round the whole of the outer surface1   
great care being taken that it should   
not have access to the interior through 
any cracks or joints which might exist  
in the brick-work4 ,for ordinary goods  
one firing may suffice2 for those highly
 decorated1 as many as five or six may  
be necessary4  ,let me now say a few    
words respecting the various wares      
produced by our ,english potters4  ,the 
first earthenware made after the time of
 ,wedgwood and ,josiah ,spode was far   
from being so good as that made at      
present1 and several attempts were made 
to bring out a pottery which should be  
intermediate between earthenware and    
porcelain4 ,the most successful was that
 made by ,mr4 ,mason1 of ,fenton1 who1  
in #ahac1 took out a patent for an      
ironstone china1 the body of which was  
fluxed by the scori,a of ironstone and  
the ordinary ,cornish stone4 ,but       
eventually this last was found          
sufficient for that purpose4 ,the name  
of ironstone remained to that class of  

pottery which is strong and resistive4  
,since then1 however1 earthenware has so
 much improved1 that ironstone has gone 
out of fashion2 the nearest to it is the
 ware called white granite1 made for the
 ,american market1 which is richly      
glazed1 and made thick to compete with  
the ,french hard porcelain1 which is    
also exported to the ,united ,states for
 the same class of customers4 ,about    
fifty manufactories are specially       
engaged in producing this ware2 and     
those in the occupation of ,messrs4     
,meakin1 ,shaw1 ,bishop and ,powell1 and
 ,g4 ,jones1 may be considered the      
largest4 ,the best earthenware is made  
for the home market1 some of which is so
 perfect that1 if it were not opaque1 it
 might be mistaken for porcelain4 ,when 
it is richly decorated and gilt1 like   
that made by ,messrs4 ,minton1          
,wedgwood1 ,furnival1 ,copeland1        
,brown-,westhead1 ,brownfields1 and     
several other leaders of the trade1 very
 high prices are obtained for it4  ,some

 of these makers do not devote all their
 attention to earthenware1 but produce  
other classes of pottery4 ,amongst the  
sorts which are most connected with     
earthenware are majolica1 ,palissy1     
,persian ware1 and flooring and wall    
tiles4 ,i have given the name of        
majolica to that class of ornament1     
whose surface is covered with opaque    
enamels of a great variety of colours4  
,it is only connected with the ,italian 
or ,moorish in this respect1 that the   
opacity of the enamels is produced by   
the oxide of tin2 but as we have not in 
,england the calcareous clay for making 
the real article1 we have been obliged  
to adapt1 as well as we could1 the old  
processes to the materials at our       
disposal4  ,at present1 ,english        
majolica is very popular1 and without a 
rival for garden decoration1 as it      
stands exposure to the weather better   
than ordinary earthenware1 besides the  
impossibility of the latter receiving   
the opaque enamels without crazing or   

chipping4  ,majolica was produced for   
the first time by ,messrs4 ,minton1 in  
#ahej1 and they have been for many years
 the only producers of this article4 ,it
 is only five or six years ago that     
,messrs4 ,maw1 of ,broseley1 in         
,shropshire 7and very lately the        
,worcester manufactory71 have made a    
pottery of the same kind4 ,the name of  
majolica is now applied indiscriminately
 to all fancy articles of coloured      
pottery4 ,when1 however1 it is decorated
 by means of coloured glazes1 if these  
are transparent1 it ought to be called  
,palissy ware1 from the name of the     
great artist who used these for his     
beautiful works4 ,messrs4 ,wedgwood1    
,george ,jones1 and a few other makers  
of less importance1 are reproducing it  
more or less successfully4 ,to ,messrs4 
,minton1 however1 we owe the revival of 
the ware1 which1 in connection with     
their majolica1 created such a sensation
 in the ,french ,international          
,exhibition of #ahee2 and credit must be

 given to those gentlemen1 for being on 
that occasion the promoters of that     
demand for artistic pottery1 which has  
so largely developed of late4 ,it is to 
satisfy this craving for novelties1 that
 they have undertaken the imitation of  
the fa,a-ence d',oiron1 better known by 
the name of ,henri ,deux ware1 a rare   
and costly one1 which can only be       
produced in small quantities2 and also  
their most recent improvement1 the      
reproduction of the ,persian wares4  ,in
 the old ,persian pottery we find a real
 earthenware taking a precedence of     
several centuries over our own4 ,there  
is little doubt that it can be connected
 with the early ,arabian1 ,assyrian1 and
 ,egyptian1 by the similitude of the    
processes common to all4 ,i have no room
 to explain how it is that1 being an    
earthenware1 it is so much richer in    
colour than the modern ware made on this
 side of ,europe4 ,i can only mention   
that the body of the ,persian ware may  
be converted into a transparent         

porcelain by firing it hard1 which shows
 that the sandy clays from which these  
are made are sufficiently saline to     
become vitreous4 ,to this they owe the  
property of receiving1 without crazing1 
glazes of the softest kind1 and         
consequently of exhibiting those colours
 which can only stand at a low          
temperature1 such as the ,persian red1  
the turquoise1 and that purple or violet
 which makes so valuable the specimens  
on which it is laid4 ,if we had in      
,england sandy clays like those which   
abound in ,persia1 the reproduction of  
,persian ware would have been an easy   
undertaking2 but in trying to           
reconstitute it by synthesis1 there were
 several obstacles4 ,within the last    
three years1 however1 ,messrs4 ,minton  
have sold a great many specimens of the 
ware1 some of them of very large size4  
,they may be recognized by the depth of 
the turquoise1 which is sometimes as    
rich as ,,savres pieces of the best     
period4 ,their only competitors for this

 class of pottery are the manufactories 
of ,worcester and of ,messrs4 ,maw and  
,co4  ,i cannot leave earthenware       
without mentioning the plain and        
encaustic tiles1 articles of            
comparatively recent manufacture in     
,england1 but whose consumption is      
increasing so fast1 that it may be      
expected in time to afford a most       
valuable compensation1 should           
circumstances restrict the production of
 some other branch of the trade4 ,there 
is no need to dwell on the advantages   
offered by the use of tiles4 ,they are  
clean1 invaluable in a sanitary point of
 view1 free from further deterioration  
and expense for maintenance1 and        
susceptible of a variety of treatment   
which makes them admirably fitted for   
decorative purposes4 ,to the ,eastern   
nations we owe the idea of using        
ornamental tiles1 and it is likely that 
it is from the numerous buildings       
existing in ,western ,asia and the north
 of ,africa1 at the time of the         

,crusades1 that our forefathers took the
 notion of introducing in ,europe the   
encaustic tiles2 their ceramic knowledge
 being too limited to undertake the     
making of painted or enamelled tiles1 an
 essentially ,saracenic and ,moorish    
production1 whose specimens nearest to  
us are those to be seen in the          
,alhambra1 or in the ,alcazar at        
,seville4 ,an inspection of those made  
afterwards in ,spain1 in the time of    
,charles ,v41 or in ,italy for the      
,vatican1 and some of the palaces in    
,genoa1 would prove that they were made 
exactly in the same way4 ,from the      
contrast between the opaque and         
transparent enamels1 these tiles have a 
very forcible and harmonious effect1 not
 to be met in others 7the ,persian      
excepted1 though these1 exclusively     
decorated on a cool scale of colours1   
cannot answer so well the requirements  
of modern architecture74 ,the majolica  
and ,delft tiles1 chiefly the last1 have
 been almost exclusively used during the

 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1  
and it is only within the last forty    
years1 that we began to make them in    
earthenware4 ,with the revival of this  
manufacture1 and of almost any other    
sort of tiles1 the name of ,herbert     
,minton is closely associated4 ,it was  
during his time1 and with the assistance
 of ,mr4 ,michael ,daintry ,hollins1    
that this great undertaking was carried 
out with such success1 that hardly a new
 church or public building is erected   
where these tiles are not introduced4   
,the making of plain tiles is new and   
peculiar4 ,they are made from dry clay  
reduced to dust1 which1 being submitted 
in metallic moulds to a pressure of     
several hundred pounds to the inch1     
becomes so compact1 that further        
contraction is almost suppressed1 and   
they can be handled without risk of     
breaking4 ,encaustic tiles are made from
 plastic clay1 in which the different   
portions of the design are sunk below   
the surface1 so as to form recesses1 in 

which slips of different colours are    
poured according to a set pattern4 ,when
 these become as hard as the body of the
 tiles1 the surface is made smooth and  
level with a steel scraper1 which       
removes all the superfluous material1   
till the colours are shown standing     
neatly side by side with the greatest   
precision4 ,it is a pretty process and  
interesting to witness4 ,besides the    
flooring tiles1 there are many other    
sorts made for lining walls and         
fireplaces1 varying considerably in     
style and material4 ,there are two very 
extensive and perfected tile works at   
,stoke1 viz4 those belonging to ,mr4    
,hollins and the ,campbell ,brick and   
,tile ,company1 in both of which all    
sorts of flooring and wall tiles are    
made4 ,in the second1 recently built1   
,mr4 ,colin ,minton ,campbell1 the      
proprietor1 has introduced new          
arrangements and contrivances in almost 
every department2 all operations being  
performed on the ground floor1 and in   

such manner that the goods shall travel 
the shortest possible distance from the 
moment they are begun to that of their  
completion4 ,he has been the first to   
use ,maw's patent steam presses for     
plain tiles1 each of which can make     
twelve thousand tiles weekly1 requiring 
only the assistance of a single person1 
to remove the tiles as they come out    
from the mould4 ,it is by the           
intelligent use of these mechanical     
processes1 that we may expect a         
reduction in the price of such a useful 
article4 ,the firm of ,mintons still    
continue to make their plain white      
printed and artistic tiles1 along with  
their patent process for painting on    
mosaics4 ,the ,broseley ,works1 in      
,shropshire1 belonging to ,messrs4 ,maw 
and ,co41 have also a great name1 and   
carry on an extensive business in tile  
making4 ,next are those of ,messrs4     
,edge and ,malkin1 of ,burslem4 ,messrs4
 ,simpson1 of ,london1 are well known   
for their wall decorations in tiles     

painted by hand1 and ,messrs4 ,copeland1
 of ,stoke1 for their painted slabs4    
,the various porcelain biscuits known   
under the name of ,parian or statuary   
biscuits1 are specially used for        
statuettes1 busts1 and other articles   
for which it is desirable to get the    
appearance of white marble4 ,this is a  
kind of hard porcelain made from a      
mixture of kaolin and felspar1 in which 
the degree of hardness or fusibility is 
regulated by the proportion of one      
material towards the other4 ,of course1 
similar biscuits may be made by more    
complicated receipts1 but the principle 
is always the same1 viz4 the taking     
advantage of the fusibility of felspar  
or ,cornish stone1 to secure the        
required amount of transparency4 ,the   
light being allowed to penetrate to some
 depth below the surface1 imparts to    
these biscuits a softness which is      
wanting in the similar productions of   
,,savres1 ,germany1 and ,denmark4  ,in  
noticing the bluish-white colour of the 

foreign article as compared with the    
cream tint of our own1 ,i must explain  
that this difference lies in the        
management of the fire1 since in none of
 them is stain or colour introduced to  
procure any such result4 ,as my readers 
must now understand1 there is in all    
clays1 pure as they may be1 a certain   
amount of oxide of iron1 which1 during  
the firing process1 forms silicate of   
protoxide or peroxide1 according to the 
chemical composition of the atmosphere  
of the oven in which they stand4 ,on the
 ,continent1 to make hard porcelain     
successfully1 the fire must be          
reductive2 while here1 on the contrary1 
it is oxidizing2 and it is to the       
formation of a small quantity of        
silicate of peroxide of iron            
disseminated in the mass1 that the      
creamy colour of our ,parian is due4    
,since this new material was introduced 
by ,messrs4 ,copeland and ,messrs4      
,minton1 about twenty-eight years ago1 a
 large quantity of figures1 busts1 and  

groups have been sold1 and the talent of
 our most eminent sculptors has been put
 to contribution to get models adapted  
for this kind of ware4 ,parian is       
generally cast1 which accounts for the  
great contraction it undergoes when     
fired1 and much care is required for    
propping or supporting the various      
articles1 as neglect or miscalculation  
in this respect would inevitably ruin   
them4 ,otherwise1 as this biscuit is    
made from few materials and takes but   
one single firing1 the simplicity of the
 manufacture has induced many small     
makers to undertake it--a fact that we  
should regret1 if we were to take a     
purely artistic view of this subject4   
,parian1 which was originally sold in   
biscuit state1 has since been glazed1   
for the purpose of making pieces of     
decoration4 ,the manufactory at         
,worcester1 several years ago1 made a   
great many coloured and gilt ornaments  
in the ,cinque-cento style1 to which it 
has lately added a highly artistic      

imitation of the ,japanese lacquered    
ivories1 for which great credit is due  
to the present director1 ,mr4 ,binns4   
,the ,belleek manufactory1 in ,ireland1 
has obtained a name for coating its     
glazed ,parian with an iridescent       
lustre1 in imitation of a similar       
article invented by a ,frenchman1 ,m4   
,bianchon4  ,for richly decorated       
ornaments1 the body of the ,parian has  
been stained with success in many rich  
colours by ,messrs4 ,minton1 their last 
production in this class being a ,parian
 combining the red colour of the terra  
cotta1 with the advantages of a         
vitrified porcelain4 ,their most        
artistic ware is1 however1 their p,acte 
sur p,acte1 in the production of which  
they have been assisted by ,m4 ,solon1  
an eminent artist1 who left the ,,savres
 works to establish this branch of fine 
art in their manufactory4 ,to carry on  
this process1 advantage is taken of the 
transparency of the ,parian body with   
which the figures or ornaments          

introduced in the composition are       
painted1 or rather modelled4 ,as they   
are laid on a ground of a dark colour1  
the softness of the shades in the       
thinner parts gives to the finished     
pieces a particularly beautiful cameo   
appearance4 ,the effect may be compared 
to that of the ,limoges enamels1 when   
confined to the white colour4 ,this     
process has a certain connection with   
that of ,wedgwood for making his jasper 
ware2 but there is this difference1 that
 in the jasper1 the figures and         
ornaments are taken from clay moulds1   
and may be repeated to any extent1 the  
talent of the artisan consisting in     
pressing neatly and transferring on the 
vases the various fragments of          
decoration1 without destroying the      
sharpness of the impression1 while in   
the p,acte sur p,acte original works can
 only be produced by the artist1 who    
must combine the qualifications of      
designer and modeller4 ,what ,i say here
 is not in disparagement of jasper1     

which1 considering the time of its      
introduction1 was far in advance of     
anything that could be expected4 ,in its
 production the ,wedgwoods never had a  
rival1 and the models of the celebrated 
,josiah ,wedgwood are still worked at   
their manufactory at ,etruria1 with the 
same success4 ,the sulphate and         
carbonate of barytes were the fluxes    
originally used to vitrify the body of  
the jasper ware1 and on this account it 
ought to be classified with the         
stoneware4 ,parian1 which may be made   
from purely granitic materials1 has a   
nearer connection with porcelain4       
,there are three different sorts of     
porcelain3 #a4 ,the ,chinese and        
,japanese1 with which may be assimilated
 the ,german and ,french1 all of them   
made of kaolin and felspar1 sometimes   
with an addition of quartz4 ,the        
principal seat of this manufacture is   
now in ,france1 with ,limoges for its   
centre4 #b4 ,the soft porcelain1 of     
which the most perfect type is the old  

,,savres1 includes those of ,chelsea1   
,bow1 ,worcester1 and ,derby4 ,in all   
these the transparency1 which is the    
distinctive feature of porcelain1 is    
secured by the introduction of fritt1 a 
mixture of sand and alkaline materials  
thoroughly vitrified1 ground and made   
workable by an addition of plastic clay4
 ,the calcareous marl used at ,,savres  
gave to the ,french works a superiority 
over the ,english1 who could only use   
the clays from our southern counties4   
,the manufacture of the soft porcelain1 
on account of its difficulties1 is      
almost abandoned4 #c4 ,the ,english     
porcelain1 the body of which is made1   
like the hard1 from kaolin and ,cornish 
stone1 but differing from it by the     
addition of a large proportion of       
calcined bones4 ,this kind is           
exclusively ,english4 ,for the hard     
porcelain1 the glaze is made from       
felspar containing a variable quantity  
of quartz1 or1 as in ,germany1 from     
quartz vitrified by an addition of      

gypsum1 the melting of which in both    
cases requires a very high temperature4 
,for the glazing of the two other       
classes of porcelain1 a soft1 vitreous  
mixture containing silicate of lead and 
borates is used1 the temperature        
necessary to melt these being much      
inferior to that required for firing the
 biscuit4  ,the most ancient porcelain  
is1 as everyone knows1 the ,chinese1    
which1 relying on the few authorities   
that have written on this subject1 may  
have been in existence for two thousand 
years1 and is said to have reached its  
greatest perfection towards the eleventh
 century of our era4 ,the ,portuguese   
have the credit of having been the first
 to introduce it in ,europe1 in #aebj2  
but it is not improbable that1 before   
they doubled the ,cape of ,good ,hope1  
some specimens were brought to ,europe  
through ,india and ,persia4 ,this may be
 inferred from the mention by ancient   
historians of some extraordinary white  
vessels1 which could hardly correspond  

to any other kind of ware4 ,the         
,portuguese and the ,dutch1 who were the
 first to explore the ,chinese seas1    
seem to have derived a good trade from  
the importation of the porcelain into   
,europe1 and1 since then1 the           
reproduction of that refined pottery was
 the ambition of many alchemists1 who   
pursued their experiments in that       
direction with an eagerness almost equal
 to that wasted in the search for the   
philosopher's stone4 ,for a long time1  
in consequence of the imperfection of   
their chemical knowledge1 their efforts 
ended in failure4 ,the only successful  
attempt was that of ,francis ,,ii41 one 
of the ,medicis1 who produced a few     
pieces of soft porcelain recognizable by
 their mark1 representing the dome of   
,florence4  ,at the death of this       
prince1 his secret was lost1 and it was 
a long time afterwards1 at the end of   
the seventeenth century1 that ,john     
,dwight1 a potter1 of ,fulham1 in       
,middlesex1 took a patent for what is   

curiously reported by ,dr4 ,plot as the 
mystery of transparent earthenware      
commonly knowne by the name of          
porcelaine and ,persian ware4 ,made from
 ,english materials1 it is probable that
 this was nothing better than a kind of 
white stoneware1 possessing little of   
those qualities which would entitle it  
to the name of porcelain4 ,next to that 
in date would be the soft porcelain made
 at the manufactory of ,st4 ,cloud1     
which was said to produce1 in #afih1    
pieces of ware considered very good     
imitations of the ,oriental4 ,this was  
the origin of the ,french soft          
porcelain1 which was carried on         
afterwards with varied success at       
,chantilly1 ,vincennes1 and other       
places1 till it was definitely settled1 
in #agef1 by ,king ,louis ,,xv4 in the  
royal establishment of ,,savres4 ,at a  
corresponding period1 on this side of   
the ,channel1 the efforts of our potters
 were varied and numerous4 ,if we are to
 believe ,dr4 ,martyn ,lister1 a        

manufactory of porcelain existed at     
,chelsea as far back as #afih1 a fact   
which would establish for ,england a    
claim equal to that of ,france for the  
discovery of the soft porcelain4 ,this  
is not altogether improbable1           
considering that there was a glass      
manufactory in that locality before     
that1 and that many people had a notion 
that porcelain was nothing else than a  
glass hardened and made opaque4 ,the    
managers of these glass-works may have  
experimented on that supposition1 and   
the conjecture is strengthened by the   
fact1 that pounded glass was always used
 at ,chelsea to give the desired        
transparency4 ,good specimens are not1  
however1 recorded before #agde1 and it  
is probable that many of the            
improvements at ,chelsea were realized  
by the ,staffordshire potters1 who1 two 
years later1 went there to apply their  
industry4 ,the priority in making       
practically good ware belongs to the    
works established in #agcj at           

,stratford-le-,bow1 from which the ,bow 
porcelain took its name4 ,it was not    
perfected there1 however1 before #agdd1 
when a china1 softer than that made at  
,chelsea1 and nearer to that made at    
,vincennes1 was manufactured by a potter
 named ,frye1 originally a painter1 who 
seems to have been the promoter and     
manager of these works1 which at one    
time did not employ less than three     
hundred people4  ,bow was celebrated for
 its statuettes1 and it is said that    
several of them were modelled by ,bacon1
 the sculptor4 ,the successes of ,bow   
and ,chelsea were great but of short    
duration1 for both had ceased to exist  
in #agge1 when their utensils and moulds
 were sold to ,mr4 ,william ,dwesbury1  
and carried to ,derby1 where this       
enterprising gentleman had started a    
manufactory as far back as #agea4       
,three generations of ,dwesbury         
continued here the traditions of        
,chelsea1 after which time the works    
became the property of ,robert ,bloor1  

the last owner of repute4 ,i am happy to
 say that after ceasing to exist for a  
great many years1 this celebrated       
manufactory is going to be revived under
 the leadership of ,mr4 ,e4 ,phillips1  
formerly one of the directors of the    
,worcester works4 ,in that same year    
7#agfa71 a man--who for his inquiring   
turn of mind and artistic knowledge     
seems to have a great likeness to       
,josiah ,wedgwood--,johu ,wall1 a doctor
 and a chemist1 began also to make      
porcelain at ,worcester2 and if ,mr4    
,binns' assertions are correct as       
regards the preparation of the fritt    
used in it1 he must have had some       
knowledge of the ,vincennes receipts4   
,the ,worcester works have now been     
celebrated for more than a century1 and 
with them must be associated the names  
of the various owners1 ,flight1 ,barr1  
and ,chamberlain4 ,at ,caughley1 in     
,shropshire1 a manufactory of soft      
porcelain was in existence in #agef1 and
 it was employed at one time by the     

proprietors of the ,worcester works to  
assist in making ware1 which was sent   
back to them to be decorated4 ,the      
,caughley works were bought by ,john    
,rose1 a pupil of ,turner1 the first    
director1 and transferred to ,coalport1 
with which the works of ,nantgarw1 in   
,south ,wales1 were also amalgamated4   
,these works have been in the family of 
,john ,rose until lately1 when they came
 into the possession of ,m4 ,pew1 the   
present owner4 ,for softness and        
resistance of body1 brightness of glaze1
 and clearness of colour1 the ,coalport 
ware is held in great esteem by those   
who know anything about china4 ,at      
,swinton1 in ,yorkshire1 soft porcelain 
was manufactured on the property of the 
,marquis of ,rockingham4 ,manufactories 
also existed at other places1 so that   
the reader may here remark1 that all    
exertions to establish the manufacture  
of china were made outside              
,staffordshire2 and if he has noticed   
the dates1 he will also perceive that   

all these works were founded1 when      
,wedgwood was too young to render any   
assistance4 ,this we must say in justice
 to ,dr4 ,wall1 ,frye1 ,dwesbury1 and   
,cookworthy--whose name must not be     
forgotten as the discoverer of the      
,cornish clay1 which so greatly promoted
 the ceramic trade of this country4     
,william ,cookworthy was a chemist and  
druggist1 at ,plymouth1 a member of the 
,society of ,friends1 and a man of great
 respectability4 ,having had the        
opportunity of seeing some kaolin and   
felspar from ,virginia1 that an         
,american friend had shown to him as the
 very material from which the ,chinese  
porcelain was made1 he recognized1      
several years afterwards1 the same in   
,cornwall1 and setting resolutely to    
work1 he began to make his first trials 
at ,st4 ,stephens1 on the property of   
,lord ,camelford1 and afterwards at     
,plymouth1 where he remained till #aggd1
 when ,champion1 a merchant of ,bristol1
 bought his patent1 and removed the     

works to the latter place4 ,i must here 
explain that ,cookworthy's ideas of the 
making of porcelain were correct1       
inasmuch as he wished to closely imitate
 the ,chinese2 consequently he had to   
work on different principles from those 
then in favour at ,chelsea and other    
places4 ,he wanted to produce a         
porcelain without fritt and with a      
felspathic glaze1 and1 in succeeding in 
his attempt1 this energetic man is      
entitled to a great deal of credit1 when
 we consider that1 although the         
processes discovered by ,bottger1 in    
#agaj1 at ,meyssen1 for making hard     
porcelain1 were also put in practice at 
,vienna1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 and ,berlin1 
they were kept very secret1 and it is   
most probable that he had no information
 whatever from those quarters4 ,it would
 be to rob ,cookworthy to admit that the
 hard porcelain pieces1 known by the    
name of ,lowestoft1 were made in that   
locality4 ,i am indeed sorry to differ  
in this from an eminent critic1 who has 

taken great trouble to collect documents
 in support of this opinion2 but those  
who are in favour of it know very little
 about the difficulties attending the   
organization of such manufacture1 and   
the quality of the materials that it    
requires4 ,besides the absence of any   
information respecting the place whence 
these materials were taken1 the vast    
quantity of pieces which are met with is
 such1 that it precludes the idea that  
they have been made in the precincts of 
such a small establishment4 ,they have  
every feature of ,chinese porcelain1 and
 of one made in large quantities4 ,it is
 most probable that1 after making1 or   
trying to make1 soft porcelain for a    
time1 the proprietors of the ,lowestoft 
works found it more profitable to paint 
and decorate the foreign article1 which 
they could easily get from ,holland in  
the white state4  ,most pieces of       
,cookworthy manufacture were copied from
 the ,chinese1 and are still well known 
by the name of ,plymouth porcelain4 ,at 

,bristol1 ,champion used the same clay  
to produce a softer kind of ware1 and   
his materials began to be employed at   
,bow and other places4 ,the             
,staffordshire potters soon became      
anxious to take advantage of the        
discovery1 and in #aggg a company was   
formed by ,jacob ,warburton to obtain a 
licence for their use4 ,this was granted
 by ,champion1 but with this singular   
restriction--that1 although they were   
allowed to use a certain quantity of    
china clay and china stone1 they were   
not to make porcelain4 ,this            
restriction1 however1 did not last long1
 and ,champion himself came for a short 
time to ,shelton to superintend some    
works4 ,amongst the names of            
,warburton's associates1 we notice some 
well known in ,staffordshire1 such as   
,s4 ,hollins1 of ,shelton2 ,antony      
,keeling1 of ,tunstall2 ,turner1 of     
,lane ,end1 and a few others4 ,to these 
gentlemen we must give credit for the   
earliest attempts to introduce the      

manufacture of china into the           
,potteries4 ,however1 their porcelain   
was inferior to that made at ,worcester 
and ,derby1 and it is doubtful whether  
they would have persisted1 if the matter
 had not been settled by ,josiah ,spode1
 the second of that name1 who1 by adding
 calcined bones to the body of the ware1
 made a new kind of porcelain1 distinct 
from the hard or the soft previously    
made4 ,on that account ,spode deserves  
to be considered as the creator of the  
,english porcelain4 ,there is this      
peculiarity in the use of bones1 that   
the phosphate of lime which enters into 
their composition is not decomposed by  
the silicates with which it is mixed1   
and1 as it is infusible1 its admixture  
in the body allows the ware to stand    
without injury the temperature at which 
the felspar is vitrified4 ,this         
hardening of the bones does not exclude 
a certain amount of transparency1 and   
they possess1 besides1 a very great     
advantage in preventing the oxides of   

iron which exist in the clays1 producing
 that brownish or imperfect             
transparency1 noticeable in the old     
,derby or ,worcester ware4 ,i have      
already said that the adaptation of the 
glaze for each kind of pottery is one of
 the greatest difficulties that the     
maker has to overcome2 in this case1    
however1 there was very little1 and the 
glazing of ,english porcelain may be    
considered as exceptionally easy4 ,most 
of the glazes which had been used for   
the soft porcelain could be adapted to  
this one1 a property which was of great 
service when the pieces had to be       
decorated4 ,i have already explained1   
that when paintings executed on the     
surface of the ware are submitted to a  
moderate red heat1 if the glaze is soft 
enough to undergo an incipient fusion1  
the vitreous colours with which they are
 executed will sink into it and attain1 
by their incorporation1 an amount of    
glossiness and brilliancy which cannot  
be got on the surface of hard glazes4   

