,transcriber's ,note4 ,hyphenation has been standardised4 ,illustration3 ,white ,dorking ,cock4 ,coloured ,dorkings4 ,duck-winged and ,black-breasted ,red ,game4 ,,poultry ,a ,practical ,guide ,,to ,,the ,,choice1 ,,breeding1 ,,rearing1 ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,all ,,descriptions ,,of ,,fowls1 ,,turkeys1 ,,guinea-,,fowls1 ,,ducks1 ,,and ,,geese1 ,,for ,,profit ,,and ,,exhibition4 ,,by ,,hugh ,,piper1 ,,author ,,of ,,pigeons3 ,,their ,,varieties1 ,,management1 ,,breeding1 ,,and ,,diseases4 ,,illustrated ,,with ,,eight ,,coloured ,,plates4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,london3 ,,groombridge ,,sons4 ,,mdccclxxvii4 ,,london3 ,,barrett1 ,,sons ,,and ,,co41 ,,printers1 ,,seething ,,lane4 ,,preface4 ,this work is intended as a practical guide to those about to commence ,poultry keeping1 and to provide those who already have experience on the subject with the most trustworthy information compiled from the best authorities of all ages1 and the most recent improvements in ,poultry ,breeding and ,management4 ,the ,author believes that he has presented his readers with a greater amount of valuable information and practical directions on the various points treated than will be found in most similar works4 ,the book is not the result of the ,author's own experience solely1 and he acknowledges the assistance he has received from other authorities4 ,among those whom he has consulted he desires specially to acknowledge his obligations to ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 whose ,poultry ,book 7published by ,messrs4 ,routledge ,sons1 ,london7 contains his especial knowledge of the ,diseases of ,poultry2 and to ,mr4 ,l4 ,wright1 whose excellent and practical ,treatise1 entitled ,the ,practical ,poultry ,keeper 7published by ,messrs4 ,cassell1 ,petter ,galpin1 ,london71 cannot be too highly commended4 ,,contents4 ,,general ,,management4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4--,,introduction #a ,neglect of ,poultry-breeding--,profit of ,poultry-keeping--,value to the ,farmer--,poultry ,shows--,cottage ,poultry4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,fowl-,,house #f ,size of the ,house--,brick and ,wood--,cheap ,houses--,the ,roof--,ventilation--,light--,warmth--,t he ,flooring--,perches--,movable ,frame--,roosts for ,cochin-,chinas and ,brahma-,pootras--,nests for laying--,cleanliness--,fowls' ,dung--,doors and ,entrance-holes--,lime-washing--,fumigat ing--,raising ,chickens under ,glass4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,fowl-,,yard #ah ,soil--,situation--,covered ,run--,pulverised ,earth for deodorising--,diet for confined ,fowls--,height of ,wall1 c4--,preventing ,fowls from flying--,the ,dust-heap--,material for ,shells--,gravel--,the ,gizzard--,the ,grass ,run4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,food #bg ,table of relative constituents and qualities of ,food--,barley--,wheat--,oats--,meal--,r efuse ,corn--,boiling ,grain--,indian ,corn1 or ,maize--,buckwheat--,peas1 ,beans and ,tares--,rice--,hempseed--,linseed--,pot atoes--,roots--,soft ,food--,variety of ,food--,quantity--,mode of ,feeding--,number of ,meals--,grass and ,vegetables--,insects--,worms--,snails and ,slugs--,animal ,food--,water--,fountains4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,eggs #dj ,eggs all the ,year round--,warmth essential to laying--,forcing ,eggs--,soft ,shells--,shape and ,colour of ,eggs--,the ,air-bag--,preserving ,eggs--,keeping and ,choosing ,eggs for setting--,sex of ,eggs--,packing ,setting-eggs for travelling4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,the ,,sitting ,,hen #dh ,evil of restraining a ,hen from sitting--,checking the ,desire--,a separate ,house and ,run--,nests for sitting in--,damping ,eggs--,filling for ,nests--,choosing their own ,nests--,choosing a ,hen for sitting--,number and ,age of ,eggs--,food and ,exercise--,absence from the ,nest--,examining the ,eggs--,setting two ,hens on the same day--,time of ,incubation--,the tapping sound--,breaking the ,shell--,emerging from the ,shell--,assisting the ,chicken--,artificial ,mothers--,artificial ,incubation4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,rearing ,,and ,,fattening ,,fowls #fc ,the ,chicken's first ,food--,cooping the ,brood--,basket and ,wooden ,coops--,feeding ,chickens--,age for ,fattening--,barn-door ,fattening--,fattening-,houses--,fatteni ng-,coops--,food--,cramming-- ,capons and ,poulardes--,killing ,poultry--,plucking and packing ,fowls--,preserving ,feathers4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,stock1 ,,breeding1 ,,and ,,crossing #ge ,well-bred ,fowls--,choice of ,breed--,signs of ,age--,breeding in-and-in--,number of ,hens to one ,cock--,choice of a ,cock--,to prevent ,cocks from fighting--,choice of a ,hen--,improved ,breeds--,origin of ,breeds--,crossing--,choice of ,breeding ,stock--,keeping a ,breed pure4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,poultry ,,shows #hc ,the first ,show--,the first ,birmingham ,show--,influence of ,shows--,exhibition ,rules--,hatching for ,summer and ,winter ,shows--,weight--,exhibition ,fowls sitting--,matching ,fowls--,imparting lustre to the ,plumage--,washing ,fowls--,hampers--,travelling--,treatmen t on ,return--,washing the ,hampers and ,linings--,exhibition ,points--,technical ,terms4 ,,breeds4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,cochin-,,chinas1 ,,or ,,shanghaes #ic ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,brahma-,,pootras #aja ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,malays #aje ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,game #ajh ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,,dorkings #aab ,,chapter ,,xv4--,,spanish #aae ,,chapter ,,xvi4--,,hamburgs #aah ,,chapter ,,xvii4--,,polands #aba ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,,bantams #abd ,,chapter ,,xix4--,,french ,,and ,,various #abh ,,chapter ,,xx4--,,turkeys #acb ,,chapter ,,xxi4--,,guinea-,,fowls #aci ,,chapter ,,xxii4--,,ducks #adb ,,chapter ,,xxiii4--,,geese #adg ,,chapter ,,xxiv4--,,diseases #aej ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,page ,,plate ,i4--,facing the ,title-page4 ,white ,dorking ,cock--,coloured ,dorkings--,duck-winged and ,black-breasted ,red ,game4 ,,plate ,,ii4 #ic ,white and ,buff ,cochin-,china--,malay ,cock--,light and ,dark ,brahma-,pootras4 ,,plate ,,iii4 #aae ,golden-pencilled and ,silver-spangled ,hamburgs--,black ,spanish4 ,,plate ,,iv4 #aba ,white-crested ,black ,polish--,golden and ,silver-spangled ,polish4 ,,plate ,v4 #abd ,white and ,black ,bantams--,gold and ,silver-laced or ,sebright ,bantams--,game ,bantams4 ,,plate ,,vi4 #abh ,french3 ,houdans--,la ,fleche ,cock--,creve-,coeur ,hen4 ,,plate ,,vii4 #acb ,turkey--,guinea-,fowls4 ,,plate ,,viii4 #adb ,toulouse ,goose--,rouen ,ducks--,aylesbury ,ducks4 ,,profitable ,,and ,,ornamental ,,poultry4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,until of late years the breeding of poultry has been almost generally neglected in ,great ,britain4 ,any kind of mongrel fowl would do for a farmer's stock1 although he fully appreciated the importance of breeding in respect of his cattle and pigs1 and the value of improved seeds4 ,had he thought at all upon the subject1 it must have occurred to him that poultry might be improved by breeding from select specimens as much as any other kind of live stock4 ,the ,french produce a very much greater number of fowls and far finer ones for market than we do4 ,in ,france1 ,bonington ,mowbray observes1 poultry forms an important part of the live stock of the farmer1 and the poultry-yards supply more animal food to the great mass of the community than the butchers' shops2 while in ,egypt1 and some other countries of the ,east1 from time immemorial1 vast numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by artificial heat to supply the demand for poultry2 but in ,great ,britain poultry-keeping has been generally neglected1 eggs are dear1 and all kinds of poultry so great a luxury that the lower classes and a large number of the middle seldom1 if ever1 taste it1 except perhaps once a year in the form of a ,christmas goose1 while hundreds of thousands cannot afford even this4 ,it is computed that a million of eggs are eaten daily in ,london and its suburbs alone2 yet this vast number only gives one egg to every three mouths4 ,it is a national waste1 says ,mr4 ,edwards1 importing eggs by the hundreds of millions1 and poultry by tens of thousands1 when we are feeding our cattle upon corn1 and grudging it to our poultry2 although the return made from the former1 it is generally admitted1 is not five per cent4 beyond the value of the corn consumed1 whereas an immense percentage can be realised by feeding poultry4 ,a writer in the ,times1 of ,february #a1 #ahec1 states that1 while it will take five years to fatten an ox to the weight of sixty stone1 which will produce a profit of ,l#cj1 the same sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal weight of poultry for the table4 ,although fowls are so commonly kept1 the proportion to the population is still very small1 and the number of those who rear and manage them profitably still smaller1 chiefly because most people keep them without system or order1 and have not given the slightest attention to the subject4 ,nevertheless1 it costs no more trouble and much less expense to keep fowls successfully and profitably1 for neglected fowls are always falling sick1 or getting into mischief and causing annoyance1 and often expense and loss4 ,a man1 says ,mr4 ,edwards1 who expects a good return of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and cared for1 is like a miller expecting to get meal from a neglected mill1 to which he does not supply grain4 ,the antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to the crops has been proved to be false2 for if the grain is sown as deeply as it should be1 they cannot reach it by scratching2 and1 besides1 they greatly prefer worms and insects4 ,mr4 ,mechi says1 commend me to poultry as the farmer's best friend1 and considers the value of fowls1 in destroying the vast number of worms1 grubs1 flies1 beetles1 insects1 larvae1 c41 which they devour1 as incalculable2 and the same may be said as to their destruction of the seeds of weeds4 ,they also consume large quantities of kitchen and table refuse1 which is generally otherwise wasted1 and often allowed to decay and become a source of disease1 or at least of impurity4 ,the enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of #aheb and #ahec for fancy fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping2 and many persons who formerly thought the management of poultry beneath their attention1 now superintend their yards4 ,mrs4 ,ferguson ,blair1 now the ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,arbuthnot1 the authoress of the ,henwife1 whose experience may be judged by the fact that she gained in four years upwards of #dfj prizes in ,england and ,scotland1 and personally superintended the management of forty separate yards1 in which above #a1jjj chickens were hatched annually1 says3-- ,i began to breed poultry for amusement only1 then for exhibition1 and lastly1 was glad to take the trouble to make it pay1 and do not like my poultry-yard less because it is not a loss4 ,it is impossible to imagine any occupation more suited to a lady1 living in the country1 than that of poultry rearing4 ,if she has any superfluous affection to bestow1 let it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned cent4 per cent4 ,are you a lover of nature8 come with me and view1 with delighted gaze1 her chosen dyes4 ,are you a utilitarian8 rejoice in such an increase of the people's food4 ,are you a philanthropist8 be grateful that yours has been the privilege to afford a possible pleasure to the poor man1 to whom so many are impossible4 ,such we often find fond of poultry--no mean judges of it1 and frequently successful in exhibition4 ,a poor man's pleasure in victory is1 at least1 as great as that of his richer brother4 ,let him1 then1 have the field whereon to fight for it4 ,encourage village poultry-shows1 not only by your patronage1 but also by your presence4 ,a taste for such may save many from dissipation and much evil2 no man can win poultry honours and haunt the taproom too4 ,for those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry keeping in young people1 and their humbler neighbours1 we would recommend our smaller work on the subject as a suitable present4#a ,it becomes1 says ,miss ,harriet ,martineau1 an interesting wonder every year why the rural cottagers of the ,united ,kingdom do not rear fowls almost universally1 seeing how little the cost would be and how great the demand4 ,we import many millions of eggs annually4 ,why should we import any8 ,wherever there is a cottage family living on potatoes or better fare1 and grass growing anywhere near them1 it would be worth while to nail up a little penthouse1 and make nests of clean straw1 and go in for a speculation in eggs and chickens4 ,seeds1 worms1 and insects go a great way in feeding