,international ,education ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,t4 ,,harris1 ,a4,m41 ,,ll4,d4 ,volume ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,international ,,education ,,series4 #abmo1 cloth1 uniform binding4 ,,the ,,international ,,education ,,series was projected for the purpose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings1 new and old1 upon educational subjects1 and presenting a complete course of reading and training for teachers generally4 ,it is edited by ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris1 ,,ll4,d41 now ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 who has contributed for the different volumes in the way of introductions1 analysis1 and commentary4 ,the volumes are tastefully and substantially bound in uniform style4 ,,volumes ,,now ,,ready3 ,vol ,i4--,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,,johann ,,karl ,,friedrich ,,rosenkranz1 ,doctor of ,theology and ,professor of ,philosophy at the ,university of ,konigsberg4 ,translated from the ,german by ,,anna ,c4 ,,brackett4 ,second edition1 revised1 and accompanied with ,commentary and complete ,analysis4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,painter1 ,a4,m41 ,professor of ,modern ,languages and ,literature in ,roanoke ,college1 ,va4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,early ,,constitution ,,of ,,universities4 ,,with ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,medieval ,,education4 ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,,laurie1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of the ,institutes and ,history of ,education in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,iv--,,the ,,ventilation ,,and ,,warming ,,of ,,school ,,buildings4 ,by ,,gilbert ,b4 ,,morrison1 ,teacher of ,physics and ,chemistry in ,kansas ,city ,high ,school4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol ,v4--,,the ,,education ,,of ,,man4 ,by ,,friedrich ,,froebel4 ,translated and furnished with ample notes by ,w4 ,n4 ,,hailmann1 ,a4,m41 ,superintendent of ,public ,schools1 ,la ,porte1 ,ind4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,vol ,,vi--,,elementary ,,psychology ,,and ,,education4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4 ,,baldwin1 author of ,the ,art of ,school ,management4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,the ,,will4 7,part ,i of ,,the ,,mind ,,of ,,the ,,child47 ,by ,w4 ,,preyer1 ,professor of ,physiology in ,jena4 ,translated from the original ,german by ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown1 ,teacher in the ,state ,normal ,school at ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,vol ,,viii4--,,memory3 ,what it is and how to ,improve it4 ,by ,,david ,,kay1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 author of ,education and ,educators1 etc4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,vol ,,ix4--,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,intellect4 7,part ,,ii of ,,the ,,mind ,,of ,,the ,,child47 ,by ,w4 ,,preyer1 ,professor of ,physiology in ,jena4 ,translated from the original ,german by ,h4 ,w4 ,,brown1 ,teacher in the ,state ,normal ,school at ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,x4--,,how ,,to ,,study ,,geography4 ,a ,practical ,exposition of ,methods and ,devices in ,teaching ,geography which apply the ,principles and ,plans of ,ritter and ,guyot4 ,by ,,francis ,w4 ,,parker1 ,principal of the ,cook ,county 7,illinois7 ,normal ,school4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xi4--,,education ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states3 ,its ,history from the ,earliest ,settlements4 ,by ,,richard ,g4 ,,boone1 ,a4,m41 ,professor of ,pedagogy in ,indiana ,university4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xii4--,,european ,,schools2 or1 ,what ,i ,saw in the ,schools of ,germany1 ,france1 ,austria1 and ,switzerland4 ,by ,l4 ,r4 ,,klemm1 ,ph4,d41 ,principal of the ,cincinnati ,technical ,school1 author of ,chips from a ,teacher's ,workshop1 etc4 ,fully illustrated4 ,price1 #b4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4--,,practical ,,hints ,,for ,,the ,,teachers ,,of ,,public ,,schools4 ,by ,,george ,,howland1 ,superintendent of the ,chicago ,public ,schools4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xiv4--,,pestalozzi3 ,his ,life and ,work4 ,by ,,roger ,,de ,,guimps4 ,authorized translation from the second ,french edition1 by ,j4 ,,russell1 ,b4,a41 ,assistant ,master in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,with an ,introduction by ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,quick1 ,m4,a4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xv4--,,school ,,supervision4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,pickard1 ,,ll4,d4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4--,,higher ,,education ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,europe4 ,by ,,helene ,,lange1 ,berlin4 ,translated and accompanied by comparative statistics by ,l4 ,r4 ,,klemm4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4--,,essays ,,on ,,educational ,,reformers4 ,by ,,robert ,,herbert ,,quick1 ,m4,a41 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge2 formerly ,assistant ,master at ,harrow1 and ,lecturer on the ,history of ,education at ,cambridge2 late ,vicar of ,ledbergh4 ,only authorized edition of the work as rewritten in #ahij4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4--,a ,,text-,,book ,,in ,,psychology4 ,,an ,,attempt ,,to ,,found ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,psychology ,,on ,,experience1 ,,metaphysics1 ,,and ,,mathematics4 ,by ,,johann ,,friedrich ,,herbart4 ,translated from the original ,german by ,,margaret ,k4 ,,smith1 ,teacher in the ,state ,normal ,school at ,oswego1 ,new ,york4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xix4--,,psychology ,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,teaching4 ,by ,dr4 ,,joseph ,,baldwin4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xx4--,,rousseau',s ,,emile4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4--,,ethical ,,training ,,in ,,schools4 ,by ,,felix ,,adler4 ,vol4 ,,xxii4--,,english ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,elementary ,,and ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,by ,,isaac ,,sharpless1 ,,ll4,d4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4--,,education ,,from ,a ,,national ,,standpoint4 ,by ,,alfred ,,fouillee4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,circular1 describing the volumes more in detail1 mailed to any address on request4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,,international ,,education ,,series ,,the ,,moral ,,instruction ,,of ,,children ,,by ,,felix ,,adler ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahib ,,copyright1 #ahib1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,electrotyped ,,and ,,printed ,,at ,,the ,,appleton ,,press1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,moral education is everywhere acknowledged to be the most important part of all education2 but there has not been the same agreement in regard to the best means of securing it in the school4 ,this has been due in part to a want of insight into the twofold nature of this sort of education2 for instruction in morals includes two things3 the formation of right ideas and the formation of right habits4 ,right ideas are necessary to guide the will1 but right habits are the product of the will itself4 ,it is possible to have right ideas to some extent without the corresponding moral habits4 ,on this account the formation of correct habits has been esteemed by some to be the chief thing4 ,but unconscious habits--mere use and wont--do not seem to deserve the title of moral in its highest sense4 ,the moral act should be a considerate one1 and rest on the adoption of principles to guide one's actions4 ,to those who lay stress on the practical side and demand the formation of correct habits1 the school as it is seems to be a great ethical instrumentality4 ,to those who see in theoretical instruction the only true basis of moral character1 the existing school methods seem sadly deficient4 ,the school as it is looks first after its discipline1 and next after its instruction4 ,discipline concerns the behavior1 and instruction concerns the intellectual progress of the pupil4 ,that part of moral education which relates to habits of good behavior is much better provided for in the school than any part of intellectual education4 ,there is1 however1 a conflict here between old and new ideals4 ,the old-fashioned school regarded obedience to authority the one essential2 the new ideal regards insight into the reasonableness of moral commands the chief end4 ,it is said1 with truth1 that a habit of unreasoning obedience does not fit one for the exigencies of modern life1 with its partisan appeals to the individual and its perpetual display of grounds and reasons1 specious and otherwise1 in the newspapers4 ,the unreasoning obedience to a moral guide in school may become in after life unreasoning obedience to a demagogue or to a leader in crime4 ,it is not obedience to external authority that we need so much as enlightened moral sense1 and yet there remains and will remain much good in the old-fashioned habit of implicit obedience4 ,the new education aims at building up self-control and individual insight4 ,it substitutes the internal authority of conscience for the external authority of the master4 ,it claims by this to educate the citizen fitted for the exercise of suffrage in a free government4 ,he will weigh political and social questions in his mind1 and decide for himself4 ,he will be apt to reject the scheme of the demagogue4 ,while the old-fashioned school-master relied on the rod to sustain his external authority1 he produced1 it is said1 a reaction against all authority in the minds of strong-willed pupils4 ,the new education saves the strong-willed pupil from this tension against constituted authority1 and makes him law-abiding from the beginning4 ,it will be admitted that the school under both its forms--old as well as new--secures in the main the formation of the cardinal moral habits4 ,it is obliged to insist on regularity1 punctuality1 silence1 and industry as indispensable for the performance of its school tasks4 ,a private tutor may permit his charge to neglect all these things1 and yet secure some progress in studies carried on by fits and starts1 with noise and zeal to-day1 followed by indolence to-morrow4 ,but a school1 on account of its numbers1 must insist on the semi-mechanical virtues of regularity1 punctuality1 silence1 and industry4 ,although these are semi-mechanical in their nature1 for with much practice they become unconscious habits1 yet they furnish the very ground-work of all combinations of man with his fellow-men4 ,they are fundamental conditions of social life4 ,the increase of city population1 consequent on the growth of productive industry and the substitution of machines for hand labor1 renders necessary the universal prevalence of these cardinal virtues of the school4 ,even the management of machines requires that sort of alertness which comes from regularity and punctuality4 ,the travel on the railroad1 the management of steam-engines1 the necessities of concerted action1 require punctuality and rhythmic action4 ,the school habit of silence means considerate regard for the rights of fellow-workmen4 ,they must not be interfered with2 their attention must not be distracted from their several tasks4 ,a rational self-restraint grows out of this school habit--rational1 because it rests on considerateness for the work of others4 ,this is a great lesson in co-operation4 ,morals in their essence deal with the relation of man to his fellow-men1 and rest on a considerateness for the rights of others4 ,do unto others1 etc41 sums up the moral code4 ,industry1 likewise1 takes a high rank as a citizen's virtue4 ,by it man learns to re-enforce the moments by the hours1 and the days by the years4 ,he learns how the puny individual can conquer great obstacles4 ,the school demands of the youth a difficult kind of industry4 ,he must think and remember1 giving close and unremitting attention to subjects strange and far off from his daily life4 ,he must do this in order to discover eventually that these strange and far-off matters are connected in a close manner to his own history and destiny4 ,there is another phase of the pupil's industry that has an important bearing on morals4 ,all his intellectual work in the class has to do with critical accuracy1 and respect for the truth4 ,loose statements and careless logical inference meet with severe reproof4 ,finally1 there is an enforced politeness and courtesy toward teachers and fellow-pupils--at least to the extent of preventing quarrels4 ,this is directly tributary to the highest of virtues1 namely1 kindness and generosity4 ,all these moral phases mentioned have to do with the side of school discipline rather than instruction1 and they do not necessarily have any bearing on the theory of morals or on ethical philosophy1 except in the fact that they make a very strong impression on the mind of the youth1 and cause him to feel that he is a member of a moral order4 ,he learns that moral demands are far more stern than the demands of the body for food or drink or repose4 ,the school thus does much to change the pupil from a natural being to a spiritual being4 ,physical nature becomes subordinated to the interests of human nature4 ,notwithstanding the fact that the school is so efficient as a means of training in moral habits1 it is as yet only a small influence in the realm of moral theory4 ,even our colleges and universities1 it must be confessed1 do little in this respect1 although there has been of late an effort to increase in the programmes the amount of time devoted to ethical study4 ,the cause of this is the divorce of moral theory from theology4 ,all was easy so long as ethics was directly associated with the prevailing religious confession4 ,the separation of ,church and ,state1 slowly progressing everywhere since the middle ages1 has at length touched the question of education4 ,the attempt to find an independent basis for ethics in the science of sociology has developed conflicting systems4 ,the college student is rarely strengthened in his faith in moral theories by his theoretic study4 ,too often his faith is sapped4 ,those who master a spiritual philosophy are strengthened2 the many who drift toward a so-called scientific basis are led to weaken their moral convictions to the standpoint of fashion1 or custom1 or utility4 ,meanwhile the demand of the age to separate ,church from ,state becomes more and more exacting4 ,religious instruction has almost entirely ceased in the public schools1 and it is rapidly disappearing from the programmes of colleges and preparatory schools1 and few academies are now scenes of religious revival1 as once was common4 ,the publishers of this series are glad1 therefore1 to offer a book so timely and full of helpful suggestions as this of ,mr4 ,adler4 ,it is hoped that it may open for many teachers a new road to theoretic instruction in morality1 and at the same time re-enforce the study of literature in our schools4 ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris4 ,,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,july1 #ahib4 ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,the following lectures were delivered in the ,school of ,applied ,ethics during its first session in #ahia1 at ,plymouth1 ,mass4 ,a few of the lectures have been condensed1 in order to bring more clearly into view the logical scheme which underlies the plan of instruction here outlined4 ,the others are published substantially as delivered4 ,i am deeply conscious of the difficulties of the problem which ,i have ventured to approach1 and realize that any contribution toward its solution1 at the present time1 must be most imperfect4 ,i should1 for my part1 have preferred to wait longer before submitting my thought to teachers and parents4 ,but ,i have been persuaded that even in its present shape it may be of some use4 ,i earnestly hope that1 at all events1 it may serve to help on the rising tide of interest in moral education1 and may stimulate to further inquiry4 ,,felix ,,adler4 ,,contents4 ,,introductory ,,lectures4 ,,page ,i4 ,the ,problem of ,unsectarian ,moral ,instruction #c ,,ii4 ,the ,efficient ,motives of ,good ,conduct #ag ,,iii4 ,opportunities for ,moral ,training in the ,daily ,school #bg ,,iv4 ,the ,classification of ,duties #cg ,v4 ,the ,moral ,outfit of ,children on entering ,school #dg ,,primary ,,course4 ,,vi4 ,the ,use of ,fairy ,tales #fd ,,vii4 ,the ,use of ,fables #hj ,,viii4 ,supplementary ,remarks on ,fables #if ,,ix4 ,selected ,stories from the ,bible #ajf ,x4 ,the ,odyssey and the ,iliad #adf ,,grammar ,,course4 ,,lessons ,,on ,,duty4 ,,xi4 ,the ,duty of acquiring ,knowledge #afi ,,xii4 ,duties which relate to the ,physical ,life and the ,feelings #ahe ,,xiii4 ,duties which relate to ,others 7,filial and ,fraternal ,duties7 #bjb ,,xiv4 ,duties toward all ,men 7,justice and ,charity7 #bah ,,xv4 ,the ,elements of ,civic ,duty #bcf ,,xvi4 ,the ,use of ,proverbs and ,speeches #bde ,,xvii4 ,individualization of ,moral ,teaching #bdi ,,appendix4 ,the ,influence of ,manual ,training on ,character #beg ,,introductory ,,lectures4 ,i4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,unsectarian ,,moral ,,instruction4 ,it will be the aim of the present course of lectures to give in outline the subject-matter of moral instruction for children from six to fourteen or fifteen years of age1 and to discuss the methods according to which this kind of instruction should be imparted4 ,at the outset1 however1 we are confronted by what certainly is a grave difficulty1 and to many may appear an insuperable one4 ,the opinion is widely held that morality depends on religious sanctions1 and that right conduct can not be taught--especially not to children--except it be under the authority of some sort of religious belief4 ,to those who think in this way the very phrase1 unsectarian moral teaching1 is suspicious1 as savoring of infidelity4 ,and the attempt to mark off a neutral moral zone1 outside the domains of the churches1 is apt to be regarded as masking a covert design on religion itself4 ,the principle of unsectarian moral instruction1 however1 is neither irreligious nor anti-religious4 ,in fact--as will appear later on--it rests on purely educational grounds1 with which the religious bias of the educator has nothing whatever to do4 ,but there are also grounds of expediency which1 at least in the ,united ,states1 compel us1 whether we care to do so or not1 to face this problem of unsectarian moral education1 and to these let us first give our attention4 ,even if we were to admit1 for argument's sake1 the correctness of the proposition that moral truths can only be taught as corollaries of some form of religious belief1 the question would at once present itself to the educator1 ,to which form of religious belief shall he give the preference8 ,i am speaking now of the public schools of the ,united ,states4 ,these schools are supported out of the general fund of taxation to which all citizens are compelled to contribute4 ,clearly it would be an act of gross injustice to force a citizen belonging to one denomination to pay for instilling the doctrines of some other into the minds of the young--in other words1 to compel him to support and assist in spreading religious ideas in which he does not believe4 ,this would be an outrage on the freedom of conscience4 ,but the act of injustice would become simply monstrous if parents were to be compelled to help indoctrinate their own children with such religious opinions as are repugnant to them4 ,there is no state religion in the ,united ,states4 ,in the eyes of the state all shades of belief and disbelief are on a par4 ,there are in this country ,catholics1 ,episcopalians1 ,presbyterians1 ,methodists1 ,baptists1 ,jews1 etc4 ,they are alike citizens4 ,they contribute alike toward the maintenance of the public schools4 ,with what show of fairness1 then1 could the belief of any one of these sects be adopted by the state as a basis for the inculcation of moral truths8 ,the case seems1 on the face of it1 a hopeless one4 ,but the following devices have been suggested to remove1 or rather to circumvent1 the difficulty4 ,first ,device4--,let representatives of the various theistic churches1 including ,catholics1 ,protestants1 and ,jews1 meet in council4 ,let them eliminate all those points in respect to which they differ1 and formulate a common creed containing only those articles on which they can agree4 ,such a creed would include1 for instance1 the belief in the existence of ,deity1 in the immortality of the soul1 and in future reward and punishment4 ,upon this as a foundation let the edifice of moral instruction be erected4 ,there are1 however1 two obvious objections to this plan4 ,in the first place1 this ,dreibund of ,catholicism1 ,protestantism1 and ,judaism would leave out of account the party of the agnostics1 whose views may indeed be erroneous1 or even detestable1 but whose rights as citizens ought not the less on that account to be respected4 ,neminem laede1 hurt no one1 is a cardinal rule of justice1 and should be observed by the friends of religion in their dealings with their opponents as well as with one another4 ,the agnostic party has grown to quite considerable dimensions in the ,united ,states4 ,but1 if it had not1 if there were only a single person who held such opinions1 and he a citizen1 any attempt on the part of the majority to trample upon the rights of this one person would still be inexcusable4 ,in the sphere of political action the majority rules1 and must rule2 in matters that touch the conscience the smallest minority possesses rights on which even an overwhelming majority arrayed on the opposite side can not afford to trespass4 ,it is one of the most notable achievements of the ,american commonwealths that they have so distinctly separated between the domain of religion and of politics1 adopting in the one case the maxim of coercion by majority rule1 in the other allowing the full measure of individual liberty4 ,from this standpoint there should be no departure4 ,but the second objection is even more cogent4 ,it is proposed to eliminate the differences which separate the various sects1 and to formulate their points of agreement into a common creed4 ,but does it not occur to those who propose this plan that the very life of a religion is to be found precisely in those points in which it differs from its neighbors1 and that an abstract scheme of belief1 such as has been sketched1 would1 in truth1 satisfy no one8 ,thus1 out of respect for the sentiments of the ,jews1 it is proposed to omit the doctrines of the divinity of ,christ and of the atonement4 ,but would any earnest ,christian give his assent1 even provisionally1 to a creed from which those quintessential doctrines of ,christianity have been left out8 ,when the ,christian maintains that morality must be based on religion1 does he not mean1 above all1 on the belief in ,christ8 ,is it not indispensable1 from his point of view1 that the figure of the ,saviour shall stand in the foreground of moral inculcation and exhortation8 ,again1 when the ,catholic affirms that the moral teaching of the young must be based on religion1 is it to be supposed for an instant that he would accept as satisfying his conception of religion a skeleton creed like that above mentioned1 denuded of all those peculiar dogmas which make religion in his eyes beautiful and dear8 ,this first device1 therefore1 is to be rejected4 ,it is unjust to the agnostics1 and it will never content the really religious persons of any denomination4 ,it could prove acceptable only to theists pure and simple1 whose creed is practically limited to the three articles mentioned2 namely1 the belief in ,deity1 immortality1 and future punishment and reward4 ,but this class constitutes a small fraction of the community2 and it would be absurd1 under the specious plea of reconciling the various creeds1 in effect to impose the rationalistic opinions of a few on the whole community4 ,the second device seems to promise better results4 ,it provides that religious and moral instruction combined shall be given in the public schools under the auspices of the several denominations4 ,according to this plan1 the pupils are to be divided1 for purposes of moral instruction1 into separate classes1 according to their sectarian affiliations1 and are to be taught separately by their own clergymen or by teachers acting under instructions from the latter4 ,the high authority of ,germany is invoked in support of this plan4 ,if ,i am correctly informed1 the president of one of our leading universities has recently spoken in favor of it1 and it is likely that an attempt will be made to introduce it in the ,united ,states4 ,already in some of our reformatory schools and other public institutions separate religious services are held by the ministers of the various sects1 and we may expect that an analogous arrangement will be proposed with respect to moral teaching in the common schools4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to pay some attention to the ,german system1 and to explain the reasons which have induced or compelled the ,germans to adopt the compromise just described4 ,the chief points to be noted are these3 ,in ,germany1 church and state are united4 ,the ,king of ,prussia1 for instance1 is the head of the ,evangelical ,church4 ,this constitutes a vital difference between ,america and ,germany4 ,secondly1 in ,germany the schools existed before the state took charge of them4 ,the school system was founded by the ,church1 and the problem which confronted the ,government was how to convert church schools into state schools4 ,an attempt was made to do this by limiting the influence of the clergy1 which formerly had been all-powerful and all-pervasive1 to certain branches and certain hours of instruction1 thereby securing the supremacy of the state in respect to all other branches and at all other hours4 ,in ,america1 on the other hand1 the state founded the schools ab initio4 ,in ,germany the state has actually encroached upon the ,church1 has entered church schools and reconstructed them in its own interest4 ,to adopt the ,german system in ,america would be to permit the ,church to encroach upon the state1 to enter state schools and subordinate them to sectarian purposes4 ,the example of ,germany can not1 therefore1 be quoted as a precedent in point4 ,the system of compromise in ,germany marks an advance in the direction of increasing state influence4 ,its adoption in this country would mark a retrograde movement in the direction of increasing church influence4 ,nor can the system1 when considered on its own merits1 be called a happy one4 ,prof4 ,gneist1 in his valuable treatise1 ,die ,konfessionelle ,schule 7which may be read by those who desire to inform themselves on the historical evolution of the ,prussian system71 maintains that scientific instruction must be unsectarian1 while religious instruction must be sectarian4 ,i agree to both his propositions4 ,but to my mind it follows that1 if religious instruction must be sectarian1 it ought not to have a place in state schools1 at least not in a country in which the separation of church and state is complete4 ,moreover1 the limitation of religious teaching to a few hours a week can never satisfy the earnest sectarian4 ,if he wants religion in the schools at all1 then he will also want that specific kind of religious influence which he favors to permeate the whole school4 ,he will insist that history shall be taught from his point of view1 that the readers shall breathe the spirit of his faith1 that the science teaching shall be made to harmonize with its doctrines1 etc4 ,what a paltry concession1 indeed1 to open the door to the clergyman twice or three times a week1 and to permit him to teach the catechism to the pupils1 while the rest of the teaching is withdrawn from his control1 and is perhaps informed by a spirit alien to his6 ,this kind of compromise can never heartily be indorsed2 it may be accepted under pressure1 but submission to it will always be under protest4#a ,the third arrangement that has been suggested is that each sect shall build its own schools1 and draw upon the fund supplied by taxation proportionately to the number of children educated4 ,but to this there are again two great objections3 ,first1 it is the duty of the state to see to it that a high educational standard shall be maintained in the schools1 and that the money spent on them shall bear fruit in raising the general intelligence of the community4 ,but the experience of the past proves conclusively that in sectarian schools1 especially where there are no rival unsectarian institutions to force them into competition1 the preponderance of zeal and interest is so markedly on the side of religious teaching that the secular branches unavoidably suffer4#b ,if it is said that the state may prescribe rules and set up standards of its own1 to which the sectarian schools shall be held to conform1 we ask1 ,who is to secure such conformance8 ,the various sects1 once having gained possession of the public funds1 would resent the interference of the ,state4 ,the ,inspectors who might be appointed would never be allowed to exercise any real control1 and the rules which the ,state might prescribe would remain dead letter4 ,in the second place1 under such an arrangement1 the highest purpose for which the public schools exist would be defeated4 ,sectarian schools tend to separate the members of the various denominations from one another1 and to hinder the growth of that spirit of national unity which it is1 on the other hand1 the prime duty of the public school to create and foster4 ,the support of a system of public education out of the proceeds of taxation is justifiable in the last analysis as a measure dictated to the ,state by the law of self-preservation4 ,the ,state maintains public schools in order to preserve itself--i4 e41 its unity4 ,and this is especially true in a republic4 ,in a monarchy the strong arm of the reigning dynasty1 supported by a ruling class1 may perhaps suppress discord1 and hold the antagonistic elements among the people in subjection by sheer force4 ,in a republic only the spirit of unity among the people themselves can keep them a people4 ,and this spirit is fostered in public schools1 where children of all classes and sects are brought into daily1 friendly contact1 and where together they are indoctrinated into the history1 tradition1 and aspirations of the nation to which they belong4 ,what then8 ,we have seen that we can not encourage1 that we can not permit1 the establishment of sectarian schools at the public expense4 ,we have also seen that we can not teach religion in the public schools4 ,must we1 therefore1 abandon altogether the hope of teaching the elements of morals8 ,is not moral education conceded to be one of the most important1 if not the most important1 of all branches of education8 ,must we forego the splendid opportunities afforded by the daily schools for this purpose8 ,is there not a way of imparting moral instruction without giving just offense to any religious belief or any religious believer1 or doing violence to the rights of any sect or of any party whatsoever8 ,the correct answer to this question would be the solution of the problem of unsectarian moral education4 ,i can merely state my answer to-day1 in the hope that the entire course before us may substantiate it4 ,the answer1 as ,i conceive it1 is this3 ,it is the business of the moral instructor in the school to deliver to his pupils the subject-matter of morality1 but not to deal with the sanctions of it2 to give his pupils a clearer understanding of what is right and what is wrong1 but not to enter into the question why the right should be done and the wrong avoided4 ,for example1 let us suppose that the teacher is treating of veracity4 ,he says to the pupil1 ,thou shalt not lie4 ,he takes it for granted that the pupil feels the force of this commandment1 and acknowledges that he ought to yield obedience to it4 ,for my part1 ,i should suspect of quibbling and dishonest intention any boy or girl who would ask me1 ,why ought ,i not to lie8 ,i should hold up before such a child the ,ought in all its awful majesty4 ,the right to reason about these matters can not be conceded until after the mind has attained a certain maturity4 ,and as a matter of fact every good child agrees with the teacher unhesitatingly when he says1 ,it is wrong to lie4 ,there is an answering echo in its heart which confirms the teacher's words4 ,but what1 then1 is it my business as a moral teacher to do8 ,in the first place1 to deepen the impression of the wrongfulness of lying1 and the sacredness of truth1 by the spirit in which ,i approach the subject4 ,my first business is to convey the spirit of moral reverence to my pupils4 ,in the next place1 ,i ought to quicken the pupil's perceptions of what is right and wrong1 in the case supposed1 of what is truth and what is falsehood4 ,accordingly1 ,i should analyze the different species of lies1 with a view of putting the pupils on their guard against the spirit of falsehood1 however it may disguise itself4 ,i should try to make my pupils see that1 whenever they intentionally convey a false impression1 they are guilty of falsehood4 ,i should try to make their minds intelligent and their consciences sensitive in the matter of truth-telling1 so that they may avoid those numerous ambiguities of which children are so fond1 and which are practiced even by adults4 ,i should endeavor to tonic their moral nature with respect to truthfulness4 ,in the next place1 ,i should point out to them the most frequent motives which lead to lying1 so that1 by being warned against the causes1 they may the more readily escape the evil consequences4 ,for example1 cowardice is one cause of lying4 ,by making the pupil ashamed of cowardice1 we can often cure him of the tendency to falsehood4 ,a redundant imagination is another cause of lying1 envy is another cause1 selfishness in all its forms is a principal cause1 etc4 ,i should say to the moral teacher3 ,direct the pupil's attention to the various dangerous tendencies in his nature1 which tempt him into the ways of falsehood4 ,furthermore1 explain to your pupils the consequences of falsehood3 the loss of the confidence of our fellow-men1 which is the immediate and palpable result of being detected in a lie2 the injuries inflicted on others2 the loosening of the bonds of mutual trust in society at large2 the loss of self-respect on the part of the liar2 the fatal necessity of multiplying lies1 of inventing new falsehoods to make good the first1 etc4 ,a vast amount of good1 ,i am persuaded1 can be done in this way by stimulating the moral nature1 by enabling the scholar to detect the finer shades of right and wrong1 helping him to trace temptation to its source1 and erecting in his mind barriers against evil-doing1 founded on a realizing sense of its consequences4 ,in a similar if not exactly the same way1 all the other principal topics of practical morality can be handled4 ,the conscience can be enlightened1 strengthened1 guided1 and all this can be done without once raising the question why it is wrong to do what is forbidden4 ,that it is wrong should rather1 as ,i have said1 be assumed4 ,the ultimate grounds of moral obligation need never be discussed in school4 ,it is the business of religion and philosophy to propose theories1 or to formulate articles of belief with respect to the ultimate sources and sanctions of duty4 ,religion says we ought to do right because it is the will of ,god1 or for the love of ,christ4 ,philosophy says we should do right for utilitarian or transcendental reasons1 or in obedience to the law of evolution1 etc4 ,the moral teacher1 fortunately1 is not called upon to choose between these various metaphysical and theological asseverations4 ,as an individual he may subscribe to any one of them1 but as a teacher he is bound to remain within the safe limits of his own province4 ,he is not to explain why we should do the right1 but to make the young people who are intrusted to his charge see more clearly what is right1 and to instill into them his own love of and respect for the right4 ,there is a body of moral truth upon which all good men1 of whatever sect or opinion1 are agreed3 it is the business of the public schools to deliver to their pupils this common fund of moral truth4 ,but ,i must hasten to add1 to deliver it not in the style of the preacher1 but according to the methods of the pedagogue--i4 e41 in a systematic way1 the moral lessons being graded to suit the varying ages and capacities of the pupils1 and the illustrative material being sorted and arranged in like manner4 ,conceive the modern educational methods to have been applied to that stock of moral truths which all good men accept1 and you will have the material for the moral lessons which are needed in a public school4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,since the above was written1 the draft of the ,volksschulgesetz submitted to the ,prussian ,legislature1 and the excited debates to which it gave rise1 have supplied a striking confirmation of the views expressed in the text4 ,nothing could be more mistaken than to propose for imitation elsewhere the ,german solution of the problem of moral teaching in schools1 especially at a time when the ,germans themselves are taking great pains to make it clear that they are as far as possible from having found a solution4 #b ,during the reactionary period which followed the ,revolution of #ahdh1 the school regulations of ,kur-,hessen provided that twenty hours a week be devoted in the ,volkschulen to religious teaching4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,efficient ,,motives ,,of ,,good ,,conduct4 ,there are persons in whom moral principle seems to have completely triumphed2 whose conduct1 so far as one can judge1 is determined solely by moral rules2 but whom1 nevertheless1 we do not wholly admire4 ,we feel instinctively that there is in their virtue a certain flaw--the absence of a saving grace4 ,they are too rigorous1 too much the slaves of duty4 ,they lack geniality4 ,like religion1 morality has its fanatics4 ,thus1 there is in the temperance movement a class of fanatics who look at every public question from the point of view of temperance reform1 and from that only4 ,there are also woman's-rights fanatics1 social purity fanatics1 etc4 ,the moral fanatic in every case is a person whose attention is wholly engrossed by some one moral interest1 and who sees this out of its relation to other moral interests4 ,the end he has in view may be in itself highly laudable1 but the exaggerated emphasis put upon it1 the one-sided pursuit of it1 is a mischievous error4 ,observe1 further1 that there are degrees of moral fanaticism4 ,the fanatic of the first degree1 to whom ,emerson addresses the words1 ,what right have you1 sir1 to your one virtue8 has just been described4 ,he is a person who exalts some one moral rule at the expense of the others4 ,a fanatic of a higher order is he who exalts the whole body of moral rules at the expense of human instincts and desires4 ,he is a person who always acts according to rule2 who introduces moral considerations into every detail of life2 who rides the moral hobby2 in whose eyes the infinite complexity of human affairs has only one aspect1 namely1 the moral2 who is never satisfied unless at every step he feels the strain of the bridle of conscience2 who is incapable of spontaneous action and of naive enjoyment4 ,it is believed that there are not a few persons of this description in the ,united ,states1 and especially in the ,new ,england ,states--fanatics on the moral side1 examples of a one-sided development in the direction of moral formalism4 ,we must be very careful1 when insisting on the authority of moral ideas1 lest we encourage in the young a tendency of this sort4 ,the hearts of children are very pliable2 it is easily possible to produce on them too deep an impression3 to give them at the outset a fatal twist1 all the more since at a certain age many young people are prone to exaggerated introspection and self-questioning4 ,but it may be asked3 ,are not moral principles really clothed with supreme authority8 ,ought we not1 indeed1 to keep the standard of righteousness constantly before our eyes2 in brief1 is it possible to be too moral8 ,evidently we have reached a point where a distinction requires to be drawn4 ,ethics is a science of relations4 ,the things related are human interests1 human ends4 ,the ideal which ethics proposes to itself is the unity of ends1 just as the ideal of science is the unity of causes4 ,the ends of the natural man are the subject-matter with which ethics deals4 ,the ends of the natural man are not to be crushed or wiped out1 but to be brought into right relations with one another4 ,the ends of the natural man are to be respected from an ethical point of view1 so long as they remain within their proper limits4 ,the moral laws are formulas expressing relations of equality or subordination1 or superordination4 ,the moral virtue of our acts consists in the respect which we pay to the system of relationships thus prescribed1 in the willingness with which we co-ordinate our interests with those of others1 or subordinate them to those of others1 as the exigencies of the moral situation may require4 ,but the point on which it is now necessary to fix our attention is that when morality has once sanctioned any of the ends of life1 the natural man may be left to pursue them without interference on the part of the moralist4 ,when morality has marked out the boundaries within which the given end shall be pursued1 its work so far is done2 except1 indeed1 that we are always to keep an eye upon those boundaries1 and that the sense of their existence should pervade the whole atmosphere of our lives4#c ,a few illustrations will make my meaning clear4 ,there is a moral rule which says that we should eat to live2 not1 conversely1 live to eat4 ,this means that we should regulate our food in such a way that the body may become a fit instrument for the higher purposes of existence1 and that the time and attention bestowed upon the matter of eating shall not be so great as to divert us from other and more necessary objects4 ,but1 these limits being established1 it does not follow that it is wrong or unspiritual to enjoy a meal4 ,the senses1 even the lowest of them1 are permitted to have free play within the bounds prescribed4 ,nor1 again1 should we try rigidly to determine the choice of food according to moral considerations4 ,it would be ridiculous to attempt to do so4 ,the choice of food within a wide range depends entirely on taste1 and has nothing to do with moral considerations 7whether1 for instance1 we should have squash or beans for dinner74 ,those who are deeply impressed with the importance of moral rules are often betrayed into applying them to the veriest minutiae of conduct4 ,did they remember that ethics is a science of relations1 or1 what amounts to the same thing1 a science of limits1 they would be saved such pedantry4 ,undoubtedly there are moral adiaphora4 ,the fact that such exist has been a stumbling-block in the way of those who believe that morality ought to cover the whole of conduct4 ,the definition of ethics as a science of relations or limits removes this stumbling-block4 ,ethics stands at the frontier4 ,with what goes on in the interior it does not interfere1 except in so far as the limitations it prescribes are an interference4 ,take another illustration4 ,ethics condemns vanity and whatever ministers to vanity--as1 e4 g41 undue attention to dress and adornment of the person--on the ground that this implies an immoral subordination of the inner to the outer1 of the higher to the lesser ends4 ,but1 to lay down a cast-iron rule as to how much one has a right to expend on dress1 can not be the office of ethics1 on account of the infinite variety of conditions and occupations which subsists among men4 ,and the attempt to prescribe a single fashion of dress1 by sumptuary laws or otherwise1 would impair that freedom of taste which it is the business of the moralist to respect4 ,again1 every one knows with what bitterness the moral rigorists of all ages have condemned the impulse which attracts the sexes toward one another1 and how often they have tried1 though vainly1 to crush it4 ,but here1 again1 the true attitude is indicated by the definition of ethics as a science of limits4 ,the moral law prescribes bounds within which this emotional force shall be free to operate1 and claims for it the holy name of love1 so long as it remains within the bounds prescribed1 and1 being within1 remains conscious of them4 ,that is what is meant when we speak of spiritualizing the feelings4 ,the feelings are spiritualized when they move within certain limits1 and when the sense of the existence of these limits penetrates them1 and thereby imparts to them a new and nobler quality4 ,and1 because such limitation is felt to be satisfying and elevating1 the system of correlations which we call ethical1 and which1 abstractly stated1 would fail to interest1 does by this means find an entrance into the human heart1 and awakens in it the sense of the sublimity and the blessedness of the moral commands4 ,there are two defects of the moral fanatic which can now be signalized3 ,first1 he wrongly believes that whatever is not of morality is against it4 ,he therefore is tempted to frown upon the natural pleasures2 to banish them if he can1 and1 if not1 to admit them only within the narrowest possible limits as a reluctant concession to the weakness of human nature4 ,in consequence1 the moral fanatic commits the enormity of introducing the taint of the sense of sin into the most innocent enjoyments1 and thus perverts and distorts the conscience4 ,secondly1 he is always inclined to seek a moral reason for that which has only a natural one2 to forget that1 like the great conquerors of antiquity1 ,morality respects the laws of the several realms which it unites into a single empire1 and guarantees to each the unimpaired maintenance of its local customs4 ,these remarks are intended to serve as a general caution4 ,i find that young people1 when they have become awakened on ethical subjects1 often betray a tendency toward moral asceticism4 ,i find that teachers1 in the earnest desire to impress the laws of the moral empire1 are sometimes betrayed into disregarding the provincial laws of the senses1 the intellect1 and the feelings2 are apt to go too far in applying moral prescriptions to the minutiae of conduct2 are apt to leave the impression that pleasant things1 just because they are pleasant1 are therefore sinful4 ,but we have now to take a further step1 which will bring us close to our special subject for to-day1 viz41 the efficient motives of good conduct4 ,the non-moral faculties are not only not anti-moral1 as has been shown1 but1 when appealed to in the right way1 they lend to ,morality a friendly1 an almost indispensable support4 ,the aesthetic1 the intellectual1 and the emotional faculty have not in themselves a moral quality1 but when used as auxiliaries they pave the way for moral considerations pure and simple1 and have in this sense an immense propaedeutic value4 ,without entering in this place into the philosophy of aesthetics1 it is enough to say that the beautiful1 like the good1 results from and depends on the observance of certain limits and certain relations4 ,and it will not seem far-fetched to suggest that pupils who have been trained to appreciate moderation1 restraint and harmony of relations in external objects1 will be predisposed to apply analogous measures to matters of conduct1 and that a standard of valuation will thus be created in their minds which must prove favorable to right action4 ,a,esthetics may become a pedagogue unto ethics4 ,the same pedagogical function may be claimed for the intellect4 ,the intellect traces the connection between causes and effects4 ,applied to conduct1 it shows the connection between acts and their consequences4 ,it is the faculty which counsels prudence4 ,one does not need to accept the egoistic theory of morals to concede that self-interest is an ally of morality1 that ,prudence and ,virtue travel hand in hand a certain distance on the same road4 ,not1 indeed1 until the ideal state shall have been reached will the dictates of the two ever coincide entirely2 but to a certain extent the coincidence already exists1 and the moral teacher is justified in availing himself of it as far as it goes4 ,to take a very simple case--a child handles a knife which it has been told not to touch1 and cuts his fingers4 ,morally speaking1 his fault is disobedience4 ,he would have been equally guilty if he had escaped injury4 ,but he would hardly be so ready to obey another time1 if he had been less sharply reminded of the usefulness of obedience4 ,it is wrong to lie--wrong on purely moral grounds1 with which self-interest has nothing to do4 ,but for all that we can not dispense with the lesson contained in the well-known fable of the boy who cried1 ,wolf6 ,it is wrong to steal on purely moral grounds4 ,but even a child can be made to understand that the thief1 as ,emerson puts it1 steals from himself1 and that1 besides being a rogue1 he is deficient in enlightened self-interest4 ,the maxim that honesty is the best policy is true enough so far as the facts are concerned1 which come under the observation of children1 though one may question whether it be true absolutely4 ,lastly1 when we come to consider the emotional faculty1 we find that the intimate connection between it and the moral is so generally conceded as to make it quite superfluous to expatiate on it4 ,on the contrary1 it seems necessary to expostulate with those who claim too much credit for the feelings1 who ascribe to them a moral value which they by no means possess4 ,thus1 gentleness is not necessarily a virtue2 it may be a mere matter of temperament4 ,sympathetic impulses1 per se1 are not praiseworthy4 ,sympathy quite as often leads us astray as aright2 sympathy1 indeed1 unless tutored and regulated by moral principles1 is a danger against which we ought to be on our guard almost as much as against selfishness4 ,yet1 no one will deny that the feelings1 when rightly trained1 are of inestimable