,note3 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are    
available ?r\gh       ,int]net          
,ar*ive_/,am]ican ,libr>ies4 ,see       
http3_/_/www4ar*ive4org_/details_/sci5ce
m$ievalt#jj;allbri*      ,,sci5ce ,,&   
,,m$ieval ,,?\ght4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,london3 ,c4 ,j4  
,,clay ,,& ,,sons1 ,,cambridge          
,,univ]sity ,,press ,,w>eh\se1 ,,ave    
,,m>ia ,,lane4 ,glasg[3 #ej1 ,,well+ton 
,,/reet4  ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus4
 ,new ,york3 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 
,bombay3 ,e4 ,,seym\r ,,hale4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,sci5ce ,,& ,,m$ieval ,,?\ght  ,!      
,h>veian ,oration ,deliv]$ ,be=e !      
,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 ,octob]  
#ah1 #aijj1  by  ,,?omas ,,clif=d       
,,allbutt1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 ,cantab4      
,fell[ ( ! ,college1 ,hon4 ,ll4,d4      
,glasg[1 ,hon4 ,m4,d4 ,dubl41 ,hon4     
,d4,sc4 ,vict41 ,hon4 ,f4,r4,c4,p4      
,dubl41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,regius ,pr(essor (  
,physic 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge2    
,fell[ ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1   

,cambridge2 ,consult+ ,physician to !   
,le$s ,g5]al ,infirm>y2 ,physician to ! 
,add5brooke's ,hospital1 ,cambridge4    
,london ,c4 ,j4 ,clay & ,sons ,cambridge
 ,univ]sity ,press ,w>eh\se ,ave ,m>ia  
,lane #aija ,all ,rights res]v$4        
,duo enim sunt modi cognosc5di1 scilicet
 p] argum5tum et   exp]im5tum4          
,argum5tum concludit1 et facit nos      
conclud]e   qu/ionem1 s$ non c]tificat1 
neque removet dubitationem1 ut          
quiescat animus 9 intuitu v]itatis1 nisi
 eam inv5iat via   exp]i5ti4 ,,rog]     
,,bacon1 ,op4 ,majus1 ,v5et4 #agej1 p4  
#ccf4     ,,to    ,,sir ,,william       
,,selby ,,*ur*1 ,,b>t41 ,m4,d4          
,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,college ,,(
 ,,physicians ,,( ,,london1    ,,?is    
,,oration1   ,,deliv]$ ,,at ,,8         
,,reque/1   ,,is ,,d$icat$4             
,,erratum4   p4 #gh1 note #a1 l4 #ai2 = 
7 9 ord]s1 = ! mo/ "p 9 holy ord]s2 read
 7 g5]ally speak+ 9 holy ord]s2         
,,preface4   ,9 ! ,middle ,ages ! old _w
 _h pass$1 & ! vision ( a new _w came   

ne> to ! eag] & passionate he>ts ( _m   
peoples4 ,l9coln & ,wells1 ,ami5s &     
,*>tres1 ,flor5ce & ,assisi tell u ( !  
glory ( t vision2 & be> witness ( its   
flight3 = ) ,gilb]t1 ,galileo1 ,h>vey & 
,newton ! ,middle ,ages !mselves became 
a phantom1 & aga9 ! _s ( a new _w       
appe>$4 ,?us 9 ! phases ( "t ! _w dies &
 is born aga92 fulfill+ great] de/9ies4 
,b ! new are born 9 ! cold b$ ( ! eld]  
worlds1 & ! "y life is *ill$1 or a lu/i]
 (fspr+ turns unnaturally to curse !    
dead2 s 9 _! decrepitude lay ! ,middle  
,ages ^u mod]n life2 & ! ,middle ,ages 7
 accurs$1 until c]ta9 pi\s m5 s\ght to  
reanimate _! ve/m5ts & _! =mulas1 & to  
set ! h&s back on ! dial ( ! c5turies2 z
 manym9d$ man seeks wi/fully to         
reanimate ! simple wond]s & beliefs ( 8 
*ildhood4 ,_! m9i/ry 0 no m ?an pi\s2 ! 
me?od ( mod]n hi/ory w9s ! fruits ( !   
pa/ :ile ca/+ away ! %ad[ ( its )]$     
bran*es4 ,?is comp>ative me?od1 fir/    
appli$ to ! art & romance ( ! ,middle   
,ages1 s t e dilettante may n[ disc\rse 

to u ( _! evolution1 has be5 appli$ also
 to ! ?\ght ( ! p]iod2 b its results1   
laid up 9 ! closets ( a few s*ol>s1 are 
z yet unfamili>4 ,x may !n become "o1 :o
 9 no s5se a s*ol> has /ray$ into ^!    
secret places1 to try to di/ribute "s   
lessons ( ! m$ieval ?\ght :i*1 to _m (  
u1 seems z s]e & outworn z did ! relics 
( ,go?ic %r9es to our great-gr&fa!rs4   
,=1 z 9 ^? m$ieval g5]ations :i* lay    
ne>e/ u ! furnace _h cool$1 impati5tly  
we _h ?r[n metal & dross aside1 & let   
our contempt = ! dryness & p$antry ( its
 latt] days prev5t our vision ( ! e>li] 
"t :5 ! passion = k bore up ! _w1 &     
s\ght ev5 to conta9 x4 ,t dogma is n    
et]nal is manife/ to e w&]] 9 ! /reets (
 ,tol$o1 yet ! hi/orian may well recall 
u to ! /udy ( a "t :51 by my/ical or    
intellectual inspirations1 m5 /rove     
eag]ly to "k ! mean+ ( life1 its orig9s1
 & its issues2 & may lead u to !        
discov]y ( ! se$s & wells ( its         
f]tility4 ,! ,greeks prophesi$ t be=e   
man c det]m9e 8 place & s]vice 9 ?is _w 

he mu/ =m "s !ory ( ! _w z a :ole2 !    
ages ( fai? prophesi$ t great de$s mu/  
be born ( great fai? & ( great          
conceptions4  ,to ^? :o live only 9 !   
pa/1 or only 9 ! pres5t1 !re seems 9 !  
discrim9ations ( ! comp>ative hi/orian  
to be a c]ta9 cold-blood$ness4 ,are n ! 
e>s ( ?is critic1 s alo( f ! murmur+ (  
cre$ & controv]sy1 are !y n deaf to !   
voices ( ! _s :i* he w\ld int]pret to u8
 ,a di/+ui%$ bi%op :o 0 among my he>]s1 
) ! f]v\r & g5tle hum\r s well kn[n 9   
him1 ralli$ me n = celebrat+ sci5ce b = 
putt+ religion to r\t4 ,yet 9 our own   
day surely ! argum5t is *ang$1 n 9 =m   
only b 9 v nature2 s *ang$ by !         
conceptions ( evolution1 :i* h ent]$ !  
m9d ( *ur*man & layman alike1 t n a few 
speculative beliefs are *ang+ sides )\t 
! k ( ! disputants2 & he :o ?9ks himself
 a def5d] ( ! fai? may h jo9$ ! revolt4 
,b if we no long] c>ry ! col\rs ( !     
troops ( ! pa/ we %all collect our      
lessons f its /rategies2 & = "o ( ^!    
lessons a prelate ( ! ,k+ w give ?anks )

 me1 t 8 supremacy has palsi$ ! arm ( ! 
inquisitor to /r5g!n t ( ! apo/le4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,an unsy/ematic read] ( a subject f9ds x
 out ( 8 p[] to make due ackn[l$gm5t ( !
 help & advantage d]iv$ f exp]t au?ors4 
,mu* ( ! matt] _h se$$ itself ins5sibly 
9 8 bra9 9 ! c\rse ( g5]al read+ &      
conv]sation2 mu* ( x aga9 _h be5 obta9$ 
m c>efully f s\rces n[ =gott54 ,to !    
foll[+ au?ors ,i "k ,i am pr(\ndly      
indebt$1 z ,i am to _m o!rs to ^: names 
& works ,i c n[ give no ref]5ce3        
,haurau1 ,la ,philosophie ,scola/ique1  
,ed4 #ahgb2    ,j[ett1 ,dialogues (     
,plato 7vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ebc72    ,j\rda9
 7,amable71 ,re*]*es critiques1 ,p>is   
#ahdh2    ,j\rda9 7,*>les71 ,excursions 
hi/oriques1 ,p>is #ahhh 7& !            
,philosophie de ,/ ,?omas ( ! same      
au?or72    ,ampre1 ,hi/oire litt4 de la 
,france avant le ,x,i,ime sicle2        
,bruck]'s ,hi/oria ,critica ,philosophi 
7,engli% ,ed41 #agia72    ,r5an1        
,av]ros1 ,p>is #ahff2 ! ,philosophie    

prip4 apud ,syros2     & ! ,peuples     
,smitiques dans l'hi/oire de la         
civilisation1 (     ! same au?or2       
,rog] ,bacon1 ,we/m9/] ,review1 #ahfd1  
two ,articles 7by ,?omas     ,m>%all1   
,m4,a4 ,oxon472    ,s*midt1 ,essai sur  
les ,my/iques du ,x,i,vme sicle2        
,b5n1 ,a4 ,w41 ,! ,greek ,philosoph]s1  
,london #ahhb 7& _m helpful     essays 9
 p]iodical lit]ature72    ,zell]1 ,die  
,philosophie d] ,grie*51 #ahha2         
,kris*e1 ,a4 ,b41 ,!ologis*e ,lehre d4  
,grie*is*5 ,d5k]1     ,gtt+5 #ahdj2     
,ueb]weg1 ,grundriss d4 ,ges*4 d4 ,phil4
 des ,alt]?ums1 ,b]l9     #ahfg2 ,g]la* 
und ,traumll]1 ,ges*4 d4 physik4        
,exp]im5ti]kun/1 ,leipzig #ahii2        
,ra%dall's ,hi/ory ( ,univ]sities2      
,haes]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,m$ic91 ,j5a       
#ahge-hb2    ,baas1 ,j4 ,h41 ,ges*4 d4  
,m$ic91 ,/uttg>t #ahgf2    ,idem1 ,die  
ges*i*tli*e ,entwicklung des rztli*5    
,/&es1     ,b]l9 #ahif2    ,*>les       
,d>emb]g 7all 8 works72    ,r\sselot1   
tudes sur la philosophie dans le ,moy5  

,age1 #ahdj2    ,pattison1 ,casaubon1   
#ahge2    ,meuni]1 ,francis1 ,essai sur 
la vie et les ouvrages de ,nicole       
,oresme1 ,p>is #aheg4    ,desc>tes1     
,epi/4 ,c>tes4 #dto4 ,am/41 #affh2      
,plumpius1 ,fundam5ta ,m$4 ,fol4        
,lovan41 #afeb2    ,sylvii ,op4 ,omn41  
#afgi1 p4 #hge2    ,hall]1 ,elem4       
,physiol41 #ageg1 ,i4 #c2    ,ti$emann1 
,physiologie de l'homme1 ,p>is #ahca1   
,i4 #da2    ,delle ,*iaja1 ,in/ituzione 
di ,anatom4 e ,fis4 ,comp41 #ahcb1 ,i4  
#ac4    7,! six la/ works are cit$ z be+
 especially useful1 among   _m o!rs1 to 
%[ ! ext5t to :i* mod]n physiology1 f   
,h>vey onw>ds1 is bas$ ^u vivisection2 &
 t x c\ld n   h aris5 or ?riv5 o!rwise4 
,x 0 by ! te/ ( _m   vivisections t     
,plumpius 0 l$ to ! hon\rable )drawal ( 
8 opposition to ,h>vey47                
,,introduction#a4   ,9 ! _m ,h>veian    
,orations :i* h be5 deliv]$ s9ce ! dea? 
( ! f\nd] ( mod]n physiology ! direct   
aspects ( 8 hon\r & ( 8 "w h be5        
exhau/$2 ( late ye>s ! orators h conc]n$

 !mselves ) indirect aspects4 ,"s ( my  
fri5ds h said to me t !y lack a         
p]spective view ( ,h>vey & 8 "w2 t ev5  
highly educat$ m5 h little s5se ( 8     
relation to m$ieval ?\ght1 or ( !       
evolution ( m$ieval into mod]n ?\ght4 ,(
 ! sev]al />s ( ! con/ellation--(       
,cop]nicus1 ,gilb]t1 ,galileo1          
,h>vey--!y _h "s k2 b h[ came ,h>vey to 
be at ,padua8 h[ did sci5ce spr+ up 9   
,nor? ,italy8 did sci5ce arise out ( !  
womb ( m$ic9e1 or contr>iwise8 :y did   
natural sci5ce n fl\ri% 9 ! ?irte5?     
c5tury1 & 0 x n a great mis=tune =      
,europe t x did n !n fl\ri%8 :at 7 !    
sy/ems ( ?\ght :i* 9 ! ,middle ,ages    
prec$$1 enc\rag$ or ?w>t$ ! travail ( ! 
human m9d1 & :at ( good or ill d we owe 
to !m8 ,^! & su* que/ions x seem$ n     
unfitt+ t a ,h>veian ,orator ( ?is latt]
 day %\ld consid]4 ,n[ on ! philosophy (
 ! ,middle ,ages1 & on its relation to !
 era ( positive sci5ce ( :i* ,h>vey 0   
p]haps ! *ief pione]1 !re lay 9 a draw] 
9 my cab9et ! confus$ & occasional notes

 ( _m ye>s4 ,an int]e/ 9 ?is ?orny      
subject1 s[n 9 my m9d at fir/ by        
accid5t1 & reawak5$ by ^! enquir+       
fri5ds1 _h = me ! *>ms ( an old fancy1 &
 ,i tru/ "s brief essay !reon may h a   
tempor>y s]vice2 if1 t is1 ,i c t\* !   
imag9ation ( my he>]s1 & aft] "s brok5  
fa%ion br+ be=e !m a vision ( ! nations 
sway$ hi!r & ?i!r ^u ! face ( ,europe by
 a ?ir/ = k ( a k9d diff]5t1 bo? 9 its  
me?ods & 9 its aims1 f our own4  ,?is   
oration _c h ! m]it ( an orig9al /udy4  
,_h ,i ! equipm5t ,i h n ! leisure to   
c>ry my inve/igations to ! s\rces4 ,yet 
,i may h atta9$ to "s maturity ( judgm5t
 h]e9 by long occupation ( my m9d s9ce1 
9 #ahfc1 my old fri5d ,mr ,?omas ,m>%all
 ( ,le$s1 sometime ( ,/ ,john's         
,college1 ,ox=d1 int]e/$ me 9 ! life &  
"w ( ,rog] ,bacon1 ! only em95t =]unn] (
 ! great naturali/s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4
  ,! art ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! social & 
political hi/ory ( ! "t h fasc9at$ mod]n
 ,europe2 = m$ieval ?\ght1 ?\gh its     
phrases survive 9 _! m\?s1 few p]sons h 

%[n any c>e3 yet to ^! conflicts we owe 
:at we are4 ,no great battles ( mank9d h
 be5 f\ght 9 va92 none ( its great      
capta9s has des]v$ oblivion4 ,yet we    
%rug our %\ld]s at _! unc\? or outl&i%  
names2 we assume t f _! *airs !re issu$ 
naught b rhetoric1 casui/ries &         
fallacies1 & t _! multitud9\s disciples 
7 silly mo?s4  ,ea* p]iod ( human       
a*ievem5t has its phases ( spr+1        
culm9ation1 & decl9e2 & x is 9 its      
decl9e t ! leafless tree comes to       
judgm5t4 ,9 ! unlovel9ess ( decay !     
,middle ,ages are z o!r ages h be51 z   
our own w be3 b 9 ^? ages !re 0 m ?an "o
 outbur/ ( life2 m ?an once ! en?usiasm 
( ! y\? ( ! ,we/ w5t out to explore !   
ways ( ! realm ( ideas2 &1 if we believe
 ourselves at la/ to h f\nd ! only      
?or\ghf>e1 we owe ?is k to ^? :o be=e u 
travell$ ! un*>t$ seas4 ,if we h inh]it$
 a great comm]ce & dom9ion ( sci5ce x is
 because _! argosies _h be5 on ! ocean1 
& _! camels on ! des]t4 ,discipulus e/  
prioris po/]ior dies2 man _c "k all at  

once2 k mu/ be built up by labori\s     
g5]ations4 ,9 all times1 z 9 our own1 ! 
advance ( k is v l>gely by elim9ation & 
negation2 we asc]ta9 :at is n true1 & we
 we$ x out4 ,to p]ceive & to respect !  
limits ( ! kn[able we mu/ h s\ght to    
transgress !m4 ,we c build our bridge   
ov] ! *asm ( ignorance ) /or$ mat]ial 9 
:i* ! ?irte5? c5tury 0 poor inde$1 we c 
fix our be>+s :]e !n 0 no f\ndation2 yet
 man may be well engag$ :5 he kn[s n !  
ends ( 8 "w2 & ! s*oolm5 9 digg+ =      
treasure cultivat$ ! field ( k1 ev5 =   
,galileo & ,h>vey1 = ,newton & ,d>w94   
,_! _m errors came n ( indol5ce1 = !y 7 
passionate2 n ( hatr$ ( light1 = !y 7   
eag] = ! light2 n ( fickl5ess1 = !y     
wr\ght ) unp>allel$ devotion2 nor inde$ 
( ignorance ( p>ticul> ?+s1 = !y knew _m
 ?+s3 !y err$ because !y did n "k1 & !y 
c\ld n "k1 ! conditions ( ! problems    
:i*1 z !y em]g$ f ! cauldron ( w> & f ! 
wreck ( lett]s & sci5ce1 !y 7 nev]!less 
b\nd to attack1 if civil societies wor?y
 ( ! "n 7 to be con/ruct$4 ,h[ sl[ 9    

ge/ation is ! "m ( tru? we may see by   
comp>+ ! s*oolm5 ( ! second m$ieval     
p]iod ) ^? ( ! fir/2 9 ! enl>gem5t ( _! 
view1 ! bett] furniture ( _! m9ds1 & !  
deep] mean+ ( _! di/9ctions3 & :5 we    
comp>e ) ^! lat] s*oolm5 ! naturali/s ( 
! sev5te5? c5tury1 we f9d n new         
acquirem5ts only b also a new direction 
( ! pursuit ( tru?4  ,x seems h>dly     
compreh5sible t great & /able societies 
h be5 built up on transc5d5tal s*emes ( 
?\ght1 ^u conceptions pois$ z x 7 9 !   
air4 ,)\t a sy/em ( morals no civil     
society c\ld exi/2 yet if mank9d mu/ h  
wait$ = civil polity until "s su* sy/em 
7 built up f bel[1 ( sci5tifically te/$ 
mat]ials1 social con/ructions w\ld h be5
 virtually impossible4 ,9 morals1 z 9 ! 
arts1 ! art prec$es ! sci5ce2 !         
intuitions ( g5ius imag9e social s*emes 
( provisional validity1 & new & l(ty    
/&>ds ( fitness4 ,b a social fabric ?us 
born ( a vision c be> no r\gh h&l+2 &   
ev5 ! solid build]s :o w\ld make a m    
p]man5t f\ndation ^u positive           

conceptions1 :ile seek+ m or less       
delib]ately to und]p9 ! fabric1 may1 &  
(t5 d1 %ake x to ru94  ,h5ce 9 all      
gu>dians ( morals ! dread ( m$dl+ ) !   
reign+ vision ( tru?2 h5ce its sanctity1
 t no man %all try ! /uff ( :i* x is    
made4 ,& ! dang]s ( h]esies f )9 are m  
fe>ful ?an ^? ( ali5 attacks2 social    
cohesion1 ! end ( x all1 is !reby m     
expos$ to dis9tegration4 ,yet nev]!less1
 z ! g5]ations ( m5 *ange1 & z k        
increases1 m5 see f new po9ts ( view2 & 
?us :ile = "s ! reign+ vision reta9s its
 app>5t solidity1 = o!rs its rays are   
brok5 or dissolv$4 ,ev5 ,john ,h5ry     
,newman 0 compell$ to tea* ! relativity 
( tru?1 & t a doctr9e ( developm5t mu/  
be accept$4 ,= e provisional syn!sis !n 
! "t mu/ come :5 ! app>ition ( tru? c no
 long] comm& unit$ allegiance1 &        
crit]ions beg9 to encroa* ^u sanctions4 
,broad] & m /able f\ndations h1 x is    
true1 be5 ris+ almo/ ins5sibly1 yet x   
may be long ere ! sup]/ructure rise into
 ! heav5ly light2 9 ! l[] "w _m w see no

 beauty & no hope1 o!rs w see safety 9  
its enl>gem5t & solidity4 ,by ^! inde$ !
 visions ( ! imag9ation are apt to be   
=gott51 or 9 ! pressure ( intellectual  
v]ification ev5 despis$2 ! mean level ( 
conception may n inde$ be l[]1 x may    
haply be high]1 yet ! highe/1 :]e9 tru? 
may be reveal$ by illum9ation1 is n     
div9$ 9 its full =ce1 abundance & life4 
,great se]s are wont to leave to o!rs to
 f9d out1 or ev5 to c>e1 :at bottom !y  
/ood ^u2 yet only ?r\gh transitory      
p]iods ( a humbl] duty ?an !irs c !     
bases be laid & enl>g$ = times ( ri*]   
fruition4 ,"o ( ! pr(\nde/ ( mod]n say+s
 0 t ( ,freeman--t ! end ( mod]n mat]ial
 progress is to br+ l>ge societies up to
 ! level ( small ones4   ,?is is ! day (
 a great celebration2 t on ?is anniv]s>y
 ,i am wor?y to take a place 9 !        
succession ( y\r ,orators is m ?an ,i   
d>e to believe1 t y h deem$ me wor?y is 
my enc\ragem5t4 ,9 private duty also ,i 
am b\nd to hon\r "o ( ! greate/ ( ! sons
 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 & !       

greate/ memb] ( ! anci5t & hon\rable    
h\se ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college4  ,9 
"s respects ,i am ill equipp$ = my      
(fice2 ( ! hi/ory ( ! practice ( ,m$ic9e
 f ! "t ( ,gal5 to ! "t ( ,h>vey ,i am  
almo/ ignorant1 ,i fe> wilfully         
ignorant4 ,well inde$ may we turn our   
eyes away f ^? c5turies :]e9 "o ( ! *ief
 call+s ( man fell into unexampl$ & ev5 
odi\s degradation2 yet ,i tru/ t 9 me   
?is ignorance & ?is av]sion may be      
comp5sat$ by "s famili>ity ) ! hi/ory ( 
?\ght 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 a famili>ity   
acquir$ dur+ ?irty-six ye>s ( abid+     
int]e/1 & occasional /udy4  ,! discov]y 
( ! circulation ( ! blood by ,william   
,h>vey is commonly reg>d$ among         
sci5tific discov]ies z pre-em95t if n   
unique4 ,i c quote b two op9ions on ?is 
matt]1 bo? tak5 beyond our own l&4 ,9   
,france1 ,dr ,d>emb]g exclaims ,voici   
,h>vey6 ,comme au j\r de la cration le  
*aos se dbr\ille1 la lumire se sp>e des 
tnbres6 ,9 ,g]many1 ,dr ,baas says t    
,h>vey /&s alone 9 respect ( ! _w (     

life2 t 8 discov]y ( ! inn] work+ ( !   
microcosm takes a place equal to1 if n  
inde$ high] ?an1 ^? ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]
 & ,newton 9 respect ( ! macrocosm4 ,x w
 be my endeav\r to %[ t ^! judgm5ts are 
hi/orically ju/ifiable4  ,to put !      
discov]y ( ! sy/emic circulation ( !    
blood 9 its true light1 we mu/ h "s     
notion ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 sci5ce &
 m$ic9e4 ,m$ic9e1 & h]e9 x is 9 contra/ 
) ,!ology & ,law1 _h its s\rces almo/   
:olly 9 ! ,greeks4 ,n only 9 ! doctr9e (
 ! f\r elem5ts ( ,emp$ocles1 a doctr9e  
:i* has surviv$ almo/ to our own day#b1 
& 9 ! physical !ories ( ,h]aclitus &    
,leucippus1 did m$ic9e1 = good or ill1  
fir/ f9d a s*eme ( ?\ght1 b 9 ! s*ools (
 ,hippocrates & ( ,alex&ria x 0 bas$    
also1 & f> m s\ndly1 ^u natural hi/ory &
 anatomy4 ,! noble figure ( ,gal51 !    
fir/ exp]im5tal physiologi/ & ! la/ ( ! 
great ,greek physicians1 portray$ = u by
 ,dr ,payne 9 ! ,h>veian ,oration (     
#ahif1 /ood em95t ^u ! br[ ( ! abyss :51
 z if by "s convulsion ( nature1 m$ic9e 