,this is particularly illustrated by the
 old ,,savres ware1 which possesses this
 quality in the highest degree4 ,english
 porcelain1 well-made1 has almost all   
the advantages of the old soft1 and its 
making is not attended with the         
difficulties experienced in working a   
body made from fritted substances4 ,for 
regular use1 it is not much inferior to 
the hard porcelain4 ,when this last     
began to be made on the ,continent1     
people were so much prejudiced in its   
favour1 on account of the capability of 
its glaze to resist the scratching of   
the knife1 that this was thought to more
 than compensate for its inability to   
combine with the colours4 ,the advantage
 was1 in fact1 more apparent than real1 
for when hard porcelain has been long in
 use1 it becomes as badly scratched as  
the ,english4 ,some people question     
whether it would not be desirable to    
revive in ,england the manufacture of   
the hard4 ,there are many reasons       
against this1 the principal being1 that 

in case we succeeded1 we should have to 
compete with the ,french and ,germans1  
who get their labour cheaper1 and have a
 long experience of processes altogether
 different from ours2 and by the change 
we should lose the advantage of our     
traditions1 and depend1 at least for a  
time1 on foreign labour to give a new   
training to our workmen4 ,out of the    
trade1 few people seem to know that the 
price of hard porcelain is generally    
lower than that given for the ,english2 
and1 if the experiment were made1 it    
would be soon found that with greater   
risks we should produce an article of   
less value1 and consequently less       
remunerative4 ,it is true that the      
exports of our best china are very      
small1 on account of its price2 but with
 the improvement going on in the public 
taste1 it is likely to increase1 and    
there are signs that eventually our     
richest articles may find purchasers on 
the other side of the ,atlantic4  ,in   
,europe1 where the value of the various 

ceramic productions has been more       
investigated than in the other parts of 
the world1 there is hardly an amateur   
who does not recognize the superiority  
of a soft porcelain for decorated       
articles1 and if the ,english china is  
not1 properly speaking1 as soft as the  
old ,,savres1 it is certainly nearer to 
it than any other porcelain4 ,this      
superiority is proved by the test that  
the various porcelains are undergoing at
 the present time1 and which is rather  
decisive4 ,we understand by this1 the   
manner in which they have stood the     
dangerous competition arising from the  
introduction of artistic faiences or    
painted majolica4 ,while1 in consequence
 of this1 the ,french manufacturers have
 seen the production of ornamental      
articles in hard porcelain collapse to  
an incredible extent1 the quantity of   
those made in ,england for similar      
purposes is fast increasing4  ,messrs4  
,copeland1 whose father1 the late       
alderman1 was for some time in          

partnership with ,spode1 occupy1 in     
,stoke-upon-,trent1 the same            
establishment in which that great potter
 carried out his improvements4 ,since   
then1 these makers have kept their rank 
among the principal leaders of the      
trade1 and maintain their reputation for
 the excellence of their decoration and 
the beauty of their gilding4 ,it was so 
far fortunate for ,stoke that1 although 
one of the smallest towns in the        
,potteries1 it became the seat of the   
most important manufactories of china4  
,it was in #aghh that ,thomas ,minton1  
who had been brought up as an engraver  
at the ,caughley works1 in ,shropshire1 
and who in that capacity had been       
several years in the employment of      
,spode1 founded in that town the        
establishment which subsequently became 
the property of his son1 ,herbert       
,minton4 ,the father does not seem to   
have possessed these qualities which1 as
 potter1 should entitle him to a special
 notice2 but the same cannot be said of 

the son1 who soon after his father's    
death began to work in earnest to raise 
his manufactory to its present degree of
 eminence4 ,the unceasing activity of   
his mind in carrying out improvements in
 all the branches of his trade1 may be  
attested by one who for many years had  
the honour of working with him4 ,on     
every matter connected with art his     
ideas were sound1 and his natural tact  
rarely failed in finding out that which 
was most suited to the taste of his     
customers4 ,his reputation1 as the most 
advanced potter of his time1 is so well 
established1 that ,i am not astonished  
to find others claiming a share in it1  
asserting that it was at their          
suggestion1 or with their assistance1   
that he left the old path to open the   
way to progress4 ,suggestions and       
advices are always freely given to a man
 of sociable disposition as was ,herbert
 ,minton1 but he used his own judgment  
and discretion to test their            
practicability4 ,in applying higher     

class of art to his productions1 he had 
only to follow his own inclinations1    
guided by that care and prudence which  
are inseparable from good               
administration4 ,he knew how to select  
his assistants1 and was particularly    
fortunate in his partners1 his two      
nephews3 ,michael ,hollins1 who1 since  
he left the firm of ,minton1 is the     
owner of a large tile manufactory at    
,stoke2 and ,colin ,minton ,campbell1   
his pupil and heir1 who1 after taking an
 active part in all his labours1 has so 
successfully followed the example set by
 his uncle1 that ,minton's manufactory  
is now the largest in existence1 and    
turns out the greatest variety of ware4 
,with ,minton and ,copeland must be     
associated the names of ,messrs4        
,brown-,westhead1 of ,caulden ,place2   
and outside ,staffordshire1 the         
,coalport works and the ,royal          
manufactory at ,worcester4 ,these are   
the principal producers of richly       
decorated china1 for which the demand   

has greatly increased during the last   
few years4 ,the greatest bulk of that   
ware is1 however1 made at ,longton1 one 
of the pottery towns which has a        
reputation for the cheapness of its     
goods2 but of late a decided tendency to
 improve their quality and prices must  
be noticed among the generality of its  
manufacturers4 ,several of them1 like   
,messrs4 ,ainsley1 ,moore1 ,barlow1 and 
others1 are trying to raise their goods 
to the same level as those of ,stoke4   
,there are about thirty-five firms in   
the ,potteries making china1 most of    
them for the home trade1 and over five  
times that number making earthenware4   
,these two hundred and thirty           
manufactories are spread over an area of
 ten square miles1 comprising the towns 
of ,hanley1 ,burslem1 ,tunstall1        
,longton1 ,fenton1 ,shelton1 and        
,stoke-upon-,trent1 from which the      
electoral borough takes its name4       
,these1 which in a few years are likely 
to be amalgamated in a single town1 form

 the district called the ,potteries1    
containing already a population of      
#agj1jjj inhabitants engaged in the     
ceramic and iron trade4 ,it has been    
remarked that since the foundation of   
,burslem1 the mother town of the        
,potteries1 the population of the       
district has doubled every twenty-five  
years1 and it is easy to foresee the    
time when ,stoke-upon-,trent will rank  
in importance with our largest          
commercial cities4  ,the export of      
porcelain is not large2 but that of     
earthenware reaches one and a half      
million of pounds4 ,this does not appear
 large compared with the enormous amount
 exported by the iron or the cotton     
trades1 but it is satisfactory1 if taken
 in combination with the quantity       
absorbed by the home trade1 which       
represents quite as much4 ,our colonial 
trade with ,australia1 ,india1 and      
,british ,america is decidedly on the   
increase1 and the same may be said as   
regards ,south ,america4 ,on the        

contrary1 our transactions with the     
,continent of ,europe have a tendency to
 decrease1 and to fluctuate in the case 
of the ,united ,states1 a very important
 market1 which1 in time of prosperity1  
would take as much as #hjj1jjjl4 of     
granite ware4  ,to meet the competition 
of ,france and ,germany1 on one side1   
and the ,americans on the other1 great  
changes have taken place in the         
management of our works4 ,several       
processes have been improved or         
simplified1 and large manufactories have
 been built on better principles4 ,these
 steps were not taken too soon2 for if  
competition scarcely existed for our    
goods twenty years ago1 that state of   
things has been much altered1 and it    
will require a great deal of application
 and energy on our part1 if we intend to
 maintain our position as the largest   
and best producers of pottery in the    
world4  ,it is a fact that ,america1    
which had not a single manufactory worth
 the name at the time of the ,new ,york 

,exhibition1 produces now1 with the     
assistance of ,british workmen1 granite 
ware of tolerably good quality2 and ,i  
have been told by an eye-witness1 that  
no less than seventy ovens are now at   
work at ,trenton1 in ,new ,jersey4 ,the 
clays and coals used by these potters   
are good1 and if the salaries are higher
 than they are in ,england1 they find a 
compensation in the heavy duties which1 
since the war of ,secession1 are levied 
on our wares4  ,our commercial          
intercourse with ,france has not much   
altered1 and the quantity of our goods  
sent across the ,channel may be         
considered small compared with the      
importance of this market4 ,the ,french 
are the largest producers of hard       
porcelain1 and they make their common   
earthenware quite as cheap1 if not      
cheaper1 than ours4 ,however1 if they   
are strong at home1 they have never     
affected our trade abroad1 except in the
 ,united ,states1 where they send their 
porcelain in competition with ,english  

granite4  ,at the present time1 the     
rivalry from which we have suffered most
 in ,germany1 the ,north of ,europe1 and
 as far as ,italy1 comes from a group of
 establishments situated in the ,rhenish
 provinces and that neighbourhood3 at   
,sarreguemines1 ,sarrelouis1            
,vaudrevange1 ,mettlach1 ,maestricht1   
and a few other places4 ,built in the   
centre of a populous district1 where    
labour is still very cheap1 their       
intelligent and wealthy proprietors     
share in each other's business1 and     
consequently have no inducement for     
lowering their prices4 ,they seem to    
have given a considerable portion of    
their time to the study of the various  
processes1 and they have so far         
succeeded1 that they are a great deal   
more independent with regard to their   
men than we are4 ,possessing these      
advantages1 we cannot wonder1 if we have
 not been able to keep our hold on those
 markets which were the nearest to them4
 ,besides1 it is plain1 that the        

important rise which has taken place in 
the price of wages and fuel1 and the    
consequent increase in the price of our 
wares1 has acted as an encouragement to 
foreign production2 and perhaps it may  
be good policy1 in future1 to resist any
 further opportunity which might offer  
to increase the price of our goods4 ,it 
would1 however1 be singular if1 in the  
course of time1 ,england did not derive 
some benefit from this competition2 she 
is used to close contest1 and1          
everything considered1 her position is  
an enviable one4 ,our home trade is     
excellent2 and if the amount of our     
exports does not progress so fast as we 
could desire1 we know that we have in   
our commercial fleet more facilities    
that any other nation for sending our   
goods to those numerous countries where 
the trade of pottery is hardly          
established1 and we rely on our honest  
and straightforward way of dealing1 for 
securing new customers for ,english     
manufacture4     ,,glass ,,and          

,,silicates4  ,,by ,,professor ,,fredk4 
,s4 ,,barff1 ,m4,a4   ,the very         
brilliant and useful substance1 which   
forms the subject of this article1 is   
said to have been discovered by the     
,phoenicians4 ,the story goes that some 
,phoenician merchants1 while cooking    
their food on the sands near the        
seashore1 noticed that the ashes of the 
plant1 with which they made their fire1 
caused some of the sand to melt and form
 a vitreous substance2 but whether this 
tale be true or not1 it is well known   
that for a long time these people made  
glass from the materials which were     
abundant on their sea and river coasts4 
,glass1 however1 was produced long      
before this by the ,egyptians for the   
beads and ornaments used in adorning    
their mummies1 and many specimens of    
these are in the ,british ,museum4 ,it  
is certain also that they well knew how 
to make certain substances impart colour
 to glass for the manufacture of most of
 these beads4 ,the ,romans made rich    

goblets of ruby glass1 some of which are
 to be seen in collections in this      
country1 as well as urns to receive the 
ashes of their dead1 four of which1 of a
 green colour1 are also in the ,british 
,museum4 ,the manufacture of these      
vessels proves that this nation was well
 skilled in the arts of blowing and     
modelling glass2 and their designs1     
which we are now reproducing1 show that 
they were at least not inferior in      
artistic skill to those who have formed 
their taste in this highly civilized    
age4 ,we have no record of glass being  
used for glazing purposes in ancient    
times4 ,the ,venerable ,bede introduced 
it into this country about #fgd ,a4,d41 
and employed it in the adornment of     
church windows4 ,ordinary window glass  
was made at the works in ,crutched      
,friars in #aeeg1 and plate glass at the
 large works of the ,ravenhead ,plate   
,glass ,company1 near ,st4 ,helen's in  
,lancashire4 ,about #aggf1 flint glass  
vessels were blown at the establishment 

in the ,savoy ,house2 and the second    
,duke of ,buckingham brought over       
,venetian artists1 at that time the most
 skilled1 to make glass for mirrors1    
carriage windows1 and other useful      
purposes4 ,their workshop was in        
,lambeth1 and the date of their arrival 
in this country was #afgc4 ,the ,french 
were before us in the art of casting    
glass plates2 and in #afhh1 ,stewart    
commenced this branch of manufacture1   
which led to the establishment of the   
very famous works of ,st4 ,gobain4      
,england has now large plate glass      
factories in different parts of the     
country1 and these together yield as    
their weekly production at least        
#adj1jjj superficial feet of the best   
polished plate1 or seven and a quarter  
millions of feet yearly4 ,the value of  
plate glass made in ,england annually1  
including the rough kinds used for      
glazing roofs1 c41 is estimated at      
#a1jjj1jjjl4 ,france still stands very  
high1 and her plates are extremely      

perfect in manufacture4 ,st4 ,marie     
d',oignies1 in ,belgium1 also sends a   
considerable quantity of plate glass    
into the market4 ,this branch of        
manufacture has not yet extended to     
,america1 which therefore is a large    
customer of ,europe4 ,formerly1 glass   
making was very heavily taxed in this   
country1 and in #ahab an additional duty
 was placed on the manufacture of the   
raw material1 which so greatly depressed
 it1 that the income which the ,state   
received fell from #cbh1jjjl4 to        
#ahc1jjjl4 per annum4 ,moreover1 large  
quantities of foreign glass were        
imported1 and this too hindered the     
development of the industry amongst us4 
,on the repeal of the duty1 however1 the
 trade began to increase1 and has now   
reached very large dimensions4  ,glass  
appears to be a mixture of silicates1   
the nature and chemical composition of  
which will be explained in a later part 
of this article4  ,the materials used   
are principally sand1 with an alkaline  

substance1 either a salt of soda or     
potash and lime1 though in some kinds of
 glass1 oxide of lead takes the place of
 lime4 ,other materials are generally   
employed to correct impurities which may
 occur in the sand1 and which1 if       
present1 always impart an objectionable 
colour to the glass4  ,there are two    
kinds of glass in ordinary use3 common  
window glass1 which may be divided into 
sheet1 crown1 and plate2 and flint      
glass1 which is used for decanters1     
wine-glasses1 and tumblers2 and1 in some
 special forms1 for ornamental stones in
 imitation of jewels1 and also for      
lenses of telescopes and microscopes4   
,the materials for making these         
different kinds vary somewhat1 although 
the principal constituents are the same1
 viz4 sand with some salt of soda or    
potash4  ,the scientific name for sand1 
or more properly for its principal      
constituent1 is silica4 ,this compound  
silica1 or oxide of silicon1 also called
 silicic acid1 possesses properties     

similar to those which belong to other  
acids1 namely1 it is able1 when brought 
into contact with bodies of an opposite 
character under suitable conditions1 to 
unite with them and to form salts4      
,everybody knows1 that if tartaric acid 
be added to carbonate of soda1 an       
effervescence takes place2 carbonic acid
 passes off in the gaseous state1 and   
the residue is composed of a portion of 
the tartaric acid1 which unites with the
 soda1 a double decomposition taking    
place4 ,if silicic acid be mixed with   
carbonate of soda1 and if the mixture be
 heated to a high temperature1 that is1 
to a white heat1 for some length of     
time1 the same kind of action occurs3   
carbonic acid goes off1 the silica or   
silicic acid uniting with the soda2 and 
inasmuch as the soda salt was originally
 called carbonate of soda1 after this   
action1 in which carbonic acid is       
replaced by silicic acid1 it is called  
silicate of soda4 ,silicic acid at the  
ordinary temperature of the air and in  

the dry state1 has no action whatever   
upon carbonate of soda1 but when heated 
sufficiently1 the action becomes        
vigorous4 ,a very interesting experiment
 may be performed in illustration of    
this fact in the following manner3 if a 
mixture of carbonate of soda and        
carbonate of potash be heated in an     
ordinary fire-clay crucible1 and if1    
when the mixture is melted1 some        
perfectly dry sand be poured into it1   
effervescence will take place1 owing to 
the expulsion of carbonic acid from the 
carbonate of soda and potash by means of
 the silicic acid4 ,if the operation be 
performed in such a vessel that the     
carbonic acid can be collected1 its     
presence is readily indicated by the    
usual tests4 ,this experiment can be    
easily made by anyone who has ordinary  
chemical apparatus at his command4 ,if  
the mixture of carbonate of potash and  
carbonate of soda be melted in a small  
platinum crucible2 and if1 when melted1 
it be removed quickly while very hot    

into a tall beaker-glass1 and sand be   
then poured into it1 the escaping       
carbonic acid will1 on account of its   
being heavier than air1 be retained in  
the glass1 and its presence can be      
recognized by its turning lime-water    
milky 7which is1 in fact1 a solution of 
lime in water71 owing to the formation  
of carbonate of lime produced by the    
carbonic acid evolved uniting with the  
lime dissolved in the water4 ,a mixture 
of carbonate of soda and carbonate of   
potash is here used1 because either of  
these salts requires a very high        
temperature to melt it2 but when the two
 are heated together1 the fusibility of 
both is increased4 ,when sand is heated 
with oxide of lead 7common litharge7    
they unite1 forming a compound similar  
to that produced by the silica uniting  
with the soda1 as described in the last 
paragraph4 ,in the first case1 a soda   
glass is formed2 in the second1 a lead  
glass is the result4 ,if these two      
glasses be mixed together and melted in 

a crucible1 and if the proportions in   
which they are mixed be properly        
adjusted1 and the materials used be     
pure1 a colourless and transparent glass
 will be formed1 similar in appearance  
to that which is employed in the        
manufacture of decanters and tumblers4  
,the same kind of glass may be produced 
by mixing all the materials in due      
proportions and heating them together4  
,if1 instead of oxide of lead1 lime be  
mixed with carbonate of soda and sand1  
and the mixture be heated to a high     
temperature1 a glass will be formed1 in 
many respects similar to that of which  
oxide of lead is a constituent1 but     
differing from it in several important  
particulars4 ,first of all1 the lead    
glass is highly lustrous1 and has a     
great power of refracting light1 so     
that1 when it is cut1 it presents a     
brilliant appearance1 and by refraction 
readily produces the prismatic colours4 
,this property does not belong to the   
glass containing lime1 to anything like 

the same extent4 ,lead glass1 too1 is   
much heavier than lime glass1 and is    
therefore unsuited to many of the       
purposes for which the latter is        
generally used1 the principal of which  
is for the glazing of windows4  ,if1    
instead of oxide of lead1 which is a    
chemical compound of lead and oxygen    
gas1 or lime1 which likewise is one of  
the metal calcium with oxygen1 carbonate
 of lead or of lime be used1 the silicic
 acid will expel the carbonic acid from 
these substances at a high temperature1 
just as it does the carbonic acid from  
the carbonate of soda and carbonate of  
potash4 ,it is necessary1 for a proper  
understanding of the scientific part of 
our subject1 that this fact should be   
borne in mind1 and that the acid        
properties of silica should be          
thoroughly recognized4 ,formerly1       
carbonate of soda was used in the       
manufacture of ordinary window glass1   
but now it is found more economical to  
employ sulphate of soda1 which is a much

 earlier product in the manufacture of  
soda from common salt than the          
carbonate1 and is therefore less        
expensive4 ,carbonic acid is what       
chemists call a weak acid1 by which is  
meant1 that its compounds are not so    
firm and stable1 as those which are     
formed by other acids with the same     
substances4 ,sulphuric acid is a strong 
and powerful acid1 uniting very readily 
with the oxides of certain metals to    
form very stable compounds4 ,but        
although this acid is chemically so     
powerful in its compounds1 yet at a high
 temperature it is expelled by silicic  
acid1 showing that this substance1 so   
inert in its natural state and at the   
ordinary temperature of the air1 becomes
 exceedingly active in expelling other  
acids and in forming compounds1 when put
 under favourable conditions4  ,if a    
mixture of common sand and carbonate of 
soda1 the carbonate of soda being in    
excess1 be heated1 a glass will be      
obtained which is slowly soluble in     

cold1 readily soluble in hot water4 ,to 
these compounds the name of silicate is 
given1 so that we speak of the soda     
compound as silicate of soda1 of the    
lead compound as silicate of lead1 and  
the lime compound as silicate of lime4  
,silicate of soda and silicate of       
potash1 when the alkali1 that is to say1
 the soda or potash1 is in excess1 are  
both soluble4 ,if a solution of one of  
these silicates be taken1 and if        
carbonic acid be passed slowly through  
it1 after a time a gelatinous1 white1   
flocculent substance will be formed in  
the liquid1 and eventually precipitated4
 ,this white flocculent substance is    
silicic acid combined with the elements 
of water1 and is therefore called by    
chemists hydrate of silica4 ,now this   
hydrate of silica is soluble in water   
and in hydrochloric acid2 and the method
 by which it can be brought into        
solution in water will be explained1    
when treating fully of what are called  
soluble silicates and their             

applications4  ,soluble silicates are   
mentioned here1 in order that a more    
perfect understanding of the nature of  
silicious compounds may be obtained1 by 
those who do not possess a scientific   
knowledge of chemistry4 ,the silicic    
acid in the silicate of soda is         
precipitated or separated out by        
carbonic acid1 and hence it appears1    
that an action1 exactly the reverse of  
that which takes place at a high        
temperature1 occurs1 when the silicic   
acid is removed from those conditions in
 which it has been seen to be           
7chemically7 so active4  ,suppose that  
to a solution of silicate of soda or of 
potash a soluble salt of calcium be     
added--the chloride1 for example1 which 
is a compound of the metal calcium with 
chlorine--a double decomposition will   
take place2 the calcium will unite with 
oxygen in the silicate of soda1 forming 
lime2 and this will again unite with the
 silicic acid1 forming silicate of lime2
 while the chlorine will unite with the 

sodium1 forming chloride of sodium1 or  
common salt4  ,here then1 silicate of   
lime is obtained by a process very      
different from that which has already   
been described1 namely1 by the heating  
of lime with silica at a high           
temperature4 ,the body formed in the    
latter case is chemically the same as   
that produced in the former1 there being
 present the same weight of calcium1 the
 same weight of oxygen1 and the same    
weight of silicic acid in each4 ,again1 
if to a solution of silicate of soda1   
one containing a soluble lead salt1 such
 as the nitrate1 be added1 the silicic  
acid will unite with the oxide of lead  
in the nitrate of lead1 and the acid    
constituent of that body will unite with
 the oxide of sodium or soda1 forming   
nitrate of soda4 ,it is apparent1       
therefore1 from these remarks1 that in  
whatever way the substances be made to  
unite1 the effects produced as regards  
chemical composition are the same4 ,if  
some of the silicate of lime or silicate

 of lead made by precipitation be dried 
and heated to a high temperature in a   
crucible1 it will melt or fuse1 and form
 a vitreous substance4 ,in these last   
cases1 as in many others which will have
 to be alluded to1 the silicates formed 
are not soluble in water1 although      
silicate of lime may be partially       
dissolved when heated in water under    
extreme pressure1 by which the          
temperature is considerably increased1  
and even slightly in cold water4  ,to   
ensure the production of definite       
silicates by the agency of heat1 the    
materials must be mixed together in     
proper combining proportions2 for if    
more of the metallic oxide is introduced
 than can combine chemically with the   
sand1 it will be melted in the mass1 but
 the excess will not form a definite    
compound2 whereas by precipitation1 the 
silicates formed always have1 when      
thoroughly washed1 a definite           
composition4 ,this subject will be again
 referred to1 when the manufacture of   

commercial glass is described4  ,it has 
been noticed that the glass found in the
 windows of old churches and in other   
places where it has been exposed to the 
prolonged action of the air and of      
moisture1 has gradually become rough on 
its surface1 and has lost to a          
considerable extent its transparency4   
,this1 which would be a defect in glass 
for the glazing of ordinary windows1    
where transparency is desired1 is       
rightly regarded as a beauty in glass   
which is to be used for the             
ornamentation of windows4 ,many reasons 
have been offered in explanation of this
 apparently peculiar property of ancient
 glass2 and that which appears to be    
correct is1 that glass is a mechanical  
mixture of different silicates1 some of 
which may be soluble in water1 and      
others insoluble4 ,the old window glass1
 whose manufacture will be more fully   
described by-and-by1 was made in a less 
perfect manner than modern appliances   
enable glass manufacturers now to       

produce the same article1 so that the   
silicates composing the old glass were  
not as intimately mixed as those used in
 modern glass4 ,by the slow action of   
air and moisture1 portions of the       
soluble silicates have been dissolved   
out1 and hence we frequently find a sort
 of honeycomb appearance on the surface 
of ancient glass1 as well as a thin     
film1 which1 by refraction of light1    
causes an opalescence when viewed by    
reflected light4 ,efforts have of late  
been made to produce a similar effect by
 employing different methods in the     
process of manufacture1 but without     
complete success4 ,the fact1 however1   
that such changes have taken place in   
this less perfectly fused glass1 tends  
to show1 that if one silicate can be    
dissolved out1 there cannot be chemical 
union between all the silicates4 ,if a  
piece of modern window glass be heated  
in water under pressure in a closed     
vessel1 it will present somewhat the    
appearance of ancient glass1 for a      

considerable quantity of soluble        
silicate will be dissolved out from it4 
,the object in dwelling on this matter  
here1 is to induce makers to attend more
 to the chemical composition of their   
glass1 for1 doubtless1 much more        
satisfactory results would be obtained  
both as to the quality of the material  
and the cost of its production1 if      
thoroughly scientific investigations    
were conducted by a competent chemist4  
,,manufacture ,,of ,,glass4  ,the first 
object in glass making is to obtain     
suitable materials4 ,the sand which is  
employed for window glass differs from  
that which is required for flint glass1 
in that the latter should be as pure as 
possible4 ,the maker can correct the    
impurities in the window glass sand1    
provided they be not present in too     
great quantities2 but it is far more    
difficult1 in the case of flint glass1  
to chemically counteract the influence  
of those substances which might impair  
its tint4 ,so that the manufacturer     

would rather pay large prices for his   
sand1 than trust to expedients which in 
their application might fail1 and thus  
cause a greater loss4  ,one of the      
principal and most troublesome          
impurities met with in sand1 is iron in 
the form of oxide4 ,there are two oxides
 of iron3 one1 the protoxide1 which     
imparts a green colour to glass2 and the
 other the peroxide1 whose staining     
property is yellow4 ,a very small       
quantity of the former will give an     
appreciably green tint1 whereas it      
requires a large quantity of the        
peroxide to produce even a delicate     
yellow4 ,in all glass making1 it is     
found necessary to use something which  
will counteract the colouring properties
 of these two oxides4 ,the material     
employed was black oxide of manganese4  
,this is still used in certain          
glass-works1 but from its injurious     
action on the fire-clay pots1 arsenious 
acid or common white arsenic is employed
 to effect the same object4 ,the        

chemical action in the two cases is     
different3 the black oxide of manganese 
is what is termed an oxidizing agent1   
and gives up1 at a high temperature1 a  
portion of its oxygen to the protoxide  
of iron1 thereby converting it into the 
peroxide4 ,it thus becomes comparatively
 harmless1 by converting a quantity of  
that oxide1 which gives a green colour1 
into the other oxide1 which has little  
or no power of colouring1 except it be  
present in large quantities4 ,the       
difficulty in using black oxide of      
manganese is1 the exact proportioning of
 it to the quantity of iron present in  
the sand1 a quantity which cannot be    
easily determined4 ,if the black oxide  
of manganese be used in excess1 some of 
the oxide of manganese remains          
unreduced1 and1 when this is the case1  
it gives a purple colour to glass4 ,if  
used in exact proportions1 it is reduced
 to an oxide which does not impart      
colour to glass4 ,this may be seen in   
many of the old plate glass windows     

which were employed for glazing purposes
 some sixty or seventy years ago1 the   
colour of the panes being generally     
purple4  ,since this article was        
written1 ,i have been consulted by a    
glass firm of eminence1 as to the use of
 pure black oxide of manganese in the   
manufacture of flint glass1 instead of  
that ordinarily supplied in commerce4   
,the black oxide of manganese usually   
sold contains many other constituents   
besides black oxide of manganese2       
amongst these are iron1 copper1 cobalt1 
and alumina4  ,the iron1 as will be seen
 from what has before been stated1 is a 
decidedly objectionable ingredient to   
use along with the manganese4  ,copper  
and cobalt both stain glass1 the former 
of a bluish-green colour1 while the     
latter makes it blue2 and a small       
quantity of the latter has great        
staining power4 ,i have thought it      
advisable to give analyses of the black 
oxides of manganese1 and they are as    
follows3  ,binoxide of manganese        

7,molecule1 ,mn4,o#b71 is found native  
as pyrolusite or polyanite4 ,appended   
are two analyses of pyrolusite          
containing sesquioxide of iron4    ,red 
oxide of ,manganese  #hg;,a4#j          
#gb;,a4#e   ,oxygen                     
#aa;,a4#f   #i;,a4#h   ,sesquioxide of  
,iron      #a;,a4#c   #d;,a4#b          
,alumina                  #j;,a4#c      
,baryta                   #a;,a4#b      
,lime                     #j;,a4#c      
,silica                   #j;,a4#h      
#a;,a4#d   ,water                       
#e;,a4#h   #a;,a4#f                     
-----  ----                             
#ajh;,a4#c  #ii;,a4#e  ,the native      
binoxide often contains both copper and 
cobalt in addition to iron2 frequently  
to the amount of as much as #a per cent4
 of copper and about ,a4#ed per cent4 of
 cobalt4  ,wad1 a native binoxide of    
manganese1 sometimes contains #ed;,a4#cd
 per cent4 of iron1 while nearly all the
 manganese ores contain more or less    
alumina1 varying from ,a4#e per cent4 to

 as much as #bj per cent4  ,from the    
composition of ordinary commercial black
 oxide of manganese1 as shown by these  
analyses1 it is evident that it is      
better to use the pure article1 and this
 has been found to be the case by the   
firm who have adopted it in lieu of     
commercial black oxide of manganese4 ,i 
therefore strongly recommend all glass  
makers to try and experiment with it1   
for the results obtained will largely   
counterbalance the extra cost of the    
pure material2 and ,i also much doubt   
whether the same injurious effects will 
be produced on the pots1 as is the case 
where commercial manganese is employed4 
,arsenious acid also acts as an         
oxidizing agent1 in that it gives up its
 oxygen to the protoxide of iron1       
converting it into the peroxide2 but the
 arsenic itself1 which has lost its     
oxygen1 is reduced to the metallic      
state1 and being volatile1 does not     
remain with the glass1 but passes off by
 the flues of the furnace4 ,if too much 

arsenic is used1 it sometimes renders   
the glass milky or cloudy4  ,before     
describing in detail the method of      
mixing and founding glass1 it will be   
necessary to mention the composition of 
the vessels in which the glass is made4 
,they are called glass-pots1 and differ 
in shape according to the different     
kinds of glass to be made in them4      
,glass-pots are made of fire-clay       
7generally the best ,stourbridge71 which
 is a silicate of alumina1 and here     
great care is taken to select that which
 contains least lime or iron4 ,it is    
ground1 then moistened and well kneaded 
together1 and left to ripen1 while a    
certain quantity of old glass-pot is    
ground fine and mixed with the fresh    
fire-clay4 ,masses about the size of two
 hands are kneaded separately1 the      
object being to exclude all air bubbles1
 and to obtain a perfectly homogeneous  
lump4 ,the bottom of the glass-pot is   
then laid1 the masses of fire-clay being
 pressed in with the greatest care1 so  

as to avoid all cracks or places where  
air might enter during the slow process 
of drying4  ,the modern shape is round2 
though formerly certain glass-pots1     
called cuvettes1 used in the purifying  
of plate glass1 were square4 ,pots used 
in the manufacture of common crown and  
sheet window glass1 generally speaking1 
are larger at the top than at the       
bottom2 but whatever may be the shape of
 the pot1 the method of its building is 
the same4 ,the sides are carefully made 
of fire-clay1 each piece being laid on  
by itself and kneaded like the bottom of
 the pot1 so that it is slowly built up 
until it reaches the desired height4 ,it
 is then dried very gradually1 and the  
process is finished in artificially     
warmed chambers4 ,before putting it in  
its place in the glass-furnace1 it is   
allowed to remain for some time in what 
is called a pot-arch1 that is1 an       
archway built of fire-clay bricks1 along
 the side of which is a fireplace1 by   
means of which the arch is brought up to

 a red heat2 and after it has been      
heated sufficiently1 is removed while   
red-hot and put into the furnace4       
,glass-pots are never allowed to cool1  
and with care they may last for several 
months4 ,from this description of their 
manufacture1 it will be clear that it is
 attended with considerable cost1       
varying from #el4 to #ajl4  ,there are  
three different kinds of ordinary pots  
for crown1 plate1 and flint glass2 and  
of these the last is decidedly the most 
expensive1 as its top is covered over1  
and presents the appearance of a dome   
with an opening in front1 through which 
the materials can be introduced when the
 pot is charged1 and from which1 when   
made1 the glass may be drawn1 in order  
to be blown into shape by the workman4  
,in glass-furnaces the pots are         
sometimes arranged in a circle1 with    
their mouths opening into the           
glass-house2 but now a different        
construction is sometimes employed1     
since other methods of heating the      

furnaces have been introduced4 ,it is   
hardly within the scope of this article 
to enter into a description of          
glass-furnaces2 suffice it to state1    
that they should be of such a           
construction as to yield the greatest   
amount of well-regulated heat for the   
smallest consumption of fuel1 and this  
object seems to be best effected by the 
adoption of ,mr4 ,siemens' excellent    
principle of heating furnaces4 ,for some
 years his process has been in use at   
the ,thames ,plate ,glass ,company's    
,works1 where the saving of fuel has    
been very considerable1 and the glass   
greatly improved1 owing to the fact that
 impurities from the fuel employed      
cannot possibly find such easy entrance 
into the glass-pot4 ,in any case1 the   
construction of the furnace is such1 as 
to be best adapted to the convenience of
 the workmen1 according to the kinds of 
glass which they have to make4          
,differently arranged furnaces are used 
for bottles from those employed for     

crown and sheet glass4  ,it has lately  
come to my knowledge that flint glass1  
that is to say1 the glass used for      
tumblers1 decanters1 and such like1 is  
occasionally injured by the appearance  
in it of little opaque white spots4     
,some portions of glass of this         
character have been analyzed by me1 when
 ,i found that these white spots were   
owing to the presence of a glass        
containing alumina4 ,now alumina raises 
the melting point of any glass of which 
it is a constituent4 ,so1 then1 these   
white spots were due to the presence in 
the flint glass1 which was perfectly    
clear1 of a much less fusible glass     
which was only partly made when the     
flint glass was ready for working4 ,on  
investigating the matter1 it was found  
that the alumina came from the          
glass-pots1 for when by my advice the   
faulty pot was withdrawn from the       
furnace and carefully examined1 although
 it had been in work only six weeks1 the
 bottom was honey-combed to a very      