poultry in such places2 and then there are the small and refuse potatoes from the heap1 and the outside cabbage leaves1 and the scraps of all sorts4 ,very small purchases of broken rice 7which is extremely cheap71 inferior grain1 and mixed meal1 would do all else that is necessary4 ,there would be probably larger losses from vermin than in better guarded places2 but these could be well afforded as a mere deduction from considerable gains4 ,it is understood that the keeping of poultry is largely on the increase in the country generally1 and even among cottagers2 but the prevailing idea is of competition as to races and specimens for the poultry-yard1 rather than of meeting the demand for eggs and fowls for the table4 ,with the exception of prizes for ,dorkings1 which are chiefly bred for market1 our poultry-shows have always looked upon fowls as if they were merely ornamental birds1 and have framed their standards of excellence accordingly1 and not with any regard to the production of profitable poultry1 which is much to be regretted4 ,martin ,doyle1 the cottage economist of ,ireland1 in his ,hints to ,small ,holders1 observes that a few cocks and hens1 if they be prevented from scratching in the garden1 are a useful and appropriate stock about a cottage1 the warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter--no trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce4 ,the ,french1 who are extremely fond of eggs1 and contrive to have them in great abundance1 feed the fowls so well on curds and buckwheat1 and keep them so warm1 that they have plenty of eggs even in winter4 ,now1 in our country 7,ireland71 especially in a gentleman's fowl yard1 there is not an egg to be had in cold weather2 but the warmth of the poor man's cabin insures him an egg even in the most ungenial season4 ,such fowls obtain fresh air1 fresh grass1 and fresh ground to scratch in1 and prosper in spite of the most miserable1 puny1 mongrel stock1 deteriorating year after year from breeding in and in1 without the introduction of fresh blood even of the same indifferent description4 ,many an honest cottager might keep himself and family from the parish by the aid of a small stock of poultry1 if some kind poultry-keeper would present him with two or three good fowls to begin with1 for the cottager has seldom capital even for so small a purchase4 ,considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and surplus stock1 if the breeds kept are good1 and the stock known to be pure and vigorous4 ,the ,henwife says3 ,you may reduce your expenses by selling eggs for setting1 at a remunerative price4 ,no one should be ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do2 therefore1 boldly announce your superfluous eggs for sale1 at such a price as you think the public will pay for them4 ,this is now done extensively by breeders of rank and eminence1 especially through the ,london ,field and agricultural papers4 ,but1 beware of sending such eggs to market4 ,every one would be set1 and you might find yourself beaten by your own stock1 very likely in your own local show1 and at small cost to the exhibitor4 ,the great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to hatch chiefly in ,march and ,april2 encourage the pullets by proper feeding to lay at the age of six months2 and fatten and dispose of them when about nineteen months old1 just before their first adult moult2 and never to allow a cockerel to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is fattened and disposed of4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,fowl-,,house4 ,in this work we shall consider the accommodation and requisites for keeping fowls successfully on a moderate scale1 and the reader must adapt them to his own premises1 circumstances1 and requirements4 ,everywhere there must be some alterations1 omissions1 or compromises4 ,we shall state the essentials for their proper accommodation1 and describe the mode of constructing houses1 sheds1 and arranging runs1 and the reader must then form his plan according to his own wishes1 resources1 and the capabilities of the place4 ,the climate of ,great ,britain being so very variable in itself1 and differing in its temperature so much in different parts1 no one manner or material for building the fowl-house can be recommended for all cases4 ,plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the hatching1 rearing1 and fattening of fowls1 turkeys1 ducks1 and geese1 are given in our smaller work on ,poultry1 referred to on page #c4 ,the best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east1 and sloping ground is preferable to flat4 ,it is only of late years1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 poultry-houses have been much thought of4 ,in large farmyards1 where there are cart-houses1 calf-pens1 pig-styes1 cattle-sheds1 shelter under the eaves of barns1 and numerous other roosting-places1 not omitting the trees in the immediate vicinity1 they are little required--fowls will generally do better by choosing for themselves2 and it is beyond a doubt healthier for them to be spread about in this manner1 than to be confined to one place4 ,but a love of order1 on the one hand1 and a dread of thieves or foxes on the other1 will sometimes make it desirable to have a proper poultry-house4 ,each family of fowls should1 if possible1 have a house and run2 and if they are kept as breeding stock1 and the breeds are to be preserved pure1 this is essential4 ,and where many kinds are kept1 the various houses must be adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds1 in order to do justice to them all1 and to attain success in each4 ,the size of the house and the extent of the yard or run should be proportioned to the number of fowls kept2 but it is better for the house to be too small than too large1 particularly in winter1 for the mutual imparting of animal heat4 ,it is found by experience that when fowls are crowded into a small space1 their desire for laying continues even in winter2 and there is no fear of engendering disease by crowding if the house is properly ventilated1 and thoroughly cleansed every day4 ,mr4 ,baily kept for years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six feet square1 and six feet high in the centre1 the sides being somewhat shorter1 and says such a house would hold six hens as well as four4 ,ventilating holes were made near the top4 ,it had no floor1 being placed upon the ground1 and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side4 ,a few ,cochin-,chinas may be kept where there is no other convenience than