0 ov]:elm$ = fifte5 c5turies4 ,to !     
philosophy ( m$ic9e1 ,gal5 _h giv5 m ?an
 en\gh2 to its natural hi/ory he _h     
contribut$ 9 ! foll[+ ( ,hippocrates2 to
 its discov]ies he _h giv5 ! greate/ (  
all means ( rese>*1 individual g5ius2 to
 its me?ods he _h giv51 b 9 va91 t      
indisp5sable me?od1 practis$ fir/ p]haps
 9 hi/ory by ,ar*im$es & ! ,alex&rians1 
( v]ification by exp]im5t2 a me?od1 aft]
 ,gal51 virtually lo/ till ! "t (       
,gilb]t1 ( ,galileo & ( ,h>vey4  ,9 !   
gr[? ( human societies small            
civilisations1 h[ev] exquisite1 h be5   
sacrific$ to ! =mation ( va/] & va/]    
congregations ( m52 ?us only1 x w\ld    
seem1 is an equilibrium to be rea*$ (   
suffici5t /ability = ! highe/ ends (    
mank9d4 ,greece1 beautiful z 0 h] bloom1
 p5etrat+ z 0 h] _s1 p]haps because ( h]
 v fre$om ( ?\ght1 nev] became a nation2
 h] city /ates 7 too wilful to comb9e4  
,! ,mac$onian p[] broad5$ ! f\ndation ( 
polity ea/w>d & we/w>d2 & ?is "w 0 c>ri$
 z f> p]haps z sword & fasces c\ld c>ry 

x by ! p[] ( ,rome4 ,b ev5 ! ,roman     
peace1 b\ght z x 0 at ! co/ ( le>n+ & ! 
arts1 0 b a me*anical peace2 9 ! wild]1 
m turbul5t & m het]og5e\s peoples ( !   
lat] ,empire ! bodies b n ! wills ( m5 7
 9 subjugation4 ,! great sy/em ( ,roman 
,law1 :i* ,numa1 ! ,moses ( ,rome1 _h   
inve/$ ) sup]natural awe1 _h become b an
 ext]nal rule2 ev5 9 ,rome h]self1 poor]
 9 p1 poor] 9 comm]ce1 poor] ?an ev] 9  
ideas1 ! sanction ( patriotism 0 fail+1 
& h] citiz5s 7 held toge!r = ! mo/ "p by
 _! bas] & m dang]\s passions#c4 ,=     
,ea/]n ,europe ! ,univ]sity (           
,con/ant9ople e/abli%$ a compact & uni=m
 sy/em ( ?\ght1 subtle prolix &         
acquisitive r ?an orig9al or pr(\nd2 b 9
 ! ,we/1 "u ! ,frank & lat] ,nor!rn     
deva/ations1 ! v traditions ( le>n+ &   
ob$i5ce 7 brok5 up2 s*ools 7 clos$1 &   
ev5 ! art ( writ+ 0 almo/ lo/4 ,!n x 0 t
 ! cohesion & developm5t ( ,we/]n       
,europe 7 sav$ by a new & a wond]ful ?+4
 ,f ! ,ea/1 ! home ( religions1 _h      
spread1 l an exhalation1 ,*ri/ianity1 t 

religion :i* proves by its survival t x 
is ! fitte/ sanction = ! w ( man4 ,?is  
religion1 ent]+ z a new _s into ! anci5t
 fabric ( ,roman ,empire1 0 to hold m5's
 s]vice 9 he>t & s\l z well z 9 body2   
yet to ?is end no m]e my/ic or p]sonal  
religion c\ld suffice3 clo?+ itself ) ! 
political & ritual pride & ev5 ) !      
my?ology ( ! pagan ,empire x inspir$ a  
new adoration2 b x impos$ also ^u       
,europe a ca?olic & elaborat$ cre$4 ,to 
pres]ve ! au?ority ( ! common fai? n    
only mu/ e knee be b[$1 n only mu/ e    
he>t be t\*$1 b to build & to repair its
 fabric e m9d mu/ also br+ its s]vice4  
,h[ ! s*eme ( ! ,fai? 0 built up1 h[    
ori5tal ec/asy & hell5i/ic subtlety1    
possess+ !mselves ( ! ma*9]y ( ,roman   
pomp1 7 wr\ght to ?is end1 we may       
briefly consid]4  ,z1 politically1 "u   
,diocletian & ,con/ant9e ! anci5t _w    
gave place to ! new1 s 9 ! ?ird c5tury  
philosophy 0 born aga9 9                
neo-platonism#d1 ! (fspr+ ( ! coition ( 
,ea/ & ,we/ 9 ,alex&ria1 :]e all        

religions & all philosophies met toge!r4
 ,! _w & ! fle% 7 crucifi$ t by ! _s1   
man might ent] into ,god#e4 ,pure 9 its 
e?ical mood1 neo-platonism1 says        
,h>nack1 l$ surely to intellectual      
bankruptcy2 ! irruption ( ! b>b>ians 0 n
 altoge!r ! cause ( ! eclipse ( natural 
k3 to transc5d5tal intuition ! wisdom ( 
! _w _h become fooli%ness4 ,yet ev5 !n1 
z aga9 & aga91 came ! g5ius ( ,ari/otle 
to save ! human m9d4 ,! dea? ( ,hypatia 
0 ! dea? ( ! ,s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 b 9    
,a!ns neo-platonism surviv$ & grew4     
,proclus1 ascetic z he 01 0 v]s$ also 9 
,ari/otle2 & he compell$ ! ,ea/]n       
my/]ies into categories3 s t on !       
closure ( ! ,s*ool ( ,a!ns by ,ju/9ian  
7,a4,d4 #ebi7 a =mal philosophy 0       
bequea!d to ! ,fai?2 ! fir/ s*ola/ic    
p]iod 0 fa%ion$1 & ! objects & me?ods ( 
enquiry 7 det]m9$ = ?irty g5]ations4 ,f 
,ari/otle ,europe adopt$ logic fir/1 &  
!n metaphysics1 yet bo? 9 me?od & 9     
purpose ,orig5 & ,augu/9e 7 platoni/s2  
rationalis$ dogma liv$ ^u dialectic1 &  

conflict$ ) my/icism2 b logic1 dogma &  
my/icism alike disda9$ exp]i5ce4  ,?us1 
no m]e ext]nal sanction1 /ood ! ,fai?2  
?reefold3 f ! pa/ x br\ght its pomp\s   
ritual1 x appeal$ by its subtle dogmatic
 s*eme to ! intellects1 & by its        
devotion to ! he>ts ( m54 ,?r\gh !      
mirage ( x1 :5 its sub/ance _h wan$1    
,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 & ,h>vey _h to /e]
 by ! compass ( ! exp]im5tal me?od4 ,?is
 0 _! *ief adv]sity1 & ( o!r adv]sities 
,i h to speak4  ,! visitor to !         
,dom9ican ,*ur* ( ,/ ,ca!r9e at ,pisa w 
see on its walls ,/ ,?omas ( ,aqu9o ) ! 
,holy ,scriptures 9 8 h&2 pro/rate b5ea?
 him is ,av]roes ) 8 ,great ,comm5t>y1 b
 beside him ,plato be>+ ! ,timu4 ,x 0 ! 
=tune ( ! ,fai? t1 ( all ! treatises (  
,plato1 ! ,timu1 ! mo/ fanta/ic & ! lea/
 sci5tific1 %\ld h be5 set ap>t to      
in/ruct ! m$ieval _w2 t ! cosmical s*eme
 ( ! ,timu1 app>ell$ 9 ! ,lat9 (        
,*alcidius1--= !re 7 !n no ,greek texts 
9 ! libr>ies ( ! ,we/1--%\ld = "s #ejj  
ye>s h occupi$ t !oretical activity :i* 

,ari/otle reg>d$ z ! highe/ good (      
man#f4 ,aga91 ^? works (4 ,ari/otle :i* 
might h made = natural k fell out ( m5's
 h&s#g1 :ile 9 !m1 z ,abl>d tells u (   
himself1 lay ! ,categories1 !           
,int]pretation1 & ! ,introduction (     
,porphyry to ! ,categories1 all 9 !     
,lat9 ( ,boetius#h2 treatises :i* made =
 p]ipatetic nom9alism1 b :]eby m5 7 v]s$
 r 9 logic & rhetoric ?an 9 natural     
sci5ce4 ,?us ,plato's *im]a ( ! human   
microcosm1 a reflection ( 8 !ory ( !    
macrocosm1 /ood beside ! ,fai? z !      
second great adv]s>y ( physiology4  ,!  
influ5ce ( au?ority1 by :i* ,europe 0 to
 be weld$ toge!r1 gov]n$ all human      
ideas4 ,z 9 !ology 0 ! au?ority ( !     
,fai?1 s 9 ! sci5ce & m$ic9e ( ! fir/   
p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 t ( !         
neo-platonic doctr9es1 &1 9 ! second    
p]iod1 ( ! ,arabian v]sions ( ,gal5 & ( 
,ari/otle2 fur!rmore 9 ?is rigid        
discipl9e metallic doctr9e almo/        
necess>ily ov]bore life & fre$om4 ,x is 
n easy = u to realise a "t :5           

intellectual progress--:i* involves !   
successive ab&onm5t ( provisional       
syn!ses--0 unconceiv$2 :5 tru?s 7 reg>d$
 z /ation>y2 :5 reasons 7 n te/$ b c\nt$
 & balanc$2 :5 ev5 ! lat] ,av]roi/s f\nd
 f9al answ]s ei!r 9 ,ari/otle or 9      
,gal5#i4 ,?us 9 ! irony ( ?+s x came to 
pass t ,h>vey 0 )/ood by ! dogma ( ,gal5
 :o1 9 8 own day1 _h passionately       
appeal$ f dogma to nature4  ,porphyry ( 
,tyre1 :o liv$ 9 ! #crd c5tury1 may be  
call$ ! f\nd] ( bo? ,arabian & ,*ri/ian 
s*ola/ics4 ,he 0 an ,alex&rian1 b (     
p]ipatetic r ?an platonic op9ions4 ,9 ! 
,isagoge1 or ,introduction to !         
,categories1 already m5tion$ z translat$
 by ,boetius ab\t #ejj ,a4,d41 he set =?
 pla9ly a problem :i* dur+ ! ,middle    
,ages r5t ,we/]n ,europe asund]2 a      
problem :i*1 says ,john ( ,salisbury#aj1
 engag$ m ( ! "t & passions ( m5 ?an = !
 h\se ( ,cs> to conqu] & gov]n ! _w2 "o 
inde$ :i* ev5 9 our day & c\ntry is n   
:olly resolv$4  ,! controv]sy lay betwe5
 ! ,reali/s#aa & ! ,nom9ali/s2 & !      

issues ( x1 9 ! elev5? c5tury1--at :i*  
"t ! ,d>k ,ages pass$ into ! e>li] ( !  
two p]iods ( ! ,middle ,ages1--7 =mulat$
 on ! reali/ side by ,william (         
,*ampeaux1 :ile ! ,breton ,r\ssel91 or  
,roscell9us1 _h ! p]il\s hon\r ( def9+  
!m on behalf ( ! nom9ali/s#ab4 ,to see !
 dep? ( ! diff]5ce we mu/ /ep back a    
little1 to a "t :5 metaphysics &        
psy*ology 7 n di/+ui%$ f o!r sph]es (   
sci5ce#ac1 & all rese>* _h = its object 
! nature ( be+4 ,plato himself held     
ideas n z m]e ab/ractions b 9 "s degree 
z creative p[]s2 & we %all see h[ pot5t 
?is function became 9 ! ?\ght ( !       
,middle ,ages :51 9 ! ard\r ( rese>*    
into ! nature ( be+1 ! modes (          
individuat+ pr9ciples 7 di/+ui%$ or     
contra/$ ) an +5uity incompreh5sible to 
,plato or ,ari/otle1 or at any rate     
undesir$ by ^! great] ?9k]s4 ,ari/otle  
avoid$ ! "q :e!r =m or matt]            
individuate2 he held t !re is no =m & no
 matt] extr9sic to ! individual4 ,b by !
 m$ieval reali/ e p>ticul>1 e ?+1 0     

reg>d$ z aft] "s fa%ion ! product (     
univ]sal matt] & individual =m4 ,n[ =m  
might be reg>d$1 & sev]ally 0 reg>d$1 z 
a %ap+1 det]m9ative =ce or pr9ciple1    
patt]n type or m\ld1 hav+ real exi/5ce  
ap>t f /uff1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 z an      
ab/ract pr9ciple or patt]n hav+ no      
exi/5ce b z a conception ( ! m9d ( !    
obs]v]4 ,! reali/s r\ndly ass]t$ t =m is
 z actual z matt]1 & t ?+s arise by _!  
p>ticipation--)\t :it5ess no :ite ?+1   
)\t humanity no man2 & n individuals    
only3 = ! reali/1 out-platonis+ ,plato1 
g5]a & species also _h _! =ms1 ei!r     
pre-exi/5t 7univ]salia ante rem71 or    
cont9u\sly evolv$ 9 ! sev]al acts (     
creation 7univ]salia 9 re74 ,inde$ = !  
extreme reali/ e pr$icam5tal modality 0 
aliquid ens sep>atum2 = in/ance1 ! s\l1 
! active intellect1 ! passive intellect1
 & s on3 conv]sely1 by fus+ idea ) w1 = 
o!r philosoph]s realism w\ld get pu%$   
back into effici5t reason or div9e w1 & 
almo/ vani%#ad4 ,by ?is latt] r\te !    
,sorbonne1 orig9ally oppos$ to !        

,?omi/s1 became nom9ali/ aft] all2 z did
 ^? once pi\s reali/s ! ,augu/9ians &   
,ci/]cians4 ,sett+ aside !n ! extreme   
nom9ali/s1 :o w\ld h dissolv$ ?\ght by  
decl>+ all creatures to be s individual 
z to be incomp>able1--pulv]is+ exi/5ce  
into deta*$ p>ticul>s1 z "s "o has put  
x--& t names ( k9ds are m]e n\ns1 or    
inde$ m]e air 7flatus vocis71 ! preval5t
 nom9ali/s 7 cont5t to d5y to ideas1    
=ms1 pr9ciples1 or ab/ractions any o!r  
exi/5ce ?an z functions ( ! human m9d--z
 subjective conceptions4 ,= ,ockham1    
says ,haurau1 an idea 0 b a modality ( !
 ?9k+ subject4 ,ab/ractions !n = ^!     
?9k]s 7 b m5tal ma*9]y = analysis ( !   
concrete4 ,ari/otle 0 z obscure &       
inconsi/5t 9 8 language h]e91 & (t5     
else:]e1 z he 0 pr(\nd & scrupul\s2 b :5
 8 works came to be /udi$ z a :ole1 & 9 
! orig9al tongue1 ! influ5ce ( 8 me?od1 
r ?an ! close consi/5cy ( 8 language1   
told aga9/ realism3 virtually he 0 a    
conceptuali/1 & he f\nd reality1 :]e    
,plato d5i$ x1 9 ! p>ticul> object (    

s5se#ae4 ,ev5 ,francis ,bacon1 :o 0     
deeply indebt$ to ,ari/otle1 nev]       
extricat$ himself f ! tangle ( =m1 cause
 & law#af4  ,n[ ?is 0 a great argum5t1  
no empty dispute2 ! bones ( dead        
controv]sies cumb] ! gr\nd1 b no        
controv]sy 0 empty :i* mov$ pr(\ndly !  
m9ds & passions ( m53 bo? =             
ecclesia/ical & secul> ?\ght ! dispute 0
 grave4 ,:ile realism 0 ess5tial to !   
,*ur*--= in/ance1 on reali/ gr\nds ,/   
,anselm def5d$ ! m$ieval doctr9e ( !    
,tr9ity aga9/ ,roscell9us2 ! ,*ur*      
h]self claim$ a real exi/5ce ap>t f !   
wills ( successive g5]ations (          
individual & v>iable m52 %e taught t    
,man _h fall5 n only 9 _m or all        
individual cases1 b z a k9d hav+ a real 
exi/5ce#ag1 & aga9 t 9 ! ,mass !re is   
*ange ( hypo/asis#ah--:ile !n realism 0 
ess5tial to ! ,fai?1 yet if =ms pre-exi/
 7ante rem7 !n ! acts ( ,god mu/ be     
pr$et]m9$--fatis non avolsa voluntas2 or
 if =ms are only 9 re ,god mu/ be =m1   
liv+ 9 ea* & e act & ?+1 :i* is ,pan!ism

 7mat]ia omnium ,deus73 an imp]sonal    
conception & a dissolution ( dogma :i* !
 ,*ur* mu/ & did abhor4 ,pessimus       
error--!re is ! abyss1 cri$ ,alb]t1     
avoid+ x by dialectical juggles4        
,erig5a1 ! brilliant prophet &          
prote/ant#ai ( ! fir/ p]iod ( ! s*ola/ic
 philosophy1 0 virtually a pan!i/ aft] !
 patt]n ( ,p>m5ides#bj2 z ,sp9oza 0 !   
la/ great reali/4 ,david ( ,d9an aga9 0 
su* a pan!i/1 ?\gh luckily = him ! ,*ur*
 did n f9d x out till he 0 dead2 & he 0 
m>tyr$ only 9 8 bones4 ,inde$ ! great   
,rob]t ( ,l9coln b>ely escap$ !         
accusation ( pan!ism "u ! w+ ( ,augu/9e4
 ,! h]esies ( ,david1 & ( ,amaury1 caus$
 ! reaction ( ! fir/ ye>s ( ! #ac?      
c5tury aga9/ ,ari/otle4 ,amaury seems   
inde$ to h cle>$ out ,*ri/ian dogma     
pretty ?or\ghly1 & to h prea*$ ! com+ ( 
sci5ce z ! ?ird age ( ! _w4 ,_m ( 8     
foll[]s 7 s5t to ! /ake2 by ! ,synod (  
,p>is 7#abji7 ! works ( ,ari/otle 7     
proscrib$1 & _m copies ( !m burn$4 ,?is 
proscription 0 virtually )drawn by      

,gregory ! ,n9? 9 #abca2 & ,hales1      
,alb]t & ,/ ,?omas devot$ !mselves aga9 
to ! /udy ( ,ari/otle1 & e/abli%$ 8     
supremacy#ba4 ,indisp5sable !n z realism
 0 = ! ,*ur*1 its cre$1 & its sacram5ts1
 yet !re9 x f\nd itself 9 a dilemma     
betwe5 ! conceptions ( a ,creator work+ 
"u conditions1 & ( a _s imman5t 9 matt]2
 & :5 !ological philosophy culm9at$ 9 ,/
 ,?omas1 & 0 fix$ by him z x n[ rules 9 
,rome1 ?is difficulty 0 r conceal$ 9 8  
sy/em ?an resolv$#bb4 ,e s*eme ( ?\ght  
mu/ make "s decl>ation on ! nature &    
place ( univ]sals2 ! problem 0 no hair  
splitt+#bc1 x dealt ) ! v nature & orig9
 ( be+2 x agitat$ ! m9ds ( ?9k+ m5 at a 
"t ( ! mo/ f]vid & widespread en?usiasm 
= k :i* ! ,we/]n _w has ev] kn[n1--at a 
"t :5 ,ox=d c\nt$ its /ud5ts by ?\s&s1 &
 :5 9 ,p>is a ?rong a?ir/ = k w\ld /ret*
 f ! cloi/]s ( ! ,ma?ur9s to ! faub\rg (
 ,/ ,d5is#bd2 &1 9 respect ( our !me (  
?is day1 we %all see t ev5 ,h>vey 0     
emb>rass$ by c]ta9 aspects ( x4  ,=1 to 
resume1 closely alli$ to ! argum5t      

conc]n+ univ]sals 0 t conc]n+ =m &      
matt]4 ,:e!r ! t]ms us$ 7 =m & matt]1   
=ce or en]gy or pneuma & matt]1 s\l or  
life & body1 det]m9ative ess5ce &       
det]m9ate subsi/5ce1 male pr9ciple &    
female elem5t1 ar*u & body1 ! pott] & ! 
clay ( ! pott]2 or :e!r aga9 !y 7 type &
 individual1 cause & effect1 law &      
nature1 becom+ & be+1 or ev5 ! ?\ght &  
ext5sion ( ,desc>tes1 ! riddle lay 9 !  
contra/ ( ! /atic & dynamic aspects (   
?+s2 9 ! incessant =mation ( v>iable &  
transitory individuals 9 ! et]nal ocean 
( exi/5ce#be4    ,spiritus intus alit1  
totamque infusa p] artus    ,m5s agitat 
molem1 et magno se corpore miscet4  ,=  
e>ly ?9k]s1 untra9$ 9 ! me?ods & unaw>e 
( ! limits ( ?\ght1 ev5 = ! great & free
 ?9k]s ( ,greece1 a captivat+ analogy 0 
irresi/ible#bf2 :ile inv5t+ s*emes (    
?\ght !y believ$ !mselves to be describ+
 ! processes ( nature4 ,moreov] x has   
be5 ! temptation ( philosoph]s ( all    
times1 & ev5 ( ,h>vey himself ?an :om   
none _h put bett] ! conditions (        

sci5tific me?od1 to suppose t by means (
 ab/raction k9ds may be appreh5d$2 t ?us
 !y may get ne>] to ! inmo/ core ( ?+s2 
t by purg+ away ! *>act]s ( individuals 
!y may detect ! ess5ce & cause (        
individuation 7,greek3 sp]matikos       
logos73 n p]ceiv+ inde$ t ! cont5t (    
notions is1 z ,abl>d _h po9t$ out       
pla9ly1 9 inv]se proportion to _!       
univ]sality4 ,l ,sidney's hood$ dove1 ! 
bl9d] !y 7 ! high] !y /rove#bg4 ,=      
example3 f a lump ( silv] a m$al is     
/ruck2 f _m lumps ( silv] _m m$als are  
/ruck1 ea* diff]5t f ! o!r3 let u       
elim9ate z accid5ts ! notions ( silv]1 (
 ! bl[ ( a hamm]1 ev5 ( p>ticul>        
features ( ! devices1 & we %all rea* !  
idea ( an ag5t ) a type or seal1 or (   
su* an ag5t ) _m seals1 or ideas1 :o may
 ?us individualise indiff]5t matt]2 or1 
to p5etrate deep] into ab/raction1 :o   
may transf] =ms ( 8 own activity to     
motionless /uff4 ,x is my "p to-day to  
%[ t be=e motionless /uff--be=e !       
problem ( ! primum mobile--ev5 ,h>vey   

himself /ood helpless2 helpless yet     
fasc9at$ by ! indulg5ce ( inv5tion :51 9
 ! ,de motu cordis1 or ! ,de g5]atione1 
he p]mitt$ himself to c>ry contemplation
 beyond ! sph]e ( 8 admirable exp]im5ts4
 ,natural1 vital & animal spirits inde$ 
he w\ld h none (2 say+ well t he %\ld   
want z _m spirits z functions1 & t to   
introduce su* ag5ts z artific]s (       
tissues is to g beyond exp]i5ce3 yet 9 8
 ne$ ( a motor = 8 ma*9e he 0 n able to 
dive/ himself ( ! language nor ev5 ( !  
philosophy ( 8 day2 he ref]r$ ! cause ( 
! motion ( ! blood1 & !re=e ( ! he>t1 to
 innate heat#bh4 ,9 8 day he c\ld n b   
reg>d re/ & motion z diff]5t ?+s2 &     
motion z a sup]-add$ quality4 ,9 d5y+ ! 
old] op9ion#bi t ! he>t is ! s\rce (    
motion1 ( p]fection#cj & ( heat1 he put 
! difficulty b "o /age back2 &1 :5 9 !  
treatise on ,g5]ation he prop\nd$ 8     
transc5d5tal notion ( ! impregnation ( !
 female by ! conception ( a g5]al       
immat]ial idea1 we f9d 9 him realism    
/ill v mu* alive inde$4 ,_h ,h>vey be5  

cont5t ) innate heat he w\ld h done well
 en\gh2 b ! innate heat ( ! blood1 z he 
expla9s x1 is n fire nor d]iv$ f fire2  
nor is ! blood occupi$ by a _s1 b is a  
_s3 x is also cele/ial 9 nature1 ! s\l1 
t :i* answ]s to ! ess5ce ( ! />s 444 is 
some?+ analog\s to heav51 ! in/rum5t (  
heav54  ,9 d5y+ t a _s desc5ds & /[s    
itself 9 ! body1 z an extrane\s inmate1 
,h>vey advances beyond ,cremon9us1 :o !n
 taught 9 ! *air ( ,av]roi/ic philosophy
 9 ,padua2 =1 says ,h>vey1 ,i _c discov]
 ?is _s ) my s5ses1 nor any seat ( x4 ,9
 ano!r passage inde$ ,h>vey w>ns u n to 
d]ive f ! />s :at is 9 tru? produc$ at  
home2 9 yet ano!r he tells u t          
philosoph]s produce pr9ciples z         
indiff]5t poets ?ru/ gods ^u ! /age1 to 
unravel plots & to br+ ab\t cata/rophes3
 yet he concludes t ! _s 9 ! blood act+ 
sup]iorly to ! p[]s ( ! elem5ts1 444 !  
s\l 9 ?is _s & blood1 is id5tical ) !   
ess5ce ( ! />s4  ,?us ! riddle :i*      
oppress$ ^! great ?9k]s1 f ! ,ionians to
 ,lavoisi]1 0 9 "p ! nature ( ! impetum 

faci5s#ca--( ! ,bildung/rieb4 ,:at makes
 ! ball to roll8 ,does he>t move blood  
or blood move he>t2 & 9 ei!r case :at   
builds ! organ & :at be/[s & p]petuates 
! motion8 ,alb]t ( ,cologne1 & at times 
ev5 ,ari/otle1 z we h se51 7 apt to     
leave mov+ ?+s = ab/ract motion1 & to   
reg>d =mulas z ag5ts4 ,telesius aga91 ! 
fir/ ( ! brilliant b& ( natural         
philosoph]s 9 ,italy ( ! ,x,v,ith &     
,x,v,i,ith c5turies1 0 /ill seek+ ?is   
pr9ciple ( nature 9 ! =m ( !            
p]ipatetics4 ,gilb]t reg>d$ 8 magnetic  
=ce z ( ! nature ( s\l1 surpass+ ! s\l (
 man4 ,galileo1 al?\gh will+ to conceive
 circul> motion z p]petual#cb1 & ev5    
self-exi/5t1 0 unable ?us to conceive   
rectil9eal motion4  ,h>vey1 !n1 & o!r   
naturali/s ( ! "t1 includ+ ,csalp9us &  
aft] a fa%ion ev5 ,desc>tes1 foll[$ !   
m$ieval _w & ,ari/otle 9 d]iv+ ! s\rce (
 motion directly f ! sph]es4 ,h>vey says
 ) ,dante1 ,que/i nei cuor mortali      
p]motore4 ,! attraction ex]cis$ by      
ext]nal supreme m9d 7n associat$ )      