considerable extent1 showing that       
portions of the pot had been dissolved2 
and inasmuch as the fire-clay1 of which 
the pots are made1 contains a large     
quantity of alumina1 it was not         
difficult to trace the source of these  
white spots which had rendered useless  
much very valuable glass4 ,on inquiry it
 was found that the pots had been made  
entirely of new clay1 and on reference  
to the book of workings1 which was kept 
in the glass-house1 it was also found   
that for some time1 the glass-pots used 
in that establishment had been made of  
new clay1 and that on a previous        
occasion a similar calamity had before  
happened4  ,in the records kept where   
pots were made1 as has already been     
described1 with a portion of old pot as 
well as new clay1 no white spots had    
ever appeared in the glass4 ,it is      
therefore manifest1 that it is much     
safer to use a portion of old pot than  
to trust to pots made entirely of new   
clay4  ,having considered briefly the   

manufacture of glass-pots1 ,i shall     
proceed to the treatment of the         
materials to be employed4 ,in making    
common window glass1 ordinary sand1     
which does not contain any very large   
quantity of iron1 may be used1 the      
alkali employed being sulphate of soda1 
while the purifying material is either  
arsenic or black oxide of manganese4 ,a 
small quantity of anthracite coal is    
added to the mixture1 in order to assist
 in the reduction of the sulphate of    
soda1 together with some lime4 ,the     
materials are carefully mixed and placed
 in the furnace1 where they are heated  
for some time1 a process which is called
 fritting4 ,its object is to perfectly  
dry the materials1 so as to expel       
carbonic acid gas1 which would otherwise
 cause swelling in the glass2 but no    
combination must take place1 to allow of
 silicates being formed1 otherwise the  
alkali would melt first and attack the  
substance of the glass-pots1 and part of
 it would be volatilized and lost4 ,when

 this operation is completed1 the fritt 
is put into the hot glass-pot1 and      
submitted to the action of the heat of  
the furnace1 until the glass is made1 or
 founded1 as it is technically termed4  
,in the case of sheet and crown glass1  
this process lasts from sixteen to      
seventeen hours1 for it will be         
remembered that the top of the pot is   
open to the furnace1 so that the flames 
pass over the surface of its contents4  
,in this way the materials get heated   
more rapidly than when a covered        
glass-pot is used4  ,m4 ,gehlen gives as
 a good mixture for window glass3       
,sand                  #ajj parts4      
,dry sulphate of soda   #ej             
,quicklime              #bj             
,carbon1 as charcoal     #d             
,different makers have different        
mixtures4 ,this by ,m4 ,gehlen is given 
as about the proportions of the several 
constituents employed4  ,the charging of
 the pots is conducted in this manner3  
they are filled with lumps of fritt1 and

 the heat of the furnace is raised as   
rapidly as possible1 until1 in about    
eight or nine hours the fritt has run   
down or melted into glass4 ,more fritt  
is then added1 which also melts1 and    
from time to time this is repeated1 till
 the pot contains a sufficient quantity4
 ,after about sixteen hours the whole   
has become converted into glass1 and the
 surface of the molten mass is covered  
with liquid salt and sulphate of soda4  
,this scum is called glass-gall or      
sandiver1 and is carefully removed with 
iron ladles4 ,some broken glass1 or     
cullet1 is now thrown into the          
glass-pot1 a little at a time1 the      
object being to cause any salt which may
 remain in the pot to rise to the       
surface1 which is then removed1 and so  
the glass is in this manner purified1   
after it has been further heated for    
some hours1 to expel gases4  ,when the  
glass is made1 and its temperature so   
reduced that it is in a doughy or pasty 
state1 it is then worked off by the     

blowers into either sheets or tables1 as
 is desired4 ,the blowing of sheet and  
crown glass is a work of considerable   
difficulty and labour1 and one which    
cannot be successfully performed1 except
 by a workman who has been brought up   
from boyhood in a glass-house4 ,a       
quantity of the soft glass is collected 
or gathered on the end of a blowpipe1   
and the workman then blows into it1 and 
distends it into a globular form4 ,now  
it is necessary1 in making sheet glass1 
that that globular form should be       
elongated2 the workman therefore holds  
his blowpipe1 which is about five feet  
long1 in a vertical direction1 and the  
softened globe becomes pear-shaped4 ,by 
dexterously swinging the blowpipe from  
side to side1 which he does while       
standing on a plank placed over a sort  
of pit1 and by causing it to rise on    
either side1 he converts the pear-shape 
into a true cylinder1 having rounded    
ends4 ,when the cylinder has assumed the
 exact shape desired1 he places his     

thumb on the end of the blowpipe1 and   
holds the opposite end of the cylinder  
in the mouth of the furnace4 ,the glass 
softens at the heated end1 and the      
expanding air causes it to burst the    
opening4 ,it is then shaped with a      
suitable tool1 so that it is of the     
diameter of the cylinder4 ,when the     
latter is cooled1 a piece of hot glass  
is applied to its shoulder with a       
pontee1 and is drawn out into a thread  
around it4 ,this makes the glass hot4   
,the thread of glass is removed1 a cold 
instrument is applied rapidly1 and the  
shoulder of the blowing is cut off4 ,the
 glass is next detached from the        
blowpipe1 and its ends removed1 and it  
is then annealed for a short time1 and  
cut down lengthways internally by a     
diamond4 ,it is afterwards placed1 with 
the long cut uppermost1 in what is      
called a flattening kiln1 that is1 in a 
sort of oven or furnace heated to a high
 temperature and having a perfectly     
smooth stone floor2 after a short       

exposure the glass softens1 and a       
workman1 with suitable wooden tools1    
opens it out where it was cut by the    
diamond1 and causes it to lie flat upon 
the stone4 ,it is then rubbed by a      
wooden tool1 and in this way is         
flattened1 removed from the flattening  
stone kiln1 and placed in a hot chamber1
 in which it is allowed to cool slowly1 
for the purpose of annealing4  ,sheet   
glass1 formerly called broad glass1 was 
originally made on the ,continent2 but  
its manufacture1 first established in   
this country by the introduction of     
foreign workmen1 has extended to very   
large dimensions1 and the quality of    
,english sheet is now quite equal1 if   
not superior1 to anything that is       
produced abroad4 ,the advantage which it
 possesses over crown glass is1 that    
much larger sheets can be made1 and this
 is very easily noticed if we examine   
the larger dimensions of common window  
panes compared with those which were    
formerly made4 ,even now the workmen    

employed in this class of manufacture   
are generally ,belgians4 ,a sheet glass 
blower must be very strong1 and have    
great skill in handling his blowpipe1   
for the cylinders which he blows are    
frequently sixty inches long1 and their 
weight is very considerable4 ,glass     
shades are blown by sheet blowers4      
,these sometimes are very large1 and    
require great skill4 ,when their shape  
is to be that of a cylinder with a dome 
top1 they are made as in the ordinary   
course of blowing a cylinder of sheet   
glass1 but instead of one end being     
burst as described1 they are simply     
detached from the blowpipe4 ,when they  
have to be oval or square at their      
bases1 they are blown into wooden moulds
 of the required form1 which have their 
insides charred4 ,the gathered mass of  
glass is placed inside such a mould1 and
 is then blown into until it touches the
 sides4 ,this is an operation requiring 
great strength and delicacy2 strength to
 blow with sufficient force to bring the

 softened glass to touch the mould in   
all its parts1 and delicacy to prevent  
the pressure from being so great as to  
cause the outside of the glass shade to 
receive marks on its surface from the   
mould4  ,the shaping of the molten glass
 into tables of crown is different in   
detail4 ,the globular mass formed by the
 first blowings is held by a workman    
vertically over his head4 ,an assistant 
gathers a small quantity of soft glass  
from the furnace on the end of a pointed
 iron rod1 and causes it to adhere to   
the flattened surface1 at a point       
opposite to that to which the blowpipe  
is attached4 ,the glass near the        
blowpipe1 while hot1 is touched with a  
cold instrument1 and immediately cracks 
around its neck1 detaching the blowpipe 
from the mass4 ,the pointel is taken by 
the blower1 and the opening formed by   
the removal of the blowpipe is placed   
opposite to what is called a flashing   
furnace1 that is1 a furnace with a large
 circular opening in its front1 and     

which is heated to such an intense      
degree1 that it is impossible for a     
person unaccustomed to it to approach   
within several feet of the              
furnace-mouth4 ,the workman generally   
wears a shield or screen to protect the 
upper part of his body and face4 ,the   
glass becomes softened by the heat1 and 
the workman gives his pointel a rotary  
motion1 somewhat similar to that which a
 housemaid gives to a mop when she      
trundles it2 and as the glass softens1  
the opening gets larger and larger1     
until at last the softened mass         
instantaneously flashes out into a      
circular sheet1 an operation which      
produces a very startling effect upon   
the eyes of anyone beholding it for the 
first time4 ,the circular crown table   
thus made is detached from the pointel1 
and the mass of glass which caused it to
 adhere forms what is known by the name 
of the bull's eye4 ,the table thus made 
is1 like the sheet1 placed in an        
annealing furnace1 and there left for a 

proper length of time4  ,the manufacture
 of plate glass is altogether different 
from that of crown and sheet4 ,first of 
all1 much greater care is taken in the  
selection of the materials1 the sand    
used being of a purer kind than that    
employed in the manufacture of common   
window glass2 the alkali is of a better 
quality2 and more caution is taken in   
all the manipulative processes prior to 
the melting of the mixture4 ,arsenious  
acid is more frequently used than       
manganese for the correction of the iron
 impurity4 ,it has been noticed that in 
the plate glass-pots1 there are grooves 
placed around their sides1 and these are
 intended to receive metal claspers1 by 
means of which the pot can be removed   
bodily from the furnace4 ,in former     
times the glass was made in large pots1 
and then ladled out into smaller ones1  
of a square form called cuvettes1 and in
 these it was left exposed to the heat  
of the furnace for a length of time1 in 
order that it might be refined1 by the  

rising of impurities to the surface and 
by the escape of air bubbles4 ,the use  
of these cuvettes is now discontinued1  
and the pot in which the glass is       
founded is removed from the furnace and 
its contents poured upon the tables on  
which the plate is formed1 by the action
 of rollers4 ,a plate glass table is    
made of iron2 its surface is smooth and 
of the size required to make a large    
plate1 and it is placed upon wheels and 
run upon a tramway from one part of the 
glass-house to another1 so as to be     
opposite to the mouth of the furnace    
from which the glass-pot has to be      
removed4 ,along the sides of this table1
 taken lengthways1 moveable strips of   
iron are placed1 rising above it to a   
sufficient height to secure the desired 
thickness for the glass plate1 and on   
these strips runs a roller1 so adapted  
that it can be made to pass pretty      
readily from one end of the table to the
 other4 ,the contents of the glass-pot1 
when placed over the table by means of a

 crane and tilted up1 fall out somewhat 
as a lump of dough would fall from a    
kneading trough if it were inverted1 for
 it must be borne in mind that the glass
 in this process is not in a very fluid 
state4 ,the roller is made to pass      
rapidly over the softened glass1 and in 
this way spreads it over the table1     
until it comes in contact with the      
strips placed along the edge1 which     
serve as gauges for determining the     
thickness of the plate4 ,after the plate
 is formed1 it immediately sets1 and is 
removed while hot into an annealing     
furnace1 which is always so placed that 
the glass can be transferred to it from 
the table with the least possible delay4
 ,in this furnace several plates of     
fresh-made glass are deposited1 and are 
allowed to cool extremely slowly1 in    
order that the glass may be properly    
annealed4 ,when this process is         
completed1 the plates are removed1 the  
edges are trimmed off with a diamond1   
and one plate1 bedded in plaster of     

,paris1 is placed upon a flat stone     
receptacle2 another plate1 also coated  
on one of its sides with plaster of     
,paris1 is made to adhere to a piece of 
machinery placed directly above the     
other plate1 and is so situated1 with   
respect to this latter1 that the two    
surfaces are perfectly parallel one to  
the other4  ,it should be here          
mentioned1 that the side of the plate   
which touches the table is always rough1
 and has no polish1 while that over     
which the roller is passed is slightly  
undulating1 and has a bright polish     
similar to that of a sheet of blown     
glass1 and which is technically known as
 fire polish4 ,the machine to which the 
upper plate is attached is so arranged  
that1 when set in motion1 it causes it  
to move in just the same direction that 
a plate would do if moved by the human  
arm2 this is therefore called an elbow  
motion4 ,boys stand by the sides of the 
two plates1 and throw fine sand and     
water on the lower one1 so that the     

opposed surfaces mutually grind one     
another1 and when this process is       
completed on one side1 they are         
reversed1 and the same operation is     
performed on the other side4 ,the plates
 have now the appearance of ground      
glass1 and the surfaces are further     
ground by fine emery powder1 which      
causes them to be much smoother and more
 ready for the final polishing4         
,formerly this was entirely done by     
hand1 women generally being the         
operators1 and oxide of iron1 called    
crocus1 mixed with water1 the material  
employed for polishing4 ,now1 however1 a
 more rapid and perfect method is       
adopted by the use of machinery4 ,a     
table is prepared which moves from side 
to side1 giving to the plate a lateral  
motion2 and above is a beam1 in which   
holes are drilled at intervals1 through 
which short iron rods1 nearly an inch in
 diameter1 pass4 ,on these are padded   
iron buffers1 covered on their under    
surface with leather2 while1 pressing   

down these rods1 and therefore the      
buffers1 are springs1 which act with    
considerable force1 but which are able  
to yield to pressure caused by any      
inequality over which the buffers may   
pass4 ,the glass plate is fixed upon    
this table1 and its upper surface is    
exposed to the action of the buffers1   
while oxide of iron1 in a very fine     
state of division and mixed with water1 
is allowed to come upon its surface4    
,the glass travelling from side to side 
is rubbed by the buffers in a lateral   
direction1 and has also a longitudinal  
motion1 so that every portion of it is  
rubbed equally4 ,if any inequalities    
occur on the glass1 the springs which   
press down the buffers give way and     
allow them to rise over it1 and this    
process is continued for some time1     
until at last the plate receives the    
polish so characteristic of plate glass4
 ,it is then removed from the table and 
examined by skilled persons1 and        
whatever defects can be removed by hand1

 are remedied4  ,another kind of plate  
glass1 called patent rolled plate1 is   
made by ladling out from a pot molten   
glass in the proper state of            
consistence4 ,the ladle is brought over 
a small glass table1 and a similar      
operation is performed to that already  
described4 ,this patent rolled plate is 
sometimes made with grooves on one of   
its surfaces1 or with patterns in       
imitation of diamond quarry glazing1    
and1 in fact1 with any designs1         
according to the taste of the           
manufacturer4 ,these designs are all    
engraved upon the table1 and communicate
 their patterns to the soft glass2 but  
the smooth surface of such glass which  
comes in contact with the roller is     
slightly undulating1 though polished4   
,this method of glass making was        
invented and patented by ,mr4 ,hartley1 
the noted manufacturer1 of ,sunderland4 
,a lighter kind of plate glass1 which is
 principally used for glazing the better
 class of pictures and engravings1 and  

called patent plate1 is simply sheet    
glass polished after the manner of plate
 glass4 ,crown glass1 which only admits 
of being cut into small squares1 is also
 used for picture glazing1 but is more  
carefully prepared1 and is called by the
 name of flatted crown4  ,looking       
,glasses4--,plate glass is employed for 
making looking glasses1 and two         
processes are now in use for silvering  
them1 the first of which consists in    
applying a sheet of tinfoil saturated   
with quicksilver to one side of the     
glass4 ,the operation is conducted as   
follows3 on a perfectly smooth table a  
sheet of stout tinfoil is laid1 and on  
it is poured quicksilver1 which is      
distributed evenly over the surface with
 a hare's foot4 ,when the whole sheet is
 amalgamated with the quicksilver1 more 
of that substance is poured over it1    
until it flows quite freely4 ,the glass 
plate to be silvered1 having been made  
perfectly clean1 is floated upon the    
surface of the quicksilver1 an operation

 requiring care1 and is then covered all
 over with weights1 by which means the  
excess of quicksilver is pressed out1   
and the glass comes in contact with the 
amalgamated sheet of tinfoil1 to which  
it adheres entirely4 ,this ancient      
method of silvering glass has some      
advantages over the one next to be      
described4 ,the colour of the plate is1 
according to artistic taste1 better1 and
 with care the plate will not lose its  
brilliancy for years4 ,i have in my     
possession some old glasses1 the        
silvering of which is very beautiful1   
except where it has suffered from       
mechanical injuries4 ,silver can be     
precipitated from a solution of nitrate 
of silver in several ways1 and in some  
of these specimens was like a bright    
film4 ,if a crystal of nitrate of silver
 be put into a test-tube with some      
bitartrate of lime1 and the mixture be  
rendered ammoniacal and gently warmed   
7it being kept in motion during the     
experiment71 its sides will be covered  

with a very brilliant deposit of        
metallic silver4 ,oil of cloves and     
grape sugar have also the power of      
reducing metallic silver from ammoniacal
 solutions of the nitrate1 when gently  
warmed2 but the mixtures must not be    
made too hot4 ,in silvering plates of   
glass1 they are first well cleaned1 then
 placed in a perfectly level position1  
and the silvering liquid is poured over 
the surface1 the room in which the      
operation is performed being kept       
sufficiently warm to assist the         
deposition4 ,when enough silver has been
 deposited on the glass1 the liquid is  
poured off and the plate dried1 while   
the silver film is protected by being   
coated with a suitable hard varnish4    
,the composition of the mixtures used by
 different persons is generally kept    
secret1 though the chemical principle of
 the reduction of the silver salt is the
 same4 ,glasses silvered by this process
 sometimes lose their brilliancy1 by    
becoming covered on their silvered side 

with small spots4 ,it is however stated 
that this results either from a bad     
system of deposition1 or from the film  
of silver not being sufficiently thick  
and solid4  ,flint ,glass1 although     
called by this name1 is not made from   
flint1 but from the best sand1 of pure  
and dazzling whiteness1 obtained from   
,alum ,bay1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 and 
from ,fontainebleau1 in ,france4 ,the   
cost per ton is from #al4 to #al4 #aes41
 whereas the price of the sand used for 
making plate glass is about one-eighth  
of that amount4 ,the alkali employed is 
generally extremely good carbonate of   
potash1 whereas soda is used in the     
manufacture of the other kinds of glass 
which have been described4 ,the addition
 of a small quantity of black oxide of  
manganese is sometimes necessary to     
correct the slight tint imparted by     
iron1 which seems to be always present  
in minute quantities1 even in the purest
 samples of sand4 ,oxide of lead in the 
form of red lead1 in this sort of glass1

 takes the place of lime4 ,the          
advantages derived from using the oxide 
are1 that it makes the mixture more     
fusible1 and also imparts that          
particular brilliancy and lustre so     
peculiarly characteristic of well-made  
flint glass4 ,in different works1       
various mixtures are made for the       
composition of the glass2 but to give an
 idea of the proportions in which the   
materials are mixed1 it will be well to 
quote the statement of ,m4 ,payen1 who  
says that of the finest crystal flint   
glass1 the following is the composition3
 sand1 #c2 red lead #b to #b-a_/d2      
carbonate of potash1 #a-a_/b to #a-b_/c4
 ,a little nitre or saltpetre is used as
 an oxidizing agent4 ,the glass-pots    
employed in this branch of the          
manufacture are covered1 so that the    
flames of the furnace do not come in    
contact with the materials1 the object  
in thus isolating them from direct      
contact with the flame being to prevent 
the entrance of impurities1 by which the

 colour might be injured4 ,on account of
 the pots being covered1 the materials  
take a much longer time to get hot1 and 
require quite double the time in        
founding that sheet or plate glass does2
 the presence of oxide of lead          
materially assisting the rapidity of the
 fusion4 ,when flint glass is ready for 
working1 the time required to work off a
 pot of it is much longer than that     
which is required for a pot of crown or 
sheet2 and it is a matter of            
considerable importance1 that the       
furnace-man should so manage his fires  
as to keep the glass in a proper working
 condition1 that is1 he should not let  
it get too cold 7therefore too solid7   
nor too fluid4 ,flint glass is worked   
off by the blower into wine-glasses1    
tumblers1 decanters1 and other suitable 
vessels4 ,let us take a wine-glass as an
 illustration of the method of working4 
,a small quantity of glass is gathered  
on the blowpipe1 which is much smaller  
than that used in making sheet1 and is  

blown into a bulb1 which may be slightly
 elongated or globular1 the forms being 
given to it by the motion which the     
workman imparts to his blowpipe while he
 is blowing1 or after he has blown1 into
 the mass4 ,in the case of a wine-glass1
 an assistant boy gathers a small       
quantity of glass on the end of a small 
pointel1 or solid iron rod4 ,this is    
placed on the side of the globe opposite
 that which is in connection with the   
blowpipe1 which is then detached by     
touching the glass nearest it with a    
piece of iron1 wetted with cold water3  
this causes a crack1 and a gentle tap   
causes separation4 ,the workman then    
moulds the opening made by detaching the
 blowpipe1 in order to do which1 he has 
to apply the glass often to the mouth of
 the furnace1 to soften it4 ,he then    
opens out the globe into the shape of a 
cup with a pair of small iron tongs1    
with legs uniform in shape1 slightly    
tapering and smooth1 and he uses a      
peculiar kind of scissors for trimming  

the edges4 ,the other parts of the glass
 are moulded with the tongs1 accuracy of
 size being obtained by means of        
measuring compasses and a scale4 ,the   
workman sits during this operation in a 
seat with arms1 laying the pontee on    
them1 and turning it1 so as to make it  
move backwards and forwards with his    
left hand1 while with the tongs in his  
right he gives the glass the desired    
form4  ,before passing on to a          
description of the manufacture and      
composition of coloured glasses1 it is  
necessary that ,i should make a few     
remarks on the difficulties under which 
our ,english glass makers labour1 owing 
to not paying sufficient attention to   
the scientific treatment of their       
mixtures4 ,it has already been stated   
that glass is composed of a mixture of  
silicates1 which are definite chemical  
compounds4 ,some are much more dense    
than others1 and are therefore liable to
 sink1 so that the glass taken from one 
part of the pot will be very different  

in composition from that taken from     
another part2 besides this1 it is found 
on examination1 that other portions of  
the materials employed are present in   
such proportions1 that they cannot      
possibly exist in the form of true      
silicates4 ,m4 ,dumas1 the distinguished
 ,french chemist1 asserts1 and with     
truth1 that glass ought to be a true    
chemical compound4 ,this1 however1 does 
not seem to be the opinion here2 and    
sufficient attention is not paid by     
,english manufacturers to mixing their  
materials1 so as to form definite       
silicates1 the result being that glass  
is produced with a striated effect4     
,this is easy to be seen in the common  
kinds1 as in bottle glass2 but owing to 
the more careful and prolonged fusion of
 the finer varieties1 such as plate     
glass1 this defect is to a considerable 
extent remedied1 though not altogether  
overcome4 ,in the ,french manufacture of
 plate glass1 more attention has been   
paid to the chemical composition of the 

various silicates which enter into it4  
,at ,st4 ,gobain1 a plate glass1 is     
produced which1 on analysis1 is found to
 contain definite silicates1 and without
 any excess of material which does not  
enter into chemical combination2 and the
 consequence is1 that this glass is more
 perfect and homogeneous than that made 
in this country4 ,no doubt this superior
 quality is owing to the fact1 that the 
famous chemist1 ,gay-,lussac1 devoted   
much of his time to assisting in the    
manufacture carried on at these works4  
,we cannot over-estimate the importance 
of a scientific superintendence1 not    
only of glass-works1 but of all other   
manufactures in which chemical reactions
 take place2 for although experience may
 lead a cautious observer to produce    
substances of nearly correct            
composition1 yet the assistance of a    
scientific observer is of the greatest  
importance1 because1 what under other   
circumstances must be simply empirical1 
is under his guidance carried on        

according to definite and fixed laws4   
,mention has already been made of how1  
in the case of mixing carbonates of soda
 and potash1 the one assists the        
fusibility of the other1 and this is    
more particularly true in the mixture of
 silicates in the composition of the    
ordinary glass4 ,silicates of soda and  
potash are separately much more         
infusible than a mixture of the two1 and
 the addition of other silicates to them
 renders them more fusible still2       
silicate of lead1 as has already been   
mentioned1 causing the glass into whose 
composition it enters to fuse at a much 
lower temperature than it would do if   
that silicate were absent4 ,again1 if   
the silicate of lead be present in too  
large proportions1 and if great care be 
not taken in the manufacture of lead    
glass1 the silicate of lead1 from its   
greater density1 will sink lower among  
the molten silicates1 and will therefore
 cause a larger proportion of lead to be
 in the glass at the bottom of the pot  

than there is at the top4 ,we often     
notice in tumblers and decanters of the 
cheaper kind1 that there are very       
distinct stri,a running through the     
whole substance in some particular      
portion of the glass4 ,now this is owing
 to the greater density of the lead     
silicate1 which sinks lower down in the 
collected mass of glass1 and therefore  
imparts to it this peculiar effect4     
,when a pot of flint glass is worked    
off1 that which remains at the bottom   
usually contains more lead than that    
which is worked off in the earlier part 
of the day4  ,coloured ,glasses4--,it   
has been before shown that silica unites
 with metallic oxides2 in fact1 glass is
 nothing but a compound brought about by
 the union4 ,with certain metallic      
oxides1 silica forms coloured silicates 
or glasses2 and these1 when fused with  
colourless glasses1 impart to them the  
colour of the silicate4 ,oxide of iron  
colours glass either green or yellow1   
according to the nature of the oxide2   

the silicate of the protoxide of iron   
being green1 and that of the peroxide1  
yellow of a slightly brownish tint4     
,copper forms two oxides1 the suboxide  
and the protoxide2 the suboxide colours 
glass red1 while the protoxide renders  
it green4 ,black oxide of manganese     
colours glass purple2 but if large      
quantities be used1 it makes it         
perfectly black4 ,sesquioxide of        
chromium imparts a beautiful green      
colour to glass1 while oxide of uranium 
produces an opalescent effect of yellow 
with a tinge of green4 ,this latter1 by 
the way1 has the power of reducing the  
ultra-violet rays of the spectrum to    
luminous rays1 and1 when held in the    
rays of a spectrum obtained by the      
electric light1 produces an extremely   
beautiful effect1 which is called       
fluorescence4 ,a small quantity of the  
oxide of gold tints glass pink1 but the 
colour becomes extremely rich and       
ruby-like1 when a larger quantity of the
 oxide is employed4 ,oxide of cobalt in 

very small quantities yields1 with      
silicic acid1 an intensely blue         
silicate4 ,this substance1 carefully    
prepared in a special manner and ground 
to a fine powder1 forms the well known  
water-colour pigment called smalt4      
,oxide of silver stains glass from a    
delicate lemon tint to a deep orange1 in
 proportion to the quantity of the oxide
 employed4  ,with the exception of the  
last-named colouring material1 the above
 mentioned are mixed together with the  
substances which form the glass1 and are
 melted in the usual way in glass-pots1 
except that they are treated with       
considerably more care1 in order that   
their tints may be true4 ,oxide of      
silver1 however1 is never mixed with the
 materials of which the glass is made1  
but is applied to the surface in the    
following manner3 a solution of nitrate 
of silver mixed with some substance1    
such1 for instance1 as chalk1 may be    
painted upon the parts of the glass     
which it is desired to stain1 and these 

are heated to a dull red heat1 in what  
is called a muffle4 ,wherever the oxide 
of silver1 which is reduced from the    
nitrate by heat1 comes in contact with  
the glass1 the latter is stained more or
 less intensely1 according to the       
quantity of silver present4 ,pure       
metallic silver may be melted with      
metallic antimony1 and the mass ground  
to a fine powder in water4 ,this powder1
 after being mixed with some ,venetian  
red and gum water1 is applied to the    
surface of the glass1 which is1 when    
dry1 heated to a dull red heat in a     
muffle1 producing the yellow stain1     
which can be seen after the ,venetian   
red and the excess of silver have been  
scraped off4 ,the reason why silver1 or 
oxide of silver1 is not mixed with the  
glass materials and fused with them1 is 
because it does not readily unite with  
oxygen1 and1 when it has done so1 it    
loses its oxygen again at a high        
temperature1 and becomes reduced to the 
metallic state2 and inasmuch as metals  

have no effect whatever in staining     
silicates1 glass made in this way would 
not have the yellow colour which it has1
 when the silver is heated upon its     
surface to a much lower temperature in a
 muffle2 for the temperature to which   
the constituents of the glass must be   
heated1 so as to cause them to burn it  
in1 would be so high1 that the oxide of 
silver first formed at a lower          
temperature would be reduced to the     
reguline or metallic state4 ,gold also1 
like silver1 does not unite with oxygen 
readily1 or remain in union with it at  
high temperature2 therefore great care  
is required in the preparation of glass 
to be coloured by oxide of gold2 the    
form in which it is used being generally
 that of the purple of ,cassius1 made by
 precipitating a salt of tin with a salt
 of gold4 ,this substance is mixed with 
the glass to be coloured1 and heated in 
a suitable glass-pot4 ,portions of it   
are gathered and allowed to cool1 these 
being generally of a yellowish1         

brownish1 and sometimes reddish tint1   
though they have not in any case the    
same beautiful red colour which they    
produce when applied1 as will be        
immediately described1 to the surface of
 white glass4 ,a certain quantity of    
white glass is gathered from the        
glass-pot in the soft state with one of 
these pieces of gold glass2 the whole   
mass is heated until both become soft1  
and is then blown and formed into sheet1
 which1 on examination1 will be found to
 consist mainly of white glass1 with its
 surface thinly covered with the glass  
stained with oxide of gold1 while the   
beautiful ruby colour1 which the gold   
imparts to the glass1 appears pure and  
distinct4 ,if such glass as this be     
heated to too high a temperature1 as    
when it is used in the manufacture of   
stained glass windows1 the ruby colour  
is in part1 and sometimes altogether1   
destroyed1 for the oxide of gold loses  
its oxygen1 and metallic gold is left   
behind1 which does not yield a colour to

 the silicate4 ,i have in my possession 
a piece of ,french glass of a pale      
sapphire tint1 which1 when heated in the
 oxidizing flame of the blowpipe1       
assumes a brilliant and intense ruby    
colour1 showing that in the first       
condition1 the gold is not in a state of
 oxidation sufficient to impart colour  
to the glass4  ,when the suboxide of    
copper is mixed and fused with the glass
 which it is intended to colour1 the    
result is an opaque substance1 almost   
like red bottle-sealing-wax1 which is   
treated in a manner exactly similar to  
the gold glass2 viz4 it is coated with  
white glass1 and blown and shaped into  
sheets1 which owe their intense ruby    
colour to a thin film of the coloured   
glass closely adhering to the mass of   
the white upon which it is placed4      
,glass made in this way is called       
coated1 and sometimes flashed glass1 and
 is extremely useful for ornamental     
purposes1 for by the action upon the    
coloured surface of hydrofluoric acid1  

the ruby coating can be eaten away1 and 
the white glass beneath left entire4 ,if
 the backgrounds of the patterns be     
painted upon the ruby side with a       
material like ,brunswick black1 which is
 able to resist the action of           
hydrofluoric acid1 and if the plate of  
glass1 on its ruby side1 be exposed to  
the action of the vapour of this acid1  
or to the action of the acid in solution
 in water1 in a short space of time the 
pattern will be eaten away2 and if the  
,brunswick black coating be removed with
 turpentine1 a sheet of ruby glass will 
be obtained with a white pattern etched 
upon it4  ,owing to the powerful        
colouring properties which oxide of     
cobalt exerts1 a very deep-coloured blue
 glass can be made1 which can be treated
 like the red copper glass1 and may be  
made to coat and cover in the same way  
the surface of plates of white glass4   
,purple glass1 coloured with oxide of   
manganese1 and green glass are also     
sometimes used as coating materials for 