an outhouse six feet square to serve for their roosting1 laying1 and sitting1 with a yard of twice that size attached4 ,mr4 ,wright once knew a young man who kept fowls most profitably1 with only a house of his own construction1 not more than three feet square1 and a run of the same width1 under twelve feet long4 ,the ,french breeders keep their fowls in as small a space as possible1 in order to generate and preserve the warmth that will induce them to lay2 while the ,english breeders allow more space for exercise1 larger houses1 and free circulation of air4 ,the ,french mode1 is very likely the best for the winter and the ,english for the summer1 but the two opposite methods may be made available by having one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls can be distributed in the summer4 ,a close1 warm roosting-place will cause the production of more eggs in winter1 when they are scarcest and most valuable1 while air and exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls for the table2 and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields in which to pick up grain or insects1 their flesh will be far superior in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement1 or crammed in coops4 ,almost any outbuilding1 shed1 or lean-to1 may be easily and cheaply converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise of a little thought and ingenuity4 ,the best material to build a house with is brick1 but the cheapest to be durable is board1 with the roof also of wood1 covered with patent felt4 ,one objection to timber houses is their being combustible1 and easily ignited1 and houses had better be built of a single brick in thickness1 unless cheapness is a great object4 ,a lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small sum1 with boards an inch thick1 against the west or south side of any wall4 ,whenever wood is employed it should be tongued1 which is a very cheap method of providing against warping by heat1 or admitting wind or rain2 lying flat against the uprights1 it saves material and has an external appearance far superior to any other method of boarding4 ,if the second coat of paint is rough cast over with sand1 it will greatly improve the appearance1 and the house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental part of a gentleman's grounds4 ,a house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into the ground at equal distances1 and nailing weather-boarding upon their outside4 ,if it is to be square1 one pole should be placed at each corner1 and two more will be required for the door-posts4 ,the house may be made with five1 six1 or more sides1 as many poles being used as there are sides1 and the door may occupy one side if the house be small and the side narrow1 otherwise two door-posts will be required4 ,if the boards are not tongued together1 the chinks between them must be well caulked by driving in string or tow with a blunt chisel1 for it is not only necessary to keep out the rain but also to keep out the wind1 which has great influence on the health and laying of the fowls4 ,where double boarding is employed for the sides1 the house may be made much warmer by filling up the space with straw1 or still better with marsh reeds1 so durable for thatching4 ,this plan1 unfortunately1 affords a shelter for rats1 mice1 and insects1 and therefore1 if adopted1 it will be highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels1 so as to be removable at pleasure for examination and cleansing4 ,for the roof1 tiles or slates alone are not sufficient1 but1 if used1 must have a boarding or ceiling under them2 otherwise all the heat generated by the fowls will escape through the numerous interstices1 and it will be next to impossible to keep the house warm in winter4 ,a corrugated roof of galvanised iron may be used instead1 but a ceiling also will be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth4 ,a rough ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth generated by the fowls and keeps out the cold1 but has the great advantage of being easily lime-washed1 an operation that should be performed at least four or five times a year4 ,boards alone make a very good and cheap roof4 ,they may be laid either horizontally1 one plank overlapping the other1 and the whole well tarred two or three times1 and once every autumn afterwards2 or they may be laid perpendicularly side by side1 fitting closely1 in which case they should be well tarred1 then covered with old sheeting1 waste calico1 or thick brown paper tightly stretched over it1 and afterwards brushed over with hot tar1 or a mixture of tar boiled with a little lime1 and applied while hot2 this1 soaking through the calico1 cements it to the roof1 and makes it waterproof4 ,but board covered with patent felt1 and tarred once a year1 is the best4 ,the roof ought to project considerably beyond the walls1 in order to prevent the rain from dripping down them4 ,ventilation is most important1 and the house should be high1 especially if there are many fowls1 for by having it lofty a current of air can pass through it far above the level of the fowls1 and purify the atmosphere without causing a draught near them4 ,they very much dislike a draught1 and will alter their positions to avoid it1 and if unable to do so1 will seek another roosting-place4 ,ventilation may be obtained by leaving out some bricks in the wall or making holes in the boarding2 and when there is a shed at the side of the fowl-house1 by boring a few holes near the top of the wall next to the shed2 all ventilators should be considerably above the perches1 in order to avoid a draught near to the fowls2 and should be entirely closed at night in severe weather4 ,the best method of ventilation for a fowl-house of sufficient size and height1 is by means of an opening in the highest part of the roof1 covered with a lantern of laths or narrow boards1 placed one over the other in a slanting position1 with a small space between them like ,venetian blinds4 ,light is essential1 not only for the health of the fowls1 but in order that the state of the house may be seen1 and the floor and perches may be well cleansed4 ,it may be admitted either through a common window1 a pane or two of thick glass placed in the sides1 or glass tiles in the roof4 ,it also induces them to take shelter there in rough weather4 ,warmth is the most important point of all4 ,fowls that roost in cold houses and exposed places require more food and produce fewer eggs2 and pullets which are usually forward in laying will not easily be induced to do