service as auxiliaries in the task of moral education4 ,to sum up1 let me say that the wise teacher will appeal to the taste1 the intelligence1 and the feelings of his pupils2 that he will touch these various springs of conduct all the time1 and get from them all the help he can4 ,thus1 when speaking of cleanliness1 he will appeal to the aesthetic instinct of the children1 awakening in them a feeling of disgust at untidiness4 ,he will appeal to the prudential motive1 by showing that want of cleanliness breeds disease4 ,you do not wish to be sick8 ,you do not wish to suffer8 ,therefore1 it is to your interest to be clean4 ,but1 finally1 he will touch a higher motive than any of these4 ,if you are unclean1 you cease to respect yourself4 ,and the term self-respect expresses in a condensed form the moral motive proper4 ,it implies the idea of moral personality1 which it is not necessary1 nor possible1 at this stage to analyze1 but which the pupil will somehow understand1 for his conscience will respond4 ,in many cases the appeal will be made chiefly to the sympathetic feelings2 for through these feelings we become aware of the pains and joys of others1 and thus of the consequences of the benefits we confer or the evil we inflict4 ,the sympathetic feelings supply the information upon which the will can act4 ,they tell us that others suffer or are glad4 ,and yet the strength to labor persistently for the relief of others' suffering and the enhancement of others' joy--that we can derive from the moral impulse alone4 ,the moral motive is the highest1 it is really the only sufficient motive4 ,pray1 understand me well at this point4 ,i should say to the child3 ,it is wrong to lie4 ,that is sufficient4 ,it is wrong1 it is forbidden2 you must yourself acknowledge the truth of my words1 because you despise yourself when you have told a lie4 ,but1 in order to strengthen your weak resolution1 to confirm you in well-doing1 let me show you that it is also contrary to self-interest to lie1 and likewise that it is disgusting to be unclean1 and that a wrong done to another causes pain4 ,thus the aesthetic1 intellectual1 and emotional faculties are called in as witnesses to bear testimony to the moral truths2 they are invited to stand up in chorus and say ,amen6 to the moral commands4 ,,footnote3 #c ,it must be remembered also that our knowledge of the right ethical relations is still extremely imperfect1 and that the duty of extending the knowledge and promoting the recognition of them is perhaps the highest of all--to which1 on occasion1 every lesser end must be sacrificed4 ,,iii4 ,,opportunities ,,for ,,moral ,,training ,,in ,,the ,,daily ,,school4 ,the school should be to the pupil not an intellectual drill-ground1 but a second home2 a place dear at the time1 and to be gratefully remembered ever after2 a place in which his whole nature1 and especially what is best in him1 may expand and grow4 ,the educational aim should be1 not merely to pave the pupil's way to future success1 not merely to make of his mind a perfect instrument of thought1 a kind of intellectual loom1 capable of turning out the most complicated intellectual patterns4 ,the aim should be1 above all2 to build up manhood1 to develop character4 ,there is no school in which moral influence is wanting4 ,the pity is1 that in many schools it is incidental1 not purposed4 ,and yet there are manifold opportunities in every school for influencing the moral life4 ,let us consider a few of these4 #a4 ,the teaching of science lends itself to the cultivation of truthfulness4 ,truthfulness may be defined as the correspondence between thought and word and fact4 ,when the thought in the mind fits the fact1 and the word on the tongue fits the thought1 then the circuit of truth is complete4 ,now1 with respect to the inculcating of truthfulness1 science teaching has this advantage above other branches1 that the palpable nature of the facts dealt with makes it possible to note and check the least deviation from the truth4 ,the fact is present1 right before the pupil1 to rebuke him if he strays from it in thought or speech4 ,and this circumstance may be utilized even in the humble beginnings of science teaching1 in the so-called object-lessons4 ,for instance1 a bird1 or the picture of one1 is placed before the child4 ,the teacher says1 ,observe closely and tell me exactly what you see--the length of the neck1 the curve of the beak1 the colors of the plumage1 etc4 ,the pupil replies4 ,the teacher objects3 ,you have not observed accurately4 ,the color is not what you describe it to be4 ,look again4 ,the curve of the beak does not resemble what you have just drawn on the blackboard4 ,you must tell me exactly what you see4 ,your words must tally with the facts4 ,and the same sort of practice may be continued in the science-lessons of the upper classes4 ,scientists are distinguished from other observers by their greater accuracy4 ,intellectual honesty is that moral quality which science is best calculated to foster4 ,all the great scientists have been haunted by a high ideal of truth1 and a gleam of that ideal1 however faint1 may be made to shed its light even into the school-room4 ,it is obvious that this realistic tutoring into veracity will be of special use to children who are led into lying by a too vivid imagination4 ,let me add the following remarks in regard to indirect means of promoting truthfulness3 ,the teacher can do a great deal to cultivate respect for the truth among his pupils by frankly admitting an error whenever he has fallen into one4 ,some teachers try to save their dignity by glossing over their mistakes4 ,but even young children are shrewd enough to estimate such trickery at its worth2 while he who manfully confesses that he has been in the wrong1 earns the respect of his class1 and sets them an invaluable example4 ,it is well also to observe strict accuracy even in matters which of themselves are of no moment4 ,for instance1 in giving an account of a botanizing expedition1 you begin1 perhaps1 by saying1 ,it was half-past ten when we arrived at our destination4 ,suddenly you stop and correct yourself4 ,no1 ,i was mistaken2 it could not have been later than ten o'clock4 ,does this strike you as pedantic8 ,but if you fix the time at all1 is it not worth while to fix it with approximate exactness8 ,true1 it makes no difference in regard to what you are about to relate1 whether you arrived at half-past ten or at ten4 ,but1 precisely because it makes no difference1 it shows the value which you set on accuracy even in trifles4 ,and by such little turns of phrase1 by such insubstantial influences1 coming from the teacher1 the pupil's character is molded4 #b4 ,the study of history1 when properly conducted is of high moral value4 ,history sets before the mind examples of heroism1 of self-sacrifice1 of love of country1 of devotion to principles at the greatest cost4 ,how can such examples fail to inspire1 to ennoble1 to awaken emulation8 ,the great and good men of the past1 the virtuous and the wise1 serve as models to the young1 and often arouse in them an enthusiastic admiration1 a passionate discipleship4 ,in the next place1 the study of history may be used to exercise the moral judgment4 ,the characters which history presents are not all good2 the characters even of the good are by no means faultless4 ,it is in the power of the teacher to train the moral judgment and to increase the moral insight of his pupils by leading them to enter into the motives1 and to weigh the right and wrong of the actions which history reports4 ,he will also find many an occasion to warn against being dazzled by brilliant success to such a degree as to condone the moral turpitude by which it is often bought4 ,the study of history can thus be made the means of enlightening the conscience as well as of awakening generous aspirations--but1 let me hasten to add1 only in the hands of a teacher who is himself morally mature1 and fully imbued with the responsibilities of his task4 ,lastly1 the study of history among advanced pupils may be used to confirm the moral idea of the mission of mankind1 and to set it in its true light4 ,the human race1 as1 from the moral point of view1 we are bound to assume1 exists on earth in order to attempt the solution of a sublime problem--the problem of the perfect civilization1 the just society1 the kingdom of ,god4 ,but on every page of history there are facts that warn us that progress toward this high ideal is of necessity slow4 ,whether we review the evolution of religion1 or of political institutions1 or of industrial society1 we are still forced to the same solemn conclusion1 that in view of the ultimate goal1 a thousand years are as a day1 and that while we may not relax our efforts to attain the ideal1 we must be well content in case we are permitted to advance the mighty work even a little4 ,this conviction is calculated to engender in us a new spirit of piety and self-abnegation1 which yet is consistent with perfect alacrity in discharging the duty of the hour4 ,there could be no better result from the study of history among young men and young women than if it should have the effect of impressing on them this new piety1 this genuine historic sense1 in which the average citizen1 especially of democratic communities1 is so conspicuously deficient4 ,but this is a digression which ,i must ask you to pardon4 #c4 ,the moral value of the study of literature is as great as it is obvious4 ,literature is the medium through which all that part of our inner life finds expression which defies scientific formulation4 ,in the text-books of science we possess the net result of the purely intellectual labors of the past2 in universal literature we have composite photographs1 as it were1 of the typical hopes1 sentiments1 and aspirations of the race4 ,literature gives a voice to that within us which would otherwise remain dumb1 and fixity to that which would otherwise be evanescent4 ,the best literature1 and especially the best poetry1 is a glass in which we see our best selves reflected4 ,there is a legend which tells of two spirits1 the one an angel1 the other a demon1 that accompany every human being through life1 and walk invisibly at his side4 ,the one represents our bad self1 the other our better self4 ,the moral service which the best literature renders us is to make the invisible angel visible4 #d4 ,i can but cast a cursory glance at some of the remaining branches of instruction4 ,manual training has a moral effect upon the pupil1 of which ,i have spoken at some length on another occasion4#d ,music1 apart from its subtler influences1 which can not be considered here1 has the special function of producing in the pupil a feeling of oneness with others1 or of social unity4 ,this is best accomplished through the instrumentality of chorus singing1 while particular moral sentiments1 like charity1 love of home1 etc41 can be inculcated by means of the texts4 ,gymnastic exercises likewise have a moral effect in promoting habits of self-control1 prompt obedience at the word of command1 etc4 ,indeed1 it is not difficult to show the moral bearings of the ordinary branches of instruction4 ,it would1 on the contrary1 be difficult to find a single one1 which1 when rightly viewed1 is not surrounded by a moral photosphere4 ,science1 history1 literature1 and the other branches lend themselves in various ways to the development of character4 ,but there are certain other opportunities which every school offers1 apart from the teaching1 and these may be utilized to the same end4 ,the discipline of the school1 above all1 has an immense effect on the character4 ,if it is of the right kind1 a beneficial effect2 if not1 a most pernicious one4 ,the mere working of what may be called the school machinery tends to inculcate habits of order1 punctuality1 and the like4 ,the aggregation of a large number of scholars in the same building and their intercourse with one another under the eye of the teachers1 afford frequent opportunities for impressing lessons of kindness1 politeness1 mutual helpfulness1 etc4 ,the recitations of lessons give occasion not only to suppress prompting1 but to eradicate the motives which lead to it1 and to impress deeply the duty of honesty4 ,the very atmosphere of the class-room should be such as to encourage moral refinement2 it should possess a sunny climate1 so to speak1 in which meanness and vulgarity can not live4 ,but there is especially one avenue of influence1 which ,i have much at heart to recommend4 ,the teacher should join in the games of his pupils4 ,he will thus at once come to stand on a friendly footing with them1 and win their confidence1 without in the least derogating from his proper dignity4 ,and thus will be removed that barrier which in many schools separates pupils and teachers to such a degree that there actually seem to exist side by side two worlds--the world to which the teacher has access1 and the world from which he is shut out4 ,moreover1 while they are at play1 the true character of the pupils reveals itself4 ,at such times the sneak1 the cheat1 the bully1 the liar1 shows his true colors1 and the teacher has the best opportunity of studying these pathological subjects and of curing their moral defects4 ,for1 while playing with them1 as one concerned in the game1 he has the right to insist on fair dealing1 to express his disgust at cowardice1 to take the part of the weak against the strong1 and his words spoken on the playground will have tenfold the effect of any hortatory address which he might deliver from the platform4 ,the greatest and most successful of teachers have not disdained to use this device4 ,finally1 let me say that the personality of the master or principal of the school is the chief factor of moral influence in it4 ,put a great1 sound1 whole-souled nature at the head of a school1 and everything else may almost be taken for granted4 ,in every school there exists a public opinion among the scholars1 by which they are affected to a far greater degree than by the words of their superiors4 ,the tactful master will direct his chief attention to shaping and improving this public opinion1 while at the same time interfering as little as possible with the freedom of his pupils4 ,he can accomplish his purpose by drawing close to himself those scholars who make the public opinion of the school1 and these in turn he can win to fine and manly views only by the effect of his personality4 ,the personality of the head-master is everything4 ,it is the ultimate source of power in the school1 the central organ which sends out its life-giving currents through the whole organism4 ,and let me here add that1 if ,i am in favor of excluding direct religious teaching from our schools1 ,i am not in favor of excluding religious influence4 ,that1 too1 flows from the personality of the true master4 ,for if he be reverent1 a truly pious soul1 humble in his estimate of self1 not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account1 but using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends1 he will be sure to communicate of his spirit to his pupils1 and by that spirit will open their hearts1 better than by any doctrinal teaching he could give1 to the reception of the highest spiritual truths4 ,by all these means--by the culture of the intellect1 the taste1 and the feelings1 by his daily dealings with the young1 in work and play--the teacher helps to create in them certain moral habits4 ,why1 then1 should not these habits suffice8 ,what need is there of specific moral instruction8 ,and what is the relation of moral instruction to the habits thus engendered8 ,the function of moral instruction is to clinch the habits4 ,the function of moral instruction is to explicate in clear statements1 fit to be grasped by the intellect1 the laws of duty which underlie the habits4 ,the value of such intellectual statements is that they give a rational underpinning to moral practice1 and1 furthermore1 that they permit the moral rules to be applied to new cases not heretofore brought within the scope of habit4 ,this thought will be more fully developed and explained as we proceed4 ,,footnote3 #d ,in the address on the subject1 reprinted in the ,appendix4 ,,iv4 ,,classification ,,of ,,duties4 ,the topics of which moral instruction treats are the duties of life4 ,to teach the duties1 however1 we must adopt some system of classification4 ,to which system shall we give the preference8 ,the difficulty which we encountered at the outset seems to meet us here in a new guise4 ,for most if not all of the systems of classification commonly proposed are based upon some metaphysical theory or some theological doctrine4 ,to adopt any one of these would be tantamount to adopting the theory or theology on which it is founded2 would be equivalent to introducing surreptitiously a particular philosophy or creed into the minds of the pupils2 and this would be a plain departure from the unsectarian principle to which we are pledged4 ,thus1 ,plato's fourfold division of the virtues into the so-called cardinal virtues of temperance1 courage1 justice1 wisdom1 is based on his psychology4 ,aristotle's division of the virtues into dianoetic and what he calls ethical virtues is clearly dependent on what may be termed ,aristotle's intellectualism--i4 e41 the supreme importance which he assigns to the functions of the intellect1 or ,greek3 nous1 in the attainment of the perfect life4 ,kant's division of duties into complete and incomplete is an outgrowth of the ideas developed in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason2 the philosopher ,herbart's fivefold classification reflects his metaphysical theory of reality2 while the systems of ethical classification which are to be found in theological handbooks betray still more clearly the bias of their authors4 ,we can1 ,i think1 find a simple way out of this difficulty by proceeding in the following manner3 ,let us take for our guidance the objects to which duty relates1 and disregard the sources from which it flows4 ,it is conceded on all hands that every one is to himself an object of duty1 that he has certain duties to perform with respect to himself1 as1 for instance1 the duty of intellectual development2 furthermore1 that every person owes certain duties to his fellow-men generally1 in virtue of the fact that they are human beings2 again1 that there are special duties which we owe to particular persons1 such as parents1 brothers1 and sisters2 finally1 that there are certain duties1 into which1 so to speak1 we are born1 like the ones last mentioned1 and others which we can freely assume or not1 like the conjugal duties1 but which1 once assumed1 become as binding as the former4 ,thus the very structure of human society suggests a scheme of classification4 ,and this scheme has the advantage of being a purely objective one4 ,it keeps close to the facts1 it is in harmony with the unsectarian principle1 and it is perfectly fair4 ,it leaves the problem of first principles entirely untouched4 ,that we have such duties to perform with respect to self and others1 no one questions4 ,let philosophers differ as to the ultimate motives of duty4 ,let them reduce the facts of conscience to any set of first principles which may suit them4 ,it is our part as instructors to interpret the facts of conscience1 not to seek for them an ultimate explanation4 ,let me briefly indicate how the different duties may be made to fall into line according to the plan of classification which has just been suggested4 ,the whole field of duty may be divided into three main provinces3#e those duties which relate to ourselves1 those which we owe to all men1 and those which arise in the special relations of the family1 the state1 etc43 ,i4 ,the ,self-regarding ,duties4 ,these may again be subdivided into duties relating to our physical nature1 to the intellect1 and to the feelings4 ,under the head of physical duties belong the prohibition of suicide1 and the duties of physical culture1 temperance1 and chastity4 ,intellectual ,duties4--,under this head may be ranged the duty of acquiring knowledge and the subsidiary duties of order1 diligence1 perseverance in study2 while1 for those who are beyond the school age1 special stress should be laid on the duty of mental genuineness4 ,this may be expressed in the words3 ,to thine own mental self be true4 ,study thine own mental bent4 ,try to discover in what direction thy proper talent lies1 and make the most of it4 ,work thine own mine3 if it be a gold-mine1 bring forth gold2 if it be a silver-mine1 bring forth silver2 if it be an iron-mine1 bring forth iron4 ,endeavor to master some one branch of knowledge thoroughly well4 ,it is for thee the key which opens the gates of all knowledge4 ,the need of general culture is felt by all1 but the concentration of intellectual efforts on special studies is not inconsistent with it4 ,on the contrary1 special studies alone enable us to gain a foothold in the realm of knowledge4 ,a branch of knowledge which we have mastered1 however small1 may be compared to a strong fortress in an enemy's country1 from which we can sally forth at will to conquer the surrounding territory4 ,knowledge may also be likened to a sphere4 ,from every point of the circumference we can1 by persistent labor1 dig down to the center4 ,he who has reached the center commands the sphere4 ,duties which relate to the ,feelings4--,the principal duty under this head may be expressed in the twofold command--control and purify thy feelings6 ,the feelings which need to be repressed are anger1 fear1 self-complacency4 ,let the teacher1 when he reaches this point1 dwell upon the causes and the consequences of anger4 ,let him speak of certain helps which have been found useful for the suppression of angry passion4 ,let him distinguish anger from moral indignation4 ,in dealing with fear let him pursue the same method4 ,let him distinguish physical from moral cowardice1 brute courage from moral courage1 courage from fortitude4 ,in dealing with self-complacency let him discriminate between vanity and pride1 between pride and dignity4 ,let him show that humility and dignity are consistent with one another1 yes1 that they are complementary aspects of one and the same moral quality4 ,not the least advantage to be reaped from lessons on duty is the fixing in the pupil's mind of the moral vocabulary4 ,the moral terms as a rule are loosely used1 and this can not but lead to confusion in their application4 ,precise definitions1 based on thorough discussion1 are an excellent means of moral training4#f ,,ii4 ,the duties which we owe to all men are ,justice and ,charity3 ,be just is equivalent to--,do not hinder the development of any of thy fellow-men4 ,be charitable is equivalent to--,assist the development of thy fellow-men4 ,under the head of charity the teacher will have occasion to speak not only of almsgiving1 the visitation of the sick1 and the like1 but of the thousand charities of the fireside1 of the charity of bright looks1 of what may be called intellectual charity1 which consists in opening the eyes of the mentally blind1 and of the noblest charity of all1 which consists in coming to the aid of those who are deep in the slough of moral despond1 in raising the sinful and fallen4 ,,iii4 ,special social duties3 ,under this head belong the duties which arise in the family3 the conjugal1 the parental1 the filial1 the fraternal duties4 ,under the head of duties peculiar to the various avocations should be discussed the ethics of the professions1 the ethics of the relations between employers and laborers1 etc4 ,the consideration of the duties of the citizen opens up the whole territory of political ethics4 ,lastly1 the purely elective relationships of friendship and religious fellowship give rise to certain fine and lofty ethical conceptions1 the discussion of which may fitly crown the whole course4 ,i have thus mentioned some of the main topics of practical ethics1 from which we are to make our selection for the moral lessons4 ,but a selective principle is needed4 ,the field being spread out before us1 the question arises1 ,at what point shall we enter it8 ,what topics shall we single out8 ,it would be manifestly absurd1 for instance1 to treat of international ethics1 or of conjugal ethics1 in a course intended for children4 ,but especially the order in which the different topics are to follow each other needs to be determined4 ,the order followed in the above sketch is a purely logical one1 and the logical arrangement of a subject1 as every educator knows1 is not usually the one most suitable for bringing it within reach of the understanding of children4 ,it would not be in the present instance4 ,clearly a selective principle is wanted4 ,let me here interrupt myself for a moment to say that the problem which we are attacking1 so far from being solved1 has heretofore hardly even been stated4 ,and this is due to the fact that moral instruction has been thus far almost entirely in the hands of persons whose chief interest was religious1 and who1 whatever their good intentions might be1 were hardly qualified to look at the subject from the educator's point of view4 ,the work of breaking ground in the matter of moral instruction has still to be done4 ,as to the selective principle which ,i have in view ,i feel a certain confidence in its correctness2 but ,i am aware that the applications of it will doubtless require manifold amendment and correction1 for which purpose ,i invoke the experience and honest criticism of my fellow-teachers4 ,this being understood1 ,i venture to ask your attention to the following considerations3 ,the life of every human being naturally divides itself into distinct periods--infancy1 childhood1 youth1 etc4 ,each period has a set of interests and of corresponding duties peculiar to itself4 ,the moral teaching should be graded according to periods4 ,the teaching appropriate to any period is that which bears upon the special duties of that period4 ,to illustrate1 the ethics of childhood may be summarized as follows3 ,the personal duties of a child are chiefly the observance of a few simple rules of health and the curbing of its temper4 ,it owes social duties to parents1 brothers and sisters1 and kinsfolk1 to its playmates1 and to servants4 ,the child is not yet a citizen1 and the ethics of politics1 therefore1 lie far beyond its horizon2 it does not yet require to be taught professional ethics1 and does not need to learn even the elements of intellectual duty1 because its energies are still absorbed in physical growth and play4 ,the duties of childhood can be readily stated4 ,the peculiar duties of the subsequent stages of development1 for instance1 of middle life and old age1 are complex1 and not so easy to define4 ,but ,i believe that the attempt to describe them will throw light on many recondite problems in ethics4 ,my first point therefore is1 that the moral teaching at a given period should be made to fit the special duties of that period4 ,secondly--and this touches the core of the matter--in every period of life there is some one predominant duty around which all the others may be grouped1 to which as a center they may be referred4 ,thus1 the paramount duty of the young child is to reverence and obey its parents4 ,the relation of dependence in which it stands naturally prescribes this duty1 and all its other duties can be deduced from and fortified by this one4 ,the correctness of its personal habits and of its behavior toward others depends primarily on its obedience to the parental commands4 ,the child resists the temptation to do what is wrong1 chiefly because it respects the authority and desires to win the approbation of father and mother4 ,secondary motives are not wanting1 but reverence for parents is the principal one4 ,thirdly1 in each new period there emerges a new paramount ethical interest1 a new center of duties4 ,but with the new system of duties thus created the previous ethical systems are to be brought into line1 into harmonious correlation4 ,and this will be all the more feasible1 because the faithful performance of the duties of any one period is the best preparation for the true understanding and fulfillment of those of the next4 ,from these statements the following conclusions may be drawn with respect to the question under discussion--namely1 the proper sequence of the topics of duty in a course of moral lessons4 ,the moral lessons being given in school1 must cover the duties which are peculiar to the school age4 ,the paramount duty should be placed in the foreground4 ,now the paramount duty of children between six and fourteen years of age is to acquire knowledge4 ,hence we begin the lessons with the subject of intellectual duty4 ,in the next place1 the duties learned in the previous periods are to be brought into line with the duties of the school age4 ,at each new step on the road of ethical progress the moral ideas already acquired are to be reviewed1 confirmed1 and to receive a higher interpretation4 ,we have already seen that1 before the child enters school1 its personal duties are such as relate to the physical life and the feelings1 and its chief social duties are the filial and fraternal4 ,therefore1 the order of topics for the lessons thus far stands3 ,the duty of acquiring knowledge2 the duties which relate to the physical life2 the duties which relate to the feelings2 the filial duties2 the fraternal duties4 ,again1 a child that has learned to respect the rights of its brothers and sisters1 and to be lovingly helpful to them1 will in school take the right attitude toward its companions4 ,the fraternal duties are typical of the duties which we owe to all our companions1 and1 indeed1 to all human beings4 ,the next topic of the lessons1 therefore1 will be the duties which we owe to all human beings4 ,finally1 life in school prepares for life in society and in the state1 and so this course of elementary moral lesson will properly close with ,the elements of civic duty4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,it may be urged by some that duties toward ,god ought to be included in such a scheme of moral lessons as we are proposing4 ,i should say1 however1 that the discussion of these duties belongs to the ,sunday-schools1 the existence of which alongside the daily schools is presupposed throughout the present course of lectures4 #f ,the duties which relate to the moral nature1 as a whole1 such for instance as the duty of self-scrutiny1 may be considered either at the end of the chapter on self-regarding duties1 or at the close of the whole course4 ,v4 ,,the ,,moral ,,outfit ,,of ,,children ,,on ,,entering ,,school4 ,it is difficult to trace the beginnings of the moral life in children4 ,the traveler who attempts to follow some great river to its source generally finds himself confused by the number of ponds and springs which are pointed out to him with the assurance in the case of each that this and no other is the real source4 ,in truth1 the river is fed not from one source but from many1 and does not attain its unity and individuality until it has flowed for some distance on its way4 ,in like manner1 the moral life is fed by many springs1 and does not assume its distinctive character until after several years of human existence have elapsed4 ,the study of the development of conscience in early childhood is a study of origins1 and these are always obscure4 ,but1 besides1 the attention hitherto given to this subject has been entirely inadequate1 and even the attempts to observe in a systematic way the moral manifestations of childhood have been few4 ,parents and teachers should endeavor to answer such questions as these3 ,when do the first stirrings of the moral sense appear in the child8 ,how do they manifest themselves8 ,what are the emotional and the intellectual equipments of the child at different periods1 and how do these correspond with its moral outfit8 ,at what time does conscience enter on the scene8 ,to what acts or omissions does the child apply the terms right and wrong8 ,if observations of this kind were made with care and duly recorded1 the science of education would have at its disposal a considerable quantity of material from which no doubt valuable generalizations might be deduced4 ,every mother especially should keep a diary in which to note the successive phases of her child's physical1 mental1 and moral growth2 with particular attention to the moral2 so that parents may be enabled to make a timely forecast of their childrens' characters1 to foster in them every germ of good1 and by prompt precautions to suppress1 or at least restrain1 what is bad4 ,i propose in the present lecture to cast a glance at the moral training which the normal child receives before it enters school1 and the moral outfit which it may be expected to bring with it at the time of entering4 ,fortunately1 it is not necessary to go very deeply into the study of development of conscience for this purpose4 ,a few main points will suffice for our guidance4 ,first ,point4--,the moral training of a child can be begun in its cradle4 ,regularity is favorable to morality4 ,regularity acts as a check on impulse4 ,a child should receive its nourishment at stated intervals2 it should become accustomed to sleep at certain hours1 etc4 ,if it protests1 as it often does vigorously enough1 its protests should be disregarded4 ,after a while its cries will cease1 it will learn to submit to the rule imposed1 and the taking of pleasure in regularity and the sense of discomfort when the usual order is interrupted become thenceforth a part of its mental life4 ,i do not maintain that regularity itself is moral1 but that it is favorable to morality because it curbs inclination4 ,i do not say that rules are always good1 but that the life of impulse is always bad4 ,even when we do the good in an impulsive way we are encouraging in ourselves a vicious habit4 ,good conduct consists in regulating our life according to good principles2 and a willingness to abide by rules is the first1 the indispensable condition of moral growth4 ,now1 the habit of yielding to rules may be implanted in a child even in the cradle4 ,second ,point4--,a very young child--one not older than a year and a half--can be taught to obey1 to yield to the parent's will4 ,a child a year and a half old is capable of adhering to its own will in defiance of the expressed will of father or mother4 ,in this case it should be constrained to yield4 ,we shall never succeed in making of it a moral person if it does not realize betimes that there exists a higher law than the law of its will4 ,and of this higher law1 throughout childhood1 the parent is1 as it were1 the embodiment4 ,when ,i say that obedience can be exacted of a child of such tender age1 that a child so young is capable of deliberately opposing the will of the parent1 ,i speak from experience4 ,i know a certain little lady who undertook a struggle with her father precisely in the way described4 ,the struggle lasted fully thirty-five minutes by the clock4 ,but when it was over1 the child stretched out her little arms and put up her lips to be kissed1 and for days after fairly clung to her father1 showing him her attachment in the most demonstrative manner4 ,nor should this increase of affectionateness excite surprise--it is the proper result of a conflict of this sort between father and child when conducted in the right spirit4 ,the child is happy to be freed from the sway of its wayward caprice1 to feel that its feeble will has been taken up into a will larger and stronger than its own4 ,third ,point4--,what is called conscience does not usually begin to show itself until the child is about three years old4 ,at this age the concept self usually emerges1 and the child begins to use the personal pronoun ,i4 ,this is one of these critical turning points in human development1 of which there are several4 ,the beginning of adolescence marks another4 ,i am inclined to suspect that there is one at or about thirty-three4 ,there seem to be others later on4 ,at any rate the first turning point--that which occurs at three--is marked unmistakably4 ,at this time1 as we have just said1 the child begins to be distinctly self-conscious2 it says ,i1 and presently you1 he1 and they4 ,now1 moral rules formulate the relations which ought to subsist between one's self and others1 and to comprehend the rules it is clearly necessary to be able to hold apart in the mind and to contrast with one another the persons related4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the emergence of the concept self must have a decided effect on moral development4 ,i feel tempted to pause here a moment and to say a word in passing about the extreme importance of the constituent elements of the concept self4 ,for it must not be supposed that the pronoun ,i means the same thing on the lips of every person who uses it4 ,i is a label denoting a mass of associated ideas1 and as these ideas are capable of almost endless variation1 so the notion of selfhood is correspondingly diversified in different individuals4 ,in the case of children1 perhaps the principal constituents of the concept are supplied by their outward appearance and environment4 ,when a child speaks of itself1 it thinks primarily of its body1 especially its face1 then of the clothes it usually wears1 the house it lives in1 the streets through which it habitually walks1 its parents1 brothers1 sisters1 school-masters1 etc4#g ,if we analyze the meaning of ,i in the case of two children1 the one well-born and well brought up1 the other without these advantages1 we shall perhaps find such differences as the following3 ,i in the one case will mean a being living in a certain decent and comfortable house1 always wearing neat clothing1 surrounded by parents1 brothers1 and sisters who speak kindly to one another and have gentle manners1 etc4 ,in the other case1 the constituents of the concept self may be very different4 ,i in the case of the second child may mean a creature that lives in a dark1 filthy hovel and walks every day through narrow streets1 reeking with garbage4 ,i may mean the child of a father who comes home drunk and strikes the mother when the angry fit is upon him4 ,i stands for a poor waif that wears torn clothes1 and when he sits in school by the side of well-dressed children is looked at askance and put to shame4 ,it is obvious that the elements which go to make up the concept self affect the child's moral nature by lowering or raising its self-esteem4 ,i remember the case of one1 who as a boy was the laughing-stock of his class on account of the old-fashioned1 ill-fitting clothes which he was compelled to wear1 and who has confessed that even late in life he could not entirely overcome the effect of this early humiliation1 and that he continued to be painfully aware in himself1 in consequence1 of a certain lack of ease and self-possession4 ,hence we should see to it that the constituent elements of the concept self are of the right kind4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that the idea of selfhood stands off independently from the elements of our environment4 ,the latter enter into1 and when they are bad eat into1 the very kernel of our nature4 ,we have seen that the development of the intellect as it appears in the growing distinctness of self-consciousness exercises an important influence on the development of the moral faculty4 ,but there is still another way in which this influence becomes apparent4 ,the function of conscience further depends on the power of keeping alternative courses of action before the mind4 ,angels capable only of the good1 or fiends actuated exclusively by malice1 could not be called moral creatures4 ,a moral act always presupposes a previous choice between two possible lines of action4 ,and until the power of holding the judgment in suspense1 of hesitating between alternative lines of conduct1 has been acquired1 conscience1 strictly speaking1 does not manifest itself4 ,we may say that the voice of conscience begins to be heard when1 the parent being absent1 the child hesitates between a forbidden pleasure and obedience to the parental command4 ,of course1 not every choice between alternative courses is a moral act4 ,if any one hesitates whether to remain at home or to go for a walk1 whether to take a road to the right or to the left1 the decision is morally indifferent4 ,but whenever one of the alternative courses is good and the other bad1 conscience does come into play4 ,at this point1 however1 the question forcibly presents itself1 ,how does it come to pass in the experience of children that they learn to regard certain lines of action as good and others as bad8 ,you will readily answer1 ,the parent characterizes certain acts as good and others as bad1 and the child accepts his definition2 and this is undoubtedly true4 ,the parent's word is the main prop of the budding conscience4 ,but how comes the parent's word to produce belief8 ,this is indeed the crucial question touching the development of the moral faculty4 ,mr4 ,bain says that the child fears the punishment which the parent will inflict in case of disobedience2 that the essential form and defining quality of conscience from first to last is of the nature of dread4 ,he seems to classify the child's conscience with the criminal conscience1 the rebel conscience which must be energized by the fear of penalties4 ,but this explanation seems very unsatisfactory4 ,every one1 of course1 must admit that the confirmations of experience tend greatly to strengthen the parent's authority4 ,the parent says1 ,you must be neat4 ,the child1 if it does as it is bidden1 finds an aesthetic pleasure in its becoming appearance4 ,the parent says1 ,you must not strike your little brother1 but be kind to him2 and the child1 on restraining its anger1 is gratified by the loving words and looks which it receives in return4 ,the parent says1 ,you must not touch the stove1 or you will be burned4 ,the disobedient child is effectually warned by the pain it suffers to be more obedient in future4 ,but all such confirmations are mere external aids to parental authority4 ,they do not explain the feeling of reverence with which even a young child1 when rightly brought up1 is wont to look up to his father's face4 ,to explain this sentiment of reverence1 ,i must ask you to consider the following train of reasoning4 ,it has been remarked already that the parent should be to the child the visible embodiment of a higher law4 ,this higher law shining from the father's countenance1 making its sublime presence felt in the mother's eye1 wakens an answering vibration in the child's heart4 ,the child feels the higher presence and bows to it1 though it could not1 if it tried1 analyze or explain what it feels4 ,we should never forget that children possess the capacity for moral development from the outset4 ,it is indeed the fashion with some modern writers to speak of the child as if it were at first a mere animal1 and as if reflection and morality were mechanically superadded later on4 ,but the whole future man is already hidden1 not yet declared1 but latent all the same in the child's heart4 ,the germs of humanity in its totality exist in the young being4 ,else how could it ever unfold into full-grown morality8 ,it will perhaps serve to make my meaning clearer if ,i call attention to analogous facts relating to the intellectual faculty4 ,the formula of causality is a very abstract one1 which only a thoroughly trained mind can grasp4 ,but even very young children are constantly asking questions as to the causes of things4 ,what makes the trees grow8 what makes the stars shine8--i4 e41 what is the cause of the trees growing and the stars shining8 ,the child is constantly pushing1 or rather groping1 its way back from effects to causes4 ,the child's mind acts under what maybe called the causative instinct long before it can apprehend the law of causation4 ,in the same way young children perfectly follow the process of syllogistic reasoning4 ,if a father says1 on leaving the house for a walk3 ,i can take with me only a child that has been good2 now1 you have not been good to-day2 the child without any difficulty draws the conclusion1 ,therefore ,i can not go out walking with my father to-day4 ,the logical laws are1 as it were1 prefigured in the child's mind long before1 under the chemical action of experience they come out in the bright colors of consciousness4 ,or1 to use another figure1 they exert a pressure on the child of which he himself can give no account4 ,and in like manner the moral law--the law which prescribes certain relations between self and others--is1 so to speak1 prefigured in the child's mind1 and when it is expressed in commands uttered by the parent1 the pressure of external authority is confirmed by a pressure coming from within4 ,we can illustrate the same idea from another point of view4 ,whenever a man of commanding moral genius appears in the world and speaks to the multitude from his height1 they are for the moment lifted to his level and feel the afflatus of his spirit4 ,this is so because he expresses potentialities of human nature which also exist in them1 only not unfolded to the same degree as in him4 ,it is a matter of common observation that persons who under ordinary circumstances are content to admire what is third rate and fourth rate are yet able to appreciate what is first rate when it is presented to them--at least to the extent of recognizing that it is first rate4 ,and yet their lack of development shows itself in the fact that presently they again lose their hold on the higher standard of excellence1 and are thereafter content to put up with what is inferior as if the glimpses of better things had never been opened to them4 ,is it not because1 though capable of rising to the higher level1 they are not capable of maintaining themselves on it unassisted4 ,now1 the case of the parent with respect to the child is analogous4 ,he is on a superior moral plane4 ,the child feels that he is1 without being able to understand why4 ,it feels the afflatus of the higher spirit dwelling in the parent1 and out of this feeling is generated the sentiment of reverence4 ,and there is no greater benefit which father or mother can confer on their offspring than to deepen this sentiment4 ,it is by this means that they can most efficiently promote the development of the child's conscience1 for out of this reverence will grow eventually respect for all rightly constituted authority1 respect and reverence for law1 human and divine4 ,the essential form and defining quality of conscience is not1 therefore1 as ,bain has it--fear of punishment4 ,in my opinion such fear is abject and cowardly4 ,the sentiment engendered by fear is totally different from the one we are contemplating1 as the following consideration will serve to show3 ,a child fears its father when he punishes it in anger2 and the more violent his passion1 the more does the child fear him4 ,but1 no matter how stern the penalty may be which he has to inflict1 the child reveres its father in proportion as the traces of anger are banished from his mien and bearing1 in proportion as the parent shows by his manner that he acts from a sense of duty1 that he has his eye fixed on the sacred measures of right and wrong1 that he himself stands in awe of the sublime commands of which he is1 for the time being1 the exponent4 ,to recapitulate briefly the points which we have gone over3 regular habits can be inculcated and obedience can be taught even in infancy4 ,by obedience is meant the yielding of a wayward and ignorant will to a firm and enlightened one4 ,the child between three and six years of age learns clearly to distinguish self from others1 and to deliberate between alternative courses of action4 ,it is highly important to control the elements which enter into the concept self4 ,the desire to choose the good is promoted chiefly by the sentiment of reverence4 ,we are thus prepared to describe in a general way the moral outfit of the child on entering school4 ,we have1 indeed1 already described it4 ,the moral acquirements of the child at the age of which we speak express themselves in habits4 ,the normal child1 under the influences of parental example and command1 has acquired such habits as that of personal cleanliness1 of temperance in eating1 of respect for the truth4 ,having learned to use the pronouns ,i and thou1 it also begins to understand the difference between meum and tuum4 ,the property sense begins to be developed4 ,it claims its own seat at table1 its own toys against the aggression of others4 ,it has gained in an elementary way the notion of rights4 ,this is a stock of acquirements by no means inconsiderable4 ,the next step in the progress of conscience must be taken in the school4 ,until now the child has been aware of duties relating only or principally to persons whom it loves and who love it4 ,the motive of love is now to become less prominent4 ,a part of that reverence which the child has felt for the parents whom it loves is now to be transferred to the teacher4 ,a part of that respect for the rights of equals which has been impressed upon it in its intercourse with brothers and sisters1 to whom it is bound by the ties of blood1 is now to be transferred to its school companions1 who are at first strangers to it4 ,thus the conscience of the child will be expanded1 thus it will be prepared for intercourse with the world4 ,thus it will begin to gain that higher understanding of morality1 according to which authority is to be obeyed simply because it is rightful1 and equals are to be treated as equals1 even when they are not and can not be regarded with affection4 ,i have in the above used the word habits advisedly4 ,the morality of the young child assumes the concrete form of habits2 abstract principles are still beyond its grasp4 ,habits are acquired by imitation and repetition4 ,good examples must be so persistently presented and so often copied that the line of moral conduct may become the line of least resistance4 ,the example of parents and teachers is indeed specially important in this respect4 ,but after all it is not sufficient4 ,for the temptations of adults differ in many ways from those of children1 and on the other hand in the lives of older persons occasions are often wanting for illustrating just the peculiar virtues of childhood4 ,on this account it is necessary to set before the child ideal examples of the virtues of children and of the particular temptations1 against which they need to be warned4 ,of such examples we find a large stock ready to hand in the literature of fairy tales1 fables1 and stories4 ,in our next lecture therefore we shall begin to consider the use of fairy tales1 