white glass1 but other colours are never
 employed in this way4  ,it is manifest 
that if different metallic oxides be    
used with the same glass1 mixed tints   
will be produced1 so that by mingling   
small quantities of oxide of cobalt and 
protoxide of copper1 a blue glass having
 a greenish hue may be obtained4 ,the   
revival of glass painting has caused    
manufacturers to turn their attention to
 these mixtures1 in order to produce    
tints resembling those of ancient       
stained glass4 ,messrs4 ,powell and     
,son1 of ,whitefriars1 were the first to
 perform experiments on these mixtures1 
and after much laborious attention and  
patience their efforts have been crowned
 with great success1 for they have been 
enabled to produce glass as beautiful in
 tint and in texture as the best        
specimens of ancient manufacture4 ,their
 example has been followed by others1   
such as ,messrs4 ,hartley of            
,sunderland1 and ,messrs4 ,chance and   
,co4 of ,birmingham4  ,while treating of

 the effect produced by different       
metallic oxides upon colour1 it may be  
well to mention that the opaque glasses 
used for such purposes1 as the          
enamelling of watch-faces1 are made by  
mixing with the materials a certain     
quantity of arsenious acid 7or white    
arsenic71 in much larger quantities than
 when it is employed simply to correct  
the tint imparted to glass by the iron  
impurities in the sand4 ,oxide of tin   
also renders glass white and opaque1 and
 a certain quantity of bone ash will    
produce a similar effect1 though not in 
so satisfactory a manner4  ,glass       
painting first became general in this   
country at the time when the ,early     
,english style of architecture          
prevailed1 and some of the best         
specimens were executed during that     
period4 ,by the best specimens is not   
meant1 that the figures painted upon    
those windows were artistically as      
correct as similar works of a later     
date1 but that they were designed and   

executed in accordance with those       
principles1 which should always govern  
the adaptation of a substance like glass
 to ornamental purposes4 ,the earlier   
medi,aval artists depended for effect   
more upon the boldness of their outline1
 than upon the intensity of their       
shading or the delicacy of their        
manipulation4 ,the form of a            
thirteenth-century figure is merely     
indicated by a few bold and well drawn  
outlines1 the features being formed by  
lines1 the pupils of the eyes by simple 
well-shaped masses of opaque pigment2   
and such a treatment as this was quite  
sufficient to convey what was1 to the   
observer1 more or less a symbolical1    
than a truthful representation of the   
,scripture history which they were      
intended to illustrate4 ,these artists  
remembered that windows are openings in 
a building1 through which light has to  
pass1 and they did not1 therefore1 like 
many of the later imitators1 render them
 opaque by masses of intense shadow1    

which perfectly obscure the colour of   
the glass upon which the picture is     
painted1 and render the passage of light
 through it simply impossible4 ,the     
thirteenth-century glass painters1 too1 
in the treatment of their shadows1 bore 
this great principle in mind1 and       
instead of daubing and stippling them   
on1 usually indicated them with a thin  
wash of enamel colour1 intensified in   
parts by lines crossing one another1 and
 therefore called cross-hatching1       
through the interstices of which the    
light1 although subdued1 was able1 in a 
measure1 to pass4  ,but as the object of
 this article is not to discuss the     
merits of the various styles of glass   
painting1 however much ,i might desire  
to enlarge upon it1 ,i pass on to a     
description of the methods employed in  
the manufacture of stained glass        
windows4 ,in the first place1 after a   
design has been drawn1 in which the     
effect of the window as a whole can be  
carefully considered1 cartoons of the   

figures and ornament are made of the    
exact size of the intended painting4    
,and here it should be noted1 that all  
the lines should be extremely clear1    
precise1 and well drawn1 because it is  
from these that the workman1 who is not 
usually himself an artist1 has to convey
 on the glass the feeling of the artist4
 ,the cartoon1 when completed1 is laid  
down in pieces for convenience-sake on a
 table1 and fastened with small nails4  
,the glass-cutter then selects the      
various coloured glasses which are      
required to be inserted in their proper 
places1 so as to carry out the design of
 the artist4 ,for instance1 a piece of  
white or yellow-tinted glass is cut to  
the shape of the face4 ,if the figure be
 a small one1 the hair also is included 
in this2 and probably in the figure of a
 saint1 the nimbus which surrounds the  
head may be included2 while in larger   
figures1 particularly in the earliest   
styles1 the face was of glass of one    
tint1 the hair of another1 and the      

nimbus of one or more tints1 different  
from either of these4 ,sometimes1 in the
 later styles1 the hair1 after the face 
was painted and burnt in1 was stained   
with the silver stain already described1
 so that when the glass was cleaned1 it 
was of a yellow colour4 ,however1 not to
 enlarge more upon these points1 which  
really belong more to the artistic than 
to the industrial part of window        
painting1 let us proceed to the         
consideration of manipulative details4  
,the outlines of the figures and        
ornament are painted with a substance   
called tracing brown1 made by mixing    
with a flux some oxide of iron1 heating 
them together in a crucible and grinding
 the product to a fine powder1 which is 
mixed with certain vehicles adapted to  
the particular use to which it is to be 
applied4 ,different fluxes are employed 
by different glass painters2 some       
contain borax1 because such fluxes fuse 
more easily1 and therefore cause the    
glass which is painted to be exposed for

 a less time1 and to a lower            
temperature1 than when less fusible     
fluxes are used4  ,it is always         
satisfactory to an author1 to feel that 
his articles have been of some use to   
those whom he hoped to benefit4 ,since  
this article was written a letter       
appeared in one of the architectural    
journals1 complaining that the glass    
furnished by manufacturers to glass     
painters was of inferior composition to 
that which was used by the manufacturers
 of ancient stained glass windows4 ,in  
fact1 it was asserted that modern glass 
was not made with due care1 and that to 
this was owing the unfortunate          
disappearance of some of the painting   
and tracing of modern stained glass     
windows2 but that this is not the case1 
is manifest to all who understand the   
manufacture of glass4 ,the real reason  
why the colouring matter with which     
glass painters outline and shade their  
designs1 has in many instances gradually
 come off from the surface of the glass1

 is1 because the fluxes used for making 
it adhere to the glass are of such a    
composition1 that they themselves have  
by the action of time become            
disintegrated4  ,some time ago1 a person
 engaged in the manufacture of the      
enamel plates used for railway lamps1 on
 which are written the names of the     
stations1 called upon me1 and told me1  
that the enamel which he employed had   
become dark1 spotty1 and in many cases  
had peeled off from the glass4 ,the     
reason of this is identical with that   
which occurs in stained glass windows1  
viz4 that the fluxes that he used were  
not suitable for the purpose1           
considering that they had to withstand  
the action of the weather4 ,from an     
analysis made of these fluxes 7not of   
those last alluded to1 but of those     
which have been employed in stained     
glass windows71 it appears that large   
quantities of borax have been           
introduced2 and1 wherever this is the   
case1 no reliance whatever can be placed

 on the permanency of pictures painted  
with such fluxes4 ,i have appended a few
 receipts for fluxes1 which can be used 
with safety by any glass painter who    
will take the trouble to try them4 ,but 
,i must strongly advise that all those  
who are connected with the making of    
fluxes in any glass painting            
establishment1 should master sufficient 
chemical knowledge to enable them to    
ascertain the behaviour of the          
materials1 with respect to one another1 
as well as of the nature of the glass   
upon which they are employed2 for very  
much indeed depends upon a correct      
knowledge of the character of the glass 
as to whether it be hard or soft1 what  
it contains1 and of the temperature at  
which the glass becomes sufficiently    
soft to form a firm and enduring union  
with the colours fluxed upon it4        
,,receipts ,,for ,,fluxes4    #a4       
,flint glass 7powdered7      #aj parts4 
moderately   ,white ,arsenic            
#a          hard4   ,nitre              

#a           #b4   ,red ,lead           
#a          soft4   ,flint glass        
7powdered7       #c           #c4       
,flint glass                  #f        
,red ,lead                     #h       
7,mixed with four parts of the first    
flux1 soft47  ,the use of very soft     
fluxes is attended with this            
inconvenience1 that the boracic acid    
contained in them is generally acted    
upon by moisture and becomes hydrated1  
and in this condition often causes the  
painting to peel away4 ,harder fluxes1  
although they have the disadvantage of  
necessitating the glass to be submitted 
to a much higher temperature for a      
longer time in the kiln or muffle1 are  
the best1 and1 with judicious           
management1 can be used without any     
injurious consequences to the work on   
which they are employed4 ,lead fluxes1  
containing oxide of lead1 are           
sufficiently fusible for all ordinary   
purposes1 and are not liable to the same
 objection as fluxes containing borax4  

,suppose1 then1 it is desired to paint  
the outlines of a face1 the glass is cut
 to the shape of the face in the        
cartoon2 it is then laid upon it1 and   
the painter1 seeing the lines through   
the glass1 is able to trace them with   
his brown paint upon its surface4 ,he   
generally uses gum water as his vehicle1
 and puts on the shading also with the  
same mixture1 though sometimes it is    
found necessary to use a substance which
 is not affected by moisture1 as for    
instance1 tar-oil4 ,it is impossible1 in
 the short space of this article1 to    
indicate those occasions on which one   
should be used in place of the other2 a 
knowledge of this can only be obtained  
by consulting authorities in which      
details are more minutely given1 or by  
watching the operations of the glass    
painter in his workshop4 ,when the face 
is finished1 it is removed1 and another 
portion of the figure1 say a piece of   
the drapery1 is proceeded with in       
exactly the same way2 and so1 by a      

repetition of this process in all parts 
of the figure1 it is completed1 and     
looks very much like a puzzle1 the parts
 being put together on the cartoon      
before the work is finished1 in order to
 see that the whole is harmoniously     
treated4 ,in shading the face1 hands1   
and those parts of the drapery which    
require it1 a glass easel is used1 on   
which the figure is put together1 and   
the parts made to adhere by wax1 so that
 the artist is able1 while painting1 to 
form an idea by transmitted light of the
 effect which will be produced when the 
window is finished4 ,the ornament is    
painted in a similar manner1 but usually
 not with the same care in the details  
of its execution4  ,when all the glass  
is painted1 it is fired in a muffle1    
upon the proper construction of which a 
great deal depends4 ,it is usually made 
of iron1 and should not be more than #ae
 inches from its bottom to the top1     
though its width may vary4 ,it is never 
well to have muffles for firing glass   

for painted windows larger than about #b
 feet wide1 by #b feet #f inches deep4  
,the top of the muffle is usually       
slightly arched from side to side1 and  
it is placed in the furnace on a        
tolerably thick stone floor1 so that the
 bottom may not get too hot4 ,the fire1 
which is lighted below1 is allowed to   
play up its sides and over its top1 the 
flue being so built as to draw the      
flames in that direction1 for a top heat
 is the best heat for firing glass      
regularly4 ,the muffle is arranged with 
ridges in its sides1 passing from front 
to back parallel to one another on one  
side1 and exactly opposite to           
corresponding ridges parallel to one    
another on the opposite side4 ,these    
metal ridges are intended to receive    
iron plates1 and there is generally     
about an inch or rather less between the
 top of one plate and the bottom of     
another1 when the muffle is perfectly   
filled4 ,the plates are covered over    
with perfectly dry powdered chalk or    

whiting1 and the pieces of glass are    
laid upon them with their painted sides 
uppermost4 ,when the plates are charged1
 they are put into a muffle with an iron
 door1 in the centre of which is a hole1
 and a conical tube with the base       
attached round it4 ,it is larger than   
the opening at the other end1 which     
projects some #f or #g inches from the  
surface of the muffle-door at right     
angles to it4 ,a second door is then    
placed at a short distance from the     
first1 the tube passing through a hole  
made for the purpose in it4 ,the orifice
 is usually stopped by a piece of       
fire-clay1 which can be removed at      
pleasure4 ,the use of the tube is1 to   
enable the manager of the kiln to look  
into the muffle1 from time to time1 to  
see that the glass does not get too much
 heated4 ,when the firing is completed1 
the fire is raked out and the muffle is 
allowed to cool very slowly1 and by this
 process the glass becomes annealed4    
,when it is desired to apply to any     

portion of white glass some yellow      
silver stain1 this can be done either in
 the first firing1 by floating it on to 
the places to be stained1 and allowing  
it to run in a sort of stream from the  
brush1 so that it will evenly cover the 
surface and cause the heavier portions  
of the stain1 namely1 the mixed metallic
 silver and antimony1 to sink regularly 
to the bottom1 and come fairly in       
contact with the glass4 ,not very long  
ago1 it was mentioned to me by a glass  
painter of note1 that the workmen much  
prefer using the old stain made with    
silver and antimony1 to that which is   
produced by using nitrate of silver4    
,this really is a mistake on their part1
 for1 when properly managed 7and the    
knowledge of how to manage this stain   
can be acquired with very little        
trouble71 the nitrate of silver stain is
 by far the best1 and produces much     
better tints1 with less chance of what  
the men call sulphuring when the glass  
is fired4 ,this sulphuring is simply the

 result of opacity1 obtained by heating 
the glass to too high a temperature4 ,if
 the staining is to be performed in the 
same firing as that by which the        
painting is to be fixed1 it is quite    
clear that the outlines of the part to  
be stained must be painted in1 with     
tar-oil1 or with some such substance    
which is not affected by the moisture of
 the stain4 ,however1 in general1 the   
staining operation is performed after   
the first firing1 that is to say1 those 
pieces of glass to which the silver is  
to be applied are stained in the method 
above described after the first firing1 
and are then fired again1 because the   
heat required to produce a good stain   
from silver is of a somewhat different  
character from that which is required   
simply to fuse the flux that binds the  
pigment to the glass4 ,a longer and less
 intense heat1 technically called a     
soaking1 is the best for producing an   
even and pure yellow tint4 ,if the      
temperature be allowed to rise too high1

 the oxide of silver1 which alone can   
stain the glass1 gets reduced wholly or 
in part1 and when this happens to only a
 slight extent1 it destroys the         
transparency of the stain2 and when it  
happens to a great extent1 it destroys  
its colour altogether1 making the glass 
opaque4  ,it is a matter of astonishment
 to me that glass painters do not use a 
ruby stain1 which1 with a little        
practice1 can be managed quite as       
successfully as the yellow silver one4  
,it is true that it would be impossible 
to fire the ruby and the silver stains  
together1 and it would not be at all    
convenient to fire the ruby stain at the
 first firing of the painted glass4 ,the
 method of staining ruby is as follows3 
grind up carefully some black oxide of  
copper1 mix it with water 7or with a    
small quantity of gum added71 float it  
on the parts to be coloured1 place it in
 a kiln and heat it4 ,black oxide of    
copper1 when mixed with glass and melted
 in a glass-pot1 makes the glass green2 

suboxide of copper1 which contains less 
oxygen than the black oxide1 when       
treated in the same way1 makes it red4  
,now1 if it can be reduced to the lower 
oxide of copper1 while the black oxide  
of copper on the surface of the glass is
 heated1 it will then colour the glass  
red4 ,the best way of reducing the black
 oxide1 is to connect the muffle with a 
gas-supply pipe1 and allow coal gas to  
pass during the whole time that the     
heating process goes on4 ,the action of 
the gas1 which contains hydrogen and    
carbon1 is to take away oxygen from the 
black oxide of copper1 when it is at a  
high temperature2 and1 as soon as       
sufficient is taken away by the hydrogen
 to reduce the black oxide to the state 
of suboxide1 it stains the glass red4   
,it does not matter if the reducing     
action be continued longer1 so that the 
oxide of copper be reduced to the       
metallic state2 for at that temperature1
 the stain produced by the red oxide of 
copper is not removed by the continued  

action of hydrogen gas4 ,the employment 
of this process would certainly enable  
artists who paint in the later styles of
 glass painting1 to very much enrich    
their draperies1 and to produce1 more   
easily1 effects which now can only be   
obtained by a complicated system of     
lead-work4  ,when the pieces of glass   
which have been fired are perfectly     
cold1 the next process is to unite them 
altogether by peculiarly shaped strips  
of lead1 which are of various kinds1    
according to the character of the       
subject required4 ,the lead has a thick 
part or core1 and at right angles to the
 top and bottom of this are thin plates 
called the leaves4 ,the core is milled  
with little ridges running at right     
angles to them1 so as to enable the     
workman to bend the lead about with     
facility4 ,the edges of the piece of    
glass to be leaded are placed between   
the leaves and resting upon the core1   
and the lead is thus arranged all round 
the glass1 and is then laid in its      

proper situation upon another cartoon1  
prepared from the one from which the    
figure was painted1 and indicating      
simply1 by lines1 where the lead-work is
 to come4 ,the first piece is fixed by  
means of nails temporarily placed       
through the lead4 ,those pieces which   
touch it in the design are put in their 
proper positions1 so that the edge      
touching the next piece will be         
underneath the opposite leaves to those 
which confine the first4 ,this operation
 is repeated1 till all the parts of the 
design are surrounded by lead1 and by it
 united to one another2 the joints being
 secured by solder1 generally applied by
 gas4 ,nothing now remains but to fill  
in the interstices between the lead and 
the glass1 so as to make the window     
firm1 solid1 and water-tight2 and this  
is done by rubbing into them with a     
scrubbing brush a cement1 usually made  
of white lead1 oil1 and plaster of      
,paris4 ,this composition varies in     
different stained glass works1 nor is it

 material1 provided that the substance  
hardens1 does not crack1 and is         
waterproof4  ,from this description it  
will be seen1 that the various colours  
in the different parts of the window are
 put in as pieces1 and that no colours1 
properly so called1 are applied by the  
brush to the surface4 ,there are1       
however1 certain tints of the tracing   
brown1 which can be obtained by the     
addition of black oxide of manganese1 or
 by a different method of preparation of
 the oxide of iron1 to give it its body4
 ,sulphate of iron1 when heated1 loses  
its sulphuric acid1 and the oxide1 which
 was1 as sulphate1 in the state of      
protoxide1 becomes1 by heating1 the red 
or peroxide of iron2 its tint1 when made
 in this way1 being generally lighter   
than the tint of that form of oxide     
which is employed as ordinary tracing   
brown4 ,it is sometimes called flesh    
tint1 though this is decidedly an       
objectionable name for it4  ,it has been
 suggested to me1 that ,i should give   

some receipts for the manufacture of the
 enamel colours used in medi,aval glass 
painting2 ,i have therefore added a few 
which are easily prepared4 ,others of a 
more complicated nature had much better 
be obtained from the makers of the      
enamel used in porcelain painting4 ,and 
here again1 let me remark1 that in      
ordering fluxes from these              
manufacturers1 it should be stated      
especially that a flux is required which
 does not contain borax1 nor should the 
painters in any establishment be allowed
 to use these softer fluxes1 which they 
are almost certain to do1 unless        
forbidden2 for though they are easier to
 work with1 they will infallibly lead to
 calamitous results4    ,,yellow4       
,oxide of tin                           
#b parts4   ,oxide of antimony          
#b      ,red ,lead                      
#af       ,,orange4    ,red ,lead       
#ab      ,oxide of antimony             
#d      ,persulphate of iron            
#a      ,flint powder                   

#c       ,,brown4    ,black oxide of    
manganese              #b;,a4#be        
,flint slate 7powdered7                 
#d;,a4#j     ,red lead                  
#h;,a4#e      ,,brown ,,red4    ,crocus 
7oxide of iron7                 #c      
,green sulphate of iron 7calcined7      
#a        mixed with six parts of these 
,no4 #b4    ,,light ,,red ,,for ,,flesh 
,,tints4    ,carbonate of lead          
#a;,a4#e    ,persulphate of iron        
7calcined7         #a      ,flint glass 
#c     ,the use of enamels--that is1    
substances which impart various colours 
to the glass1 when placed on its surface
 by their fusion--is not admissible in  
windows which pretend to belong to any  
of the earlier styles of glass painting2
 though enamel painting is used for the 
decoration of houses1 and sometimes1 as 
,i consider very improperly1 for the    
decoration of church windows4 ,one sheet
 of glass1 colourless and transparent1  
or it may have its surface ground1 is   
usually employed4 ,a subject is painted 

on it with enamel colours1 much as      
subjects are painted upon porcelain4    
,when the work is completed1 the glass  
plate is fired1 and thus the colours    
become semi-transparent1 and perfectly  
adherent to the plate2 but they are not 
clear and bright1 and transparent1 as   
are the colours of glass which is       
coloured in the pot1 and therefore have 
not the same brilliancy1 nor do they    
allow of the same bold and effective    
treatment4  ,it is much to be desired   
that amateurs who can draw1 and who have
 a feeling for this particular style of 
art1 should devote a portion of their   
time to its execution4 ,they will find  
it to be extremely agreeable and        
pleasant1 and the few difficulties which
 they meet with in their first attempts 
will be readily overcome by             
perseverance1 or by applying for        
assistance and advice to gentlemen      
engaged in the pursuit of this          
interesting profession4  ,moulded and   
,cut ,glass4--,flint glass is now very  

commonly blown in moulds1 and this art  
has been brought to such perfection that
 moulded decanters and tumblers have an 
appearance very similar to that of cut  
glass4 ,the moulds are always made of   
metal1 and so constructed1 that they    
open out into two or more pieces1 which 
are generally hinged to the bottom of   
the mould4 ,the workman places it on the
 ground1 and fixes it by standing on    
projections from its side4 ,he then     
gathers a suitable quantity of glass on 
the end of his blowpipe1 which he places
 in the mould1 and the side of the glass
 touching it will thus have impressed   
upon it whatever form is engraved on it4
 ,after the glass has become hard1 the  
mould is opened1 and the glass vessel is
 removed and annealed4  ,when it is     
desired to cut a design on the outside  
of a tumbler or wine-glass1 the vessel  
is1 in the first instance1 blown of a   
thicker substance than if it is to be   
left uncut4 ,the necessary shapes1 which
 are usually in facets1 are cut upon it 

by the action of sand and water1 a lathe
 of a very simple construction being    
used to give a rotary motion to cutting 
discs1 made of stone and kept           
continually moist by water dripping on  
them1 so that when the glass is pressed 
against them1 the required portion of   
its surface is worn away4 ,the usual    
diameter of these stones is about #aj   
inches4 ,after the rougher stone has    
been used1 a finer kind of sandstone    
disc is employed1 or a disc of slate1   
upon which sand and water are allowed to
 drop1 and the already roughly cut      
surface is1 by their action1 partly     
polished4 ,copper discs with flattened  
circumference are used for polishing the
 glass1 and for this purpose1 emery     
mixed with oil1 is applied to the edges 
of their circumference4  ,ground ,glass 
is made by rubbing the surface of glass 
with sand and water1 just as in the     
first operation of plate glass          
polishing4 ,but a very ingenious method 
is now generally adopted for grinding   

glass1 by placing it in a cradle1 so    
that it can swing from side to side2    
sand and water are placed upon the      
glass1 and it grinds itself1 so to      
speak1 by this operation4  ,annealing   
and ,devitrification4--,as the word     
annealing has been often used in this   
article1 it will be well to explain what
 is its action4 ,if a piece of molten   
glass be dropped into water1 it will    
assume an oblong shape1 the lower end of
 which will be round1 while the other   
will taper off into a fine point4 ,these
 drops1 which have received the name of 
,prince ,rupert's drops1 look like      
pieces of ordinary glass1 and if the    
small end of one of them be broken off1 
a sort of explosion takes place1 and the
 whole mass flies into a thousand minute
 pieces1 some of which will be found to 
have been driven to a considerable      
distance4 ,here then it appears1 that   
when the skin1 which is perfect and     
entire in the ,rupert drop1 is broken1  
the bond which held together the        

constituent particles is broken also1   
and so they are acted on by a repellent 
force1 and fly away from one another4   
,if hot water be poured into a thick    
common tumbler1 it very generally cracks
 it3 but if the tumbler be thin and of  
better manufacture1 it will bear almost 
boiling water without cracking4 ,in the 
first case it has been badly annealed2  
and besides this1 glass being a bad     
conductor of heat1 from its thickness1  
the heat imparted by the hot water      
expands the inner surface1 while the    
outer coating1 not being warmed1 does   
not expand1 and1 retaining its original 
form1 is burst4 ,if1 however1 a tumbler 
be thick and properly annealed1 there is
 not so much danger of its breaking1    
when a portion of it is exposed to a    
considerable rise of temperature4 ,in   
the case of the ,rupert drops1 they are 
not annealed at all1 and so there is no 
cohesive bond between the particles1    
such as there would be if they were     
properly annealed1 that is1 if1 instead 

of being cooled suddenly from the molten
 state1 they were allowed to cool in a  
heated chamber very slowly4 ,after glass
 has been heated1 the particles of which
 it is composed take a long time to     
rearrange themselves1 so that in the    
manufacture of thermometers1 it is      
necessary1 after sealing up the bulb and
 tube which contain the mercury1 to     
allow them to remain for a long time2   
otherwise the pressure of the air on the
 outside of the bulb1 not being         
supported by any air on the inside1     
causes the particles of glass to become 
more compact1 and thus renders the      
capacity of the thermometer bulb and    
tube smaller than it was1 when the      
thermometer was first sealed4 ,it seems 
that the process of annealing glass     
gives time for the particles to arrange 
themselves in such a way1 that when the 
glass is cold1 it will not be so liable 
to fracture from sudden changes of      
temperature4  ,considerable curiosity   
has been excited of late by a new       

invention1 which has resulted from the  
investigations of a ,frenchman4 ,we have
 been told that tumblers and            
wine-glasses1 and other glass utensils1 
could be so treated that they would     
never break2 and experiments performed  
upon many samples of these glasses led  
one to suppose1 that the object had been
 attained4 ,there is no doubt whatever1 
that some who have had experience of    
what is termed toughened glass know1    
that in many cases very uncertain       
results are obtained in the resisting   
power of the glass to the action of a   
violent blow4 ,before1 however1 entering
 into some researches which ,i have made
 on the subject1 it will be well to     
state what is the nature of the change  
which the toughening process produces in
 the glass1 and this seems to be a fit  
place for this consideration1 as the    
method of making1 and the behaviour1 of 
,prince ,rupert's drops1 have just been 
discussed4  ,the physical properties of 
these ,rupert's drops have been examined

 with great care by ,m4 ,victor de      
,luynes1 and the results of his         
experiments have been communicated to   
the ,soci,a7,c7t,a7,c7 de ,secours des  
,amis des ,sciences4 ,for the purposes  
of this article1 many of his experiments
 have been repeated1 confirming in      
general his observations1 and others    
have also been instituted4 ,the         
toughness and hardness of these drops   
are remarkable2 the thick pear-shaped   
portion will bear a sharp stroke with a 
hammer without breaking2 nor can it be  
scratched with a diamond4 ,to break the 
tapering thread or tail1 as it may be   
conveniently called1 requires           
considerable force4 ,to find out what   
weight was required to do this1 a series
 of experiments was performed1 the      
results of which are given in the table 
following4 ,the tail of a drop was      
placed over a small hole bored in the   
top of a table2 a hook was then adjusted
 round a part of the tail which measured
 #ai on a ,birmingham wire gauge2 below 

the table and attached to this hook1 a  
scale-pan was hung4 ,this pan was then  
carefully loaded1 all shock being       
avoided1 until the thread was ruptured  
and the weight required to effect this  
was then noted3    ,white ,glass        
,rupert's ,drops4    ,gauge4            
,strain4     #ai            #af     lb4 
#j oz4     #ai            #ae-a_/b      
#j       #ai            #af         #j  
#ai 7poor7      #i-a_/d     #j          
,green ,glass4    ,gauge4               
,strain4     #ai            #ah-c_/d    
#j       #ai 7poor7      #i         #j  
#ai            #bh         #f       #af 
#bf-a_/d     #j    ,it will be observed 
that the drops made from green bottle   
glass withstood a greater strain than   
those made from crown glass2 the latter1
 in fact1 did not break throughout their
 mass1 but left a portion of the bulb   
unbroken1 showing some fault in the     
tempering4 ,it was with difficulty that 
the workmen could be induced to make    
drops out of this kind of glass1 as they

 knew by experience that they usually   
failed to break perfectly1 and they     
stated that it was quite impossible to  
make them with lead glass4 ,to ascertain
 what force was required to fracture a  
thread of like dimensions that had not  
been tempered1 one of the drops was     
heated to redness1 and annealed by      
allowing it to cool very gradually4     
,when subjected to the same trial1 it   
was fractured by a weight of #ab ozs41  
and the drop did not break into small   
fragments1 but behaved exactly like     
ordinary glass1 thus showing that the   
glass had been untempered by the heating
 process4 ,a piece of glass rod1 drawn  
out into a thread in a gas flame1 when  
subjected to the same conditions1 bore a
 strain of #aj oz4 ,a sewing-needle of  
the same thickness was broken by a      
weight of #c lb4 #ad oz41 thus showing  
that the tail of the ,rupert's drop was 
very much tougher than tempered steel4  
,by suspending a ,rupert's drop in such 
a manner as to allow the tail to dip    

into hydrofluoric acid1 it is found1    
that when the surface or skin is eaten  
away to a certain depth1 rupture takes  
place exactly in the same manner as when
 the tail is broken4 ,in whatever way   
fractured1 the particles1 when examined 
by the microscope1 show a crystalline   
structure1 and do not at all resemble   
pieces of ordinary glass2 when rubbed   
between the palms of the hands1 they do 
not cut1 nor scratch1 nor penetrate the 
cuticle4 ,if a drop be enclosed in      
plaster of ,paris so as to leave a      
portion of the tail exposed1 it may then
 be broken and all the particles will   
remain in situ4 ,on removing the        
plaster1 it will be found that the drop 
has been broken up into thousands of    
minute needle-shaped particles arranged 
in cones1 the apices being in the       
direction of the tail4 ,it would appear 
then from these experiments1 and from   
observations with polarized light1 that 
the glass in the interior of a ,rupert's
 drop exists under enormous tension1 and

 that it is only prevented from bursting
 into fragments by the outer skin2 on   
its being broken in any part1 the bond  
which holds together the constituent    
particles is broken also1 and so1 being 
acted upon by a repellent force1 they   
fly away from one another4 ,there is    
another kind of toy resembling in some  
respects the ,rupert's drop1 known as   
the ,bologna bottle or philosopher's    
flask4 ,it has the form of a soda-water 
bottle with the neck cut off1 the bottom
 being rounded off and very much thicker
 than the walls4 ,these flasks are      
sometimes formed accidentally in        
glass-works by the workman1 who1 in     
order to examine the quality of the     
glass1 takes out a portion from the pot 
on the end of his blowpipe1 and blows a 
small quantity of air into the mass1    
manipulating it in the usual manner4    
,whilst still at a very high            
temperature1 it is detached from the    
blowpipe1 and is probably allowed to    
fall on the ground in a place where     

there is a current of cold air1 the     
exterior thus becoming suddenly chilled4
 ,when cold1 these flasks will bear very
 rough handling1 and will withstand the 
blow of a hammer on the outside1 it     
being almost impossible to break them by
 striking the bottom2 the interior will 
also bear the blow of a leaden bullet   
falling into it from a considerable     
height1 but if a few grains of sand be  
allowed to fall into it1 or if the      
inside skin be slightly scratched1 the  
mass splits into fragments in the same  
manner as a ,rupert's drop4 ,the        
examination of these curious phenomena  
leads us to the subject of toughened    
glass1 as it has been termed4 ,the      
invention of rendering articles of glass
 less fragile1 which has given rise to  
so much public attention during the last
 year1 is due to ,m4 ,alfred de la      
,bastie1 a ,french engineer4 ,his       
process consists in heating the glass to
 be toughened to a temperature close    
upon its softening point1 and then      