matt]7 & its ?\ghts br+ ! mat]ial cosmos
 & its p>ts into regul> movem5ts4 ,!    
s-call$ ,greek3 ,ai?r1 or fif? elem5t1  
,greek3 /oi*eion het]on tn tess>n1      
akraton te kai !ion 7,de ,clo1 cap4 #b &
 vid4 ,zell] ,,ii4 ii4 #dcg71 "u ! "n ( 
! ,qu9tess5ce1 play$ a l>ge "p 9 !      
speculations ( ,lulli1 ,p>acelsus & o!r 
*emical my/ics4 ,till ,cop]nicus        
transfigur$ ! cosmos1 & ,galileo &      
,newton c>ri$ t]re/rial physics into !  
cele/ial _w1 ! heav5ly bodies 7 reg>d$ z
 animat$ be+s1 !mselves set 9 motion by 
sph]es1 &1 by propagation ( _! int5se   
activity f sph]e to sph]e1 animat+ all  
sublun>y matt]1 :eels )9 :eels1 ev5 to  
its inn]mo/ p>ticles4 ,ari/otle's view  
7,metaph4 ,,xi47 0 z foll[s3--,! />s &  
planets are 9 _! nature et]nal ess5ces2 
t :i* moves !m mu/ itself be et]nal1 &  
prior & ext]nal to t :i* x causes to be 
mov$2 likewise t :i* is prior to ess5ce 
mu/ itself be ess5ce2 & s on = a hi]>*y 
( et]nal ess5ces3 ?us ,heav5 if n ,god  
is a div9e embodim5t 7,greek3 ,!ion     

sma72 & ?is ,greek3 prton tn smatn he   
reg>d$ z ! ess5ce ( heav5 & />s1 & !    
cause ( animal heat 9 liv+ be+s4 ,?us ! 
transition f ,ari/otle to ! lat]        
conception ( ! cele/ial bodies z        
!mselves animat$ be+s 0 easy2 inde$ !   
attribution ( intellig5ce to ! sph]es   
goes back at any rate to ,plato 7,timu71
 if n to ,py?agoras2 & 0 ! f\ndation (  
a/rology4 ,9 ,h>vey's "t !re 0 /ill 9   
,rome a basilica ( ! ,sev5 ,angels 7!   
planet>y ess5ces74 ,mu* ( ?is doctr9e   
,h>vey probably got f ,cic]o 7,acad4 ,i4
 ii4 #ci & ,de ,f94 ,,iv4 #e-ab2 vid4   
,kris*e71 :o speaks ( ardor coeli z !   
:ole a/ral sph]e4 ,if ,i am n mi/ak5    
,h>vey some:]e advises ,aubrey to /udy  
,cic]o4  ,mat!w ,arnold ?us regrets !   
old illusion3--    ,& y1 ye />s6        
99       99       99       99       99  
,y too once liv$--   ,y too mov$        
joyfully   ,among augu/ companions   ,9 
an old] _w1 peopl$ by ,gods1   ,9 a     
mighti] ord]1   ,! radiant1 rejoic+1    
intellig5t ,sons ( ,heav56   ,b n[ y    

k9dle   ,y\r lonely1 cold %9+ lights1   
,unwill+ l+]]s   ,9 ! heav5ly wild]ness1
   ,= a y\ng]1 ignoble _w4   ,& r5ew by 
necessity1   ,night aft] night y\r      
c\rses1         99       99       99    
99       99    ,above a race y "k n1    
,unc>+ & undelight$#cc4   ,( ! orig9 (  
en]gy we h n solv$ ! riddle1 we h giv5 x
 up2 b in/ead ( com+ f )\t we "k t x    
comes f )94 ,z ,mr ,b5n puts x1 we h    
ext5d$ ! atomi/ic me?od f matt] to      
motion4 ,h>vey's contempor>y1 ,francis  
,bacon1 sagaci\sly guess$ t heat is an  
expansive motion ( p>ticles2 b he reg>d$
 heat & cold z two contr>y pr9ciples4   
,almo/ 9 ! same g5]ation ! brilliant    
,john ,may[ p]ceiv$ a sub/ance 9 ! air  
alli$ to saltpetre1 :i* pass$ 9 & out ( 
! blood by ! way ( ! lungs or plac5ta4  
,innate heat !n gave way to phlogi/on2 b
 x 0 n till ! discov]y ( oxyg5 & ( !    
cons]vation ( en]gy t we atta9$ a !ory (
 en]gy1 & f9ally got rid ( matt] & =m1 &
 ( all ! ?icket ( metaphysics1 relat+   
!reto2 ?r\gh :i* 9 ! day ( ,h>vey no    

m9d1 h[ev] mighty1 c\ld h made its way4 
,9 ! hi/ory ( m$ieval ?\ght we mu/      
always be> 9 m9d t 9 nei!r ( its two    
p]iods 7 !ology1 logic1 metaphysics1    
psy*ology1 or ev5 physics1 fully        
diff]5tiat$2 & be=e ! ,arabian lit]ature
 !y 7 n diff]5tiat$ at all#cd4 ,logic1  
:i* = u is b a drill1 &1 l all drills1 a
 little out ( fa%ion1 0 = ! ,middle     
,ages a means ( discov]y1 nay1 ! v s\rce
 ( tru?2 ?us e man c>ri$ 8 own busy     
laboratory )9 him4 ,! heirs ( ,porphyry 
& ,boetius _h no o!r me?od 9 _!         
possession4 ,! dialectically irresi/ible
 0 ! true 7,greek3 katalpsis72 ?us 0 man
 to succe$ irrefutabile ap]ire secretum4
 ,to beg9 to ?9k be=e beg9n+ to le>n is 
a holl[ bus9ess1 yet !n logic furni%$ ! 
!orems :i* exp]i5ce might illu/rate at  
its leisure2 & nature 0 contemplat$ "u  
philosophy4 ,! diff]5tiation ( psy*ology
 began ) ! translation ( ! ,de anima#ce1
 & ! recognition ( ! relation ( !       
p]cipi5t2 h5ce1 9 ! second p]iod1 ,rog] 
,bacon d5\nc$ ! pret5sions ( logic1 &   

,john ,duns1 t brilliant backslid]1 =c$ 
!m to an absurdity4 ,aga91 on !         
translation ( ! ,metaphysics1 !ology    
p>t$ into ! /udies ( ! doctr9es ( ,god &
 ! s\l1 :i* belong to !ology prop]1 & ( 
be+1 9 modes1 k9ds & univ]sals1 :i*     
belong to metaphysics4 ,m$ic9e aga9 0 a 
confusion ( sph]es1 z 0 !ology2 ! c>e ( 
! s\l & ! c>e ( ! body 7 ! ends ( k1 &  
_! means conta9$ all k4 ,?us :5 we he> t
 ,alcu9 ord]$ ! =mal tea*+ ( m$ic9e1 x 0
 "u ! "n ( ,physica2 & n until !        
,physics ( ,ari/otle came to light did !
 v>i\s bran*es ( natural hi/ory become 9
 _! turn n only def9ite /udies b also   
self-suffici5t1 aside f ! art ( heal+4  
,to ?is day ! heal] keeps ! "n (        
physician2 & ! subject at ,cambridge !  
"n ( ,physic4 ,x is well to be rem9d$ t 
al?\gh ! soldi]s ( tru? mu/ be sep>at$  
into sev]al regim5ts1 nev]!less = its   
edification ! heal+ art mu/ draw1       
directly or indirectly1 on all natural  
sci5ce4 ,rob]t ( ,l9coln1 ,alb]t (      
,cologne1 & all ! ,ma/]s ( t "t /udi$   

m$ic9e--t is ,greek3 ta physika--z a    
solid "p ( k1 :i* 9 _! appreh5sion 0 n  
only a :ole b also a manageable :ole4   
,ev5 ,francis ,bacon did n realise fully
 ! littl5ess ( man 9 ! pres5ce ( nature2
 he hop$ t = 8 h>ve/ man w\ld on a "r   
me?od--by1 let u say1 a re=m$ a/rology &
 a re=m$ al*emyquickly surprise ! secret
 ( h] processes3 ?us ,bacon 0 ! la/ ( ! 
,summi/s4 ,) ! diff]5tiation ( ! sev]al 
sph]es ( k1 & ! p]ception ( ! va/ness & 
v>iety ( ea*1 man has ceas$ to hold n ! 
unity b ! simplicity ( nature2 & he has 
giv5 up summ>ies3 ! !ologian rules no   
long] 9 metaphysics & psy*ology2 !      
physician is no long] ! only naturali/4 
,sy/ems succe$ ea* o!r b give ea* o!r ! 
h&2 x takes _m a g5]ation to kill a     
/rong !ory outright3 realism1 %ak5 by   
,roscell9us & ,abl>d1 & scot*$ by ,hales
 & ,ockham1 surviv$ to mislead ,h>vey2 &
 /ill x /ret*es its )]$ h& ov] u 9 !    
nurs]y1 9 ! s*ool1 & 9 ! great argum5ts 
( life#cf4 ,malebran*e w>n$ u aga9/ our 
deceptive t]m9ology4 ,ils prt5d5t       

expliqu]1 7he says71 la nature p> leurs 
ides gnrales et ab/raites1 comme si la  
nature tait ab/raite4 ,! me?ods ( !     
,engli% gramm> s*ools are ev5 n[ m$ieval
 9 s f> z _! tea*+ beg9s1 z x mo/ly does
 /ill1 ) ab/ract propositions4          
,my/icism ga!r$ ov] ,g]many2 9 ,p>is to 
?is day nature is con/ra9$ 9 ! artifices
 ( logic & rhetoric2 & to ?is day       
platonism1 *iefly by ! influ5ce ( !     
,flor5t9e humani/s & p]haps ( !         
,cambridge s*ool ( ,h5ry ,m1 has m\ld$  
bo? ?\ght & language 9 ,engl&4 ,john    
,hunt] conceiv$ a mat]ia vit diffusa2 & 
b ye/]day ,huxley _h to say ( ,ow5's    
!ory ( sp]matic =ce t an artill]i/ might
 z well attribute ! propulsion ( a      
bullet to trigg] =ce4 ,we pr(ess        
,ari/otle1 & we talk ,plato4 ,ev5 by m5 
( sci5ce x is daily =gott5 t ! only be+ 
is ! p>ticul>4 ,aft] ! ,fai? !n1        
realism--! belief 9 pr9ciples & k9ds    
hav+ ext]nal exi/5ce1 & 9 =mative       
ess5ces to be rea*$ by ab/ract          
?9k+--/ood ano!r adv]s>y aga9/ natural  

k4  ,b1 /rong] ev5 ?an realism1 0 a ?ird
 adv]sity--! pride ( ! human m9d4       
,socrates1 al?\gh1 = e?ics & politics1  
he initiat$ ! inductive me?od1 0 dispos$
 to reg>d physical speculations z b a   
rational pa/ime#cg1 & ! political &     
e?ical /udy ( man z ! only s]i\s        
engagem5t ( ?\ght4 ,ari/otle took up    
natural k z an encyclop$i/#ch2 he r>ely 
v]ifi$ 8 facts & he made no exp]im5tal  
rese>*es#ci4 ,! m$ieval *ur* held t ex  
puris naturalibus cognosc]e 0 a meagre &
 might be a mis*iev\s amusem5t2 & x     
s\ght to conf9e speculations to f9al    
causes1 t is to ! animation ( ! _w by an
 intellig5t ,be+1 z man animates 8 own  
in/rum5ts3 ?\gh1 z ,rog] ,bacon decl>$1 
f9al causes mu/ h physical means4 ,ev5  
,locke ?\ght nature to be hopelessly    
complex1 & urg$ t e?ics is ! prop] /udy 
( man4 ,! asceticism d]iv$ f ! ,ea/1    
disda9ful ( c>nal ?+s1 br\ght ! dualism 
( matt] & _s into mon/r\s em95ce2 &1 9  
respect ( m$ic9e1 9 a few g5]ations x   
turn$ ! cleane/ p 9 ! _w into ! mo/     

fil?y#dj4 ,moreov]1 are we n b\nd to    
admit t1 z ultimate analysis 0 dang]\s  
to ! syn!sis ( ! ,fai?1 s = unwieldy &  
un/able societies 9 :i* e?ical &        
political habits _h n yet become        
engra9$1 to desc5d f transc5d5tal       
explanations to explanations by l[]     
categories 0 fraught ) "s dang] to l(ty 
& impos+ /&>ds ( cu/om & conduct8       
,nature is too base1 says ,/ ,anselm1 = 
u to argue f x to ,god2 we mu/ argue f  
,god to ?+s4 ,analysis is a dis9tegrat+ 
function2 ! dep>ture ( ! sci5tific      
enquir] is r f bel[ upw>ds3 x is n only 
8 bias b also 8 delib]ate me?od to      
decl9e to use ! discipl9e & !           
conceptions ( high] categories until he 
is satisfi$ t ^? ( ! l[] are inadequate4
 ,a c]ta9 natural process may n be      
attribut$ to ^? ( *emi/ry until ^? (    
physics are prov$ to be inadequate2 to  
ano!r process biological conceptions &  
me?ods are d5i$ until ^? ( physics fir/1
 & !n ( *emi/ry1 h be5 tri$ & f\nd      
want+2 psy*ological conceptions are d5i$

 to ano!r until 9 _! turns ! physical1 !
 *emical1 & ! physiological are         
exhau/$#da2 & s on3 & )9 ea* category ! 
same economy prevails4 ,n[ ?is sci5tific
 economy1 p]haps fir/ =mulat$1 or       
effectively us$1 by ,william ,ockham1 9 
! phrase entia non sunt                 
multiplic&a--kn[n z ,ockham's rasor--is 
:at is call$ n[-a-days mat]ialism2 & !re
 is no d\bt t ! me?od1 legitimate1 nay1 
imp]ative1 z x is 9 natural sci5ce1 may 
9 cu/om & conduct eng5d] a p]sonal &    
collective habit ( appreh5d+ 9 l[]      
categories1 & ev5 ( cont5tm5t 9 !m until
 /rong reason be %[n to g high]#db4 ,a  
high] ord] ( ideas is put 9 a l[] ord] (
 language2 ! ,greek3 hodos eis to kat ( 
,h]aclitus4 ,! dang] ( ?is attitude lies
 9 loss ( ef=t1 ( aspiration1 & ev5 (   
imag9ation2 he mu/ /oop on ! we>y o> :o1
 kn[+ no an*orage1 is ev] /emm+ ! drift4
 ,not)/&+ is !re 9 hi/ory any lesson    
sadd] ?an ?is1 t :]e ideals h be5 l(tie/
 s9 & failure h mo/ ab\nd$8 a lesson f  
:i* ,c>lyle le>n$ t ! ideal has always  

to gr[ 9 ! real1 & (t5 to seek out its  
b$ & bo>d !re 9 a v sorry way4  ,almo/  
to ?is day !n ! me*anical arts1         
presumably conc]n$ r ) ! l[] categories1
 h be5 reg>d$ z base2 & ! craft ev5 ( ! 
laboratory z unwor?y ( great s\ls4      
,anatomy _h to lab\r aga9/ antipa?y bo? 
ecclesia/ical & popul>2 *emi/ry &       
me*anics 7 gross pursuits1 unless end[$ 
) ! p]il\s di/9ctions ( al*emy & sorc]y4
 ,un=tunately ?is *>ge ^u ! dignity (   
man 0 made heavi] r ?an light] by       
,petr>*1 & by ! lat] humani/s ( !       
,r5asc5ce2 ev5 9 ! #ag? c5tury we f9d 9 
,ox=d t ,boyle 0 bant]$ by 8 fri5ds z "o
 giv5 up to base & me*anical pursuits4  
,z ,boyle himself put x 9 8 delightful  
way--,!re are _m ,le>n$ ,m5 444 :o are  
apt to rep9e :5 !y see any ,p]son       
capable ( succe$+ 9 ! ,/udy ( solid     
,philosophy1 addict+ himself to an ,art 
7,*emi/ry7 !y judge s mu* bel[ a        
,philosoph]1 & s uns]viceable to him4   
,nay1 !re are "s t are tr\bl$ :5 !y see 
a ,man acqua9t$ ) o!r ,le>n+ c\nt5ance  

by 8 example sooty ,empiricks 444 ^:    
,exp]im5ts may inde$ be useful to       
,apo!c>ies1 & p]haps to ,physicians1 b  
are useless to a ,philosoph] t aims at  
cur+ no ,disease b t ( ,ignorance4#dc   
,"l ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury1 :o e>ly 9 !       
sev5te5? c5tury att5d$ lectures at      
,padua1 op9$ t natural sci5ce deals )   
ignoble /udies1 n proportion$ to !      
dignity ( our ,s\ls4 ,9 ! eighte5?      
c5tury inde$1 grave ,engli% physicians1 
humani/s :o =got h[ ,ari/otle _h        
exclaim$ t m>vell\sness lies 9 all      
natural ph5om5a1 scorn$ ! trivial       
curiosity ( ,john ,hunt] respect+ flies 
& tadpoles4  ,x is "p ( my argum5t      
to-day to po9t out "o evil ( _m :i* ?is 
prejudice has wr\ght = m$ic9e4 ,!       
progress ( an appli$ sci5ce dep5d5t z x 
is ^u accessions ( advantage f o!r arts1
 yet on ! :ole is f ! simple to !       
complex2 f facts ( m direct obs]vation  
to ^? ( long] inf]5ce3 & ?is pa? 0 ! m  
necess>y :5 ! "r me?od ( inf]5ce--!     
s-call$ inductive me?od--_h n be5       

=mulat$1 & inde$ 0 b>ely 9 use4 ,n[ 9   
m$ic9e1 f ,hom] to ,"l ,li/]1 direct    
obs]vation & ! simpl] means ( exp]im5t h
 obta9$ _! fir/-fruits on ! surface ( ! 
body4 ,9 ,hom]ic times surg]y 0 !       
in/itution ( m$ic9e1 & k+s conc]n$      
!mselves ) ! practice ( x4 ,f           
,erasi/ratus to ,celsus physicians ( all
 s*ools practis$ m$ic9e & surg]y z "o   
art4 ,gal5 urges ! unity ( m$ic9e1 &    
,littr po9ts out t ?is unity is ma9ta9$ 
9 ! ,hippocratic writ+s4 ,9 ! ,middle   
,ages ! ascetic contempt = ! body--p>tly
 ,/oic1 *iefly ori5tal1--! b>r5 alliance
 ( m$ic9e ) philosophy1 & ! l[ e/eem (  
me*anical call+s hid f ! physician ! v  
gates ( ! city into :i* he w\ld ent]4   
,francis ,bacon says ( ! physicians (   
,h>vey's day1 t !y saw ?+s f af> (f1 z  
if f a high t[]2 &1 aga91 t aft] ! mann]
 ( spid]s !y spun webs ( sophi/ical     
speculation f _! own b[els4 ,surg]y1 by 
virtue ( its imp]ative me?ods1 0 kept   
cle> ( philosophy on ! "o h& & (        
humanism on ! o!r2 & 9 ,p>is !          

e/abli%m5t ( ! ,collge de ,/ ,cme1      
aft]w>ds ! ,academy ( ,surg]y1 protect$ 
! high] surg]y aga9/ ! rabble ( b>b]s4  
,^u ! raft ( anatomy & surg]y1 ) "s     
cl9ical aid f ,sal]no1 positive m$ic9e  
cross$ ! gulf betwe5 ,byzant9e          
compilations1 monki% lee*craft1 ,arab   
/>craft & al*emy1 & ! sci5tific era (   
,h>vey#dd4 ,b physicians 7 n only bl9d  
to ! great s]vices to ! :ole art (      
m$ic9e ( ! surgical s*ool ( ,lanfranc 9 
! f\rte5? c5tury1 ( ,guy de ,*auliac 9 !
 fifte5?1 & ( ,p> & ,gale 9 ! sixte5?   
c5tury1 advances ev5 accel]at$ 9 !      
sev5te5?1 b !y ignor$ also _! v orig91 &
 ev5 )drew f fell[%ip ) ! surgeon2 to   
our griev\s h>m f ^? days unto our      
own#de4 ,surg]y 0 exclud$ f ! ,faculty (
 ,m$ic9e ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is2 & f !  
,royal ,college ( ,physicians ( ,engl&1 
:i* 01 & is /ill1 enabl$ by *>t] to tea*
 surg]y1 & to grant lic5ses !re94       
,fabricius1 ! ma/] ( ,h>vey1 0 =tunately
 z great a surgeon z anatomi/1 & su* 0  
,fallopius4 ,9 ?is ,college ,h>vey      

lectur$ on anatomy & surg]y1 & he left 8
 surgical in/rum5ts to u2 = u ,caldwal  
f\nd$ a lecture%ip 9 surg]y :i* has be5 
all[$ virtually to lapse4 ,f ! progress 
( anatomy :i*1 "u ! protection ( !      
,italian nobles z =m]ly ( ! ,alex&rian1 
w5t h& 9 h& ) surg]y1 physicians drew !n
 little advantage2 & s 9 "p p]haps x    
came ab\t t al?\gh ,vesalius1           
,fallopius1 & ,fabricius broke up !     
traditional anatomy ( ,mund9us1 yet     
anatomy did m ev5 = ! f9e arts ?an =    
physiology2 & m$ic9e at ! end ( !       
,middle ,ages _h n recov]$ ! /&>d (     
,alex&ria4 ,aga9/ ?is adv]sity also _h  
to cont5d ! f\nd] ( physiology :om      
to-day we celebrate4  ,su* 7 ! *ief     
adv]sities 7vid4 ,app5dix on ,a/rology7 
"u :i* ! naturali/ suff]$1 b natural k 0
 nev] /ifl$2 let u n[ turn our eyes to  
ano!r po9t ( view1 f ! oppression to !  
gradual enfran*isem5t ( k4  ,necess>y = 
! weld+ ( we/]n society 9 ! ,middle     
,ages z 0 au?ority 9 all sph]es ( ?\ght 
& action1 &1 heavy z ! price ( its      

in]tia has be5 s9ce its "w 0 done1 yet 9
 ! celebration ( ! f\nd]s ( natural     
sci5ce x w\ld be untrue to assume t be=e
 !m1 ev5 9 ! e>li] s*ola/ic p]iod1 !    
indomitable _s ( man _h la9 "u tyranny 9
 sil5ce4 ,greek3 ,m5ei to !ion d\lia p] 
en phr5i4 ,! way _h be5 prep>$ = !m4 ,by
 ! ,crusades ( ! twelf? & ?irte5?       
c5turies fury & deva/ation 7 div]t$ 9 "p
 f ,europe1 & hurl$ ^u ,asia2 :i* soon  
closes up aga94 ,! nave s]5ity ( ! ,fai?
 0 gone1 b z its great m9/]s arose x    
=got its dang]s2 & ! social bonds (     
or?odoxy rudely %ak5 7 r5ew$4 ,! ,s*ools
 grew z great z ! *ur*es3 ,naples1      
,pavia1 ,bologna & ,padua2 ,p>is1       
,orleans1 ,b\rges1 ,t\l\se1 ,montpelli]1
 ! ,sorbonne2 ,ox=d & ,cambridge4 ,ev5 !
 ,fri>s ,prea*]s & ,m9ors 7 driv5 to    
fight ) ! new weapons2 fir/ rivall+ !   
univ]sities1 !n possess+ !mselves ( _!  
*airs4 ,b philosophy1 :i* _h l5t mu* to 
! ,fai?#df1 ga9$ no?+ f x2 & to         
philosophy r ?an to ! ,*ur* ! sci5ces   
look$ = _! pr9ciples & me?ods4 ,9       

physics ! exp]im5tal me?od 0 creep+ into
 life2 & ! sub/ance z well z ! =m ( old 
controv]sies 0 *ang+4 ,?us ?r\gh all ^! 
g5]ations 0 ris+ a leav5 ( free ?\ght1 &
 its re=ms may r\ghly be put 9 a tw(old 
division1 into ! re=m ( tradition1 & !  
re=m ( me?od2 ! re=m ( texts be+ aga9   
divisible into two p]iods--! ,arabian1  
or second s*ola/ic1 & ! mod]n or        
,r5asc5ce p]iod4 ,! *ief monum5ts (     
le>n+ 7 /or$ 9 ,byzantium#dg until      
,we/]n ,europe 0 fit to take c>e ( !m4  
,9 ! peace ( ,!odoric1 9 ! peace (      
,*>lemagne1 "u ,alfr$ at ,w9*e/]1 ! arts
 & sci5ces _h sc>cely f\nd brea?+-"t1 & 
no sure e/abli%m5t#dh4 ,cassiodorus is  
said to h direct$ ! ,b5$ict9es ( ! six? 
c5tury to read ,clius ,aurelianus1 a    
,roman adaptor ( ,soranus ( ,ephesus2 b 
m$ical lore consi/$ ( little beyond "s  
relics ( ! ,roman s*ools1 h&$ on 9 prose
 or v]se compilations :i* ! tea*] read  
to 8 class1 & expla9$ s f> z he c\ld4 ,x
 seems t m$ic9e 0 n taught =mally until 
s ord]$1 9 #hje1 by ,*>lemagne2 probably

 by ! advice ( ,alcu91 ! f\nd] ( ! le>n$
 tradition at ,fulda1 ! f\nd]1 we may   
almo/ say1 ( ! neo-lat9 p]iod1 & "s "t  
headma/] ( my own s*ool ( ,/ ,pet] at   
,york4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,s*ool ( ,sal]no1
 relatively excell5t z x 0 9 ! doma9s ( 
cl9ical m$ic9e & ( public heal?1 nev]   
made its way into ! g5]al /ream ( ,we/]n
 culture4 ,religi\s w>s & p]secutions _h
 driv5 ,greek le>n+ ea/w>ds1 z 9 ! case 
( ! ,ne/orians f ,antio* to ,p]sia2     
,hebrew & ,syrian sages#di translat$ "s 
classical texts1 & f ^! aga9 ! ,arabs1 9
 _! brief & brilliant culture1 made     
translations2 = no ,arab sage knew      
,greek4 ,! palace ( ! ,spani% ,caliphs 9
 ! t5? c5tury 0 a work%op ( translators1
 & a huge /oreh\se ( books4 ,! le>n$ &  
ubiquit\s ,jew c>ri$ texts &            
translations f ,bagdad to ,morocco1 & f 
,morocco to ,tol$o1 ,p>is1 ,ox=d &      
,cologne2 b translations made 9 ,bagdad 
9 ! n9? c5tury did n rea* ,p>is till !  
elev5? or twelf?4  ,among ! e>lie/ ( ^! 
r5d]+s 9 ! ,we/ 7 works on m$ic9e1      

ma!matics1 & a/ronomy1 :i* 9 ! ,s*ools (
 ,tol$o & ,cordova1 by ,con/ant9us      
,africanus at ,monte ,cass9o 7includ+   
c]ta9 treatises ( ,hippocrates & ,gal571
 by ,g]>d ( ,cremona 7a ,sal]nitan      
s*ol>71 by ,mi*ael ! wiz>d#ej1 & by o!r 
h&s1 7 conv]t$ into ,lat92 &1 ?us d\bly 
disguis$1 & half buri$ 9 glosses :i* n  
only ov]laid ! text 7oscura glossa dov' 
piana la lett]a7 b (t5 supplant$ x1 7   
receiv$ ) pa!tic eag]ness by ! ard5t    
s*ol>s ( ! ,we/4 ,ari/otle1 = in/ance1 0
 n[ taught 9 ! s*ools ( ! ,we/ f a ,lat9
 translation ( a ,hebrew translation (  
an ,arab comm5t>y ^u an ,arab           
translation ( a ,syriac translation ( ! 
,greek text#ea4 ,ev5 9 ! sixte5? c5tury 
m$ic9e & anatomy 7 taught :olly f books2
 & tea*]s 7 =bidd5 to use o!r ?an       
prescrib$ books4 ,/ud5ts began ) !      
,articella ( ! ,v5etian physician       
,gregorio ,volpi1 a comp5dium (         
translations ) woodcuts1 publi%$ 9      
#adia2 !y advanc$ to ! ,aphorisms1 !    
,diet 9 ,acute ,diseases & ! ,progno/ics