fables1 and stories as means of creating in children those habits which are essential to the safe guarding and unfolding of their moral life4 ,,footnote3 #g ,so important is environment in supporting self-consciousness1 that even adults1 when suddenly transported into entirely new surroundings1 often experience a momentary doubt as to their identity4 ,,primary ,,course4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,there has been and still is considerable difference of opinion among educators as to the value of fairy tales4 ,i venture to think that1 as in many other cases1 the cause of the quarrel is what logicians call an undistributed middle--in other words1 that the parties to the dispute have each a different kind of fairy tale in mind4 ,this species of literature can be divided broadly into two classes--one consisting of tales which ought to be rejected because they are really harmful1 and children ought to be protected from their bad influence1 the other of tales which have a most beautiful and elevating effect1 and which we can not possibly afford to leave unutilized4 ,the chief pedagogic value they possess is that they exercise and cultivate the imagination4 ,now1 the imagination is a most powerful auxiliary in the development of the mind and will4 ,the familiar anecdote related of ,marie ,antoinette1 who is said to have asked why the people did not eat cake when she was told that they were in want of bread1 indicates a deficiency of imagination4 ,brought up amid the splendor of courts1 surrounded by luxury1 she could not put herself in the place of those who lack the very necessaries4 ,much of the selfishness of the world is due not to actual hard-heartedness1 but to a similar lack of imaginative power4 ,it is difficult for the happy to realize the needs of the miserable4 ,did they realize those needs1 they would in many cases be melted to pity and roused to help4 ,the faculty of putting one's self in the place of others is therefore of great1 though indirect1 service to the cause of morality1 and this faculty may be cultivated by means of fairy tales4 ,as they follow intently the progress of the story1 the young listeners are constantly called upon to place themselves in the situations in which they have never been1 to imagine trials1 dangers1 difficulties1 such as they have never experienced1 to reproduce in themselves1 for instance1 such feelings as that of being alone in the wide world1 of being separated from father's and mother's love1 of being hungry and without bread1 exposed to enemies without protection1 etc4 ,thus their sympathy in a variety of forms is aroused4 ,in the next place1 fairy tales stimulate the idealizing tendency4 ,what were life worth without ideals6 ,how could hope or even religion germinate in the human heart were we not able to confront the disappointing present with visions which represent the fulfillment of our desires4 ,faith1 says ,paul1 is the confidence of things hoped for1 the certainty of things not seen4 ,thus faith itself can not abide unless supported by a vivid idealism4 ,it is true1 the ideals of childhood are childish4 ,in the story called ,das ,marienkind we hear of the little daughter of a poor wood-cutter who was taken up bodily into heaven4 ,there she ate sweetmeats and drank cream every day and wore dresses made of gold1 and the angels played with her4 ,sweetmeats and cream in plenty and golden dresses and dear little angels to play with may represent the ideals of a young child1 and these are materialistic enough4 ,but ,i hold nevertheless that something--nay1 much--has been gained if a child has learned to take the wishes out of its heart1 as it were1 and to project them on the screen of fancy4 ,as it grows up to manhood1 the wishes will become more spiritual1 and the ideals1 too1 will become correspondingly elevated4 ,in speaking of fairy tales ,i have in mind chiefly the ,german ,maerchen of which the word fairy tale is but an inaccurate rendering4 ,the ,maerchen are more than mere tales of helpful fairies4 ,they have1 as is well-known1 a mythological background4 ,they still bear distinct traces of ancient animism1 and the myths which center about the phenomena of the storm1 the battle of the sun with the clouds1 the struggle of the fair spring god with the dark winter demons1 are in them leading themes4 ,but what originally was the outgrowth of superstition has now1 to a great extent at least1 been purified of its dross and converted into mere poetry4 ,the ,maerchen come to us from a time when the world was young4 ,they represent the childhood of mankind1 and it is for this reason that they never cease to appeal to children4 ,the ,maerchen have a subtile flavor all their own4 ,they are pervaded by the poetry of forest life1 are full of the sense of mystery and awe1 which is apt to overcome one on penetrating deeper and deeper into the woods1 away from human habitations4 ,the ,maerchen deal with the underground life of nature1 which weaves in caverns and in the heart of mountains1 where gnomes and dwarfs are at work gathering hidden treasures4 ,and with this underground life children have a marvelous sympathy4 ,the ,maerchen present glowing pictures of sheltered firesides1 where man finds rest and security from howling winds and nipping cold4 ,but perhaps their chief attraction is due to their representing the child as living in brotherly fellowship with nature and all creatures4 ,trees1 flowers1 animals wild and tame1 even the stars1 are represented as the comrades of children4 ,that animals are only human beings in disguise is an axiom in the fairy tales4 ,animals are humanized--i4 e41 the kinship between animal and human life is still strongly felt1 and this reminds us of those early animistic interpretations of nature1 which subsequently led to doctrines of metempsychosis4 ,plants1 too1 are often represented as incarnations of human spirits4 ,thus the twelve lilies are inhabited by the twelve brothers1 and in the story of ,snow-white and ,rose-red the life of the two maidens appears to be bound up with the life of the white and red rosebush4 ,the kinship of all life whatsoever is still realized4 ,this being so1 it is not surprising that men should understand the language of animals1 and that these should interfere to protect the heroes and heroines of the ,maerchen from threatened dangers4 ,in the story of the faithful servant ,john1 the three ravens flying above the ship reveal the secret of the red horse1 the sulphurous shirt1 and the three drops of blood1 and ,john1 who understands their communications1 is thereby enabled to save his master's life4 ,what1 again1 can be more beautiful than the way in which the tree and the two white doves co-operate to secure the happiness of the injured ,cinderella6 ,the tree rains down the golden dresses with which she appears at the ball1 and the doves continue to warn the prince as he rides by that he has chosen the wrong bride until ,cinderella herself passes1 when they light on her shoulders1 one on her right and the other on her left1 making1 perhaps1 the loveliest picture to be found in all fairy lore4 ,the child still lives in unbroken communion with the whole of nature2 the harmony between its own life and the enveloping life has not yet been disturbed1 and it is this harmony of the human with the natural world that reflects itself in the atmosphere of the ,maerchen1 and makes them so admirably suited to satisfy the heart of childhood4 ,but how shall we handle these ,maerchen and what method shall we employ in putting them to account for our special purpose8 ,i have a few thoughts on this subject1 which ,i shall venture to submit in the form of counsels4 ,my first counsel is3 ,tell the story2 do not give it to the child to read4 ,there is an obvious practical reason for this4 ,children are able to benefit by hearing fairy tales before they can read4 ,but that is not the only reason4 ,it is the childhood of the race1 as we have seen1 that speaks in the fairy story to the child of to-day4 ,it is the voice of an ancient1 far-off past that echoes from the lips of the story-teller4 ,the words once upon a time open up a vague retrospect into the past1 and the child gets its first indistinct notions of history in this way4 ,the stories embody the tradition of the childhood of mankind4 ,they have on this account an authority all their own1 not indeed that of literal truth1 but one derived from their being types of certain feelings and longings which belong to childhood as such4 ,the child as it listens to the ,maerchen1 looks up with wide-opened eyes to the face of the person who tells the story1 and thrills responsive as the touch of the earlier life of the race thus falls upon its own4 ,such an effect1 of course1 can not be produced by cold type4 ,tradition is a living thing1 and should use the living voice for its vehicle4 ,my second counsel is also of a practical nature1 and ,i make bold to say quite essential to the successful use of the stories4 ,do not take the moral plum out of the fairy-tale pudding1 but let the child enjoy it as a whole4 ,do not make the story taper toward a single point1 the moral point4 ,you will squeeze all the juice out of it if you try4 ,do not subordinate the purely fanciful and naturalistic elements of the story1 such as the love of mystery1 the passion for roving1 the sense of fellowship with the animal world1 in order to fix attention solely on the moral element4 ,on the contrary1 you will gain the best moral effect by proceeding in exactly the opposite way4 ,treat the moral element as an incident2 emphasize1 it indeed1 but incidentally4 ,pluck it as a wayside flower4 ,how often does it happen that1 having set out on a journey with a distinct object in mind1 something occurs on the way which we had not foreseen1 but which in the end leaves the deepest impression on the mind4 ,the object which we had in view is long forgotten1 but the incident which happened by the way is remembered for years after4 ,so the moral result of the ,maerchen will not be less sure because gained incidentally4 ,an illustration will make plain what ,i mean4 ,in the story of the ,frog ,king we are told that there was once a young princess who was so beautiful that even the ,sun1 which sees a great many things1 had never seen anything so beautiful as she was4 ,a golden ball was her favorite plaything4 ,one day1 as she sat by a well under an old linden tree1 she tossed the ball into the air and it fell into the well4 ,she was very unhappy1 and cried bitterly4 ,presently a frog put his ugly head out of the water1 and offered to dive for the ball1 on condition1 however1 that she would promise to take him for her playmate1 to let him eat off her golden plate and drink out of her golden cup and sleep in her little snow-white bed4 ,the princess promised everything4 ,but no sooner had the frog brought her the ball than she scampered away1 heedless of his cries4 ,the next day as the royal family sat at dinner a knock was heard at the door4 ,the princess opened and beheld the ugly toad claiming admittance4 ,she screamed with fright and hastily shut the door in his face4 ,but when the king1 her father1 had questioned her1 he said1 ,what you have promised1 you must keep2 and she obeyed her father1 though it was sorely against her inclination to do so4 ,that was right1 children1 was it not8 ,one must always obey1 even if one does not like what one is told to do4 ,so the toad was brought in and lifted to the table1 and he ate off the little golden plate and drank out of the golden cup4 ,and when he had had enough1 he said1 ,i am tired now1 put me into your little snow-white bed4 ,and again when she refused her father said3 ,what you have promised you must keep4 ,ugly though he is1 he helped you when you were in distress1 and you must not despise him now4 ,and the upshot of the story is that the ugly toad1 having been thrown against the wall1 was changed into a beautiful prince1 and of course some time after the prince and the princess were married4 ,the naturalistic element of the story is the changing of the prince into a toad and back again from a toad into a prince4 ,children are very fond of disguises4 ,it is one of their greatest pleasures to imagine things to be other than they are4 ,and one of the chief attractions of such stories as the one we have related is that they cater to the fondness of the little folks for this sort of masquerading4 ,the moral elements of the story are obvious4 ,they should be touched on in such a manner as not to divert the interest from the main story4 ,my third counsel is to eliminate from the stories whatever is merely superstitious1 merely a relic of ancient animism1 and of course whatever is objectionable on moral grounds4 ,for instance1 such a story as that of the idle spinner1 the purport of which seems to be that there is a special providence watching over lazy people4 ,likewise all those stories which turn upon the success of trickery and cunning4 ,a special question arising under this head1 and one which has been the subject of much vexed discussion1 is in how far we should acquaint children with the existence of evil in the world1 and to what extent we can use stories in which evil beings and evil motives are introduced4 ,my own view is that we should speak in the child's hearing only of those lesser forms of evil1 physical or moral1 with which it is already acquainted1 but exclude all those forms of evil which lie beyond its present experience4 ,on this ground ,i should reject the whole brood of step-mother stories1 or rather1 as this might make too wide a swath1 ,i should take the liberty of altering stories in which the typical bad step-mother occurs1 but which are otherwise valuable4 ,there is no reason why children should be taught to look on step-mothers in general as evilly disposed persons4 ,the same applies to stories in which unnatural fathers are mentioned4 ,i should also rule out such stories as that of ,the ,wolf and ,the ,seven ,little ,goats4 ,the mother goat1 on leaving the house1 warns her little ones against the wolf1 and gives them two signs by which they can detect him--his hoarse voice and black paws4 ,the wolf knocks and finds himself discovered4 ,he thereupon swallows chalk to improve his voice and compels the miller to whiten his paws4 ,then he knocks again1 is admitted1 leaps into the room1 and devours the little goats one by one4 ,the story1 as used in the nursery1 has a transparent purpose4 ,it is intended to warn little children who are left at home alone against admitting strangers4 ,the wolf represents evil beings in general--tramps1 burglars1 people who come to kidnap children1 etc4 ,now ,i1 for one1 should not wish to implant this fear of strangers into the minds of the young4 ,fear is demoralizing4 ,children should look with confidence and trust upon all men4 ,they need not be taught to fear robbers and burglars4 ,even the sight of wild animals need not awaken dread4 ,children naturally admire the beauty of the tiger's skin1 and the lion in their eyes is a noble creature1 of whose ferocity they have no conception4 ,it is time enough for them later on to familiarize themselves with the fact that evil of a sinister sort exists within human society and outside of it4 ,and it will be safe for them to face this fact then only1 when they can couple with it the conviction that the forces of right and order in the world are strong enough to grapple with the sinister powers and hold them in subjection4 ,and now let us review a number of the ,maerchen against which none of these objections lie1 which are delicious food for children's minds1 and consider the place they occupy in a scheme of moral training4 ,it has been already stated that each period of human life has a set of duties peculiar to itself4 ,the principal duties of childhood are3 ,obedience to parents1 love and kindness toward brothers and sisters1 a proper regard for the feelings of servants1 and kindness toward animals4 ,we can classify the fairy tales which we can use under these various heads4 ,let us begin with the topic last mentioned4 ,tales illustrating ,kindness toward ,animals4 ,the ,house in the ,woods4--,the daughter of a poor wood-cutter is lost in the woods1 and comes at night to a lonely house4 ,an old man is sitting within4 ,three animals--a cow1 a cock1 and a chicken--lie on the hearth4 ,the child is made welcome1 and is asked to prepare supper4 ,she cooks for the old man and herself1 but forgets the animals4 ,the second daughter likewise goes astray in the woods1 comes to the same house1 and acts in the same way4 ,the third daughter1 a sweet1 loving child1 before sitting down to her own meal1 brings in hay for the cow and barley for the cock and chicken1 and by this act of kindness to animals breaks the spell which had been cast upon the house4 ,the old man is immediately transformed into a prince1 etc4 ,the ,story of the ,dog ,sultan4--,sultan is old1 and about to be shot by his master4 ,the wolf1 seeing his cousin the dog in such distress1 promises to help him4 ,he arranges that on the morrow he will seize a sheep belonging to ,sultan's master4 ,the dog is to run after him1 and he1 the wolf1 will drop the sheep and ,sultan shall get the credit of the rescue4 ,everything passes off as prearranged1 and ,sultan's life is spared by his grateful owner4 ,some time after the wolf comes prowling around the house1 and1 reminding his friend that one good turn deserves another1 declares that he has now come for mutton in good earnest4 ,but the dog replies that nothing can tempt him to betray the interests of his master4 ,the wolf persists1 but ,sultan gives the alarm and the thief receives his due in the shape of a sound beating4 ,the point of special interest in the beautiful story of ,snow-white and ,rose-red above referred to is the incident of the bear4 ,one cold winter's night some one knocks at the door4 ,snow-white and ,rose-red go to open1 when a huge black bear appears at the entrance and begs for shelter4 ,he is almost frozen with the cold1 he says1 and would like to warm himself a bit4 ,the two little girls are at first frightened1 but1 encouraged by their mother1 they take heart and invite the bear into the kitchen4 ,soon a cordial friendship springs up between ,bruin and the children4 ,they brush the snow from his fur1 tease1 and caress him by turns4 ,after this the bear returns every night1 and finally turns out to be a beautiful prince4 ,the ,story of the ,queen ,bee tells about three brothers who wander through the world in search of adventures4 ,one day they come to an ant-hill4 ,the two older brothers are about to trample upon the ants just for the fun of it4 ,but the youngest pleads with them1 saying3 ,let them live2 their life is as dear to them as ours is to us4 ,next they come to a pond in which many ducks are swimming about4 ,the two older brothers are determined to shoot the ducks just for the fun of it4 ,the youngest again pleads as before1 ,let them live1 etc4 ,finally1 he saves a bee-hive from destruction in the same manner4 ,thus they journey on until they come to an enchanted castle4 ,to break the spell1 it is necessary to find and gather up a thousand pearls which had fallen on the moss-covered ground in a certain wood4 ,five thousand ants come to help the youngest to find the pearls4 ,the second task imposed is to find a golden key which had been thrown into a pond near the castle4 ,the grateful ducks bring up the key from the bottom4 ,the third task is the most difficult4 ,in one of the interior chambers of the castle there are three marble images--three princesses1 namely1 who had been turned into stone4 ,before the spell took effect they had partaken1 respectively1 of sugar1 sirup1 and honey4 ,to restore them to life it is necessary to discover which one had eaten the honey4 ,the ,queen ,bee comes in with all her swarm and lights on the lips of the youngest and so solves the problem4 ,the enchantment is immediately dissolved4 ,all these stories illustrate kindness to animals4 ,among stories which illustrate the respect due to the feelings of servants may be mentioned the tale of ,faithful ,john1 who understood the language of the ravens and saved his master from the dangers of the red horse1 etc41 a story which in addition impresses the lesson that we should confide in persons who have been found trustworthy1 even if we do not understand their motives4 ,in the popular tale of ,cinderella the points especially to be noted are3 ,the pious devotion of ,cinderella to her mother's memory1 and the fact that the poor kitchen drudge1 underneath the grime and ashes which disfigure her1 possesses qualities which raise her far above the proud daughters of the house4 ,the lesson taught by this story that we should distinguish intrinsic worth from the accidents of rank and condition1 is one which can not be impressed too early or too deeply4 ,under the heading of brotherly and sisterly love belongs the lovely tale of ,snow-white4 ,the little dwarfs are to all intents and purposes her brothers4 ,they receive and treat her as a sister1 and she returns their affection in kind4 ,the story of the ,twelve ,brothers1 whom their sister redeems by seven years of silence at the peril of her own life1 is another instance of tenderest sisterly devotion combined with self-control4 ,this story1 however1 needs to be slightly altered4 ,in place of the cruel father 7we must not mention cruel fathers7 who has got ready twelve coffins for his sons1 in order that all the wealth of his kingdom may descend to his daughter1 let us substitute the steward of the palace1 who hopes by slaying the sons and winning the hand of the daughter1 to become king himself4 ,finally the story of ,red ,riding ,hood illustrates the cardinal virtue of childhood--obedience to parents4 ,children must not loiter on the way when they are sent on errands4 ,and ,riding ,hood loiters1 and hence all the mischief which follows4 ,she is sent to bring wine and cake to her grandmother4 ,the example of such attentions as this serves to quicken in children the sentiment of reverence for the aged4 ,children learn reverence toward their parents in part by the reverence which these display toward the grandparents4 ,another point is that ,red ,riding ,hood1 to quiet her conscience1 when she strays from the straight path deceives herself as to her motives4 ,she says1 ,i will also gather a bunch of wild flowers to please grandmother4 ,but her real purpose is to enjoy the freedom of the woods1 and the proof is that presently she forgets all about grandmother4 ,there is one objection that has sometimes been urged against this story1 viz41 the part which the wolf plays in it4 ,but the wolf is not really treated as a hostile or fearful being4 ,he meets ,red ,riding ,hood on the way1 and they chat confidentially together4 ,he appears rather in the light of a trickster4 ,but1 it is objected1 that he devours the grandmother and1 later on1 ,red ,riding ,hood herself4 ,very true2 but the curious fact is that1 when his belly is cut open1 the grandmother and ,red ,riding ,hood come out intact4 ,they have evidently not been injured4 ,children have very defective notions of the human body1 with the exception of such external parts as hands1 feet1 and face4 ,in an examination recently conducted by ,prof4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall in regard to the contents of childrens' minds at the time they enter school1 it was found that ninety per cent of those questioned had no idea where the heart is located1 eighty-one per cent did not know anything about the lungs1 ninety per cent could not tell where their ribs are situated1 etc4 ,of the internal organs children have no idea4 ,hence when the story says that the grandmother is swallowed by the wolf1 the impression created is that she has been forced down into a sort of dark hole1 and that her situation1 while rather uncomfortable1 no doubt1 is not otherwise distressing4 ,the ideas of torn and mangled flesh are not suggested4 ,hence the act of devouring arouses no feeling of horror1 and the story of ,red ,riding ,hood1 that prime favorite of all young children1 may be related without any apprehension as to its moral effect4 ,then there are other stories1 such as that of the man who went abroad to learn the art of shuddering--an excellent example of bravery2 the story of the seven ,suabians--a persiflage of cowardice2 the story of the ,marienkind which contains a wholesome lesson against obstinacy1 etc4 ,i have not1 of course1 attempted to cover the whole ground1 but only to mention a few examples sufficient to show along what lines the selection may be made4 ,the ethical interests peculiar to childhood are the heads under which the whole material can be classified4 ,the value of the fairy tales is that they stimulate the imagination2 that they reflect the unbroken communion of human life with the life universal1 as in beasts1 fishes1 trees1 flowers1 and stars2 and that incidentally1 but all the more powerfully on that account1 they quicken the moral sentiments4 ,let us avail ourselves freely of the treasures which are thus placed at our disposal4 ,let us welcome das ,maerchen into our primary course of moral training1 that with its gentle bands1 woven of morning mist and morning glory1 it may help to lead our children into the bright realms of the ideal4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,fables4 ,the collection of fables which figures under the name of ,a,esop has to a very remarkable degree maintained its popularity among children1 and many of its typical characters have been adopted into current literature1 such as the ,dog in the ,manger1 the ,wolf in ,sheep's ,clothing1 ,king ,log1 and ,king ,stork1 and others4 ,recent researches have brought to light the highly interesting fact that these fables are of ,asiatic origin4 ,a collection of ,indian and1 it is believed1 ,buddhist fables and stories traveled at an early period into ,persia1 where it became known as the ,pancha-,tantra4 ,the ,pancha-,tantra was translated into ,arabic1 and became the source of the voluminous ,kalilah-wa-,dimnah literature4 ,the ,arabic tales in turn migrated into ,europe at the time of the ,crusades and were rendered into ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and ,latin4 ,in this form they became accessible to the nations of ,europe1 were extensively circulated1 and a collection of them was wrongly1 but very naturally1 ascribed to a famous story-teller of the ancient ,greeks--i4 e41 to ,a,esop4 ,the arguments on which this deduction is based may be found in ,rhys ,davids's introduction to his ,english translation of the ,jataka ,tales4#h ,this author speaks of ,a,esop's fables as a first moral lesson-book for our children in the ,west4 ,we shall have to consider in how far this description is correct--that is to say1 in how far we can use the fables for moral purposes4 ,the point to be kept in mind is their ,asiatic origin1 as this will at once help us to separate the fables which we can use from those which must be rejected4 ,a discrimination of this sort is absolutely necessary4 ,i am of the opinion that it is a serious mistake to place the whole collection as it stands in the hands of children4 ,to decide this question we must study the milieu in which the fables arose1 the spirit which they breathe1 the conditions which they reflect4 ,the conditions they reflect are those of an ,oriental despotism4 ,they depict a state of society in which the people are cruelly oppressed by tyrannical rulers1 and the weak are helpless in the hands of the strong4 ,the spirit which they breathe is1 on the whole1 one of patient and rather hopeless submission4 ,the effect upon the reader as soon as he has caught this clew1 this ,leitmotiv1 which occurs in a hundred variations1 is very saddening4 ,i must substantiate this cardinal point by a somewhat detailed analysis4 ,let us take first the fable of the ,kite and the ,pigeons4 ,a kite had been sailing in the air for many days near a pigeon-house with the intention of seizing the pigeons2 at last he had recourse to stratagem4 ,he expressed his deep concern at their unjust and unreasonable suspicions of himself1 as if he intended to do them an injury4 ,he declared that1 on the contrary1 he had nothing more at heart than the defense of their ancient rights and liberties1 and ended by proposing that they should accept him as their protector1 their king4 ,the poor1 simple pigeons consented4 ,the kite took the coronation oath in a very solemn manner4 ,but much time had not elapsed before the good kite declared it to be a part of the king's prerogative to devour a pigeon now and then1 and the various members of his family adhered to the same view of royal privilege4 ,the miserable pigeons exclaimed3 ,ah1 we deserve no better4 ,why did we let him in6 ,the fable of the ,wolf in ,sheep's ,clothing conveys essentially the same idea4 ,the fable of the ,lion and the ,deer illustrates the exorbitant exactions practiced by despots4 ,a fat deer was divided into four parts4 ,his majesty the lion proposed that they be suitably apportioned4 ,the first part he claimed for himself on account of his true hereditary descent from the royal family of ,lion2 the second he considered properly his own because he had headed the hunt2 the third he took in virtue of his prerogative2 and finally he assumed a menacing attitude1 and dared any one to dispute his right to the fourth part also4 ,in the fable of the ,sick ,lion and the ,fox1 the fox says3 ,i see the footprints of beasts who have gone into the cave1 but of none that have come out4 ,the fable of the ,cat and the ,mice expresses the same thought1 namely1 that it is necessary to be ever on one's guard against the mighty oppressors even when their power seems for the time to have deserted them4 ,the cat pretends to be dead1 hoping by this means to entice the mice within her reach4 ,a cunning old mouse peeps over the edge of the shelf1 and says3 ,aha1 my good friend1 are you there8 ,i would not trust myself with you though your skin were stuffed with straw4 ,the fable of ,king ,log and ,king ,stork shows what a poor choice the people have in the matter of their kings4 ,first they have a fool for their king1 a mere log1 and they are discontented4 ,then ,stork ascends the throne1 and he devours them4 ,it would have been better if they had put up with the fool4 ,the injustice of despotic rulers is exemplified in the fable of the ,kite and the ,wolf4 ,the kite and the wolf are seated in judgment4 ,the dog comes before them to sue the sheep for debt4 ,kite and wolf1 without waiting for the evidence1 give sentence for the plaintiff1 who immediately tears the poor sheep into pieces and divides the spoil with the judges4 ,the sort of thanks which the people get when they are foolish enough to come to the assistance of their masters1 is illustrated by the conduct of the wolf toward the crane4 ,the wolf happened to have a bone sticking in his throat1 and1 howling with pain1 promised a reward to any one who should relieve him4 ,at last the crane ventured his long neck into the wolf's throat and plucked out the bone4 ,but when he asked for his reward1 the wolf glared savagely upon him1 and said3 ,is it not enough that ,i refrained from biting off your head8 ,how dangerous it is to come at all into close contact with the mighty1 is shown in the fable of the ,earthen and the ,brazen ,pot4 ,the brazen pot offers to protect the earthen one as they float down stream4 ,oh1 replies the latter1 keep as far off as ever you can1 if you please2 for1 whether the stream dashes you against me or me against you1 ,i am sure to be the sufferer4 ,the fables which we have considered have for their theme the character of the strong as exhibited in their dealings with the weak4 ,a second group is intended to recommend a certain policy to be pursued by the weak in self-protection4 ,this policy consists either in pacifying the strong by giving up to them voluntarily what they want1 or in flight1 or1 if that be impossible1 in uncomplaining submission4 ,the first expedient is recommended in the fable of the ,beaver4 ,a beaver who was being hard pressed by a hunter and knew not how to escape1 suddenly1 with a great effort1 bit off the part which the hunter desired1 and1 throwing it toward him1 by this means escaped with his life4 ,the expedient of flight is recommended in the fable of ,reynard and the ,cat4 ,reynard and the cat one day were talking politics in the forest4 ,the fox boasted that though things might turn out never so badly1 he had still a thousand tricks to play before they should catch him4 ,the cat said3 ,i have but one trick1 and if that does not succeed ,i am undone4 ,presently a pack of hounds came upon them full cry4 ,the cat ran up a tree and hid herself among the top branches4 ,the fox1 who had not been able to get out of sight1 was overtaken despite his thousand tricks and torn to pieces by the hounds4 ,the fable of the ,oak and the ,reed teaches the policy of utter1 uncomplaining submission4 ,the oak refuses to bend1 and is broken4 ,the supple reed yields to the blast1 and is safe4 ,is it not a little astonishing that this fable should so often be related to children as if it contained a moral which they ought to take to heart8 ,to make it apply at all1 it is usually twisted from its proper signification and explained as meaning that one should not be fool-hardy1 not attempt to struggle against overwhelming odds4 ,but this is not the true interpretation4 ,the oak is by nature strong and firm1 while it is the nature of the reed to bend to every wind4 ,the fable springs out of the experience of a people who have found resistance against oppression useless4 ,and this sort of teaching we can not1 of course1 wish to give to our children4 ,i should certainly prefer that a child of mine should take the oak1 and not the reed1 for his pattern4 ,the same spirit is again inculcated in the fable of the ,wanton ,calf4 ,the wanton calf sneers at the poor ox who all day long bears the heavy yoke patiently upon his neck4 ,but in the evening it turns out that the ox is unyoked1 while the calf is butchered4 ,the choice seems to lie between subserviency and destruction4 ,the fable of the ,old ,woman and her ,maids suggests the same conclusion1 with the warning added that it is useless to rise against the agents of tyranny so long as the tyrants themselves can not be overthrown4 ,the cock in the fable represents the agents of oppression4 ,the killing of the cock serves only to bring the mistress herself on the scene1 and the lot of the servants becomes in consequence very much harder than it had been before4 ,we have now considered two groups of fables3 those which depict the character of the mighty1 and those which treat of the proper policy of the weak4 ,the subject of the third group is1 the consolations of the weak4 ,these are1 first1 that even tyrannical masters are to a certain extent dependent upon their inferiors1 and can be punished if they go too far2 secondly1 that the mighty occasionally come to grief in consequence of dissensions among themselves2 thirdly1 that fortune is fickle4 ,a lion is caught in the toils1 and would perish did not a little mouse come to his aid by gnawing asunder the knots and fastenings4 ,the bear robs the bees of their honey1 but is punished and rendered almost desperate by their stings4 ,an eagle carries off the cub of a fox2 but the fox1 snatching a fire-brand1 threatens to set the eagle's nest on fire1 and thus forces him to restore her young one4 ,this is evidently a fable of insurrection4 ,the fable of the ,viper and the ,file shows that it is not safe to attack the wrong person--in other words1 that tyrants sometimes come to grief by singling out for persecution some one who is strong enough to resist them though they little suspect it4 ,the fable of the four bulls shows the effect of dissensions among the mighty4 ,four bulls had entered into a close alliance1 and agreed to keep always near one another4 ,a lion fomented jealousies among them4 ,the bulls grew distrustful of one another1 and at last parted company4 ,the lion had now obtained his end1 and seized and devoured them singly4 ,the fickleness of fortune is the theme of the fable of the ,horse and the ,ass4 ,the horse1 richly caparisoned and champing his foaming bridle1 insults an ass who moves along under a heavy load4 ,soon after the horse is wounded1 and1 being unfit for military service1 is sold to a carrier4 ,the ass now taunts the proud animal with his fallen estate4 ,the horse in this fable is the type of many an ,eastern vizier1 who has basked for a time in the sunshine of a despot's favor only to be suddenly and ignominiously degraded4 ,the ass in the fable represents the people4 ,there remains a fourth group of fables1 which satirize certain mean or ridiculous types of characters1 such as are apt to appear in social conditions of the kind we have described4 ,especially do the fables make a target of the folly of those who affect the manners of the aristocratic class1 or who try to crowd in where they are not wanted1 or who boast of their high connections4 ,the frog puffs himself up so that he may seem as large as the ox1 until he bursts4 ,the mouse aspires to marry the young lioness1 and is in fact well received2 but the young lady inadvertently places her foot on her suitor and crushes him4 ,the jackdaw picks up feathers which have fallen from the peacocks1 sticks them among his own1 and introduces himself into the assembly of those proud birds4 ,they find him out1 strip him of his plumes1 and with their sharp bills punish him as he deserves4 ,a fly boasts that he frequents the most distinguished company1 and that he is on familiar terms with the king1 the priests1 and the nobility4 ,many a time1 he says1 he has entered the royal chamber1 has sat upon the altar1 and has even enjoyed the privilege of kissing the lips of the most beautiful maids of honor4 ,yes1 replies an ant1 but in what capacity are you admitted among all these great people8 ,one and all regard you as a nuisance1 and the sooner they can get rid of you the better they are pleased4 ,most of the fables which thus far have been mentioned we can not use4 ,the discovery of their ,asiatic origin sheds a new1 keen light upon their meaning4 ,they breathe1 in many cases1 a spirit of fear1 of abject subserviency1 of hopeless pessimism4 ,can we desire to inoculate the young with this spirit8 ,the question may be asked why fables are so popular with boys4 ,i should say1 ,because school-boy society reproduces in miniature to a certain extent the social conditions which are reflected in the fables4 ,among unregenerate school-boys there often exists a kind of despotism1 not the less degrading because petty4 ,the strong are pitted against the weak--witness the fagging system in the ,english schools--and their mutual antagonism produces in both the characteristic vices which we have noted above4 ,the psychological study of school-boy society has been only begun1 but even what lies on the surface will1 ,i think1 bear out this remark4 ,now it has come to be one of the commonplaces of educational literature1 that the individual of to-day must pass through the same stages of evolution as the human race as a whole4 ,but it should not be forgotten that the advance of civilization depends on two conditions3 first1 that the course of evolution be accelerated1 that the time allowed to the successive stages be shortened2 and1 secondly1 that the unworthy and degrading elements which entered into the process of evolution in the past1 and at the time were inseparable from it1 be now eliminated4 ,thus the fairy-tales which correspond to the myth-making epoch in human history must be purged of the dross of superstition which still adheres to them1 and the fables which correspond to the age of primitive despotisms must be cleansed of the immoral elements they still embody4 ,the fables which are fit for use may be divided into two classes3 those which give illustrations of evil1#i the effect of which on the young should be to arouse disapprobation1 and those which present types of virtue4 ,the following is a list of some of the principal ones in each category3 ,an ,instance of ,selfishness4 ,the porcupine having begged for hospitality and having been invited into a nest of snakes1 inconveniences the inmates and finally crowds them out4 ,when they remonstrate1 he says1 ,let those quit the place that do not like it4 ,injustice4 ,the fable of the ,kite and the ,wolf1 mentioned above4 ,improvidence4 ,the fable of the ,ant and the ,grasshopper2 also the fable entitled ,one ,swallow does not make ,summer1 and the fable of the ,man who ,killed the ,goose that laid the ,golden ,eggs4 ,ingratitude4 ,the fable of the snake which bit the countryman who had warmed it in his breast4 ,cowardice4 ,the fable of the ,stag and the ,fawn1 and of the ,hares in the ,storm4 ,vanity4 ,the fables of the ,peacock and the ,crane1 and of the ,crow who lost his ,cheese by listening to the flattery of the fox4 ,contemptuous ,self-confidence4 ,the ,hare and the ,tortoise4 ,the ,evil ,influence of ,bad ,company4 ,the ,husbandman and the ,stork4 ,cruelty to ,animals4 ,the ,fowler and the ,ringdove2 the ,hawk and the ,pigeons4 ,greediness4 ,the ,dog and the ,shadow4 ,lying4 ,the fable of the boy who cried ,wolf6 ,bragging4 ,the fable of the ,ass in the ,lion's ,skin4 ,deceit4 ,the fable of the ,fox without a ,tail4 ,disingenuousness4 ,the fable of the ,sour ,grapes4 ,a ,discontented ,spirit4 ,the fable of the ,peacock's ,complaint4 ,equal ,graces are not given to all4 ,the fable of the ,ass who leaped into his ,master's ,lap4 ,borrowed ,plumes4 ,the fable of the ,jackdaw and the ,peacocks1 mentioned above4 ,malice4 ,the fable of the ,dog in the ,manger1 who would not eat1 neither let others eat4 ,breaking ,faith4 ,the fable of the ,traveler and the ,bear4 ,to ,fan ,animosity is even ,worse than to ,quarrel4 ,the fable of the ,trumpeter4 ,the value of these fables1 as has been said1 consists in the reaction which they call forth in the minds of the pupils4 ,sometimes this reaction finds expression in the fable itself2 sometimes the particular vice is merely depicted in its nakedness1 and it becomes the business of the teacher distinctly to evoke the feeling of disapprobation1 and to have it expressly stated in words4 ,the words tend to fix the feeling4 ,often1 when a child has committed some fault1 it is useful to refer by name to the fable that fits it4 ,as1 when a boy has made room in his seat for another1 and the other crowds him out1 the mere mention of the fable of the ,porcupine is a telling rebuke2 or the fable of the ,hawk and the ,pigeons may be called to mind when a boy has been guilty of mean excuses4 ,on the same principle that angry children are sometimes taken before a mirror to show them how ugly they look4 ,the fable is a kind of mirror for the vices of the young4 ,of the fables that illustrate virtuous conduct1 ,i mention that of ,hercules and the ,cart-driver1 which teaches self-reliance4 ,hercules helps the driver as soon as the latter has put his own shoulders to the wheel4 ,also the fable of the ,lark4 ,so long as the farmer depends on his neighbors1 or his kinsmen1 the lark is not afraid2 but when he proposes to buckle to himself1 she advises her young that it is time to seek another field4 ,the fable of the ,wind and the ,sun shows that kindness succeeds where rough treatment would fail4 ,the fable of the ,bundle of ,sticks exemplifies the value of harmony4 ,the fable of the ,wolf1 whom the dog tries to induce to enter civilization1 expresses the sentiment that lean liberty is to be preferred to pampered servitude4 ,the fable of the ,old ,hound teaches regard for old servants4 ,finally1 the fable of the ,horse and the ,loaded ,ass1 and of the ,dove and the ,ant1 show that kindness pays on selfish principles4 ,the horse refuses to share the ass's burden2 the ass falls dead under his load2 in consequence1 the horse has to bear the whole of it4 ,on the other hand the dove rescues the ant from drowning1 and the ant in turn saves the dove from the fowler's net4 ,the last remark throws light on the point of view from which the fables contemplate good and evil4 ,it is to be noted that a really moral spirit is wanting in them2 the moral motives are not appealed to4 ,the appeal throughout is to the bare motive of self-interest4 ,do not lie1 because you will be found out1 and will be left in the lurch when you depend for help on the confidence of others4 ,do not indulge in vanity1 because you will make yourself ridiculous4 ,do not try to appear like a lion when you can not support the character1 because people will find out that you are only an ass4 ,do not act ungratefully1 because you will be thrust out of doors4 ,even when good conduct is inculcated1 it is on the ground that it pays4 ,be self-reliant1 because if you help yourself others will help you4 ,be kind1 because by gentle means you can gain your purpose better than by harshness4 ,agree with your neighbors1 because you can then1 like the bundle of sticks1 resist aggression from without4 ,that lying is wrong on principle2 that greediness is shameful1 whether you lose your cheese or not2 that kindness is blessed1 even when it does not bring a material reward2 that it is lovely for neighbors to dwell together in peace1 is nowhere indicated4 ,the beauty and the holiness of right conduct lie utterly beyond the horizon of the fable4 ,nevertheless1 as we have seen when speaking of the efficient motives of conduct1 self-interest as a motive should not be underrated1 but should be allowed the influence which belongs to it as an auxiliary to the moral motive4 ,it is well1 it is necessary1 for children to learn that lying1 besides being in itself disgraceful1 does also entail penalties of a palpable sort2 that vanity and self-conceit1 besides being immoral1 are also punished by the contempt of one's fellows2 that those who are unkind1 as the horse was to the ass1 may have to bear the ass's burden4 ,the checks and curbs supplied by such considerations as these serve the purpose of strengthening the weak conscience of the young1 and are not to be dispensed with1 provided always they are treated not as substitutes for but as auxiliaries to the moral motives1 properly speaking4 ,as to the place in the primary course which ,i have assigned to the fables1 ,i have the following remark to offer3 ,in speaking of fairy tales1 it was stated that the moral element should be touched on incidentally1 and that it should not be separated from the other1 the naturalistic elements4 ,the pedagogical reason which leads me to assign to the fables the second place in the course1 is that each fable deals exclusively with one moral quality1 which is thus isolated and held up to be contemplated4 ,in the stories which will occupy the third place a number of moral qualities are presented in combination4 ,we have1 therefore1 what seems to be a logical and progressive order--first1 fairy tales in which the moral is still blended with other elements2 secondly1 a single moral quality set off by itself2 then1 a combination of such qualities4 ,the peculiar value of the fables is that they are instantaneous photographs1 which reproduce1 as it were1 in a single flash of light1 some one aspect of human nature1 and which1 excluding everything else1 permit the entire attention to be fixed on that one4 ,as to the method of handling them1 ,i should say to the teacher3 ,relate the fable2 let the pupil repeat it in his own words1 making sure that the essential points are stated correctly4 ,by means of questions elicit a clean-cut expression of the point which the fable illustrates2 then ask the pupil to give out of his experience other instances illustrating the same point4 ,this is precisely the method pursued in the so-called primary object lessons4 ,the child1 for instance1 having been shown a red ball1 is asked to state the color of the ball1 and then to name other objects of the same color2 or to give the shape of the ball1 and then to name other objects having the same shape4 ,in like manner1 when the pupil has heard the fable of the ,fox and the ,wolf1 and has gathered from it that compassion when expressed merely in words is useless1 and that it must lead to deeds to be really praiseworthy1 it will be easy for him out of his own experience to multiply instances which illustrate the same truth4 ,the search for instances makes the point of the fable clearer1 while the expression of the thought in precise language1 on which the teacher should always insist1 tends to drive it home4 ,it will be our aim in the present course of lectures to apply the methods of object teaching1 now generally adopted in other branches1 to the earliest moral instruction of children--an undertaking1 of course1 not without difficulties4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,buddhist ,birth ,stories2 or ,jataka ,tales1 translated by ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids4 #i ,i remarked above that fables should be excluded if the moral they inculcate is bad1 not if they depict what is bad4 ,in the latter case they often may serve a useful purpose4 ,,viii4 ,,supplementary ,,remarks ,,on ,,fables4 ,apart from the collection which figures under the name of ,a,esop1 there are other fables1 notably the so-called ,jataka tales1 which deserve attention4 ,the ,jataka tales contain deep truths1 and are calculated to impress lessons of great moral beauty4 ,the tale of the ,merchant of ,seri1 who gave up all that he had in exchange for a golden dish1 embodies much the same idea as the parable of the ,priceless ,pearl1 in the ,new ,testament4 ,the tale of the ,measures of ,rice illustrates the importance of a true estimate of values4 ,the tale of the ,banyan ,deer1 which offered its life to save a roe and her young1 illustrates self-sacrifice of the noblest sort4 ,the ,kulavaka-,jataka contains the thought that a forgiving spirit toward one's enemies disarms even the evil-minded4 ,the tale of the ,partridge1 the ,monkey1 and the ,elephant teaches that the best seats belong not to the nobles or the priests1 to the rich or the learned1 not even to the most pious1 but that reverence and service and respect and civility are to be paid according to age1 and for the aged the best seat1 the best water1 the best rice1 are to be reserved4 ,the tale of ,nanda1 or the ,buried ,gold1 is a rebuke to that base insolence which vulgar natures often exhibit when they possess a temporary advantage4 ,the tale of the ,sandy ,road is one of the finest in the collection4 ,it pictures to us a caravan wandering through the desert under the starlight4 ,the guide1 whose duty it was to pilot them through this sea of