so in severe weather if their house is not kept warm4 ,it is a great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable4 ,a gentleman told ,mr4 ,baily that he had been very successful in raising early chickens in the north of ,scotland1 and he attributed much of it to the following arrangements4 ,he had always from twenty to thirty oxen or other cattle fattening in a long building2 he made his poultry-house to join this1 and had ventilators and openings made in the partition1 so that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into the fowl-house4 ,little good has resulted from the use of stoves1 or hot-water pipes1 for poultry2 but by skilfully taking advantage of every circumstance like that above mentioned1 and by consulting aspect and position1 many valuable helps are obtained4 ,a house built of wood in the north of ,england and ,scotland must be lined1 unless artificially warmed4 ,felt is the best material1 as its strong smell of tar will keep away most insects4 ,matting is frequently used1 and will make the house sufficiently warm1 but it harbours vermin1 and therefore1 if used1 should be only slightly fastened to the walls1 so that it can be often taken down and well beaten1 and1 if necessary1 fumigated4 ,various materials are recommended for the flooring4 ,boards are warm1 but they soon become foul4 ,beaten earth1 with loose dust scattered over it some inches deep1 is excellent for the feet of the birds1 but is a harbour for the minute vermin which are often so troublesome1 and even destructive1 to domestic fowls4 ,mowbray recommends a floor of well-rammed chalk or earth1 that its surface1 being smooth1 may present no impediment to being swept perfectly clean4 ,chalk laid on dry coal-ashes to absorb the moisture is excellent4 ,a mixture of cow-dung and water1 about the consistency of paint1 put on the surface of the floor1 no thicker than paint1 gives it a hard surface which will bear sweeping down4 ,it is used by the natives of ,india1 not only for the floors1 but often for the walls of their houses1 and is supposed to be healthy in its application1 and to keep away vermin4 ,miss ,watts says3 ,dig out the floor to about a foot deep1 and fill in with burnt clay1 like that used extensively on railways1 the strong gravel which is called 'metal' in road-making1 or any loose dry material of the kind4 ,let this be well rammed down1 and then lay over it1 with a bricklayer's trowel1 a flooring of a compost of cinder-ashes1 gravel1 quick-lime1 and water4 ,this flooring is without the objections due to those which are cold and damp1 and those which imbibe foul moisture4 ,stone is too cold for a flooring2 beaten earth or wood becomes foul when the place is inhabited by living animals2 and a flooring of bricks possesses both these bad qualities united4 ,bricks are the worst of all materials2 they retain moisture1 whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient drainage2 and thus the temperature is kept low1 and disease too often follows1 especially rheumatic attacks of the feet and legs4 ,however1 trodden earth makes a very good flooring1 and it or other materials may easily be kept clean by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to receive the fowl-droppings4 ,the floor should slope from every direction towards the door1 to facilitate its cleansing1 and to keep it dry4 ,perches are generally placed too high1 probably because it was noticed that fowls in their natural state1 or when at large1 usually roost upon high branches2 but it should be observed that1 in descending from lofty branches1 they have a considerable distance to fly1 and therefore alight on the ground gently1 while in a confined fowl-house the bird flutters down almost perpendicularly1 coming into contact with the floor forcibly1 by which the keel of the breast-bone is often broken1 and bumble-foot in ,dorkings and corns are caused4 ,some writers do not object to lofty perches1 provided the fowls have a board with cross-pieces of wood fastened on to it reaching from the ground to the perch2 but this does not obviate the evil1 for they will only use it for ascent1 and not for descent4 ,the air1 too1 at the upper part of any dwelling-room1 or house for animals1 is much more impure than nearer the floor1 because the air that has been breathed1 and vapours from the body1 are lighter than pure air1 and consequently ascend to the top4 ,the perches should therefore not be more than eighteen inches from the ground1 unless the breed is very small and light4 ,perches are also generally made too small and round4 ,when they are too small in proportion to the size of the birds1 they are apt to cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls to grow crooked1 which is a great defect1 and very unsightly in a table-fowl4 ,those for heavy fowls should not be less than three inches in diameter4 ,capital perches may be formed of fir or larch poles1 about three inches in diameter1 split into two1 the round side being placed uppermost2 the birds' claws cling to it easily1 and the bark is not so hard as planed wood4 ,the perches1 if made of timber1 should be nearly square1 with only the corners rounded off1 as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth round poles4 ,those for chickens should not be thicker than their claws can easily grasp1 and neither too sharp nor too round4 ,when more than one row of perches is required they should be ranged obliquely--that is1 one above and behind the other2 by which arrangement each perch forms a step to the next higher one1 and an equal convenience in descending1 and the birds do not void their dung over each other4 ,they should be placed two feet apart1 and supported on bars of wood fixed to the walls at each end2 and in order that they may be taken out to be cleaned1 they should not be nailed to the supporter1 but securely placed in niches cut in the bar1 or by pieces of wood nailed to it like the rowlocks of a boat4 ,if the wall space at the sides is required for laying-boxes1 the perches must be shorter than the house1 and the oblique bars which support them must be securely fastened to the back of the house1 and1 if necessary1 have an upright placed beneath the upper end of each4 ,some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting1 formed of two poles of the required length1 joined at each end by two narrow pieces2 the frame being supported upon four or more legs1 according to its length and the weight of the fowls4 ,if necessary it should be strengthened by rails--connecting the bottoms of the legs1 and by pieces crossing from