plunging it into a bath of oil1 or into 
a mixture of oleaginous substances kept 
at a much lower temperature4 ,when this 
operation is successfully performed1 the
 glass acquires properties very similar 
to those of ,rupert's drops2 it becomes 
much less fragile than ordinary glass1  
but when sufficient force is employed to
 fracture it1 the whole flies into small
 pieces4 ,it cannot be cut with a       
diamond1 but is immediately             
disintegrated when the outer skin is    
scratched to a certain depth4  ,it is to
 be observed1 however1 that in          
particular cases it is possible both to 
saw and pierce the toughened glass4 ,m4 
de ,luynes reports1 that when a square  
of ,st4 ,gobain plate glass that had    
been submitted to the process of        
tempering was examined by polarized     
light1 it showed the appearance of a    
black cross1 the arms of which were     
parallel to the sides of the square4    
,the glass was sawed in two1 along the  
line of the stem of the cross1 without  

causing fracture4 ,on examining the     
divided glass with polarized light1     
black bands and fringes of colour were  
observed1 which1 by their position1     
proved that the molecular condition of  
the glass had changed2 on placing one   
half of the divided glass on the other  
half1 the fringes and black bands       
disappeared--on folding one half on to  
the other1 the black bands presented the
 appearance that would have been        
produced by glass of double the         
thickness4 ,these facts show1 that the  
molecular forces on the glass were      
arranged symmetrically in reference to  
the line of parting3 and we may conclude
 that toughened glass being in a state  
of tension1 similar to that of the      
,rupert drop1 may be divided or pierced1
 provided that the molecules of the     
pieces produced are able to rearrange   
themselves into a stable equilibrium4   
,polarized light shows the directions on
 which the division can be made with    
safety4  ,m4 de ,luynes1 in his         

communication referred to above1 gives  
an account of some experiments performed
 on plates of glass of the same quality1
 tempered by this process1 and          
untempered2 one or two examples will    
suffice4 ,a tempered plate measuring    
about#a #f-a_/b inches by #e inches1 and
 #b_/aj inch thick1 was placed between  
two wooden frames1 and a weight of over 
#c-a_/b ounces 7#ajj grammes#b7 was     
allowed to drop upon it from a height of
 more than #ac feet 7#d m,atres#c7      
without breaking it4 ,it only broke1    
when double the weight was employed from
 the same height4 ,a piece of ordinary  
glass under the same conditions broke1  
with the weight of #c-a_/b oz4 dropped  
upon it from a height #af inches        
7#j;,a4#dj m,atre74 ,plates of toughened
 glass were allowed to fall on the floor
 from a height1 or were thrown to a     
distance1 without breaking4 ,a          
rectangular piece of ordinary window    
glass1 about #a_/aj inch in thickness1  
was bent into the form of a bridge1 and 

then subjected to the tempering process2
 placed upon the ground2 it bore the    
weight of a man easily without breaking4
 ,a commission1 instituted by the       
,french naval authorities1 to inquire   
into this process of ,m4 de la ,bastie1 
has reported at some length on the      
subject4 ,the following series of       
experiments were tried with a view of   
ascertaining the comparative power of   
resistance of tempered and ordinary     
glass4 ,the plates experimented upon    
were placed loosely in wooden frames    
constructed for the purpose4          #a
 ,these numbers are approximate         
translations of the numbers             
given in the communication3 no object   
could be gained in         giving       
complex fractions4          #b #a ounce 
avoirdupois weighs #bh;,a4#cdi grammes4 
#c #a m,atre equals #ci;,a4#cg ,english 
inches4  ,rectangular plates about #ba  
inches 7#j;,a4#ebe m47 by #aj inches    
7#j;,a4#bdh m47 and #a_/f inch          
7#j;,a4#jjd m47 thick4  ,the frame with 

the glass inserted was laid on the      
ground1 and in the middle of the plate a
 weight of more than #aj lbs4 7#e       
kilogrammes#d7 was placed1 and upon it  
as a base1 other weights were placed1   
care being taken to avoid all shock4    
#d #a kilogramme  #b;,a4#b lbs4         
avoirdupois4  #a;,a ,ordinary glass1    
broke with a weight of about #gj lb4    
7#ce kilos47 having resisted weights of 
from #cj to #ej lb4  #b;,a ,toughened   
glass resisted fracture until a weight  
of more than #eaj lb4 7#bee kilos47 had 
been added1 and then was not broken4    
,the experiment was not carried to its  
limit for want of weights4  ,rectangular
 plates1 about #ac inches 7#j;,a4#cbe   
m47 by #aj inches 7#j;,a4#bdh m47 and   
#a_/e inch 7#j;,a4#jje m47 thick4       
,these plates were allowed to fall flat 
on to a floor of wood or thrown to a    
distance and allowed to fall4  #a;,a    
,ordinary glass allowed to fall flat    
from a height of #a-b_/aj inch          
7#j;,a4#jc m47 was broken at the first  

trial4  #b;,a ,toughened glass4 ,thrown 
to a height #f feet #f inches 7#b       
m,atres7 and to a distance of #ac feet  
7#d m,atres7 was also broken at the     
first trial4 ,the piece1 however1 which 
had sustained the weight of #eaj lb4 did
 not break till the fourth trial4       
,rectangular plates1 about #aj inches   
7#j;,a4#bde m47 by #f inches 7#j;,a4#aeg
 m47 and #a_/d inch 7#j;,a4#jjg m47     
thick4  ,these plates were subjected to 
the same kind of tests as the foregoing4
 ,after raising them to a given height  
they were allowed to fall flat upon a   
wooden floor4  #a;,a ,ordinary glass    
raised to a height of #bj inches        
7#j;,a4#ej m47 was broken on falling4   
#b;,a ,toughened glass resisted         
successive falls of from #bj inches     
7#j;,a4#ej m471 #cb inches 7#j;,a4#hj   
m471 #e feet 7#a;,a4#ej m471 and #e feet
 #g inches 7#a;,a4#gj m471 but was      
broken when dropped from a height of #f 
feet #f inches 7#b;,a4#j m474           
,rectangular plates about #aj inches    

7#j;,a4#bde m47 by #f inches 7#j;,a4#aeg
 m47 and #a_/e inch 7#j;,a4#jjf m47     
thick4  ,placed in the frames1 they were
 held in position in the rabbets by     
laths nailed to the sides so as to      
prevent any play4 ,the frames were      
raised to different heights and allowed 
to fall in such a manner as to cause as 
much vibration as possible4  #a;,a      
,ordinary glass was broken with a fall  
of about #b feet 7#j;,a4#fj m474  #b;,a 
,toughened glass resisted falls from    
heights of #c feet #c inches 7#a        
m,atre71 #f feet #f inches 7#b m,atres71
 #h feet 7#b;,a4#ej m471 #i feet #i     
inches 7#c m,atres71 and #ad feet #f    
inches 7#d;,a4#ej m474 ,it was only     
broken by a fall of #ai feet #f inches  
7#f m,atres74  ,rectangular plates #f   
inches 7#j;,a4#aeh m47 by #d-c_/d inches
 7#j;,a4#abj m47 and #a_/e inch         
7#j;,a4#jjf m47 thick4  ,these plates   
were placed in the frame on the ground1 
as has been previously explained4 ,known
 weights falling from known heights were

 made to strike the plates exactly in   
the centre4 ,the weights consisted of   
bronze spheres1 one weighing #c-a_/b oz4
 7#ajj grammes7 and another of twice    
that weight4  #ast4 ,ordinary glass     
resisted the weight of #c-a_/b oz41     
falling from heights of #h inches       
7#j;,a4#bj m471 #ab inches 7#j;,a4#cj   
m471 #af inches 7#j;,a4#dj m471 but was 
broken by a fall of #bj inches          
7#j;,a4#ej m474  #bnd4 ,toughened glass 
resisted the blow of the #c-a_/b oz4    
weight falling from heights of #bj      
inches 7#j;,a4#ej m471 #dj inches 7#a   
m,atre71 #fj inches 7#a;,a4#ej m471 and 
#f feet #f inches 7#b m,atres74 ,the #g 
oz4 weight 7#bjj grammes7 being         
substituted1 the plate was broken by it1
 falling from a height of #fj inches    
7#a;,a4#ej m474  ,rectangular plates1 #f
 inches 7#j;,a4#aeh m47 by #d-c_/d      
inches 7#j;,a4#abj m47 and #a_/f inch   
7#j;,a4#jjd m47 thick4  ,the same       
conditions were maintained as in the    
previous trial4  #ast4 ,ordinary glass4 

,the #c-a_/b oz4 weight was allowed to  
fall from heights of #a foot            
7#j;,a4#cj71 and #af inches 7#j;,a4#dj  
m74 ,it was broken by the second blow4  
#bnd4 ,toughened glass4 ,this resisted  
the #g oz4 weight falling from heights  
of #b feet #d inches 7#j;,a4#gj m471 and
 #b feet #h inches 7#j;,a4#hj m471 but  
broke when the weight fell from #ci     
inches 7#a m,atre74  ,it appears then   
from these experiments1 that toughened  
glass will resist a blow five times as  
great as ordinary glass1 and will bear  
seven times as great a weight4  ,i have 
now detailed most of the useful         
experiments which have been made by     
competent observers upon toughened      
glass1 as well as some which have been  
conducted in my own laboratory4 ,the    
result of my own personal investigations
 ,i will now lay before the reader4 ,i  
was consulted some time ago by a        
gentleman interested in the introduction
 of toughened glass into this country1  
as to whether this kind would become    

untoughened in time4 ,i feel no         
hesitation in stating that when the     
process has been perfectly done1 the    
glass will remain in the same state for 
any length of time1 provided it be not  
treated in any way which is calculated  
to rupture the external hard bond that  
holds together the inner particles of   
the glass4 ,i feel quite sure1 that no  
fear of this kind need interfere with   
the benefits1 whatever they may be1     
which are to be derived from submitting 
glass articles to the toughening        
process4  ,a tumbler which had been     
toughened in ,monsieur de la ,bastie's  
works1 was1 in my presence1 thrown upon 
the ground1 yet it did not break4 ,it   
was a large soda water glass4 ,i kept it
 for some time1 and after considering   
the matter carefully1 ,i felt1 that if  
it were thrown down in such a way that  
the whole of its side1 from base to rim1
 came in contact with the ground at     
once1 and it then stood this test1 it   
would prove that the whole of the glass 

was in the condition of the ,rupert's   
,drops1 and would therefore bear the    
concussion without fracture4 ,i held the
 glass and let it fall1 so that it      
actually reached the hard floor on its  
side4 ,it immediately broke all to      
pieces4 ,now on the first occasion when 
this glass was thrown down1 it was      
tossed somewhat upwards into the air1   
and the bottom being heavier reached the
 ground first1 and it did not break4 ,i 
have also seen in glass-houses1 where   
the tempering process is carried on1    
tumblers thrown down in a similar       
manner1 and ,i noticed1 that whenever   
they fell upon their bottoms1 they were 
uninjured1 as also in cases where they  
fell upon their rims in such a manner1  
that the curve of the rim acted as an   
arch1 as in the old trick of turning a  
wine-glass off the table so as not to   
break2 but in other cases where the     
tumblers fell flat upon their sides1    
fracture followed4 ,i carefully gathered
 together the pieces of the large       

tumbler which ,i broke myself in this   
manner1 and examined them1 and found    
that the solid bottom was broken in the 
same manner as the ,prince ,rupert's    
drops break1 viz41 into a large number  
of small pieces1 having in all respects 
similar properties4 ,the glass for an   
inch or two above the bottom broke into 
small pieces1 but larger than those into
 which the bottom itself broke1 and the 
upper portion of the tumbler was        
fractured just as an ordinary tumbler   
would be4 ,on careful examination1      
microscopic and otherwise1 the small    
pieces were found to have the character 
of ,prince ,rupert's1 whereas the larger
 from the upper part of the glass had   
none of these characteristics in the    
slightest degree4  ,these observations  
led me to perform an experiment4 ,a     
toughened tumbler was filled with       
plaster of ,paris1 which was allowed to 
set4 ,its outside was then encased in   
plaster of ,paris1 and when the whole   
was hardened1 a pair of pincers were    

applied to a portion of the tumbler's   
rim1 and with a violent wrench the      
tumbler was broken4 ,a rather smart     
shock was communicated to the arm of the
 operator1 very much resembling1 as he  
said1 the shock of an electrifying      
machine4 ,on removing the plaster of    
,paris1 it was found that the whole of  
the tumbler was fractured1 and1 as will 
be seen by the accompanying             
illustration1 in a manner similar to    
that which has already been described4  
,from this and other similar            
experiments1 ,i was led to the          
conclusion that none of the toughened   
articles which have cavities in them1   
have thoroughly undergone the toughening
 process4  ,having been requested to    
attend a series of experiments performed
 by a glass manufacturer in ,london1    
which consisted in the manufacture of a 
number of toughened glass tumblers1 ,i  
noticed certain facts which led me to   
form conclusions as to how it was that  
the tumblers1 the fracture of which ,i  

already explained1 break in this        
peculiar manner4 ,i will first describe 
the way in which these tumblers were    
made and toughened4 ,by the side of the 
glass blower there stood a metal vessel1
 about three feet six inches high1 and1 
perhaps1 from two to two feet six inches
 in diameter4 ,this was filled with     
melted fat or oil of some kind at a     
temperature of about #hj;,a deg4 ,fahr4 
,inside this vessel1 which was open at  
the top1 there was a wire cage1 with a  
trap door at the bottom about one foot  
in diameter1 and of about the same      
depth4 ,the glass blower1 after         
finishing his tumbler on the pontil1    
held the pontil in a horizontal position
 over this metal vessel1 struck it a    
smart tap1 and the glass tumbled off    
into the wire cage4 ,the glass was at a 
very high temperature4 ,in almost every 
instance the glass fell into the melted 
fat1 as a glass thrown in a similar     
manner will fall into water4 ,it sank   
gradually bottom downwards1 and the     

liquid guggled into it as it sank4      
,here1 then1 it is clear that every     
portion of the hot tumbler did not come 
in contact with the oil at the same     
moment1 in fact there was an appreciable
 lapse of time before the tumbler       
disappeared beneath the surface of the  
liquid4 ,now there must be a limit as to
 the temperature of the article to be   
tempered and of the liquid by which it  
is to be tempered1 that is to say1 if at
 a certain temperature glass can be     
tempered by being plunged into the      
liquid of a certain temperature1 if     
these temperatures are varied similar   
results will not follow4 ,the upper     
portions of the glass coming in contact 
with the tempering liquid at a lower    
temperature1 as they must have done1    
were not properly tempered1 and this ,i 
have clearly proved by the facts ,i have
 already stated4 ,from these remarks it 
seems tolerably clear that1 until some  
method is devised of bringing all the   
parts of the heated glass in contact    

with the cooling liquid simultaneously1 
the tempering of the article cannot be  
perfect throughout its whole surface4   
,as ,i desire1 and very sincerely1 that 
these processes should be brought to    
perfection so as to render them useful1 
,i willingly give this result of        
somewhat lengthened investigations to   
those whom it may commercially concern1 
and ,i hope that they will find1 on     
investigating the matter1 that my       
observations have been tolerably        
correct1 and that they will be able to  
devise a method which will remedy in    
many cases manifest imperfections of    
their present system4 ,all the accidents
 which have happened to tempered glass1 
which have been recorded in the         
newspapers1 can be accounted for on the 
principle which ,i have just endeavoured
 to explain1 for there must be          
instability1 where the bonding material 
of the internal particles of the glass  
is in different states of hardness2 so  
that there is no difficulty in          

conceiving how a gas globe could break  
apparently spontaneously1 for a portion 
of it which was not fairly toughened    
might be exposed to a somewhat sudden   
rise of temperature1 produced1 it may   
be1 from a draught blowing the flame    
upon that particular spot4 ,articles    
such as saucers1 made of glass1 which1  
being flat1 or nearly so1 can be plunged
 into the tempering liquid with great   
rapidity1 are usually tempered all over1
 and these1 when toughened1 can be      
thrown about and allowed to fall on hard
 floors with impunity1 thus proving the 
facts which ,i have endeavoured to      
establish4 ,i hope to be able to        
continue my investigations1 and should  
they be worth anything1 will give the   
results of them to the public4 ,before  
quitting this subject1 ,i shall make a  
few remarks upon the process for        
toughening glass1 which is said to have 
been purchased by the ,prussian         
,government4  ,this process is described
 as consisting in the application of    

superheated steam to the glass1 brought 
up to a temperature near to its melting 
point4 ,having facilities for making    
experiments of this kind1 ,i have had   
them tried with great care1 but in no   
case have ,i met with a satisfactory    
result4 ,this probably is owing to the  
fact1 that ,i did not comply strictly   
with the condition of the experiments   
performed by the ,german chemist who is 
said to have made the invention1 nor do 
,i see from analogy how this process is 
likely to effect a change in the glass  
similar to that arising from ,m4 de la  
,bastie's dipping process4  ,if glass1  
instead of being taken from the         
annealing kiln at the proper time1 be   
left exposed in the hot part of it1 at a
 temperature just below that at which it
 softens1 it will be found to become    
gradually opaque on its surface4 ,some  
experiments were performed many years   
ago by ,,ra7,c7aumur1 who exposed pieces
 of glass1 packed in plaster of ,paris1 
to a red heat1 which became gradually   

opaque1 and lost altogether the         
character of glass1 the texture of their
 material becoming crystalline1 and also
 effected by sudden changes of          
temperature4 ,glass treated in this way 
was called ,,ra7,c7aumur's porcelain4   
,all glasses do not undergo this change 
with equal rapidity1 and some do not    
experience it at all2 but the commoner  
kinds1 such as bottle glass1 are the    
best to experiment upon1 for the more   
alumina that it contains--and it is     
known that bottle glass contains a      
considerable quantity--the more readily 
does it undergo this change1 which is   
called devitrification4 ,in what it     
consists1 is not at present well        
understood1 but it offers a field for   
investigation1 which may produce results
 of very considerable benefit to        
manufacturers of glass4  ,soluble       
,silicates4--,an article on glass in a  
modern scientific work like the present 
would not be complete without a notice  
of the manufacture of soluble glass and 

the uses to which it has been and may be
 applied4 ,it has already been mentioned
 that when silica or sand is fused with 
an excess of alkali1 the resulting glass
 is soluble in water4  ,soluble glass is
 made on a large scale in three         
different ways4 ,first of all1 if       
flints1 that is1 black flints1 which are
 found in chalk1 be heated to a white   
heat1 they lose their black colour and  
their hardness1 and are easily crushed  
to small pieces2 and if flint in this   
condition be placed in a wire cage and  
put into a jacketed iron digester1 that 
is1 an iron digester which has an inner 
and an outer skin1 with a free space    
between the two1 so that steam may be   
forced into it from a boiler under      
pressure2 and if the digester be screwed
 down tightly with an iron cover1 and   
steam then be allowed to pass into the  
space between the two1 the temperature  
can be raised at pleasure1 according to 
the pressure under which the steam is   
introduced4 ,if the valve of the boiler 

be loaded with a #fj-lb4 weight1 the    
temperature of the water warmed by the  
steam will rise considerably higher than
 that of ordinary boiling water2 and if 
this water be saturated with caustic    
soda1 it will dissolve the flints       
slowly1 forming silicate of soda1 that  
is to say1 the silicic acid of the flint
 will unite directly with the soda of   
the solution1 and silicate of soda will 
thus be obtained4 ,for certain          
applications1 the silicate so formed is 
not sufficiently pure1 because the soda 
used often contains a certain amount of 
sulphate1 which will remain with it in  
the solution of silicate that is drawn  
off from the digester4 ,this sulphate is
 very objectionable for certain         
applications of silicates1 because it   
crystallizes out1 and so destroys the   
substance1 which the silicate is        
intended to preserve4  ,another and a   
much better method is to heat together  
the silica in the form of sand with     
alkali1 either potash or soda1 in a     

reverberatory furnace1 and as the glass 
becomes formed1 to rake it out into     
water1 and then gradually to dissolve it
 by boiling in suitable vessels4 ,here  
the sulphate1 if it existed in the      
alkali1 is decomposed by the silicic    
acid1 and the sulphuric acid passes off 
through the flues of the reverberatory  
furnace4  ,there is also a very         
ingenious way of making silicate of     
soda1 discovered by ,mr4 ,gossage1 and  
performed as follows3 common salt is    
heated to a high temperature and        
volatilized1 and in this condition is   
brought into contact with steam also at 
a high temperature1 when a double       
decomposition takes place4 ,steam is    
composed of oxygen and hydrogen2 common 
salt1 of sodium and chlorine4 ,the      
chlorine of the common salt unites with 
the hydrogen of the steam1 and the      
oxygen of the steam with the sodium1 so 
that hydrochloric acid and oxide of     
sodium are formed4 ,now1 if these two   
substances at this high temperature were

 allowed to cool together1 the action   
would be reversed1 and the re-formation 
of steam and chloride of sodium would be
 the result2 but in the strong chamber  
lined with fire-clay1 in which these    
vapours are brought into contact1 silica
 is placed in the form of sand made up  
into masses1 and when the oxide of      
sodium is formed1 it unites with the    
sand to make silicate of soda1 and thus 
is removed from the action of the       
hydrochloric acid1 not entirely1 but    
sufficiently to produce a large yield of
 silicate of soda4  ,the properties of  
silicate of soda1 as applied to the     
arts1 are somewhat different from those 
of silicate of potash1 so that one      
cannot always be substituted for the    
other4 ,both these substances are1 when 
in solution and concentrated1 thick and 
viscid1 and have the property of causing
 paper1 wood1 c41 to adhere when applied
 as a gum or glue1 and hence have been  
called mineral glue4 ,in a dilute state 
they can be used for coating stone1     

brick1 or cement1 and have the power of 
rendering them for a time waterproof1 or
 nearly so1 and of preventing the action
 of atmospheric influences1 which too   
often produce the decay of some of the  
softer stones used for building as well 
as for cement4 ,it has already been     
stated1 that when carbonic acid is      
passed through a solution of silicate of
 soda1 silica will be precipitated4     
,now1 inasmuch as there is carbonic acid
 in atmospheric air1 when these         
solutions are applied to the surfaces of
 a building1 they will be acted upon    
slowly by the acid1 and silica will be  
precipitated in the pores of the        
material to which the silicates are     
applied4 ,but this operation is         
extremely slow1 and1 before it can be   
thoroughly completed1 the silicates1    
being soluble1 will get in part         
dissolved out by rain and moisture1 and 
it is therefore advisable to use with   
them some material which will1 by a     
double decomposition1 form a silicate   

insoluble in water4 ,the silicate1      
however1 which is formed1 should have   
cohesion amongst its particles1 so that 
it will not only adhere to the stone    
itself1 but its own particles will      
adhere to one another when it gets dry4 
,various methods have been tried to     
cause this insoluble substance to be    
formed upon the surface of stones1 so as
 to fill up its pores and to make a     
protecting cover for it2 but most of    
them have signally failed1 because the  
new silicate produced by double         
decomposition has not had the necessary 
coherence amongst its particles4 ,if a  
solution of chloride of calcium be added
 to one of silicate of soda1 a silicate 
of calcium will be precipitated1 and it 
was therefore thought1 that by applying 
to a stone successive washes of silicate
 of soda and chloride of calcium1 an    
insoluble silicate of calcium would be  
produced in the pores and on its        
surface4 ,it is true that such a        
silicate is precipitated1 and that1 if  

the silicate employed be in excess of   
the chloride of calcium1 the particles  
will be glued together by the adhesive  
powers of this silicate when it dries2  
but then the action of moisture upon it 
is to cause it to run down the surface  
of the building1 and set free the       
particles of silicate of calcium which  
it held in combination4 ,other processes
 of the same kind have been tried1 and  
with similar results2 one great         
difficulty in the way of the success of 
this method of applying silicates being 
that1 from the peculiar colloidal or    
gluey nature of the silicate1 it does   
not penetrate to any considerable depth 
into the stone1 and1 if laid on first1  
prevents the penetration1 as far even as
 it has itself gone1 of the solution of 
chloride of calcium4 ,if the chloride of
 calcium be used before the silicate1 it
 will penetrate farther than the        
solution of silicate is able to reach1  
so that it is impossible to obtain1 even
 supposing the substance to be used in  

equivalent proportions1 a complete      
decomposition of the one by the other4  
,the great object to be attained in the 
preservation of stone by any silicious  
process1 is to use one solution         
possessing the substances which1 when   
the water has evaporated1 will form a   
perfectly coherent mass for the         
protection of the stone surface4 ,the   
depth of penetration1 if it is          
sufficient to protect the outside of the
 stone from the disintegrating action of
 the atmosphere1 need not be carried    
much more than one-sixteenth of an inch 
below the surface1 for when old stones  
which have long been in positions in    
buildings1 and which have not decayed at
 all1 are examined1 it will be found    
that they are covered with an extremely 
thin film of a hard substance1 not      
thicker than a sheet of writing paper1  
which has for ages protected and        
preserved them from decay4 ,this film is
 produced by a determination from the   
inside to the outside of the stone of a 

silicious water1 which existed in it in 
the quarry1 and which1 when the stone   
was placed in the building1 gradually   
came to the surface1 the water          
evaporating and leaving behind it a thin
 film of silica1 or of a nitrate--most  
likely the latter4  ,if alumina be fused
 with potash1 aluminate of potash1      
soluble in water1 is made2 if1 however  
the solution is too concentrated1 a     
certain quantity of the alumina will be 
precipitated2 but if it be dilute1 the  
whole of the alumina will remain in     
solution4 ,when aluminate of potash of  
specific gravity #a;,a4#ab is mixed with
 a solution of silicate of potash of    
specific gravity #a;,a4#b1 no           
precipitate or gelatinization will take 
place for some hours2 the more dilute   
the solution1 the longer will it remain 
without gelatinization1 and of course   
the thinner it will be1 and the greater 
power of penetration it will have when  
applied to a porous surface4 ,when      
solutions of aluminate of potash and of 

silicate of potash of greater density   
are mixed together1 a jelly-like        
substance is almost immediately formed1 
and sometimes even the whole mass       
gelatinizes4 ,if this jelly be allowed  
to dry slowly1 it will contract1 and at 
last a substance will be left behind    
sufficiently hard to mark glass1 though 
the time for this hardening may be from 
one to two years2 and on examination it 
is found that this substance has very   
nearly the same chemical composition as 
felspar1 and is perfectly insoluble in  
ordinary mineral acids4 ,now1 suppose a 
dilute solution of this mixture to be   
applied to the surface of stone1 the    
silicate and aluminate of potash will   
gradually harden and fill up the        
interstices of the stone2 and as both   
the substances entering into combination
 are contained in the same solution1    
they will both penetrate to the same    
depth4 ,inasmuch as the artificial      
felspar is not acted upon by destructive
 agents which would disintegrate the    

stone1 it becomes a bonding material for
 its loosened particles1 and at the same
 time gives a case-hardening to the     
stone1 which no doubt will as           
effectually protect it against          
atmospheric influences as in the case of
 the hardening of the natural one4 ,we  
have a tolerable guarantee that this    
will be so1 if we consider the number of
 enduring minerals into the composition 
of which silica1 alumina1 and potash    
enter1 and also of the almost           
imperishable character of granite1 which
 is so largely composed of felspar4     
,many experiments have been performed on
 an exhaustive scale with these         
materials1 and in every case it has been
 found that they have answered the      
expectation of those who have thus      
tested them4 ,it is1 however1 necessary 
to state1 that in making these          
experiments1 great care must be used to 
employ the mixed substance in solution  
before gelatinization has set in1 for if
 this has occurred1 even to the         

slightest extent1 a surface coating is  
formed on the stone1 which1 not having  
formed a bond with it1 easily rubs off4 
,another application of soluble         
silicates in this or other forms is to  
render walls of buildings which are     
porous1 waterproof4 ,a colourless1      
transparent material which can effect   
this object is doubtless desirable1 as  
anything like an opaque wash1 if applied
 to brick-work1 would destroy the colour
 of the bricks1 and therefore the       
character of the building constructed   
with them4 ,the silico-aluminate of     
potash may be used for this purpose1 as 
above directed2 and even silicate of    
potash alone1 provided it be in         
sufficient quantities1 will answer well1
 if from year to year1 for two or three 
years1 the application be renewed1 so as
 to fill in spaces1 wherever the        
silicate may have been in part dissolved
 out4 ,when the silicate of potash alone
 is used1 the action of the carbonic    
acid of the air in precipitating the    

silica is depended on1 and while this   
action is going on1 portions of the     
silicate not acted on will be dissolved 
out4  ,many years ago1 an effort was    
made in ,germany to revive the ancient  
art of fresco painting1 and with very   
considerable success4 ,it was found1    
however1 that our climate is not suited 
to the permanence of this method of     
decoration1 nor indeed is any climate   
absolutely suitable1 because in fresco  
painting1 the surface only of the lime  
is coloured with pigments laid on1 so   
that any influence which would destroy  
the lime surface would cause the removal
 of the pigments2 and from the porous   
nature of the surface of the work after 
it is completed1 absorption of moisture 
will from time to time take place1      
causing the adhesion of dirt and other  
foreign substances which may fall upon  
it1 and which it is almost impossible to
 remove without detriment to the        
picture4 ,dr4 ,fuchs1 of ,munich1       
discovered a method of painting with    

soluble silicates1 which has been tried 
with considerable success in ,berlin by 
the late ,professor ,kaulbach4 ,on a    
properly prepared ground1 the painting  
was executed in colours mixed with      
water1 which1 when dry and the painting 
finished1 were fixed to the wall by the 
application of soluble silicates4 ,for  
the preservation of the work1 ,dr4      
,fuchs mainly relied upon the action of 
atmospheric carbonic acid4 ,now1 when   
carbonic acid acts upon silicate of soda
 or silicate of potash1 we have already 
seen that the silicic acid is           
precipitated in the hydrated form1 and  
that the carbonic acid has united with  
the soda or potash to form carbonate of 
soda or carbonate of potash4 ,these     
substances being left in the painting   
and penetrating to a certain depth      
beneath its surface1 must find their way
 out1 and in almost every instance have 
done so in the form of an efflorescent  
substance1 which has caused the picture 
to have the appearance of being mildewed

 over its surface4 ,sometimes1 however1 
sulphates occur in the ground1 and then 
sulphates of soda and of potash have    
been formed1 injurious to the permanence
 of the surface of the picture1 because 
they crystallize and force off portions 
of the lime and sand of which the       
surface is composed4 ,the effect of the 
efflorescence of the carbonates on the  
surface of a silicious painting may be  
seen in the famous picture of the       
meeting of ,wellington and ,blucher1 in 
the ,house of ,lords1 painted by the    
late ,mr4 ,maclise1 ,r4,a4 ,when1       
however1 the solution of aluminate and  
silicate of potash is used with the     
pigments on a properly prepared ground1 
there is no fear of this efflorescence  
taking place1 and paintings executed    
with it have stood for many years1      
without giving any signs whatever of    
decay4  ,to those interested in this    
subject1 it is desirable that they      
should perform a series of experiments  
themselves1 and ascertain the best      

methods of practically applying this    
vehicle in the execution of large mural 
paintings4 ,they will find that1        
although at first they may meet with    
some difficulties1 yet after a while    
these difficulties will vanish1 and they
 will have a material to work with1     
which will meet all their requirements4 
,in an article so brief as the present1 
it is impossible to enter fully into all
 the details of the manipulation of this
 particular process of painting2 it is1 
however1 most desirable to give a short 
account of the method of preparing the  
ground and of applying the colours1     
leaving the rest to be learned from     
practical experience4  ,angular         
fresh-water river sand1 well washed1    
should be mixed with sufficient lime to 
cause it to adhere to the wall on which 
it is placed1 and this in all cases     
should be freshly plastered in the      
ordinary way4 ,no plaster of ,paris     
7which is sulphate of lime7 should be   
used in the preparation of the          