sand1 has1 it appears1 fallen asleep at his post from excessive weariness1 and at dawn the travelers discover that they have gone astray1 and that far and wide no water is in sight wherewith to quench their burning thirst4 ,at this moment1 however1 the leader espies a small tuft of grass on the face of the desert1 and1 reasoning that water must be flowing somewhere underneath1 inspires his exhausted followers to new exertions4 ,a hole sixty feet deep is dug under his direction1 but at length they come upon hard rock1 and can dig no farther4 ,but even then he does not yield to despair4 ,leaping down1 he applies his ear to the rock4 ,surely1 it is water that he hears gurgling underneath6 ,one more effort1 he cries1 and we are saved6 ,but of all his followers one only had strength or courage enough left to obey4 ,this one strikes a heavy blow1 the rock is split open1 and lo6 the living water gushes upward in a flood4 ,the lesson is that of perseverance and presence of mind in desperate circumstances4 ,the tale entitled ,holding to the ,truth narrates the sad fate of a merchant who suffered himself to be deceived by a mirage into the belief that water was near1 and emptied the jars which he carried with him in order to reach the pleasant land the sooner4 ,the ,jataka entitled ,on ,true ,divinity contains a very beautiful story about three brothers1 the ,sun prince1 the ,moon prince1 and the future ,buddha or ,bodisat4 ,the king1 their father1 expelled the ,moon prince and the future ,buddha in order to secure the succession to the ,sun prince alone4 ,but the ,sun prince could not bear to be separated from his brothers1 and secretly followed them into exile4 ,they journeyed together until they came to a certain lake4 ,this lake was inhabited by an evil spirit1 to whom power had been given to destroy all who entered his territory unless they could redeem their lives by answering the question1 ,what is truly divine8 ,so the ,sun prince was asked first1 and he answered1 ,the sun and the moon and the gods are divine4 ,but that not being the correct answer1 the evil spirit seized and imprisoned him in his cave4 ,then the ,moon prince was asked1 and he answered1 ,the far-spreading sky is called divine4 ,but he1 too1 was carried away to the same place to be destroyed4 ,then the future ,buddha was asked1 and he answered3 ,give ear1 then1 attentively1 and hear what divine nature is2 and he uttered the words-- ,the pure in heart who fear to sin1 ,the good1 kindly in word and deed1 ,these are the beings in the world ,whose nature should be called divine4 ,and when the evil spirit heard these words1 he bowed1 and said3 ,i will give up to you one of your brothers4 ,then the future ,buddha said1 ,give me the life of my brother1 the ,sun prince1 for it is on his account that we have been driven away from our home and thrust into exile4 ,the evil spirit was overcome by this act of generosity1 and said1 ,verily1 ,o teacher1 thou not only knowest what is divine1 but hast acted divinely4 ,and he gave him the life of both his brothers1 the ,sun prince as well as the ,moon prince4 ,i could not resist the temptation of relating a few of these tales4 ,they are1 as every one must admit1 nobly conceived1 lofty in meaning1 and many a helpful sermon might be preached from them as texts4 ,but1 of course1 not all are fit to be used in a primary course4 ,some of them are1 some are not4 ,the teacher will have no difficulty in making the right selection4 ,to the former class belongs also ,no4 #bh of the collection1#aj which is excellently adapted to impress the lesson of kindness to animals4 ,long ago the ,buddha came to life in the shape of a powerful bull4 ,his master1 a ,brahman1 asserted that this bull of his could move a hundred loaded carts ranged in a row and bound together4 ,being challenged to prove his assertion1 he bathed the bull1 gave him scented rice1 hung a garland of flowers around his neck1 and yoked him to the first cart4 ,then he raised his whip and called out1 ,gee up1 you brute4 ,drag them along1 you wretch6 ,the bull said to himself1 ,he calls me wretch2 ,i am no wretch4 ,and keeping his forelegs as firm as steel1 he stood perfectly still4 ,thereupon the ,brahman1 his master1 was compelled to pay a forfeit of a thousand pieces of gold because he had not made good his boast4 ,after a while the bull said to the ,brahman1 who seemed very much dispirited3 ,brahman1 ,i have lived a long time in your house4 ,have ,i ever broken any pots1 or have ,i rubbed against the walls1 or have ,i made the walks around the premises unclean8 ,never1 my dear1 said the ,brahman4 ,then why did you call me wretch8 ,but if you will never call me wretch again1 you shall have two thousand pieces for the one thousand you have lost4 ,the ,brahman1 hearing this1 called his neighbors together1 set up one hundred loaded carts as before1 then seated himself on the pole1 stroked the bull on the back1 and called out1 ,gee up1 my beauty6 ,drag them along1 my beauty6 ,and the bull1 with a mighty effort1 dragged along the whole hundred carts1 heavily loaded though they were4 ,the bystanders were greatly astonished1 and the ,brahman received two thousand pieces on account of the wonderful feat performed by the bull4 ,the #cjth ,jataka corresponds to the fable of the ,ox and the ,calf in the ,a,esop collection4 ,the #cc;d1 like the fable of the ,bundle of ,sticks1 teaches the lesson of unity1 but in a form a little nearer to the understanding of children4 ,long ago1 when ,brahmadatta was reigning in ,benares1 the future ,buddha came to life as a quail4 ,at that time there was a fowler who used to go to the place where the quails dwelt and imitate their cry2 and when they had assembled1 he would throw his net over them4 ,but the ,buddha said to the quails3 ,in future1 as soon as he has thrown the net over us1 let each thrust his head through a mesh of the net1 then all lift it together1 carry it off to some bush1 and escape from underneath it4 ,and they did so and were saved4 ,but one day a quail trod unawares on the head of another1 and a disgraceful quarrel ensued4 ,the next time the fowler threw his net over them1 each of the quails pretended that the others were leaving him to bear the greatest strain1 and cried out1 ,you others begin1 and then ,i will help4 ,the consequence was that no one began1 and the net was not raised1 and the fowler bagged them all4 ,the #bfth ,jataka enforces the truth that evil communications corrupt good manners1 and contains more particularly a warning against listening to the conversation of wicked people4 ,thus much concerning the ,jataka tales4 ,there exists also a collection of ,hindu fairy tales and fables1 gathered from oral tradition by ,m4 ,frere1 and published under the title of ,old ,deccan ,days4 ,a few of these are very charming1 and well adapted for our purpose4 ,for example1 the fable of ,king ,lion and the ,sly ,little ,jackals4 ,the story is told with delightful naivete4 ,singh-,rajah1 the lion-king1 is very hungry4 ,he has already devoured all the jackals of the forest1 and only a young married couple1 who are extremely fond of each other1 remain4 ,the little jackal-wife is terribly frightened when she hears in their immediate vicinity the roar of ,singh-,rajah4 ,but the young husband tries to comfort her1 and to save their lives he hits on the following expedient3 ,he makes her go with him straight to the cave of the terrible lion4 ,singh-,rajah no sooner sees them than he exclaims3 ,it is well you have arrived at last4 ,come here quickly1 so that ,i may eat you4 ,the husband says3 ,yes1 your ,majesty1 we are entirely ready to do as you bid us1 and1 in fact1 we should have come long ago1 as in duty bound1 to satisfy your royal appetite1 but there is another ,singh-,rajah mightier than you in the forest1 who would not let us come4 ,what6 says the lion1 another ,singh-,rajah mightier than ,i6 ,that is impossible4 ,oh6 but it is a fact1 say the young couple in a breath2 and he is really much more terrible than you are4 ,show him to me1 then1 says ,singh-,rajah1 and ,i will prove to you that what you say is false--that there is no one to be compared with me in might4 ,so the little jackals ran on together ahead of the lion1 until they reached a deep well4 ,he is in there1 they said1 pointing to the well4 ,the lion looked down angrily and saw his own image1 the image of an angry lion glaring back at him4 ,he shook his mane2 the other did the same4 ,singh-,rajah thereupon1 unable to contain himself1 leaped down to fight his competitor1 and1 of course1 was drowned4 ,the fable clothes in childlike language the moral that anger is blind1 and that the objects which excite our anger are often merely the outward reflections of our own passions4 ,in the fable of the ,brahman1 the ,tiger1 and the ,six ,judges1 we have a lesson against ingratitude1 and also against useless destruction of animal life4 ,in the fable of the ,camel and the ,jackal1 the latter does not appear in the same favorable light as above4 ,the jackal and the camel were good friends4 ,one day the jackal said to his companion3 ,i know of a field of sugar-cane on the other side of the river1 and near by there are plenty of crabs and small fishes4 ,the crabs and fishes will do for me1 while you can make a fine dinner off the sugar-cane4 ,if there were only a way of getting across6 ,the camel offered to swim across1 taking the jackal on his back1 and in this way they reached the opposite bank4 ,the jackal ate greedily1 and had soon finished his meal2 thereupon he began to run up and down1 and to exercise his voice1 screaming lustily4 ,the camel begged him to desist1 but in vain4 ,presently the cries of the jackal roused the villagers4 ,they came with sticks and cudgels and cruelly beat the camel1 and drove him out of the field before he had had time to eat more than a few mouthfuls4 ,when the men were gone at last1 the jackal said1 ,let us now go home4 ,very well1 said the camel1 climb on my back4 ,when they were midway between the two banks1 the camel said to the jackal3 ,why did you make such a noise and spoil my dinner1 bringing on those cruel men1 who beat me so that every bone in my body aches8 ,did ,i not beg you to stop8 ,oh1 said the jackal1 ,i meant no harm4 ,i was only singing a bit4 ,i always sing after dinner1 just for amusement4 ,they had by this time reached the place where the water was deepest4 ,well1 said the camel1 ,i also like innocent amusements4 ,for instance1 it is my custom to lie on my back after dinner and to stretch myself a bit4 ,with that he turned over1 and the jackal fell into the stream4 ,he swallowed pailfuls of water1 and it was only with the utmost difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the bank4 ,he had received a salutary lesson on the subject of inconsiderate selfishness--a fault very common with children1 which such a story as this may help to correct4 ,as to the modern fables1 ,i fear they will yield us but a scanty harvest4 ,the fables of ,la ,fontaine1 where they depart from ,a,esopian originals1 are hardly suitable for children1 and those of the ,german poet ,gellert impress me1 on the whole1 in the same way1 though a few of them may be added to our stock4 ,for instance1 the fable of the ,greenfinch and the ,nightingale4 ,these two birds occupy the same cage before the window of ,damon's house4 ,presently the voice of the nightingale is heard1 and then ceases4 ,the father leads his little boy before the cage and asks him which of the two he believes to have been the sweet musician1 the brightly colored greenfinch or the outwardly unattractive nightingale4 ,the child immediately points to the former1 and is then instructed as to his error4 ,the lesson1 of course1 is that fine clothes and real worth do not always go together4 ,the fable of the ,blind and the ,lame ,man teaches the advantages of co-operation4 ,the ,carriage ,horse and the ,cart ,horse is a fable for the rich4 ,possibly the fable of the ,peasant and his ,son1 which is directed against lies of exaggeration1 may also be utilized1 though ,i realize that there are objections to it4 ,,footnote3 #aj ,buddhist ,birth ,stories2 or ,jataka ,tales4 ,,ix4 ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,bible4 ,introduction4--,it will have been noticed that in choosing our illustrative material we have confined ourselves to what may be called classical literature4 ,the ,german ,maerchen has lived in the traditions of the ,german people for centuries1 and is as fresh to-day as ,snow-white herself when she woke from her trance4 ,the fables1 as has been shown1 have been adopted into the language and literature of ,persia1 of ,arabia1 of the nations of ,europe1 and are still found in the hands of our own children4 ,let us continue to pursue the same method of selection4 ,instead of relying on juvenile literature just produced1 or attempting to write moralizing stories specially adapted for the purpose in hand1 let us continue1 without excluding invention altogether1 to rely mainly on that which has stood the test of time4 ,in the third part of our primary course we shall use selected stories from the classical literature of the ,hebrews1 and later on from that of ,greece1 particularly the ,odyssey and the ,iliad4 ,the stories to which ,i refer possess a perennial vitality1 an indestructible charm4 ,i am1 ,i trust1 no blind worshiper of antiquity4 ,the mere fact that a thing has existed for a thousand or two thousand years is not always proof that it is worth preserving4 ,but the fact that after having been repeated for two thousand years a story still possesses a perfectly fresh attraction for the child of to-day1 does indeed prove that there is in it something of imperishable worth4 ,how is this unique charm of the classical literature to be explained8 ,what quality exists in ,homer1 in the ,bible1 enabling them1 despite the changes of taste and fashion1 to hold their own8 ,the novels of the last century are already antiquated2 few care to read them4 ,the poetry of the middle ages is enjoyed only by those who cultivate a special taste for it4 ,historical and scientific works hardly have time to leave an impression before new books appear to crowd them out4 ,but a few great masterpieces have survived1 and the truth and beauty of these the lapse of ages1 it seems1 has left unaltered4 ,mr4 ,jebb remarks#aa that ,homer aims at the lucid expression of primary motives1 and refrains from multiplying individual traits which might interfere with their effect1 and that this typical quality in ,homer's portraiture has been one secret of its universal impressiveness4 ,the ,homeric outlines are in each case brilliantly distinct1 while they leave to the reader a certain liberty of private conception1 and he can fill them in so as to satisfy his own ideal4 ,we may add that this is just as true of the ,bible as of ,homer4 ,the biblical narrative1 too1 depicts a few essential traits of human nature1 and refrains from multiplying minor traits which might interfere with the main effect4 ,the ,bible1 too1 draws its figures in outline1 and leaves every age free to fill them in so as to satisfy its own ideal4 ,thus the biblical story1 as conceived in the mind of ,milton1 reflects the ,puritan ideal2 the same story1 narrated in a modern pulpit or ,sunday-school1 will inevitably reflect1 to a greater or less degree1 the modern humanitarian ideal1 and this liberty of interpretation is one cause of the vitality of the ,bible4 ,but it may be asked further1 ,how did ,homer1 how did the biblical writers1 succeed in producing such universal types1 in drawing their figures so correctly that1 however the colors may thenceforth be varied1 the outlines remain forever true8 ,he who should attempt at the present day to give expression to the most universal traits of human nature1 freed from the complex web of conditions1 disengaged from the thousand-fold minor traits which modify the universal in particular instances1 would find it difficult to avoid one or the other of two fatal errors4 ,if he keeps his eyes fixed on the universal1 he is in danger of producing a set of bloodless abstractions1 pale shadows of reality1 which will not live for a day1 much less for a thousand years4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he tries to keep close to reality he will probably produce more or less accurate copies of the types that surround him1 but the danger will always be that the universal will be lost amid the particulars4 ,by what quality in themselves or fortunate constellation of circumstances did ,homer and the biblical writers succeed in avoiding both these errors1 in creating types of the utmost universality and yet imparting to them the breath of life1 the gait and accent of distinctive individuality8 ,i imagine that they succeeded because they lived at a time when life was much less complex than it is at present1 when the conversation1 the manners1 the thoughts1 the motives of men were simple4 ,they were enabled to individualize the universal because the most universal1 the simplest motives1 still formed the mainspring in the conduct of individuals4 ,it was not necessary for them to enter into the barren region of abstraction and generalization to discover the universal4 ,they pictured what they actually saw4 ,the universal and the individual were still blended in that early dawn of human history4 ,we have thus far spoken of ,homer and the ,bible jointly4 ,but let us now give our particular attention to the biblical narrative4 ,the narrative of the ,bible is fairly saturated with the moral spirit2 the moral issues are everywhere in the forefront4 ,duty1 guilt and its punishment1 the conflict of conscience with inclination1 are the leading themes4 ,the ,hebrew people seem to have been endowed with what may be called a moral genius1 and especially did they emphasize the filial and fraternal duties to an extent hardly equaled elsewhere4 ,now it is precisely these duties that must be impressed on young children1 and hence the biblical stories present us with the very material we require4 ,they can not1 in this respect1 be replaced2 there is no other literature in the world that offers what is equal to them in value for the particular object we have now in view4 ,before proceeding1 however1 to discuss the stories in detail1 let me remind you that in studying them a larger tax is made on the attention of children1 and a higher development of the moral judgment is presupposed1 than in the previous parts of our course2 for in them a succession of acts and their consequences are presented to the scholar1 on each of which his judgment is to be exercised4 ,those who teach the biblical stories merely because it has been customary to regard the ,bible as the text-book of morals and religion1 without1 however1 being clear as to the place which belongs to it in a scheme of moral education1 will always1 ,i doubt not1 achieve a certain result4 ,the stories will never entirely fail of their beneficial effect1 but ,i can not help thinking that this effect will be greatly heightened if their precise pedagogic value is distinctly apprehended1 and if the preparatory steps have been taken in due course4 ,it seems to me that the moral judgment should first be exercised on a single moral quality as exhibited in a single act before it is applied to a whole series of acts2 and hence that the fable should precede the story4 ,in making our selection from the rich material before us we need only keep in mind the principle already enunciated in the introductory lectures--that the moral teaching at any period should relate to the duties of that period4 ,adam and ,eve in ,paradise4 ,this is a wonderful story for children4 ,it deserves to be placed at the head of all the others1 for it inculcates the cardinal virtue of childhood--obedience4 ,it is also a typical story of the beginning1 the progress1 and the culmination of temptation4 ,will you permit me to relate the story as ,i should tell it to little children8 ,i shall endeavor to keep true to the outlines1 and if ,i depart from the received version in other respects1 may ,i not plead that liberty of interpretation to which ,i have referred above4 ,once upon a time there were two children1 ,adam and ,eve4 ,adam was a fine and noble-looking lad4 ,he was slender and well built1 and fleet of foot as a young deer4 ,eve was as beautiful as the dawn1 with long golden tresses1 and blue eyes1 and cheeks like the rose4 ,they lived in the loveliest garden that you have ever heard of4 ,there were tall trees in it1 and open meadows where the grass was as smooth as on a lawn1 and clear1 murmuring brooks ran through the woods4 ,and there were dense thickets filled with the perfume of flowers1 and the flowers grew in such profusion1 and there were so many different kinds1 each more beautiful than the rest1 that it was a perfect feast for the eyes to look at them4 ,it was so warm that the children never needed to go in-doors1 but at night they would just lie down at the foot of some great tree and look at the stars twinkling through the branches until they fell asleep4 ,and when it rained they would find shelter in some beautiful cavern1 spreading leaves and moss upon the ground for a bed4 ,the garden where they lived was called ,paradise4 ,and there were ever so many animals in it--all kinds of animals--elephants1 and tigers1 and leopards1 and giraffes1 and camels1 and sheep1 and horses1 and cows2 but even the wild animals did them no harm4 ,but the children were not alone in that garden3 their ,father lived with them4 ,and every morning when they woke up their first thought was to go to him and to look up into his mild1 kind face for a loving glance1 and every evening before they went to sleep he would bend over them4 ,and once1 as they lay under the great tree1 looking at a star shining through the branches1 ,adam said to ,eve3 ,our ,father's eye shines just like that star4 ,one day their ,father said to them3 ,my children1 there is one tree in this beautiful garden the fruit of which you must not eat1 because it is hurtful to you4 ,you can not understand why1 but you know that you must obey your ,father even when you do not understand4 ,he loves you and knows best what is for your good4 ,so they promised1 and for a time remembered4 ,but one day it happened that ,eve was passing near the tree of the fruit of which she knew she must not eat1 when what should she hear but a snake talking to her4 ,she did not see it1 but she heard its voice quite distinctly4 ,and this is what the snake said3 ,you poor ,eve6 you must certainly have a hard time4 ,your ,father is always forbidding you something4 ,how stern he is6 ,i am sure that other children can have all the fruit they want4 ,eve was frightened at first4 ,she knew that her ,father was kind and good1 and that the snake was telling a falsehood4 ,he did not always forbid things4 ,but still he had forbidden her to eat of the fruit1 and she thought that was a little hard2 and she could not understand at all why he had done so4 ,then the snake spoke again3 ,listen1 ,eve6 ,he forbade you to eat only of it4 ,it can do no harm just to look at it4 ,go up to it4 ,see how it glistens among the branches6 ,how golden it looks6 ,and the snake kept on whispering3 ,how good it must be to the taste6 ,just take one bite of it4 ,nobody sees you4 ,only one bite2 that can do no harm4 ,and ,eve glanced around1 and saw that no one was looking1 and presently with a hasty movement she seized the fruit and ate of it4 ,then she said to herself3 ,adam1 too1 must eat of it4 ,i can never bear to eat it alone4 ,so she ran hastily up to ,adam1 and said3 ,see1 ,i have some of the forbidden fruit1 and you1 too1 must eat4 ,and he1 too1 looked at it and was tempted1 and ate4 ,but that evening they were very much afraid4 ,they knew they had done wrong1 and their consciences troubled them4 ,so they hurried away into the wood where it was deepest1 and hid themselves in the bushes4 ,but soon they heard their ,father calling to them2 and it was strange1 their ,father's voice had never sounded so sad before4 ,and in a few moments he found them where they were hiding4 ,and he said to them3 ,why do you hide from me8 ,and they were very much confused1 and stammered forth all sorts of excuses4 ,but he said3 ,come hither1 children4 ,and he looked into their eyes1 and said3 ,have you eaten of the fruit of which ,i told you not to eat8 ,and ,adam1 who was thoughtless and somewhat selfish1 spoke up1 and said3 ,yes1 but it was ,eve who gave me of it2 she led me on4 ,and ,eve hung her head1 and said3 ,it was the snake that made me eat4 ,now the snake1 you know1 was no real snake at all2 she never saw it1 she only heard its voice4 ,and1 you know1 when we want to do anything wicked1 there is within every one of us something bad1 that seems to whisper3 ,just look6 ,mere looking will do no harm2 and then3 ,just taste2 no one sees you4 ,so the snake was the bad feeling in ,eve's heart4 ,and their ,father took them by the hand1 and said3 ,tomorrow1 when it is dawn1 you will have to leave this place4 ,in this beautiful ,paradise no one can stay who has once disobeyed4 ,you1 ,adam1 must learn to labor2 and1 you1 ,eve1 to be patient and self-denying for others4 ,and1 perhaps1 after a long1 long time1 some day1 you will come back with me into ,paradise again4 ,it is a free rendering1 ,i admit4 ,i have filled in the details so as to bring it down to the level of children's minds1 but the outlines1 ,i think1 are there4 ,the points ,i have developed are all suggested in the ,bible4 ,the temptation begins when the snake says with characteristic exaggeration3 ,is it true that of all the fruit you are forbidden to eat8 ,exaggerating the hardships of the moral command is the first step on the downward road4 ,the second step is ,eve's approach to look at the fruit--and she saw that it was good for food1 and pleasant to the eyes4 ,the third step is the actual enjoyment of what is forbidden4 ,the fourth step is the desire for companionship in guilt1 so characteristic of sin--and she gave also unto her husband with her1 and he did eat4 ,the next passage describes the working of conscience1 the fear1 the shame1 the desire to hide1 and then comes the moral verdict3 ,you are guilty1 both of you4 ,you have lost your paradise4 ,try to win it back by labor and suffering4 ,,note4--,i would add to what has been said in the text1 that the pupils are expected to return to the study of the ,bible1 to read and re-read these stories1 and to receive a progressively higher interpretation of their meaning as they grow older4 ,if in the above ,i have spoken in a general way of a ,father and his two children1 it will be easy for the ,sunday-school teacher to add later on that the ,father in the story was ,god4 ,cain and ,abel4 ,in teaching the story of the two brothers ,cain and ,abel the following points should be noted4 ,the ancients believed that earthly prosperity and well-being depended on the favor of ,god1 or the gods1 and that the favor of the gods could be secured by sacrifice4 ,if any one brought a sacrifice and yet prosperity did not set in1 this was supposed to be a sign that his sacrifice had not been accepted4 ,on the other hand1 to say of any person that his sacrifice had been accepted1 was tantamount to saying that he was happy and prosperous4 ,applying this to the story of ,cain and ,abel1 we may omit all mention of the bringing of the sacrifices1 which presents a great and needless difficulty to children's minds1 and simply make the equivalent statement that ,abel was prosperous and ,cain was not4 ,again1 ,cain is not represented as an intentional murderer4 ,the true interpretation of the story depends on our bearing this in mind4 ,it is erroneous to suppose that a brand was fixed on ,cain's forehead4 ,the passage in question1 correctly understood1 means that ,god gave ,cain a sign to reassure him that he should not be regarded by men as a common murderer4 ,with these prefatory remarks the story may be told somewhat as follows3 ,long ago there lived two brothers4 ,the name of the elder was ,cain1 and of the younger ,abel4 ,cain was a farmer4 ,he toiled in the sweat of his brow1 tilling the stubborn ground1 taking out stones1 building fences4 ,winter and summer he was up before the sun1 and yet1 despite all his labor1 things did not go well with him4 ,his crops often failed through no fault of his4 ,he never seemed to have an easy time4 ,moreover1 ,cain was of a proud disposition4 ,honest he was1 and truthful1 but taciturn1 not caring much to talk to people whom he met1 but rather keeping to himself4 ,abel1 on the other hand1 was a shepherd4 ,he led1 or seemed to lead1 the most delightfully easy life4 ,he followed his flocks from one pasture to another1 watching them graze2 and at noon he would often lie down in the shade of some leafy tree and play on his flute by the hour4 ,he was a skillful musician1 a bright1 talkative companion1 and universally popular4 ,he was a little selfish too1 as happy people sometimes are4 ,he liked to talk about his successes1 and1 in a perfectly innocent way1 which yet stung ,cain to the quick1 he would rattle on to his brother about the increase of his herds1 about his plans and prospects1 and the pleasant things that people were saying of him4 ,cain grew jealous of his brother ,abel4 ,he did not like to confess it to himself1 but yet it was a fact4 ,he kept comparing his own life of grinding toil with the easy1 lazy life of the shepherd--it was not quite so lazy1 but so it seemed to ,cain--his own poverty with the other's wealth1 his own loneliness with ,abel's popularity4 ,and a frown would often gather on his brow1 and he grew more and more moody and silent4 ,he knew that he was not in the right state of mind4 ,there was a voice within him that said3 ,sin is at thy door1 but thou canst become master over it4 ,sin is like a wild beast crouching outside the door of the heart4 ,open the door ever so little1 and it will force its way in1 and will have you in its power4 ,keep the door shut1 therefore2 do not let the first evil thought enter into your heart4 ,thus only can you remain master of yourself4 ,but ,cain was already too far gone to heed the warning voice4 ,one day he and ,abel were walking together in the fields4 ,abel1 no doubt1 was chatting in his usual gay and thoughtless manner4 ,the world was full of sunshine to him2 and he did not realize in the least what dark shadows were gathering about his brother's soul4 ,perhaps the conversation ran somewhat as follows3 ,he had just had an addition to his herd1 the finest calf one could imagine3 would not ,cain come to admire it8 ,and then1 to-morrow evening he was to play for the dancers on the green1 at the village feast3 would not ,cain join in the merry-making8 ,when the solitary1 embittered ,cain heard such talk as this the angry feeling in his heart rose up like a flood4 ,overmastered by his passion1 with a few wild1 incoherent words of rage he turned upon his brother and struck him one fierce blow4 ,ah1 that was a relief6 ,the pent-up feeling had found vent at last4 ,the braggart had received the chastisement he deserved6 ,and ,cain walked on2 and for a time continued to enjoy his satisfaction4 ,he had just noticed that ,abel1 when struck1 had staggered and fallen1 but he did not mind that4 ,let him lie there for a while2 he will pick himself up presently4 ,he may be lame for a few days1 and his milk-white face may not be so fair at the feast1 but that will be all the better for him4 ,it will teach him a lesson4 ,nevertheless1 when he had walked on for some distance he began to feel uneasy4 ,he looked around from time to time to see whether ,abel was following him1 and the voice of conscience began to be heard1 saying1 ,cain1 where is thy brother8 ,but he silenced it by saying to himself1 ,am ,i my brother's keeper8 ,is he such a child that he can not take care of himself--that he can not stand a blow8 ,but he kept looking back more and more often1 and when he saw no one coming1 he came at last to a dead halt4 ,his heart was beating violently by this time2 the beads of perspiration were gathered on his brow4 ,he turned back to seek his missing brother4 ,then1 as he did not meet him1 he began to run1 and faster and faster he ran1 until at last1 panting and out of breath1 with a horrible fear hounding him on1 he arrived at the place where he had struck the blow4 ,and there he saw--a pool of blood1 and the waxen face of his brother1 and the glazed1 broken eyes6 ,and then he realized what he had done4 ,and it is this situation which the ,bible has in view in the words1 ,behold1 thy brother's blood cries up from the earth against thee4 ,and then as he surveyed his deed in stony despair1 he said to himself1 ,i am accursed from the face of the earth--,i am unworthy to live4 ,the earth has no resting-place for such as ,i4 ,but a sign was given him to show him that his life would not be required of him4 ,he had not committed willful murder4 ,he had simply given the reins to his violent passion4 ,he must go into another land1 where no one knew him1 there through years of penance to try to regain his peace of soul4 ,the moral of the story is3 ,do not harbor evil thoughts in the mind4 ,if you have once given them entrance1 the acts to which they lead are beyond your control4 ,cain's sin consisted in not crushing the feeling of envy in the beginning2 in comparing his own lot with that of his more favored brother and dwelling on this comparison1 until1 in a fit of insane passion1 he was led on to the unspeakable crime which1 indeed1 he had never contemplated1 to which he had never given an inward assent4 ,the story also illustrates the vain subterfuges with which we still seek to smother the consciousness of guilt after we have done wrong1 until the time comes when our eyes are opened and we are compelled to face the consequences of our deeds and to realize them in all their bearings4 ,the story of ,cain and ,abel is thus a further development of the theme already treated in simpler fashion in the story of ,adam and ,eve1 only that1 while in the latter case the filial duty of obedience to parents is in the foreground1 attention is here directed to the duty which a brother owes to a brother4 ,it is a striking tale1 striking in the vividness with which it conjures up the circumstances before our minds and the clearness with which the principal motives are delineated2 and it contains an awful warning for all time4 ,the question here presents itself1 whether we should arrange the biblical stories according to subjects--e4 g41 grouping together all those which treat of duty to parents1 all those which deal with the relations of brothers to brothers1 etc4--or whether we should adopt the chronological arrangement4 ,on the whole1 ,i am in favor of the latter4 ,it is expected that the pupils1 as they grow older1 will undertake a more comprehensive study of the ,bible1 and for this they will be better prepared if they have been kept to the chronological order from the outset4 ,another more practical reason is1 that children tire of one subject if it is kept before their minds too long4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to arrange the stories in groups or cycles1 each of which will afford opportunity to touch on a variety of moral topics4 ,it will be impossible to continue to relate in extenso the stories which ,i have selected1 and ,i shall therefore content myself in the main with giving the points of each story upon which the teacher may lay stress4 ,the ,story of ,noah and his ,sons4 ,describe the beauty of the vine1 and of the purple grapes hanging in clusters amid the green leaves4 ,how sweet is this fruit to the taste6 ,but the juice of it has a dangerous property4 ,once there lived a man1 ,noah1 who had three sons4 ,he planted a vine1 plucked the grapes1 but did not know the dangerous property of the juice4 ,the second son1 on seeing his father in a state of intoxication1 allowed his sense of the ridiculous to overcome his feeling of reverence4 ,but the eldest and the youngest sons acted differently4 ,they took a garment1 covered their father with it1 and averted their faces so as not to see his disgrace4 ,the moral is quite important4 ,an intelligent child can not help detecting a fault now and then even in the best of parents4 ,but the right course for him to take is to throw the mantle over the fault1 and to turn away his face4 ,he should say to himself3 ,am ,i the one to judge my parents--,i who have been the recipient of so many benefits at their hands1 and who see in them so many virtues1 so much superior wisdom8 ,by such reasoning the feeling of reverence is even deepened4 ,the momentary superiority which the child feels serves only to bring out his general inferiority4 ,the ,abraham ,cycle4 ,there is a whole series of stories belonging to this group1 illustrating in turn the virtues of brotherly harmony1 generosity toward the weak1 hospitality toward strangers1 and maternal love4 ,abraham and ,lot are near kinsmen4 ,their servants quarrel1 and to avoid strife the former advises a separation4 ,if thou wilt go to the left1 he says1 ,i will turn to the right2 if thou preferrest the land to the right1 ,i will take the left4 ,abraham1 being the older1 was entitled to the first choice1 but he waived his claim4 ,lot chose the fairer portion1 and ,abraham willingly assented4 ,let there be no strife between us1 for we be brethren4 ,the lesson is1 that the older and wiser of two brothers or kinsmen may well yield a part of his rights for harmony's sake4 ,abraham's conduct toward the ,king of ,sodom is an instance of generosity4 ,the story of the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah may be introduced by describing the ,dead ,sea and the surrounding scene of desolation4 ,the moral lies in the circumstance that ill treatment of strangers brought down the doom4 ,hospitality toward strangers is one of the shining virtues of the ,old ,testament heroes4 ,even at the present day strangers are still despised and ridiculed by the vulgar1 their foreign manners1 language1 and habits seeming contemptible2 the lesson of hospitality is not yet superfluous4 ,the story of ,hagar and her ,child ,i should recast in such a way as to exclude what in it is repellent1 and retain the touching picture of maternal affection4 ,i should relate it somewhat as follows3 ,there was once a little lad whose name was ,ishmael4 ,he had lost his father and had only his mother to cling to4 ,she was a tall1 beautiful lady1 with dark eyes which were often very sad1 but they would light up1 and there was always a sweet smile on her lips whenever she looked at her darling boy4 ,ishmael and his mother1 ,hagar1 had never been separated2 they were all in all to each other4 ,one day it happened that they walked away from their home1 which was near the great1 sandy desert4 ,ishmael's mother was in deep distress1 there was something troubling her1 and every now and then a tear would steal down her cheeks4 ,ishmael was sad1 too1 because his mother was1 but he did not dare to ask her what it was that grieved her1 fearing to give her pain4 ,so they walked on and on1 holding each other's hands in silence4 ,but at last they saw that they had lost their way2 and they tried first one direction1 and then another1 thinking that it would bring them back toward home1 but they only got deeper and deeper into the vast1 lonely desert4 ,and the sun burned hot and hotter above their heads1 and little ,ishmael1 who had tried to keep up like a brave lad1 at last became so parched with thirst1 and so faint with want of food1 and so tired with walking--for they had wandered about for many1 many hours--that he could go on no farther4 ,then his mother took him up in her arms and laid him under a bush1 where there was a little shade4 ,and then1 oh then1 how her poor heart was wrung1 and how she wept to see her darling in such suffering1 and how she cried for help6 ,then she sat down on the glaring sand at some distance away1 and turned her face in the direction opposite to where ,ishmael was lying2 for she said1 ,i can not bear to see my boy die4 ,but just as she had given up all hope1 suddenly she saw a noble-looking man1 wearing the dress of the ,bedouins1 approach her4 ,he had come from behind one of the sand hills1 and it seemed to her as if he had come down straight from the sky4 ,he asked her why she was in such grief1 and when she told him1 and pointed to her little son1 he said3 ,it is fortunate that you have come to this place4 ,there is a beautiful oasis close by4 ,an oasis1 children1 is a spot of fruitful green earth right in the midst of the desert1 like an island in the ocean4 ,and the man took the boy up and carried him in his arms1 and ,hagar followed after him4 ,and presently1 when they came to the oasis1 they found a cool1 clear spring1 full of the most delicious water1 and palm-trees with ever so many dates on them1 and all the people who lived there gathered around them4 ,and the man who had been so kind proved to be the chief4 ,and he took charge of ,ishmael's education1 showed him how to shoot with the bow and how to hunt1 and was like a real father to him4 ,and when ,ishmael grew up he became a great chief of the ,bedouins4 ,but he always remained true to his mother1 and loved her with all his heart4 ,i am strongly in favor of omitting the story of the ,sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,i do not think we can afford to tell young children that a father was prepared to draw the knife against his own son1 even though he desisted in the end4 ,i should not be willing to inform a child that so horrible an impulse could have been entertained even for a moment in a parent's heart4 ,i regard the story1 indeed1 as1 from an historical point of view1 one of the most valuable in the ,bible2 it has a deep meaning2 but it is not food fit for children4 ,a great mistake has been made all along in supposing that whatever is true in religion must be communicated to children2 and that if anything be very true and very important we ought to hasten to give it to children as early as possible2 but there must be preparatory training4 ,and the greatest truths are often of such a kind as only the mature mind1 ripe in thought and experience1 is fitted to assimilate4 ,one of the most charming idyls of patriarchal times is the story of ,rebecca at the ,well4 ,it illustrates positively1 as the story of ,sodom does negatively1 the duty of hospitality toward strangers4 ,drink1 lord1 and ,i will give thy camels drink also1 is a pleasant phrase which is apt to stick in the memory4 ,moreover1 the story shows the high place which the trusted servant occupied in the household of his master1 and offers to the teacher an opportunity of dwelling on the respect due to faithful servants4 ,the ,jacob ,cycle4 ,what treatment shall ,jacob receive at our hands1 he1 the sly trickster1 who cheats his brother of his birthright and steals a father's blessing8 ,yet he is one of the patriarchs1 and is accorded the honorable title of champion of ,god4 ,to hold him up to the admiration of the young is impossible4 ,to gloss over his faults and try to explain them away were a sorry business1 and honesty forbids4 ,the ,bible itself gives us the right clew4 ,his faults are nowhere disguised4 ,he is represented as a person who makes a bad start in life--a very bad start1 indeed--but who pays the penalty of his wrong-doing4 ,his is a story of penitential discipline4 ,in telling the story1 all reference to the duplicity of ,rebecca should be omitted1 for the same reason that malicious step-mothers and cruel fathers have been excluded from the fairy tales4 ,the points to be discussed may be summarized as follows3 ,taking advantage of a brother in distress4--,jacob purchases the birthright for a mess of pottage4 ,tender attachment to a helpless old father4--,esau goes out hunting to supply a special delicacy for his father's table4 ,this is a point which children will appreciate4 ,unable to confer material benefits on their parents1 they can only show their love by slight attentions4 ,deceit4--,jacob simulates the appearance of his older brother and steals the blessing4 ,in this connection it will be necessary to say that a special power was supposed to attach to a father's blessing1 and that the words once spoken were deemed irrevocable4 ,jacob's penitential discipline begins4--,the deceiver is deceived1 and made to feel in his own person the pain and disappointment which deceit causes4 ,he is repeatedly cheated by his master ,laban1 especially in the matter which is nearest to him1 his love for ,rachel4 ,the forgiveness of injuries4--,esau's magnanimous conduct toward his brother4 ,the evil consequences of tale-bearing and conceit4--,it is a significant fact that ,joseph is not a mere coxcomb4 ,he is a man of genius1 as his later career proves1 and the stirrings of his genius manifest themselves in his early dreams of future greatness4 ,persons of this description are not always pleasant companions1 especially in their youth4 ,they have not yet accomplished anything to warrant distinction1 and yet they feel within themselves the presentiment of a destiny and of achievements above the ordinary4 ,their faults1 their arrogance1 their seemingly preposterous claims1 are not to be excused1 but neither is the envy they excite excusable4 ,one of the hardest things to learn is to recognize without envy the superiority of a brother4 ,moral cowardice4--,reuben is guilty of moral cowardice4 ,he was an opportunist1 who sought to accomplish his ends by diplomacy4 ,if he1 as the oldest brother1 had used his authority and boldly denounced the contemplated crime1 he might have averted the long train of miseries that followed4 ,strength and depth of paternal love4--,joseph is no more3 an evil beast has devoured him4 ,i will go mourning for my son ,joseph into the grave4 ,it is a piece of poetic justice that ,jacob1 who deceived his father in the matter of the blessing by covering himself with the skin of a kid1 is himself deceived by the blood of a kid of the goats with which the coat of ,joseph had been stained4 ,in speaking of the temptation of ,joseph in the house of ,potiphar1 it is enough to say that the wife conspired against her husband1 and endeavored to induce ,joseph to betray his master4 ,a pretty addition to the story is to be found in the ,talmud1 to the effect that ,joseph saw in imagination the face of his father before him in the moment of temptation1 and was thereby strengthened to resist4 ,the light of a superior mind can not be hidden even in a prison4--,joseph wins the favor of his fellow-prisoners1 and an opportunity is thus opened to him to exercise his talents on the largest scale4 ,affliction chastens4--,the famine had in the mean time spread to ,palestine4 ,the shadow of the grief for ,joseph still lay heavily on the household of the patriarch4 ,joseph is lost2 shall ,benjamin1 too1 perish8 ,it is pleasant to observe that the character of the brothers in the mean time has been changed for the better4 ,there is evidently a lurking sense of guilt and a desire to atone for it in the manner in which ,judah pledges himself for the safety of the youngest child4 ,and the same marked change is visible in the conduct of all the brothers on the journey4 ,the stratagem of the cup was cunningly devised to test their feelings4 ,they might have escaped by throwing the blame on ,benjamin4 ,instead of that1 they dread nothing so much as that he may have to suffer1 and are willing to sacrifice everything to save him4 ,when this new spirit has become thoroughly apparent1 the end to which the whole group of ,jacob stories pointed all along is reached2 the work of moral regeneration is complete4 ,jacob himself has been purified by affliction1 and the brothers and ,joseph have been developed by the same hard taskmaster into true men4 ,the scene of recognition which follows1 when the great vice-regent orders his attendants from the apartment and embraces those who once attempted his life1 with the words1 ,i am ,joseph1 your brother3 does my father still live8 is touching in the extreme1 and the whole ends happily in a blaze of royal pomp1 like a true ,eastern tale4 ,a word as to the method which should be used in teaching these stories4 ,if the fairy tale holds the moral element in solution1 if the fable drills the pupil in distinguishing one moral trait at a time1 the biblical stories exhibit a combination of moral qualities1 or1 more precisely1 the interaction of moral causes and effects2 and it is important for the teacher to give expression to this difference in the manner in which he handles the stories4 ,thus1 in the fables we have simply one trait1 like ingratitude1 and its immediate consequences4 ,the snake bites the countryman1 and is cast out2 there the matter ends4 ,in the story of ,joseph we have1 first1 the partiality of the father1 which produces or encourages self-conceit in the son2 ,joseph's conceit produces envy in the brothers4 ,this envy reacts on all concerned--on ,joseph1 who in consequence is sold into slavery2 on the father1 who is plunged into inconsolable grief2 on the brothers1 who nearly become murderers4 ,the servitude of ,joseph destroys his conceit and develops his nobler nature4 ,industry1 fidelity1 and sagacity raise him to high power4 ,the sight of the constant affliction of their father on account of ,joseph's loss mellows the heart of the brothers1 etc4 ,it is this interweaving of moral causes and effects that gives to the stories their peculiar value4 ,they are true moral pictures2 and1 like the pictures used in ordinary object lessons1 they serve to train the power of observation4 ,trained observation1 however1 is the indispensable preliminary of correct moral judgment4 ,the ,moses ,cycle4 ,the figures of the patriarchs and the prophets appeal to us with a fresh interest the moment we regard them as human beings like ourselves1 who were tempted as we are1 who struggled as we are bound to do1 and who acted1 howsoever the divine economy might supervene1 on their own responsibility4 ,looked at from this point of view1 the figure of ,moses1 the ,liberator1 approaches our sympathies at the same time that he towers in imposing proportions above our level4 ,let us briefly review his career4 ,like ,arminius at a later day1 he is educated at the court of the enemies of his people4 ,in dress1 in manners1 in speech1 he doubtless resembles the grandees of ,pharaoh's court4 ,when he approaches the well in ,midian1 the daughter of ,jethro exclaims1 ,behold1 an ,egyptian is coming6 ,but at heart he remains a ,hebrew1 and is deeply touched by the cruel sufferings of his race4 ,his first public intervention on their behalf takes place when he strikes down and kills a