 ( ,hippocrates1 ov]laid ) ,syriac1     
,arabic & ,spani% app>atus & glosses2 to
 ! ,ars ,p>va ( ,gal52 to ! fir/ & fif? 
,canons ( ,avic5na1 ) glosses2 to !     
,i,xth ,book ( ,rhazes1 ,hone91         
,aegidius ,corboli5sis1 & p]haps "s ( ! 
translations ( ,con/ant9us              
,africanus#eb2--?is 0 ! lore t rul$ !   
m$ical s*ools ev5 to ! bir? ( ,h>vey4   
,disputations among ! /ud5ts 7          
incessant1 bo? int] se & sub ca!dr2 b x 
is d\btful :e!r ^! did m ?an %>p5 _!    
dialectical wits4 ,botany1 reg>d$ by !  
gal5i/s z ! secret ( ! div9e disp5s>y1 0
 always m =w>d2 e m$ical s*ool _h its   
physic g>d51 pr(essors c>ri$ _! /ud5ts  
abroad to ga!r h]bs1 & ,h]bals1         
,disp5satoriums & ,krut]b*] 7 mu* 9     
advance ( ! ,be/i>ies1 mo/ly aft]       
,pl9y's k9d1 ! *ief ( :i*1 l>gely an    
orig9al "w1 0 t ( ! well-kn[n ,conrad   
,gesn]4  ,"s hundr$ ye>s be=e !         
appe>ance ( ! ,arabian ,ari/otle1 :i*   
m>k$ ! second s*ola/ic p]iod1 we h se5 t
 ! %ad[ ( ! ,fai? & ! savag]y ( !       

peoples _h n quell$ su* tea*]s z        
,roscell9us & ,abl>d1 :o f\ght =        
rationalism s /urdily z ev5 !n to ?reat5
 ! asc5d5cy ( realism & ! p]suasion (   
supple & plausible demagogues l ,anselm 
( ,laon--t /]ile tree z ,abl>d call$    
him1--& actually to det]m9e ! fir/ p]iod
 ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,happily ! ,arabian 
s*ola/ic philosophy took its root 9     
,alex&ria :5 neo-platonism _h ve]$ t[>ds
 ,ari/otle#ec1 & x 0 m uni=mly          
p]ipatetic ?an ! e>lie/ ,*ri/ian        
,s*ola/icism4 ,x is "o ( ! notes ( !    
greatness ( ,ari/otle t1 ev5 ?us g>bl$ &
 gloss$1 8 p[] made itself felt by !    
m\?s ( ! great ,franciscans ,alex&]     
,hales1 ,rog] ,bacon1 & ,william        
,ockham4 ,! ,organon _h be5 exp\nd$ 9   
,p>is 9 #aahj1 & ab\t ! same "t ,alex&] 
,neckam cit$ ! ,po/]ior ,analytics1 !   
,topics & ! ,de anima2 b ,hales 0 9     
possession ( ! :ole1 or almo/ ! :ole1 ( 
a m or less corrupt ,ari/otle1 :i* he   
turn$ ^u !ology4  ,rog] ,bacon 0 ! fir/ 
( ! natural philosoph]s ( ! ,we/1 & !   

only em95t =]unn] ( ,h>vey & ! o!r      
pione]s ( natural sci5ce 9 ! sev5te5?   
c5tury4 ,z erudite z ,alb]t1 ,bacon 0 m 
inv5tive1 fre] ( _s1 m dispos$ to       
sci5tific me?od1 bett] aw>e ( !         
holl[ness ( au?ority1 bett] aw>e t tru? 
c be f\nd only 9 free reason guid$ by   
exp]im5t4 ,un=tunately z an au?or he 0 z
 dull & ineffectual z ,francis ,bacon 0 
ri*1 animat$ & impressive4 ,t inde$ ?is 
premature r5asc5ce1 )\t sci5tific me?ods
 or s\nd tradition1 %\ld h fail$#ed1 t  
its light 0 b ! phantom ( dawn#ee1 is no
 matt] = surprise2 yet f ?is "t =w>d !  
me?ods ( ,cyprian & ,a?anasius lo/ _!   
undisput$ sway4 ,?is e>li] r5asc5ce made
 ! second p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages3 !    
p]iod di/+ui%$ by ! ,arabian v]sion (   
,ari/otle2 by a *eck to ! *im]as (      
realism2 by "s lib]ty ( secul> k1 = ev5 
bi%ops came out ( ! ,mussulman s*ool (  
,tol$o & array$ !mselves 9 ve/m5ts (    
,arab "w decorat$ ) s5t5ces f ! ,koran2 
& aga9 by ! com+ ( ! fri>s1 ! ,dom9ican 
& ,franciscan especially1 ^: influ5ce ^u

 ! ?\ght ( ! ,middle ,ages 0            
consid]able1 & soon rivall$ ev5 t ( !   
univ]sities1 :]e9 lat]1 z we h se51 !y  
fill$ "s ( ! *airs4  ,! issues ( all    
s*emes ( ?\ght l$ inde$ z inevitably to 
natural sci5ce1 z all ways to ,rome4 ,! 
logic & rhetoric ( ! le>n$ ,dom9icans--!
 wat*-dogs 7,dom9e cani7 ( ! ,"l aga9/ !
 wolves ( h]esy1--culm9at+ 9 ! sy/ems ( 
,alb]t & ,/ ,?omas1 by _! rationalism   
def9$1 & 9 def9+ re/rict$1 ! dom9ion ( !
 ,fai?4 ,ke5 def5d]s ( ! ,fai? recognis$
 ?is dang]1 & :imp]$ ev5 aga9/ ,alb]t t 
philosophiam pr(anam 9 lim5 ,sanct      
,!ologi intromis]it2 444 9 ipsa sacr>ia 
,*ri/i#ef4 ,m5 got us$ to reason1 &     
great prote/ants1 su* z ,rob]t (        
,l9coln1 _h put ju/ice & hon\r be=e     
ecclesia/ical politics#eg4 ,!n ! few    
,greek texts f\nd _! way into ! ,we/1 & 
9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ,alb]t & ,aqu9as     
possess$ !mselves ( ,greco-lat9         
translations ( "s treatises (           
,ari/otle#eh4 ,& 9 ! hi/ory ( !         
comp>atively unle>n$ ,fri>s ,m9ors we   

f9d1 z else:]e 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght1 t    
my/icism 0 less unfav\rable to natural  
sci5ce ?an ! passionate dogmatism (     
,clairvaux1 or ! dogmatism by           
ratioc9ation ( ,/ ,?omas2 ! ,victorians1
 z ,g]son aft] !m1 despis$ reason r ?an 
fe>$ x2 !y w\ld n accept ! s]vices (    
philosophy ev5 ) its w+s clipp$4        
,cujus laus e/ ex ore infantum1    ,hc  
e/ sapi5tia6  ,my/icism makes =         
individual religion1 z ) ,glisson &     
,newton1 r ?an = a ,*ur*1 z ,alb]t 0    
cle>-sight$ en\gh to =esee2 if sci5ce   
und]m9es dogma1 my/icism relaxes or     
neglects x3 h5ce1 z cl]ks only c\ld     
tea*1 x may h be5 t indep5d5t ?9k]s l   
,hales1 ,rog] ,bacon1 & ,ockham ent]$ ! 
,franciscan ord]#ei4 ,inde$ ! sci5ce (  
,pietro di ,abano 7#abej-acbj71 :i* laid
 ! f\ndations ( m$ic9e at ,padua1 &     
inspir$ ! frescoes ( ! ,salla della     
,ragione1 0 occult & my/ical4  ,9 !     
?irte5? c5tury !n ! conflict ) !        
provisional syn!sis ( ! ,fai? _h become 
imm95t & m5ac+4 ,! fai?1 ! *ivalry & !  

le>n+ ( ! ,s>ac5s l$ m5 to feel t )\t ! 
,*ur* all might n be utt] d>kness4      
,alb]t ow$ z mu* to ,avic5na--! ,alb]t (
 ! ,ori5t--z ,/ ,?omas to ,av]roes2     
pagan sages te*nically damnable yet     
mighty spirits1 wor?y ( rev]5ce4 ,dante 
put 9 ,hell1 b on gre5 mead[s 9 an op5  
place1 l(ty & lum9\s1--e/eem+ himself   
exalt$ by ! sight ( !m1--n only         
,ari/otle1 ,plato & ,socrates1 b also   
,euclide geometra1 e ,tolommeo1         
,ippocrate1 ,avic5na1 e ,gali5o1        
,av]rois1 *e il gran com5to feo4        
,inf4 ,,iv4 #adb4  ,univ]sities 7 f\nd$ 
9 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ,italy4 ,fr$]ick ! 
,second protect$ ! ,arabs1 & ev5 ap$ !m2
 ,ghibel9e inde$ almo/ signifi$         
free?9k]4 ,f ! ,roman de ,r5>d1 f ! c&id
 ,jo9ville1 f ,boccaccio1 we may inf] t 
! v f\ndations ( ! ,fai? 7 sapp$2 &     
!re)1 = good or ill1 bo? moral &        
political bonds 7 loos5$4 ,b ! natural  
,sci5ce :i* made ! second r5asc5ce      
irresi/ible 0 abs5t 9 ! fir/3 !         
consolidation ( ! ,european peoples 0 n 

compact en\gh = a reh&l+ ( ! conceptions
 ( religion & morals1 too incomplete ev5
 = ! latitude ( op9ion :i*1 9 nations z 
9 individuals1 is apt to slack5 swift & 
cons5ti5t action4 ,! tol]ation &        
scepticism ( ! fir/ r5asc5ce _h causes  
no deep] ?an a g5]al enl>gem5t (        
exp]i5ce & ?\ght4  ,to appreciate !     
influ5ce1 cov]t or ov]t1 ( scepticism 9 
! ,middle ,ages we mu/ cle> ! mean+ ( ! 
^w4 ,"u ! yoke ( tribal cu/om scepticism
 c h>dly arise1 !re is no place = !     
half-he>t$1 z all m5 feel alike s all   
?9k alike3 scepticism arises :5 beliefs 
are put into =mal propositions4 ,!n1 z  
exp]i5ce & comp>ison enl>ge1 we detect  
scepticism 9 ?ree =ms or degrees3       
namely1 d\bt ( a p>ticul> cre$2 d\bt (  
all unv]ifi$ propositions2 & d\bt ( !   
validity ( reason itself1 :e!r 9 respect
 ( ! sup]natural only or ( all argum5t4 
,x is rem>kable t ?is la/1 ! mo/        
deva/at+ ( ! =ms ( scepticism1 has come 
f ! ranks ( ! fai?ful 7,pascal1         
,hamilton1 ,mansel71 :o 9 res5tm5t ( !  

attacks ( reason h turn$ bl9dly to r5d  
reason h]self4 ,no civil society has be5
 )\t scepticism2 ev5 9 ages ( mo/       
preval5t fai? "s curr5t ( d\bt has fl[$ 
"u ! surface4 ,9 ! ,ionian philosophy ! 
place ( scepticism 0 only re/rict$ 9 s  
f> z _m aspects ( ! subject-matt] 7 n   
be=e ^? ?9k]s2 = in/ance no ,greek      
philosoph] w\ld h sep>at$ fai? f reason4
 ,9 ! well-kn[n words ( ,hippocrates1   
,greek3 oud5 het]on het]\ !iot]on oude  
an?rp9t]on1 alla panta !ia4 ,! ,greek   
boldly set up 8 academy by ! side ( !   
temple4 ,ev5 ,protagoras nev] taught !  
futility ( all reason1 nor ev5 !        
incon/ancy ( s5sation :i* inde$ is      
doctr9e r ?an scepticism4 ,neo-platonism
 _h its scepticism 9 ! fir/ two =ms1    
cov]+ ev5 ! gr\nd ( ! mod]n agno/ic4    
,agno/icism does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( !    
ladd]1 b ass]ts t ! ladd] beg9s & ends 9
 ! cl\ds2 x is consi/5t !re=e ) e?ical &
 practical activity4 ,:5 ,abl>d said    
,dubit&o enim ad inquisitionem v5imus1  
inquir5do v]itatem p]cipimus1 if a      

sceptic1 he 0 no infidel4 ,ev5 9 !      
?irte5? c5tury x 0 nev] d\bt$ t tru? is 
atta9able1 nor inde$ t ! ,fai? conta9$ !
 tru?4 ,! scepticism ( t age 0 r cauti\s
 & controv]sial ?an fai?less1 & 9       
practice div9e discont5t r ?an          
indiff]5ce 7,greek3 at>axia74           
,pyrrhonism on ! o!r h& leads to        
slackness ( e?ics2 ei!r to ! ins\ciance 
( ,horace & ,montaigne1 or to ! attitude
 ( ! sev5te5? c5tury 9 ,padua           
7,pomponatius7 & else:]e1 :5 ! economy1 
ironic or dis+5u\s1 ( allott+ _! sev]al 
sph]es to reason & dogma1 if n fir/     
inv5t$1 became z fa%ionable z 9 !       
pulpits & 9 ! draw+-rooms ( ,mayfair4   
,comme savant j'ignore t\t2 comme citoy5
 je crois t\t4 ,! ,hypotyposes          
,pyrrhonioe ( ,sextus ,empiricus1 ^:    
influ5ce 9 ! times ( ! ,r5asc5ce 0      
consid]able1 0 n translat$ till !       
f\rte5? c5tury4 ,! deta*m5t ( m9d &     
%rewd wisdom ( ,john ( ,salisbury       
=e%ad[$ ,petr>* r ?an ,hume2 & :5 ,john 
discusses :at x is giv5 to man to "k1   

ask+ ! frequ5t "q1 ,utrum cont+at hom9i 
scire aliquid81 we mu/ n fall into !    
error ( import+ into 8 "q all x connotes
 = ourselves4 ,likewise :5 ,james (     
,d\ay 79 ,,ms4 ,de anima1 quot$ by      
,haurau7 r\ndly says1 ,id quod recipitur
 ab aliquo non recipitur secundum       
naturam rei recept s$ secundum naturam  
recipi5tis 444 sicut recipitur ita      
patitur4444 ,s5sus judic&o de sua       
passione non decipitur & s on1 he knew  
no m :i!r ?is w\ld lead ?an ,john ,duns 
knew t 8 sy/em mu/ lead to t ( ,sp9oza4 
,t gu>dians ( morals & social cohesion1 
f ,cato to ! ,we/m9/] ,assembly1 & f    
,samuel ,johnson to ,c>d9al ,newman1    
%\ld h di/ru/$ scepticism ev5 z res]ve (
 judgm5t1 or inde$ repell$ x ) fi]c5ess2
 t prie/1 presbyt]1 magi/rate & morali/ 
h tol]at$ irony1 or ev5 lic5se1 r ?an   
vigilant & radical criticism ( doctr9e1 
is intelligible2 & )9 limits spr+s f a  
ju/ifiable appreh5sion4 ,= ! gay &      
indol5t sceptic ve]s to con=mity1       
especially if he mi/ru/ ! compet5ce (   

reason2 :ile ! active sceptic endang]s !
 !ory ( 8 society1 & ( ! sanctions ^u   
:i* all moral conduct tempor>ily dep5ds4
 ,h5ce ! bitt] condemnation ( ,galileo1 
,p]i% all physical sci5ce r ?an "o      
article ( ! ,fai? be lo/4 ,happily x is 
true t dur+ times ( transition piety &  
good conduct survive by virtue ( in]tia1
 t is by tradition1 social pressure1    
cu/om & s5se ( fitness2 & x is true t 9 
times ( transition1 z 9 our own times1  
halt+ ?\ght is quick5$ = a :ile by      
pl5itude ( emotion1 & weal? ( /hetic    
impressions makes am5ds = pov]ty (      
ideas2 yet t morals are bas$ on a !ory (
 life is a tru? /ill deep] & m abid+1 & 
?is deep] tru? x 0 ! function ( ! ,ages 
( ,fai? to root 9 ! consci5ce ( mank9d4 
,abeunt /udia 9 mores4 ,z contra/$ )    
,pyrrhonism1 scepticism 9 its normal    
s5se1 :ile x decl>es t ! con=mity (     
notions ) ?+s 9 !mselves _c be po/ulat$1
 = lack ( an ext]nal /&po9t ( comp>ison1
 & :ile x decl9es to be confut$ by !    
regressus ad inf9itum1 =1 hav+ repudiat$

 fir/ pr9ciples x is prep>$ to be pu%$  
backw>ds to remot] & remot] causes1 is  
ready nev]!less to yield to assurance z 
facts are int]calat$ into inf]5ces1 & z 
inf]5ces ?us /iff5$ by v]ification are  
f\nd to consi/ ) ea* o!r & ) ! g5]al    
context ( exp]i5ce4  ,if 9 ! ,middle    
,ages ^! v>i\s attitudes ( m9d 7 n fully
 di/+ui%$1 yet scepticism 0 mov+ v>iably
 t[>ds ! dem& = v]ification on :i* all  
natural sci5ce is bas$2 & ! reaction 0 n
 long delay$4 ,9 ! ?irte5? c5tury !     
culture ( ,omeyad & ,abasid caliphs     
fail$2 by ! end ( ! c5tury philosophy 0 
d5\nc$ & its books 7 burn$2 ! g5]\s &   
le>n$ ,fr$]ick da%$ himself 9 va9 aga9/ 
! ,papacy2 ,clem5t1 ! protector (       
,bacon1 0 dead1 & dur+ ! two foll[+     
c5turies1 9 ,spa9 at any rate1 fre$om ( 
?\ght 0 cru%$ out by ! ,*ur*4 ,9 !      
f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies ! v "n (     
,av]roes--( ! mad dog :o b>k$ aga9/ !   
,*ri/1 ! ,av]roem impium ,greek3 kai    
tris kat>aton ( ,erasmus--began to      
signify loose life z well z free ?\ght4 

,( ?is res5tm5t !re _h be5 no trace 9   
,alb]t or ,/ ,?omas2 b ,imola _h begun  
to wond] :y ,dante _h treat$ s well     
,av]roes :o1 if ! ,great ,comm5tator1 0 
yet ! fa!r ( infidels4 ,! ,dom9icans    
controll$ ! f9e arts1 & = !m1--at ,pisa1
 at ,si5a1 9 ! ,spani%                  
,*apel1--,orcagna1 ,gaddi1 ,sp9ello     
,aret9o1 ,simone ,memmi abas$ ! ,empire1
 ,av]roes1 & ! new le>n+ f> m           
intol]antly ?an ,dante _h done2 & exalt$
 ! ,pope1 ) 8 h&maids ,!ology1 ,gramm>1 
,logic1 & ,rhetoric4 ,9 ,santa ,m>ia    
,novella1 ,memmi repres5ts ! triumph ( !
 ,dom9icans 9 !ology1 ,gaddi 9          
philosophy2 ,/ ,?omas & ! ,dom9icans m>*
 triumphant ov] ,arius1 ,sabellius1     
,av]roes1 & ,savon>ola4 ,?us 9 ! ,middle
 ,ages ,av]roes appe>$ 9 two =ms--fir/ z
 ! ,great ,comm5tator1 lat] z !         
blasphem] & fa!r ( infidels ( ! ,campo  
,santo & ( ,santa ,m>ia ,novella4 ,9 !  
fifte5? c5tury ! ,c\ncil ( ,con/ance    
=bad ! laity to tea*1 "u a p5alty ( =ty 
days' excommunication4 ,9 ! sixte5?1 9  

,granada1 ,xim5es burnt1 x is said1     
#hj1jjj books ( ,arab philosophy1 z     
,torquemada did = ,hebrew 9 ,seville2   
m$ical works1 h[ev]1 su* z !            
,colliget#fj ( ,av]roes1 & 8 ,comm5t>y  
on ,gal51 7 sp>$4  ,) ! great] r5asc5ce 
! second p]iod ( ,s*ola/icism1 & inde$ !
 ,middle ,ages !mselves are clos$4 ,) ! 
fall ( ,con/ant9ople ! /ream ( le>n+1   
driv5 ea/w>ds 9 ! fir/ p]iod ( ! ,middle
 ,ages1 set we/w>d aga94 ,exil$         
gramm>ians n[ f\nd _! %elt] "u !        
protection ( ! lit]ate tyrants ( ,italy1
 & ) _! spoil ( manuscripts enri*$ !    
libr>ies ( ,rome & ,v5ice4 ,!           
,univ]sities ( ,bologna & ,padua f _!   
f\ndation became notable = indep5d5ce ( 
?\ght2 &1 on ! revival ( le>n+1 = _!    
p]ipatetic tea*+ z oppos$ to ! platonism
 ( ,flor5ce1 :]e1 h[ev]1 a _s ( accurate
 le>n+ 0 nurtur$ 9 ! deciph]+ &         
v]ification ( texts4 ,! political &     
comm]cial ambition ( ,v5ice1 ! ,holl& ( 
,italy1 ( :i* ,/ate ,padua 0 ! le>n$    
qu>t]1 & ! infl[ ( lib]al ?9k]s f o!r   

nations1 kept h] alo( f ! fury ( !      
,ca?olic reaction ( ! sixte5? c5tury1   
:i* ru9$ ,p>is2 ?us 9 ,nor?-ea/ ,italy !
 _s ( mod]n sci5ce awoke soon] ?an 9    
,engl& or 9 ,france1 & inquisitive      
/ud5ts1 bo? home & =eign1 7 attract$ r  
to ,padua & to ,bologna ?an1 z 9 e>li]  
times1 to ,p>is4  ,9 s f> z ,s*ola/icism
 may be describ$ z a tempor>y           
reconciliation ( ,ari/otle--t is1 (     
natural & secul> me?ods--) ! ,fai?1 ?is 
end _h be5 atta9$1 if at all1 by ,/     
,?omas2 9 ,/ ,?omas ,s*ola/icism        
culm9at$4 ,b no su* artificial truce    
c\ld abide2 & ! issue ( ! *ief s*ola/ic 
controv]sy 0 to be det]m9$ by "o great] 
?an ,/ ,?omas4 ,! pilgrim to ,ockham1   
sitt+ 9 its *ur* b5ea? ! sev5 lancets ( 
its twelf? c5tury w9d[1 may be solit>y  
also 9 8 memory ( "o ( ! greate/ (      
,engli%m51 :o saw t light six long      
c5turies ago2 yet a *ild r ( our age ?an
 ( 8 own4 ,z ,abl>d _h clos$ ! gates ^u 
! neo-platoni/ tradition ( ,alex&ria1 s 
,ockham clos$ !m aga9/ realism 9 all its

 =ms2 & ! ,*ur* curs$ !m bo?4 ,9 8 own  
p]son ! occupation ( pr(essorial *airs  
by ,franciscans came to an end2 ,p>is & 
! ,?omi/s c\ld n consi/5tly oppose      
nom9alism2 ,duns ! ,nor?umbrian _h      
inflat$ realism into a mon/r\s phantasm1
 & speculative reason _h to submit to ! 
yoke ( v]ification4 ,yet :at c\ld       
nom9alism d = !ology1 or = cl]ical      
s*ools8 ,! ,franciscans = ! mo/ "p _h   
turn$ to my/icism1 & !nce=? ! man (     
sci5ce & ! devotee 7 to "w ap>t4        
,fur!rmore1 by ,ockham philosophy ga9$ a
 new mean+1 or lo/ all mean+4 ,be=e     
,locke1 ,voltaire1 & ,kant1 ,ockham     
demon/rat$ t faculties 7 n sub/ances2 & 
diff]5tiat$ logic1 psy*ology1 & natural 
sci5ce#fa4  ,b if1 z ,i h said1 ! way = 
,h>vey & ! o!r pione]s ( natural k 0 ?us
 prep>$ = !m1 x 0 /ill1 ev5 9 ! sev5te5?
 c5tury1 d>k1 r\gh & p]il\s4 ,z 9 all   
times ( transition1 /ill ! weight (     
defunct sy/ems roll$ in]tly along2 &    
:ile ! new =ces seem$ to slumb] /resses 
7 accumulat+4 ,9 ,ox=d & ,cambridge !   