groundwork4 ,the coating of fine sand   
and lime is laid on to a depth of about 
an eighth of an inch1 and when dry1 an  
application of dilute silicate of potash
 should be made1 in order to bond       
together the particles of sand which1   
owing to the employment of so small a   
quantity of lime1 can be readily brushed
 off4 ,as soon as these particles are   
well fixed together and do not come off 
when the hand is passed over the surface
 of the wall1 the ground is in a fit    
state for the commencement of the       
painting4 ,the colour should be used    
with zinc white1 and not with lead      
white1 and1 of course1 they must be in  
the state of fine powder1 and not ground
 up with oil or any such material4 ,the 
artist can use his mixture of silicate  
of alumina and aluminate of potash of   
the strength already described2 he may1 
when desirable1 dilute it to a certain  
extent with water1 but he should not do 
so too much4 ,he can then paint with it 
just as he would with water in          

water-colour painting2 and if he finds  
that any portion of his colours1 after  
they are dry1 are not sufficiently fixed
 upon the wall1 he can then with a brush
 pass over them a coating of the clear  
liquid1 used a little stronger4 ,when   
the whole work is finished1 it will     
perhaps be desirable to give it one or  
two coats of a very dilute solution of  
silicate of alumina and aluminate of    
potash4 ,after a time1 owing to the     
contraction in drying of this material1 
it would be advisable--say1 after the   
lapse of two or three months--to again  
apply a coat of it somewhat stronger2   
and again1 if after a year1 or more than
 a year1 it should appear that any      
portions of the surface were becoming   
loose1 another application of the mixed 
silicate of alumina and aluminate of    
potash to these loosened parts alone    
will be desirable4 ,this repetition may 
appear to some to be an objection to the
 process1 but it is not so1 however2 for
 in the formation of those natural      

substances1 such as flints1 which we    
find so hard1 no doubt a very great     
lapse of time occurred in the induration
 of the gelatinous silica which formed  
them4 ,neither do we object from time to
 time1 at intervals of years to renew   
the coats of varnish on oil paintings1  
in order to preserve them or to bring   
out afresh the brilliancy of their      
colours4  ,the soluble silicates are    
frequently used as bonding materials in 
the manufacture of artificial stone and 
cement1 very good results having been   
attained4 ,the objection1 however1 to   
their employment for these purposes is  
the expense of the material of which    
they form a constituent part1 and it    
seems almost impossible ever to bring it
 into competition with dressed natural  
stone4 ,but for ornamental purposes1    
from the plastic nature of the substance
 when in the wet state1 it can be       
pressed into moulds1 and wherever       
plaster mouldings are admissible1 no    
doubt this material would be useful for 

certain kinds of ornamentation4 ,some   
years ago1 ,mr4 ,ransome1 of ,ipswich1  
after having made his artificial stone  
with sand and silicate of soda1 heated  
it in ovens1 so as to produce a hard and
 semi-vitrified mass4 ,a church1 the    
mouldings of which are made of this     
stone1 may be seen at the bottom of     
,pentonville ,hill1 ,london2 and        
certainly as to durability1 there is no 
doubt that the substance has answered   
very well4 ,but from difficulties in    
manipulation and other reasons1 that    
gentleman gave up this method of making 
artificial stone1 and is now working    
another process which yields far better 
results4 ,silicate of soda is mixed with
 sand 7generally ,aylesford sand71 and  
after the mixture is moulded and dried1 
it is exposed to the action in vacuo of 
chloride of calcium in solution4        
,whether the whole mass is placed in a  
vacuum chamber and then charged with    
chloride of calcium2 or whether a vacuum
 is formed on the under side of the     

substance1 and the chloride of calcium  
solution caused by suction to filter    
through it1 is uncertain4 ,however1     
whatever be the manipulative processes1 
the result is the same1 and appears to  
be extremely satisfactory4  ,soluble    
silicates produce very remarkable       
results when mixed with certain         
substances4 ,if silicate of soda or     
potash be mixed with white lead1 in a   
very short time it sets into a hard     
substance1 just as does plaster of      
,paris when mixed with water4 ,if       
powdered pumice-stone or sand1 in the   
proportion of eight parts to one of     
carbonate of lead1 be mixed together    
with soluble silicate1 a very hard and  
coherent mass is obtained1 and there    
seems no reason why a mixture of this   
kind1 in which pumice-stone is used1    
should not be employed for the purpose  
to which pumice-stone is usually        
applied4 ,it would have the advantage of
 being easily moulded into forms1 so as 
to suit mouldings1 which might by it be 

much more accurately and expeditiously  
smoothed down 7as in the case especially
 of picture-frame mouldings71 than they 
can be by the ordinary pumice-stone4    
,another very important application of  
soluble silicates is the rendering of   
wood incombustible4 ,many experiments   
have been performed which show that when
 wood is thoroughly impregnated to a    
depth of a quarter of an inch or more   
with silicate of soda1 it will not      
flame1 but will only char4 ,now1        
supposing that the constructive timbers 
of a house were worked1 and then placed 
in suitable vessels and saturated with  
silicate of soda1 they would then be    
rendered practically fireproof1 or at   
least it would take a very prolonged    
exposure to heat to cause them to       
smoulder away1 while at no period of    
this time would they burst into flame4  
,from the peculiarly gluey nature of    
these soluble silicates1 they do not    
penetrate readily into porous           
substances2 it has therefore been       

suggested that the impregnation of the  
wood should take place in vacuum        
chambers1 just in the manner that the   
creosoting process for preserving       
railway sleepers is at present          
performed4 ,it is most certainly        
advisable that the wood should be worked
 before being exposed to the silicating 
process1 for that would render it so    
hard1 that it would considerably        
increase the cost of labour in cutting  
and planing it4  ,at the commencement of
 this article1 it was stated that       
silicic acid1 or silica1 could be made  
soluble in water4 ,some very interesting
 experiments were performed by the late 
,dr4 ,graham1 ,master of the ,mint1     
which gave rise to the discovery of the 
process of dialysis4 ,if some silicate  
of soda be mixed with water1 so that not
 more than #e per cent4 of silica be in 
the solution 7rather less is better71   
and if some hydrochloric acid be then   
added in sufficient quantity to make the
 liquid distinctly acid1 and the mixture

 be placed in a dialyzing apparatus1 the
 chloride of sodium formed by the union 
of the chlorine of the hydrochloric acid
 with the sodium of the silicate of soda
 will pass out through this dialyzing   
membrane1 leaving hydrated silica       
behind1 which will remain in solution in
 the water with which the silicate was  
mixed4 ,the dialyzing apparatus is      
constructed in the following manner2 a  
sort of tambourine ring is made with    
gutta percha1 in place of wood1 from #h 
to #aj inches or even more in diameter1 
the depth1 being about #b inches4       
,another ring of gutta percha1 of about 
an inch deep or even less1 is made so as
 to fit tightly outside the tambourine2 
a piece of vegetable parchment is then  
moistened and placed over the           
tambourine1 and the thinner ring is     
pressed over it1 so as to secure it     
tightly4 ,this is the dialyzing vessel1 
and it is into this that the mixture of 
silicate and hydrochloric acid must be  
put4 ,the solution should not be more   

than an inch deep in the dialyzing      
vessel1 which is then made to float upon
 distilled water in a larger vessel of  
suitable size4 ,the distilled water     
should be changed every day1 until no   
precipitate can be obtained in it with  
nitrate of silver1 and when this point  
is arrived at1 all the chloride of      
sodium will have passed through the     
vegetable parchment into the larger     
vessel of water1 and nothing but silicic
 hydrate will remain behind in solution4
 ,if this liquid be allowed to stand for
 some time1 it will gelatinize1 and     
later on the jelly will contract1       
becoming extremely hard1 so that lumps  
of it1 when broken1 will in their       
fracture resemble that of flint4 ,no    
doubt1 at some future period1 some one  
will discover a method of rendering this
 condition of silica useful in the arts4
  ,soluble silicates are very useful as 
detergents4 ,a small quantity of        
silicate of soda mixed with hard water  
renders it valuable for washing         

purposes4 ,silicate of soda is also used
 in the manufacture of the cheaper kinds
 of soap4 ,we can hardly speak of it as 
an adulteration1 because it renders the 
soap with which it is combined much more
 powerful in its cleansing action4 ,i   
suggest to those interested in the      
application of science to the arts1 that
 this subject will no doubt well repay  
experimental investigations4  ,it is    
much to be wished that those engaged in 
this branch of art and manufacture1 and 
who have some knowledge of chemistry1   
would turn their attention to getting a 
better and more perfect method of making
 coloured pot-metal glass4 ,i have been 
engaged for some time1 and still am     
engaged1 in experiments to effect this  
object4 ,but inasmuch as my engagements 
are very numerous1 and ,i cannot give   
the proper time to it ,i desire1 ,i     
therefore take the liberty of suggesting
 to others the ways in which ,i am      
working1 that they may be able to arrive
 at good results more speedily probably 

than ,i shall be able to do4 ,if        
sulphate of copper be mixed with        
silicate of potash1 silicate of copper  
will be precipitated4 ,now1 if this be  
carefully washed and dried1 it will be a
 silicate of a definite composition1 and
 ,i propose to use such silicates as    
these with ordinary glass mixtures1 in  
order to impart the particular colour   
which the oxide employed has been       
already described as giving to the      
glass4 ,silicate of manganese is        
prepared in a similar way to the        
silicate of copper2 silicate of cobalt1 
and other silicates1 can be used as     
staining materials for colouring glass4 
,these mixed in due proportion would    
give tints1 and would1 ,i do not feel   
the slightest doubt1 produce colours    
with much greater certainty than they   
are now produced1 and tints hitherto    
unknown could be made to the great      
benefit of the glass-painter4           
,,furniture ,,and ,,woodwork4  ,,by ,j4 
,h4 ,,pollen1 ,m4,a41 ,south ,kensington

 ,museum4   ,i propose in the following 
pages to give some account of the       
materials used in making furniture1 and 
of the arts applied to its decoration4  
,from the earliest ages of society1 when
 men moved about in tribes1 they had in 
their tents of camels' hair simple      
necessaries1 such as their wants        
required4 ,before people were gathered  
into distinct nations1 or cities built  
with walls and gates1 there were still  
certain human wants that must needs be  
supplied2 and the objects that were     
needed to enable mankind to live with   
convenience and decency were found in   
their furniture4 ,to this very day we   
may see ,arab tribes wandering over     
sunny deserts1 seeking pasturage1 sowing
 here and there an acre of wheat or     
barley1 or gathering dates4 ,their      
camels and dromedaries are their        
waggons1 their horses are their friends1
 their families and those of others that
 make up their tribe are their only     
nationality4 ,yet they furnish in some  

sort the temporary homes which they     
shift from one spring of water to       
another1 as the patches of grass or     
grain grow up and ripen4 ,their chief   
wants are1 a cloth strained over three  
staves to make a house1 mats or carpets 
to lie on1 a few bowls to cook in1      
saddles of wood1 and a few baskets or   
chests1 made of light sticks fastened   
together4  ,in later periods of history 
and in more conventional states of      
society1 we shall find this primitive   
type of furnishing carried out with     
growing splendour4 ,in the ,west and in 
the ,east1 in ancient and medi,aval     
times1 great rulers1 though constantly  
in the saddle1 have been followed by    
enormous trains of camp followers1 by   
whom costly furniture1 hangings1 vessels
 of plate1 and other luxuries1 have been
 carried for the convenience of the     
leaders and warriors of moving hosts2   
and of course this splendour was the    
measure of the state and magnificence   
kept at home4 ,the wealth or feudal     

state1 shown in the furniture of old    
castles and palaces1 extended not only  
to halls and rooms1 but to dresses1 and 
armour1 weapons1 the furniture of       
horses1 tents1 and other objects that   
could be carried on distant expeditions4
  ,ancient nations have been as well1   
and more splendidly1 if less            
conveniently1 provided with furniture   
for their houses than modern ones4 ,it  
happens that there are distinct records 
of many kinds1 showing what wealth and  
elaborate decoration some of the oldest 
races1 such as the ,assyrians1 the      
,egyptians1 the ,persians1 and the      
,greeks1 bestowed on their thrones1     
beds1 chairs1 and chariots4 ,beds of    
silver and gold are mentioned in ,esther
 i41 and the curtains of the bed of     
,holofernes were covered with a canopy  
of purple and gold1 with emeralds and   
precious stones 7,judith x4 #ai2 ,esther
 i474 ,modern princes in ,india continue
 to devote their jewels and gold to     
similar uses4 ,it must be borne in mind 

also1 that this kind of splendour is an 
investment of property in times and     
countries in which banks1 insurance     
offices1 government funds1 and other    
organized means of investing money are  
unknown4  ,silver1 if not gold1 has been
 used occasionally1 not only in the     
,east1 but in ,europe1 for seats1       
tables1 even the frames of pictures and 
mirrors4 ,the royal apartments in       
,whitehall were completely mounted with 
hammered and filagree silver furniture  
in the seventeenth century4 ,carlyle    
records of ,frederick the ,great1 that  
silver ornaments were kept in his       
palace1 and turned to account under the 
exigencies of war4 ,but of furniture    
generally1 wood is the readiest and most
 proper material4 ,it is handy1 easily  
worked1 light to carry about1 and may be
 manufactured with or without           
decorations of carved work1 or of any   
other kind4 ,hence1 in giving an        
account1 whether historical or          
mechanical1 of furniture1 ,i class it   

under the more general head of woodwork4
 ,any other materials1 either for the   
framing or ornamentation of furniture1  
are exceptional4 ,the remarks now to be 
submitted to the reader will refer to   
wood that is manufactured1 though ,i    
shall not enter on the interesting      
subject of wood structure1 which has    
been applied to such noble and elaborate
 uses1 and of which such splendid       
monuments of many periods still remain  
for us to study4  ,most of the methods  
used for decorating woodwork made up    
into furniture are still in regular use1
 and the processes of putting it        
together are the same as they have      
always been4 ,the reader may satisfy    
himself on this point any day by a walk 
in the ,egyptian rooms and in the       
,nineveh galleries of the ,british      
,museum4 ,in both these sections of that
 wonderful collection1 there are remains
 of woodwork and of furniture1 made of  
wood three or four thousand years old1  
such as stools1 chairs1 tables1         

head-rests or pillows1 workmen's benches
 of ,egyptian manufacture1 fragments    
less complete of ,nineveh make that have
 been portions of various utensils1 and 
precious articles of sculptured and     
inlaid ivory that have been inserted    
into thrones and chariots4 ,these pieces
 of furniture have been mortised        
together1 or joined by dowels1          
dovetailed at the angles1 glued1 nailed1
 or1 in short1 made up by the use of    
several of these methods of junction at 
the same time4 ,and no great changes    
have been introduced in the various ways
 of ornamenting furniture4 ,the         
,egyptian woodwork was painted in       
tempera1 and carefully varnished with   
resinous gums4 ,it was inlaid with ebony
 and other woods1 carved1 gilt and1     
perhaps1 sparingly decorated with metal 
ornaments4 ,the ,greeks inlaid chests   
and tables with carved ivory and gold1  
sometimes relieved with colour4 ,the    
,romans1 who made much furniture of     
bronze1 cast1 inlaid1 damascened and    

gilt1 made much more in wood1 which they
 stained1 polished1 carved1 and inlaid4 
,medi,aval furniture was put together   
with mortises1 tenons and glue1 and was 
gilt and painted2 the painting and      
gilding being laid on a ground prepared 
with the utmost care1 and tooled and    
ornamented in the same way that         
bookbinders ornament leather4 ,at a     
later period1 a beautiful manufacture   
was carried on in various parts of      
,italy2 a sort of mosaic in very hard   
stone1 such as agate1 lapis lazuli1 and 
other precious materials4 ,the ,italians
 also used these beautiful stones inlaid
 in ebony4 ,but the furniture most      
valued in modern times has been that    
which owes its name to ,boulle1 a       
,french artist of the seventeenth       
century2 and the marquetry1 or wood     
mosaic surface decoration1 which reached
 so high a standard of excellence during
 the last thirty years of the eighteenth
 century in ,france4  ,the former of    
these two classes of manufacture made1  

if not originated1 by ,boulle 7and ,i am
 inclined to think that he was not the  
first maker71 was a marquetry1 or       
surface decoration1 not composed of     
various woods1 but of tortoiseshell and 
brass1 with the occasional introduction 
of other metal1 and with metal enamelled
 in blue and other colours4 ,the        
materials principally in use1 however1  
in ,boulle marquetry are tortoiseshell  
and brass4 ,in the older work1 viz4 that
 of the seventeenth century1 the        
tortoiseshell is dark1 and left in its  
natural hue4 ,in later ,boulle1 called  
new ,boulle1 the tortoiseshell is       
reddened by colour1 or by gilding laid  
under it4 ,there is much grace and      
variety in the delicate arabesque       
designs in which one material is inlaid 
in the other4 ,parts of the surfaces are
 sometimes diapered1 as a contrast to   
the free lines and curves of other      
parts4 ,the inlaid surface of ,boulle   
work is framed in by borders1 cornices1 
or handles of brass or gilt bronze1     

giving a massive architectural character
 to the whole4  ,thus if we look back to
 the history of furniture1 not only will
 every kind of splendid material be     
found devoted to the manufacture or     
decoration of it1 but the best art too  
of many different periods that money    
could command4 ,it is in the late times 
of antiquity1 and since the period of   
the ,renaissance in modern times1 that  
works of art have been kept on shelves  
or gathered into galleries4 ,many works 
of great masters1 such as the chest of  
,cypselus1 and the chairs of the great  
statues of ivory and gold1 were prepared
 for celebrated shrines and temples in  
the cities of ,greece4 ,it was but the  
excessive wealth of great patricians in 
,rome and ,constantinople that led to   
their becoming collectors1 whether of   
sculpture1 painting1 or sumptuous silver
 plate4 ,the chief object of rich and   
accomplished men in most ages of luxury 
and refinement has been1 to make the    
house1 its walls1 ceilings1 floors1 and 

necessary or useful furniture1 costly   
and beautiful4 ,it was the same in the  
days of ,donatello1 ,raphael1 ,cellini1 
and ,holbein4 ,chests and trays were    
painted1 together with gems1 dies1      
brooches2 table plate was modelled and  
chiselled2 while chairs of wrought      
steel1 or tables1 cabinets1 and other   
pieces of rich furniture1 were either   
designed or carried into execution by   
these masters with their pupils and     
followers4 ,in some instances1 as1 e4g41
 in that of the famous ,pomeranian      
cabinet1 in the ,kunst ,kammer in       
,berlin1 a long list has been preserved 
of artists and craftsmen of note in     
their day1 who combined to produce      
monumental examples of actual room      
furniture4  ,it cannot be denied that   
though great pains are taken and much   
expense is incurred in modern           
furnishing1 the habits of the day lead  
rather to the search for comfort than   
for grace or beauty2 and convenience    
rather than intrinsic value or artistic 

excellence4 ,nevertheless1 a certain    
amount of decency and splendour is      
indispensable in both receiving and     
sleeping rooms2 and though a house      
really well1 that is beautifully1       
furnished is of rare occurrence1 this is
 not for want of serious efforts1 nor   
altogether to be laid to the account of 
unwillingness to spend money for such a 
purpose4 ,whether the art of furnishing 
or the desire to have what people       
require for use in their houses more    
becoming and beautiful1 be a rising     
influence or not1 it is certain that the
 fancy or ornamental furniture trade is 
of large and increasing importance1     
corresponding to the increased size and 
cost of modern ,london and country      
houses1 compared with those built during
 the reigns of ,william ,,iii4 and      
,george ,,iv4 ,every tradesman who has  
the pretension to repair chimney-pots1  
to whitewash1 or paint house-fronts1    
ceilings1 or offices1 writes up the word
 decorator1 on his shop-front4   ,,the  

,,qualities ,,required ,,in ,,furniture4
  ,we may consider furniture under two  
broad divisions1 that which is made to  
be handled and moved about1 and that    
which is for use but not meant to be    
handled or moved4 ,we may add a third   
division in the actual fixtures of the  
house1 made by the joiner and meant to  
be ornamental fittings or completions to
 the builder's and carpenter's work4    
,under the first head will be included  
light tables1 chairs1 couches1 and other
 movable objects2 under the second1     
cabinets1 book-shelves1 frames1 mirrors1
 and so on2 under the third head come   
flooring1 panelling1 window shutters1   
door-frames1 stair-rails1 c4   #a4      
,,chairs1 ,,tables1 ,,etc4  ,the        
essential points in a well-made chair   
are comfort1 lightness1 and strength4   
,of course1 as men and women are pretty 
much of the same proportion all over the
 world1 chairs1 of which the seat is    
about the height of the lower process of
 the human knee-joints1 must be of the  

same height1 or but slightly varied1 in 
every country4 ,from the habit that so  
many persons have of throwing their     
whole weight back and1 as we are told1  
in some countries1 of balancing their   
persons on the back legs of their chairs
 and inclining their legs in the        
direction of the chimneypiece1 there is 
often an immense strain on the back     
joints of chairs4 ,whether we lean back 
or swing on them1 the junction of the   
seats of chairs with the backs is always
 subject to severe trials2 and on no    
article of furniture in common use is   
such good joinery required4 ,it is worth
 while to look at the old wall paintings
 of the ,egyptians1 as they are given in
 ,rossellini and the great ,french book 
of the ',description de l',egypte1' to  
see what capital workmanship those most 
ancient carpenters bestowed on their    
chairs4 ,those of the best and oldest   
periods are without connecting bars to  
the legs before or behind1 all the      
strength of the construction being      

centred in the excellence of the joints 
of the seat with the back and legs2 and 
in modern workshops1 the highest skill  
is applied to ensure strength in these  
points of junction4 ,if the wood is     
thoroughly dry1 the mortises and tenons 
fitting perfectly1 and the glue good1   
the different parts are so wedded       
together that the whole structure       
becomes one piece1 as if nature had made
 a vegetable growth in that fashion1 all
 the fibres of which have continuous and
 perfect contact with each other4 ,if1  
however1 there is a deficiency in any of
 these conditions1 these joints fail4   
,if the wood shrinks1 or the tenons do  
not fit the mortises all through1 or the
 glue is deficient1 these various       
portions speedily come to pieces4       
,sofas1 couches1 and stuffed chairs are 
so much more massive in construction    
that there need be no risk of such a    
kind of disintegration4  ,the members of
 which a chair is made up may be either 
turned in the lathe1 or left massive    

enough to allow of carving on the legs1 
backs1 or round the framework of the    
seat4 ,turned work can be lightly inlaid
 with ivory1 as that of ancient ,egypt1 
painted1 gilt1 or mounted 7lightly also7
 with metal4  ,the subjects of the      
carving may be either figures of men1   
horses1 lions1 or the heads and legs of 
such animals1 acanthus leaves1 and      
arabesques4 ,many of these ornaments    
have been used from ancient times1 and  
revived at various historical periods4  
,for modern rooms the lightest          
construction is most in place1 and      
therefore carving should be compact in  
composition and delicate in execution1  
without prominences or undercutting that
 would interfere with comfort or be     
liable to breakage4  ,a certain         
architectural character is given to     
chairs by cutting flutings down the     
legs1 or by borrowing other slight      
details from architecture4 ,the         
upholstery of chairs will always be     
their most noticeable decoration1 and   

this applies still more to lounging     
chairs and couches of all shapes and    
sizes1 as the framework of them is so   
much less observable in proportion to   
their upholstered surfaces4  ,tables1   
lampstands1 c41 being generally1 though 
not always1 meant to be moved about1    
require as light a construction as is   
consistent with strength4 ,the surface  
of all but small tables is beyond the   
dimensions of a single plank of wood4   
,the outer and inner portions of a log  
or plank are of different fineness of   
grain1 contain varying proportions of   
sap1 and shrink in different degrees4   
,single planks of wood1 therefore1 can  
only be exceptionally used for table    
tops4 ,generally1 they are made up of   
portions of planks selected with great  
care1 grooved on the edges1 with a      
tongue or slice of wood cut the cross   
way of the grain1 uniting the planks    
about the middle of their thickness2 the
 edges are then firmly glued together4  
,if the surface is to be of wood which  

can be procured in large pieces of      
straight or continuous grain1 such as   
mahogany1 the wood is solid throughout2 
if of some rare wood or rare figured    
graining1 such as the roots or wens of  
oak1 this ornamental surface is laid on 
in thin slices with glue and heavy      
pressure4 ,this is known as veneering4  
,the surface is sometimes inlaid with   
ivory1 metal1 mother-of-pearl1 slices of
 agate and other substances1 as in the  
,boulle or marquetry work already       
alluded to4  ,the frame of the table is 
either a deep rail not far within the   
edge1 or a thick pillar or leg or       
several legs collected1 mortised into a 
broad expanding foot and supporting a   
spreading framework above1 to which the 
top itself can be fastened1 and         
stretching far enough all round in the  
direction of the edges to give a firm   
support4  ,the decoration of the top can
 only be superficial if the table is for
 use1 and any decoration by carving1    
piercing1 and so on1 must be confined to

 the framework and the supports4 ,these 
parts can be1 and have been at all times
 decorated as the framework of chairs1  
and by very much the same kinds of      
ornament4  ,to tables of more modern    
periods1 little galleries of pierced    
work or of tiny balustrades are         
sometimes added4 ,they belong to the age
 of porcelain collectors1 hoops1 broad  
coat-skirts1 and tea-parties1 and are   
intended to save delicate wares from    
being swept to the ground4 ,side tables1
 and such as are made to support heavy  
objects1 can be treated with more       
massive frame work and supports1 and the
 carving and decorations will be bolder 
and larger accordingly4   #b4           
,,cabinets1 ,,etc4  ,i will proceed to  
the second division of furniture1       
cabinets1 bookcases1 and other standing 
objects1 which are more or less         
immovable4 ,but shelves and china trays 
must be placed in secure parts of the   
room1 if they are not actually fastened 
to the wall4 ,the former must be strong 

to support the great weights laid upon  
them1 and the supports or framework1    
which is all that would be seen1 may be 
carved or decorated with surface or     
applied metal ornament4 ,on a large     
scale1 fittings of this kind belong     
rather to architectural woodwork4 ,china
 holders1 whether placed on the ground  
or fixed against a wall1 are properly   
treated with shelves quaintly shaped on 
plain and light1 pierced galleries or   
gilt decorations corresponding with the 
apparent lightness of pieces of         
porcelain4 ,the wood and lac work       
cabinets of the ,chinese2 and the       
complicated1 but not ungraceful1 gilt   
mirror frames and flourishing acanthus  
work of the ,italians1 ,french1 and     
,germans1 of the last century1 seem     
specially suited for showing off this   
gay and fragile material4 ,the collector
 proper will probably place his         
treasures under glass1 and with little  
regard to the framework of his cases4   
,here china and china stands are treated

 only as decorations4  ,as to cabinets1 
they are the most precious1 if not the  
most useful of all pieces of furniture4 
,they have generally been intended to   
hold family treasures1 are not required 
to be moved1 and have therefore been the
 richest and most decorated objects in  
the room4 ,cabinets are the legitimate  
descendants of the chests of former days
 containing bridal outfits and trinkets1
 or plate1 jewellery1 and other         
valuables4 ,they were carried from town 
to country1 from grange to castle4      
,about the beginning of the sixteenth   
century1 the personal habits of great   
men became less nomad1 and their chests 
were no longer liable to be packed and  
moved away4 ,these receptacles were     
mounted on stands at which height the   
lids could not be lifted1 and doors were
 substituted4 ,drawers took the place of
 shelves or compartments1 and every sort
 of ingenuity was applied to make these 
pieces of furniture quaint and splendid 
inside and out4  ,as to shape1 it is    

contrary to their purpose of convenience
 and interior capacity1 to make         
cabinets1 cupboards1 or other           
receptacles1 with showy and spreading   
architectural details1 such as cornices1
 architraves1 columns1 pediments1 and   
the like4 ,all these parts1 which are   
laborious and costly in construction1   
are so many additions to its size1 and  
make no more room inside to compensate  
for this expenditure4 ,cabinets should1 
in propriety1 be as big and convenient  
inside as their size would lead us to   
expect4  ,on the other hand1 the many   
fine examples made in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries in this country1  
,holland1 ,germany1 ,france or          
elsewhere1 have been generally intended 
for rooms larger1 higher1 and with fewer
 pieces of furniture in them than those 
of our modern houses1 not to speak of   
the massiveness of fireplaces and       
fittings with which they were in        
character4 ,it is their age1 and the    
connection1 which we cannot help        

tracing1 with old houses and bygone     
generations which give architectural    
cabinets an interest now4  ,in          
construction1 the skill of the cabinet  
maker will be shown in the neat and     
convenient arrangement of drawers of    
various depths and sizes1 shelves or    
repositories1 so contrived as to turn   
the entire internal space to account4   
,the most curious contrivances are often
 found in old ,german1 ,english1 and    
,french cabinets1 bureaux1              
secr,a7,c7taires1 and other varieties of
 this kind of furniture4 ,pediments1    
capitals of columns1 and other parts of 
architectural fronts are made to open1  
and secret drawers stowed away with an  
ingenuity almost humorous4 ,it is upon  
the fronts and stands that the skill of 
great masters of the craft has been     
bestowed4 ,the large wardrobes1 or      
armoires1 of ,boulle are examples of    
great inventive and designing power1 as 
well as the marquetry of ,riesener and  
,david1 and the chiselled metal-work of 