native overseer whom he detects in the act of maltreating a ,hebrew slave4 ,this is characteristic of the manner in which reformers begin4 ,they direct their first efforts against the particular consequences of some great general wrong4 ,later on they perceive the uselessness of such a procedure and take heart to attack the evil at its source4 ,moses flees into the desert4 ,the lonely life he leads there is necessary to the development of his ideas4 ,solitude is essential to the growth of genius4 ,the burning bush is the outward symbol of an inward fact4 ,the fire which can not be quenched is in his own breast1 and out of that inward burning he hears more and more distinctly the voice which bids him go back and free his people4 ,but when he considers the means at his disposal1 when in fancy he sees his people1 a miserable horde of slaves1 pitted against the armed hosts of ,pharaoh1 he is ready to despair2 until he hears the comforting voice1 which says1 ,the ,eternal is with thee2 the unchangeable power of right is on thy side3 it will prevail6 ,like ,jeremiah1 like ,isaiah1 like all great reformers1 ,moses is profoundly imbued with the sense of his unfitness for the task laid upon him4 ,he pleads that he is heavy of speech4 ,he can only stammer forth the message of freedom4 ,but he is reassured by the thought that a brother will be found1 that helpers will arise1 that the thought which he can barely formulate will be translated by other lesser men into a form suitable for the popular understanding4 ,he returns to ,egypt to find that the greatest obstacle in his way is the lethargy and unbelief of the very people whom he wishes to help4 ,this again is a typical feature of his career4 ,the greatest trials of the reformer are due not to the open enmity of the oppressor1 but to the meanness1 the distrust and jealousy1 of those whom oppression has degraded4 ,at last1 however1 the miracle of salvation is wrought1 the weak prevail over the mighty1 the cause of justice triumphs against all apparent odds to the contrary4 ,the slaves rise against their masters1 the flower of ,egyptian chivalry is destroyed4 ,pharaoh rallies his army and sets out in pursuit4 ,but the ,hebrews1 under ,moses's guidance1 have gained the start1 and escape into the wilderness in safety4 ,freedom is a precious opportunity--no more4 ,its value depends on the use to which it is put4 ,and therefore1 no sooner was the act of liberation accomplished1 than the great leader turned to the task of positive legislation1 the task of developing a higher moral life among his people4 ,but here a new and keener disappointment awaited him4 ,when he descended from the mount1 the glow of inspiration still upon his face1 the tablets of the law in his hand1 he saw the people dancing about the golden calf4 ,it is at this moment that ,michel ,angelo1 deeply realizing the human element in the biblical story1 has represented the form of the liberator in the colossal figure which was destined for ,pope ,julius's tomb4 ,the right foot is slightly advanced2 the long beard trembles with the emotion which quivers through the whole frame2 the eyes flash indignant wrath2 the right hand grasps the tablets of the law2 in another moment1 we see it plainly1 he will leap from his sitting posture and shatter the work which he has made upon the rocks4 ,this trait1 too1 is typical4 ,many a leader of a noble cause has felt1 in moments of deep disappointment1 as if he could shatter the whole work of his life4 ,many a man1 in like situation1 has said to himself3 ,the people are willing enough to hail the message of the higher law to-day1 but to-morrow they sink back into their dull1 degraded condition1 as if the vision from the mount had never been reported to them4 ,let me1 then1 leave them to their dreary ways1 to dance about their golden calf4 ,but a better and stronger mood prevailed in ,moses4 ,he ascended once more to the summit1 and there prostrated himself in utter self-renunciation and self-effacement4 ,he asked nothing for himself1 only that the people whom he loved might be benefited ever so little1 be raised ever so slowly above their low condition4 ,and again the questioning spirit came upon him1 and he said1 as many another has said3 ,the paths of progress are dark and twisted2 the course of history seems so often to be in the wrong direction4 ,how can ,i be sure that there is such a thing as eternal truth--that the right will prevail in the end8 ,and then there came to him that grand revelation1 the greatest1 as ,i think1 and the most sublime in the ,old ,testament1 when the eternal voice answered his doubt1 and said3 ,thou wouldst know my ways1 but canst not4 ,no living being can see my face2 only from the rearward canst thou know me4 ,as a ship sails through the waters and leaves its wake behind1 so the divine ,power passes through the world and leaves behind the traces by which it can be known4 ,and what are those traces8 ,justice and mercy4 ,cherish1 therefore1 the divine element in thine own nature1 and thou wilt see it reflected in the world about thee4 ,wouldst thou be sure that there is such a thing as a divine ,power8 be thyself just and merciful4 ,and so ,moses descended again to his people1 and became exceeding charitable in spirit4 ,the ,bible says3 ,the man ,moses was exceeding humble2 there was no one more humble than he on the face of the earth4 ,he bore with resignation their complaints1 their murmurings1 their alternate cowardice and foolhardiness4 ,he was made to feel1 like many another in his place1 that his foes were they of his own household4 ,he had an only brother and an only sister4 ,his brother and sister rose up against him4 ,his kinsmen1 too1 revolted from him4 ,he endured all their weakness1 all their follies2 he sought to lift them by slow degrees to the height of his own aims4 ,he set the paths of life and death before them1 and told them that the divine word can not be found by crossing the seas or by searching the heavens1 but must be found in the human heart2 and if men find it not there they will find it nowhere else4 ,and so1 at last1 his pilgrimage drew to a close4 ,he had reached the confines of ,palestine4 ,once more he sought the mountain-top1 and there beheld the promised land stretching far away--the land which his eyes were to see but which he was never to enter4 ,few great reformers1 indeed few men who have started a great movement in history1 and have been the means of producing deep and permanent changes in the ideas and institutions of society1 have lived to see those changes consummated4 ,the course of evolution is slow1 and the reformer can hope at best to see the promised land from afar--as in a dream4 ,happy he if1 like ,moses1 he retains the force of his convictions unabated1 if his spiritual sight remains undimmed1 if the splendid vision which attended him in the beginning inspires and consoles him to the end4 ,the narrative which has thus been sketched touches on some of the weightiest problems of human existence1 and deals with motives both complex and lofty4 ,i have entered into the interpretation of these motives for the purpose of showing that they are too complex and too lofty to be within the comprehension of children1 and that it is an error1 though unfortunately a common one1 to attempt to use the grand career of a reformer and liberator as a text for the moral edification of the very young4 ,they are wholly unprepared to understand1 and that which is not understood1 if forced on the attention1 awakens repugnance and disgust4 ,few of those who have been compelled to study the life of ,moses in their childhood have ever succeeded in conquering this repugnance1 or have drawn from it1 even in later life1 the inspiration and instruction which it might otherwise have afforded them4 ,for our primary course1 however1 we can extract a few points interesting even to children1 thus making them familiar with the name of ,moses1 and preparing the way for a deeper interest later on4 ,the incidents of the story which ,i should select are these3 ,the child ,moses exposed on the ,nile2 the good sister watching over his safety2 the kind princess adopting him as her son2 the sympathy manifested by him for his enslaved brethren despite his exemption from their misfortunes4 ,the killing of the ,egyptian should be represented as a crime1 palliated but not excused by the cruelty of the overseer4 ,special stress may be laid upon the chivalric conduct of ,moses toward the young girls at the well of ,midian4 ,the teacher may then go on to say that ,moses1 having succeeded in freeing his people from the power of the ,egyptian king1 became their chief1 that many wise laws are ascribed to him1 etc4 ,the story of the spies1 and of the end of ,moses1 may also be briefly told4 ,the mention of the laws of ,moses leads me to offer a suggestion4 ,i have remarked above that children should be taught to observe moral pictures before any attempt is made to deduce moral principles2 but certain simple rules should be given even to the very young--must1 indeed1 be given them for their guidance4 ,now1 in the legislation ascribed to ,moses we find a number of rules fit for children1 and a collection of these rules might be made for the use of schools4 ,they should be committed to memory by the pupils1 and perhaps occasionally recited in chorus4 ,i have in mind such rules as these3#ab #a4 ,ye shall not lie4 7,many persons who pay attention only to the ,decalogue1 and forget the legislation of which it forms a part1 seem not to be aware that there is in the ,pentateuch ,lev4 xix1 #aa a distinct commandment against lying47 #b4 ,ye shall not deceive one another4 #c4 ,ye shall take no bribe4 #d4 ,honor thy father and thy mother4 #e4 ,every one shall reverence his mother and his father4 7,note that the father is placed first in the one passage and the mother first in the other1 to indicate the equal title of both to their children's reverence47 #f4 ,thou shalt not speak disrespectfully of those in authority4 #g4 ,before the hoary head thou shalt rise and pay honor to the aged4 #aj4 ,thou shalt not spread false reports4 #aa4 ,thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy fellows4 #ab4 ,thou shalt not hate thy neighbor in thy heart1 but shalt warn him of his evil-doing4 #ac4 ,thou shalt not bear a grudge against any1 but thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4 #h4 ,thou shalt not speak evil of the deaf 7thinking that he can not hear thee71 nor put an obstacle in the way of the blind4 #i4 ,if there be among you a poor man1 thou shalt not harden thy heart1 nor shut thy hand from thy poor brother1 but thou shalt open thy hand wide unto him1 and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need4 #ad4 ,if thou seest the property of thine enemy threatened with destruction1 thou shalt do thy utmost to save it4 #ae4 ,if thou findest what is not thine own1 and the owner is not known to thee1 guard it carefully1 that thou mayest restore it to its rightful owner4 #af4 ,thou shalt not do evil because many others are doing the same evil4 ,bearing grudges1 lying1 mocking those who 7like the deaf and blind7 are afflicted with personal defects1 appropriating what is found without attempting to discover the owner1 seeking to excuse wrong on the plea that many others are guilty of it--all these are forms of moral evil with which children are perfectly familiar1 and against which they need to be warned4 ,it is more than strange that such commandments as the sixth and eighth of the ,decalogue 7the commandment against murder and against adultery1 forsooth71 which are inapplicable to little children1 should be made so much of in primary moral instruction1 while those other commandments which do come home to them are often overlooked4 ,the theory here expounded1 that moral teaching should keep pace with the experience and intelligence of the child1 should save us from such mistakes4 ,to proceed with the stories1 the book of ,joshua offers nothing that we can turn to account1 nor do the stories of ,jael1 ,deborah1 and ,gideon contain moral lessons fit for the young4 ,sour milk is not proper food for children1 nor do those stories afford the proper moral food in which1 so to speak1 the milk of human kindness has turned sour4 ,the labors of ,samson1 the ,hebrew ,hercules1 are likewise unfit to be used at this stage1 at least for the purpose of moral instruction4 ,the story of the daughter of ,jephtha1 the ,hebrew ,iphigenia1 is exquisitely pathetic1 but it involves the horrible idea of human sacrifice1 and therefore had better be omitted4 ,the acts and speeches of ,samuel mark an epoch in the history of the ,hebrew religion1 and are of profound interest to the scholar4 ,but there are certain features1 such as the killing of ,agag1 which would have to be eliminated in any case2 then the theological and moral elements are so blended that it would be difficult if not impossible to separate them2 and altogether the character of this mighty ancient seer1 this ,hebrew ,warwick1 this king-maker and enemy of kings1 is above the comprehension of primary scholars4 ,we shall therefore omit the whole intervening period1 and pass at once from the ,moses cycle to ,the ,david ,cycle4 ,the first story of this group is that of ,naomi and ,ruth1 the ancestress of ,david4 ,upon the matchless beauty of this tale it is unnecessary to expatiate4 ,i wish to remark1 however1 in passing that it illustrates as well as any other--better perhaps than any other--the peculiar art of the biblical narrative to which we have referred above4 ,if any one at the present day were asked to decide whether a woman placed in ,ruth's situation would act rightly in leaving her home and following an aged mother-in-law to a distant country1 how many pros and cons would he have to weigh before he would be able to say yes or no8 ,are her own parents still living1 and are they so situated that she is justified in leaving them8 ,are there other blood relations who have a prior claim on her8 ,has she raised expectations at home which she ought not to disappoint1 or undertaken duties which ought not to be set aside in deference to a sentiment no matter how noble8 ,of all such side issues and complications of duty which would render a decision like hers difficult in modern times1 the story as we have it before us is cleared4 ,all minor traits are suppressed4 ,it is assumed that she has a right to go if she pleases1 and the mind is left free to dwell1 unimpeded by any counter-considerations1 upon the beauty of her choice4 ,this choice derives its excellence from the fact that it was perfectly free4 ,there was no tie of consanguinity between ,naomi and her4 ,the two women were related in such a way that the bond might either be drawn more tightly or severed without blame4 ,orpah1 too1 pitied her mother-in-law4 ,she wept1 but she returned to her home4 ,we can not1 on that account1 condemn her4 ,it was not her bounden duty to go4 ,ruth1 on the other hand1 might perhaps have satisfied her more sensitive conscience by accompanying her mother-in-law as far as ,bethlehem1 and then returning to ,moab4 ,but she preferred instead exile and the hardships of a life among strangers4 ,not being a daughter1 she freely took upon herself the duties of a daughter2 and it is this that constitutes the singular merit of her action4 ,in telling the story it is best to follow the original as closely as possible4 ,entreat me not to leave thee1 nor to desist from following after thee1 for whither thou goest1 ,i will go2 and where thou lodgest1 ,i will lodge3 thy people shall be my people3 where thou diest will ,i die and there will ,i be buried4 ,where in universal literature shall we find words more eloquent of tender devotion than these8 ,it will be noticed that ,i have left out the phrase and thy ,god shall be my ,god for two reasons4 ,no matter how much we may love another person1 religious convictions ought to be held sacred4 ,we have no right to give up our convictions even for affection's sake4 ,moreover1 the words correctly understood are really nothing but an amplification of what has preceded4 ,the language of ,ruth refers throughout to the proposed change of country4 ,whither thou goest1 ,i will go2 where thou lodgest1 ,i will lodge3 thy folk shall be my folk2 where thou diest1 ,i will die4 ,and the phrase ,thy ,god shall be my ,god has the same meaning4 ,the ancients believed that every country has its ,god1 and to say ,thy ,god shall be my ,god was tantamount to saying ,thy country shall be my country4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to omit these words4 ,were we to retain them1 the impression might be created that ,ruth contemplated a change of religion merely to please the aged ,naomi1 and such a step from a moral point of view would be unwarrantable4 ,it was this ,gentile woman ,ruth who became the ancestress of the royal house of ,david4 ,the story of ,david's life is replete with dramatic interest4 ,it may be arranged in a series of pictures4 ,first picture3 ,david and ,goliath--i4 e41 skill pitted against brute strength1 or the deserved punishment of a bully4 ,every boy takes comfort in this story4 ,second picture3 ,david and ,jonathan1 their arms twined about each other's neck1 a beautiful example of youthful friendship4 ,especially should the unselfishness of ,jonathan be noted4 ,he1 the ,hebrew crown prince1 so far from being jealous of his rival1 recognized the superior qualities of the latter and served him with the most generous fidelity4 ,third picture3 ,david the harper1 playing before the gloomy1 moody king1 whom an evil spirit has possessed4 ,it should be noted how difficult is the task incumbent upon ,jonathan of combining his duty to his father and his affection for his friend4 ,yet he fails in neither4 ,fourth picture3 ,david's loyalty manifest4 ,he has the monarch in his power in the camp1 in the cave1 and proves that there is no evil intention in his mind4 ,the words of ,saul are very touching1 ,is it thy voice ,i hear1 my son ,david8 ,fifth picture3 the battle1 the tragical end of ,saul and ,jonathan4 ,the dirge of ,david floats above the field3 ,the beauty of ,israel is slain upon the high places4 ,how are the mighty fallen6 etc4 ,a second series of pictures now begins4 ,david is crowned king1 first by his clansmen1 then by the united tribes4 ,david1 while besieging ,bethlehem1 is athirst and there is no water4 ,three of his soldiers cut their way to the well near the gate1 which is guarded by the enemy1 and bring back a cup of water4 ,he refuses it1 saying3 ,it is not water1 but the blood of the men who have risked their lives for me4 ,omitting the story of ,bathsheba1 we come next to the rebellion of ,absalom4 ,the incidents of this rebellion may be depicted as follows3 ,first1 ,absalom in his radiant beauty at the feast of the sheep-shearer4 ,next1 ,absalom at the gate playing the demagogue1 secretly inciting the people to revolt4 ,next1 ,david ascending ,mount ,olivet weeping1 the base ,shimei1 going along a parallel ridge1 flinging stones at the king and reviling him4 ,david remarks3 ,if my own son seek my life1 how shall ,i be angry with this ,benjamite8 ,next1 the death of ,absalom in the wood4 ,finally1 ,david at the gate receiving the news of ,absalom's death1 and breaking forth into the piercing cry3 ,o my son ,absalom1 my son1 my son ,absalom6 would ,god ,i had died for thee6 ,o ,absalom1 my son1 my son6 ,it is the story of a rebellious and undutiful child1 and illustrates by contrast the unfathomable depth of a father's love1 of a love that yearns even over the wicked1 over the lost4 ,the points of the stories included in the ,david cycle are3 skill and courage triumphant over brute strength1 unselfish friendship1 loyalty1 a leader's generosity toward his followers1 and parental love4 ,the arrangement of the words in the lament of ,david for his son deserves to be specially noted4 ,it corresponds to and vividly describes the rhythmic movements of the emotions excited by great sorrow4 ,from the life of ,solomon we select only the judgment1 related in ,i ,kings1 iii4 ,we may compare with it a similar story1 showing1 however1 interesting variations1 in the ,jataka tales4 ,with this our selections from the ,old ,testament narrative come to an end4 ,the ideal types are exhausted1 and the figures which now appear upon the scene stand before us in the dry light of history4 ,from the ,new ,testament we select for the primary course the story of the ,good ,samaritan1 as illustrative of true charity4 ,selected passages from the ,sermon on the ,mount may also be explained and committed to memory4 ,the ,beatitudes1 however1 and the parables lie outside our present limits1 presupposing as they do a depth of spiritual experience which is lacking in children4 ,,note4--,it should be remembered that the above selections have been made with a view to their being included in a course of unsectarian moral instruction4 ,such a course must not express the religious tenets of any sect or denomination4 ,much that has here been omitted1 however1 can be taught in the ,sunday schools1 the existence of which alongside of the daily schools is1 as ,i have said1 presupposed in these lectures4 ,i have simply tried to cull the moral meaning of the stories1 leaving1 as ,i believe1 the way open for divergent religious interpretations of the same stories4 ,but ,i realize that the religious teacher may claim the ,bible wholly for his own1 and may not be willing to share even a part of its treasure with the moral teacher4 ,if this be so1 then these selections from the ,bible1 for the present1 at all events1 will have to be omitted4 ,they can1 nevertheless1 be used by judicious parents1 and some if not all of the suggestions they contain may prove acceptable to teachers of ,sunday schools4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,in his ,introduction to ,homer4 #ab ,i have taken the liberty of altering the language here and there1 for reasons that will be obvious in each case4 ,x ,,the ,,odyssey ,,and ,,the ,,iliad4 ,as we leave the field of biblical literature and turn to the classic epic of ,greece1 a new scene spreads out before us1 new forms and faces crowd around us1 we breathe a different atmosphere4 ,the poems of ,homer among the ,greeks occupied a place in many respects similar to that of the ,bible among the ,hebrews4 ,at ,athens there was a special ordinance that the ,homeric poems should be recited once every fourth year at the great ,panathenaic festival4 ,on this occasion the rhapsode1 standing on an elevated platform1 arrayed in rich robes1 with a golden wreath about his head1 addressed an audience of many thousands4 ,the poems were made the subject of mystical1 allegorical1 and rationalistic interpretation1 precisely as was the case with the text of the ,bible4 ,as late as the first century of our era1 the first book placed in the hands of children1 the book from which they learned to read and write1 was ,homer4 ,xenophon in the ,symposium has one of the guests say3 ,my father1 anxious that ,i should become a good man1 made me learn all the poems of ,homer1 and now ,i could repeat the whole ,iliad and ,odyssey by heart4#ac ,we shall not go quite to the same length as ,xenophon4 ,we should hardly think it sufficient in order to make a good man of a boy to place ,homer in his hands4 ,but we do believe that the knowledge of the ,homeric poems1 introduced at the right time and in the right way1 will contribute to such a result4 ,let us1 however1 examine more closely in what the value of these poems consists4 ,ulysses is the hero of the ,odyssey1 ,achilles of the ,iliad4 ,ulysses is pre-eminently the type of resourceful intelligence1 ,achilles of valor4 ,in what way will these types appeal to our pupils8 ,as the boy develops beyond the early period of childhood1 there shows itself in him a spirit of adventure4 ,this has been noticed by all careful educators4 ,now1 there is a marked difference between the spirit of adventure and the spirit of play4 ,play consists in the free exercise of our faculties4 ,its characteristic mark is the absence of taxing effort4 ,the child is said to be at play when it frolics in the grass1 when it leaps or runs a race1 or when it imitates the doings of its elders4 ,as soon1 however1 as the exertion required in carrying on a game becomes appreciable1 the game is converted into a task and loses its charm4 ,the spirit of adventure1 on the contrary1 is called forth by obstacles2 it delights in the prospect of difficulties to be overcome2 it is the sign of a fresh and apparently boundless energy1 which has not yet been taught its limitations by the rough contact with realities4 ,the spirit of adventure begins to develop in children when the home life no longer entirely contents them1 when they wish to be freed from the constraint of dependence on others1 when it seems to them as if the whole world lay open to them and they could dare and do almost anything4 ,it is at this time that children love to read tales of travel1 and especially tales of the sea1 of shipwreck1 and hair-breadth escapes1 of monsters slain by dauntless heroes1 of rescue and victory1 no matter how improbable or impossible the means4 ,now success in such adventures depends largely on courage4 ,and it is good for children to have examples even of physical courage set before them1 provided it be not brutal4 ,the craven heart ought to be despised4 ,mere good intentions ought not to count4 ,unless one has the resolute will1 the fearless soul1 that can face difficulties and danger without flinching1 he will never be able to do a man's work in the world4 ,this lesson should be imprinted early4 ,a second prerequisite of success is presence of mind1 or what has been called above resourceful intelligence4 ,and this quality is closely allied with the former4 ,presence of mind is the result of bravery4 ,the mind will act even in perilous situations if it be not paralyzed by fear4 ,it is fear that causes the wheels of thought to stop4 ,if one can only keep off the clog of fear1 the mind will go on revolving and often find a way of escape where there seemed none4 ,be not a coward1 be brave and clear-headed in the midst of peril--these are lessons the force of which is appreciated by the growing pupil4 ,the ,iliad and ,odyssey teach them on every page4 ,bravery and presence of mind1 it is true1 are commonly regarded as worldly1 rather than as1 in the strict sense1 moral qualities4 ,however that may be--and ,i1 for one1 am inclined to rank true courage and true presence of mind among the highest manifestations of the moral nature--these qualities when they show themselves in the young soon exert a favorable influence on the whole character1 and serve especially to transform the attitude of the child toward its parents4 ,hitherto the young child has been content to be the mere recipient of favors2 as soon as the new consciousness of strength1 the new sense of independence and manliness has developed1 the son begins to feel that he would like to give to his parents as well as to receive from them2 to be of use to his father1 and to confer benefits1 as far as he is able1 in the shape of substantial services4 ,these remarks will find their application in the analysis of the ,odyssey1 which we shall presently attempt4 ,the ,odyssey is a tale of the sea4 ,ulysses is the type of sagacity1 as well as of bravery1 his mind teems with inventions4 ,in the boy ,telemachus we behold a son struggling to cut loose from his mother's leading-strings1 and laudably ambitious to be of use to his parents4 ,in the ,odyssey we gain a distinct advance upon the moral results obtained from the study of the biblical stories4 ,in the ,bible it is chiefly the love of parents for their children which is dwelt upon1 in the ,odyssey the devotion of children to their parents2 and this1 of course1 marks a later stage4 ,in the ,odyssey1 too1 the conjugal relation comes into the foreground4 ,in the ,bible1 the love of the husband for his wife is repeatedly touched upon4 ,but the love of the wife for the husband is not equally emphasized1 and the relations between the two do not receive particular attention4 ,the joint authority of both parents over their children is the predominant fact1 the delicate bonds of feeling which subsist between the parents themselves are not in view4 ,and this again corresponds to the earlier stage of childhood4 ,the young child perceives the joint love which father and mother bear toward it1 and feels the joint authority which they exercise over it4 ,but as the child grows up1 its eyes are opened to perceive more clearly the love which the parents bear to one another1 and its affection for both is fed and the desire to serve them is strengthened by this new insight4 ,thus it is in the ,odyssey4 ,the yearning of ,ulysses for his wife1 the fidelity of ,penelope during twenty years of separation1 are the leading theme of the narrative1 and the effect of this love upon their son is apparent throughout the poem4 ,let us now consider the ethical elements of the ,odyssey in some detail1 arranging them under separate heads4 #a4 ,conjugal affection4 ,ulysses has been for seven years a prisoner in the cave of ,calypso4 ,the nymph of the golden hair offers him the gift of immortality if he will consent to be her husband1 but he is proof against her blandishments1 and asks for nothing but to be dismissed1 so that he may see his dear home and hold his own true wife once more in his arms4 ,apart upon the shore ,he sat and sorrowed4 ,and oft in tears ,and sighs and vain repinings passed the hours1 ,gazing with wet eyes on the barren deep4#ad ,i would remark that1 as the poem is too long to be read through entirely1 and as there are passages in it which should be omitted1 it is advisable for the teacher to narrate the story1 quoting1 however1 such passages as give point to the narrative or have a special beauty of their own4 ,read the description of ,calypso's cave v1 #gc1 ff4 ,penelope meantime is patiently awaiting her husband's return4 ,read the passages which describe her great beauty1 especially that lovely word-picture in which she is described as standing by a tall column in the hall1 a maid on either side1 a veil hiding her lustrous face1 while she addresses the suitors4 ,the noblest princes of ,ithaca and the surrounding isles entreat her hand in marriage1 and1 thinking that ,ulysses will never return1 hold high revels in his house1 and shamelessly consume his wealth4 ,read the passage ii1 #aaf-afj1 describing ,penelope's device to put off the suitors1 and at the same time to avert the danger which would have threatened her son in case she had openly broken with the chiefs4 ,the love of ,penelope is further set vividly before us by many delicate touches4 ,every stranger who arrives in ,ithaca is hospitably entertained by the queen1 and loaded with gifts1 in the hope that he may bring her some news of her absent lord1 and often she is deceived by wretches who speculate on her credulous grief4 ,see the passage xiv1 #aee4 ,during the day she is busy with her household cares1 overseeing her maids1 and seeking to divert her mind by busy occupation2 but at night the silence and the solitude become intolerable1 and she weeps her eyes out on her lonely couch4 ,how the love of ,penelope influences her boy1 who was a mere babe when his father left for ,troy1 how the whole atmosphere of the house is charged with the sense of expectancy of the master's return1 is shown in the passage ii1 #dci1 where ,telemachus says3 ,nurse1 let sweet wine be drawn into my jars1 ,the finest next to that which thou dost keep1 ,expecting our unhappy lord1 if yet ,the nobly born ,ulysses shall escape ,the doom of death and come to us again4 ,the best cheer1 the finest wine1 the best of everything is kept ready against the father's home-coming1 which may be looked for any day1 if haply he has escaped the doom of death4 ,there is one passage in which we might suspect that the poet has intended to show the hardening effect of grief on ,penelope's character1 xv1 #dgi4 ,penelope does not speak to her old servants any more2 she passes them by without a word1 apparently without seeing them4 ,she does not attend to their wants as she used to do1 and they1 in turn1 do not dare to address her4 ,but we may forgive this seeming indifference inasmuch as it only shows how completely she is absorbed by her sorrow4 ,a companion picture to the love of ,ulysses and ,penelope is to be found in the conjugal relation of ,alcinous1 king of ,phaeacia1 and his wife ,arete1 as described in the sixth book and the following4 ,this whole episode is incomparably beautiful4 ,was there ever a more perfect embodiment of girlish grace and modesty1 coupled with sweetest frankness1 than ,nausicaa8 ,and what a series of lovely pictures is made to pass in quick succession before our eyes as we read the story6 ,first1 ,nausicaa1 moved by the desire to prepare her wedding garments against her unknown lover's coming1 not ashamed to acknowledge the motive to her own pure heart1 but veiling it discreetly before her mother2 then the band of maidens setting out upon their picnic party1 ,nausicaa holding the reins2 next the washing of the garments1 the bath1 the game of ball1 the sudden appearance of ,ulysses1 the flight of her companions1 the brave girl being left to keep her place alone1 with a courage born of pity for the stranger1 and of virtuous womanhood4 ,alone ,the daughter of ,alcinous kept her place1 ,for ,pallas gave her courage and forbade ,her limb to tremble4 ,so she waited there4 ,who that has inhaled the fragrance of her presence from these pages can ever forget the white-armed ,nausicaa6 ,then follows the picture of the palace1 a feast for the imagination1 the most magnificent description1 ,i think1 in the whole poem4 ,for on every side beneath ,the lofty roof of that magnanimous king ,a glory shone as of the summer moons4 ,read from l4 #ajj-abh1 book vii4 ,next we witness the splendid hospitality proffered to the stranger guest4 ,for again and again in this poem the noble sentiment is repeated1 that the stranger and the poor are sent from ,jove4 ,then we see ,ulysses engaged in the games1 outdoing the rest1 or standing aside and watching the twinkle of the dancer's feet4 ,the language1 too1 used on these occasions is strikingly noble1 so courteous and well-chosen1 so simple and dignified1 conveying rich meanings in the fewest possible words4 ,what can be finer1 e4 g41 than ,nausicaa's farewell to ,ulysses8 ,now1 when the maids ,had seen him bathed1 and had anointed him ,with oil1 and put his sumptuous mantle on1 ,and tunic1 forth he issued from the bath1 ,and came to those who sat before their wine4 ,nausicaa1 goddess-like in beauty1 stood ,beside a pillar of that noble roof1 ,and1 looking on ,ulysses as he passed1 ,admired1 and said to him in winged words-- ',stranger1 farewell1 and in thy native land ,remember thou hast owed thy life to me4' ,nausicaa1 it is evident1 loves ,ulysses2 she stands beside a pillar1 a favorite attitude for beautiful women with ,homer1 and as ,ulysses passes1 she addresses to him those few words so fraught with tenderness and renunciation4 ,ulysses's own speech to ,arete1 too1 is a model of simplicity and dignity1 possessing1 it seems to me1 something of the same quality which we admire in the speeches of ,othello4 ,but throughout this narrative1 pre-eminent above all the other figures in it is the figure of the queen herself1 of ,arete4 ,such a daughter as ,nausicaa could only come from such a mother4 ,to her ,ulysses is advised to address his supplication4 ,she is the wise matron1 the peace-maker who composes the angry feuds of the men4 ,and she possesses the whole heart and devotion of her husband4 ,her ,alcinous made his wife ,and honored her as nowhere else on earth ,is any woman honored who bears charge ,over a husband's household4 ,from their hearts ,her children pay her reverence1 and the king ,and all the people1 for they look on her ,as if she were a goddess4 ,when she goes ,abroad into the streets1 all welcome her ,with acclamations4 ,never does she fail ,in wise discernment1 but decides disputes ,kindly and justly between man and man4 ,and if thou gain her favor there is hope ,that thou mayst see thy friends once more4 ,we have then as illustrations of conjugal fidelity3 the main picture1 ,ulysses and ,penelope2 the companion picture1 ,alcinous and ,arete2 and1 as a foil to set off both1 there looms up every now and then in the course of the poem1 that unhappy pair1 ,agamemnon and ,clytemnestra1 the latter1 the type of conjugal infidelity1 from which the soul of ,homer revolts4 ,this foil is very skillfully used4 ,at the very end of the poem1 when everything is hastening toward a happy consummation1 ,ulysses having slain the suitors and being about to be reunited with his wife1 we are introduced into the world of shades1 where the ghost of ,agamemnon once more rehearses the story of ,clytemnestra's treachery4 ,at that moment the spirits of the suitors come flying down to ,hades1 and the happier destiny of ,ulysses is thus brought into clearer relief by contrast4 ,the next ethical element of which ,i have to speak is the filial conduct of ,telemachus4 ,in him the spirit of adventure has developed into a desire to help his father4 ,in the early part of the poem he announces that he is now a child no longer4 ,he begins to assert authority4 ,and yet in his home he continues to be treated as a child4 ,the suitors laugh at him1 his own mother can not bear to think that he should go out into the wide world alone1 and the news of his departure is accordingly concealed from her4 ,very fine are the words in which her mother's love expresses itself when she discovers his absence3 ,and her knees failed her and her heart ,sank as she heard4 ,long time she could not speak2 ,her eyes were filled with tears1 and her clear voice ,was choked2 yet1 finding words at length1 she said3 ',o herald6 wherefore should my son have gone8' 444 ,now1 my son1 ,my best beloved1 goes to sea--a boy ,unused to hardship and unskilled to deal ,with strangers4 ,more ,i sorrow for his sake ,than for his father's4 ,i am filled with fear4 ,she lies outstretched upon the floor of her chamber overcome with grief 7iv1 #iaj74 ,telemachus1 however1 has gone forth in search of his sire4 ,he finds a friend in ,pisistratus1 the son of ,nestor1 and the two youths join company on the journey4 ,they come to the court of ,menelaus1 ,king of ,sparta4 ,there1 as everywhere1 ,telemachus hears men speak of his great father in terms of the highest admiration and praise1 and the desire mounts in his soul to do deeds worthy of such a parent4 ,what better stimulation can we offer to growing children than this recital of ,telemachus's development from boyhood into manhood8 ,his reception at the court of ,menelaus affords an opportunity to dwell again upon the generous and delicate hospitality of the ancient ,greeks4 ,first1 the guest is received at the gates2 then conducted to the bath and anointed2 then1 when he is seated on a silver or perchance a golden throne1 a handmaiden advances with a silver ewer and a golden jug to pour water on his hands2 then a noble banquet is set out for his delectation2 and only then1 after all these rites of hospitality have been completed1 is inquiry made as to his name and his errand4 ,the stranger and the poor are sent from ,jove4 ,the stranger and the poor were welcome in the ,grecian house4 ,telemachus returns to ,ithaca1 escapes the ambush which the murderous suitors had set for him1 and arrives just in time to help his father in his last desperate struggle4 ,it is he1 ,telemachus1 who conveys the weapons from the hall1 he who pinions the treacherous ,melantheus and renders him harmless4 ,he quits himself like a man--discreet1 able to keep his counsel1 and brave and quick in the moment of decisive action4 ,the third element which attracts our attention is the resourceful intelligence of ,ulysses1 or his presence of mind amid danger4 ,this is exhibited on many occasions2 for instance1 in the cave of ,polyphemus2 where he saves his companions by concealing them in the fleece of the giant's flock1 and at the time of the great shipwreck1 before he reaches ,phaeacia4 ,his raft is shattered1 and he is plunged into the sea4 ,he clings to one of the fragments of the wreck1 but from this too is dislodged4 ,for two days and nights he struggles in the black1 stormy waters4 ,at last he approaches the shore1 but is nearly dashed to pieces on the rocks4 ,he swims again out to sea1 until1 finding himself opposite the mouth of a river1 he strikes out for this and lands in safety4 ,pallas ,athene has guided him4 ,but ,pallas ,athene is only another name for his own courage and presence of mind4 ,in the same connection may be related the story of ,ulysses's escape from the ,sirens and from the twin perils of ,scylla and ,charybdis4 ,the ,sirens1 with their bewitching songs1 seek to lure him and his companions to destruction4 ,but he stops the ears of his companions with wax so that they can not hear1 and causes himself to be bound with stout cords to the mast1 so that1 though he may hear1 he can not follow4 ,there is an obvious lesson contained in this allegory4 ,when about to be exposed to temptation1 if you know that you are weak1 do not even listen to the seductive voices4 ,but no matter how strong you believe yourself to be1 at least give such pledges and place yourself in such conditions that you may be prevented from yielding4 ,from the monster ,charybdis1 too1 ,ulysses escapes by extraordinary presence of mind and courage4 ,he leaps upward to catch the fig-tree in the moment when his ship disappears beneath him in the whirlpool2 then1 when it is cast up again1 lets go his hold and is swept out into safe waters4 ,the fourth ethical element which we select from the poem is the veneration shown to grandparents4 ,i have already remarked1 in a former lecture1 that if parents wish to retain the reverence of their children they can not do better than in their turn to show themselves reverent toward their own aged and enfeebled parents4 ,of such conduct the ,odyssey offers us a number of choice examples4 ,thus ,achilles1 meeting ,ulysses in the realm of shades1 says that the hardest part of his lot is to think of his poor old father1 who has no one now to defend him1 and who1 being weak1 is likely to be neglected and despised4 ,if only he1 the strong son1 could return to the light of day1 how he would protect his aged parent and insure him the respect due to his gray hairs6 ,penelope is advised to send to ,laertes1 ,telemachus's grandfather1 to secure his aid against the suitors4 ,but with delicate consideration she keeps the bad news from him1 saying3 ,he has enough grief to bear on account of the loss of his son ,ulysses2 let me not add to his burden4 ,again1 how beautiful is the account of the meeting of ,laertes and ,ulysses after the return and triumph of the latter4 ,on the farm1 at some distance from the town1 ,ulysses seeks his aged father4 ,laertes is busy digging4 ,he1 a king1 wears a peasant's rustic garb and lives a life of austere self-denial1 grieving night and day for his absent son4 ,when ,ulysses mentions his name1 ,laertes at first does not believe4 ,then the hero approaches the bent and decrepit old man1 and becomes for the moment a child again4 ,he brings up recollections of his earliest boyhood2 he reminds his father of the garden-patch which he set aside for him long1 long ago2 of the trees and vines which he gave him to plant2 and then the father realizes that the mighty man before him is indeed his son4 ,the structural lines of the ,odyssey are clearly marked1 and can easily be followed4 ,first1 we are shown the house of ,ulysses bereft of its master4 ,the noisy crowd of suitors are carousing in the hall2 the despairing ,penelope weaves her web in an upper chamber2 the resolve to do and dare for his father's sake awakens in ,telemachus's heart4 ,next ,ulysses on the way home1 dismissed by ,calypso1 arrives at ,phaeacia1 from which port without further misadventures he reaches ,ithaca4 ,the stay in the palace of the ,phaeacian king gives an opportunity for a rehearsal of the previous sufferings and adventures of the hero4 ,then follow the preparations for the conflict with the suitors2 the appearance of ,ulysses in his own palace in the guise of a beggar2 the insults and blows which he receives at the hands of his rivals and their menials2 the bloody fight1 etc4 ,in relating the story ,i should follow the course of the poem1 laying stress upon the ethical elements enumerated above4 ,the fight which took place in the palace halls with closed doors should be merely mentioned1 its bloody details omitted4 ,the hanging of the maidens1 the trick of ,vulcan related in a previous book1 and other minor episodes1 which the teacher will distinguish without difficulty1 should likewise be passed over4 ,the recognition scenes are managed with wonderful skill4 ,the successive recognitions seem to take place inversely in the order of previous connection and intimacy with ,ulysses4 ,the son1 who was a mere babe when his father left and did not know him at all1 recognizes him first4 ,this1 moreover1 is necessary in order that his aid may be secured for the coming struggle4 ,next comes ,argus1 the dog4 ,while over ,argus the black night of death ,came suddenly as he had seen ,ulysses1 absent now for twenty years4 ,next comes the nurse ,eurycleia1 who recognizes him by a scar inflicted by the white tusk of a boar whom he hunted on ,parnassus's heights2 then his faithful followers2 last of all1 and slowly and with difficulty1 the wife who had so yearned for him4 ,her impetuous son could not understand her tardiness4 ,vehemently he chid her3 ,mother1 unfeeling mother1 how canst thou remain aloof1 how keep from taking at my father's side thy place to talk with him and question him8 ,mother1 thy heart is harder than a stone4 ,but she only sat opposite to ,ulysses and gazed and gazed and wondered4 ,ulysses himself1 at last1 in despair at her impenetrable silence1 exclaimed1 ,an iron heart is hers4 ,but it was only that she could not believe4 ,it seemed so incredible to her that the long waiting should be over2 that the desire of her heart should really be fulfilled2 that this man before her should be indeed the husband1 the long-lost husband1 and not a mocking dream4 ,but when at last it dawned upon her1 when he gave her the token of the mystery known only to him and to her1 then indeed the ice of incredulity melted from her heart1 and her knees faltered and the tears streamed from her eyes1 and she rose and ran to him and flung her arm about his neck and kissed his brow1 and he1 too1 wept as in his arms he held his dearly loved and faithful wife4 ,as welcome as the land to those who swim the deep1 tossed by the billow and the blast1 and few are those who from the hoary ocean reach the shore1 their limbs all crested with the brine1 these gladly climb the sea-beach and are safe--so welcome was her husband to her eyes1 nor would her fair white arms release his neck4 ,and so with the words uttered by the shade of ,agamemnon we may fitly close this retrospect of the poem3 ,son of ,laertes1 fortunate and wise1 ,ulysses6 thou by feats of eminent might ,and valor dost possess thy wife again4 ,and nobly minded is thy blameless queen1 ,the daughter of ,icarius1 faithfully ,remembering him to whom she gave her troth ,while yet a virgin4 ,never shall the fame ,of his great valor perish1 and the gods ,themselves shall frame1 for those who dwell on earth1 ,sweet strains in praise of sage ,penelope4 ,well might the rhapsodes in the olden days1 clad in embroidered robes1 with golden wreaths about their brows1 recite such verses as these to the assembled thousands and ten thousands4 ,well might the ,hellenic race treasure these records of filial loyalty1 of maiden purity1 of wifely tenderness and fidelity1 of bravery1 and of intelligence4 ,and well may we1 too1 desire that this golden stream flowing down to us from ancient ,greece shall enter the current of our children's lives to broaden and enrich them4 ,i have not space at my command to attempt a minute analysis of the ,iliad1 and shall content myself with mentioning the main significant points4 ,the ,iliad is full of the noises of war1 the hurtling of arrows1 the flashing of swords1 the sounding of spears on metal shields1 the groans of the dying1 whose eyes black darkness covers4 ,the chief virtues illustrated are valor1 hospitality1 conjugal affection1 respect for the aged4 ,i offer the following suggestions to the teacher4 ,after describing the wrath of ,achilles1 relate the meeting of ,diomedes and ,glaucus1 their hostile encounter1 and their magnanimous embrace on discovering that they are great friends4 ,read the beautiful passage beginning with the words1 ,even as the generations of leaves1 such are those likewise of men4 ,dwell on the parting of ,hector and ,andromache4 ,note that she has lost her father1 her lady mother1 and her seven brothers4 ,hector is to her father1 mother1 brother1 and husband1 all in one4 ,note also ,hector's prayer for his son that the latter may excel him in bravery4 ,as illustrative of friendship1 tell the story of ,achilles's grief for ,patroclus1 how he lies prone upon the ground1 strewing his head with dust2 how he follows the body lamenting2 how he declares that though the dead forget their dead in ,hades1 even there he would not forget his dear comrade4 ,next tell of the slaying of ,hector1 and how ,achilles honors the suppliant ,priam and restores to him the body of his son4 ,it is the memory of his own aged father1 which the sight of ,priam recalls1 that melts ,achilles's heart1 and they weep together1 each for his own dead4 ,finally1 note the tribute paid to ,hector's delicate chivalry in the lament of ,helen4#ae ,,footnotes3 #ac ,see ,jebb's ,introduction to ,homer4 #ad ,the quotations are taken from ,bryant's translation of the ,odyssey4 #ae ,in connection with the ,homeric poems selections from ,greek mythology may be used1 such as the story of ,hercules1 of ,theseus1 of ,perseus1 the story of the ,argonauts1 and others4 ,these1 too1 breathe the spirit of adventure and illustrate the virtues of courage1 perseverance amid difficulties1 chivalry1 etc4 ,,grammar ,,course4 ,,lessons ,,on ,,duty4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,,acquiring ,,knowledge4 ,in setting out on a new path it is well to determine beforehand the goal we hope to reach4 ,we are about to begin the discussion of the grammar course1 which is intended for children between twelve and fifteen years of age1 and accordingly ask3 ,what result can we expect to attain8 ,one thing is certain1 we must continue to grade