each angle of the sides and ends4 ,these frames can conveniently be moved out of the house when they require cleansing4 ,or it may be made of one pole supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart1 like two sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle4 ,the perch may be made more secure for heavy fowls by a rail at each side fastened to each leg1 about three inches from the foot4 ,mr4 ,baily says3 ,i had some fowls in a large outhouse1 where they were well provided with perches2 as there was plenty of room1 ,i put some small faggots1 cut for firing1 at one extremity1 and ,i found many of the fowls deserted their perches to roost on the faggots1 which they evidently preferred4 ,cochin-,chinas and ,brahma ,pootras do not require perches1 but roost comfortably on a floor littered down warmly with straw4 ,it should be gathered up every morning1 and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till night1 when the straw1 if clean1 should be again laid down4 ,it must be often changed4 ,a bed of sand is also used1 and a latticed floor even without straw1 and some use latticed benches raised about six inches from the floor4 ,but we should think that latticed roosting-places must be uncomfortable to fowls1 and the dung which falls through is often unseen1 and1 consequently1 liable to remain for too long a time1 while a portion will stick to the sides of the lattice-work1 and be not only difficult to see1 but also to remove when seen4 ,the ,henwife finds1 however1 that if there are nests1 there the ,cochins will roost1 in spite of all attempts to make them do otherwise4 ,it is a good plan1 in warm weather1 occasionally to sprinkle water over and about the perches1 and scatter a little powdered sulphur over the wetted parts1 which will greatly tend to keep the fowls free from insect parasites4 ,the nests for laying in are usually made on the ground1 or in a kind of trough1 a little raised2 but some use boxes or wicker-baskets1 which are preferable1 as they can be removed separately from time to time1 and thoroughly cleansed from dust and vermin1 and can also be kept a little apart from each other4 ,these boxes or troughs should be placed against the sides of the house1 and a board sloping forwards should be fixed above1 to prevent the fowls from roosting upon the edges4 ,if required1 a row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the ground1 and another about a foot or eighteen inches above the floor4 ,the nest should be made of wheaten1 rye1 or oaten straw1 but never of hay1 which is too hot1 and favourable besides to the increase of vermin4 ,heath cut into short pieces forms excellent material for nests1 but it cannot always be had4 ,the material must be changed whenever it smells foul or musty1 for if it is allowed to become offensive1 the hens will often drop their eggs upon the ground sooner than go to the nest4 ,when the fowl-house adjoins a passage1 or it can be otherwise so contrived1 it is an excellent plan to have a wooden flap made to open just above the back of the nests1 so that the eggs can be removed without your going into the roosting-house1 treading the dung about1 and disturbing any birds that may be there1 or about to enter to lay4 ,where possible the nests in the roosting-houses should be used for laying in only2 and a separate house should be set apart for sitting hens4 ,where there are but a few fowls and only one house1 if a hen is allowed to sit1 a separate nest must be made as quiet as possible for her4--,see ,chapter ,,vi4 ,cleanliness must be maintained4 ,the ,canada ,farmer suggested an admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house clean4 ,a broad shelf1 securely fastened1 but moveable1 is fixed at the back of the house1 eighteen inches from the ground1 and the perch placed four or five inches above it1 a foot from the wall4 ,the nests are placed on the ground beneath the board1 which preserves them from the roosting fowl's droppings1 and keeps them well shaded for the laying or sitting hen1 if the latter is obliged to incubate in the same house1 and the nests do not need a top4 ,the shelf can be easily scraped clean every morning1 and should be lightly sanded afterwards4 ,thus the floor of the house is never soiled by the roosting birds1 and the broad board at the same time protects them from upward draughts of air4 ,where the nests and perches are not so arranged1 the idea may be followed by placing a loose board below each perch1 upon which the dung will fall1 and the board can be taken up every morning and the dung removed4 ,with proper tools1 a properly constructed fowl-house can be kept perfectly clean1 and all the details of management well carried out without scarcely soiling your hands4 ,a birch broom is the best implement with which to clean the house if the floor is as hard as it ought to be4 ,a handful of ashes or sand1 sprinkled over the places from which dung has been removed1 will absorb any remaining impurity4 ,fowls' dung is a very valuable manure1 being strong1 stimulating1 and nitrogenous1 possessing great power in forcing the growth of vegetables1 particularly those of the cabbage tribe1 and is excellent for growing strawberries1 or indeed almost any plants1 if sufficiently diluted2 for1 being very strong1 it should always be mixed with earth4 ,a fowl1 according to ,stevens1 will void at least one ounce of dry dung in twenty-four hours1 which is worth at least seven shillings a cwt4 ,the door should fit closely1 a slight space only being left at the bottom to admit air4 ,it should have a square hole1 which is usually placed either at the top or bottom1 for the poultry to enter to roost4 ,a hole at the top is generally preferred1 as it is inaccessible to vermin4 ,the fowls ascend by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board1 with strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet2 a similar ladder should be placed inside to enable them to descend1 if they are heavy fowls2 but the evil is that1 even with this precaution1 they are inclined to fly down1 as they do from high perches1 without using the ladder1 and thus injure their feet4 ,a hole in the middle of the door would be preferable to either1 and obviate the defects of both4 ,these holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside1 so that they can be closed in order to keep the fowls out while cleaning the house1 or to keep them in until they have laid their eggs1 or it may be safe to let them out in the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they would else be liable to be stolen4 ,every day1 after the fowls have left their roosts1 the doors and windows should be opened1 and a thorough draught created to purify the house4 ,during the winter months all the entrance holes should be closed from sunset to sunrise1 unless in mild localities4 ,where there are many houses1 they should1 if possible1 communicate with each other by doors1 so that they may be cleaned from end to end1 or inspected without the necessity of passing through the yards1 which is especially unpleasant in wet weather4 ,the doors should be capable of being fastened on either side1 to avoid the chance of the different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied in arranging the nests1 collecting eggs1 c4 ,see that your fowls are securely locked in at night1 for they are more easily stolen than any other kind of domestic animals4 ,a good dog in the yard or adjoining house or stable is an excellent protection4 ,every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four or five times a year1 and oftener if convenient4 ,vermin of any kind can be effectually destroyed by fumigating the place with sulphur4 ,in this operation a little care is requisite2 it should be commenced early in the morning1 by first closing the lattices1 and stopping up every crevice through which air can enter2 then place on the ground a pan of lighted charcoal1 and throw on it some brimstone broken into small pieces4 ,directly this is done the room should be left1 the door kept shut and airtight for some hours2 care too should be taken that the lattices are first opened1 and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse before any one again enters1 when every creature within the building will be found destroyed4 ,it is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house will keep away rats4 ,in a large establishment1 and in a moderate one1 if the outlay is not an object1 the pens for the chickens and the passages between the various houses may be profitably covered with glass1 and grapes grown on the rafters4 ,raising chickens under glass has been tried with great success4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,fowl-,,yard4 ,the scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises from all gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness to keep them in perfect health1 while the climate of ,great ,britain is naturally moist and cold4 ,the warmest and driest soils1 says ,mowbray1 are the best adapted to the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous fowls1 more particularly chickens4 ,a wet soil is the worst1 since1 however ill affected fowls are by cold1 they endure it better than moisture4 ,land proper for sheep is generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry and rabbits4 ,but poultry may be reared and kept successfully even on bad soils with good drainage and attention4 ,the ,henwife says3 ,i do not consider any one soil necessary for success in rearing poultry4 ,some think a chalk soil essential for ,dorkings1 but ,i have proved the fallacy of this opinion by bringing up1 during three years1 many hundreds of these soi disant delicate birds on the strong blue clay of the ,carse of ,gowrie1 doubtless thoroughly drained1 that system being well understood and universally practised by the farmers of the district4 ,a coating of gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure the necessary dryness in the runs4 ,the best soil for a poultry-yard is gravel1 or sand resting on chalk or gravel4 ,when the soil is clayey1 or damp from any other cause1 it should be thoroughly drained1 and the whole or a good portion of the ground should be raised by the addition of twelve inches of chalk1 or bricklayer's rubbish1 over which should be spread a few inches of sand4 ,cramp1 roup1 and some other diseases1 more frequently arise from stagnant wet in the soil than from any other cause4 ,the yard should be sheltered from the north and east winds1 and where this is effected by the position of a shrubbery or plantation in which the fowls may be allowed to run1 it will afford the advantage of protection1 not only from wind and cold1 but also shelter from the rain and the burning sun4 ,it also furnishes harbourage for insects1 which will find them both food and exercise in picking up4 ,indeed1 for all these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously planted in or adjoining any poultry-yard4 ,when a tree can be enclosed in a run1 it forms an agreeable object for the eye1 and affords shelter to the fowls4 ,a covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather is a great advantage1 especially if chickens are reared4 ,it may be constructed with a few rough poles supporting a roof of patent felt1 thatch1 or rough board1 plain or painted for preservation1 and may be made of any length and width1 from four feet upwards1 and of any height from four feet at the back and three feet in the front1 to eight feet at the back and six feet in the front4 ,the shed should1 if possible1 adjoin the fowl-house4 ,it should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work1 which should be boarded for a foot from the ground to keep out the wet and snow1 and to keep in small chickens4 ,the roof should project a foot beyond the uprights which support it1 in order to throw the rain well off1 and have a gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown in upon the enclosed space4 ,the floor should be a little higher than the level of the yard1 both in order to keep it dry and the easier to keep it clean2 and it should be higher at the back than in the front1 which will keep it drained if any wet should be blown in or water upset4 ,if preferred1 moveable netting may be used1 so that the fowls can be allowed their liberty in fine weather1 and be confined in wet weather4 ,but the boarding must be retained to keep out the wet4 ,the ground may be left in its natural state for the fowls to scratch in1 in which case the surface should be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth pressed down moderately hard4 ,if the house is large and has a good window1 a shed is not absolutely necessary1 especially for a few fowls only1 but it is a valuable addition1 and is also very useful to shelter the coops of the mother hens and their young birds in wet1 windy1 or hot weather4 ,by daily attention to cleanliness1 a few fowls may be kept in such a covered shed1 without having any open run1 by employing a thick layer of dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser1 which is to be turned over with a rake every day1 