influ5ce ( ,l9acre1 & ev5 ( ,caius#fb1  
seems to h be5 r humani/ ?an            
sci5tific#fc2 9 ,ox=d ! text r ?an !    
inspiration ( ,ari/otle prevail$1 :ile 9
 ,cambridge ! platoni/ s*ool1 ( :i* !   
*>m+ ,h5ry ,m 0 ! lead]1 full (         
inspiration z x 01 soon evaporat$ into  
my/icism1 or obscurantism4 ,bacon &     
,h>vey seem to h left ,cambridge--=     
,p>is & ,padua respectively--z ,locke   
left ,ox=d#fd1 "u "s disc\ragem5t4 ,(   
,p>is ! great days 7 ov]2 x 0 9 ,padua t
 m$ic9e1 long degrad$ or disguis$1 0 n[ 
to prove h] l9eage z ! "m ( natural     
sci5ce1 & ! tru? ( ! say+ ( ,hippocrates
 t to "k ! nature ( man "o mu/ "k !     
nature ( all ?+s4 ,b on ,h>vey's        
arrival1 ,padua1 :i* _h become ! fir/   
s*ool ( ,m$ic9e 9 ,europe1 z 0 ,bologna 
( ,imp]ial ,law#fe1 0 settl+ d[n ^u !   
lees ( ! once noble s*ool ( ,av]roes3 a 
discipl9e :i*1 by its orig9al /r5g?1 by 
its fre$om ( ?\ght1 & by ! asc5d5cy (   
its pr(essors1 _h )/ood 9 ! ?irte5?     
c5tury ! direct condemnation ( !        

brilliant f\r? ,lat]an ,c\ncil2 & 9 !   
sixte5? ! ?und]s ( ,tr5t4 ,padua adopt$ 
,av]roism1 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 because (
 its m$ical cont5ts2 9 ! two foll[+     
c5turies ?is sy/em 0 empti$ ( he>t &    
life1 b patt]$ & mumbl$ by pret5ti\s    
p$ants 9 ,nor?-ea/ ,italy x prevail$    
till ! sev5te5?1 :5 aft] a reign ( ?ree 
c5turies x 0 succe$$ by ! ,c>tesian4 ,( 
its phases 9 ! sixte5? c5tury ,patrizzi 
said1 ,+5s ab 8 philosophorum num]us ac 
successio manavit qu 9 ,av5 ,rois       
hypo!sibus habitavit4444 ,inde          
dubitationum ac qu/ionum sexc5torum     
milium num]us manavit 7,disc4 ,p]ipat4  
,vol4 ,i4 ,v5et4 #aega2 quot$ by ,r5an1 
,av]ros74 ,! "n ( ,av]roes1 p]fectus et 
gloriosissimus physicus1 v]itatis amicus
 et def5sor intrepidus1 became !        
%ibbole? ( philosoph]s :o held ! diff]5t
 nature ( ! heav5ly bodies aga9/ !      
mod]ns :o alleg$ ! id5tity ( matt] 9 sky
 & e>?1 & ! doctr9e ( ! univ]sal aga9/ !
 individual s\l4  ,yet1 9 spite (       
,petr>*'s gibes1 ,av]roism 9 its spr+ _h

 nurs$ ,padua ) ! milk ( natural sci5ce4
 ,ev5 9 its decay--= all tea*+ (        
philosophy1 z a sep>ate /udy1 mu/       
decay--! triumph ( ! ,fai? 0 premature2 
l ,jans5ism1 ! ,s*ool ( ,av]roes1 effete
 z x became1 held ! gr\nd = a m dang]\s 
invasion1 = ,leon>do1 ,telesio1 ,bruno1 
,gilb]t1 ,s>pi1 ,campanella1 ,galileo1 &
 ,h>vey2 = ! pione]s ( tru?1 n z        
consi/5cy ) tradition1 n z an al*emical 
se>* = real ess5ces1 nor inde$ z wisdom 
only2 b z ! v]ification ( premises4 ,?is
 fuse ,p>acelsus fix$ to ! %ell :i* bur/
 ^u ! ,fai?1 ^u ,s*ola/icism1 ^u        
,gal5ism1 & ev5 ^u humanism1 ,s ,*ri/us 
spri*t ',p]scrutam9i scripturas'2 w>um  
soll i* ni*t sag5 ',p]scrutam9i naturas 
r]um'8 ,! ,cr$o ut intelligam ( ,augu/9e
 & ,anselm ( ,cant]bury2 ! ,intelligo ut
 cr$am ( ,aqu9as belong$ to ! pa/2 & m5 
began to cry c'e/ ,dieu qui n\s veut    
hrtiques4 ,a criticism bas$ ^u a l>g]   
s5se ( ! relativity ( k1 &1 9 ! sixte5? 
c5tury1 a new scepticism#ff1 :i* pi]c$  
ev5 into ! ,vatican1 z to ! v           

possibility ( k ( ! nature ( be+1 7     
prep>+ ! way = new conceptions3 b 9     
e?ics mean:ile m5 7 fall+ ei!r into !   
c>elessness ( ! sc(f] or into !         
anti-nomianism ( ! my/ic4 ,! brilliant  
futilities ( ! m$ieval dialectic _h l$  
to we>9ess ( _s4 ,aft] va9 & vexati\s   
juggl+s ) ! dry tissues ( un*a/5$       
ratioc9ation1 simplicity & ev5 ignorance
 br\ght _! solace4  ,z f ,flor5ce       
humanism invad$ ,engli% lett]s1 s !     
,av]roi/ic physician ( ,padua became    
kn[n1 ev5 9 ,*auc]'s day1 z a man (     
secul> r ?an ( ,scriptural le>n+4 ,9    
,padua1 :ile ,galileo 0 tea*+ ,euclid = 
a pittance1 *airs ( ,av]roi/ic          
philosophy 7 fill$ by highly paid       
pr(essors1 ^: rotuli or portfolios1 _m (
 :i* n[ re/ 9 ! du/ ( ! libr>ies ( ,nor?
 ,italy1 7 h&$ d[n f "o to ano!r 9      
deadly r\t9e4 ,virtually1 h[ev]1 !      
,av]roi/ic tradition end$ ) a           
contempor>y ,paduan pr(essor1 ,cremon9i1
 lift$ into fame by ,h>vey's refutation 
9 ! ,de motu cordis1 & by 8 own         

repudiation ( ! satellites ( ,jupit]1   
bodies = :i* ,ari/otle _h made no       
provision4 ,! co>s5ess & p$antry ( !    
,av]roi/ic free?9k]s1 ^: scepticism     
lack$ ! elegance & sprightl9ess ( !     
,fr5*1 & _! ba/>d language--mongrel (   
,greek & ,arabic--revolt$ ! humani/s    
also3 ,nihil indoctius1 nihil insulsius1
 frigidius4 ,unum te obsecro1 ,petr>* _h
 said two hundr$ ye>s be=e 79 8         
invectives aga9/ doctors1 :om he class$ 
) a/rolog]s1 z aft]w>ds inde$ did ,h>vey
 m or less71 ut ab omni consilio me>um  
r]um tui i/i ,arabes arceantur atque    
exsul5t4 ,de m$icis non modo nil sp]&um 
s$ valde etiam metu5dum#fg4 ,! doctors 9
 _! turn did n hide _! disda9 = poets4  
,:e!r ju/ly or unju/ly1 ! ,doctors (    
,m$ic9e 7 class$ ) a/rolog]s & al*emi/s2
 ! latt] ( :om ,h>vey repudiat$ frankly1
 n altoge!r avoid+ a contempt = *emi/ry 
itself4 ,clad 9 f9e raim5t1 ) r+s on _! 
f+]s & gold5 spurs on _! heels1 !y rode 
tall horses1 & gave !mselves pomp\s     
airs4 ,! humani/ w\ld r pose z a believ]

 ?an z an und]br$ infidel2 ! ,av]roi/   
protect$ ! lic5se ( 8 doctr9es & mann]s 
by subt]fuge & ironic evasion3 & humani/
 & ,av]roi/ alike /ood by at ! burn+ (  
,bruno#fh4  ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 
t ^! pomp\s p$ants _h x all _! own way1 
& t ,m$ic9e 0 n bett] ju/ifi$ ( h]      
*ildr54 ,x is full ( int]e/ = our pres5t
 purpose to read 9 ! preface by ,?omas  
,junta to ! ,edition ( ,av]roes 7#aeeb71
 ,pl]ique omnes juniores m$ici jam      
intol]abile 9 ,arabum ,mauritaniorumque 
dogmata odium concep]unt1 ut ne nom9&i  
cit&ive locus rel9quatur2 pr9cipes etiam
 ,hippocratem atque ,gal5um hab]e nos   
prdicant4 ,?is enlight5m5t seems to h   
come ab\t 9 "s "p ?r\gh ! tea*+ ( ,?omu 
,nicolaus ,leonicus#fi1 :o began to     
lecture1 = ! fir/ "t1 f ! ,greek text ( 
,ari/otle 7!re 7 *airs !nce=? = bo? !   
,arabian & ! ,greek ,ari/otle7 9 #adig4 
,x 0 ) ,galileo h[ev] t sci5tific rese>*
 began 9 ,padua1 at any rate =          
pr(essors2 & ,galileo may be v5]at$ z ! 
fir/ mod]n naturali/ to set ! exp]im5tal

 me?od conceptually1 coh]5tly1 &        
?or\ghly be=e himself1 includ+ !        
d$uctive side ( x4 ,9 ! ,h>veian        
,oration ( #ahib1 ,dr ,bridges rem9d$ u 
t ,galileo conceiv$ ( motion & en]gy z  
calculable quantities1 & drew our       
att5tion to ^? mo/ int]e/+ exp]im5ts    
:]e9 ,galileo appli$ ! p5dulum to       
measure ! rate & rhy?m ( ! pulse4 ,rog] 
,bacon _h dwelt ^u exp]im5t1 b sc>cely  
^u me?odical v]ification !reby4 ,!      
*emi/ry ( ,alb]t ( ,cologne 0 b a return
 ( ! curiosity ( ,geb] ( ,cordova 79 !  
n9? c5tury74 ,ev5 ,francis ,bacon saw ! 
me?od less cle>ly ?an ,galileo _h done2 
&1 z ! la/ ( ! s*oolm5 & encyclop$i/s1  
he made a place = x r 9 lit]ature &     
philosophy3 he ignor$1 z ! sci5tific    
,desc>tes welcom$1 ! c>d9al discov]ies (
 ,cop]nicus & ( ,h>vey#gj4 ,b if        
,galileo discov]$ ! exp]im5tal me?od z a
 me?od1 be=e ,galileo ! me?od 0 9 use4  
,leon>do _h laid d[n ! rule (           
inve/igation ( nature by exp]im5t1 & !  
aphorism t nature nev] deceives u2      

un=tunately 8 manuscripts 7 n publi%$4  
,9 ! fir/ half ( ! fifte5? c5tury       
,ni*olas ( ,cusa weigh$ plants at       
def9ite /ages ( _! gr[? 9 kn[n weights (
 e>?2 & he weigh$ ! moi/ure ( ! air4 ,8 
contempor>y ,leon ,batti/a ,alb]ti (    
,g5oa _h done likewise4 ,b above all !  
sci5tific =]unn]s ( ,galileo & ,h>vey   
/&s ,william ,gilb]t1 ,fell[ ( ,/       
,john's ,college1 ,doctor ( ,m$ic9e (   
,cambridge1 ,c5sor & ,presid5t ( ?is    
,college1 ,physician to ,que5 ,elizabe?1
 & ,f\nd] ( ! sci5ce ( ,magnetism4  ,!  
c5tury dat+ f ! bir? ( ,galileo to !    
dea? ( ,h>vey 0 p]haps ! mo/ brilliant 9
 ! hi/ory ( mod]n k4 ,! discov]y (      
,greek texts _h de/roy$ ! conv5tional   
,ari/otle1 ! conv5tional ,hippocrates & 
,gal52 s9ce ! latt] "p ( ! sixte5?      
c5tury ,greek _h be5 taught 9 ! ,high   
,s*ools1 philosophy 0 born aga91 & m5   
f\nd !mselves no long] ! slaves b ! k9 (
 ! great anci5ts4 ,telesius1 ,bruno1    
,campanella v9dicat$ natural sci5ce &   
lib]ty ( ?\ght4 ,galileo taught 9 ,padua

 = tw5ty ye>s1 includ+ ! "t :5 ,h>vey   
graduat$ !re2 ,torricelli 0 a pupil ( ! 
great ,flor5t9e2 9 #aehb1 on ! !ory (   
,cop]nicus1 ,gregory re=m$ ! ,cal5d>1 & 
?us laid ! axe to ! root ( a/rology2 by 
,newton t]re/rial physics 7 e/abli%$ 9 !
 cele/ial sph]es#ga4 ,malpighi1 :o 0 to 
fulfil ,h>vey's discov]y & =esight1 0   
born 9 ,n4-,e4 ,italy 9 ! v ye> 7#afbh7 
9 :i* ! ,de motu cordis 0 publi%$4 ,9   
#afbf ,boyle 0 creat+ *emi/ry4 ,anatomy1
 :i* _h slept s9ce its days 9 ,alex&ria1
 0 fully awake4 ,! ,society ( ! ,l9cei 0
 virtually f\nd$ 9 #afjc2 ! ,royal      
,society#gb 9 #afde2 ! ,academy (       
,france 9 #afef4 ,cl9ical tea*+1        
initiat$ 9 ,sal]no & advanc$ by !       
,consilia m$ica#gc1 0 =mally e/abli%$ 9 
,padua#gd1 to be pursu$ 9 ,heidelb]g1   
,leyd51 & ,vi5na4 ,?us 0 ! /udy ,de r]um
 natura juxta propria pr9cipia unfold$1 
& ! ,civitas ,dei gave place to !       
,regnum ,hom9is4  ,! ,regnum ,hom9is6   
,yet :5 ,i look1 f a respectful di/ance1
 ^u ! folios ( ! s*oolm51 monum5ts1 ,i  

am told1 z empty z ! ,pyramids ( ,egypt1
 my m9d turns back to ! fi]y & turbul5t 
tribes :i* 9 ! deep b dazzl+ d>kness ( !
 ,middle ,ages rag$ ^u a b>r5 l& be=e ! 
nations began2 & ,i wond] if ! ideas :i*
 aw$ !m1 sway$ !m1 & weld$ !m into /able
 societies 7 fancies z wild & /]ile2 &  
if ! m5 :o wr\ght !m 7 m]e traffick]s 9 
words4 ,& !n ,i wond] if we are glad t !
 riddle ( ! orig9 & issues ( be+1 :i*   
torm5t$ _! eag] he>ts1 is n solv$1 b    
prov$ insoluble3 if we are glad t sub   
specie hom9is ! e>?1 no long] ! nurs]y (
 et]nal s\ls1 is b a meteor 9 ! sky2 m5 
& wom5 b ! gleam ^u x2 ! sons ( ,heav5 b
 companies ( :irl+ /ones1 & ! ,fa!r (   
,heav5 an inaccessible idea4  ,!        
s*ola/ic philosophies became inhuman    
only 9 _! decrepitude4 ,9 ! equal eye ( 
hi/ory1 ! ,middle ,ages tea* u t ! sl[ &
 pa9ful travail ( natural sci5ce is n to
 be reg>d$ z ! belat$ lab\r ( light 9 ! 
womb ( d>kness1 nor z a m]e /ifl+ ( !   
gr[? ( ! human m9d by tyranny &         
oppression1 nor inde$ z ! arm+ ( moral  

=ces aga9/ brute =ces1 b z ! condition (
 "t 9 ! mak+ ( societies on a necess>ily
 provisional !ory ( life4 ,!y tea* u t  
conduct 9 /ate & morals dep5ds ^u a !ory
 ( life2 t al?\gh habits & ev5 /&>ds (  
e?ics may abide = a "t aft] ! !ory on   
:i* !y 7 built is sapp$1 x is b = a "t2 
t if ! social discipl9e & fruition are  
to be r5ew$ & enl>g$ x mu/ be ^u a new  
syn!sis1 z labori\s & ard5t z ! =m]1 & m
 true4 ,mean:ile ! bus9ess ( a nation1  
:e!r 9 w> or peace1 is fir/ to be quick 
& /rong 9 action1 to be rational        
aft]w>ds2 & swiftness & /r5g? come (    
union ( wills & s+l5ess ( he>t r ?an (  
wisdom4 ,ev5 )9 its bord]s fre$om (     
op9ion mu/ awak5 sl[ly2 ! nation /rong  
en\gh to suff] irresolutions 9 its      
outw>d policy has yet to appe>4 ,h5ce x 
is t we f9d 9 rul+ classes1 & 9 social  
circles :i* put on ari/ocratical        
fa%ions1 t ideas1 & especially sci5tific
 ideas1 are held 9 s9c]e av]sion & 9    
simulat$ contempt4  ,! ,greek 0 no      
hea!n1 suckl$ by nature & end[$ only )  

h] in/9cts2 he s\ght 9 8 m9d to improve 
nature3 b 9 ! ,r5asc5ce in/9cts 7 set z 
free z ?\ght4 ,9 ?is passionate &       
adv5tur\s "t to prea* ! de/ruction ( !  
animal in/9cts1 or to cru% !m = ! high] 
life1 0 a noble idea1 b an impossible   
hope2 ! animal impulses are to be tra9$1
 n suppress$1 & = ?is ! help ( sci5ce 0 
to come4 ,yet sci5ce 0 to be n ! hat$   
rival b a necess>y ally ( religion4 ,x  
is n )9 ! prov9ce ( sci5ce to answ] !   
m$ieval se>*+s on ! nature ( be+1       
nev]!less ?is ?re%old problem--d]       
,drud5fuss auf d] ,s*welle--faces u     
/ill2 & ! _w1 s f> z we h se5 ( x1 has  
always dem&$ a provisional answ]4       
,to-day ,pr(essor ,james ,w>d (f]s x    
aga9 9 ,supreme ,intellig5ce2 &         
,pr9cipal ,caird 7,fundam5tal           
,*ri/ianity7 ye>ns = ! k ( inf9ite be+  
almo/ 9 ! words ( ,plato himself3--,if1 
he cries1 und]nea? all ! ph5om5a ( ! _w 
9 :i* we live we c disc]n no pr9ciple ( 
reason & ord]1 no absolute intellig5ce &
 love1 !n inde$ ?is _w is a mean+less   

wa/e4  ,gilb]t ,galileo & ,h>vey1       
,maxwell ,h]tz & ,d>w9 h taught m5 n t !
 speculations ( ! s*oolm5 7 ov]-bold1 = 
!y busi$ !mselves ) no speculations     
bold] or m transc5d5tal ?an are our     
mod]n !ories on matt]1 on in]tia1 on !  
e!r1 or on ! orig9 ( life1 b t          
metaphysics by int]calation ( facts %all
 become physics1 t1 9 ! words (         
,desc>tes1 concepts1 if ,greek3 meta ta 
physika1 talia s9t tantum ut omnibus    
naturae phnom5is accurate respondeant1 &
 t notions great & small %all be        
subject$ to /rict v]ification1 s f> z   
su* te/s c be c>ri$2 n t m5 %all d5y    
!mselves ! rapture ( t\*+ t v>i\s       
in/rum5t !y f9d )9 !mselves1 b t !y %all
 endure ! drudg]y ( le>n+ to play x 9   
h>mony ) ! or*e/ra ( nature2 n t !y %all
 desi/ f imag9+1 b t be=e proclaim+     
hypo!ses !y %all be compell$ to ! humble
 task ( mak+ an inf9ite numb] ( little  
piles ( facts4 ,! art ( exp]im5t c gr[  
only ) ! gr[? ( sci5ce itself2 in/rum5ts
 ( precision are n provid$ till m5 feel 

! ne$ ( !m4 ,! exp]im5tal v]ification ( 
concepts is no m]e alt]native pa?1 no   
m]e r5unciation1 b a new bir?2 a bir?   
into a dull & vexati\s discipl9e = !    
impati5t ,hegelian1 :e!r ( ! ?irte5? or 
( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 :o believes t1 z m9d
 is ! product ( evolution1 & s ! sum &  
/ore ( nature1 9 dem ,g$ank5 selb/ das  
,wahre i/ zu su*5#ge4    ,long f$ on    
b\ndless hopes1 ,o race ( man1    ,h[   
angrily ?\ spurn'/ all simpl] f>e4  ,!  
g5ius & c\rage conc]n$ 9 a p>ticul>     
discov]y or re=m x 7 impossible to      
e/imate2 !re is no me?od ( det]m9+ !    
specific gravity ( su* adv5tures3       
moreov] we are n[ s well us$ to !       
lights1 bells1 & s\nd+s ( ! r\tes (     
sci5tific enquiry t x is h>d = u to     
realise ! pa9 & p]il ( fogs & contr>y   
w9ds 9 voyages :]e 7 no su* guides4     
,inde$ no exposition ( defects ( me?ods 
c expla9 false habits ( ?\ght )\t a     
c>eful e/imate ( hi/orical causes also1 
9 :at we may call ! embryology ( ?\ght2 
= at no "t 7 "r me?ods ( ?\ght :olly    

want+1 or ev5 :olly disreg>d$4 ,b1 z we 
approa* ,h>vey's own "t1 if on ! "o h&  
,i h %[n t ,europe until he came 0 n    
ready = him1 on ! o!r h& ,i tru/ ,i h   
made x m easy to conceive ! weight ( !  
social sy/ems1 op9ions1 & prejudices    
aga9/ :i* 8 gigantic ef=t 0 made4 ,=1   
brilliant z 0 ! promise ( ! ,r5asc5ce1  
yet 9 ! "t ( ,h>vey1 & 9 ! g5]ation     
imm$iately be=e him1 ! decay ( !        
s*ola/ic me?ods & ! worldl9ess ( !      
,*ur*1 :i* 9 ! fir/ half ( ! sixte5?    
c5tury _h fav\r$ ! advance ( secul>     
culture1 _h l$ to a reaction1 n aga9/   
,lu!r only b also aga9/ all lib]al le>n+
 & sci5ce4 ,9 ! ,vatican1 9 ! ,sorbonne1
 9 ! ,consi/ory1 & ev5 9 ! c\rts (      
ju/ice x 0 proclaim$ t z ^! /udies make 
gov]nm5t m difficult1 x 7 ill to        
enc\rage !m6 ,we h se5 t ! ,fai?1 ?\gh  
und]m9$ & no long] ca?olic1 0 ar\s$1 & 0
 t]rible /ill2 or?odoxy 0 cru%+ free    
?\ght 9 ,italy2 ,alva 0 9 ,fl&]s1 & _h  
be5 visit$ by ,ca!r9e de ,m$ici at      
,bayonne2 9 ,france ! ru?less religi\s  

w>s end$ 9 ! triumph ( ,rome2 ,europe 0 
ov]run by ,dom9icans & ,franciscans2    
,tr5t 0 long pregnant ) ana!ma4 ,contr>y
 sects alike defi$ lib]al culture2 & f\r
 ye>s be=e ,h>vey's bir? ! wolf1 hidd5  
"u ano!r cloak1 _h torn                 
,s]vetus--,s]vetus :o %>$ ) ,colombo !  
hon\r ( prep>+ ! way = ! f\nd] ( mod]n  
physiology4 ,ev5 ! g5ial con=mi/ ( ! _w1
 aft] 8 mann] :5 he is sc>$1 _h turn$   
brutal2 he felt t ! old conceptions ^u  
:i* society 0 built = him1 7 suspect$1 &
 !re) society itself beg9n+ to crack &  
split1 yet he did n see t n[ by sci5ce  
only c\ld society be recreat$4  ,9      
,italy ! ,c9que ,c5to _h tak5 its bir? &
 n\ri%m5t *iefly f ,lat9 s\rces &       
tradition4 ,x reg>d$ symmetry ( =m &    
rhetorical modes ( passion2 elegance 0  
pref]r$ to matt]1 & /yle to k4 ,su* a   
culture _h n ! se$s ( life 9 x2 9 !     
middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury its en?usiasms
 wan$1 its philosophy fell into r\t9e1  
its /yle into mann]ism2 b sci5ce1 n     
philosophy1 n ! ,fai?1 0 ! heir ( !     