our teaching1 to adapt each successive step to the capacities of the pupils1 to keep pace with their mental development4 ,the due gradation of moral teaching is all-important4 ,whether the gradations we propose are correct is1 of course1 a matter for discussion2 but1 at all events1 a point will be gained if we shall have brought home forcibly to teachers the necessity of a graded1 of a progressive system4 ,in the primary course we have set before the pupils examples of good and bad conduct1 with a view to training their powers of moral perception4 ,we are now ready to advance from percepts to concepts4 ,we have endeavored to cultivate the faculty of observation1 we can now attempt the higher task of generalization4 ,in the primary course we have tried to make the pupils perceive moral distinctions2 in the grammar course we shall try to make them reason about moral distinctions1 help them to gain notions of duty1 to arrive at principles or maxims of good conduct4 ,the grammar course1 therefore1 will consist in the main of lessons on duty4 ,what has just been said1 however1 requires further explanation to prevent misapprehension4 ,i have remarked that the pupil is now to reach out toward concepts of duty1 and to establish for himself maxims or principles of conduct4 ,but of what nature shall these maxims be8 ,the philosopher ,kant has proposed the following maxim3 ,so act that the maxim underlying thy action may justify itself to thy mind as a universal law of conduct4 ,according to him1 the note of universality is the distinctive characteristic of all ethical conduct4 ,the school of ,bentham proposes a different maxim3 ,so act that the result of thy action shall tend to insure the greatest happiness of the greatest number4 ,theologians tell us so to act that our will may harmonize with the will of ,god4 ,but pupils of the grammar grade are not ripe to understand such metaphysical and theological propositions4 ,and1 moreover1 as was pointed out in our first lecture1 it would be a grave injustice to teach in schools supported by all ethical first principles which are accepted only by some4 ,we are not concerned with first principles4 ,we exclude the discussion of them1 be they philosophical or theological1 from the school4 ,but there are certain secondary principles1 certain more concrete rules of behavior1 which nevertheless possess the character of generalizations1 and these will suffice for our purpose4 ,and with respect to these there is really no difference of opinion among the different schools and sects1 and on them as a foundation we can build4 ,it is our business to discover such secondary principles1 and in our instruction to lead the pupil to the recognition of them4 ,the nature of the formulas of duty which we have in mind--formulas which shall express the generalized moral experience of civilized mankind1 will appear more plainly if we examine the processes by which we arrive at them4 ,an example will best elucidate3 ,suppose that ,i am asked to give a lesson on the duty of truthfulness4 ,at the stage which we have now reached it will not be enough merely to emphasize the general commandment against lying4 ,the general commandment leaves in the pupil's mind a multitude of doubts unsolved4 ,shall ,i always tell the truth--that is to say1 the whole truth1 as ,i know it1 and to everybody8 ,is it never right to withhold the truth1 or even to say what is the contrary of true1 as1 e4 g41 to the sick or insane4 ,such questions as these are constantly being asked4 ,what is needed is a rule of veracity which shall leave the general principle of truth-speaking unshaken1 and shall yet cover all these exceptional cases4 ,how to arrive at such a rule8 ,i should go about it in the following manner1 and the method here described is the one which is intended to be followed throughout the entire course of lessons on duty4 ,i should begin by presenting a concrete case4 ,a certain child had broken a precious vase4 ,when asked whether it had done so1 it answered1 ,no4 ,how do you characterize such a statement8 ,as a falsehood4 ,the active participation of the pupils in the discussion is essential4 ,properly questioned1 they will join in it heart and soul4 ,there must be constant give and take between teacher and class4 ,upon the fulfillment of this condition the value of this sort of teaching entirely depends4 ,the teacher then proceeds to analyze the instance above given1 or any other that he may select from those which the pupils offer him4 ,the child says no when it should have said yes1 or a person says black when he should have said white4 ,in what does the falsehood of such statements consist8 ,in the circumstance that the words spoken do not correspond to the facts4 ,shall we then formulate the rule of veracity as follows3 ,make thy words correspond to the facts2 and shall we infer that any one whose words do not correspond to the facts is a liar8 ,but clearly this is not so4 ,the class is asked to give instances tending to prove the insufficiency of the proposed formula4 ,before the days of ,copernicus it was generally asserted that the sun revolves around the earth4 ,should we be justified in setting down the many excellent persons who made such statements as liars8 ,yet their words did not correspond to the facts4 ,very true2 but they did not intend to deviate from the facts--they did not know better4 ,shall we then change the formula so as to read3 ,intend that thy words shall conform to the facts8 ,but the phrase correspond to the facts needs to be made more explicit4 ,cases occur in which a statement does correspond to the facts1 or1 at least1 seems to do so1 and yet a contemptible falsehood is implied4 ,the instance of the truant boy is in point who entered the school-building five minutes before the close of the exercises1 and on being asked at home whether he had been at school1 promptly answered ,yes2 and so he had been for five minutes4 ,but in this case the boy suppressed a part of the facts--and1 moreover1 the essential part--namely1 that he had been absent from school for five hours and fifty-five minutes4 ,cases of mental reservation and the like fall under the same condemnation4 ,the person who took an oath in court1 using the words1 ,as truly as ,i stand on this stone1 but who had previously filled his shoes with earth1 suppressed the essential fact--viz41 that he had filled his shoes with earth4 ,shall we then formulate the rule in this wise3 ,intend to make thy words correspond to the essential facts8 ,but even this will not entirely satisfy4 ,for there are cases1 surely1 in which we deliberately frame our words in such a way that they shall not correspond to the essential facts--for instance1 if we should meet a murderer who should ask us in which direction his intended victim had fled1 or in the case of an insane person intent on suicide1 or of the sick in extreme danger1 whom the communication of bad news would kill4 ,how can we justify such a procedure8 ,we can justify it on the ground that language as a means of communication is intended to further the rational purposes of human life1 and not conversely are the rational purposes of life to be sacrificed to any merely formal principle of truth-telling4 ,a person who1 like the murderer1 is about to use the fact conveyed to him by my words as a weapon with which to kill a fellow-being has no right to be put in possession of the fact4 ,an insane person1 who can not use the truthful communications of others except for irrational ends1 is also outside the pale of those to whom such tools can properly be intrusted4 ,and so are the sick1 when so enfeebled that the shock of grief would destroy them4 ,for the rational use of grief is to provoke in us a moral reaction1 to rouse in us the strength to bear our heavy burdens1 and1 in bearing1 to learn invaluable moral lessons4 ,but those who are physically too weak to rally from the first shock of grief are unable to secure this result1 and they must therefore be classed1 for the time being1 as persons not in a condition to make rational use of the facts of life4 ,it is not from pain and suffering that we are permitted to shield them4 ,pain and suffering we must be willing both to endure and also to inflict upon those whom we love best1 if necessary4 ,reason can and should triumph over pain4 ,but when the reasoning faculty is impaired1 or when the body is too weak to respond to the call of reason1 the obligation of truth-telling ceases4 ,i am not unaware that this is a dangerous doctrine to teach4 ,i should always take the greatest pains to impress upon my pupils that the irrational condition1 which alone justifies the withholding of the truth1 must be so obvious that there can be no mistake about it1 as in the case of the murderer who1 with knife in hand1 pursues his victim1 or of the insane1 or of the sick1 in regard to whom the physician positively declares that the shock of bad news would endanger life4 ,but ,i do think that we are bound to face these exceptional cases1 and to discuss them with our pupils4 ,for the latter know as well as we that in certain exceptional situations the best men do not tell the truth1 that in such situations no one tells the truth1 except he be a moral fanatic4 ,and unless these exceptional cases are clearly marked off and explained and justified1 the general authority of truth will be shaken1 or at least the obligation of veracity will become very much confused in the pupil's mind4 ,in my opinion1 the confusion which does exist on this subject is largely due to a failure to distinguish between inward truthfulness and truthfulness as reflected in speech4 ,the law of inward truthfulness tolerates no exceptions4 ,we should always1 and as far as possible1 be absolutely truthful1 in our thinking1 in our estimates1 in our judgments4 ,but language is a mere vehicle for the communication of thoughts and facts to others1 and in communicating thoughts and facts we are bound to consider in how far others are fit to receive them4 ,shall we then formulate the rule of veracity thus3 ,intend to communicate the essential facts to those who are capable of making a rational use of them4 ,i think that some such formula as this might answer4 ,i am not disposed to stickle for this particular phraseology4 ,but the formula as stated illustrates my thought1 and also the method by which the formulas1 which we shall have to teach in the grammar course are to be reached4 ,it is the inductive method4 ,first a concrete case is presented1 and a rule of conduct is hypothetically suggested1 which fits this particular case4 ,then other cases are adduced4 ,it is discovered that the rule as it stands thus far does not fit them4 ,it must therefore be modified1 expanded4 ,then1 in succession1 other and more complex cases1 to which the rule may possibly apply are brought forward1 until every case we can think of has been examined2 and when the rule is brought into such shape that it fits them all1 we have a genuine moral maxim1 a safe rule for practical guidance1 and the principle involved in the rule is one of those secondary principles in respect to which men of every sect and school can agree4 ,it needs hardly to be pointed out how much a casuistical discussion of this sort tends to stimulate interest in moral problems1 and to quicken the moral judgment4 ,i can say1 from an experience of over a dozen years1 that pupils between twelve and fifteen years of age are immensely interested in such discussions1 and are capable of making the subtilest distinctions4 ,indeed1 the directness with which they pronounce their verdict on fine questions of right and wrong often has in it something almost startling to older persons1 whose contact with the world has reconciled them to a somewhat less exacting standard4 ,but here a caution is necessary4 ,some children seem to be too fond of casuistry4 ,they take an intellectual pleasure in drawing fine distinctions1 and questions of conscience are apt to become to them mere matter of mental gymnastics4 ,such a tendency must be sternly repressed whenever it shows itself4 ,in fact1 reasoning about moral principles is always attended with a certain peril4 ,after all1 the actual morality of the world depends largely on the moral habits which mankind have formed in the course of many ages1 and which are transmitted from generation to generation4 ,now a habit acts a good deal like an instinct4 ,its force depends upon what has been called unconscious cerebration4 ,as soon as we stop to reason about our habits1 their hold on us is weakened1 we hesitate1 we become uncertain1 the interference of the mind acts like a brake4 ,it is for this reason that throughout the primary course1 we have confined ourselves to what the ,germans call ,anschauung1 the close observation of examples with a view of provoking imitation or repugnance1 and thus strengthening the force of habit4 ,why1 then1 introduce analysis now1 it may be asked4 ,why not be content with still further confirming the force of good habits8 ,my answer is that the force of habit must be conserved and still further strengthened1 but that analysis1 too1 becomes necessary at this stage4 ,and why8 ,because habits are always specialized4 ,a person governed by habits falls into a certain routine1 and moves along easily and safely as long as the conditions repeat themselves to which his habits are adjusted4 ,but when confronted by a totally new set of conditions1 he is often quite lost and helpless4 ,just as a person who is solely guided by common sense in the ordinary affairs of life1 is apt to be stranded when compelled to face circumstances for which his previous experience affords no precedent4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to extract from the moral habits the latent rules of conduct which underlie them1 and to state these in a general form which the mind can grasp and retain1 and which it will be able to apply to new conditions as they arise4 ,to this end analysis and the formulation of rules are indispensable4 ,but in order1 at the same time1 not to break the force of habit1 the teacher should proceed in the following manner3 ,he should always take the moral habit for granted4 ,he should never give his pupils to understand that he and they are about to examine whether1 for instance1 it is wrong or not wrong to lie4 ,the commandment against lying is assumed1 and its obligation acknowledged at the outset4 ,the only object of the analysis is to discern more exactly what is meant by lying1 to define the rule of veracity with greater precision and circumspectness1 so that we may be enabled to fulfill the commandment more perfectly4 ,it is implied in what ,i have said that the teacher should not treat of moral problems as if he were dealing with problems in arithmetic4 ,the best thing he can do for his pupils--better than any particular lesson he can teach--will be to communicate to them the spirit of moral earnestness4 ,and this spirit he can not communicate unless he be full of it himself4 ,the teacher should consecrate himself to his task2 he should be penetrated by a sense of the lofty character of the subject which he teaches4 ,even a certain attention to externals is not superfluous4 ,the lessons1 in the case of the younger children1 may be accompanied by song2 the room in which the classes meet may be hung with appropriate pictures1 and especially is it desirable that the faces of great and good men and women shall look down upon the pupils from the walls4 ,the instruction should be given by word of mouth2 for the right text-books do not yet exist1 and even the best books must always act as a bar to check that flow of moral influence which should come from the teacher to quicken the class4 ,to make sure that the pupils understand what they have been taught1 they should be required from time to time to reproduce the subject matter of the lessons in their own language1 and using their own illustrations1 in the form of essays4 ,and now1 after this general introduction1 let us take up the lessons on the duties in their proper order4 ,what is the proper order8 ,this question1 you will remember1 was discussed in the lecture on the classification of duties4 ,it was there stated that the life of man from childhood upward1 may be divided into periods1 that each period has its special duties1 and that there is in each some one central duty around which the others may be grouped4 ,during the school age the paramount duty of the pupil is to study4 ,we shall therefore begin with the duties which are connected with the pursuit of knowledge4 ,we shall then take up the duties which relate to the physical life and the feelings2 next1 the duties which arise in the family2 after that the duties which we owe to all men2 and lastly we will consider in an elementary way the civic duties4 ,the ,duty of acquiring ,knowledge4--,in starting the discussion of any particular set of duties1 it is advisable1 as has been said1 to present some concrete case1 and biographical or historical examples are particularly useful4 ,i have sometimes begun the lesson on the duty of acquiring knowledge by telling the story of ,cleanthes and that of ,hillel4 ,cleanthes1 a poor boy1 was anxious to attend the school of ,zeno4 ,but he was compelled to work for his bread1 and could not spend his days in study as he longed to do4 ,he was1 however1 so eager to learn that he found a way of doing his work by night4 ,he helped a gardener to water his plants1 and also engaged to grind corn on a hand-mill for a certain woman4 ,now the neighbors1 who knew that he was poor1 and who never saw him go to work1 were puzzled to think how he obtained the means to live4 ,they suspected him of stealing1 and he was called before the ,judge to explain4 ,the ,judge addressed him severely1 and commanded him to tell the truth4 ,cleanthes requested that the gardener and the woman might be sent for1 and they testified that he had been in the habit of working for them by night4 ,the ,judge was touched by his great zeal for knowledge1 acquitted him of the charge1 and offered him a gift of money4 ,but ,zeno would not permit him to take the gift4 ,cleanthes became the best pupil of ,zeno1 and grew up to be a very wise and learned man1 indeed one of the most famous philosophers of the ,stoic school4 ,the story of ,hillel runs as follows3 ,there was once a poor lad named ,hillel4 ,his parents were dead1 and he had neither relatives nor friends4 ,he was anxious to go to school1 but1 though he worked hard1 he did not earn enough to pay the tuition fee exacted at the door4 ,so he decided to save money by spending only half his earnings for food4 ,he ate little1 and that little was of poor quality1 but he was perfectly happy1 because with what he laid aside he could now pay the door-keeper and find a place inside1 where he might listen and learn4 ,this he did for some time1 but one day he was so unlucky as to lose his situation4 ,he had now no money left to buy bread1 but he hardly thought of that1 so much was he grieved at the thought that he should never get back to his beloved school4 ,he begged the door-keeper to let him in1 but the surly man refused to do so4 ,in his despair a happy thought occurred to him4 ,he had noticed a skylight on the roof4 ,he climbed up to this1 and to his delight found that through a crack he could hear all that was said inside4 ,so he sat there and listened1 and did not notice that evening was coming on1 and that the snow was beginning to fall4 ,next morning when the teachers and pupils assembled as usual1 every one remarked how dark the room seemed4 ,the sun too was shining again by this time quite brightly outside4 ,suddenly some one happened to look up and with an exclamation of surprise pointed out the figure of a boy against the skylight4 ,quickly they all ran outside1 climbed to the roof1 and there1 covered with snow1 quite stiff and almost dead1 they found poor ,hillel4 ,they carried him indoors1 warmed his cold limbs1 and worked hard to restore him to life4 ,he was at last resuscitated1 and from this time on was allowed to attend the school without paying4 ,later he became a great teacher4 ,he lived in ,palestine at about the time of ,jesus4 ,he was admired for his learning1 but even more for his good deeds and his unfailing kindness to every one4 ,the question is now raised1 ,why did ,cleanthes work at night instead of seeking rest1 and why did ,hillel remain outside in the bitter cold and snow8 ,the pupils will readily answer1 ,because they loved knowledge4 ,but why is knowledge so desirable8 ,with this interrogatory we are fairly launched on the discussion of our subject4 ,the points to be developed are these3 ,first1 knowledge is indispensable as a means of making one's way in the world4 ,show the helplessness of the ignorant4 ,compare the skilled laborer with the unskilled4 ,give instances of merchants1 statesmen1 etc41 whose success was due to steady application and superior knowledge4 ,knowledge is power 7namely1 in the struggle for existence74 ,secondly1 knowledge is honor4 ,an ignorant person is despised4 ,knowledge wins us the esteem of our fellow-men4 ,thirdly1 knowledge is joy in a twofold sense4 ,as the perception of light to the eye of the body1 so is the perception of truth to the eye of the mind4 ,the mind experiences an intrinsic pleasure in seeing things in their true relations4 ,furthermore1 mental growth is accompanied by the joy of successful effort4 ,this can be explained even to a boy or girl of thirteen4 ,have you ever tried hard to solve a problem in algebra8 ,perhaps you have spent several hours over it4 ,it has baffled you4 ,at last1 after repeated trials1 you see your way clear1 the solution is within your grasp4 ,what a sense of satisfaction you experience then4 ,it is the feeling of successful mental effort that gives you this satisfaction4 ,you rejoice in having triumphed over difficulties1 and the greater the difficulty1 the more baffling and complex the problems1 the greater is the satisfaction in solving them4 ,fourthly1 knowledge enables us to do good to others4 ,speak of the use which physicians make of their scientific training to alleviate suffering and save life4 ,refer to the manifold applications of science which have changed the face of modern society1 and have contributed so largely to the moral progress of the world4 ,point out that all true philanthropy1 every great social reform1 implies a superior grasp of the problems to be solved1 as well as devotion to the cause of humanity4 ,in accordance with the line of argument just sketched the rule for the pursuit of knowledge may be successively expanded as follows3 ,seek knowledge that you may succeed in the struggle for existence4 ,seek knowledge that you may gain the esteem of your fellow-men4 ,seek knowledge for the sake of the satisfaction which the attainment of it will give you4 ,seek knowledge that you may be able to do good to others4 ,these points suffice for the present4 ,in the advanced course we shall return to the consideration of the intellectual duties4 ,i would also recommend that the moral teacher1 not content with dwelling on the uses of knowledge in general1 should go through the list of subjects which are commonly taught in school1 such as geography1 history1 language1 etc41 and explain the value of each4 ,this is too commonly neglected4 ,having stationed the duty of acquiring knowledge in the center1 connect with it the various lesser duties of school life1 such as punctual attendance1 order1 diligent and conscientious preparation of home lessons1 etc4 ,these are means to an end1 and should be represented as such4 ,he who desires the end will desire the means4 ,get your pupils to love knowledge1 and the practice of these minor virtues will follow of itself4 ,other matters might be introduced in connection with what has been mentioned1 but enough has been said to indicate the point of view from which the whole subject of intellectual duty should1 as ,i think1 be treated in the present course4 ,,xii4 ,,duties ,,which ,,relate ,,to ,,the ,,physical ,,life4 ,of the duties which relate to the physical life1 the principal one is that of self-preservation1 and this involves the prohibition of suicide4 ,when one reflects on the abject life which many persons are forced to lead1 on their poverty in the things which make existence desirable and the lack of moral stamina which often goes together with such conditions1 the wonder is that the number of suicides is not much greater than it actually is4 ,it is true most people cling to life instinctively1 and have an instinctive horror of death4 ,nevertheless1 the force of instinct is by no means a sufficient deterrent in all cases1 and the number of suicides is just now alarmingly on the increase4 ,if we were here considering the subject of suicide in general we should have to enter at large into the causes of this increase2 we should have to examine the relations subsisting between the increase of suicide and the increase of divorce1 and inquire into those pathological conditions of modern society of which both are the symptoms2 but our business is to consider the ethics of the matter1 not the causes4 ,the ethics of suicide resolves itself into the question1 ,is it justifiable under any circumstances to take one's life8 ,you may object that this is not a fit subject to discuss with pupils of thirteen or fourteen4 ,why not8 ,they are old enough to understand the motives which ordinarily lead to suicide1 and also the reasons which forbid it--especially the most important reason1 namely1 that we live not merely or primarily to be happy1 but to help on as far as we can the progress of things1 and therefore that we are not at liberty to throw life away like an empty shell when we have ceased to enjoy it4 ,the discussion of suicide is indeed of the greatest use because it affords an opportunity early in the course of our lessons on duty to impress this cardinal truth1 to describe upon the moral globe this great meridian from which all the virtues take their bearings4 ,however1 in accordance with the inductive method1 we must approach this idea by degrees4 ,the first position ,i should take is that while suffering is often temporary1 suicide is final4 ,it is folly to take precipitately a step which can not be recalled4 ,very often in moments of deep depression the future before us seems utterly dark1 and in our firmament there appears not one star of hope2 but presently from some wholly unexpected quarter help comes4 ,fortune once more takes us into her good graces1 and we are scarcely able to understand our past downheartedness in view of the new happiness to which we have fallen heirs4 ,preserve thy life in view of the brighter chances which the future may have in store4 ,this is a good rule as far as it goes1 but it does not fit the more trying situations4 ,for there are cases where the fall from the heights of happiness is as complete as it is sudden1 and the hope of recovering lost ground is really shut out4 ,take from actual life the case of a husband who fairly idolized his young wife and lost her by death three months after marriage4 ,we may suppose that in the course of years he will learn to submit to his destiny4 ,we may even hope that peace will come back to his poor heart1 but we can not imagine that he will ever again be happy4 ,another case is that of a person who has committed a great wrong1 the consequences of which are irreparable1 and of which he must carry the agonizing recollection with him to the grave4 ,time may assuage the pangs of remorse1 and religion may comfort him1 but happiness can never be the portion of such as he4 ,still another instance--less serious1 but of more frequent occurrence--is that of a merchant who has always occupied a commanding position in the mercantile community1 and who1 already advanced in years1 is suddenly compelled to face bankruptcy4 ,the thought of the hardships to which his family will be exposed1 of his impending disgrace1 drives him nearly to distraction4 ,the question is1 would the merchant1 would those others1 be justified in committing suicide8 ,certainly not4 ,the merchant1 if he has the stuff of true manhood in him1 will begin over again1 at the bottom of the ladder if need be1 will work to support his family1 however narrowly4 ,it would be the rankest selfishness in him to leave them to their fate4 ,the conscience-stricken sinner must be willing to pay the penalty of his crime1 to the end that he may be purified even seven times in the fire of repentance4 ,and even the lover who has lost his bride will find1 if he opens his eyes1 that there is still work for him to do in life4 ,the world is full of evils which require to be removed1 full of burdens which require to be borne4 ,if our own burden seems too heavy for us1 there is a way of lightening it4 ,we may add to it the burden of some one else1 and ours will become lighter4 ,physically1 this would be impossible1 but morally it is true4 ,the rule of conduct1 therefore1 thus far reads1 ,preserve thy life in order to perform thy share of the work of the world4 ,but the formula1 even in this shape1 is not yet entirely adequate1 for there are those who can not take part in the work of the world1 who can only suffer--invalids1 e4 g41 who are permanently incapacitated1 and whose infirmities make them a constant drag on the healthy lives of their friends4 ,why should not these be permitted to put an end to their miseries8 ,i should say that so long as there is the slightest hope of recovery1 and even where this hope is wanting1 so long as the physical pain is not so intense or so protracted as to paralyze the mental life altogether1 they should hold out4 ,they are not cut off from the true ends of human existence4 ,by patient endurance1 by the exercise of a sublime unselfishness1 they may even attain on their sick-beds a height of spiritual development which would otherwise be impossible2 and1 in addition1 they may become by their uncomplaining patience the sweetest1 gentlest helpers of their friends1 not useless1 assuredly1 but shining examples of what is best and noblest in human nature4 ,the rule1 therefore1 should read3 ,preserve thy life in order to fulfill the duties of life1 whether those duties consist in doing or in patiently suffering4 ,as has been said long ago1 we are placed on guard as sentinels4 ,the sentinel must not desert his post4 ,i think it possible to make the pupil in the grammar grade understand that suicide is selfish1 that we are bound to live1 even though life has ceased to be attractive1 in order that we may perform our share of the world's work and help others and grow ourselves in moral stature4 ,this does not1 of course1 imply any condemnation of that vast number of cases in which suicide is committed in consequence of mental aberration4 ,in the advanced course we shall have to return to this subject1 and shall there refer in extenso to the views of the ,stoics4 ,the morality of the ,stoic philosophers in general is so high1 and their influence even to this day so great1 that their defense1 or rather enthusiastic praise of suicide1#af needs to be carefully examined4 ,i am of the opinion that we have here a case in which metaphysical speculation has had the effect of distorting morality4 ,metaphysics in this respect resembles religion4 ,on the one hand the influence of religion on morality has been highly beneficial1 on the other it has been hurtful in the extreme--instance human sacrifices1 religious wars1 the ,inquisition1 etc4 ,in like manner1 philosophy1 though not to the same extent1 has both aided morality and injured it4 ,i regard the ,stoic declamations on suicide as an instance of the latter sort4 ,the ,stoic philosophy was pantheistic4 ,to live according to ,nature was their principal maxim1 or1 more precisely1 according to the reason in ,nature4 ,they maintained that in certain circumstances a man might find it impossible to live up to the rational standard2 he might1 for instance1 discover himself to be morally so weak as to be unable to resist temptation1 and in that case it would be better for him to retire from the scene and to seek shelter in the ,eternal ,reason1 just as1 to use their own simile1 one who found the room in which he sat filled to an intolerable degree with smoke would not be blamed for withdrawing from it4 ,it was their pantheism that led them to favor suicide1 and in this respect it is my belief that the modern conscience1 trained by the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 has risen to a higher level than theirs4 ,we moderns feel it impossible to admit that to the sane mind temptation can ever be so strong as to be truly irresistible4 ,we always can resist if we will4 ,we can1 because we ought2 as ,kant has taught us to put it4 ,we always can because we always ought4 ,,note4--,despite the rigorous disallowance of suicide in general plainly indicated in the above1 ,i should not wish to be understood as saying that there are no circumstances whatever in which the taking of one's life is permissible4 ,in certain rare and exceptional cases ,i believe it to be so4 ,in the lecture as delivered ,i attempted a brief description of these exceptional cases1 too brief1 it appeared1 to prevent most serious misconception4 ,i deem it best1 therefore1 to defer the expression of my views on this delicate matter until an occasion arrives when ,i shall be able to articulate my thought in full detail1 such as would here be impossible4 ,from the commandment ,preserve thy life it follows not only that we should not lay violent hands upon ourselves1 but that we should do all in our power to develop and invigorate the body1 in order that it may become an efficient instrument in the service of our higher aims4 ,the teacher should inform himself on the subject of the gymnastic ideal of the ,greeks and consider in how far this ideal is applicable to modern conditions4 ,in general1 the teacher should explore as fully as possible the ethical problems on which he touches4 ,he should not be merely one lesson ahead of his pupils4 ,really it is necessary to grasp the whole of a subject before we can properly set forth its elements4 ,a very thorough normal training is indispensable to those who would give moral instruction to the young4 ,the duties of cleanliness and temperance fall under the same head as the above4 ,in speaking of cleanliness1 there are three motives--the egoistic1 the aesthetic1 and the moral--to which we may appeal4 ,be scrupulously clean for the sake of health1 be clean lest you become an object of disgust to others1 be clean in order to retain your self-respect4 ,special emphasis should be laid on secret cleanliness4 ,indolent children are sometimes neat in externals1 but shockingly careless in what is concealed from view4 ,the motive of self-respect shows itself particularly in secret cleanliness4 ,the duty of temperance is supported by the same three motives4 ,intemperance undermines health1 the glutton or the drunkard awakens disgust1 intemperance destroys self-respect4 ,to strengthen the repugnance of the pupils against intemperance in eating1 contrast the way in which wild beasts eat with that in which human beings partake of their food4 ,the beast is absorbed in the gratification of its appetite1 eats without the use of implements1 eats unsocially4 ,the human way of eating is in each particular the opposite4 ,show especially that the act of eating is spiritualized by being made subservient to friendly intercourse and to the strengthening of the ties of domestic affection4 ,the family table becomes the family altar4 ,call attention also to the effects of drunkenness2 point out the injuries which the drunkard inflicts on wife and children by his neglect to provide for them1 by the outbursts of violence to which he is subject under the influence of strong drink2 describe his physical1 mental1 and moral degradation2 lay stress on the fact that liquor deprives him of the use of his reason4 ,with respect to temperance in food1 there are one or two points to be noted4 ,i say to my pupils if you are particularly fond of a certain dish1 sweetmeats1 for instance1 make it a rule to partake less of that than if you were not so fond of it4 ,this is good practice in self-restraint4 ,i make out as strong a case as possible against the indulgence of the candy habit4 ,young people are not1 as a rule1 tempted to indulge in strong drink2 but they are tempted to waste their money and injure their health by an excessive consumption of sweets4 ,it is well to apply the lesson of temperance to the things in which they are tempted4 ,for the teacher the following note may be added3 ,of the senses1 some1 like that of taste1 are more nearly allied to the physical part of us2 others1 like sight and hearing1 to our rational nature4 ,this antithesis of the senses may be used in the interest of temperance4 ,appeal to the higher senses in order to subdue the lower4 ,a band of kindergarten children1 having been invited on a picnic1 were given the choice between a second plate of ice cream1 for which many of them were clamoring1 and a bunch of flowers for each4 ,most of them were sufficiently interested in flowers to prefer the latter4 ,in the case of young children1 the force of the physical appetite may also be weakened by appealing to their affection4 ,during the later stage of adolescence1 when the dangers which arise from the awakening life of the senses become great and imminent1 the attention should be directed to high intellectual aims1 the social feelings should be cultivated1 and a taste for the pleasures of the senses of sight and hearing--namely1 the pleasures of music1 painting1 sculpture1 etc4--should be carefully developed4 ,artistic1 intellectual1 and social motives should be brought into play jointly to meet the one great peril of this period of life4 ,,duties ,,which ,,relate ,,to ,,the ,,feelings4 ,under this head let me speak first of fear4 ,there is a distinction to be drawn between physical and moral cowardice4 ,physical cowardice is a matter of temperament or organization4 ,perhaps it can hardly ever be entirely overcome1 but the exhibition of it can be prevented by moral courage4 ,moral cowardice1 on the other hand1 is a fault of character4 ,in attempting to formulate the rule of conduct1 appeal as before to the egoistic motive1 then to the social--i4 e41 the desire for the good opinion of others--and lastly to the moral motive1 properly speaking4 ,fear paralyzes2 it fascinates its victim like the fabled basilisk4 ,nothing is more common than a sense of helpless immobility under the influence of fear4 ,there is a way of escape4 ,you might run or leap for your life1 but you can not stir a limb4 ,what you need to do is to turn away your attention by a powerful effort of the will from the object which excites fear4 ,so long as that object is before you the mind can not act2 the mind is practically absent4 ,what you need is presence of mind4 ,let the teacher adduce some of the many striking instances in which men in apparently desperate straits have been saved by presence of mind4 ,the rule thus far would read3 ,be brave and suppress fear1 because by so doing you may escape out of danger4 ,in the next place1 by so doing you will escape the reproaches of your fellow-men1 for cowardice is universally condemned as shameful4 ,cite from ,spartan history examples showing in the strongest light the feeling of scorn and contempt for the coward4 ,there are1 however1 cases where death is certain1 and where there is no support like that of public opinion to sustain courage4 ,what should be the rule of duty in such cases8 ,take the case of a person who has been shipwrecked4 ,he swims the sea alone1 he is still clinging to a spar1 but realizes that in a few minutes he must let go1 his strength being well-nigh spent4 ,what should be his attitude of mind in that supreme moment4 ,the forces of nature are about to overwhelm him4 ,what motive can there be strong enough to support bravery in that moment8 ,the rule of duty for him would be3 ,be brave1 because as a human being you are superior to the forces of nature1 because there is something in you--your moral self--over which the forces of nature have no power1 because what happens to you in your private character is not important1 but it is important that you assert the dignity of humanity to the last breath4 ,after having discussed courage1 define fortitude4 ,point out the importance of strength of will4 ,contrast the strong will with the feeble1 with the wayward1 the irresolute1 and also the obstinate will1 for obstinacy is often the sign of weakness rather than of strength4 ,see1 for useful hints on this subject1 ,bain's ,the ,emotions and the ,will4 ,what happens to thy little self is not important4 ,this is the leading thought which shall also guide us in the discussion of ,anger4 ,in entering on the subject of anger begin by describing the effects of it4 ,quote the passage from ,seneca's treatise on anger1 showing how it disfigures the countenance4 ,point out that anger provokes anger in return1 and is therefore contrary to self-interest4 ,call to your aid the social motive by showing that under the influence of anger we often overshoot the mark and inflict injuries on others which we had not intended4 ,finally1 show that indulgence in anger is immoral4 ,in what sense is it immoral8 ,anger is an emotional reaction against injury4 ,when a child hurts its foot against a stone1 it is often so unreasonably angry at the stone as to strike it4 ,when an adult person receives a blow1 his first impulse is to return it4 ,this desire to return injury for injury is one of the characteristic marks of anger4 ,another mark is that anger is proportional to the injury received1 and not to the fault implied4 ,every one knows that a slight fault in another may occasion a great injury to ourselves1 while1 on the other hand1 a serious fault may only cause us a slight inconvenience4 ,the angry person measures his resentment by the injury1 and not by the fault4 ,anger is selfish4 ,it is fed and pampered by the delusion that our pleasures and pains are of chief importance4 ,contrast with anger the moral feeling of indignation4 ,anger is directed against the injury received1 indignation solely against the wrong done4 ,the immoral feeling prompts us to hate wrong because it has been inflicted on us4 ,the moral feeling prompts us to hate wrong because it is wrong4 ,now1 to the extent that we sincerely hate wrong we shall be stirred up to diminish its power over others as well as over ourselves2 we shall1 for instance1 be moved to save the evil doer who has just injured us from the tyranny of his evil nature2 we shall aspire to become the moral physicians of those who have hurt us4 ,and precisely because they have hurt us1 they have a unique claim on us4 ,we who know better than others the extent of their disease are called upon more than others to labor with a view to their cure4 ,in this connection the rule of returning good for evil should be explained4 ,this rule does not apply alike in all cases1 though the spirit of it should always inspire our actions4 ,if a pickpocket should steal our purse1 it would be folly to hand him a check for twice the amount he has just stolen4 ,if a hardened criminal should draw his knife and wound us in the back1 it would be absurd to request him kindly to stab us in the breast also4 ,we should in this case not be curing him1 but simply confirming him in his evil doing4 ,the rule is3 ,try to free the sinner from the power of sin4 ,in some cases this is best accomplished by holding his hand1 as it were1 and preventing him from carrying out the intended wrong4 ,in other cases by depriving him of his liberty for a season1 subjecting him to wholesome discipline1 and teaching him habits of industry4 ,only in the case of those who have already attained a higher moral plane1 and whose conscience is sensitive1 does the rule of returning good for evil apply literally4 ,if a brother has acted in an unbrotherly way toward you1 do you on the next occasion act wholly in a brotherly way toward him4 ,you will thereby show him how he ought to have acted and awaken the better nature in him4 ,certain practical rules for the control of anger may be given to the pupil4 ,suppress the signs of anger2 you will thereby diminish its force4 ,try to gain time3 ,when you are angry1 count ten before you speak2 when you are very angry1 count a hundred4 ,having gained time1 examine rigorously into your own conduct4 ,ask yourself whether you have not been partly to blame4 ,if you find that you have1 then1 instead of venting your wrath on your enemy1 try rather to correct the fault which has provoked hostility4 ,but if1 after honest self-scrutiny1 you are able to acquit yourself1 then you can all the more readily act the part of the moral physician1 for it is the innocent who find it easiest to forgive4 ,it is also useful to cite examples of persons who1 like ,socrates1 have exhibited great self-control in moments of anger2 and to quote proverbs treating of anger1 to explain these proverbs and to cause them to be committed to memory4 ,i advise1 indeed1 that proverbs be used in connection with all the moral lessons4 ,of the manner in which they are to be used ,i shall speak later on4 ,the last of the present group of duties which we shall discuss relates to the feelings of vanity1 pride1 humility4 ,vanity is a feeling of self-complacency based on external advantages4 ,a person is vain of his dress or of his real or supposed personal charms4 ,the peacock is the type of vanity4 ,though the admiration of others ministers to vanity1 yet it is possible to be vain by one's self--before a mirror1 for instance4 ,the feeling of pride1 on the other hand1 depends upon a comparison between self and others4 ,pride implies a sense of one's own superiority and of the inferiority of others4 ,both feelings are anti-moral4 ,they spring1 like moral cowardice and anger1 from the false belief that this little self of ours is of very great importance4 ,there is no such thing as proper pride or honest pride4 ,the word pride used in this connection is a misnomer4 ,vanity is spurious self-esteem based on external advantages4 ,pride is spurious self-esteem based on comparison with others4 ,genuine self-esteem is based on the consciousness of a distinction which we share with all humanity--namely1 the capacity and the duty of rational development4 ,this genuine self-esteem has two aspects--the one positive1 the other negative4 ,the positive aspect is called dignity1 the negative humility4 ,true dignity and true humility always go together4 ,the sense of dignity arises within us when we remember the aims to which as human beings we are pledged2 the sense of humility can not fail to arise when we consider how infinitely in practice we all fall below those aims4 ,thus while pride depends on a comparison of ourselves with others1 the genuinely moral feeling is excited when we consider our relation to the common ends of mankind4 ,on the one hand1 we are indeed privileged to pursue those ends1 and are thereby exalted above all created things and above the whole of the natural world with all its stars and suns4 ,upon this consideration is founded the sense of dignity4 ,on the other hand1 we can not but own how great is the distance which separates even the best of us from the goal1 and this gives rise to a deep sense of humility4 ,the rule of conduct which we are considering is a rule of proper self-estimation4 ,estimate thy worth not by external advantages nor by thy pre-eminence above others1 but by the degree of energy with which thou pursuest the moral aims4 ,to mark off the distinction between vanity and pride on the one hand and dignity on the other1 the teacher may contrast in detail the lives of ,alcibiades and ,socrates4 ,in connection with the discussion of anger and of pride1 define such terms as hate1 envy1 malice4 ,hatred is anger become chronic4 ,or we may also say the state of mind which leads to passionate paroxysms in the case of anger is called hate when it has turned into a settled inward disposition4 ,in other respects the characteristic marks of both are the same4 ,envy is the obverse of pride4 ,pride is based on real or fancied superiority to others4 ,envy is due to real or fancied inferiority4 ,pride is the vice of the strong1 envy of the weak4 ,malice is pleasure in the loss of others irrespective of our gain4 ,i have observed on a previous occasion that the feelings considered by themselves have no moral value4 ,nevertheless1 we have now repeatedly spoken of moral feelings4 ,the apparent contradiction disappears if we remember that all feelings of the higher order presuppose1 and are the echo of complex systems of ideas4 ,the moral feelings are those in which moral ideas have their resonance2 and those feelings are valuable in virtue of the ideas which they reflect4 ,the feeling of moral courage depends on the idea that the injuries we receive at the hands of fortune are not important1 but that it is important for us to do credit to our rational nature4 ,the feeling of moral indignation depends on the idea that the injuries we receive from our fellow-men are not important1 but that it is important that the right be done and the wrong abated4 ,the feelings of moral dignity and humility combined depend on the idea that it does not signify whether the shadow we cast in the world of men be long or short1 but only that we live in the light of the moral aims4 ,,footnote3 #af ,see1 e4 g41 the famous passage in ,seneca1 ,de ,ira1 iii1 #ae4 ,,xiii4 ,,duties ,,which ,,relate ,,to ,,others4 ,,filial ,,duties4 ,we began our course of moral instruction with the self-regarding duties1 and assigned the second place to the duties which relate to others4 ,there is an additional reason besides the one already given for keeping to this order4 ,if we were to begin with the commandments or prohibitions which relate to others--e4 g41 the sixth1 eighth1 and ninth commandments of the ,decalogue--the pupil might easily get the impression that these things are forbidden solely because they involve injuries to others1 but that in cases where the injury is inconsiderable1 or not apparent1 the transgression of moral commandments is more or less excusable4 ,there are many persons who seem unable to understand that it is really sinful to defraud the custom-house or to neglect paying one's fare in a horse-car4 ,and why8 ,because the injury inflicted seems so insignificant4 ,now1 it is of the utmost consequence to impress upon the pupil that every action which involves a violation of duty to others at the same time produces a change in the moral quality of the agent1 that he suffers as well as the one whom he wrongs4 ,the subjective and objective sides of transgression