,berain1 ,gouthi,are1 and that of many  
,english artists4  ,as in past times1   
and so in our own1 it is on cabinets    
that the real triumphs of the cabinet   
maker's art are displayed4   #c4 ,,fixed
 ,,woodwork4  ,thirdly1 the joiner's and
 cabinet maker's art plays an important 
part in the fixed furniture of the      
house1 and the woodwork1 such as        
flooring1 doors and door-frames1        
panelling1 chimneypieces1 with the      
complementary decorations of hangings1  
whether tapestry1 silk1 or the more     
humble material of paper4  ,in this last
 division of furniture the work is that 
of joinery4 ,there is no great demand   
for constructive strength1 as the work  
is fixed to walls2 but as doors and     
shutters are swung to and fro           
continually1 and subject to jars and    
strains1 their stiles and rails1 upright
 and cross-framing members1 as well as  
the panelling that fills them1 require  
well-seasoned timber and the most       
accurate workmanship3 without these     

conditions the joints open1 the panels  
shrink from the grooves in which the    
edges are held1 and split1 while the    
frame itself1 if of unseasoned material1
 'buckles' or twists1 so that the door  
or shutter will no longer shut flat in  
its frame4  ,panelling and fireplaces   
are1 however1 opportunities for the     
display of carving1 inlaying1 and       
gilding4 ,the reader has seen carved    
room panelling1 probably1 in many old   
houses4 ,in some of the municipal       
'palaces' in ,flanders1 e4g4 in ,bruges1
 and in the old rooms of the ,louvre in 
,paris1 carved panelling of the utmost  
grace and perfection1 some of it in     
groups of life-sized portrait figures1  
may be studied by the tourist4  ,of work
 so rich and costly as this wood        
sculpture1 it is perhaps hopeless to    
speak with reference to our modern      
houses1 and in connection with the      
manufacture of furniture in this        
country1 at least on any large or       
general scale of application4 ,still as 

such work1 confined to the composition  
of fireplaces or sideboard backs1 is    
still sculptured by ,italian and ,french
 carvers1 and has been sent to          
,universal ,exhibitions of recent years1
 it must be considered a possible effort
 for our great employers of skilled     
labour4  ,the panelling of wall surfaces
 will be divided into larger or smaller 
reticulations or framework1 with some   
reference to the size of the room1 that 
is to say1 that very large and lofty    
rooms will not bear the smaller         
subdivision of space and delicate       
moulding lines which are so general in  
panelling of medi,aval or very early    
,tudor houses1 and which are in keeping 
on walls of moderate size4 ,any inlaying
 or variety of woods should be used on  
walls with great discretion4  ,so far1  
then1 on the general consideration of   
the work1 which it is the business of   
the furniture maker to produce4 ,in     
theory1 it is his object to satisfy     
daily wants and necessities in the most 

convenient1 useful1 and agreeable way4  
,the difference between rudeness and    
refinement in daily habits consists in  
putting first order and propriety1 then 
comeliness and cheerfulness into our    
homes and habits4 ,there is so much to  
be borne and to be done merely that we  
may live1 so many contradictions to     
natural inclination meet us on all      
sides1 that we look for repose1 and some
 moderate satisfaction to the natural   
desire of the eye1 in that which meets  
it1 and must meet it1 so constantly4    
,this satisfaction is beauty1 or some   
measure of it1 or what we have grown to 
take for beauty4 ,as the eye is more    
exercised1 the mind more informed1 and  
becomes a better monitor or corrective  
to the eye1 so we get less satisfied    
with much that passes for beauty1 and   
so1 on the other hand1 we find it out in
 objects in which it is commonly or     
often passed over4   ,,manufacture4  ,a 
return prepared by the ,commissioners   
for the ,paris ,exhibition1 in #ahfg1   

gave the following as the number of     
manufacturers engaged in ,london in the 
several branches of the fancy furniture 
trade4    ,cabinet makers               
#hab   ,upholsterers                    
#dhf   ,carvers and gilders             
#cdb   ,french polishers                
#adb   ,cabinet carvers1 inlayers1 and  
liners      #ajh   ,bedstead-makers     
#dc   ,chair1 sofa1 and stool-makers    
#beb  ,wood and cabinet wares were      
exported 7in #ahfe7 to the value of     
#bhi1hhgl41 and imported to the value of
 #abh1ibel4#e          #e ,cat4 ,brit4  
,section ,exhibition1 #ahfg1            
,introduction1 p4 #fa4  ,the highest    
efforts of the trade are concentrated in
 a few large establishments in ,london  
and the great cities1 which have their  
own cabinet makers1 carvers1            
upholsterers1 c41 on their premises4 ,in
 some instances1 one piece of furniture 
may pass through the hands of several   
branches of the manufacture4 ,i may     
choose a few names of makers who        

presented their works in ,paris in #ahfg
 in alphabetical order1 e4g4 ,messrs4   
,collinson and ,locke1 ,crace1 ,dyer and
 ,watts1 ,gillow1 ,herring1 ,holland1   
,howard1 ,hunter1 ,ingledew1 ,jackson   
and ,graham1 ,morant1 ,trollope1        
,wertheimer1 ,wright and ,mansfield4    
,the larger of these establishments are 
supplied with steam machinery1 and all  
the work that can possibly be executed  
by mechanical agency is prepared by     
these engines1 leaving only the most    
costly operations to be executed by     
hand4  ,it is the province of the       
carpenter to put together simple        
woodwork2 that which is an actual part  
of architecture1 such as boxes1 chests1 
benches1 seats1 shelves1 and so forth as
 require only good material and neatness
 of hand in execution4 ,the joiner and  
cabinet maker include this amount of    
skill as a foundation for their         
accomplishments1 as a sculptor can block
 out a statue and a painter grind his   
colours1 work1 however1 which in        

ordinary practice is handed over to     
assistants or apprentices4  ,before     
discussing the materials and the methods
 of execution now in use1 it would be   
well to notice a great change which has 
taken place both in the status of the   
workman1 the division of labour1 and the
 mechanical appliances now at his       
command4  ,down to recent times1 joinery
 and cabinet making were in the hands of
 a number of masters in the trade1 far  
greater in comparison to the pressure of
 the demand on the part of buyers than  
is the case at present4 ,we have a      
larger society of buyers1 a greater     
demand for the execution of large orders
 at a rapid rate1 than was the case in  
former generations4 ,on the other hand1 
the trade is gathered up into fewer     
master hands4 ,the masters then employed
 a less amount of labour4 ,they took in 
apprentices1 many of whom remained for  
years with them as assistants1 and the  
establishment was more of a family4 ,it 
followed1 that all members of this      

smaller society worked together and took
 part in the particular sets of chairs1 
the tables1 cabinets1 and so forth1     
turned out from their own house4 ,they  
were1 moreover1 animated in a closer and
 truer degree by the spirit1 and adopted
 the ideas1 of a master who worked with 
or overlooked and advised them          
constantly1 than could be the case in   
our great modern establishments4 ,again1
 though1 as ,i have already said1 the   
old operations by which boards1 bars1   
and other members of wood construction  
are joined together1 have not           
substantially varied since the days of  
,egyptians and ,romans1 the methods of  
execution have undergone a great change1
 owing to the introduction of machinery4
 ,the skill and training of the hand of 
the workman must necessarily undergo a  
change as well1 whether for the better  
or the worse4 ,the workman is relieved  
from the necessity of attaining an      
absolute accuracy in much of the        
ordinary but essential work of joints1  

mortises and other operations which can 
be produced with an uniform exactness by
 mechanical means4  ,the fact1 also1    
that different engines or lathes can    
produce at a prodigious rate certain    
separate parts of many pieces of        
furniture1 has made skilled mechanics   
less universal all round men than they  
were4 ,if this combination of qualities 
is to be met with in provincial towns or
 villages1 there1 without doubt1 the    
standard of excellence is a lower one4  
,materials and ,execution4--,the woods  
used for making furniture besides pines 
and deals1 are birch and beech 7used for
 stuffed chair-frames1 couches1 c47     
walnut1 letter wood1 ,spanish and       
,honduras mahogany1 sycamore1 lime1     
pear1 cherry of several kinds1 and      
maple2 ash1 ,english1 ,american1 and    
,hungarian2 oak1 ,english1 foreign1 and 
pollard1 with pieces cut from wens and  
sweet cedar4 ,turners use also plane1   
laburnum1 yew1 holly1 and box4 ,more    
precious woods are also used in         

furniture3 rose-wood1 satin-wood1 ebony1
 and sandal-wood4 ,other rare woods are 
used in inlaying and marquetry4  ,some  
of these materials1 mahogany and walnut1
 which are much in use1 are imported in 
vast logs1 the former sometimes three   
feet square2 when of very fine grain    
suited to veneers1 worth #ajjjl4 or     
more1 per log4  ,the woods are stacked  
in yards1 or1 in ,london1 where the     
space cannot otherwise be had1 on       
platforms resting on the walls of the   
workshops1 and fully exposed to the     
weather4 ,woods are dried after a year1 
or two years1 according to the size of  
the log and nature of the wood4 ,oak is 
sometimes kept for eight or more years4 
,when sawn into the scantlings required1
 it is further dried by placing the logs
 and planks in rooms heated by the waste
 steam from the engine4 ,an ,american   
patented method of drying is to place a 
coil of pipes1 through which exceedingly
 cold water is passed in the drying     
room1 which condenses and carries off   

the vapours from the wood exposed to    
this heat4 ,some firms have tried this  
method1 but1 ,i believe1 without much   
success4  ,logs are cut up by the engine
 with three or more perpendicular saws  
at once1 the teeth being set to the     
right and left alternately1 to open a   
passage for the blades4 ,more valuable  
woods1 e4g4 mahogany1 are cut into thin 
plank by an horizontal saw4 ,in this    
case the teeth are not bent1 but a      
labourer opens the passage for the blade
 by lifting the plank with a wedge4 ,as 
little waste of the material as possible
 is thus secured4  ,further cutting up  
of the material is done by means of     
circular saws4 ,part of the saw rises   
through a metal table4 ,a moveable bar  
is firmly screwed at one1 two1 or more  
inches from the blade1 and the wood is  
pushed by the workman against the saw1  
keeping one surface against the fixed   
bar1 so as to secure a straight cut of  
the thickness required4 ,most modern    
planing is done by a revolving cutter1  

brought to bear upon the wood1 which is 
drawn under it on an iron table1 with   
more or less pressure1 according to the 
quantity to be taken off the surface4   
,messrs4 ,howard have contrived a tube  
with a blast down it1 which carries the 
shavings at once to the furnace1        
otherwise the dust made by the flying   
particles of wood would be unendurable4 
,mouldings for panelling1 cornices1     
skirtings1 c41 are cut by revolving     
cutters or chisels1 filed to any desired
 shape and case-hardened4 ,they are set 
in a perpendicular axle and cut         
horizontally1 the wood being firmly     
pressed against the tool4 ,the workman  
can gear the cutter or reverse the      
action1 so as to make a neat finish to  
his work4  ,formerly all such work was  
done with a plane1 cut to the required  
figure1 and the finishings of lines of  
moulding had to be carved with the hand4
  ,mortising is done by a revolving     
boring tool1 against which the wood to  
be mortised is moved by a gradual       

action1 from side to side1 and backwards
 and forwards1 till the exact depth and 
width are bored out2 tenons fitting     
these cavities are cut in another lathe1
 also by mechanical action4  ,turning   
lathes4--,the legs of chairs and tables 
are made in lathes1 the general outline 
being obtained by turning in the simple 
form4 ,portions of the legs are         
sometimes squared1 and the square faces 
must be evenly graduated4 ,these parts  
are cut as follows3 the lathe and the   
leg in it are kept at rest1 and a       
revolving tool--in fact1 a small lathe  
with a perpendicular cutter in it1      
connected by a leather band with a      
spindle overhead--set in motion by the  
steam-engine4 ,the workman passes this  
cutter carefully down the four surfaces 
of the portions to be squared1 cutting  
to a given depth all down1 but never    
losing the angle outlines originally    
found by the first turning4 ,when       
flutings have to be cut down the legs1  
whether they are round or square1 this  

is done by using a revolving cutter set 
with horizontal action1 which passes    
carefully along at one level1 and is    
geared by the joiner so as to graduate  
the width of each fluting1 as it        
descends1 if the diminishing size of the
 support or leg requires it4  ,bars of  
chairs1 edges of shelves1 the stretchers
 7or connecting bars7 under some kinds  
of tables1 are cut into carved or other 
shapes by an endless band saw revolving 
on two rollers4 ,the workman passes his 
wood along an iron table against the    
saw1 gearing the former according to the
 pattern drawn on the surface4          
,fretwork is done with a still finer    
hair or watch-spring saw1 of which one  
end can be detached from the holder and 
passed through a small hole in the piece
 of wood where the piercing is to be cut
 out by the saw4 ,this could not be done
 by an endless saw1 which can only be   
used to shape out edges4 ,the best saws 
of this description are made by ,perin1 
in ,paris4  ,watch-spring saws strained 

in frames have long been in use4 ,in the
 steam-engine it is the wood only that  
is moved1 and as it rests on a steady   
table1 it gives the workman a great     
advantage1 and should enable him to     
shape out his design with a delicacy    
only attainable with greater difficulty 
by the old method4  ,the process of     
mitreing pieces of moulding1 where they 
meet at an angle at a corner1 is done by
 machinery in some houses4 ,in the works
 of ,messrs4 ,jackson and ,graham1 this 
is done by setting the pieces in a metal
 ,t square4 ,they are carefully cut by  
hand1 and as each piece is set in a     
frame geared to the angle required1 and 
under the hand of an experienced        
workman1 no inaccuracies are likely to  
occur4 ,in cabinet-making and joinery of
 all kinds1 the number of angles round  
which mouldings have to pass is very    
great1 as anyone will see who is at the 
pains to notice the construction of     
furniture of the most ordinary kind4    
,any staring or opening of an oblique   

joint is destructive of the effect of   
such workmanship1 as it is of the       
strength of the joint which is glued    
together1 and requires absolute contact 
of the parts to be joined4  ,much work1 
such as chair rails1 table legs1        
balusters for little galleries or on a  
large scale1 is turned and cut in the   
steam lathe by hand1 using steam power  
only to turn it4  ,joinery4--,the pieces
 of wood thus prepared are made up in   
many different combinations4 ,this is   
the work of the joiner4 ,in the joiners'
 shop of ,messrs4 ,jackson and ,graham1 
for instance1 several benches were shown
 to me occupied by lengths of           
wall-panelling in ebony1 some of the    
work being intended to cover the wall of
 a staircase2 it was therefore framed in
 sloping lines4 ,each panel was a       
rhomboid1 and none of the sides or      
mouldings were at right angles to each  
other4 ,the mouldings had several fine  
strings1 ovaloes1 c41 all specially     
designed by the architect of the        

house--as the fittings of well-furnished
 houses should be4 ,for these1 special  
cutters had been made and fitted to the 
steam-moulding machine4 ,to show the    
back of the panelling1 the workmen      
turned it over4 ,instead of each panel  
being held in a groove provided in the  
stiles and rails1 a rebate only has been
 cut in the frame1 and the panel fits   
into it from the back 7as the stretcher 
of a picture fits into a picture-frame71
 while iron buttons screwed into the    
frame pieces hold the panels firmly in  
their places4 ,the object of this is to 
allow for the contraction of the wood   
with the alterations of temperature4    
,with some woods1 however well seasoned1
 this provision is requisite1 and it is 
the more necessary1 when more than one  
material is employed4 ,in using ebony   
over large surfaces1 it is found that   
the lengths required for the continuous 
rails cannot be procured free from knots
 or faults2 and particular kinds of wood
 7pear and other material7 are stained  

and prepared1 to supplement the ebony in
 these instances4  ,the joiners put     
together panelling1 chairs1 couches1    
frames of tables1 shelves1 cupboards1   
and other complex pieces of furniture4  
,upholstery4--,chairs and sofas required
 to be stuffed are then handed over to  
the upholsterer1 and the seats and backs
 are stuffed with curled horsehair1     
carefully arranged so as not to wear    
into holes4 ,a ,french edge is given to 
some stuffed seats by bringing the edges
 of several ridges of horsehair         
together1 so inclined towards the upper 
edge1 that each roll receives support   
from the others1 which react on the     
pressure thus brought upon them1 like   
springs4 ,one would suppose that these  
edges were maintained by whalebone1 like
 the stocks in which a past stiff-necked
 generation suffered so much4 ,where    
ribbon scrolls1 tiny bunches of flowers1
 c41 are carved on the frames and top   
rails of chairs and sofa-frames1 if     
these are to be polished only1 the      

polishing is done before the upholstery4
 ,if parts are to be gilt1 or the whole 
gilt1 these operations are postponed    
till the upholstery is completed4 ,so   
also when panelling1 sideboards1        
bookcases1 c41 are to be made up1 the   
moulded lines which can only be         
conveniently hand-polished while in     
lengths1 are treated thus before making 
up2 and there remain only flat panels   
and surfaces1 that can be evenly rubbed 
for the final polishing4 ,in upholstered
 furniture1 the coverings would be      
greased and stained1 if polishing were  
done over or in connection with them2   
but in the case of gilt work1 it must be
 left in most cases to the last1 for    
fear of dimming or rubbing the gold     
during the processes of sewing1 nailing1
 stuffing1 c4  ,i may remark here1 that 
though arm-chairs1 fauteuils1 c41 are   
made in great ,london establishments1   
the manufacture of light chairs on a    
large scale is a special branch of the  
trade1 and mostly carried on at ,high   

,wycombe1 in the neighbourhood of which 
town there are extensive woods of beech1
 and where land and water carriage is at
 hand to convey these productions to    
,london and elsewhere4                  
,cabinet-making4--,it is by no means    
easy to lay down the exact technical    
boundary between what ,i have been      
describing as joinery1 and what ,i am   
now about to call cabinet-making4 ,they 
are considered1 however1 as distinct    
branches or rather1 perhaps1 different  
operations of the trade2 and in such    
establishments as we are discussing1 the
 cabinet makers and joiners have their  
own separate workshops and benches1 and 
corresponding separate repositories for 
storing and drying their woods4 ,every  
kind of work is required in making      
costly cabinets1 bookcases1 sideboards1 
commodes1 or by whatever name we choose 
to call the beautiful chests1 cupboards1
 and other artistic receptacles1 tables1
 consoles1 brackets1 c41 that go to     
complete the requirements of our modern 

reception rooms4  ,they are seldom made 
with the quaint or elaborate interior   
fittings1 such as have been alluded to  
in older work1 but every resource is    
brought to bear on the external         
decoration4 ,here we come to the arts   
brought to bear on the ornamentation of 
furniture4  ,let us begin with carving4 
,sculpture is the highest or most       
beautiful kind of decoration that can be
 applied to furniture4 ,it can only be  
executed by a trained artist4 ,to go no 
farther back here than the ,italian and 
,french ,renaissance furniture1         
generally made of walnut-wood1 it is the
 spirited and graceful sculpture that   
makes its first great attraction4 ,the  
,italian carving of this kind is the    
most graceful2 while that of ,france by 
,bachelier and others1 and much that was
 executed in ,england and ,germany1     
being1 if less graceful1 always spirited
 and thoroughly decorative4 ,as a       
general rule1 sculpture so applied is   
conventional in design and treatment1   

that is1 we rarely see it1 7except1     
perhaps1 occasionally in little ivory   
statuettes1 and in bas-reliefs17        
strictly imitative of nature1 like      
perfect ,greek sculpture4 ,but neither  
should we find strict studies from      
nature on ,greek furniture1 if we had   
it1 except with the same limitations4   
,the furniture made by ,greco-,roman    
artists1 and discovered at ,pompeii1#f  
bears witness to this assertion1 such as
 a head1 a bust1 the claws of animals1  
sculptured on furniture generally ending
 in scrolls or leafwork4 ,if a human    
figure is complete1 it bears no real    
proportion to objects round it1 and so  
on4          #f ,see also ,q4 de        
,quincy1 ,le ,jupiter ,olympien4        
,excellent wood sculpture used to be    
executed in ,england1 from the days of  
,grinling ,gibbon to those of ,adam and 
the ,chippendales1 suited to the        
furniture then in fashion4 ,i wish ,i   
could say that our furniture makers of  
to-day could easily1 or did generally1  

command such talents4 ,ingeniously      
carved representations of animals and   
game on sideboards we sometimes see1 but
 game 'dead' in every sense4 ,if1       
indeed1 ,messrs4 ,crace1 ,howard1       
,jackson and ,graham1 and other firms   
could persuade the ,royal ,academicians 
to model for them1 those artists would  
have to give some material amount of    
time to the study of how they could so  
effectually modify their skill as to    
suit the requirements and opportunities 
of a piece of furniture1 these being    
quite peculiar4 ,the ,french are easily 
our masters in this respect1 but even   
they sacrifice good qualities proper to 
this kind of sculpture1 in a morbid     
search after the softness of nature4  ,a
 curious piece of mechanism has been    
invented1 and is in use in most large   
,london furniture workshops1 for carving
 by steam4 ,besides boring out and      
cutting away superfluous material1 there
 is an engine for making mechanical     
sculpture in bas-relief1 or the round4  

,the wood is fixed on a metal table1    
which is moved to and fro and up and    
down1 so as to come in contact with a   
revolving cutter held above it4 ,the    
wood is then shaped and cut1 according  
as it is elevated or moved4 ,there are  
three or four cutters1 and one piece of 
wood may be placed under each4 ,under   
the middle cutter1 replaced by a dummy  
tool that does not really cut1 the      
workman places his cast or model1 and   
makes the dummy cutter pass over every  
undulation of its surface4 ,the two or  
three cutters on either side cut the    
corresponding blocks exactly to the same
 depths and undulations as are followed 
by the blunt tool4 ,it is a copying     
machine4 ,that such copies1 though they 
may pass muster1 will ever have the     
charm of original carving1 the reader   
shall not be asked to believe4  ,certain
 elaborate methods of decorating and    
finishing woodwork must now be          
described1 viz4 those known as inlaying 
and marquetry4 ,these two processes are 

distinct1 but marquetry furniture has   
often portions decorated with inlaying1 
as also carved ornaments and decorations
 of beaten1 cast1 or chiselled          
metal-work4 ,this last addition is not  
generally of the same importance in our 
modern ,english woodwork that it was a  
century ago1 and ,i will describe the   
former methods first4  ,inlaying means  
the insertion of pieces of more costly  
wood1 stone1 small discs1 or carved     
pieces of ivory1 into a less valuable   
material4 ,the process is as old as any 
manufacture in wood working of which we 
possess records4 ,beautiful plates or   
blocks of ivory can be seen in the      
,assyrian gallery of the ,british       
museum1 found at ,nineveh by ,mr4       
,layard4 ,they are deeply cut with lotus
 and other leaf decorations1 figures and
 hieroglyphics1 and most of them have an
 ,egyptian character4 ,the ivory        
figures1 too1 have been inlaid and      
filled up with vitrified material4      
,remains of these decorations are still 

discernible1 and the thickness of many  
of these pieces of ivory shows that they
 have been sunk bodily into woodwork of 
a solid character4  ,no such work as    
this can be pointed out in our ,london  
workshops1 but patterns and arabesques1 
both of wood and ivory1 are occasionally
 let into solid beds of wood so deeply1 
as to be actually mortised into the main
 body of the structure4 ,this is done   
both by our own makers and by the       
,french cabinet maker1 ,henri           
,fourdinois1 a prize piece of whose make
 was bought for the ,south ,kensington  
museum4 ,it is not uncommon to insert   
pieces of lapis lazuli1 bloodstone1 and 
precious marbles into centres of carved 
woodwork1 and ,i may call attention to  
the use of plates1 medallions and cameos
 of ,wedgwood1 or ,,savres ware1 which  
were frequently inlaid by ,chippendale1 
and by the great ,french furniture      
makers1 or ,a7,c7b,a7,c7nistes1 of the  
last century4 ,these are used in the    
modern satin-wood furniture of ,messrs4 

,wright and ,mansfield1 and ,i have     
lately seen a coarser material used1    
viz4 bas-reliefs in stoneware1          
imitations of the gris de ,flandres1 by 
,messrs4 ,doulton4 ,these last1 however1
 may be said to be rather panels set in 
frames1 than pieces let into cavities in
 wood4  ,veneering and ,marquetry4--,an 
effective method of ornamenting woodwork
 by the application to the surface of   
other woods is what is known as         
veneering and marquetry4 ,the surface is
 in both cases covered with a thin layer
 of other woods1 fastened on with glue  
and by strong pressure4 ,some of the    
panelling1 table tops1 and other        
joiner's work already described1 is     
clothed with a thin slice of more       
valuable wood4 ,this is called          
veneering4 ,woods such as ebony1 tuya1  
satin-wood1 palm1 hare-wood1 and a      
number more1 are only to be had in small
 scantlings1 logs a few feet long1 and  
six or seven inches wide4 ,other woods1 
of which the grain is most beautifully  

marked1 are cut from roots1 wens1 and   
other excrescences of the trees1 to     
which they belong1 and are only found   
occasionally1 and in lumps of no great  
size4 ,the contortions of the grain1    
which make them so valuable and         
beautiful1 are owing to peculiar        
conditions of growth4 ,in all these     
cases an inch plank of wood has to be   
cut into very thin slices1 twelve being 
cut with a saw1 or from eighteen to     
twenty-two if it is cut with a knife1 as
 in that case no material is wasted by  
the opening made by a saw4 ,these slices
 are laid on the surface of             
well-seasoned wood1 and in the workshops
 of our great manufacturers will be seen
 a metal table or bed1 prepared         
expressly for the process of veneering4 
,supposing the object to be veneered to 
be a large surface--a number of panels1 
or the top of a table of ebony1 for     
instance--the substance of the table may
 be ,honduras mahogany4 ,the wood has   
been carefully seasoned1 and the top    

grooved1 tongued1 and firmly glued up to
 the required form4 ,the ebony surface  
is also carefully fitted together and   
glued on paper1 the surface being left  
rough1 so that the glue may have a firm 
hold on the fibre of the grain4 ,a      
corresponding roughness is produced on  
the upper surface of the mahogany1 which
 is then laid on the metal bed4 ,glue1  
perfectly fluid and hot1 is now rapidly 
brushed over the entire surface1 and the
 thin veneer top is laid upon it1 and   
firmly pressed down by several workmen1 
who then carefully go over the whole    
with hammers having broad1 flat heads2  
the object of this being to flatten any 
apparent thicknesses of glue or bubbles 
of air which would interfere with the   
perfect contact of the two surfaces of  
wood4 ,the whole is then placed under a 
caul or frame that touches it all over1 
and a number of strong bars are screwed 
down till the greater part of the glue  
has been pressed out4 ,the complete     
union of the surfaces of the woods is   

effected not so much by the quantity of 
glue as by the absolute exclusion of the
 air1 and this can only be done by      
pressure4 ,the whole metal bed or frame 
in which the veneering is performed is  
heated by steam1 or by gas-burners1     
where steam cannot be applied4 ,the wood
 is left for twenty-four or thirty      
hours1 till the glue has been completely
 set and hardened4 ,the caul or frame is
 then removed1 the paper used to keep   
the thin veneer together before gluing  
is scraped off1 and the work of         
finishing and ,french polishing takes   
place4 ,french polish1 or careful wax   
polish1 has the effect of keeping out   
air and damp1 which latter might soften 
the glue and disintegrate the surface   
veneer4 ,it is to be observed1 that such
 wood as the finest ,french or ,italian 
walnut is often veneered on mahogany1   
for it lasts better in this condition   
than if it was solid2 large surfaces and
 thicknesses of walnut being difficult  
to procure without faults4 ,walnut      

veneers are applied in greater          
thicknesses than ebony2 and if the      
surfaces to which they are applied are  
curved1 cauls1 or shaped pieces of wood 
made to fit them1 are screwed down and  
held by numerous wooden vices1 as in the
 method already described4  ,marquetry  
is the application of veneer made of    
different woods1 ivory1 c41 composed    
like a mosaic or painting executed in   
coloured woods4 ,this kind of decoration
 is of ancient use1 was much in vogue   
during the ,renaissance of the fifteenth
 and sixteenth centuries1 and was       
carried to a great pitch of perfection  
in ,france during the seventeenth and   
eighteenth4 ,it is still practised1 and 
the process may be seen in full activity
 in the workshops of our modern         
furniture makers4 ,in cutting out the   
forms required for marquetry decoration1
 one1 two1 or more thicknesses of thin  
wood are gummed or pasted together1     
according to the pattern required4 ,in  
many fine pieces of marquetry there are1

 as in the case of a cabinet or table1  
portions of the surface entirely        
occupied by quiet reticulated patterns4 
,as in these cases the same pattern     
often recurs1 several thicknesses of    
wood can be laid together1 and are then 
firmly fixed in a vice1 having pasted   
over them a piece of paper on which the 
pattern is drawn4 ,a small hole is bored
 where it will not interfere with the   
design1 and the end of a thin           
watch-spring saw is passed through1 and 
then re-attached to the frame that      
strains it out in working order4 ,with  
this in his hand1 the workman carefully 
traces the outlines of his drawing1     
which the tenuity of the saw-blade      
allows the tool to follow into every    
curve and angle4 ,the thicknesses are   
then separated with the blade of a      
knife1 and the slices become alternately
 pattern and ground1 so that a set of   
patterns and a set of matrices of each  
wood are ready for use1 and can be      
applied either on different parts of the

 same1 or on two separate pieces of     
furniture4 ,if a flower or other        
ornament is required which will not be  
repeated1 two thicknesses only will be  
cut together4 ,it is necessary that the 
same action of the saw should cut out   
the pattern and the ground in the two   
woods required1 so that they may fit    
exactly4  ,when all the portions of the 
design are cut out1 they are pasted on  
paper1 and can be fitted together like  
mosaic4 ,a little sawdust from the woods
 used1 and a very small quantity of     
glue1 join the edges and fill up the    
fine openings made by the saw2 and in   
this way the whole surface of the       
marquetry is laid down on paper4 ,in the
 case of flowers1 heads1 architectural  
or other designs1 some slight additions1
 either of lines to indicate stalks1    
leaf-fibre1 or the features of the face1
 are made with a graver1 and stained2 or
 gradations of a brown colour are given1
 in the case of white or light-tinted   
wood1 by partial burning4 ,it was       

formerly the custom to burn with a hot  
iron1 but a more delicate tint is given 
by using hot sand1 and this is the best 
method of tinting beech1 lime1 holly1   
box1 maple1 or other woods which are    
nearly white4 ,there remains nothing but
 to rough the surface of the furniture1 
and to lay down the marquetry on it1    
precisely as in the case of plain       
veneering4 ,when the glue is dry and    
hard1 the pressure is taken off1 the    
paper which is on the outer surface is  
scraped away1 and the whole rubbed down 
to a fine surface and ,french polished4 
,the most beautiful work of this        
description was made in ,france by      
,riesener and ,david1 during the reigns 
of ,louis ,,xv4 and ,louis ,,xvi4       
,besides graceful and delicate design1  
which these artists 7for such they were7
 thoroughly understood1 the beauty of   
their work owes much to their charming  
feeling for colour4 ,both used light    
woods1 such as maple1 holly1 box1 lime1 
c41 and laid brown woods1 such as       

laburnum and walnut1 on this light      
ground4 ,sometimes architectural        
compositions in the manner of ,pannini1 
a favourite ,roman painter of the day1  
were designed over the doors or flaps of
 secr,a7,c7taires and cabinets1 or      
busts1 medallions1 baskets of roses1 c4 
,the charm of the work is the grace and 
repose with which these simple          
decorations are laid on4 ,compare some  
of the work of ,riesener and ,david1 on 
the cabinet doors in the collection of  
,sir ,richard ,wallace1 with the glaring
 contrasts1 the gaudy1 often discordant 
colouring1 and the crowded compositions 
of modern marquetry1 at least of most of
 it4 ,there is a tenderness of          
treatment1 a grace and harmony of colour
 and arrangement throughout the former1 
which is wholly wanting1 and which no   
lapse of time will add to the latter4   
,though these criticisms are not meant  
to be applied to the products of the    
leading houses now under review1 the    
reader who has taken an observant stroll

 amongst the furniture of ,sir ,richard 
,wallace1 at ,bethnal ,green1 will find 
abundant contrasts as he walks along the
 streets of ,london4  ,in order to      
illustrate my remarks on the processes  
of colouring woods by burning or        
etching1 ,i may point to a large writing
 bureau1 or secr,a7,c7taire1 belonging  
to ,sir ,richard ,wallace1 made by      
,riesener1 in #agfi 7and signed71 for   
,stanislaus1 king of ,poland4 ,it is    
decorated partly with reticulated       
pattern work1 partly with the royal     
cipher in medallions1 and with other    
medallions containing emblematic        
figures1 such as a carrier pigeon1 a    
cock1 the emblem of vigilance1 or the   
head of a girl placing her finger on her
 lips1 an emblem of silence4 ,all these 
medallion figures are broadly drawn1 the
 very slightest and most delicate tint  
only being added to represent shading1  
while the drawing is a single line      
lightly pencilled4  ,the materials used 
in the best marquetry are lime1 holly1  

box1 maple1 beech1 poplar1 for white2   
pear1 laburnum1 palm 7cut across the    
grain71 lignum vit,a1 walnut1 teak1     
partridge-wood1 for brown2 wood called  
in the trade fustic1 satin-wood1 for    
yellow2 tulip1 purple-wood1 amboyna1    
mahogany1 thuya1 log-wood1 cam-wood1 and
 varieties of these woods1 for red2     
ebony for black1 or stained wood4       
,greens and blues are also stained with 
metallic dyes4 ,the finest of the old   
work may be called studies in brown and 
white1 and the red woods are used       
sparingly2 the dyed woods still more so1
 nor can they be said ever to be really 
effective4  ,as an example of great     
mechanical skill in a modern piece of   
very difficult execution1 ,i might call 
attention to ,messrs4 ,jackson and      
,graham's elaborate cabinet of          
marquetry1 in patterns of ,oriental     
character1 after designs by the late    
,mr4 ,owen ,jones 7sent to the ,vienna  
,exhibition by ,messrs4 ,jackson and    
,graham74 ,it had an architectural      