,middle ,ages4 ,sci5ce is n ( ,lat9 b ( 
,greek inh]itance1 its s\rces are       
,greek2 & ) ! we/w>d sw>m ( ! ,greeks _!
 old] boons ( eloqu5ce & beauty 7       
rivall$ by _! new] gifts ( s*ol>%ip &   
natural k4 ,9 ,france ! lead]s ( ?is    
s*ool 7 ! ,hugu5ots1 ! fl[] ( ! nation2 
9 ! ,ca?olic reaction ( ! sixte5? c5tury
 ,france scor*$ h] own bloom1 & ,spa9 0 
bla/$ = ev]4 ,! humani/s1 :o at be/ 7   
false fri5ds ( sci5ce & m$ic9e1 7 no    
long] p[]ful fri5ds2 _! noble rage 0    
suppress$ by *ill p5ury1 & _m ( ! mo/   
le>n$ & zeal\s ( !m 7 vagabonds 9       
,europe4 ,rhetoric1 f9e art1 & ev5      
philosophy may fl\ri% 9 slav]y1 le>n+ & 
sci5ce c brea! no air b t ( fre$om2 &   
fre$om ( le>n+ 0 qu5*$ 9 ! blood ( !    
,massacre ( ,/ ,b>?olomew4 ,9 #aedj _h  
be5 f\nd$ ! ,society ( ,jesus1 :i* !n z 
n[ us$ sci5ce & le>n+1 n z s\rces ( tru?
 or te/s ( conduct1 b z tactics2 putt+  
on inde$ ! habit ( ! s*ol>1 b only ! m  
effectually to control rese>*4 ,two ye>s
 lat] ! ,spani% ,inquisition 0 set up 9 

,rome2 & its %ad[ fell ev5 ov] ,v5ice1  
:i* abas$ itself to ! imprisonm5t (     
,bruno4 ,! great ,v5etian pr9t]s1 "s "t 
r$uc$ to ! publications ( decad5t       
,av]roism 7p4 #ig71 to av]t bankruptcy  
_h to pr9t brevi>ies4 ,h5ry ( ,nav>re1  
des]t+ ,du ,plessis ,mornay1 ,d',aubign1
 & ,de ,?\1 turn$ n only ,roman ,ca?olic
 b also ultramontane2 &1 if ) 8         
accession ! ,t]ror _h ceas$1 social &   
political o/racisms1 te/s1 &            
disabilities /ifl$ all g5]\s culture4   
,! great ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 :i* ?r\gh\t
 ! ,middle ,ages _h be5 ! he>t (        
,*ri/5dom1 ! c5tre ( its life & heat1   
:i* 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury 0 at its spl5did 
culm9ation1 & :i* _h m$dl$ ) no feeble  
h& ev5 9 ! ,/ate1 0 wan+ ev5 9 ! fifte5?
 c5tury1 :5 ,france 0 deva/at$ by w> &  
rap9e & h] s*ools 7 empti$4 ,?is        
,univ]sity1 :i* _h savagely condemn$    
,joan ( ,arc1 & s5t ,ni*olas ,midi to   
prea* a solemn s]mon at ! /ake1 pro     
,joann salut>i admonitione et populi    
dificatione1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury came out

 ( ! religi\s w>s /ripp$ ( its end[m5ts1
 & des]t$ by its /ud5ts2 its curriculum 
0 crassly cons]vative1 its philosophy   
buckram1 its !ology a petrifaction2 its 
=ty colleges 7 clos$1 grass grew 9 its  
c\rts1 & its public disputations 7 abas$
 to ! decor\s apo/asy ( ! free?9k]4     
,montpelli] 0 dom9at$ by realism        
7vitalism74 ,francis ,bacon _h done     
bett] to h gone ) ,h>vey to ,padua2     
almo/ 9 ! ye> ( ! publication ( ! ,de   
motu cordis1 ! ,p>liam5t ( ,p>is issu$  
an edict t no tea*] %\ld promulgate     
any?+ contr>y to ! accept$ doctr9es ( ! 
anci5ts4  ,su* 0 ! *eck :i*1 aft] ! dea?
 ( ,leo ! ,t5?1 _h befall5 lib]al       
/udies3 no ,bembo n[ secretly protect$  
free?9k]s2 9 ,c5tral ,europe ! g5]\s    
,maximilian ! ,second1 :o di$ 9 #aegf   
:ile c\nsell+ tol]ance 9 religion to    
,h5ry ! ,?ird1 0 foll[$ by reaction>y   
emp]ors4 ,9 ,engl& no d\bt ! sky 0      
cle>]2 9 ! ,salamis ( mod]n civilization
 ! malign pret5sions ( ,philip 7 %att]$1
 & ! spaci\s times ( ,elizabe? 7 glori\s

 9 _! outbur/ ( fre$om1 adv5ture1 &     
culture1 ,m$ic9e1 h[ev]1 s9k+ 9 !       
sixte5? c5tury1 fell1 9 ! sev5te5?1 into
 t reproa* :i* has become a byword4 ,all
 sup]/ition 0 n )9 ! ,fai?4 ,:5 ,h>vey's
 discov]y1 l an e>?quake1 _h brok5 up   
gal5ism & o!r outworn sophi/ries1 8     
ma/]ly "w /ood =? n only aga9/ long-w9d$
 dialectics on ars sphygmica1 critical  
days1 coctions1 d]ivatives1 revulsives1 
& l ab/ractions bequea!d by realism &   
uncritical subs]vi5ce to texts1 b also  
aga9/ a m lurid backgr\nd ( folk        
sup]/itions--( vampires1 wit*-burn+1    
magic1 cabbalism1 a/rology1 al*emy1     
*iromancy1 & wat]-ca/+4 ,= m$ic9e1 says 
,bacon1 is associat$ ) *>latanry z      
,aesculapius ) ,circe4 ,9 physics1      
t]re/rial & cele/ial1 ,galileo1 p]secut$
 z he 01 _h "s curr5t ) him & be=e him2 
,cop]nicus _h prec$$ him1 ,kepl] 0      
beside him3 b 9 physiology ! wat]s _h   
clos$ ^u ! pa? ( ,gal5 z ^u ! wake ( a  
great %ip2 ! anatomi/s1 !mselves        
gal5i/s1 _h giv5 ,h>vey little help2 & !

 %>e ( ,s]vetus#gf1 ,colombo1 &         
,fabricius 0 b small 9 ! discov]y ( !   
c5tral fact ( ! sci5ce1 & ( ! me?od :i* 
op5$ ! way to ,pecquet & ,aselli1 to    
,glisson1 to ,/5o1 to ,:>ton & ,willis1 
to ,hall] & ,b]n>d4 ,h>vey's discov]y 0 
! fir/ /ep to a transfiguration (       
m$ic9e2 & ?\gh aft] ,h>vey !re arose mu*
 false physiology & !re) aga9 great     
floods ( m$ical sophi/ry1 yet f 8 "t    
m$ic9e has _h to reckon ) physiology1 ! 
only s\rce ( sci5tific nosology &       
!rapeutics4  ,we celebrate ! memory (   
great m5 9 ! c]ta9 hope t 9 _! *ildr5 !y
 w be born aga94     ,,app5dix4         
,,a/rology4   ,besides ^? great]        
prev5tions :i* lay 9 ! v /ructure &     
organis$ conceptions ( society 9 !      
,middle ,ages1 ! /ud5t ( natural sci5ce 
0 ?w>t$ also by _m less]1 :i* c\ld n f9d
 place 9 ?is oration4 ,among ! *ief ( ^!
 0 judicial a/rology1 :i* supplant$ &   
degrad$ ! art ( m$ic9e4  ,x is difficult
 to c>ry ! imag9ation into a "t :5 !    
heav5s 7 conceiv$ z an animate & div9e  

be+#gg1 ! heav5ly bodies z active &     
intellig5t p>ts ( x1 & ! :ole set n 9   
illimitable space b ar\nd man & 8 home1 
& wait+ ^u him 7vid4 p4 #dg72 yet )\t   
su* an ef=t we _c realise ! anci5t place
 & dom9ion ( a/rology4 ,su* a possession
 :5 9 its /r5g? mu/ h en?rall$ ! human  
m9d2 & x abode t5aci\sly ) ! fir/       
sci5tific conceptions ( cele/ial        
ph5om5a1 ev5 9 ! ?\ghts ( ! enlight5$4  
,ty*o ,brahe1 = _m ye>s ( 8 life1 0 an  
adept2 & ev5 ,kepl] saw port5ts 9 !     
skies4 ,:5 we read ! doctr9es (         
,ari/otle on ! cele/ial be+s1 x is inde$
 some:at /range t ^u him1 ^u ,plato1 &  
^u ! ,ionians1 ! judicia a/rorum _h ev5 
less hold ?an ! my?ology3 s truly pois$1
 ev5 9 ! infancy ( sci5ce1 7 ! cosmic   
speculations ( ?is wond]ful race4 ,!    
,romans by _! ,etruscan tradition held  
to a/rology1 *iefly d]iv$ f ,*aldea &   
,egypt1 & by !m x 0 mix$ ) gross] folk  
magic2 yet ev5 9 ,rome !re 7 _m to      
repudiate x1 n only su* ,grecian spirits
 z ,cic]o b also su* ,romans z ,juv5al2 

z 9 ,h>vey's "t x 0 assail$ by ! irony (
 ,pascal & ( ,la ,fonta9e4 ,ev5 9 !     
twelf? c5tury ,john ( ,salisbury _h n   
fail$ to turn 8 light artill]y ^u       
a/rology4  ,?is art ( =eca/ naturally   
atta*$ itself closely to t ( m$ic9e2 & 9
 its decrepitude /ill x clung to m$ic9e 
l a p>asite4 ,& z p>asites 9 ! field (  
pa?ology1 s a/rology br\ght ) x o!r     
noxi\s sup]/itions & follies ev5 worse  
?an itself4 ,9 ,engl& x surviv$ till !  
witty attack ( ,swift kill$ ,p>tridge & 
a/rology toge!r2 yet to ?is day _m ( its
 notions are emb$d$ 9 our common spee*4 
,ptolemy among 8 good s]vices did "o ill
 to mank9d by 8 ,tetrabiblon or         
,quadrip]tit1 an a/rological treatise   
:i* 0 curr5t ) ! ,almage/ 9 ! ,we/]n    
,s*ools4 ,?is au?oritative treatise1    
toge!r ) ! ,ari/otelian conception ( !  
heav5s1 gave to a/rology ! aspect ( a   
regul> sci5ce ) its own pr9ciples &     
me?ods2 a sci5ce admir$ & ev5 c\rt$ by  
pr9ces4 ,z ,fr$]ick ! ,second & ,*>les !
 ,fif? w\ld le>n ( ! />s ! mom5t to take

 ! field aga9/ _! foes1 s ! m$ieval     
physician s\ght _! c\nt5ance 9 ! lett+ (
 blood or 9 ! exhibition ( a cly/] or   
emetic4 ,! ,*ur*1 abhorr+ all concurr5t 
dom9ion1 & ju/ly abhorr+ ?is bondage ( !
 judgm5t ( ,god & ( ! w ( man1 almo/    
alone )/ood ! a/rolog]4 ,if ! doctors ( 
!ology did n "k h[ to d5y ! p[] ( ! />s 
9 ! mat]ial cosmos1 !y vehem5tly d5i$ x 
9 ! _w ( ! _s4 ,et ideo pro c]to t55dum 
e/1 says ,aqu9as1 grave peccatum esse   
circa ea qu a voluntate hom9is dep5d5t  
judiciis a/rorum uti4 ,( ! prie/ly      
assailants ( a/rology1 ! mo/ attractive 
to u = 8 wit1 sagacity & s\nd k1 0      
,ni*olas ,oresme1 sometime ,bi%op (     
,lisieux 7di$ #achb71 translator ( !    
,e?ics & o!r ,ari/otelian treatises1 z  
he is portray$ = u by ,haurau 7,dict4   
des ,sci5ces philosophiques1 art4       
,oresme7 & ,m4 ,*>les ,j\rda94 ,! fun ( 
! ?+ is t ! outspok5 ,oresme 0 !        
c\nsellor1 ! fri5d1 & ev5 ! tutor ( t   
notable a/rolog] ,*>les ! ,fif?2 a /ory 
z hon\rable to ! pr9ce z to ! subject4  

,z ,*>les issu$ f ! *amb]s ( 8 a/rolog]s
 ! disc\rses ( ,oresme mu/ h made him a 
little uncom=table1 especially :5       
,oresme records ! mis=tunes ( a/rologis+
 capta9s1 su* z ,alphonso k+ ( ,ca/ille1
 ( :om1 says he1 ,i h he>d no?+ notable 
except t he ca/ horoscopes1 0 un=tunate 
9 w>1 & neglect$ 8 k+dom2 or su* aga9 z 
,james ! k+ ( ,majorca1 a passionate    
a/rolog]1 :o on ! dictation ( ! />s made
 a sortie aga9/ ,pet] ( ,aragon1 & nev] 
came back aga94 ,x is all v well1 says  
,oresme1 = k+s to "k some:at ( ! noble  
sci5ce ( a/ronomy1 b !y mu/ be cont5t to
 he> ( x 9 talk ) sages1 & n to sp5d ^u 
! />s "t & c>e :i* !y %\ld devote to !  
int]e/s ( _! p4 ,mesmem5t tele *ose     
7a/rology1 necromancy1 geomancy &       
quelconques tels ars7 e/ plus prilleuse 
p]sonnes d'e/at1 comme sont pr9ces et   
seigneurs ausquelz app>ti5t le g\v]nem5t
 publique4 ,et p\r ce ay je compos ce   
livret en franois af9 que g5s lais le   
puiss5t ent5dre1 desquels1 si comme j'ay
 ent5du1 plusieurs sont trop encl9s     

telles fatuits4 ,et autres fois ay je   
escript en lat9 de ce/e matire etc4 ,9  
spite ( ! ,bi%op ( ,lisieux1 a/rology at
 ! end ( ! f\rte5? c5tury rea*$ ! summit
 ( its influ5ce & popul>ity4 ,9 ! c\rse 
( 8 argum5t ,oresme gives an admirable  
acc\nt ( ! nature ( halluc9ation & !    
p>ts x may play 9 p]v]t+ k2 n only s b  
he expla9s also ! fallibility ( ! normal
 s5ses 9 respect ( organic defects1 (   
m$ia1 ( false inf]5ce1 ( association1 ( 
imposition ( ! imag9ation1 & s =?4 ,"u  
su* circum/ances1 he says1 a my/ic might
 conceive himself to h be5 visit$ by an 
angel6   ,,footnotes3    #a ,to br+ !   
oration )9 ! "t allott$1 ?is portion1 & 
! p>agraphs on a/rology add$ z an       
app5dix1 7 omitt$4 ,=   ! same reason ! 
p>agraphs on scepticism 7p4 #hb7 7 also 
omitt$   b by inadv]t5ce h held _!      
cont9uity 9 ! text4 ,x is   cu/om>y to  
pr9t ! text z deliv]$2 & ?is mu/ be my  
excuse   = ! cumbr\s app>atus ( notes1  
mu* ( :i* might h be5   tak5 into an    
enl>g$ text4 ,! notes are necess>y to   

=tify   /atem5ts :i* orally may pass1 b 
d n satisfy a read]4    #b ,! humoral   
doctr9e is imp]fectly kn[n4 ,! f\r      
elem5ts   are e>?1 wat]1 air1 fire2 !   
f\r qualities are hot1 cold1   moi/1    
dry2 ! f\r hum\rs are blood1 phlegm1    
yell[ bile1 black   bile4 ,by p]mutation
 ( ^! 7 obta9$ ! endless elaborations   
( ! gal5i/ doctr9e :i* = _m c5turies    
bl9d$ ,europe n   to ! tru? only1 b also
 to ! cl9ical & physiological me?ods1   
example1 & atta9m5ts ( ,gal5 himself4   
#c ,nec ullum satis validum imp]ium erat
 co]c5dis s$itionibus   populi1 flagitia
 hom9um ut cremonias deum proteg5tis4   
,tac4 ,ann4   ,,iii4 #fj4    #d ,x mu/ n
 be suppos$ t ! idealism ( ,plato & !   
my/icism ( ! ,ea/ 7 alike1 or ev5 ak94  
,plato 0 a ,greek2 8   m9d1 z we        
appreciate su* qualities1 0 sane &      
lucid3 he _h no   ye>n+ :atev] =        
absorption 9 ! ,inf9ite2 b r1 l         
,ari/otle1 = a noble life4    #e  ,(t5] 
on h] knees ?an on h] feet         ,di$ 
e day %e liv$4                          

,macbe? ,,iv4 #c4    #f ,i see 9 rec5t  
reports ( ,egyptian exploration t at    
,oxyrhyn*us ,plato 0 repres5t$ ) curi\s 
p]si/5ce by !   ,phd & ! ,la*es2 & ^!   
treatises appe> 9 ! e>ly ,fayyum        
papyri4    #g ,a few axioms1 collect$ f 
! physical & metaphysical   treatises   
7p]haps by ,cassiodorus f ,boetius71 7  
curr5t f an   e>ly date4 ,! translations
 ( ,boetius mu/ = a "t h la9 9   "s     
neglect8    #h ,alcu9 _h b a translat$  
abridgm5t or summ>y ( !   ,categories1  
attribut$ to ,augu/9e2 & 9 a ,,ms4 ( !  
t5? c5tury   we f9d no m ?an ?is4       
,boetius' full translation ( !          
,categories   0 n curr5t till ! end (   
?is c5tury1 :5 all ! logic (   ,ari/otle
 0 9 ! h&s ( ! doctors4 ,9 ! e>li]      
,middle ,ages1   z 9 ! writ+s ( ,john ( 
,salisbury & ( ,william ( ,con*es1 we   
he> ev5 m ( ,boetius ?an ( ! ma/]       
himself4 ,virgil1 ,s5eca   & ,cic]o also
 7 ! s\rces ( mu* ( ! culture ( ?is     
p]iod4 ,alcu9 0 a gramm>ian2 he taught f
 ,priscian & ,donatus1   improv$ ! eigh?

 c5tury ,lat91 & probably made ,virgil &
 ,cic]o   kn[n 9 ,gaul & ,brita94 ,he   
knew b little ,greek1 z we inf] f   8   
quotation ( ! names ( ! ,categories4    
,erig5a knew m ,greek   & c>ri$ "s ( x  
to ! ,c\rt ( ,*>les ! ,bald4 ,see note  
#b1   p4 #fe4 ,alcu9 probably did n     
visit ,irel&4 ,boetius _h translat$     
also bo? ,analytics & ! ,topics4    #i  
,yet ,rog] ,bacon seems to h appreh5d$  
bo? progress & !   relativity ( tru?4   
,be=e ,newman1 he decl>$ t ,god makes no
 full   revelation b gives x 9          
in/alm5ts2 & 9 ano!r passage he   speaks
 ( ! judgm5ts ( ,ari/otle1 & ( o!r great
 tea*]s1   secundum possibilitatem sui  
temporis 444 aliud tempus fuit tunc1 et 
aliud nunc e/--a rem>kable say+4 ,( !   
,sa9ts he says !y _h   _! "t1 we h our  
own4 ,vid4 also note1 p4 #hj4    #aj    
,mod]n ,fr5* hi/orians d u ! hon\r (    
annex+ our h]oes2   9 respect ( ! s*ol>s
 ( ! ,middle ,ages ,m4 ,*>les ,j\rda9   
has   set1 or foll[$1 ?is example4 ,john
 ( ,salisbury1 t *>m+ *ild   ( r5asc5ce1

 born out ( due "t1 0 fir/ claim$ z a   
,fr5*man2   !n1 z ?is prov5ance becomes 
unt5able1 he1 & o!rs1 are   call$       
,anglo-,fr5*4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is 9 ! 
,x,i,ith c5tury   0 no m ,france ?an    
,rome 0 ,italy4 ,9 our s$5t>y arable    
life   we d n realise ! nomad habits (  
our =efa!rs4 ,edw>d !   ,fir/ w\ld      
inhabit six di/ant ca/les 9 less ?an z  
_m weeks2   inde$ ,great ,brita9 itself 
0 !n no isl&4 ,! h]oes1 nay !   armies1 
( ,froiss>t's ,/ory fly ab\t ! _w 9 _!  
seasons l   migrat+ birds4 ,all ke5     
s*ol>s ( ! ,we/ w5t to ! ,univ]sity   ( 
,p>is1 ! daught] ( k+s & popes1 & !     
intellectual c5tre   n ( a /rip ( k+dom 
betwe5 ,anj\ & ! ,empire1 b ( ,europe   
itself4 ,& ( ! s*ol>s ( ,p>is1 ,engli%m5
 71 we he>1 !   mo/ turbul5t1 b ! bolde/
 9 argum5t & ! mo/ gre$y (   le>n+2 ?is 
la/ "* p]haps x is t n[-a-days looks    
lea/ ,engli%4 ,kuno ,fis*] admires !    
procession ( great ,engli%m5   d[n !    
highway ( m$ieval ?\ght1 f ,erig5a to   
,francis ,bacon4   ,john 0 born at      

,salisbury1 sp5t ?irte5 ( 8 e>ly ye>s at
 !   ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 ! be/ ( !m 9 ! 
/ormy s]vice ( ,?omas   ,becket1 & b !  
la/ five z ,bi%op ( ,*>tres4 ,we d n    
call   ,lanfranc an ,engli%man1 nor ev5 
,adrian ! ,f\r? an ,italian4    #aa ,!  
"n ,realism has be5 improp]ly           
us$--improp]ly because   previ\sly      
engag$--to signify ! conception ( an    
objective _w1   f ! play ( :i* our      
impressions arise1 & ( :i* our          
impressions are1 if n lik5esses1 at any 
rate symbols1 z oppos$ to   ! "n        
,idealism :i*1 ) a l viol5ce1 has be5   
turn$ to   signify ! conception t !     
univ]se ( ?+s is b a picture   produc$  
by ! evolution ( ! ph5om5a (            
consci\sness4 ,!   prop] names = ^!     
opposite conceptions are ( c\rse        
,n\m5alism   & ,ph5om5alism4 ,realism   
prop] z a habit ( ?\ght1 :atev] may   h 
be5 its provisional uses1 is n[ a       
mis*iev\s habit2   n\m5alism is a       
h>mless amusem5t4    #ab ,roscell9us1 ! 
,rog] ,bacon ( ! elev5? c5tury1 le>n$1  

rebelli\s1 lucid & h]oic1 )/ood ! ,*ur* 
= philosophy z   did ,bacon 9 ! ?irte5? 
= natural sci5ce4 ,x w\ld seem t 9      
h]oism at any rate ,abl>d 0 bel[ 8 ma/]4
    #ac ,vid4 p4 #ej4    #ad ,! oppon5ts
 ( ! !ory ( ! ,mass are apt to *>ge !   
,roman ,*ur* ) ! proposition t !re9 !   
elem5ts are   *ang$ into real fle% &    
blood4 ,9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 z 9   !     
?irte5?1 ?is ,*ur* has n1 ,i believe1   
det]m9$ :e!r !   real sub/ance be       
corporeal or incorporeal1 sep>able or   
insep>able   f ! s5sible prop]ties (    
?+s2 :e!r 9 a ^w x be   some?+ or1 z _m 
( u w\ld say1 no?+ at all4 ,sp9oza      
reg>d$ sub/ance z intellig5t & ext5d$4  
#ae ,?us x 0 difficult to claim 8       
au?ority = "o side or !   o!r4 ,!       
metaphysical treatises 7 n kn[n till !  
lat] "p   ( ! twelf? c5tury4 7,see p4   
#ge1 note #b47 ,at ! outset ( !         
,physics ,ari/otle discusses :at nature 
is 9 itself1 & def9es   fir/ elem5ts2 9 
! ,second ,analytics on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh
   ?9k+ ( sci5ce z d$uctive &           

expository1 he /rongly opposes   !      
prim>y exi/5ce ( ideas1 ?\gh ^! are     
pr$icable ( _m   individuals4 ,by excess
 ( logical =mations1 ! division (       
prop]ties1 ! use ( su* t]ms z ,greek3 g5
 hypokeim5a1 c4   c41 he laid himself   
op5 to misconception1 & s 0 readily     
platonis$ by 8 comm5tators4 ,x w\ld seem
 inde$ t =   ,ari/otle univ]sals 7 n    
m]ely propositions obta9$ by negation   
( individual v>iations1 b some?+ m      
active4 ,a ,greek3 nosis   became someh[
 a ,greek3 poisis2 e4g4 ,greek3 h       
dmi\rgsasa   physis4 ,8 position may be 
appreciat$ briefly ?us3--,9 !           
,categories ,ari/otle speaks (          
individuals z prim>ily exi/5t1   :ile 9 
,met4 ,z1 & else:]e1 ! prim>y exi/5t is 
! =m4 ,!   inconsi/5cy is1 h[ev]1 m     
app>5t ?an real2 = 9 !   ,categories x  
is ! individual s f> z he repres5ts 8   
natural   k9d :i* is prim>ily exi/5t1   
:il/ ! =m :i* 9 !   ,metaphysics is     
prim>ily exi/5t occurs only 9 !         
individual4 ,?is   t]se appreciation is 

"o ( my _m debts to ,dr ,jackson4    #af
 ,x 7 almo/ to be desir$1 = our own     
lucidity1 t we c\ld   get rid ( ! words 
cause & law1 & use language significant 
(   ord] only4 ,ari/otle's influ5ce has 
weigh$ heavily 9 fav\r (   /udy+ ,causes
 r ?an sequ5ces2 ?us x is h>d to cle>   
our   own m9ds1 & impossible to cle> !  
m9ds ( our pupils1 ( a   g5etic notion (
 causation--t an effect comes1 z x 71 f 
! womb ( its causes4 ,ev5 ,ockham taught
 z if causes conta9$   _! effects4 ,mr  
,m>%all 7,we/4 ,rev4 loc4 cit47 is (    
op9ion t   ,rog] ,bacon by 8 non oportet
 causas inve/ig>e int5d$ to   conf9e    
sci5tific ?\ght to ! relations (        
ph5om5a4    #ag ,z ,/ ,anselm put x1    
,p>ticipatione speciei plures hom9es    
sunt   unus homo4 ,out ( humanity       
individual m5 proce$4    #ah ,vid4 p4   
#cb1 note4    #ai ,erig5a1 ! miracle ( !
 ,holy ,gho/2 a figure ( almo/   my?ical
 gr&eur1 aris+ 9 ! f> we/1 full ( new   
le>n+1 (   lyric en?usiasm1 & h]oic     
c\rage4 ,he did n prote/1 ) ,/          