can not in point of principle and ought not in actual consciousness to be separated4 ,if1 therefore1 we begin by enforcing such duties as temperance the pupil will at once feel that the violation of the law changes his inward condition1 degrades him in his own eyes1 lowers him in the scale of being4 ,the true standpoint from which all moral transgression should be regarded will thus be gained at the outset1 and it will be comparatively easy to maintain the same point of view when we come to speak of the social duties4 ,to start discussion on the subject of the filial duties1 relate the story of ,a,eneas carrying his aged father1 ,anchises1 out of burning ,troy2 also the story of ,cleobis and ,bito 7,herodotus1 i1 #ca74 ,recall the devotion of ,telemachus to ,ulysses4 ,tell the story of ,lear and his daughters1 contrasting the conduct of ,regan and ,goneril with that of ,cordelia4 ,an excellent story to tell1 especially to young children1 is that of ,dama4 ,a,eneas and ,telemachus illustrate the filial spirit as expressed in services rendered to parents1 but opportunity to be of real service to parents is not often offered to the very young4 ,the story of ,dama exhibits the filial spirit as displayed in acts of delicacy and consideration1 and such acts are within the power of all children4 ,the story is located in ,palestine1 and is supposed to have occurred at the time when the temple at ,jerusalem was still standing4 ,dama was a dealer in jewels1 noted for possessing the rarest and richest collection anywhere to be found4 ,it happened that it became necessary to replace a number of the precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest1 and a deputation was sent from ,jerusalem to wait on ,dama and to select from his stock what was needed4 ,dama received his distinguished visitors with becoming courtesy1 and on learning their mission spread out before them a large number of beautiful stones4 ,but none of these were satisfactory4 ,the stones must needs be of extraordinary size and brilliancy4 ,none but such might be used4 ,when ,dama was informed of this he reflected a moment1 then said that in a room occupied by his old father there was a cabinet in which he kept his most precious gems1 and that among them he was sure he could find what his visitors wanted4 ,he bade them delay a few moments1 while he made the necessary search4 ,but presently he returned without the jewels4 ,he expressed the greatest regret1 but declared that it was impossible to oblige them4 ,they were astonished1 and1 believing it to be a mere trader's trick1 offered him an immense price for the stones4 ,he answered that he was extremely sorry to miss so profitable a transaction1 but that it was indeed beyond his power to oblige them now--if they would return in an hour or two he could probably suit them4 ,they declared that their business admitted of no delay2 that the breastplate must be repaired at once1 so that the priest might not be prevented from discharging his office4 ,and so he allowed them to depart4 ,it appears that when ,dama opened the door of the room he saw his old father asleep on the couch4 ,he tried to enter noiselessly1 but the door creaked on its hinges1 and the old man started in his sleep4 ,dama checked himself1 and turned back4 ,he said1 ,i will forego the gain which they offer me1 but ,i will not disturb the slumbers of my father4 ,the sleep of the old father was sacred to ,dama4 ,children are often thoughtless in breaking noisily into a room where father or mother is resting4 ,such a story tends to instill the lesson of consideration and of reverence4 ,reverence is the key-note of filial duty4 ,you will remember that ,goethe1 in ,wilhelm ,meister1 in those chapters in which he sketches his pedagogical ideal1 bases the entire religious and moral education of the young on a threefold reverence4 ,he applies the following symbolism3 ,the pupils of the ideal pedagogical institution are required to take1 on different occasions1 three different attitudes4 ,now they fold their arms on their breast1 and look with open countenance upward2 again they fold their arms on their backs1 and their bright glances are directed toward the earth2 and again they stand in a row1 and their faces are turned to the right1 each one looking at his neighbor4 ,these three attitudes are intended to symbolize reverence toward what is above us1 toward what is beneath us1 and toward our equals4 ,these three originate and culminate in the true self-reverence4 ,in speaking of filial duty1 we are concerned with reverence toward what is above us4 ,the parent is the physical1 mental1 and moral superior of the child4 ,it is his duty to assist the child's physical1 mental1 and moral growth2 to lift it by degrees out of its position of inferiority1 so that it may attain the fullness of its powers1 and help to carry on the mission of mankind when the older generation shall have retired from the scene4 ,the duty of the superior toward the inferior is to help him to rise above the plane of inferiority4 ,the receptive and appreciative attitude of one who is thus helped is called reverence4 ,but we must approach the nature of parental duty more closely1 and the following reflections may put us in the way3 ,no man can attain the intellectual aims of life without assistance4 ,a scientist inhabiting a desert island and limited to his own mental resources could make little headway4 ,the scientist of to-day utilizes the accumulated labors of all the generations of scientists that have preceded him1 and depends for the value of his results on the co-operation and the sifting criticism of his contemporaries4 ,and as no one can get much knowledge without the help of others1 so no one is justified in seeking knowledge for his own private pleasure1 or in seeking the kind of knowledge that happens to pique his vanity4 ,for instance1 it is a violation of intellectual duty to spend one's time in acquiring out-of-the way erudition which is useful only for display4 ,the pursuit of knowledge is a public not a private end4 ,every scholar and man of science is bound to enlarge as far as he can the common stock of truth1 to add to the scientific possessions of the human race4 ,but in order to do this he must question himself closely1 that he may discover in what direction his special talent lies1 and may apply himself sedulously to the cultivation of that4 ,for it is by specializing his efforts that he can best serve the general interests of truth4 ,the same holds good with respect to the pursuit of social ends--e4 g41 the correction of social abuses and the promotion of social justice4 ,the reformer of to-day stands on the shoulders of all the reformers of the past1 and would have little prospect of success in any efforts he may make without the co-operation and criticism of numerous co-workers4 ,nor1 again1 is it right for him to take up any and every project of reform that may happen to strike his fancy4 ,he ought rather to consider what particular measures under existing circumstances are most likely to advance the cause of progress1 and in what capacity he is specially fitted to promote such measures4 ,justice and truth are public1 not private ends4 ,the highest aim of life for each one is to offer that contribution which he1 as an individual1 is peculiarly fitted to make toward the attainment of the public ends of mankind4 ,the individual when living only for himself1 absorbed in his private pleasures and pains1 is a creature of little worth2 and his existence is of little more account in the scheme of things than that of the summer insects1 who have their day and perish4 ,but the individual become the organ of humanity acquires a lasting worth1 and his individuality possesses an inviolable sanctity4 ,the sacredness of individuality in the sense just indicated is a leading idea of ethics--perhaps it would not be too much to say1 the leading idea4 ,and now we can state more exactly the nature of parental duty4 ,it is the duty of the parent1 remembering that he is the guardian of the permanent welfare of his child1 to respect1 to protect1 to develop its individuality--above all1 to discover its individual bent2 for that is often latent1 and requires to be persistently searched out4 ,it is the duty and the privilege of the parent to put the child1 as it were1 in possession of its own soul4 ,and upon this relationship filial reverence is founded1 and from it the principal filial duties may be deduced4 ,because the child does not know what is best for it1 in view of its destiny1 as described above1 it is bound to obey4 ,obedience is the first of the filial duties4 ,secondly1 the child is bound to show gratitude for the benefits received at the hands of its parents4 ,the teacher should discuss with his pupils the principal benefits conferred by parents4 ,the parents supply the child with food1 shelter1 and raiment2 they nurse it in sickness1 often sacrificing sleep1 comfort1 and health for its sake4 ,they toil in order that it may want nothing2 they give it1 in their fond affection1 the sweet seasoning of all their other gifts4 ,it is well to bring these facts distinctly before the pupil's mind4 ,the teacher can do it with a better grace than the parent himself4 ,the teacher can strengthen and deepen the home feeling1 and it is his office to do so4 ,the pupil should go home from his moral lesson in school and look upon his parents with a new realization of all that he owes them1 with a new and deeper tenderness4 ,but the duty of gratitude should be based1 above all1 upon the greatest gift which the child obtains from his parents1 the help which it receives toward attaining the moral aim of its existence4 ,i do not include the commandment ,love thy parents among the rules of filial duty1 for ,i do not think that love can be commanded4 ,love follows of itself if the right attitude of reverence1 obedience1 gratitude be observed4 ,love is the sense of union with another4 ,and the peculiarity of filial love1 whereby it is distinguished from other kinds of love1 is that it springs from union with persons on whom we utterly depend1 with moral superiors1 to whom we owe the fostering of our spiritual as well as of our physical existence4 ,but how shall the sentiment of filial gratitude express itself8 ,gratitude is usually displayed by a return of the kindness received4 ,but the kindness which we receive from parents is such that we can never repay it4 ,it is of the nature of a debt which we can never hope fully to cancel4 ,we can do this much--when our parents grow old1 we can care for them1 and smooth the last steps that lead to the grave4 ,and when we ourselves have grown to manhood and womanhood1 and have in turn become parents1 we can bestow upon our own offspring the same studious and intelligent care which our parents1 according to the light they had1 bestowed on us1 and thus ideally repay them by doing for others what they did for us4 ,but this is a point which concerns only adults4 ,as for young children1 they can show their gratitude in part by slight services1 delicacies of behavior1 the chief value of which consists in the sentiment that inspires them1 but principally by a willing acceptance of parental guidance1 and by earnest efforts in the direction of their own intellectual and moral improvement4 ,there is no love so unselfish as parental love4 ,there is nothing which true parents have more at heart than the highest welfare of their children4 ,there is no way in which a child can please father and mother better than by doing that which is for its own highest good4 ,the child's progress in knowledge and in moral excellence are to every parent the most acceptable tokens of filial gratitude4 ,and this leads me to an important point1 to which reference has already been made4 ,it has been stated that each period of life has its distinct set of duties2 furthermore1 that in each period there is one paramount duty1 around which the others may be grouped2 and1 lastly1 that at each successive stage it is important to reach backward and to bring the ethical system of the preceding period into harmony with the new system4 ,of this last point we are now in a position to give a simple illustration4 ,the paramount duty of the school period is to acquire knowledge2 the paramount duty of the previous period is to reverence parents4 ,but1 as has just been shown1 reverence toward parents at this stage is best exhibited by conscientious study1 and thus the two systems are merged into one4#ag ,,the ,,fraternal ,,duties4 ,thus much concerning the filial relations4 ,we pass on to speak of the fraternal duties2 the duties of brothers to brothers and sisters to sisters2 of brothers to sisters and conversely2 of older to younger brothers and sisters and conversely4 ,the fraternal duties are founded upon the respect which equals owe to equals4 ,the brotherly relation is of immense pedagogic value1 inasmuch as it educates us for the fulfillment later on of our duties toward all equals1 be they kinsmen or not4 ,as between brothers1 the respect of each for the rights of the other is made comparatively easy by natural inclination4 ,the tie of blood1 close and constant association in the same house1 common experience of domestic pleasures and sorrows--all this tends to link the hearts of the brothers together1 and thus the first lessons in one of the hardest duties are given by ,love1 the gentlest of school-masters4 ,but the word equality must not be misconceived4 ,equality is not to be taken in its mathematical sense4 ,one brother is gifted and may eventually rise to wealth and fame1 another is ,nature's step-child2 one sister is beautiful1 another the opposite4 ,if the idea of equality be pressed to a literal meaning1 it is sure to give rise to ugly feelings in the hearts of the less fortunate4 ,how1 then1 shall we define equality in the moral sense8 ,a superior1 as we have seen1 renders services which the inferior can not adequately return4 ,equals are those who are so far on the same level as to be capable of rendering mutual services1 alike in importance1 though not necessarily the same in kind4 ,equals are correlative to one another4 ,the services of each are complementary to those of the other4 ,the idea of mutual service1 therefore1 is characteristic of the relation of brothers1 and the rule of duty may be formulated simply1 ,serve one another4 ,from this follow all the minor commands and prohibitions which are usually impressed upon children1#ah and also the far loftier counsels which apply only to adults4 ,it will be perceived that the rule of mutual service1 when carried to its highest applications1 presupposes the principle of individual differentiation1 to which we have already attached so much weight4 ,this principle is fundamental to fraternal as well as to paternal and filial duty4 ,for precisely to the extent that brothers are distinctly individualized can they supplement each other and correlate their mutual services4 ,one can not indeed overlook the patent fact that brothers who are unlike in nature frequently repel each other1 and that in such cases the very closeness of the relation often becomes a source of extreme irritation1 and even of positive agony4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is no surer sign of moral ripeness than the ability to enter into1 to understand1 to appreciate a nature totally unlike one's own1 and thus to some extent to appropriate its excellences4 ,the very fact1 therefore1 that we at first feel ourselves repelled should be taken as a hint that this natural repulsion is to be overcome4 ,for every type of character needs its opposite to correct it4 ,the idealist1 for instance1 needs the realist1 if he would keep his balance4 ,and our uncongenial brothers1 precisely because they are at first uncongenial1 if we will but remember that they are1 after all1 our brothers1 and that it is our duty to come into harmonious relations with them1 can best help us to this fine self-conquest1 this true enrichment and enlargement of our moral being4 ,a word may be added as a caution to parents and teachers4 ,the way to create brotherly feeling among the young is to treat them impartially1 to love them with an equal love4 ,those who love and are beloved by the same person are strongly induced to love one another4 ,in the next place1 when disputes arise1 as is perhaps unavoidable1 the parent or teacher should1 as a rule1 enter patiently into the cause and not cut off inquiry because the whole matter seems trivial4 ,the subject matter of the dispute may be insignificant enough1 but the satisfaction of the sense of justice of the young is of the greatest significance4 ,when the sense of justice is outraged1 be the cause never so trivial1 a feeling of distrust against the parent is generated1 and of incipient hatred against the brother who may have provoked the unjust decision4 ,i have yet to speak of the duties of older to younger brothers and sisters4 ,if it is difficult to serve two masters1 it is hardly pleasant to be asked to serve half a dozen4 ,the youngest children in a large family are often placed in this position4 ,there is1 in the first place1 the authority of the parents1 which must be respected2 then1 in addition1 each of the grown-up sons and daughters is apt to try to exercise a little authority on his or her own account4 ,the younger ones naturally resent this petty despotism1 and disobedience and angry recriminations are the unpleasant consequences4 ,it is often necessary that elder sons and daughters should have partial charge of the younger4 ,they can in all cases make their authority acceptable by representing it as delegated1 by having it understood that they regard themselves merely as substitutes in the parents' place4 ,there must be unity of influence in the home1 or else the moral development of the young will be sadly interfered with4 ,there must be only a single center of authority1 represented by the parents1 and all minor exercise of authority should be referred back to that center4 ,father and mother wish me to help you2 ,father and mother will be pleased if you do so and so2 let me try to show you how--if the method of management implied in such words as these be adopted1 the younger children will look upon the elder as their friends and be glad to accept advice and direction4 ,lastly1 a word about the relation between brothers and sisters1 and conversely4 ,this relationship is qualified by the difference of sex4 ,a certain chivalry characterizes the attitude of the brother toward the sister1 a certain motherliness that of the sister toward the brother4 ,the relation may be and often is a very beautiful one4 ,the peculiar moral responsibility connected with it is that the sister is usually the first woman whom the brother knows at all intimately and as an equal1 and that his notions of womanhood are largely influenced by the traits which he sees in her1 while the brother is usually the first man whom the sister knows as a companion1 and her ideas of men are colored by what she sees in him4 ,to illustrate the fraternal relation ,i have been in the habit of recalling the stories from the ,old ,testament which bear upon this subject4 ,i have also given an account of the life of the brothers ,jacob and ,william ,grimm4 ,there was only a year's difference between them4 ,jacob ,grimm1 in the eulogy on ,william1 which he delivered before the ,berlin ,academy in the year #ahfj1 says3 ,during the slowly creeping years of our school life we slept in the same bed and occupied the same room4 ,there we sat at one and the same table studying our lessons4 ,later on there were two tables and two beds in the same room2 and later still1 during the entire period of our riper manhood1 we still continued to occupy two adjoining rooms1 always under the same roof4 ,all their property1 and even their books1 they held in common2 what belonged to the one belonged to the other4 ,they visited the university together in the same year2 they both took up1 in deference to their mother's wish1 the same study1 that of the law1 which they alike hated1 and then they turned in common to the study of philology1 in which both delighted and both achieved such great distinction4 ,they published their first important works in the same year2 and as they slept together in the same bed when they were children1 so now they sleep side by side in the grave4 ,i refer to the story of ,lear and his daughters to show that the common love for the parents is necessary to sustain the love of brothers and sisters toward one another4 ,lear had estranged the affection of ,goneril and ,regan through his partiality for ,cordelia4 ,the two women1 who had no love for their father1 hated each other2 and ,goneril1 who was the first to cast him out1 poisoned her sister4 ,to illustrate the relations of brothers to sisters1 ,i give an account of the beautiful lives of ,charles and ,mary ,lamb4 ,to show the redeeming power of womanhood as represented in a sister1 ,i explain to older pupils the story which underlies ,goethe's drama of ,iphigenia4 ,orestes is sick2 and what is his malady8 ,his soul has been poisoned by remorse4 ,believing himself to be the executive arm of justice1 he committed a great crime1 and now he is torn by the pangs of conscience1 and his mind is forever dwelling on that scene in which he was a fatal actor4 ,and how does ,iphigenia heal him8 ,she heals him by the clear truthfulness of her nature1 which the play is designed to bring out4 ,with the light of genuine womanhood which emanates from her she illuminates anew his darkened path4 ,by the force of the good which he learns to recognize in her he is led to a new trust in the redeeming power of the good in himself1 and thus to start out afresh in a life of courage1 hope1 and active effort4 ,the teacher should analyze and cause to be committed to memory the various beautiful proverbs which bear upon the subject of fraternal duty4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,it may also be pointed out to the pupil that a part of the task of intellectual and moral training1 which originally belongs entirely to the parents1 has by them been intrusted to the teachers1 and that something of the reverence which belongs to the former is now due to the latter4 #ah ,do not quarrel over your respective rights2 rather be more eager to secure the rights of your brother than your own4 ,do not triumph in your brother's disgrace or taunt him with his failings1 but rather seek to build up his self-respect4 ,help one another in your tasks1 etc4 ,,xiv4 ,,duties ,,toward ,,all ,,men4 ,,justice ,,and ,,charity4 ,,justice4--,the subject of justice is a difficult one to treat4 ,justice in the legal sense is to be distinguished from justice in the moral sense4 ,we are concerned only with the latter4 ,how much of it can we hope to include in such a course of instruction as this8 ,we can1 ,i think1 explain the essential principle and give a few of its most important applications4 ,what is this principle8 ,human society is an organism1 and the perfection of it depends upon the degree to which the parts related are differentiated4 ,unity of organization is the end1 differentiation is the means4 ,the serving of universal ends is the aim1 the emphasizing of individuality the means4 ,the principle which underlies the laws of justice ,i take to be respect for individuality of others4 ,and this may be expressed in the rule1 ,respect the individuality of every human being4 ,it might1 indeed1 appear at first sight as if justice had to do only with those points in which all men are alike1 and took no notice of the differences that subsist between them4 ,thus justice enjoins respect for the life of others2 and in regard to this all men are exactly on a par1 all men are equally entitled to live4 ,but justice also commands us to respect the convictions of others1 however different they may be from our own4 ,and it is but a finer sense of justice which keeps us from intruding on the privacy of others1 which leads us to show a proper consideration for the ways and idiosyncrasies of others1 and in general to refrain from encroaching on the personality of others4 ,the principle of justice may also be expressed in the rule1 ,do not interfere with the individual development of any one4 ,,applications ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,justice4-- #a4 ,do not kill4 ,by taking away the life of a human being we should of course cut off all chance of that person's further development4 ,this requires no comment4 ,but certain casuistical questions arise in connection with this command4 ,is it right to kill another in self-defense8 ,the difficulty involved might be put in this way3 ,a burglar breaks into your house by night and threatens to kill you4 ,you have a weapon at hand and can save yourself by killing him4 ,now it is evident that one of two lives must be taken4 ,but would it not be more moral on your part to say3 ,i1 at least1 will not break the commandment4 ,i would rather be killed than kill8 ,this question serves to show to what absurdities a purely formal principle in ethics can lead1 as we have already seen in the discussion of truthfulness4 ,the problem of the duel and that of the taking of the life of others in war also belong under this head1 but will be reserved for the advanced course4 #b4 ,respect the personal liberty of others4 ,slavery1 under whatever form1 is an outrage on justice4 ,the slave is degraded to be the mere instrument of his master's profit or pleasure4 ,let the teacher point out in what particulars the slave is wronged1 and show the evil effects of the institution of slavery on the character of the master as well as of the slave4 ,question--,is it right to speak of wage-slavery1 for instance1 in cases where the hours of labor are so prolonged as to leave no time for higher interests1 or where the relations of the laborer to his employer are such as to impair his moral independence8 #c4 ,respect the property of others4 ,unless we are careful we may at this point commit a grave wrong4 ,upon what moral considerations shall the right of property be based8 ,the school1 especially the moral lessons which are imparted in it1 should certainly not be placed in the service of vested interests4 ,on the other hand1 the school should not fill the pupils' minds with economic theories1 which they are incapable of understanding1 and of which the truth1 the justice1 the feasibility are still hotly disputed4 ,we are therefore taking a very responsible step in introducing the idea of property at all into our moral lessons4 ,and yet it is too great and important to be ignored4 ,some writers have advanced the theory that the right in question rests on labor1 and they regard it as a self-evident proposition1 one which1 therefore1 might safely be taught to the young1 that every person is entitled to the products of his labor4 ,jules ,simon says 7see ,paul ,janet1 ,elements of ,morals1 ,english translation1 p4 #ff73 ,this earth was worth nothing and produced nothing4 ,i dug the soil1 ,i brought from a distance fertilizing earth2 it is now fertile4 ,this fertility is my work2 by fertilizing it1 ,i made it mine4 ,american writers have eloquent passages to the same effect4 ,but this proposition certainly does not appear to me self-evident1 nor even true4 ,chiefly for the reason that my labor and my skill are not original1 but derivative factors in production4 ,they are very largely the result of the labor and the skill of generations that have preceded me1 that have built up in me this brain1 this skill1 this power of application4 ,the products of my labor would indeed belong to me if my labor were really mine1 if it were not to an incalculable extent the consequent of social antecedents1 in regard to which ,i can not claim the least merit4 ,the attempt to found the rewards of labor upon the merit of the laborer seems to me a perfectly hopeless one4 ,let me add that it is one thing to say that he who will not work shall not eat1 and a very different thing to say that he who works shall enjoy what he has produced4 ,the former statement merely signifies that he who will not contribute his share toward sustaining and improving human society is not entitled to any part in the advantages of the social order1 though the charity of his fellow-men may grant him1 under certain conditions and in the hope of changing his disposition1 what he is not entitled to as of right4 ,but the question what the share of the laborer ought to be is one that can not be settled in the rough-and-ready manner above suggested1 and the considerations involved are1 in truth1 far too numerous and complex to be introduced at this stage4 ,the whole question will be reopened later on4 ,for the present it must suffice to state certain purely moral considerations on which the right of property may be made to rest4 ,the following are the ideas which ,i should seek to develop3 ,property is justified by its uses4 ,its uses are to support the existence and promote the mental and moral growth of man4 ,the physical life itself depends on property4 ,even in a communistic state the food any one eats must be his property in the sense that every one else is debarred from using it4 ,the moral life of men depends on property4 ,the moral life is rooted in the institution of the family1 and the family could not exist without a separate domicile of its own and the means of providing for its dependent members4 ,the independence and the growth of the intellect depend on property4 ,in short1 property is an indispensable adjunct of personality4 ,this ,i take to be its moral basis4 ,what ,i here indicate1 however1 is an ideal right which the existing state of society by no means reflects4 ,by what methods we may best approach this ideal1 whether by maintaining and improving the system of private property in land or by state ownership1 whether by capitalistic or socialistic production1 etc41 are questions of means1 not of ends1 and raise problems in social science with which here we have not to deal4 ,question--,if the present social arrangements are not morally satisfactory1 if e4 g41 certain persons possess property to which on moral grounds they are not entitled1 should not the commandment against stealing be suspended so far as they are concerned8 ,the present system of rights1 imperfect as it is1 is the result of social evolution1 and denotes the high-water mark of the average ethical consciousness of the world up to date4 ,respect for the existing system of rights1 however1 imperfect as it is1 is the prime condition of obtaining a better system4 #d4 ,respect the mental liberty of others4 ,upon this rule of justice is founded the right to freedom of speech1 freedom of the press1 and what is called the freedom of conscience4 ,point out the limitations of these various rights which follow from the fact of their universality4 #e4 ,respect the reputation of your fellow-men4 ,refrain from backbiting and slander4 ,bridle your tongue4 ,this undoubtedly is a rule of justice4 ,who steals my purse steals trash1 etc4 ,the respect of our fellow-men is in itself a source of happiness and a moral prop1 and1 besides1 the greatest help in achieving the legitimate purposes of life4 ,he who has the confidence of others has wings to bear him along4 ,he who is suspected for any reason1 true or false1 strikes against invisible barriers at every step4 ,nothing is so sensitive as character--a mere breath may tarnish it4 ,it is therefore the gravest kind of injury to our neighbors to disseminate damaging rumors1 to throw out dark hints and suggestions with respect to them1 to impugn their motives4 ,but is it not a duty to denounce evil and evil-doers and to put the innocent on their guard against wolves in sheep's clothing8 ,yes1 if we are sure that our own motives are perfectly disinterested1 that we are not in the least prompted by personal spite or prejudice4 ,for if we dislike a person1 as every one knows1 we can not judge him fairly1 we are prone to attribute to him all manner of evil qualities and evil intents which exist only in our own jaundiced imagination4 ,very often a person against whom we had at first conceived a distinct dislike proves on nearer acquaintance to be one whom we can esteem and even love4 ,we should be warned by such experiences to hold our judgments in suspense1 and not to allow injurious words to pass the lips4 ,the vast moral importance of being able to hold one's tongue1 the golden resources of silence1 should be emphasized by the teacher4 ,a series of lessons on good manners may be introduced at this point4 ,the ceremonies of social intercourse1 the various forms in which refined people show their deference for each other1 the rule not to obtrude self in conversation1 and the like1 are so many illustrations of the respect which we owe to the personality of our fellow-men4 ,good manners are the aesthetic counterpart of good morals1 and the connection between the two can easily be made plain4 #f4 ,speak the truth4 ,inward truthfulness is a self-regarding duty2 social truthfulness is a form of justice4 ,words represent facts4 ,the words we speak to our neighbor are used by him as building-stones in the architecture of his daily conduct4 ,we have no right to defeat the purposes of his life1 to weaken the dwelling he is erecting1 by supplying him with worthless building material4 ,upon exactly the same ground is based the duty of keeping one's promises1 viz41 that our fellow-men build on our promises4 ,promises made in a legal form are called contracts and can be enforced4 ,promises not made in legal form are equally binding from a moral point of view4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that conditional promises are canceled when the stipulated conditions do not occur1 and1 furthermore1 that there are certain tacit conditions implied in all promises whatsoever4 ,a person who has promised to visit a friend on a certain day and dies in the interval is not supposed to have broken his promise2 nor if any one makes a similar promise and a heavy snowstorm should block the roads or if he should be confined to his bed by sickness is he likely to be accused of breaking his promise4 ,the physical possibility of fulfilling them is a tacit condition in all promises4 ,it is also a tacit condition in all promises that it shall be morally possible or consistent with morality to keep them4 ,a young man who has promised to join a gang of burglars in an attack on a bank and who repents at the last moment is morally justified in refusing to keep his pledge4 ,his crime consisted in having made the promise in the first place1 not in refusing to fulfill it at the last moment4 ,a person1 however1 who promises to pay usurious interest on a loan of money and who then takes advantage of the laws against usury to escape payment is a double-dyed rogue1 for his intention is to cheat1 and he uses the cloak of virtue as a screen in order to cheat with impunity4 ,let the teacher discuss the casuistical question whether it is right to keep a promise made to robbers--e4 g41 if we should fall into the hands of brigands1 and they should make it a condition of our release that we shall not betray their hiding-place4 ,justice is based on positive respect for the individuality of others1 but its commands may all be expressed in the negative form3 ,do not kill1 do not infringe the liberty1 the property of others1 do not slander1 do not lie1 etc4 ,it is often held1 however1 that there is a positive as well as a negative side to justice1 and the two sides are respectively expressed in the formulas3 ,neminem laede and suum cuique--,hurt no one and give every one his due4 ,of positive or distributive justice we meet with such examples as the following3 ,in awarding a prize the jury is bound in justice to give the award in favor of the most deserving competitor4 ,the head of a department in filling a vacancy is bound in justice to avoid favoritism1 to promote that one of his subordinates who deserves promotion1 etc4 ,but it seems to me that this distinction is unimportant4 ,give to each one his due is tantamount to ,do not deprive any one of what is due him4 ,if the prize or the place belongs to ,a we should1 by withholding it from him1 invade the rights of ,a as much as if we took money out of his purse4 ,the commands are negative1 but the virtue implied is positive enough1 because it depends on positive respect for human nature4 ,do not infringe upon the sacred territory of another's personality is the rule of justice in all cases4 ,,charity4--,how shall we distinguish charity from justice8 ,it is said that every one is justified in claiming from others what belongs to him as a matter of right1 but that no one can exact charity4 ,the characteristic mark of charity is supposed to be that it is freely given4 ,but if ,i happen to be rich and can afford to supply the need of another am ,i not morally bound to do so1 and has not my indigent neighbor a real claim upon me8 ,again1 it has been said that the term justice is applied to claims which are capable of being formulated in general rules and imposed alike on all men in their dealings with one another1 while in the case of charity both the measure and the object of it are to be freely determined by each one4 ,we are free1 according to this view1 to decide whether a claim upon us exists or not2 but1 the claim once having been admitted1 it is as binding upon us as any of the demands of justice4 ,but1 while this is true1 ,i hold that nevertheless there exists a clear distinction between the virtues of justice and charity4 ,we owe justice to our equals1 charity to our inferiors4 ,the word inferior is to be understood in a carefully limited sense4 ,an employer owes his workmen1 as a matter of justice1 the wages he has agreed to pay4 ,though they may be socially his inferiors1 in regard to this transaction they are his equals4 ,they have agreed to render him certain services and he has agreed to return them an equivalent4 ,justice says ,do not hinder the development of others2 ,charity says ,assist the development of others4 ,the application of the rule of charity will make its meaning clear4 #a4 ,justice says do not destroy life2 ,charity says save life4 ,rescue from the flames the inmates of a burning house2 leap into the waves to save a drowning fellow-creature4 ,such persons are dependent on your help4 ,they are therefore with respect to you in an inferior position4 ,discuss with the class the limitations of this duty4 ,i am not bound to jump into the water1 for instance1 when ,i see a person drowning unless ,i can swim4 ,in fact1 it would be culpable foolhardiness in me to do so4 ,discuss the following casuistical case3 ,a child is lying on the railroad track and a locomotive is rapidly approaching4 ,am ,i bound to make the attempt to draw it away from the track8 ,does it make any difference whether ,i am single or the father of a family and have others dependent on me8 ,in general1 the attempt to save should not be made unless there is a distinct chance of succeeding without the sacrifice of one's own life2 but we are justified in taking great risks1 and courage and self-reliance are evinced in the degree of risk we are willing to take4 ,there are cases1 however1 in which the deliberate sacrifice of one life for another is in the highest degree praiseworthy when1 namely1 the life to be saved is regarded as far more precious than our own4 ,instance the soldier who intercepts the thrust which is aimed at the life of his general4 ,instance the parent who in the ,johnstown flood was seen to push his child to a place of safety and was then swept away by the current4 #b4 ,assist the needy4 ,this may be done by giving bread to the hungry1 clothing to the naked1 shelter to the homeless1 by caring for the sick1 advancing loans to those who are struggling toward self-support1 etc4 ,the rule of charity is based on respect for the personality of others4 ,we are required to assist those who are too weak to hold their own1 with a view of putting them on their feet again4 ,the aim of all charity should be to make those who are dependent on it independent of it4 ,from this point of view all mere almsgiving1 all that so-called charity which only serves to make the dependent classes more dependent1 stands condemned4 ,but the true test of charity1 upon which the greatest stress should be laid1 is to be found in the way it reacts upon the charitable themselves4 ,right relations1 whatever their nature1 are always mutually beneficial4 ,does the deed of charity react beneficially on the doer8 is the test question to be asked in every instance4 ,take the case of a person who gives large sums to the poor in the hope of seeing his name favorably mentioned in the newspapers4 ,the motive in this case is vanity1 and the effect of this spurious sort of charity is to increase the vanity of the donor4 ,the reaction upon him1 therefore1 is morally harmful4 ,again1 take the case of a person who gives capriciously1 at the bidding of impulse1 without considering whether his gifts are likely to be of lasting benefit to the recipients4 ,he is confirmed in his habit of yielding to impulse1 and the reaction is likewise morally injurious4 ,on the other hand1 the retroactive effects of true charity are most beneficial4 ,in the first place1 a reaction will take place in the direction of greater simplicity in our own lives4 ,a person can not be seriously and deeply interested in the condition of the poor1 can not truly realize the hardships which they suffer1 without being moved to cut off superfluous expenditure4 ,secondly1 true charity will teach us to enter into the problems of others1 often so unlike our own2 to put ourselves in their places2 to consider how we should act in their circumstances2 to fight their battles for them2 and by this means our moral experience will be enlarged1 and from being one1 we become1 as it were1 many men4 ,true charity will also draw closer the bond of fellowship between the poor and us1 for we shall often discover virtues in them which we do not possess ourselves2 and sometimes1 at least1 we shall have occasion to look up with a kind of awe to those whom we are aiding4 ,in connection with the discussion of charity1 let the teacher relate the biographies of ,john ,howard1 ,sister ,dora1 ,florence ,nightingale1 ,elizabeth ,fry1 and others1 who have been distinguished for their devotion to the suffering4 #c4 ,cheer up the sad4 ,explain that a bright smile may often have the value of an act of charity4 ,in general1 emphasize the duty of suppressing irritability1 ill humor1 and moodiness1 and of contributing to the sunshine of our households4#ai #d4 ,console the bereaved4 ,the afflicted are for the moment weak and dependent2 it is the office of loving charity to make them independent4 ,here the same train of reasoning is applicable as above in the case of the poor4 ,it serves no useful purpose merely to sit down by the side of the sorrowful and to weep with them4 ,they do need sympathy1 but they also need1 at least after the first paroxysms of grief have subsided1 to be roused4 ,the true cure for suffering is action4 ,those who suffer need to be nerved to action2 they need to be shown1 above all1 the new duties which their situation entails4 ,he who can point out to them the way of duty1 and can give them of his own strength to walk in that way1 is their best friend--he is the true consoler4 #e4 ,i have yet to speak of mental charity and of moral charity4 ,mental charity is practiced by the wise teacher1 who puts his pupils on the road to knowledge1 who helps them to discover their true vocation1 and who1 when they are involved in doubt and difficulty1 succeeds in giving them the clew by which they can find an exit into mental clearness and light4 #f4 ,moral charity is practiced by those who bend down to the sinful and the fallen1 and awaken in them a new hope and trust in the good and in themselves4 ,the charity which effects moral regeneration is perhaps the highest type of all1 and of this ,i know no more fitting nor more sublime example than the dealing of ,jesus with the outcasts of society4 ,,note4--,without attempting to forestall further philosophical analysis1 we may perhaps assume1 as a working hypothesis1 as a provisional principle of deduction in ethics1 the principle of organization4 ,the individual is an organ of humanity4 ,it is his duty to discharge1 as perfectly as possible1 his special functions2 hence the need of insisting on respect for individuality throughout4 ,even the self-regarding duties would have no meaning were not the complex whole in view1 in the economy of which each member is required to perform his part4 ,as in every organism1 so in this1 each separate organ serves1 and is served in turn by all the others1 and can attain its highest development only through this constant interaction4 ,to complete the thought1 it would be necessary to add that certain organs are more closely connected than others1 and form lesser organisms within and subservient to the whole4 ,this1 however1 is merely thrown out as a suggestion addressed to the student of ethics4 ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,,gratitude4--,upon this subject much might be said1 did not the fact that the time at our command is nearly exhausted warn us to use even greater brevity than heretofore in dealing with the topics that remain4 ,to bring out the right relations between benefactor and beneficiary1 let the teacher put the question1 ,why is it wrong to cast up the benefits we have conferred to the one who has received them8 ,and why1 on the other hand1 is it so base in the latter to show himself ungrateful4 ,the reason is to be found in the respect due to the personality of others1 to which we have so often alluded4 ,kant says that every human being is to be treated as an end in himself1 and not merely as a means or a tool4 ,in effect1 the person who ignores benefits says to his benefactor3 ,you are my tool4 ,it is unnecessary for me to recognize your services1 because you are not an independent person to be respected1 but a creature to be made use of at pleasure4 ,ingratitude is a slur on the moral personality of others4 ,on the other hand1 he who casts up benefits practically says you have forfeited your independence through the favors you have accepted4 ,i have made your personality tributary to mine4 ,an excellent rule is that of ,seneca4 ,the benefactor should immediately forget what he has given2 the beneficiary should always remember what he has received4 ,true gratitude is based on the sense of our moral fellowship with others4 ,the gifts received and returned are mere tokens of this noble relationship 7as all gifts should be74 ,you have just given to me4 ,i will presently give to you twice as much again1 or half as much1 it matters not which1 when occasion arises4 ,we will further each other's aims as best we can1 for the ends of each are sacred to the other4 ,,duties ,,to ,,servants4--,having spoken of the duties which we owe to all men1 ,i may here refer to certain special duties1 such as the duties toward servants4 ,these may also be introduced in connection with the duties of the family1 after the filial and fraternal duties have been considered4 ,i have space only to mention the following points3 #a4 ,servants are laborers4 ,the same respect is due to them as to all other laborers4 #b4 ,they are not only laborers1 but in a special sense helpers4 ,they are members of the household in a subordinate capacity1 and in many cases identify themselves closely with the interests of the family4 ,they are1 as it were1 lay brothers and lay sisters of the family4 ,from these considerations may be deduced the duties which we owe toward servants4 ,,duties ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,animals4--,i can not admit that we have duties toward animals4 ,we can not very well speak of duties toward creatures on which we in part subsist2 but there are duties with respect to animals4 ,man is a rational being1 and as such takes a natural delight in that orderly arrangement and interdependence of parts which are the visible counterpart of the rational principle in his own nature4 ,we ought not to step on or heedlessly crush under our feet even a single flower4 ,much less should we ruthlessly destroy the more perfect organism which we see in animals4 ,add to this that animals are sentient creatures1 and that the useless infliction of pain tends to develop cruelty in us4 ,as a practical means of fostering kindness toward animals1 ,i suggest the following3 ,get your pupils interested in the habits of animals4 ,familiarity in this case will breed sympathy4 ,speak of the building instincts of bees2 of the curious structures raised by those wonderful engineers1 the beavers4 ,give prominence to the love for their young by which the brute creation is brought into closer connection with the human family4 ,mention especially the fidelity which some animals show toward man 7the saving of human lives by ,st4 ,bernard dogs1 etc471 and the uses which we derive from the various members of the animal creation4 ,as to the fact that we use animals for our sustenance1 the highest point of view to take1 ,i think1 is this1 that man is1 so to speak1 the crucible in which all the utilities of nature are refined to higher spiritual uses4 ,man puts the whole of nature under contribution to serve his purposes4 ,he takes trees from the forest in order to build his house1 and to fashion the table at which he takes his meals2 he brings up metal from the depths of the earth and converts it into tools2 he takes clay and forms it into vessels4 ,he also is permitted to pluck flowers wherewith to garnish his feasts1 and to make them the tokens of his love2 and in the same manner he may actually absorb the life of the lower animals1 in order to transform and transfigure it1 as it were1 into that higher life which is possible only in human society4 ,but it follows that he is a mere parasite and an interloper in nature1 unless he actually leads the truly human life4 ,,footnote3 #ai ,for the teacher ,i add point #d4 ,the duties mentioned under #e and #f may be practiced in a simple way by the young in the form of aiding their backward schoolmates1 and observing the right attitude toward those of their companions who are in disgrace4 ,,xv4 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,civic ,,duty4 ,it should be the aim of the school not only to connect the system of school duties with the duties of the previous period1 but also to prepare the pupils morally for the period which follows4 ,the school is the intermediate link between life in the family and life in society and the state4 ,the course of moral instruction1 therefore1 culminates for the present in the chapter on civic