front1 with detached columns and groups 
of architectural mouldings1 some of them
 put together with the lines of moulding
 in woods of contrasted hue1 an element 
of ornamentation that took from the     
unity and completeness of cap or corona 
mouldings4 ,the little columns of an    
inch and a half diameter were entirely  
covered with reticulated pattern in     
different woods4 ,as the shafts were    
tapering1 so the reticulated patterns   
had to be graduated in size from top to 
bottom4 ,this was a feat of most        
difficult execution1 nor was it the only
 difficulty in this portion of the      
design4 ,the marquetry in the instance  
of these columns had to be wrapped round
 each circular shaft2 and each edge1    
therefore1 of every portion of pattern  
and groundwork had to be sawn out with  
bevelled edges1 so that when rolled1 the
 inner edges might meet and the outer   
edges remain in contact1 which would not
 be so1 were they not bevelled3 the     
contrary would happen in that case1 and 

the outer edges would start in sunder4  
,these columns were two feet and some   
inches high1 and the little             
reticulations of pattern recurred many  
dozens of times4 ,the conditions of     
which ,i speak had to be carefully      
observed in the case of each4 ,the      
pattern1 too1 was graduated1 as above   
stated1 so that they had to be sawn out 
by separate cuttings--a most laborious  
and costly operation4  ,we miss in the  
great ,english houses one of the most   
costly and beautiful elements in the    
adornment of furniture1 and that is1 the
 fine moulded and chiselled bronze work1
 always gilt1 which enters so largely   
into the decoration of fine old ,french 
marquetry4 ,the ,english furniture      
makers of a century ago were not so     
behindhand1 and old carriages had       
door-handles1 and furniture had mounts  
of gilt bronze4 ,probably the ,french   
were always superior to us in this kind 
of skill4 ,they still produce good work 
of this class1 cast and afterwards      

cleaned and tooled with the chisel1 but 
it is not equal to the work of the same 
description by ,gouthi,are1 and the     
famous ciseleurs of ,paris in the last  
century4  ,i must not pass over in      
silence a beautiful kind of furniture   
which was in fashion a century since1   
and has been revived by ,messrs4 ,wright
 and ,mansfield1 and other firms1 viz4  
satin-wood furniture4 ,in the time of   
,chippendale1 ,sheraton1 ,lock1 and     
other great cabinet makers1             
contemporaries of the ,french artists   
,riesener1 ,gouthi,are1 and ,david1     
satin-wood was imported from ,india4 ,it
 was made up by veneering1 and was      
decorated with medallions1 some of      
marquetry1 some of ,wedgwood ware1 after
 the model of the ,french inlaying of   
,,savres porcelain plaques1 and in some 
instances painted with miniature scenes 
like the ,vernis ,martin1 called after a
 ,french decorator of the name of       
,martin4 ,old examples of satin-wood    
furniture1 such as tables1 bookcases1   

chests of drawers1 c41 are not uncommon1
 decorated in one or more of these      
methods4 ,cipriani and ,angelica        
,kauffmann were employed amongst many   
others in painting cameo medallions1    
busts1 ,cupids and so forth for         
satin-wood furniture4 ,messrs4 ,wright  
and ,mansfield have executed much of    
this work1 and sent a cabinet of large  
size to the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg1
 decorated with medallions1 swags1      
ribbons1 c41 partly in marquetry of     
coloured woods1 partly in plates of     
,wedgwood ware4 ,the piece is further   
set off by carved and gilt portions1    
not1 however1 sufficiently attractive to
 add greatly to the effect of the whole 
cabinet1 which is gay1 cheerful1 of     
beautiful hue1 and excellent            
workmanship4 ,it is in the ,south       
,kensington ,museum4  ,allusion has been
 made to the furniture of ,boulle4 ,it  
began to be made somewhere about #affj1 
and was perhaps the earliest start taken
 in the more modern manufacture of      

sumptuous furniture4 ,i have already    
called it a great advance and           
improvement1 rather than an absolutely  
new invention1 for pieces are found of a
 date too early to have been the actual 
work of ,boulle4 ,when the tortoiseshell
 is dark and rich in hue1 the brass of a
 good golden yellow1 and the designs    
carefully drawn1 ,boulle work seems to  
equal in splendour1 though not in       
preciousness1 the gold and silver       
furniture of the ancients1 and the      
inlaid work of agates1 crystals1        
amethysts1 c41 with mounts of ivory and 
silver made in ,florence in the         
sixteenth century4  ,boulle work is made
 occasionally by ,french and other      
foreign houses1 and by ,wertheimer of   
,bond street1 but it is costly1 and the 
rich relieved portions1 such as the     
hinge and lock mounts1 the salient      
medallions1 masks1 c41 set in central   
points of the composition1 are either   
copies or imitations of old work4 ,they 
lack the freshness1 vigour1 and spirit  

of the old ,french metallurgy4  ,a      
spurious kind of ,boulle is made with a 
composition in place of the             
tortoiseshell4  ,parquet floors are made
 by ,messrs4 ,howard as follows3 ,slices
 of oak1 varied sometimes with mahogany1
 walnut1 and imitation ebony1 are laid  
out and put together on a board4 ,if    
rings1 circles or other figures are     
introduced1 these portions1 patterns1   
and cavities as well as angular pieces  
are cut in the machine4 ,the thickness  
of these pieces is a quarter of an inch4
 ,they are then laid on three           
thicknesses of pine1 the grain of each  
thickness being laid crosswise to the   
one below1 so as to keep the wood above 
from warping and opening4 ,these are    
glued together1 and kept for twenty-four
 hours under an hydraulic press4 ,it is1
 in fact1 coarse marquetry1 and the     
whole is laid down over a rough deal    
floor4 ,messrs4 ,howard also glue up    
their quarter inch hardwoods without a  
pine backing1 and lay them down with    

glue and fine brads on old deal floors1 
a less expensive method1 and which can  
be adopted without raising the level of 
an old floor4  ,it is remarkable that   
,english cabinet makers should so rarely
 make these floors1 or architects lay   
them down in rooms of modern houses4    
,the ,french1 ,germans of all states1   
,swiss1 ,belgians1 in short most        
continental nations have these floors1  
and ,swiss and ,belgian flooring is     
imported into ,england4 ,that of the    
,belgian joiners is in large pieces four
 feet or so square1 of seasoned wood1   
moderate in price1 and easily laid down4
  ,in this country1 our costly modern   
houses are barely provided with a border
 of a foot or so round the edges of the 
reception rooms4 ,even that is but an   
exceptional practice4 ,yet oak flooring 
is not a costly addition to important   
rooms1 while the habit of keeping floors
 always covered with ,brussels carpet   
tacked down is not the cleanest         
imaginable4  ,another application of    

veneered wood practised by ,messrs4     
,howard is called by them wood tapestry4
 ,very thin slices are arranged         
geometrically in large patterns1 and    
fastened with glue on staircase and     
passage walls1 or made into dado        
panelling to the room1 in this case     
capped by mouldings4  ,an ingenious     
method of inlaying thin veneers on flat 
surfaces of wood by machinery has been  
patented by the same firm4 ,veneers or  
slices of wood about the thickness of   
coarse brown paper are glued on a board1
 e4g4 a table top4 ,a design punched out
 in zinc1 of a thickness somewhat       
greater than that of the veneer1 is laid
 over it1 and the board is then placed  
under a heavy roller4 ,the zinc is      
forced into the surface of the board by 
the roller to about the thickness of the
 veneer4 ,a plane cleans off the rest of
 the veneer1 leaving the portion only   
that answers to the zinc pattern1 thus  
forced into the surface of the board4   
,if soaked1 the grain of the wood would 

push up the thin veneer1 no doubt1 but  
this is no greater risk than that to    
which all marquetry is exposed4         
,neither of these inventions have as yet
 been carried beyond the simplest       
disposition of arrangement4 ,what can be
 done in either method remains to be    
shown4  ,all the woodwork passed under  
review thus far in joinery and          
cabinet-work1 is of hard woods4 ,much1  
however1 of our modern furniture is of a
 less valuable description1 and is made 
of pine1 ,american birch1 ,hungarian and
 other ash4 ,pitch-pine1 an exceedingly 
hard wood1 difficult to dry1 and with a 
disagreeable propensity to crack if not 
very well seasoned1 is also used1 and a 
beautiful material it is4 ,some small   
quantity of bedroom furniture in beech1 
oak1 and ash is made in the workshops   
that ,i have been describing4 ,as a     
general rule1 however1 this manufacture 
of soft woods is a separate branch of   
the trade4 ,to see soft wood1 such as   
pine1 made up into admirable bedroom    

furniture1 and ,french polished till the
 grain of it shows much of the delicacy 
and agreeableness of satin-wood1 we     
should pay a visit to the works of      
,messrs4 ,dyer and ,watts1 in           
,islington1 and to other houses that    
occupy their time exclusively in work of
 this kind4 ,it is clean1 cheerful1 and1
 by comparison1 cheap2 is ornamented 7in
 the works of ,messrs4 ,dyer and ,watts7
 with neat lines of red1 grey1 and      
black1 some of the lines imitative of   
inlaid wood4 ,it is popular1 and if we  
proceed from the workshops of ,messrs4  
,graham1 ,holland1 and others1 to their 
showrooms and warehouses1 we shall find 
this deal furniture for sale1 though    
they do not profess to make any of it4  
,less costly pine-wood furniture is     
painted green1 or white1 or in imitation
 of other woods4  ,the surface of       
woodwork1 if the woods are valuable1 is 
finished by ,french polishing4 ,a       
solution of shell-lac is put on a rolled
 woollen rubber1 which is then covered  

with a linen rag1 on which the polisher 
puts a drop of linseed oil4 ,he rubs    
this solution evenly over the entire    
surface of the wood as it passes through
 the fibre of the linen1 smooth action  
being secured by the oil4 ,it is laid on
 in successive fine coats till a glossy 
surface is obtained which is air and    
water-proof4 ,for fine work the surface 
should not be so glossy as to look like 
japan work4 ,french polishing preserves 
woods liable to split1 such as oak1 from
 the too rapid action of the air4       
,graining is an imitation of oak or     
other woods4 ,a light colour1 chrome    
yellow1 and white1 is first laid on1 and
 glazed over with brown4 ,while still   
wet1 the brown is combed with elastic   
square teethed combs to give the        
appearance of graining4 ,larger veins   
are wiped out by the thumb and a piece  
of rag4 ,all sorts of woods are thus    
imitated1 and the work when dry is      
varnished over4 ,independently of any   
skill or deceptiveness1 this broken     

painted surface looks effective and     
lasts long4  ,of the propriety of such a
 decoration there are many doubts1 for  
the discussion of which there is not    
space here4 ,marble graining has long   
been represented in ,italy1 e4g4 in the 
loggia of ,raphael in the ,vatican4 ,but
 in that particular instance1 the       
painting is a representation1 not an    
imitation4 ,wood graining is performed  
in all countries1 and such imitations   
seem to have been practised by the      
ancients4  ,mr4 ,norman ,shaw is now    
exhibiting in ,exhibition road examples 
of woods with fine grain stained green1 
red1 and other colours1 and ,french     
polished1 the grain showing as if the   
woods were naturally of those hues4     
,for inexhaustible resource in tinting1 
polishing1 and decorating wood surfaces1
 we shall have to learn from the        
,japanese1 from whom probably the famous
 ,vernis ,martin was first borrowed in  
the last century4 ,much imitation       
lac-japanning was executed in this      

country during the latter years of the  
century4 ,this work is still made in    
,birmingham4 ,pieces of mother-o'-pearl 
are glued on wood and the intervening   
surface1 covered with lac varnish which 
is rubbed smooth1 coat after coat1 with 
pumice and water1 till the surface of   
the inlaid pearl shell is reached1 and  
the whole ground to a glassy polish4    
,,london ,,factories4  ,the number of   
hands employed in large cabinet-making  
and furnishing establishments is very   
considerable4 ,not only are the         
workshops well provided with joiners1   
cabinet makers1 and turners1 but also   
with upholsterers1 cutters-out and      
workwomen1 stuffing1 tacking on or      
sewing on the covers of chairs1 sofas1  
c4 ,indeed1 it is no uncommon occurrence
 for the entire furniture of royal      
palaces and yachts to be ordered from   
one of these firms by the courts of     
foreign potentates in every corner of   
the world4 ,chairs1 tables1 sideboards1 
c41 were made lately at ,messrs4        

,holland's for a steam yacht of the     
,emperor of ,austria2 while ,messrs4    
,jackson and ,graham have been          
furnishing the palace of the ,khedive at
 ,grand ,cairo4  ,to execute1 with      
certainty and promptitude1 orders such  
as these1 both premises1 plant 7such as 
wood and machinery71 and the command of 
first-rate hands1 must be abundant4     
,painters1 gilders1 carpenters1         
paperers1 and a miscellaneous assistant 
staff are required to pioneer the way   
for the more costly work1 or to make all
 good behind it4 ,the firm of ,jackson  
and ,graham1 for instance1 employs from 
#fjj to #ajjj hands1 according to the   
time of the year or the pressure of     
orders2 and pays out close upon #bjjjl4 
per week as wages1 when all these hands 
are in full work2 and to highly skilled 
craftsmen 7independently of designers71 
occupied on the production of the most  
costly kind of furniture1 #fjl4 to      
#bcjl4 per week4 ,the ,howards employ   
from #aej to #bjj hands on cabinet      

making and joinery alone4 ,it is the    
variety and comprehensiveness of these  
operations1 that is so profitable as a  
speculation4 ,such a business requires1 
it need hardly be said1 a large capital1
 and must be liable to fluctuations4    
,,the ,,past ,,and ,,the ,,future4  ,a  
few words must be given to a retrospect 
of the state of this branch of the      
national industry1 and to its prospects4
 ,if we look back twenty-five years to  
the furniture exhibited in ,london in   
#ahea1 the improvement of the present   
time seems incredible4  ,we may take    
that ,exhibition1 the first of these    
modern displays of all sorts of products
 of labour1 as a point of departure for 
our review4  ,in #ahea1 the             
,commissioners directed that a complete 
report should be drawn up on the subject
 of the decorative treatment of         
manufactures of all kinds1 including the
 particular class of objects under      
discussion4 ,the author of this report  
calls attention to what should be the   

first consideration1 in the construction
 of objects for daily and personal use4 
,from the continual presence of these   
things1 defects overlooked at first1 or 
disregarded for some showy excellence1  
grow into great grievances1 when1 having
 become an offence1 the annoyance daily 
increases4 ,here at least utility should
 be the first object1 and as simplicity 
rarely offends1 that ornament which is  
the most simple in style will be the    
most likely to give lasting             
satisfaction4#g ,yet on examining the   
furniture on the ,english side1 the     
reporter could not but notice1 how      
rarely this very obvious consideration  
had been attended to4 ,the ornament of  
such works on the ,english side consists
 largely of imitative carving4          
,ornaments consisting of flowers1       
garlands of massive size and absolute   
relief1 were applied indiscriminately to
 bedsteads1 sideboards1 bookcases1      
pier-glasses1 c41 without any principle 
of selection or accommodation4 ,the laws

 of ornament were as completely set     
aside as those of use and convenience4  
,many of these works1 instead of being  
useful1 would require a rail to keep off
 the household4          #g             
,supplementary ,report1 chap4 xxx4      
,these strictures were far from being   
applicable to the entire ,british       
,exhibition of this class of work4 ,one 
or two notable exceptions may be quoted1
 such as a bookcase carved in oak1      
exhibited by ,mr4 ,crace1 bought by the 
,commissioners and added to the         
,kensington collections4 ,this and a few
 other works are particularly to be     
commended for their sound constructive  
treatment1 and for the very judicious   
manner in which ornament is made        
subservient to it4 ,the metal-work is   
also excellent1 and the brass fittings  
of the panels of the bookcase deserve to
 be studied1 both for the manner in     
which they have been put together and   
for their graceful lines4  ,four years  
later1 in #ahee1 in the ,paris          

,exhibition1 our furniture and woodwork 
had made a stride forward1 which was    
still more marked in the ,london        
,exhibition of #ahfb4 ,by that time1 our
 leading houses had appreciated the     
necessity of obtaining talented         
designers and foremen1 and in many      
instances they had employed the first   
architects of the day to give them      
drawings4 ,the result was a great       
progress4 ,while the ,french1 indeed1   
continued to produce very fine pieces1  
some on the best models1 or rather after
 the principles of the best periods of  
the ,renaissance1 our own cabinet makers
 had run far on in the same direction   
and in many others1 for the medi,aval   
feeling had still a strong hold on the  
taste of ,english architects and their  
patrons4  ,the greatest change1 however1
 was that which the ,paris exhibition of
 #ahfg brought to light4 ,fifteen full  
years had passed1 since public attention
 had been called to any careful         
comparison between the state of our     

furniture and the decorations of the    
interiors of our houses1 with those of  
other countries1 and the advance was    
incalculably greater on the part of this
 country than on that of the other      
competing nations4  ,it is worth        
remarking1 that in three great          
comparative ,exhibitions1 and           
particularly in that of #ahfg1 national 
tastes and peculiarities seemed to have 
been so completely pared away1 that it  
became difficult to keep the productions
 of the ,north and ,west of ,europe from
 those of the ,south or the ,east1      
distinct in one's mind4 ,each nation    
followed the fashion of the works that  
had obtained the best prizes at former  
,exhibitions4  ,for the present1 ,french
 ,renaissance designs in woodwork1 and  
the produce of the looms of ,lyons in   
hangings1 serve to give the key to the  
school of domestic and industrial art in
 this country4 ,if we look at the       
richest and most costly productions that
 have been exhibited1 and carried off   

prizes at the ,international            
,exhibitions of late years 7and we have 
no other standard of easy comparison71  
it will be found that ,french cabinets1 
tables1 and chairs have served as models
 to the successful competitors4 ,indeed1
 the most successful of such pieces of  
furniture are actually designed by      
,french artists in some of our leading  
firms4 ,there is a decided ,english type
 in the satin-wood furniture of ,messrs4
 ,wright and ,mansfield1 and there is   
some invention1 though not always happy1
 about our designers of medi,aval       
furniture4 ,these productions are1      
however1 too apt to be heavy and        
ecclesiastical1 to follow rather the    
types of stone constructions1 and the   
teachings of the admirable plates of    
,viollet-le-duc1 than the lighter work1 
inaugurated1 not without power and      
success1 by ,pugin4 ,there is a company 
of artists1 ,morris and ,co41 who have  
combined painting and woodwork1 and     
produced excellent results2 but they    

have had few followers1 or rather few   
successful followers4 ,i cannot but     
mention with honourable commendation the
 ,royal ,school of ,art needlework1 as a
 subsidiary branch of furniture art4    
,so far as to the past4 ,with regard to 
the future some few remarks may not be  
out of place3 on the excellence of      
workmanship1 the propriety of design1   
and the beauty of decoration4  ,the     
altered conditions of a trade such as   
that of the cabinet maker1 which        
combines the useful with the agreeable1 
comely1 and beautiful1 in its           
productions1 have been alluded to       
already4 ,this change must seriously    
affect the accomplishments of the       
workman4 ,instead of working under and  
with his master1 he is become one of a  
regiment of officials4 ,he cannot       
identify himself with the entire work of
 which he only executes members         
interchangeable with other members1 all 
mechanically alike4 ,again1 mortises1   
tenons1 dovetails1 and joinery of all   

sorts1 no longer demand from hand-work  
the accuracy1 neatness1 and perfection  
of former days4 ,these operations are   
done for him4 ,occasionally he          
supplements the work of the engine4     
,like a player who only plays music     
occasionally1 we cannot expect him to   
retain all the fineness of his hand in  
perfection4  ,is the modern workman1    
then1 the equal of those of sixty years 
since1 whose productions stand so well  
to this day1 because of this perfection 
of manual dexterity8 ,it will be        
difficult to maintain that he is1 but it
 would be most unjust to deny either    
that the best workmanship can be turned 
out1 or that it is turned out1 of our   
great establishments4 ,this is the work 
of the most choice and accomplished     
hands4 ,in smaller ,london houses1 and  
in the furniture which we find in the   
trade generally1 the workmanship is     
inferior1 relatively1 to that of the    
former period4  ,the introduction of    
machinery1 however1 is a fact1 and its  

effects on manual skill must be accepted
 as a necessity4 ,nor must we pass over 
the further fact1 that if the modern    
joiner is not the equal of the          
journeymen of ,chippendale1 he can do   
more4 ,he has powers at command1 and can
 carry into execution quantities1 beyond
 the reach of half-a-dozen1 perhaps a   
score of his predecessors4 ,the consumer
 ought to reap advantages from this     
latter fact which he has failed hitherto
 to get1 as shall be explained          
presently4  ,this brings me to the      
consideration of the proprieties of     
design1 and the beauty of decoration of 
our present furniture4 ,if workmanship  
is affected by altered conditions of the
 manufacture1 so also is design1 that   
union of effective and suitable         
decoration with the required convenience
 of each piece of furniture1 which may  
be called style4  ,the artist1 as       
regards his productions or style1 is    
fashioned partly by what he thinks and  
loves1 partly by his materials and his  

tools4 ,with some materials he can do   
little1 for want of tools and           
appliances4 ,as regards material1 wood  
remains what it always has been1 but the
 steam-engine supplies an absolutely new
 set of tools4 ,what has been done with 
them8 ,the impressed marquetry has been 
mentioned1 but as yet nothing really new
 has been done by the use of machinery4 
,thin veneers which might be cut out    
with scissors1 as if one were cutting   
paper in inexhaustible fulness and      
variety1 are restricted1 in this        
impressed marquetry1 to such as can be  
copied in the coarse material1 zinc1    
which has to be punched or sawn out for 
the manufacture4 ,then again we have the
 carving or copying machine4 ,at present
 nothing more is done with it than to   
copy1 and to copy somewhat clumsily1 in 
duplicate or in large numbers1 that     
which has first been carved or modelled 
by hand4 ,it would be premature to      
decide1 that with so powerful a tool in 
his hand1 an accomplished artist trained

 to use it1 could not produce real and  
rapid sculpture4 ,but no such artist has
 yet stepped on the stage1 and it can   
only be an artist who can put the matter
 to a proof4  ,in following the style   
and ornamentation of former periods1 our
 new machinery is in no sense a help to 
us4 ,the man who cuts out his material  
for a ,sheraton chair felt what he was  
going to carve upon1 chose his pieces1  
arranged the grain1 and the spare       
material just as he would require it1   
with careful reference to the use of his
 carving tools from first to last4 ,the 
pace1 too1 required in executing orders 
was then more deliberate2 costly and    
elaborate plant and machinery not being 
required1 provincial workmen of         
admirable skill were to be found in many
 towns4 ,there is no royal process by   
which we can put a log of wood into one 
end of an engine1 and find a chair1 a   
table1 or a cabinet at the other4 ,what 
steam machinery does for us is to       
perform with certainty1 and with immense

 rapidity1 the simple operations of     
sawing1 planing1 boring1 and turning4   
,it is by turnery that ornamentation is 
done in the engine4 ,any length of      
moulded edges can be soon turned out1   
any amount of the parts of panelling1 of
 turned rails1 and of ornaments turned  
on flat surfaces pressed on the cutting 
tool1 together with the piercing of     
fretwork and curved and shaped edges to 
boards4 ,the saw being a fixture in this
 instance1 is an advantage1 but machine 
turnery is not rich in resources4 ,the  
tool itself is filed laboriously to the 
mould required1 and the wood merely     
pressed against it4 ,when the wood      
revolves 7as in the old lathe71 the     
turner1 with the simple edge of his     
chisel or his gouge1 was the master of  
an endless variety of ornament limited  
only by his fancy or skill of hand4  ,it
 is nevertheless in the turnery and the 
fret-cutting machinery1 that a furniture
 artist must find the elements of a     
style4 ,the man of genius1 the poet and 

maker1 who can throw himself into these 
elements1 will do wonders with them4    
,the lathe is as old as history4 ,during
 the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and        
eighteenth centuries1 turned wood       
furniture was made in considerable      
quantities in this country1 in ,italy1  
and in the ,indian possessions of the   
,portuguese4 ,all the furniture of      
,arabs1 ,moors1 and ,turks springs from 
the lathe and the moulding plane2 the   
tables and stools1 the ingenious        
reticulation of ,cairene geometrical    
panelling1 the screens of woodwork so   
effective in the queen of ,arab cities  
and in ,damascus are derived from these 
humble sources4  ,to surface ornament of
 marquetry1 occasional carved insertions
 can be added4 ,but light1 neat1 and    
elegant woodwork1 panelling1 bookcases1 
cabinets1 dressers1 chairs1 and tables1 
can be turned out without these         
additions1 and the variety might be     
endless4  ,carved acanthus foliage1     
bulging legs and surfaces1 artistic     

carving and marquetry1 and chiselled    
metal-mountings must be the work of     
trained sculptors4 ,the engine gives    
them no real help4 ,to design1 that is  
invent 7not to copy71 carving and       
marquetry that will bear comparison with
 the products of ,riesener1 and of the  
school of ,gibbons1 is not to be done by
 command of appliances or skilful       
workmanship only4 ,the artist who is    
thoroughly at home in designs of this   
kind1 is the pupil or descendant of     
masters whose traditions are well       
established3      ,fortes creantur      
fortibus4  ,but neat furniture1         
unornamented by hand-work1 ought to be  
turned out of the engine-room1 the      
perfection of lightness1 convenience1   
and strength4 ,and here the buyer will  
look for the advantage of cheapness4 ,we
 do not find that our large makers      
supply well-made machine furniture      
cheap4 ,as a broad rule1 prices seem to 
be calculated on what a man would do1   
and work done in the machine is priced1 

as if a man had made it by hand4 ,in    
point of fact1 five or six men's work is
 done in the same time1 and the cost of 
wages charged on articles so made1 will 
leave a disproportioned profit1         
notwithstanding the expense of setting  
up and maintaining the steam plant4     
,decorative furniture can never be had  
at a cheap rate4  ,a word1 in           
conclusion1 as to the arts which are    
necessarily pressed into the service of 
furniture1 and their prospects of the   
future4  ,these sumptuary arts have been
 spoken of in these pages as a revival  
in furniture and style1 as dead4 ,the   
disorders that culminated in the ,french
 revolution cut off our present         
,european thoughts1 or at least our     
manners and customs1 from the past4  ,we
 are now trying to revivify past        
traditions4 ,the furniture makers have  
made extraordinary exertions in this    
direction4 ,how will it be in the coming
 years8  ,some critics are of opinion   
that art manufacture is a delusion1 and 

that1 if our academicians were equal to 
the ancient ,greeks1 we should not find 
that rich buyers would care about the   
shapes of their chairs 7if comfortable71
 the colours of their walls1 and so     
forth--a singular delusion4 ,if         
,phidias1 ,michael ,angelo1 and ,raphael
 exhibited at ,burlington ,house1 their 
pupils and followers would overflow with
 good work in various degrees of        
elaboration4 ,we should find it in our  
churches1 houses1 seats1 carriages1 and 
the rest4 ,this is what did happen when 
the great artists were flourishing4     
,ugliness and vulgarity were not        
endurable anywhere4 ,mentor expressed   
himself in drinking cups1 ,cellini in   
brooches1 ,holbein in daggers1 ,michael 
,angelo in a candlestick1 ,raphael      
culminated in a church banner4 ,the art 
that finds its utterances on knobs1 or  
handles1 or drawer fronts1 is restricted
 certainly1 because the object is of    
awkward shape or surface1 is to be      
handled and used1 and is only a part of 

something larger4 ,nevertheless the     
street of tripods in ,athens1 the front 
of the biga in the ,vatican1 were       
occasions on which good sculptors did   
the best that those occasions allowed   
of4 ,four fine silver images1           
representing four great provincial      
capitals1 in the ,blacas ,collection    
7now to be seen in the ,british         
,museum71 were perhaps the ends of the  
poles of a ,sedan chair4  ,objects of   
this kind1 though fragmentary1 or       
slightly worked out1 or combined in some
 grotesque but graceful fashion1 with a 
piece of leaf or stalk1 are the easy    
results of long years of mental and     
manual training4  ,the workman artist1  
therefore1 though his productions may   
not be thought suitable for the ,academy
 walls1 is a child of the same school1  
as that which brings forth such portents
 as ,phidias1 ,praxiteles1 ,michael     
,angelo1 and ,leonardo1 not to speak of 
our ,royal ,academicians4  ,artists who 
are specialists1 like ,giovanni da      

,udine1 will continue to do special     
things only1 but those admirably4 ,where
 the arts flourish1 there will be a     
large school that includes half a       
nation1 artists of all ranges of        
education1 refinement1 and knowledge4   
,some will sculpture figures for the    
temple1 others will be of the rank of   
workmen4 ,vasari has given full details 
of the sumptuous furniture which was    
executed by the sixteenth century       
,academicians of ,florence4  ,how are we
 to procure such teachings8 ,this was   
the question which ,colbert put to      
himself in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4   
,he resolved it1 by getting masters and 
teachers of every kind of sumptuary art 
from ,italy4 ,the result has been to    
give the ,french nation a lead in this  
kind of industry1 that holds good even  
amidst the ruin of old traditions1 at   
this day4  ,the ,kensington schools1 and
 those on the same pattern throughout   
the country1 are efforts made by the    
,government to meet the wants of our    

manufacturers4 ,they are inelastic1 and 
it is too soon to judge of the work they
 are likely to do hereafter4 ,the only  
great error in such education would be  
to train scholars to be ornamentalists1 
i4e4 to teach them conventional art4    
,art is conventional in connection with 
architecture and furniture1 because in  
most instances this is all that would be
 proper or look well4 ,a good modeller1 
draughtsman1 or carver1 would become    
conventional just as occasion required1 
but with no abstract desire for ugliness
 or the grotesque4 ,that artists should 
be generally well educated and good     
scholars1 and that the profession should
 possess knowledge and refinement1 is of
 more importance than most people       
suppose4 ,this kind of refinement lay at
 the root of the universality of        
accomplishments of the sixteenth century
 artists4  ,lastly1 it is not enough    
that the profession only should be      
educated1 so as to supply the           
manufacturer with designs4 ,it is the   

rich that must be taught as well4 ,we   
are neither ,italians nor ,frenchmen1   
and1 indeed1 speaking generally1 we have
 not so much sense of beauty and        
propriety in art as those races have1   
even with such degeneracy as prevails   
but too widely over the ,channel4  ,it  
is enough to look at modern ,london1 to 
listen to the disputes of committees of 
management or selection for a public    
monument1 a street1 or a gallery1 and to
 take a glance at their choice1 to see  
what we are in these respects4 ,but     
,englishmen are not wanting in genius1  
and in the matter of which these pages  
treat1 they have played their part well 
in the past4  ,when buyers know what is 
ugly1 they will not tolerate it about   
their houses2 the eagerness to possess  
something new or original will give     
place to a just judgment of what is     
good1 whether new or old4 ,most periods 
of good sumptuary art owe their designs 
to a few old types constantly reproduced
 under new and agreeable varieties1 that

 are not radical changes4 ,to know good 
from bad in these matters1 is the result
 not of a natural instinct altogether1  
but of such a sense instructed by study1
 experience1 and reflection4 ,nor1 on   
the other hand1 does such an instinct   
accompany great intellectual            
acquirements naturally1 and as a matter 
of right4 ,a man may possess a vast     
amount of learning1 statesmanship1 or   
professional knowledge1 and be no judge 
of painting1 sculpture1 marquetry       
furniture1 or blue porcelain4 ,nor1     
though he knows something of the history
 of these objects1 will he necessarily  
admire and like the best or most        
beautiful examples4 ,it is this sense of
 what is becoming1 that has to be       
learned1 though it is occasionally a    
natural gift4 ,when whole nations have  
become used to good domestic art1 public
 opinion will be sound1 and will        
perpetuate itself as regards this       
subject matter1 till some great national
 convulsion reduces sumptuous living1   

and refined social manners and habits1  
to ruin4   ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by     
,,edward ,,stanford1 #ee1 ,,charing     
,,cross1 ,s4,w4