,columba1 aga9/ ! ,papacy only2 he      
prote/$ aga9/ au?ority1 &   he prote/$  
aga9/ mighty ignorance2 nei!r ( :i* %\ld
   )/& ! p]suasion ( "r reason4 ,ratio  
immutabilis 444 qu   444 nullius        
auctoritatis ad/ipulatione robor>i      
indiget4 ,8 works   7 proscrib$ & burn$4
    #bj ,! "o1 to :i* alone ,p>m5ides & 
,melissus attribut$   exi/5ce1 0 a      
mat]ial al?\gh an incorporeal unity4 ,we
 mu/   bew>e ( accept+ matt] 9 ! curr5t 
duali/ s5se2 =   ,ari/otle himself      
,greek3 hyl 0 h>dly di/+ui%able f       
,greek3 dynamis4    #ba ,) e all[ance = 
! phases ( *ur* & s*ool 9   successive  
academical g5]ations x seems /range t 9 
#abji   ,ari/otle %\ld h be5 =bidd5 "u  
excommunication1 & 9   #abca re/or$ to  
su* fav\r t = ! disciples ( ,alb]t & ,/ 
,?omas ! ma/] almo/ atta9$ ! au?ority ( 
a fa!r ( !   *ur*2 ! explanation        
probably is t ,ari/otle meant = a "t   !
 paynim int]pretations ( ,tol$o1        
p>ticul>ly ( ! ,physics 7!              
,metaphysics 7 n translat$ f ! ,greek   

till ab\t #abbj72 &   meant n ?is only1 
b also lib]al quotation & incorporation 
(   ! writ+s ( ,arab philosoph]s4 ,to %[
 h[ le>n+1 ev5 9 !   ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1
 lay "u ecclesia/ical control1 "s       
extracts   f ! ,edicts ( ! ,synod (     
,p>is & ( ,gregory ! ,n9? may be   cit$ 
9 illu/ration3--,aft] direct+ t ,corpus 
magi/ri ,amaurici   extrahatur e        
cimit]io1 et projiciatur 9 t]ram non    
b5$ictam !   ,synod f>!r ord]s t !      
,quat]nuli ,quat]nuli is translat$   by 
,ducange1 ,quatuor qu>t *>t1 seu octo   
folia3 i4e4 ! octavos   magi/ri ,david  
de ,d9ant1 444 aff]antur et comburantur2
 nec libri   ,ari/otelis de naturali    
philosophia1 nec ,comm5ta legantur      
,p>isiis1   publice vel secreto4 ,et hoc
 sub po5a excommunicationis             
inhibemus4444 ,de libris !ologicis      
scriptis 9 romano1 prcipimus   quod     
episcopis diocesanis tradantur1 et ,cr$o
 9 ,deum et ,pat] no/]   9 romano1 prt] 
vitas sanctorum4 ,! ord] two ye>s lat]  
confirm+ ^! prohibitions diff]s b 9 =m4 

,ev5 ! ,bull (   ,gregory 9 #abca1      
reliev+ ! s*ools ( ?is proscription1    
says1 ,ad   hc jubemus ut magi/ri artium
 unam lectionem de ,prisciano et unam   
po/ aliam ord9>ie semp] legant1 et      
libris illis naturalibus1 qui   9       
concilio prov9ciali ex c]ta causa       
prohibiti fu]e1 ,p>isiis non   utantur1 
qu\sque exam9ati fu]9t1 et ab omni      
errorum suspicione   purgati4 ,! pope   
adds pat]nally1 ,magi/ri v]o et s*ol>es 
!ologi1 9 facultate quam pr(it5tur1 se  
/udeant laudabilit]   ex]c]e1 nec       
philosophos se o/5dant1 s$ satagant fi]i
 !odocti3   nec loquantur 9 l+ua populi1
 et populi l+uam hebram cum azotica     
confund5tes azotica or are?ica means !  
pr(ane tongue 7,ducange72   ,hebrew be+ 
a ,sancta l+ua4 ,! pan!i/ic outbur/ ( ! 
lat]   twelf? c5tury1 al?\gh d]iv+ 9 "p 
f ,erig5a1 0 probably   f$ by ! comm5t>y
 ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias4 ,?is comm5t>y
 0   widely read 9 ,arabic & ,arab-lat9 
translations1 ! latt] ( :i*   7 made1 z 
we "k 7v4 ,a4 ,j\rda91 p4 #abc & seq471 

by ,g]>d (   ,cremona 7d4 #aahg74       
,alex&]'s m mat]ial int]pretation (     
,greek3   hyl involv$ ! return ( ,all   
into ,god2 h5ce no resurrection1 no     
future life4 ,9 8 foll[]s ^! doctr9es   
become gross] &   gross]1 &1 fus$ ) o!r 
,arabian doctr9e1 prep>$ = &   aft]w>ds 
/r5g!n$ ! ,av]roism ( ,padua1 9 !       
,,xv-,x,v,ith   c5tury1 9 :i* sy/em x 0 
taught t ! univ]sal s\l1   dipp+ = ! "t 
into ! individual man1 is at dea? resum$
 into   ! univ]sal s\l4 ,?is virtual    
d5ial ( p]sonal immortality 0 (   c\rse 
bitt]ly res5t$ by ! ,*ur*4 7,vid4 p4    
#fh1 note47 ,?us f   ! ?irte5? c5tury   
onw>ds pan!i/ic infidelity surviv$ &    
ev5 defi$ ! m5aces & ! puni%m5ts ( !    
,*ur*4    #bb ,bo? ,alb]t & ,aqu9as 7   
inconsi/5t4 ,haurau po9ts out   t ,/    
,?omas 0 a vitali/ 9 physics1 an animi/ 
9 metaphysics1 a   nom9ali/ 9           
philosophy1 & a reali/ 9 !ology4 ,il a  
*]*    reconcili] des morts 7i4e4 ,plato
 & ,ari/otle7 qui1 t\te leur vie1   se  
sont contr$its4 ,b ev5 sceptics         

contradict !mselves2 & x   is fair to   
add t ,/ ,?omas pu%$ univ]sals back to  
imman5ce 9   ! ,div9e m9d4 ,= ,plato !  
ideas are ?\ghts ( univ]sal m9d2   =    
,ari/otle ,god1 or ,nature by its ?\ghts
 or plans det]m9es !   l9es ( ph5om5a3  
?us ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 m alike ?an    
,?omas knew1 or ,haurau admits4 ,!re 0  
no su* ?+ ( c\rse z   ,! ,s*ola/ic      
,philosophy1 ( :i* ,i read aga9 b ! o!r 
day 9   a mod]n "w4 ,s*ola/icism is ! v 
v>i\s tea*+ ( !   s*ools ( ! ,,xi-,x,vth
 c5turies2 ?\gh its g5]al t5d5cy 0 to   
se>* r into ! orig9 & nature ?an into ! 
functions (   be+4 ,! philosophy ( !    
?irte5? c5tury on ! :ole 0              
eclectic2--?\gh p]haps eclectic by      
confusion r ?an by   reconciliation4 ,! 
rule ( au?ority prev5t$ an appreciation 
( !   relative values ( op9ions2 !      
recognis$ au?orities 7 equally   true1 &
 _h to be dovetail$ toge!r someh[4      
,critical   int]pretation _h n begun4   
#bc ,! objection %\ld n lie aga9/ hair  
splitt+1 = ?\ght   _c be too p5etrat+2 b

 aga9/ ! splitt+ ( imag9>y   hairs4     
#bd ,m4 ,*>les ,j\rda9 ?us describes !  
procession ( ,rector1   doctors &       
disciples ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is at !   
beg9n+ (   ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,at ! end (
 ?is c5tury its decay began4    #be ,=  
,ari/otle ! pr9ciple ( individuation 0  
matt] & =m   7vid4 note1 p4 #cc72 =     
,av]roes x 0 =m2 = ,/ ,?omas x 0        
matt]4 ,= all vitali/s ! id5tity ( =m1  
s\l & life is   ess5tial2 ?us ,/ahl     
reg>d$ s\l z be/[+ on body all activity1
   z det]m9+ all vital functions4 ,9    
,ari/otle ,greek3 psy* is               
untranslatable  anima & animus--s\l &   
vital pr9ciple4 ,greek3   ,pneuma aga9 9
 v>i\s writ]s may mean any?+1 f air to  
_s   or o!r ess5ce2 cf4 ,ari/4 ,de      
,g5]at4 ,an4 ,,ii4 #c1 & ! aura (       
,h>vey1 & ev5 ( ,hall] 9 ! same         
connexion z ! f]tilis+   elem5t4    #bf 
,n = all1 n = ! greate/ ( !m6 ,ari/otle1
 9 va91   w>n$ lat] g5]ations aga9/     
prophesy+ :at seems likely1   in/ead (  
look+ to see h[ ?+s come ab\t3--,greek3 

ouk al?   legontes1 alla manteuom5oi to 
symbsom5on ek tn eikotn1 kai            
proslambanontes hs h\ts e*on pr9 g9om5on
 h\ts ide94 7,de   ,g54 ,anim4 ,,iv4 i47
 ,croire t\t ce qu'on rve1 if useful &  
possibly   admirable 9 its day1 9       
neo-,hegelians is a little /ale4    #bg 
,?us1 9 asc5d+ f g5]al to m g5]al1 9 !  
mo/   g5]al w be s\ght unique & p]fect  
be+2 ! prim>y cause &   sole object (   
sci5ce--! ,greek3 autozon ( !           
,alex&rians3   :]eas by successive      
elim9ations utt] ab/ractions w\ld become
   utt] vacuity4 ,to su* reali/s all    
subord9ate be+s are integral   p>ts ( ! 
prim>y be+4 ,x w\ld s]ve no useful end  
"h to   analyse ^! doctr9es1 or to      
indicate ! py?agorean or /oical         
elem5ts ( !m2 = platoni/s & reali/s _h  
_! s*ools &   degrees ( subtlety2 &     
,plato himself 0 inconsi/5t4 ,"s br\ght 
second>y ag5ts--demiurges or            
angels--into m creative activity1   o!rs
 c>ri$ creative reason back to ! ideal  
good1 & s on4    #bh ,held by ,gilb]t1 &

 attribut$ to ,av]roes2 b old] ?an      
,av]roes4 ,9 turn+ to ,francis ,bacon's 
hypo!sis ,i read 7,ed4 ,e4 &   ,s4 ,,ii4
 #bfc4 ,hi/4 ,d5si et r>i--*apt]1       
,dilatationes p] spiritum   innatum se  
exp&5tem1 a ,p>acelsian sort ( *apt]7   
,pulsus cordis   et art]i>um 9          
animalibus fit p] irrequietam           
dilatationem   spirituum1 et receptum   
ipsorum1 p] vices4 ,! muscul> quality ( 
! he>t 0 kn[n to ,gal51 =gott51 &       
r$iscov]$4 ,spiritus   vitalis1 =       
,bacon1 0 aura composita ex flamma et   
a]e 7cf4 n4   ,,vi4 #gdg74 ,glisson has 
be5 =tunate 9 two g5]\s judges1 9 ,hall]
   & ,vir*[2 x w\ld ill become me to    
depreciate a di/+ui%$   ,fell[ ( my own 
,college1 & z a cl9ical obs]v] ,glisson 
_h   consid]able m]its2 b z a           
physiologi/ he 0 sunk 9 realism4 ,he   0
 happy 9 ! inv5tion ( ! te*nical t]m    
irritability1 b   = him ?is virtue 0 z  
metaphysical an ess5ce z ! vital   _s2 8
 prime motor 0 n physical4 ,z a         
philosoph] ,i fe> !   indep5d5t read] ( 

8 works w f9d him fanciful & we>isome4  
#bi ,h]e9 ,h>vey's sagacity br\ght him  
t[>ds ! tru?4 ,air1 he   says 9 ! ,de   
g5]atione1 is giv5 nei!r = ! cool+ nor  
! nutrition ( animals 444 x is z if heat
 7 r enk9dl$   )9 ! foetus 7at bir?7 ?an
 repress$ by ! influ5ce ( !   air4      
,boyle 7:o says t he work$ "u ! influ5ce
 ( ,h>vey's   discov]ies7 c>ri$ ?is     
matt] =w>d by mo/ int]e/+ &   sagaci\s  
exp]im5ts ) 8 air-pump4 ,= ! layman1 ,i 
may add   t 7to speak g5]ally7 be=e     
,h>vey's "t respiration 0   reg>d$ n z a
 means ( combu/ion b ( refrig]ation4 ,h[
 man   became su* a fi]y dragon 0 !     
puzzle6    #cj ,p]fection 0 attribut$1 n
 only by m$ieval philosoph]s b   also by
 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 to ! circle4       
,circul> movem5t 0   !re=e ! mo/ p]fect1
 & !re=e aga9 mu/ be t ( !   planets4   
,?is is a good illu/ration ( ! almo/    
necess>y t5d5cy   9 ! e>li] excursions (
 ?\ght to equate incoord9ates1 & to     
fill gaps 9 reason+ f ali5 s\rces4      
#ca ,n only movem5t b also =mative      

activity4 ,! ,greek3 ar*   ts k9ses is !
 effici5t cause ( ,ari/otle2 = him f9al 
causes direct motion--! ,greek3 h\      
h5eka4 ,?us dialectic 0   tak5 =        
dynamics4 ,ev5 ,kant confus$ cause &    
effect ) reason   & consequ5ce 9        
hypo!tical propositions 7,b5n74 ,cav]ni 
7,/oria   del me?odo sp]im5tale 9       
,italia1 #ahia-e7 says t ,jordanus      
,nemor>ius 7( ,borg5trei* ne> ,w>burg1  
d4 #abcf7 made ! great   advance (      
ext5d+ ! /atic physics ( ! anci5ts to   
e/abli%   dynamics2 & t he introduc$ !  
^w mom5t4 ,9 a cursory   survey ( ! two 
works ( ,nemor>ius :i* we h 9 ,cambridge
 ,i   h n be5 able to v]ify ?is /atem5t2
 ! notion ,i h f\nd   b n ! ^w itself4  
#cb ,vid4 p4 #dd1 note #b4    #cc ,&    
,goe!3      ,wie ,himmelskrfte auf und  
ni$] /eig5      ,und si* die goldn5     
,eim] rei*56      ,mit seg5duft5d5      
,s*w+5      ,vom ,himmel dur* die ,erde 
dr+51      ,h>monis* all das ,all       
dur*kl+54                               
,fau/ ,i4 i4 #a4    ,9 _m ( ! old] poets

 ! same motive is f\nd4 ,vaughan1 a     
contempor>y ( ,h>vey1 says3      ,& r\nd
 b5ea? x ,"t 9 h\res1 dayes1 ye>es1     
,driv5 by ! sph]es      ,l a va/ %ad[   
mov$4    ,! only cele/ial mess5g] :o has
 discuss$ ?is matt] )   mank9d 0 some?+ 
( an obscuranti/4 ,vid4 ,p>adise ,lo/1  
,bk4   ,,viii4    #cd ,! ^w philosophy 9
 ! ,middle ,ages signifi$ ! pursuit (   
k ( ?+s human & div9e1 & ( ! causes (   
!m4 ,x   0 (t5 divid$ into ,physics1    
,e?ics & ,logic4 ,cic]o1 to "s (   ^:   
writ+s ,i h ref]r$ z !n popul>1 says 79 
_m   passages1 e4g4 9 ! ,acad4 ,i4 &    
,,ii47 t philosophy ,prima r]um         
naturam scrutatur1 secunda animum       
componit1 t]tia b5e diss]5di   rationem 
docet4    #ce ,vid4 note1 p4 #gg4    #cf
 ,! judici\s read] w rememb] 9 ! ,lett]s
 to ,m>t9us   ,scribl]us ! famili>      
in/ance ( ! jack4 ,9 e roa/+   jack !re 
is a meatroa/+ quality :i* nei!r resides
 9 ! fly1   nor 9 ! weight1 nor 9 any   
p>ticul> :eel ( ! jack 444 b is   inh]5t
 9 ! jack4444 ,z s5sation1 reason+1     

volition c4 are !   sev]al modes ( ?9k+1
 s roa/+ ( beef1 roa/+ ( mutton1   roa/+
 ( pullets1 geese1 turkeys c4 are !     
sev]al modes (   meatroa/+4444 ,& z !   
g5]al quality ( meatroa/+1 ) its        
sev]al modifications z to beef1 mutton1 
pullets c4 does n inh]e   9 any "p ( !  
jack1 s nei!r does consci\sness c4 c4   
#cg ,or inde$ he %rank f !m1 z !        
cont9ual exclusion (   div9e int]f]5ce  
seem$ to him a />vation ( moral gr[?4   
,vid4   ,phd1 #if1 ! int]e/+ passage    
beg9n+ ,greek3 eg g> neos n   ,?auma/s s
 epe?umsa tauts ts sophias n d kal\si   
p]i phuses   i/orian k4t4l4    #ch ,!   
encyclop$ic me?od1 foll[$ by ,francis   
,bacon1 &   p]petuat$ ev5 9 ! n9ete5?   
c5tury by "s ,g]man   metaphysicians1 0 
n ! m]e collection ( matt] f any or all 
qu>t]s1 aft] ! mann] ( ,pl9y2 nor aga9  
m]e omnisci5ce2 b   0 ! demon/ration ( a
 cosmical !ory f all dep>tm5ts (   k4   
,:5 k 0 a !ological philosophy !ologians
   7 b\nd to supply ?9k+ m5 ) ,summ1 or 
compreh5sive   applications & casui/ries

 ( x4 ,hugo ( ,/ ,victor 7d4 #aada7 &   
,rob]t ,pull5 7d4 #aaej7 7 ! fir/       
s*ola/ic ,summi/s4    #ci ,ari/otle made
 _m exp]im5ts1 b exp]im5ts are n        
necess>ily v]ification2 & = ! mo/ "p 8 7
 n4 ,x is   n exp]im5t :i* makes sci5ce 
b ! exp]im5tal me?od4 ,dr   ,payne1 9 ! 
,h>veian ,oration ( #ahif1 rem9d$ u t   
among !   anci5ts ! =]unn] ( ,h>vey 9   
?is me?od 0 ,gal54    #dj ,^? :o are    
curi\s 9 mann]s w obs]ve t dur+ !   la/ 
few ye>s ! m$ievalis+ cl]gy 9 ,engl& h  
disc>d$ t   fair l95 :i* 9 ! eld] cl]gy 
0 ! emblem & ! example (   cleanl9ess4  
#da ,nemo psy*ologus nisi prius         
physiologus1 said ,johannes ,mll]4      
#db ,= example1 "o man1 fix+ 8 eyes on a
 sublime ideal (   hol9ess1 confesses on
 8 knees t he is a mis]able s9n]2       
ano!r1 survey+ m5 ab\t him1 repudiates  
?is imputation3 x is a   matt] (        
p>allax4    #dc ,boyle1 ,essays1 #bnd   
,ed4 #affi1 p4 #aai4 ,9 8 ,edition (    
#affa ,boyle   speaks ( ! discov]y (    
,h>vey our ,engli% ,democritus 7publi%$ 

#afbh7 z commonly accept$4 ,:]eby1 he   
says1 o!r v plausible   & radicat$      
op9ions 7! old s*emes ( ! circulation7  
444 are   g5]ally gr[n out ( reque/4    
#dd ,haes] says 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dcc73   
,e95 sehr b$eut5d5 ,aufs*wung   nahm die
 ,*irurgie im ,zeitalt] ,h>vey's bei d5 
,englnd]n1 unt]   d55 bis dah9 ke9      
,wund>zt er/5 ,ranges aufgetret5 w>4    
,na*   kurz] ,zeit erlangt5 die englis*5
 ,*irurg5 dur* allgeme9e   ,bildung1    
grndli*e ,k5ntniss d] ,anatomie1 und    
praktis*e ,geleg5heit   e9 ents*i$5es   
,ueb]gewi*t b] die bis dah9 h]rs*5de    
franzsis*e ,s*ule4 ,cf4 also ,d>emb]g1  
,hi/4 et ,doct4 vol4 ,i4 p4   #bha et   
seq4    #de ,9 ! ,m$ical ,magaz9e 7,may1
 ,june1 ,july1 ,augu/1 & ,sept4 #ahii7  
is an int]e/+ essay by ,mr ,d',arcy     
,p[]1 ,h[ ,surg]y became a   pr(ession 9
 ,london4 ,mr ,p[] tells u t a s*eme = !
 unity   ( ! m$ical pr(ession 9 ,london 
0 set on foot 9 #adbc1 :5 !   surgeons 7
 ! m highly organis$ body4 ,a ,rector ( 
,m$ic9e   0 inde$ elect$ 7,ma/] ,gilb]t 

,kym]74 ,x is n kn[n h[ long   ! conjo9t
 faculty ( m$ic9e & surg]y la/$ 9       
,london2 b   unhappily = our pr(ession x
 seems to h be5 dissolv$ 9 a v   few    
ye>s4    #df ,?is relation 0 some:at    
"o-sid$3 ! philosoph]s =g$   doctr9es & 
pres5t$ !m to ! ,*ur*2 :]eupon ! ,*ur*  
consecrat$ !m to et]nity1 & !           
philosoph]s 7 n all[$   !reaft] to      
improve or to re/ore _! own creations4  
,la ?ologie   n'e/ quelque *ose qu'     
condition d'tre t\t4    #dg ,z ,erig5a &
 ,rabanus knew "s ,greek1 ,irel&1 l     
,edessa &   ,bagdad1 seems to h %>$ !   
hon\r ( pres]v+ orig9al texts2   we may 
inf] f ! doctr9es ( ,erig5a t 9 ,irel& !
 ,timu   0 ! *ief ( !m4    #dh ,see     
,baas1 ,ges*i*tli*e ,entwickelung des   
rztli*5 ,/&es1   #ahif1 p4 #abh4        
,*>lemagne j\rney$ 9 ,italy :]e "s      
s*ools /ill   exi/$1 & :]e ,priscian1   
,donatus1 ,botius1 ,cassiodorus1        
,augu/9e1   ev5 ,virgil & ,cic]o 7 read2
 !nce he call$ tea*]s to 8   palace     
s*ools2 & to ,lyons1 ,orleans or ,t\rs4 

,h[ ,p>is became !   c5tre ( enlight5m5t
 9 ! ,we/]n _w is n cle>4 ,! palace     
s*ool probably 0 ( no place1 b ( ! royal
 ret9ue2 t !   ,s*ool ( ,p>is 0 made up 
( ^? ( ,/ ,g5evive1 ,/ ,g]ma9 des   ,prs
 & ! ,ca!dral s*ool seems n to be a v   
probable   conjecture4    #di ,! ,arabs 
7 a mix$ ?rong ( ori5tals2 "s ( !m 7    
,aryans1 z ! ,p]sians & ,ne/orians2 "s 7
 ,arabs1 ,syrians1 or   ,hebrews4 ,!    
,ne/orians 7 em95t z physicians1 & x is 
int]e/+ to ?is ,college to "k t "o ( !  
be/ translators   ( ,ari/otle into      
,arabic 0 ,johannitius1 a ,ne/orian     
physician4 ,!   ,ea/]n peoples1 z !     
,we/]n1 ow$ all to ! ,greeks except a   
d\ble measure ( dialectical +5uity1 :i* 
0 _! own1 & is   _! own to-day4 ,by !   
incisive me?ods ( ,ari/otle ! ,*ri/ian  
neo-platoni/s _h be5 v>i\sly c>v$ into  
h]etics--su* z !   ,monophysites2 & ^!  
:5 driv5 ea/w>ds c>ri$ ,greek to ,edessa
   & ,bagdad3 f ^! c5tres x 01 & f      
,nisibur 9 ,p]sia &   else:]e1 t !      
,s>ac5s drew _! culture4 ,ari/otle 0    

fir/   translat$ into ,arabic 9 ! reign 
( ,al ,mansur1 ! son ( ,h>n al   ,ras*id
 7#hac-hcc72 ,avic5na c>ri$ !           
,ari/otelian encyclop$ia to   its       
culm9ation2 & ,cordova 9 ! t5? c5tury 0 
z full (   f]vid disciples z 0 ,p>is 9 !
 ?irte5?4 ,! ,arabian m$ic9e   0        
,ari/otle & ,gal54 ,! ,arabian          
philosophy 0 orig9ally built   ^u !     
,alex&rian emanations & hypo/ases 7! s\l
 ( !   univ]se1 intellig5ce ! fir/ (    
creatures1 nature & mutability1   & s   
=?74 ,ess5ces & =ms 7 produc$1 z !      
intelligibilia ( real k1 till1 z "s "o  
has wittily   put x1 univ]sals became   
almo/ palpable4 ,avic5na inde$          
approa*$ und]/&+ f ! s5ses1 & ,av]roes  
accept$ ?is   "r position2 b he taught !
 p]man5t subsi/5ce (   intellig5ce1 z a 
sph]e 9 a hi]>*y ( spiritual pr9ciples  
indep5d5t ( matt] & p]sons4 ,9 no long  
"t ?is 0 turn$   into ! unity1 z oppos$ 
to ! individuality1 ( ! s\l2 !          
univ]sal s\l dipp+ z x 7 into !         
individual1 & at 8   dea? return+ into !