duties4 ,needless to say that at this stage the subject can be considered in its elements only4 ,the claims of the state upon the moral attachment of the citizen can hardly be presented too warmly4 ,life in the state as well as in the family is indispensable to the full development of character4 ,man1 in his progress from childhood to old age1 passes successively through ever-widening circles of duty1 and new moral horizons open upon him as he grows out of one into the other4 ,one of the largest of these circles1 and1 in respect to moral opportunities1 one of the richest and most glorious1 is the state4 ,it may be said that the whole state exists ideally in every true citizen1 or1 what amounts to the same1 that the true citizen embraces the interests of the state1 as if they were his own1 and acts from the point of view of the total body politic4 ,increased breadth of view and elevation of purpose are the moral benefits which accrue to every one who even honestly attempts to be a citizen in this sense4 ,much attention is paid in some schools to the machinery of our government4 ,the pupils are expected to learn the exact functions of mayors1 city councils1 and legislative bodies1 the provisions relative to the election of the ,president1 etc4 ,but while these things ought to be known1 they relate1 after all1 only to the externals of government2 and it is far more important to familiarize the pupils with the animating spirit of political institutions1 with the great ideas which underlie the state4 ,there are especially three political ideas to which ,i should give prominence2 these are1 the idea of the supremacy of the law2 the true idea of punishment2 and the idea of nationality4 ,after we have instilled these ideas1 it will be time enough to dwell with greater particularity on the machinery by which it is sought to carry them into effect4 ,what method shall we use for instilling these ideas8 ,the same which modern pedagogy applies in every branch of instruction4 ,the rule is1 ,proceed from the known to the unknown2 in introducing a new notion1 connect it with some analogous notion already in the pupil's possession4 ,the school offers excellent opportunities for developing the two ideas of law and punishment4 ,in every school there exists a body of rules and regulations1 or school laws4 ,it should be made plain to the scholars that these laws are enacted for their own good4 ,the government of the school should be made to rest as far as possible on the consent and co-operation of the governed4 ,that school which does not secure on the part of the scholars a willing acceptance of the system of restraints which is necessary for the good of the whole1 is a failure4 ,in such an institution the law-abiding spirit can never be fostered4 ,the play-ground1 too1 affords a preliminary training for future citizenship4 ,on the play-ground the scholars learn to select and to obey their own leaders1 to maintain the rules of the game1 and to put down any infraction of them1 whether in the shape of violence or fraud4 ,they also learn to defer to the will of the majority--a most important lesson1 especially in democratic communities--and to bear defeat good-humoredly4#bj ,the true idea of punishment should be brought home to the scholars through the discipline of the school4 ,the ends of punishment are the protection of the community and the reformation of the offender4 ,nowhere better than in the little commonwealth of the school can these moral aspects of punishment be impressed2 nowhere better can the foundation be laid for the changes which are so urgently needed in the dealings of the state with the criminal class4 ,everything1 of course1 depends upon the character of the teacher4 ,his reputation for strict justice1 the moral earnestness he displays in dealing with offenses1 his readiness to forbear and forgive upon the least sign of genuine repentance--these are the means by which he can instill right notions as to what discipline should be4 ,it has been suggested that1 when a particularly serious case of transgression occurs1 the teacher can sometimes produce a profound moral effect on the class by submitting the case to them as a jury and asking for their verdict4 ,the idea of nationality ,i regard as fundamental in political ethics4 ,there is such a thing as national character1 national genius1 or national individuality4 ,when we think of the ,greeks1 we think of them as pre-eminent for their achievements in art and philosophy2 of the ,hebrews1 as the people of the ,bible2 of the ,romans1 as the founders of jurisprudence1 etc4 ,and on turning to the modern nations we find that the talents of the ,english1 the ,germans1 the ,french1 the ,italians1 etc41 are no less diversified4 ,morally speaking1 it is the mission of each nation in correlation with others to contribute to the universal work of civilization its own peculiar gifts4 ,the state may be regarded as that organization of the public life which is designed to develop the national individuality2 to foster the national genius in whatever direction it may seek to express itself1 whether in industry1 art1 literature1 or science2 to clarify its aims1 and to raise it to the highest pitch of beneficent power4 ,doubtless this idea1 as stated1 is too abstract to be grasped by the young2 but it can be brought down to their level in a tangible way4 ,for the national genius expresses itself in the national history1 and more especially is it incorporated in those great leaders1 who arise at critical periods to guide the national development into new channels4 ,it is at this point that we realize anew the important support which the teaching of history may give to the moral teaching4#ba ,thus the political history of the ,united ,states1 if ,i may be permitted to use that as an illustration of my thought1 may be divided into three great periods4 ,the struggle with nature occupied the earliest period--that of colonization2 in this period we see the ,american man engaged in subduing a continent4 ,the struggle for political freedom fills the period of the ,revolution4 ,the struggle for a universal moral idea lends grandeur to our civil war4 ,the story of these three great struggles should be related with such clearness that the idea which dominated each may stand out in relief1 and with such fervor that the pupils may conceive a more ardent love for their country which1 at the same time that it holds out immeasurable prospects for the future1 already possesses such glorious traditions4 ,there is1 however1 always a great danger that patriotism may degenerate into ,chauvinism4 ,against this1 universal history1 when taught in the right spirit1 is the best antidote4 ,a knowledge of universal history is an admirable check on spurious patriotism4 ,in teaching it1 it is especially desirable that the contribution which each nation has made to the progress of the world be noted and emphasized4 ,let the teacher speak of the early development of the literature and of the inventive spirit of the despised ,chinese2 of the high civilization which once flourished on the banks of the ,nile2 of the immortal debt we owe to ,greece and ,rome and ,judea4 ,let the young be made acquainted with the important services which ,ireland rendered to ,european culture in the early part of the middle ages4 ,let them learn1 however briefly1 of the part which ,france played in the overthrow of feudalism1 of the wealth of ,german science and literature and philosophy2 let them know how much mankind owes to the ,parliaments of ,england1 and to the stout heart and strong sense which made parliaments possible4 ,it is not by underrating others1 but by duly estimating and appreciating their achievements1 that we shall find ourselves challenged to bring forth what is best in ourselves4 ,there is still another reason why1 especially in ,american schools1 the teaching of universal history should receive far greater attention than hitherto has been accorded to it4 ,the ,american people are imbued with the belief that they have a problem to solve for all mankind4 ,they have set out to demonstrate in the face of doubt and adverse criticism the possibility of popular self-government4 ,they have thus consecrated their national life to a sublime humanitarian idea4 ,and the sense of this consecration1 echoing in the utterances of many of their leading statesmen1 has more or less permeated the whole people4 ,but the mission thus assumed1 like the burden on the shoulders of ,christophorus1 is becoming heavier at every step4 ,the best citizens recognize that the problem of popular self-government1 so far from being solved1 is but beginning to disclose itself in all its vast complexity1 and they realize more than ever how necessary it is to get every possible help from the example and experience of older nations4 ,the political lessons of the past can not indeed be mastered in the public schools4 ,but a preliminary interest in ,european history may be created1 which will pave the way for profitable study later on4 ,furthermore1 the ,american people have extended a most liberal invitation to members of other nationalities 7with few restrictions1 and these of recent origin7 to come and join in working out the destinies of the new continent4 ,not only is an asylum granted to the oppressed--this were the lesser boon--but the gates of citizenship have been opened wide to the new-comers4 ,what does this mean1 if not that the foreigners who come1 unless indeed they belong to the weak and dependent classes1 are wanted2 and wanted not only in their capacity as workers to aid in developing the material resources of the country1 but as citizens1 to help in perfecting what is still imperfect1 to assist in building up in time1 on ,american soil1 the true republic4 ,in return for this privilege the citizens of foreign birth owe it to their adopted country to place the best of their racial gifts at its service4 ,much that the citizens of foreign birth bring with them1 indeed1 will have to be eliminated1 but1 on the other hand1 many of their traits will probably enter as constituent elements into the national character4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon race has now the lead1 and will doubtless keep it4 ,but in the melting-pot of the ,american commonwealths the elements of many diverse nationalities are being mixed anew1 and a new nationality distinctively ,american is likely to be the final outcome of the process4 ,thus both the humanitarian ideal and the actual make-up of the people betray a cosmopolitan tendency1 and it is this tendency which1 more perhaps than anything else1 gives to ,american political life its characteristic physiognomy4 ,if this be so1 if the foreign elements are so numerous and likely to be so influential1 it is surely important that the foreign races1 their character and their history1 be studied and understood4 ,besides explaining the political ideas1 ,i should briefly describe the actual functions of government4 ,government protects the life and property of its citizens against foreign aggression and violence at home4 ,government maintains the binding force of contracts4 ,government reserves to itself the coinage of money1 carries the mails1 supports public education1 etc4 ,in a word1 government assumes those functions which can be discharged more satisfactorily or more economically by the joint action of the community than if left to private individuals or corporations4 ,but government also undertakes the duty of protecting the weaker classes against oppression by the stronger1 as is shown by factory legislation in the interest of women and minors4 ,how far this function may profitably be extended is open to discussion2 but that it has been assumed in all civilized countries is a fact which should be noted4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,vide ,dole1 ,the ,american ,citizen4 #ba ,see remarks on this subject in the third lecture4 ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,proverbs ,,and ,,speeches4 ,for the use of my classes ,i have made a collection of proverbs from the ,bible1 from ,buddha's ,dhammapada1 from the ,encheiridion of ,epictetus1 the ,imitation of ,christ1 and other ancient and modern sources4 ,some of these belong to the advanced course1 others can be used in the grammar course4 ,i have time to mention only a few1 in order to illustrate the method of using them4 ,the habit of committing proverbs or golden sayings to memory without a previous analysis of their meaning serves no good purpose whatever4 ,proverbs are the condensed expression of the moral experience of generations4 ,the teacher should search out the experiences to which the proverbs refer4 ,proverbs may be compared to those delicate ,eastern fabrics which can be folded up into the smallest compass1 but which1 when unfolded1 are seen to cover a large space4 ,the teacher should explore the territory covered by the proverb4 ,take1 for example1 such a saying as this1 ,blessed be he who has the good eye4 ,what is the good eye8 ,the eye that sees the good in others4 ,is it easy to see the good in others8 ,yes1 if we are fond of them2 but if we are not1 we are likely to see only the evil4 ,but suppose there is no good to be seen1 at least not on the surface2 why1 then the good eye is that which sees the good beneath the surface1 which1 like the divining-rod1 shows where in human character gold lies buried1 and helps us to penetrate to it4 ,but even this does not exhaust the meaning of the proverb4 ,the good eye is that which1 as it were1 sees the good into others1 sends its good influence into them1 makes them good by believing them to be so4 ,the good eye is a creative eye4 ,or take the proverb1 ,a falsehood is like pebbles in the mouth4 ,why not say a falsehood is like a pebble8 ,no1 one falsehood is like many pebbles4 ,for every falsehood tends to multiply itself1 and each separate falsehood is like a pebble--not like bread1 which we can assimilate1 but like a stone1 a foreign body1 alien to our nature4 ,moreover1 the proverb says1 ,a falsehood is like pebbles in the mouth2 which means that these stony falsehoods will choke us1 choke the better life in us1 unless we cast them out4 ,again1 take such sayings as these from the ,dhammapada3 ,as rain breaks through an ill-thatched house1 passion will break through an unreflecting mind4 ,explain what kind of reflection is needed to keep off passion4 ,he who is well subdued may subdue others4 ,show what kind of self-control is meant1 and in what sense others are to be subdued4 ,he who holds back anger like a rolling chariot1 him ,i call a real driver2 other people are but holding the reins4 ,let a man overcome anger by love2 let him overcome evil by good2 let him overcome the greedy by liberality1 the liar by truth4 ,describe the sort of brake by means of which the rolling chariot of anger may be checked in mid-course1 and the efficacy of goodness in overcoming evil4 ,from the ,encheiridion it occurs to me to mention the saying1 ,everything has two handles3 the one by which it can be borne1 the other by which it can not be borne4 ,epictetus himself gives an illustration3 ,if your brother acts unjustly toward you1 do not lay hold of the act by that handle wherein he acts unjustly1 for that is the handle by which it can not be borne2 but lay hold of the other1 that he is your brother1 and you will lay hold of the thing by that handle by which it can be borne4 ,there are also many other illustrations of this noble maxim4 ,disappointment has two handles1 the one by which it can be borne1 the other by which it can not4 ,affliction has two handles4 ,illustrate profusely2 search out the meaning in detail4 ,there is a mine of practical wisdom in these sayings4 ,there exist proverbs relating to all the various duties which have been discussed in our course2 proverbs relating to the pursuit of knowledge2 many and beautiful proverbs on the filial and fraternal duties1 on courage1 on humility1 on the importance of keeping promises1 on kindness to animals1 on the moral end of civil society4 ,proverbs should be classified under their proper heads and used as occasion offers4 ,permit me1 however1 to add one word of caution4 ,it is a mistake to teach too many proverbs at a time1 to overload the pupil's mind with them4 ,the proverbs selected should be brief1 pithy1 and profoundly significant4 ,but there should not be too many at a time4 ,it is better to return to the same proverb often1 and to penetrate deeper into its meaning every time4 ,the value of the proverbs is that they serve as pegs in the memory1 to which long chains of moral reflection can be attached4 ,they are guide-posts pointing with their short arms to the road of duty2 they are voices of mankind uttering impressive warnings1 and giving clear direction in moments when the promptings of self-interest or the mists of passion would be likely to lead us astray4 ,it may also be well to select a number of speeches which embody high moral sentiments1 like some of the speeches of ,isaiah1 the speech of ,socrates before his judges1 and others1 and1 after having explained their meaning1 to cause them to be recited by the pupils4 ,just as the delivery of patriotic speeches is found useful for inculcating patriotic sentiments1 so such speeches as these will tend to quicken the moral sentiments4 ,he who repeats the speech of another for the time being puts on the character of the other4 ,the sentiments which are uttered by the lips live for the moment in the heart1 and leave their mark there4 ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,individualization ,,of ,,moral ,,teaching4 ,this subject is of the greatest importance4 ,it really requires extended and careful treatment1 but a few hints must suffice4 ,the teacher should remember that he is educating not boys and girls in general1 but particular boys and girls1 each of whom has particular faults needing to be corrected and actual or potential virtues to be developed and encouraged4 ,therefore a conscientious study of the character of the pupils is necessary4 ,this constitutes an additional reason why moral instruction should be given in a daily school rather than in a ,sunday school1 the opportunities for the study of character being vastly better in the former than they can possibly be in the latter4 ,the teacher who gives the moral lessons1 in undertaking this study1 should solicit the co-operation of all the other teachers of the school4 ,he should request from time to time from each of his fellow-teachers reports stating the good and bad traits observed in each pupil1 or rather the facts on which the various teachers base their estimates of the good and bad qualities of the scholars2 for the opinions of teachers are sometimes unreliable1 are sometimes discolored by prejudice1 while facts tell their own story4 ,these facts should be collated by the moral teacher1 and1 with them as a basis1 he may endeavor to work out a kind of chart of the character of each of his pupils4 ,it goes without saying1 that he should also seek the co-operation of the parents1 for the purpose of discovering what characteristic traits the pupil displays at home2 and if the reputation which a pupil bears among his companions1 can be ascertained without undue prying1 this1 too1 will be found of use in forming an estimate of his disposition4 ,the teacher who knows the special temptations of his pupils will have many opportunities1 in the course of the moral lessons1 to give them pertinent warnings and advice1 without seeming to address them in particular or exposing their faults to the class4 ,he will also be able to exercise a helpful surveillance over their conduct in school1 and to become in private their friend and counselor4 ,moreover1 the material thus collected will in time prove serviceable in helping us to a more exact knowledge of the different varieties of human character--a knowledge which would give to the art of ethical training something like a scientific basis4#bb ,,footnote3 #bb ,see some remarks on types of character in my lecture on the ,punishment of ,children4 ,,recapitulation4 ,let us now briefly review the ground we have gone over in the present course4 ,in the five introductory lectures we discussed the problem of unsectarian moral teaching1 the efficient motives of good conduct1 the opportunities of moral influence in schools1 the classification of duties1 and the moral status of the child on entering school4 ,in mapping out the primary course we assumed as a starting-point the idea that the child rapidly passes through the same stages of evolution through which the human race has passed1 and hence we endeavored to select our material for successive epochs in the child's life from the literature of the corresponding epochs in the life of the race4 ,in regard to the method of instruction1 we observed that in the fairy tales the moral element should be touched on incidentally2 that in teaching the fables isolated moral qualities should be presented in such a way that the pupil may always thereafter be able to recognize them2 while the stories display a number of moral qualities in combination and have the value of moral pictures4 ,in the primary course the object has been to train the moral perceptions2 in the grammar course1 to work out moral concepts and to formulate rules of conduct4 ,the method of getting at these rules may again be described as follows3 ,begin with some concrete case1 suggest a rule which apparently fits that case or really fits it1 adduce other cases which the rule does not fit1 change the rule1 modify it as often as necessary1 until it has been brought into such shape that it will fit every case you can think of4 ,in planning the lessons on duty which make up the subject matter of the grammar course1 we took the ground that each period of life has its specific duties1 that in each period there is one paramount duty around which the others may be grouped1 and that each new system of duties should embrace and absorb the preceding one4 ,it remains for me to add that the illustrations which ,i have used in the grammar course are intended merely to serve as specimens1 and by no means to exclude the use of different illustrative matter which the teacher may find more suitable4 ,furthermore1 ,i desire to express the hope that it may be possible1 without too much difficulty1 to eliminate whatever subjective conceptions may be found to have crept into these lessons1 and that1 due deduction having been made1 there may remain a substratum of objective truth which all can accept4 ,it should be remembered that these lectures are not intended to take the place of a text-book1 but to serve as a guide to the teacher in preparing his lessons4 ,i hope hereafter to continue the work which has thus been begun4 ,in the advanced course1 which is to follow the present one1 we shall have to reconsider from a higher point of view many of the subjects already treated1 and in addition to take up such topics as the ethics of the professions1 the ethics of friendship1 conjugal ethics1 etc41 which have here been omitted4 ,i shall also attempt to indicate the lines for a systematic study of biographies1 and to lay out a course of selected readings from the best ethical literature of ancient and modern times4 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,on ,,character4#bc ,manual training has recently been suggested as one of the means of combating the criminal tendency in the young1 and this suggestion is being received with increasing favor4 ,but until now the theory of manual training has hardly begun to be worked out4 ,the confidence which is expressed in it is based1 for the most part1 on unclassified experience4 ,but experience without theory is altogether insufficient4 ,theory1 it is true1 without experience is without feet to stand4 ,but experience without the guiding and directing help of theory is without eyes to see4 ,i shall now offer1 in a somewhat tentative way1 a few remarks intended to be a contribution to the philosophy of manual training as applied to the reformation of delinquent children4 ,i shall confine myself1 however1 to one type of criminality in children--a not uncommon type--that of moral deterioration arising from weakness of the will4 ,in the first place1 let us distinguish between feeling1 desiring1 and willing4 ,a person who is without food feels hunger4 ,a person who1 being hungry1 calls up in his mind images of food1 will experience a desire4 ,a person who adopts means to obtain food performs an act of the will4 ,a ,russian prisoner in ,siberia who suffers from the restraints of confinement is in a state of feeling4 ,the same person1 when he recalls images of home and friends1 is in a state of desire2 but when he sets about adopting the means to effect his escape1 concerts signals with his fellow-prisoners1 undermines the walls of his dungeon1 etc41 he is performing acts of the will4 ,permit me to call particular attention to the fact that the will is characterized at its birth by the intellectual factor which enters into it2 for the calculation of means to ends is an intellectual process1 and every conscious act of volition involves such a process4 ,if the will is thus characterized at its birth1 we can at once anticipate the conclusion that any will will be strong in proportion as the intellectual factor in it predominates4 ,it was said by one of the speakers that an ounce of affection is better than a ton of intellect4 ,give me a proper mixture of the two4 ,give me at least an ounce of intellect together with an ounce of affection4 ,there is great danger lest we exaggerate the importance of the emotions for morality4 ,the opinion is widely entertained that good feeling1 kind feeling1 loving feeling1 is the whole of morality1 or1 at least1 the essential factor in it4 ,but this opinion is surely erroneous4 ,the will may be compared to the power which propels a ship through the waves4 ,feeling is the rudder4 ,the intellect is the helmsman4 ,let me give illustrations to bring into view the characteristics of a strong and of a weak will4 ,great inventors1 great statesmen1 great reformers1 illustrate strength of will4 ,we note in them especially tenacity of purpose and a marvelous faculty for adjusting and readjusting means to ends4 ,persons who are swayed by the sensual appetites illustrate weakness of will4 ,we note in them vacillation of purpose1 and the power of adjusting means to ends only in its rudimentary form4 ,the ideas of virtue are complex4 ,no one can illustrate virtue on a high plane unless he is capable of holding in mind long trains and complex groups of ideas4 ,the lowest vices1 on the other hand1 are distinguished by the circumstance that the ends to which they look are simple1 and the means employed often of the crudest kind4 ,thus1 suppose that a person of weak will is hungry4 ,he knows that gold will buy food4 ,he adopts the readiest way to get gold4 ,incapable of that long and complex method of attaining his end1 which is exhibited1 for instance1 by the farmer who breaks the soil1 plants the corn1 watches his crops1 and systematizes his labors from the year's beginning to its end1 he takes the shortest road toward the possession of gold--he stretches forth his hand and takes it where he finds it4 ,the man of weak will1 who has a grudge against his rival1 is not capable of putting forth a sustained and complex series of efforts toward obtaining satisfaction1 for instance1 by laboring arduously to outstrip his rival4 ,he is1 furthermore1 incapable of those larger considerations1 those complex groups of ideas relating to society and its permanent interests1 which check the angry passions in the educated4 ,he gives free and immediate rein to the passion as it rises4 ,he takes the readiest means of getting satisfaction3 he draws the knife and kills4 ,the man of weak will1 who burns with sensual desire1 assaults the object of his desire4 ,the virtues depend in no small degree on the power of serial and complex thinking4 ,those vices which are due to weakness of will are characterized by the crudeness of the aim and the crudeness of the means4 ,to strengthen the will1 therefore1 it is necessary to give to the person of weak will the power to think connectedly1 and especially to reach an end by long and complex trains of means4 ,let us pause here for a moment to elucidate this point by briefly considering a type of criminality which is familiar to all guardians of delinquent children4 ,this type is marked by a group of salient traits1 which may be roughly described as follows3 ,mental incoherency is the first4 ,the thoughts of the child are1 as it were1 slippery1 tending to glide past one another without mutual attachments4 ,a second trait is indolence4 ,a third1 deficiency in the sense of shame2 to which may be added that the severest punishments fail to act as deterrents4 ,mental incoherency is the leading trait1 and supplies the key for the understanding of the others4 ,lack of connectedness between ideas is the radical defect4 ,each idea1 as it rises1 becomes an impulse1 and takes effect to the full limit of its suggestions4 ,a kind thought rises in the mind of such a child1 and issues in a demonstrative impulse of affection4 ,shortly after1 a cruel thought may rise in the mind of the same child2 and the cruel thought will1 in like manner1 take effect in a cruel act4 ,children answering to this type are alternately kind1 affectionate1 and cruel4 ,the child's indolence is due to the same cause--lack of connectedness between ideas4 ,it is incapable of sustained effort1 because every task implies the ability to pass from one idea to related ideas4 ,the child is deficient in shame1 because the sense of shame depends on a vivid realization of the idea of self4 ,the idea of self1 however1 is a complex idea1 which is not distinctly and clearly present to such a child4 ,lastly1 the most severe punishments fail to act as deterrents for the same reason4 ,the two impressions left in the mind1 ,i did a wrong1 ,i suffered a pain1 lie apart4 ,the memory of one does not excite the recollection of the other4 ,the thought of the wrong does not lift permanently into consciousness the thought of the pain which followed4 ,the punishment1 as we say1 is quickly forgotten4 ,if1 therefore1 we wish to remedy a deep-seated defect of this kind1 if we wish to cure a weak will1 in such and all similar cases we must seek to establish a closer connection between the child's ideas4 ,the question may now be asked1 ,why should we not utilize to this end the ordinary studies of the school curriculum--history1 geography1 arithmetic1 etc48 ,all of these branches exercise and develop the faculty of serial and complex thinking4 ,any sum in multiplication gives a training of this kind4 ,let the task be to multiply a multiplicand of four figures by a multiplier of three4 ,first the child must multiply every figure in the multiplicand by the units of the multiplier and write down the result2 then by the tens1 and then by the hundreds1 and combine these results4 ,here is a lesson in combination1 in serial1 and1 for a young child1 somewhat complex thinking4 ,let the task be to bound the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the child must see the mental picture of the ,state in its relation to other ,states and parts of ,states1 to lakes and rivers and mountains--a complex group of ideas4 ,or1 let it be required to give a brief account of the ,american ,revolution4 ,here is a whole series of events1 each depending on the preceding ones4 ,why1 then1 may we not content ourselves with utilizing the ordinary studies of the school curriculum8 ,there are two reasons4 ,first1 because history1 geography1 and arithmetic are not1 as a rule1 interesting to young children1 especially not to young children of the class with which we are now dealing4 ,these listless minds are not easily roused to an interest in abstractions4 ,secondly1 it is a notorious fact that intellectual culture1 pure and simple1 is quite consistent with weakness of the will4 ,a person may have very high intellectual attainments1 and yet be morally deficient4 ,i need hardly warn my reflective hearers that1 when emphasizing the importance for the will of intellectual culture1 ,i had in mind the intellectual process as applied to acts4 ,to cultivate the intellect in its own sphere of contemplation and abstraction1 apart from action1 may leave the will precisely as feeble as it was before4 ,and now1 all that has been said thus far converges upon the point that has been in view from the beginning--the importance of manual training as an element in disciplining the will4 ,manual training fulfills the conditions ,i have just alluded to4 ,it is interesting to the young1 as history1 geography1 and arithmetic often are not4 ,precisely those pupils who take the least interest or show the least aptitude for literary study are often the most proficient in the workshop and the modeling-room4 ,nature has not left these neglected children without beautiful compensations4 ,if they are deficient in intellectual power1 they are all the more capable of being developed on their active side4 ,thus1 manual training fulfills the one essential condition--it is interesting4 ,it also fulfills the second4 ,by manual training we cultivate the intellect in close connection with action4 ,manual training consists of a series of actions which are controlled by the mind1 and which react on it4 ,let the task assigned be1 for instance1 the making of a wooden box4 ,the first point to be gained is to attract the attention of the pupil to the task4 ,a wooden box is interesting to a child1 hence this first point will be gained4 ,lethargy is overcome1 attention is aroused4 ,next1 it is important to keep the attention fixed on the task3 thus only can tenacity of purpose be cultivated4 ,manual training enables us to keep the attention of the child fixed upon the object of study1 because the latter is concrete4 ,furthermore1 the variety of occupations which enter into the making of the box constantly refreshes this interest after it has once been started4 ,the wood must be sawed to line4 ,the boards must be carefully planed and smoothed4 ,the joints must be accurately worked out and fitted4 ,the lid must be attached with hinges4 ,the box must be painted or varnished4 ,here is a sequence of means leading to an end1 a series of operations all pointing to a final object to be gained1 to be created4 ,again1 each of these means becomes in turn and for the time being a secondary end2 and the pupil thus learns1 in an elementary way1 the lesson of subordinating minor ends to a major end4 ,and1 when finally the task is done1 when the box stands before the boy's eyes a complete whole1 a serviceable thing1 sightly to the eyes1 well adapted to its uses1 with what a glow of triumph does he contemplate his work6 ,the pleasure of achievement now comes in to crown his labor2 and this sense of achievement1 in connection with the work done1 leaves in his mind a pleasant after-taste1 which will stimulate him to similar work in the future4 ,the child that has once acquired1 in connection with the making of a box1 the habits just described1 has begun to master the secret of a strong will1 and will be able to apply the same habits in other directions and on other occasions4 ,or let the task be an artistic one4 ,and let me here say that manual training is incomplete unless it covers art training4 ,many otherwise excellent and interesting experiments in manual training fail to give satisfaction because they do not include this element4 ,the useful must flower into the beautiful1 to be in the highest sense useful4 ,nor is it necessary to remind those who have given attention to the subject of education how important is the influence of the beautiful is in refining the sentiments and elevating the nature of the young4 ,let the task1 then1 be to model a leaf1 a vase1 a hand1 a head4 ,here again we behold the same advantages as in the making of the box4 ,the object is concrete1 and therefore suitable for minds incapable of grasping abstractions4 ,the object can be constantly kept before the pupil's eyes4 ,there is gradual approximation toward completeness1 and at last that glow of triumph6 ,what child is not happy if he has produced something tangible1 something that is the outgrowth of his own activity1 especially if it be something which is charming to every beholder8 ,and now let me briefly summarize certain conclusions to which reflection has led me in regard to the subject of manual training in reformatory institutions4 ,manual training should be introduced into every reformatory4 ,in ,new ,york city we have tested a system of work-shop lessons for children between six and fourteen4 ,there is1 ,i am persuaded1 no reason why manual training should not be applied to the youngest children in reformatories4 ,manual training should always include art training4 ,the labor of the children of reformatories should never be let to contractors4 ,i heartily agree with what was said on that subject this morning4 ,the pupils of reformatories should never make heads of pins or the ninetieth fraction of a shoe4 ,let there be no machine work4 ,let the pupils turn out complete articles1 for only thus can the full intellectual and moral benefits of manual training be reaped4 ,agriculture1 wherever the opportunities are favorable1 offers1 on the whole1 the same advantages as manual training1 and should be employed if possible1 in connection with it4 ,i have thus far attempted to show how the will can be made strong4 ,but a strong will is not necessarily a good will4 ,it is true1 there are influences in manual training1 as it has been described1 which are favorable to a virtuous disposition4 ,squareness in things is not without relation to squareness in action and in thinking4 ,a child that has learned to be exact--that is1 truthful--in his work will be predisposed to be scrupulous and truthful in his speech1 in his thought1 in his acts4 ,the refining and elevating influence of artistic work ,i have already mentioned4 ,but1 along with and over and above all these influences1 ,i need hardly say to you that1 in the remarks which ,i have offered this evening1 ,i have all along taken for granted the continued application of those tried and excellent methods which prevail in our best reformatories4 ,i have taken for granted that isolation from society1 which shuts out temptation2 that routine of institutional life1 which induces regularity of habit2 that strict surveillance of the whole body of inmates and of every individual1 which prevents excesses of the passions1 and therefore starves them into disuse4 ,i have taken for granted the cultivation of the emotions1 the importance of which ,i am the last to undervalue4 ,i have taken for granted the influence of good example1 good literature1 good music1 poetry1 and religion4 ,all ,i have intended to urge is that between good feeling and the realization of good feeling there exists1 in persons whose will-power is weak1 a hiatus1 and that manual training is admirably adapted to fill that hiatus4 ,there is another advantage to be noted in connection with manual training--namely1 that it develops the property sense4 ,what1 after all1 apart from artificial social convention1 is the foundation of the right of property8 ,on what basis does it rest8 ,i have a proprietary right in my own thoughts4 ,i have a right to follow my tastes in the adornment of my person and my house4 ,i have a right to the whole sphere of my individuality1 my selfhood2 and ,i have a right in things so far as ,i use them to express my personality4 ,the child that has made a wooden box has put a part of himself into the making of that box--his thought1 his patience1 his skill1 his toil--and therefore the child feels that that box is in a certain sense his own4 ,and as only those who have the sense of ownership are likely to respect the right of ownership in others1 we may by manual training cultivate the property sense of the child2 and this1 in the case of the delinquent child1 it will be admitted1 is no small advantage4 ,i have confined myself till now to speaking of the importance of manual training in its influence on the character of delinquent children4 ,i wish to add a few words touching the influence of manual training on character in general1 and its importance for children of all classes of society4 ,i need not here speak of the value of manual training to the artisan class4 ,that has been amply demonstrated of late by the many technical and art schools which the leading manufacturing nations of ,europe have established and are establishing4 ,i need not speak of the value of manual training to the future surgeon1 dentist1 scientist1 and to all those who require deftness of hand in the pursuit of their vocations4 ,but ,i do wish to speak of the value of manual training to the future lawyer and clergyman1 and to all those who will perhaps never be called upon to labor with their hands4 ,precisely because they will not labor with their hands is manual training so important for them--in the interest of an all-round culture--in order that they may not be entirely crippled on one side of their nature4 ,the ,greek legend says that the giant ,antaeus was invincible so long as his feet were planted on the solid earth4 ,we need to have a care that our civilization shall remain planted on the solid earth4 ,there is danger lest it may be developed too much into the air--that we may become too much separated from those primal sources of strength from which mankind has always drawn its vitality4 ,the ,english nobility have deliberately adopted hunting as their favorite pastime4 ,they follow as a matter of physical exercise1 in order to keep up their physical strength1 a pursuit which the savage man followed from necessity4 ,the introduction of athletics in colleges is a move in the same direction4 ,but it is not sufficient to maintain our physical strength1 our brute strength1 the strength of limb and muscle4 ,we must also preserve that spiritualized strength which we call skill--the tool-using faculty1 the power of impressing on matter the stamp of mind4 ,and the more machinery takes the place of human labor1 the more necessary will it be to resort to manual training as a means of keeping up skill1 precisely as we have resorted to athletics as a means of keeping up strength4 ,there is one word more ,i have to say in closing4 ,twenty-five years ago1 as the recent memories of ,gettysburg recall to us1 we fought to keep this people a united nation4 ,then was ,state arrayed against ,state4 ,to-day class is beginning to be arrayed against class4 ,the danger is not yet imminent1 but it is sufficiently great to give us thought4 ,the chief source of the danger1 ,i think1 lies in this1 that the two classes of society have become so widely separated by difference of interests and pursuits that they no longer fully understand one another1 and misunderstanding is the fruitful source of hatred and dissension4 ,this must not continue4 ,the manual laborer must have time and opportunity for intellectual improvement4 ,the intellectual classes1 on the other hand1 must learn manual labor2 and this they can best do in early youth1 in the school1 before the differentiation of pursuits has yet begun4 ,our common schools are rightly so named4 ,the justification of their support by the ,state is not1 ,i think1 as is sometimes argued1 that the ,state should give a sufficient education to each voter to enable him at least to read the ballot which he deposits4 ,this is but a poor equipment for citizenship at best4 ,the justification for the existence of our common schools lies rather in the bond of common feeling which they create between the different classes of society4 ,and it is this bond of common feeling woven in childhood that has kept and must keep us a united people4 ,let manual training1 therefore1 be introduced into the common schools2 let the son of the rich man learn1 side by side with the son of the poor man1 to labor with his hands2 let him thus practically learn to respect labor2 let him learn to understand what the dignity of manual labor really means1 and the two classes of society1 united at the root1 will never thereafter entirely grow asunder4 ,a short time ago ,i spent an afternoon with a poet whose fame is familiar to all4 ,there was present in the company a gentleman of large means1 who1 in the course of conversation1 descanted upon the merits of the protective system1 and spoke in glowing terms of the growth of the industries of his ,state and of the immense wealth which is being accumulated in its large cities4 ,the aged poet turned to him1 and said3 ,that is all very well4 ,i like your industries and your factories and your wealth2 but1 tell me1 do they turn out men down your way8 ,that is the question which we are bound to consider4 ,is this civilization of ours turning out men--manly men and womanly women8 ,now1 it is a cheering and encouraging thought that technical labor1 which is the source of our material aggrandizement1 may also become1 when employed in the education of the young1 the means of enlarging their manhood1 quickening their intellect1 and strengthening their character4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnote3 #bc ,an address delivered before the ,national ,conference of ,charities and ,correction1 at ,buffalo1 ,july1 #ahhh4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ,,miscellaneous ,,works ,,of ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,,education3 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical4 #abmo4 ,paper1 #ej cents2 cloth1 #a4be4 ,,contents3 ,what ,knowledge is of most ,worth8--,intellectual ,education4--,moral ,education4--,physical ,education4 ,,social ,,statics4 ,by ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,new and revised edition1 including ,the ,man versus the ,state1 a series of essays on political tendencies heretofore published separately4 #abmo4 #dbj pages4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,having been much annoyed by the persistent quotation from the old edition of ,social ,statics1 in the face of repeated warnings1 of views which he had abandoned1 and by the misquotation of others which he still holds1 ,mr4 ,spencer some ten years ago stopped the sale of the book in ,england and prohibited its translation4 ,but the rapid spread of communistic theories gave new life to these misrepresentations2 hence ,mr4 ,spencer decided to delay no longer a statement of his mature opinions on the rights of individuals and the duty of the state4 ,,contents3 ,happiness as an ,immediate ,aim4--,unguided ,expediency4--,the ,moral-,sense ,doctrine4--,what is ,morality8--,the ,evanescence 8 ,diminution of ,evil4--,greatest ,happiness must be sought indirectly4--,derivation of a ,first ,principle4--,secondary ,derivation of a ,first ,principle4--,first ,principle4--,application of this ,first ,principle4--,the ,right of ,property4--,socialism4--,the ,right of ,property in ,ideas4--,the ,rights of ,women4--,the ,rights of ,children4--,political ,rights4--,the ,constitution of the ,state4--,the ,duty of the ,state4--,the ,limit of ,state-,duty4--,the ,regulation of ,commerce4--,religious ,establishments4--,poor-,laws4--,nationa l ,education4--,government ,colonization4--,sanitary ,supervision4--,currency ,postal ,arrangements1 etc4--,general ,considerations4--,the ,new ,toryism4--,the ,coming ,slavery4--,the ,sins of ,legislators4--,the ,great ,political ,superstition4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,sociology4 ,the fifth volume in the ,international ,scientific ,series4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,contents3 ,our ,need of it--,is there a ,social ,science8--,nature of the ,social ,science4--,difficulties of the ,social ,science4--,objective ,difficulties4--,subjective ,difficulties1 ,intellectual4--,subjective ,difficulties1 ,emotional4--,the ,educational ,bias--,the ,bias of ,patriotism4--,the ,class-,bias4--,the ,political ,bias4--,the ,theological ,bias4--,discipline4--,preparation in ,biology4--,preparation in ,psychology4--,conclusion4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,this work marks an epoch in the history-writing of this country4--,st4 ,louis ,post-,dispatch4 ,illustration3 ,,colonial ,,court-,,house4 ,,philadelphia1 #agjg4 ,,the ,,household ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,its ,,people4 ,,for ,,young ,,americans4 ,by ,,edward ,,eggleston4 ,richly illustrated with #cej ,drawings1 #ge ,maps1 etc4 ,square #hvo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,from ,,the ,,preface4 ,the present work is meant1 in the first instance1 for the young--not alone for boys and girls1 but for young men and women who have yet to make themselves familiar with the more important features of their country's history4 ,by a book for the young is meant one in which the author studies to make his statements clear and explicit1 in which curious and picturesque details are inserted1 and in which the writer does not neglect such anecdotes as lend the charm of a human and personal interest to the broader facts of the nation's story4 ,that history is often tiresome to the young is not so much the fault of history as of a false method of writing by which one contrives to relate events without sympathy or imagination1 without narrative connection or animation4 ,the attempt to master vague and general records of kiln-dried facts is certain to beget in the ordinary reader a repulsion from the study of history--one of the most important of all studies for its widening influence on general culture4 ,illustration3 ,,indian',s ,,trap4 ,fills a decided gap which has existed for the past twenty years in ,american historical literature4 ,the work is admirably planned and executed1 and will at once take its place as a standard record of the life1 growth1 and development of the nation4 ,it is profusely and beautifully illustrated4--,boston ,transcript4 ,the book in its new dress makes a much finer appearance than before1 and will be welcomed by older readers as gladly as its predecessor was greeted by girls and boys4 ,the lavish use the publishers have made of colored plates1 woodcuts1 and photographic reproductions1 gives an unwonted piquancy to the printed page1 catching the eye as surely as the text engages the mind4--,new ,york ,critic4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,putnam4 ,the author writes history as a story4 ,it can never be less than that4 ,the book will enlist the interest of young people1 enlighten their understanding1 and by the glow of its statements fix the great events of the country firmly in the mind4--,san ,francisco ,bulletin4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4