 univ]sal2 a virtual d5ial ( p]sonal    
immortality4 ,h5ce ! bitt] defiance (   
,alb]t & ,/ ,?omas4 ,!   ,av]roi/ic     
doctr9es 7 en?usia/ically propagat$ on !
 o!r   h& by t malleus ,ecclesiae       
,romanae ,fr$]ick ! ,second             
7#abab-abej74 ,! ,arabian sci5ce consi/$
 9 m$ic9e1 ma!matics1   a/ronomy1 &     
al*emy4 ,av]roes x 0 :o fir/ ass]t$ !   
indep5d5ce ( ! sph]es ( sci5ce &        
religion2 a division   popul> at !      
pres5t day1 & "o :i* l5t itself to _m a 
conv5i5t subt]fuge1 9 ,padua4    #ej    
,dante1 ,inf4 7,,xx4 #aae74 ,mi*ael     
,scot translat$ ,av]roes f   ,arabian to
 ,lat92 also ! ,de clo & ,de anima (    
,ari/otle1   :i* rea*$ ,rog] ,bacon ab\t
 #abcj4 ,?us we may reg>d ,mi*ael z   ! 
f\nd] ( ,paduan ,av]roism4 ,all p]sons  
:o busi$ !mselves   ) natural exp]im5t 9
 ! ,middle ,ages 7 accus$ ( magic2 ev5  
,alb]t did n escape ! suspicion or !    
cr$it ( sorc]y4    #ea ,r5an1 ,av]ros4  
,& to l effect ,m4 ,haurau says1 ,le    
pripatticisme d',av]ros ne diffre pas   

mo9s de l'antique doctr9e   du ,lyce que
 l',alhambra du ,p>!non2 & he comp>es le
   pripatticisme d',alb]t et d',aqu9as  
to ! monum5ts fi]s et   biz>res du      
,go?ique du ,x,i,i,ime sicle4    #eb ,i 
may v5ture to quote aga9 ! locus        
classicus3--           ,wel knew he !   
olde ,esculapius1           ,&          
,deiscorides1 & eek ,rufus1             
,old ,ypocras1 ,haly1 & ,gali52         
,s]apion1 ,razis1 & ,avic52             
,av]rois1 ,damasci51 & ,con/antyn2      
,b]n>d1 & ,gatesd51 & ,gilb]tyn4        
,*auc]1 ,c4 ,t4 ,prol4 #dbi-dcd         
7,skeat's ,ed474    #ec ,see pp4 #bd &  
#bh4    #ed ,z a s*ool ( ?\ght2 9 f9e   
art ( c\rse x 0 glori\s4    #ee ,ozanam 
7,doc4 9dits1 quot$ by ,ra%dall1 p4 #gh7
 says ?is e>ly   light 0 une de ces     
nuits lum9euses o les d]nires cl>ts du  
soir se prolong5t jusqu'aux premires    
blan*eurs du mat94    #ef ,alb]t--no/ri 
temporis /upor et miraculum6--is an     
attractive   figure1 & des]ves 8 r5[n z 
! greate/ ( ! m$ieval sages4   ,8       

end[m5ts 7 ri*] & wid] ?an ^? ( ! great 
,italian   logician1 8 pupil1 ^: "n has 
_h a great] vogue1 & ^:   doctr9es are  
/ill ! accept$ discipl9e ( ! ,*ur* (    
,rome4   ,alb]t re/or$ ,ari/otle1 & 9   
a/ronomy & *emi/ry s\ght =   tru? 9     
nature4 ,t ,/ ,?omas 0 a man ( ! highe/ 
intellectual   p[] & atta9m5ts1 an      
em95ce :i* is claim$ = him by _m        
s*ol>s1 z by ,mr ,v]non 9 8 edition ( ! 
,p>adise1 ,i _c   admit2 unless x be to 
a critical s*ol> :o has ma/]$ !         
cont5ts ( 8 _m folios1 if su* a s*ol>   
!re be4 ,= my "p1   aft] read+ mu* ( :at
 is writt5 ( ,/ ,?omas1 ,i h b done     
:at 0 possible to me 9 o!r su* cases2 t 
is1 ,i h run my   eye ov] ! titles ( 8  
books & *apt]s1 & =m$ "s rapid   judgm5t
 "h & !re ( ! ways ( 8 ?\ght4 ,n[ ,i    
v5ture to   ass]t t ! ways ( ! ?\ght (  
,aqu9as1 subtle & symmetrical   z !y    
are1 lie :olly )9 ! =mulas ( 8 age4 ,he 
left   sci5ce = logic1 ! /uff ( ?\ght = 
its in/rum5t2 satisfy+   himself ) su*  
t9kl+ cymbals z ,nihil pote/ p] se      

op]>i1   nisi quod p] se subsi/it2 444  
,impossibile e/ quod =ma sep>etur a     
seipsa 444 quod subsi/5s p] se des9at   
esse 444 & s =?4   ,alb]t ?\gh a less   
symmetrical is a m orig9al g5ius4 ,to   
,aqu9as   inde$ ,i %\ld hesitate to     
attribute g5ius2 to ,alb]t x seems to me
   ?is title may be grant$1 if ) "s     
hesitation4 ,vir famosus et   erroneus 0
 ,rog] ,bacon's summ>y ( ,alb]t's c>e]1 
b ,bacon 0   sc>cely an indiff]5t       
witness4    #eg ,among ! ,,mss4 9       
,corpus ,*ri/i ,college1 ,cambridge1 are
 lett]s   ( ,innoc5t ,,iv4 to !         
,ar*deacon ( ,cant]bury 7& o!rs71 ,ut   
7,episc4 ,l9c47 nepotem suum ,fr$]icum  
7( ,lavagna7 9 canonicatum 9   ecclesia 
,l9colni5si1 proxim vacaturum1 inducat1 
et ,resp4 ,episc4   ,l9c4 9 qu probat   
talem provisionem esse contra voluntatem
 et cultus   ,dei2 ideoque negat se     
concessurum4 ,i see t ! au!nticity (    
"s ( ^! lett]s has be5 call$ 9 "q by ,m4
 ,*>les   ,j\rda91 b 9 any case !y are  
contempor>y1 & consonant )   ,rob]t's   

acts & "*4 ,moreov]1 two ye>s be=e1     
,innoc5t _h   susp5d$ ! bi%op = refus+  
to induct an ,italian1 ignorant (       
,engli%1 to a ri* b5efice 9 8 diocese4  
,i f9d t ,dr ,lu>d1 9   #ahhj1 _h no    
d\bts ( ! au!nticity ( ^! lett]s        
7,encycl4   ,brit4 ,,xi4 #baa74 ,mons4  
,*>les ,j\rda9's collect$ essays1 9 :i* 
he   discusses _! au!nticity1 7 publi%$ 
po/hum\sly 9 #ahhh2 b   8 ,editor makes 
! slov5ly omission ( ! dates & places ( 
!   fir/ publications ( ! sev]al essays4
    #eh ,!re 7 ?ree ways ( access to !  
,greek texts ( ,ari/otle3   by !        
,arab-lat9 translations2 by translations
 into ,lat9 direct f   ! ,greek2 & by ! 
use ( ! ,greek text itself4 ,^! means 7 
modifi$ aga9 by ! *ances ( access to    
p>ticul> au?ors1 &1 z   9 ! case (      
,ari/otle = example1 to p>ticul>        
treatises4 ,to   asc]ta9 ! dates (      
access to ^! new s\rces ,i h made "s    
se>*2 & h]e9 ,i h f\nd great help 9 !   
,re*]*es   critiques ( ,amable ,j\rda94 
,we mu/ rememb] t ?\gh ! s\rce   (      

,we/]n culture is n ,lat91 b ,greek1 yet
 its meagre *annels 9   m$ieval ,europe 
7 ,lat92 its be/ tradition lay 9        
,lucretius1   ,cic]o1 ,s5eca1 ,virgil4  
,! ill-/>r$ ,boetius 0 ! la/ ( !        
,grecians4 ,greek 0 driv5 ,ea/ & ,we/3  
,we/ into ,irel&1 :]e 9   ! n9? c5tury a
 few ,greek ,,mss4 surviv$1 & 7 read 9 !
   orig9al by ,erig5a & 8 disciples2 b  
?is ,iri% ,greek tradition   0 soon lo/1
 & !re 7 no tea*]s ( ,greek4 ,yet x     
seems   c]ta9 t1 9 ,ox=d1 ,rob]t (      
,l9coln & ,adam ,m>% _h at any   rate   
le>n$ assi/ance 9 ! production ( "s     
,greco-lat9   translations ( ,ari/otle1 
( ! ,e?ics = example4 ,dr ,jackson has  
po9t$ out to me a passage 9 ,aqu9as'    
,comm5t>y on ! ,e?ics1   :]e !          
pres5tation ( ! "r read+ misspelt1 & ( a
   ludicr\s etymology side by side ) "o 
:i* is v ne>ly "r1   seem to %[ t1 :il/ 
,aqu9as _h ab\t him p :o knew ,greek1   
he himself _h no sub/antial k ( x4      
,grossete/e himself   may h _h "s       
effici5t k ( ,greek2 vir 9 lat9o et 9   

greco p]itissimus1 says ,mat!w ,p>is4   
,dr ,jackson 79 a private   lett]7 feels
 assur$ t ,rog] ,bacon 0 pla9ly a       
compet5t ,greek   s*ol>4 ,( ?is !re is  
pro( 9 ! ,op]a in$ita1 edit$ by   ,brew]
 = ! ,ma/] ( ! ,rolls4 ,we "k also t m  
?an "o   s*ol> ( ! #aa-ab? c5turies     
travell$ 9 ! ,ea/1 ?\gh1 z ,dr          
,d>emb]g says1 travell]s to ! ,ea/ 7 m  
apt to br+ back   false relics ?an g5u9e
 manuscripts4 ,!re 0 a small ,greek     
community & a ,greek mona/]y at ,auriol1
 ne> ! old colony (   ,m>seilles4 ,/ill1
 = lack ( ma/]s & mat]ials1 ,greek !n 0 
a   v r>e accompli%m5t2 & x is manife/1 
f mu* int]nal   evid5ce1 t ,alb]t _h no 
,greek2 ?\gh he c]ta9ly possess$        
,greco-lat9 translations ( "s few       
,ari/otelian treatises by o!r   h&s1 ( !
 ,de anima & ( ! ,physics = example1    
:5ce he   makes quotations )\t          
int]sp]sion ( ,arabic titles1 prop]     
names1   n\ns & t]ms1 su* z he r        
helplessly reproduces 9 8   r5d]+ ( !   
n9? book ( ! ,de clo & else:]e4 ,we "k  

f o!r s\rces t a few treatises1 su* z ! 
,de anima1 &   ! fir/ two books ( !     
,e?ics1 exi/$ 9 ,greco-lat9 r5d]+   be=e
 ! ,arab-lat9 v]sions ( ,mi*ael ,scot & 
o!rs 7#abbj-abbe74   ,9 lat] life ,alb]t
 _h ! assi/ance ( ,aqu9as to :om we h   
attribut$ "s k ( ,greek2 = we f9d       
,aqu9as1 ) !   c\nt5ance ( ,urban !     
,f\r?1 n only se>*+ ,europe = ,greek    
manuscripts1 s5d+ emiss>ies to ,spa9 to 
make v]sions = him1 &   sup]vis+ !      
prep>ation ( translations directly into 
,lat91 b   also p]sonally comp>+ ! ,lat9
 translations ) ! ,greek texts   ( !    
,e?ics & ,politics1 & record+ v>iants2  
v>iants :i*   ,alb]t copi$ f 8 disciple4
 7,x may be wor?y ( rem>k t ev5   s late
 z #aehf !re 7 no ,greek types 9 ,ox=d1 
& t 9 #aeii   ,casaubon 7,life by       
,pattison7 c\ld f9d no compositors =    
,greek 9   ,lyons47 ,! great debt ( !   
,we/ to ! ,arabs 0 a new en?usiasm   =  
le>n+1 & = ! ,pr9ceps philosophorum2 n  
_!   trave/i$ texts & unwieldy          
comm5t>ies1 :i* ,rog] ,bacon1   probably

 p]ceiv+ t 8 contempor>ies swore by !   
,arab r   ?an by ! ,greek1 wi%$ he c\ld 
burn4    #ei ,to wond] :y ,rog] ,bacon  
became a cl]k & a ,franciscan is to     
look ^u ! ?irte5? c5tury ) ! eyes ( !   
n9ete5?4 ,!   vision ( ,/ ,francis _h n 
gr[n dim2 ! /range beauty ( 8 life      
held m5 captive /ill1 & 8 *e]ful natural
 religion /ill   animat$ 8 disciples4   
,none c\ld h said m truly ?an ,/        
,francis      ,:ile o!rs fi% ) craft =  
great op9ion1      ,i ) great tru? cat* 
m]e simplicity4    ,! grey fri> ( !     
f\rte5? c5tury1 z we "k him 9 ,langl&   
& ,*auc]1 or lat] 9 ! degrad$ fanaticism
 ( ! ,obs]vants1   _h fall5 f> f !      
example ( 8 ma/]4 ,p]haps ! *ief        
reason = ,bacon's decision 0 t 8 fri5d  
,grossete/e1 :o on   ! fir/ com+ ( !    
fri>s wrote eloqu5tly to ,gregory ! ,n9?
   ( _! illum9ation1 humility & piety1 0
 a memb] ( ! ,ord]1   & 0 ! fir/ ( its  
,rectors 9 ,ox=d4 7,rd4 ,grossete/e1    
,epi/4   ed4 ,lu>d2 ,rolls1 #ahfa1 p4   
#agi47 ,ev5 9 ,cambridge1 till #ahgg1   

tea*]s & pr(essors1 save ^? ( ,law or   
,m$ic9e1 7   g5]ally speak+ 9 holy      
ord]s2 = in/ance1 ! foll[+   extract1 ( 
date #ahdi1 :i* ,i owe to ! k9dness (   
,dr ,donald   ,mac,alister1 ,ct]um      
nem9em 9 socium unquam admitti volumus  
qui non   sit aut ,!ologiam pr(essurus  
et sacros ord9es po/ c]tum temporis     
int]vallum inf]ius def9i5dum suscepturus
 aut e ,collegio   discessurus1 nisi    
unus e duobus sociis qui ,m$ic9 aut ex  
illis   duobus qui ,juris ,civilis /udio
 deputati sunt1 electus fu]it4 7,/at4   
,coll4 ,div4 ,joh4 ,evan4 ,cant4 cap4   
xii4 #bh ,april1 #ab ,vict4 #ahdi47 ,to 
?is h\r 9 ,engl& ! cl]gy comm& ! public 
s*ools4 ,9 a   w>like society le>n+ &   
contemplation mu/ fall to ! cl]gy2   )\t
 ! =tresses ( w> or le>n+1 if !re 0 any 
safety1   !re 0 n dignity or peace4 ,!  
m5dicant ord]s 7 "y   in/itutions1      
asc5dant1 & 9 fav\r ) ! great4 ,( _!    
usurpations 9 ! univ]sities ,i h spok54 
,)9 !m ev5 ,popes   c\ld n m$dle1 z     
,bacon f\nd to 8 sorr[4 ,hales & ,ockham

 also   became ,m9ors1 z ,alb]t & ,/    
,?omas1 bo? ( illu/ri\s desc5t1   became
 ,prea*]s4 ,moreov] ! ,franciscans _h   
devot$ !mselves to   ! c>e ( ! sick1 &  
especially ( ^? smitt5 ) ! new          
pe/il5ces--su* z leprosy1 syphilis1 &   
plague--:i* ,ori5tal   dirt & asceticism
 _h eng5d]$ or inflam$2 & ?us a b5t to  
obs]vation ( natural ph5om5a may h be5  
enc\rag$ 7see art4   ,rog] ,bacon1      
,we/m9/] ,rev4 loc4 cit474 ,to say t to 
! monks we   owe ! cons]vation ( le>n+  
is n s true z to say t le>n$   m5 betook
 !mselves to ! religi\s h\ses 9 ord] to 
f9d relief   f turmoil1 to secure !     
subsi/5ce ( life )\t its c>es1 to   get 
access to books1 & to pr(it by ! c\nsel 
( comrades :o _h   enjoy$ n only !      
culture ( _! own h\se1 b also !         
int]*ange ( ideas & manuscripts ) all ! 
le>n$ h\ses 9   ,europe4 ,:5 ^!         
advantages 7 to be _h 9 ! _w1 le>n+     
des]t$ ! mona/]ies4 ,aga91 ,bacon 0 n an
 unbeliev]1 nor   any?+ l x2 9 ! ,opus  
,majus he decl>es ! ,holy ,scriptures   

to be ! s\rce ( all tru?2 n only1 l     
,socrates be=e him &   ,kant aft] him1  
did he fix 8 eyes on moral p]fection z !
 end1   b also on ! ,*ur* z ! means3 on 
! o!r h& ! res5tm5ts   ( passionate     
g5ius "u h>% duress did n make a        
naturally   rebelli\s temp] m tractable4
 ,fames et mora bilem conciunt4 ,x   is 
evid5t t )9 ! ,franciscan ord] !re 7    
?ree   well-m>k$ p>ties2 namely1 ( !    
naturali/s1 z ,bacon2 ( !   my/ics1 z   
,bonav5tura2 & ( ! sophi/s1 z ,john     
,duns !   ,nor?umbrian4 ,n[ ,bacon's    
tr\bles did n beg9 till ! succession    
to ! ,g5]al%ip ( ! ,ord] ( ! s]aphic    
,bonav5tura1 an   argum5tative my/ic 7l 
,duns1 & unlike ! ec/atic my/ics ( ,/   
,victor71 :o1 reject+ ,ari/otle1 _h     
/eep$ himself 9 !   neo-platonism (     
,augu/9e & ,dionysius ! ,areopagite2 &  
,bonav5tura & 8 p>ty x 0 :o /opp$       
,bacon's m\? at ,ox=d1   & %ut him up 9 
,p>is4 ,:at ! life ( ,bacon & !         
direction (   m$ieval ?\ght might h be5 
_h ,grossete/e be5 able to sp>e   ,adam 

,m>% f ,ox=d = ! ,g5]al%ip x 7 p]haps   
too curi\s   to consid]2 yet we may     
pr(itably rememb] t ,bacon1 bru%+ aside 
,porphyry & 8 que/ions1 & d5\nc+ ! va9  
physics (   ,p>is1 urg$ t enquiry %\ld  
beg9 ) ! simple/ objects (   rese>*1 &  
rise gradually to ! high] & high]2 e    
obs]vation be+ controll$ by exp]im5t4   
,he says inde$ t by   exp]im5t only c we
 di/+ui% a sophism f a demon/ration4    
7,op4 ,t]t4 ,,xix47 ,e>ne/ly he tri$ to 
foll[ ?is me?od2 he seems to   h sp5t on
 x sub/ance ( 8 own1 &1 aft] ?is 0      
exhau/$1   to h appe>$ = ! fir/ "t 9    
hi/ory z a petition] =   sci5tific      
grants 9 aid4 ,did]ot speaks ( ,bacon z 
,un des gnies   les plus surpr5ants que 
la nature ait produits1 et un des hommes
 les   plus malheureux2 he liv$ 9 va91  
di$ unhon\r$1 & left no   disciple4     
#fj ,colliget1 ,mr ,e4 ,g4 ,br[ne tells 
me1 is a corruption (   ,kulliyyat4 ,x  
does n exactly mean ,summ>y 7z commonly 
/at$7 b   r ,g5]al ,pr9ciples 7,kull    
means ! :ole2 ,kulli univ]sal   or      

g5]al2 fem4 pl4 ,kulliyyat74 ,x may also
 mean collect$ writ+s   7e4g4 ( a poet74
    #fa ,vid4 p4 #ej4    #fb ,i v5ture  
to say ev5 ( ,caius1 ?\gh ,caius 0 a    
compet5t   & inde$ = 8 "t an able       
cl9ical physician1 z we obs]ve 9   8 "w 
on ! sweat+ sickness4 7,vid4 note1 p4   
#if47    #fc ,ox=d fell 9 ! fir/ in/ance
 "u ,franciscan influ5ce1 yet   ,alex&] 
,hales 7( ?is ord]7 gave ! p]ipatetic   
b5t to ,ox=d   :i* x reta9s to ?is day4 
,cre$ r ?an conduct 0 !   dom9ant note (
 ! ,fai? 7p4 #he72 x is int]e/+ !re=e to
   le>n t = ,ox=d ,rob]t ( ,l9coln &    
,adam ,m>% translat$1 or   procur$ a    
translation (1 ! ,e?ics4 ,on !          
probability t   ,grossete/e _h "s       
sub/antial k ( ,greek1 see p4 #ge1 note 
#b4    #fd ,9 ,casaubon's di>y we get a 
glimpse ( ,ox=d 9 #afac4 ,!   ,univ]sity
 0 weal?y en\gh2 x _h escap$ ! ,p>is    
deva/ation1   b _h sc>cely des]v$ its   
good =tune4 ,!re 0 mu* active   tea*+ ( 
a r\t9e k9d1 _m =malities1 mu* s]v+ (   
tables2   b ( liv+ int]e/ 9 sci5ce1     

le>n+1 or high culture !re 0   n a      
trace4 ,( classical le>n+1 9 ,casaubon's
 s5se1 !re 0   naught4 ,ecclesia/ical   
controv]sies absorb$ or ov]:elm$ all o!r
   subjects2 & ! ,univ]sity 0 reg>d$ by 
! ,gov]nm5t z an   in/rum5t ( p>ty4 ,!  
pr(essors 7 all cl]ks1 & ard5t only   z 
pamphlete]s4 ,?us1 says ,pattison1 !    
,univ]sity took its full   %>e (        
national passion1 prejudice & religi\s  
s5tim5t1 b 0   :olly de/itute ( any p[] 
to vivify1 to correct1 to in/ruct1 or   
to enlight54 ,pattison's ,casaubon1 p4  
#dag4    #fe ,bo? 9 ,bologna & ,padua ( 
c\rse !re 0 a faculty (   ,m$ic9e2 b its
 tradition 9 ,bologna 0 traditional &   
gal5ical1   9 ,padua indep5d5t &        
progressive4 ,montpelli] _h suff]$ 9 !  
desolation ( ,langu$oc4    #ff ,see page
 #hb4    #fg ,contra ,m$icum qu5dam     
,invectiv>um ,libri ,quatuor4 7,op4 ,t4 
,,ii4   pp4 #ajhf1 #hja4 ,ed4 ,basel1   
#aeee1 quot$ ,r5an1 ,av]4 p4 #cca47     
#fh ,! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians (  
,london _h its bir? 9 !   s*ools (      

,italy2 & p]haps 9 revolt f ,av]roism ! 
elegant   humanity ( ,l9acre has too (t5
 prevail$ 9 ?is ,college r   ?an        
,h>vey's /r5u\s control ( tradition &   
rhetoric by m   positive conceptions1 & 
( all conceptions by direct exp]im5tal  
v]ification4    #fi ,niccol ,leonico 7,i
 give 8 ,lat9 "n 9 ! text z ,ueb]weg    
gives x7 seems to h be5 a spirit$ &     
effective philosophical   lectur] (     
,hell5i/ & critical qualities1 & ( mu*  
*>m bo?   ( /yle & "*4 ,he is n to be   
conf\nd$ ) 8 eld]   contempor>y1        
,nicolaus ,leonic5us1 ( ,vic5za &       
,f]r>a1 pr(essor   ( m$ic9e & an elegant
 lat9]1 :o translat$ ! aphorisms (      
,hippocrates2 & ^: fri5d ,l9acre1 9     
translat+ p>ts ( ,gal51   did a l s]vice
 to m$ic9e & lett]s 9 ,engl&4    #gj ,n 
only ( ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,9 8    
treatise ,de   g5]atione ,h>vey dispos$ 
( ! belief 9 spontane\s g5]ation   7s f>
 z reg>ds visible creatures1 its        
abolition we owe to   ,pa/eur71 yet     
,bacon 7,n4 ,o4 ,,ii4 #da7 accepts x1   

p]haps z fully z did   ,sir ,?omas      
,br[ne4 ,! ,de g5]atione h[ev] 0 n      
actually   publi%$ till #afea1 "s #cj   
ye>s aft] ! ,novum ,organon4    #ga     
,galileo & ,kepl] _h prov$ ! validity ( 
t]re/rial physics   & ma!matics 9       
a/ronomy4 ,ari/otle ( c\rse 0 ! fir/ to 
apply physics to a/ronomy1 b wrong      
physics4    #gb ,) :i* ,malpighi 0 9    
close association4    #gc ,! ,consilia  
m$ica1 or ,consultations1 7 publi%$     
records1   ei!r ( p>ticul> cases or (   
diseases 9 a m g5]al s5se1   :i* seem to
 h be5 in/itut$ by ,?addu ( ,flor5ce 9 !
   ?irte5? c5tury1 7 abundant 9 !       
fifte5?1 & 7 cont9u$   into ! sixte5?1 &
 ev5 lat]4 ,9 ! fifte5? c5tury ^!       
records h a consid]able hi/orical value1
 & no little cl9ical   int]e/1 z !      
que/ions to ! pati5t & ! records (      
symptoms   are (t5 ord]ly & graphic1 &  
enable ! mod]n read] to revise   !      
diagnoses1 _m ( !m grotesque en\gh4 ,^! 
,consilia make a   great bulk ( matt]1 &
 "o :i* has n be5 ?or\ghly explor$4   ,a

 g5]al acc\nt ( ! ,consilia may be read 
9 any good hi/ory (   m$ic9e1 b p]haps !
 mo/ int]e/+ is to be f\nd 9 !   *apt]s 
on m$ieval m$ic9e 9 ,d>emb]g's ,hi/oire 
et ,doctr9es   7e4g4 tom4 #a4 p4 #ccd et
 seq474    #gd ,orig9ally by            
,fraca/orius1 ,montanus & o!rs1 9 ! =m] 
half ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,caius 9       
,engl&1 ,m]cado 9 ,spa91   ,baill\ 9    
,p>is1 if n b$side tea*]s1 _h done good 
cl9ical   "w1 9 ,consilia & o!rwise1 9 !
 same c5tury4 ,:at   ,fraca/orius did = 
syphilis1 ,caius did = ! sweat+         
sickness1   & ,m]cado = pete*ial typhus4
 ,baill\ 0 too dep5d5t ^u !   lett] (   
tradition4    #ge ,ev5 ,desc>tes has "s 
%>e ) ,hegel 9 ! pr(\nd error   t       
:atsoev] is cle>ly & def9itely conceiv$ 
is true4 ,!   inf]5ce if true = =mal    
logic1 is n true = natural processes2   
= in/ance1 ,desc>tes' well-kn[n         
attribution ( ! s\l to !   p9eal gl&1   
because all o!r p>ts ( ! bra9 are d\ble1
 & !   s\l is s+le6    #gf ,! %>e (     
,s]vetus 0 small2 t is1 ! effect ( 8    

rem>kable discov]y 0 small1 = x 0 buri$ 
9 a !ological   "w ( :i* b a few copies 
7 rescu$ f ! burn+2 namely              
,*ri/ianismi re/itutio4 ,vi5n           
,allobrogum1 #aeec4 7,haes] gives !     
ref]5ce to pp4 #agj-agg1 ,de ,tr9itate  
div9a47 ,! "w 0 repr9t$   at ,nuremb]g 9
 #agij4  #gg   ,qu1 simul !reos animo   
concep]at ignes1        ,ore dabat v]o  
c>m9a pl5a dei4                         
,ovid1 ,fa/i ,i1 #dgc4   ,,cambridge3   
,,pr9t$ ,,by ,j4 ,,& ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1    
,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4