and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a week4 ,the dry earth entirely absorbs all odour4 ,in a run of this kind1 six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept1 for a smaller surface of the dry earth becomes moist and will then no longer deodorise the dung4 ,sifted ashes spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole shed will be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had4 ,they should be raked over every other morning1 and renewed at least every fortnight1 or oftener if possible4 ,the ground should be dug and turned over whenever it looks sodden1 or gives out any offensive smell2 and three or four times a year the polluted soil below the layer1 that is1 the earth to the depth of three or four inches1 should be removed and replaced with fresh earth1 gravel1 chalk1 or ashes4#b ,the shed must be so contrived that the sun can shine upon the fowls during some part of the day1 or they will not continue in health for any length of time1 and it is almost impossible to rear healthy chickens without its light and warmth2 and it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open4 ,another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared4 ,fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered runs will require a different diet to those that are allowed to roam in fields and pick up insects1 grass1 c41 and must be provided with green food1 animal food in place of insects1 and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and gravel4 ,the height of the wall1 paling1 or fencing that surrounds the yard1 and of the partitions1 if the yard is divided into compartments for the purpose of keeping two or more breeds separate and pure1 must be according to the nature of the breed4 ,three feet in height will be sufficient to retain ,cochins and ,brahmas2 six feet will be required for moderate-sized fowls2 and eight or nine feet will be necessary to confine the ,game1 ,hamburg1 and ,bantam breeds4 ,galvanised iron wire-netting is the best material1 as it does not rust1 and will not need painting for a long time4 ,it is made of various degrees of strength1 and in different forms1 and may be had with meshes varying from three-fourths of an inch to two inches or more2 with very small meshes at the lower part only1 to keep out rats and to keep in chickens2 with spikes upon the top1 or with scolloped wire-work1 which gives it a neat and finished appearance2 with doors1 and with iron standards terminating in double spikes to fix in the ground1 by which wooden posts are divided1 while it can be easily fixed and removed4 ,the meshes should not be more than two inches wide1 and if the meshes of the lower part are not very small1 it should be boarded to about two feet six inches from the ground1 in order to keep out rats1 keep in chickens1 and to prevent the cocks fighting through the wire1 which fighting is more dangerous than in the open1 for the birds are very liable to injure themselves in the meshes1 and1 ,dorkings especially1 to tear their combs and toes in them4 ,if iron standards are not attached to the netting1 it should be stretched to stout posts1 well fixed in the ground1 eight feet apart1 and fastened by galvanised iron staples4 ,a rail at the top gives a neater appearance1 but induces the fowls to perch upon it1 which may tempt them to fly over4 ,where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high1 or when a hen just out with her brood has to be kept in1 a fowl may be prevented from flying over fences by stripping off the vanes or side shoots from the first-flight feathers of one wing1 usually ten in number1 which will effectually prevent the bird from flying1 and will not be unsightly1 as the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not used for flying4 ,this method answers much better than clipping the quills of each wing1 as the cut points are liable to inflict injuries and cause irritation in moulting4 ,the openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw off the water well1 like those of most birds1 enables them to cleanse themselves easier from insects and dirt1 by dusting their feathers1 and then shaking off the dirt and these minute pests with the dust4 ,for this purpose one or more ample heaps of sifted ashes1 or very dry sand or earth1 for them to roll in1 must be placed in the sun1 and1 if possible1 under shelter1 so as to be warm and perfectly dry4 ,wood ashes are the best4 ,this dust-heap is as necessary to fowls as water for washing is to human beings4 ,it cleanses their feathers and skin from vermin and impurities1 promotes the cuticular or skin excretion1 and is materially instrumental in preserving their health4 ,if they should be much troubled with insects1 mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes and a little flour of sulphur4 ,a good supply of old mortar-rubbish1 or similar substance1 must be kept under the shed1 or in a dry place1 to provide material for the eggshells1 or the hens will be liable to lay soft-shelled eggs4 ,burnt oyster-shells are an excellent substitute for common lime1 and should be prepared for use by being heated red-hot1 and when cold broken into small pieces with the fingers1 but not powdered4 ,some give chopped or ground bones1 or a lump of chalky marl4 ,eggshells roughly crushed are also good1 and are greedily devoured by the hens4 ,a good supply of gravel is also essential1 the small stones which the fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to digest their hard food4 ,fowls swallow all grain whole1 their bills not being adapted for crushing it like the teeth of the rabbit or the horse1 and it is prepared for digestion by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard1 lined with a tough leathery membrane1 which forms a remarkable peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys4 ,by the action1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,l4 ,martin1 of the two thick muscular sides of this gizzard on each other1 the seeds and grains swallowed 7and previously macerated in the crop1 and there softened by a peculiar secretion oozing from glandular pores7 are ground up1 or triturated in order that their due digestion may take place4 ,it is a remarkable fact that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles1 bits of gravel1 and similar substances1 which it would seem are essential to their health4 ,the definite use of these substances1 which are certainly ground down by the mill-like action of the gizzard1 has been a matter of difference among various physiologists1 and many experiments1 with a view to elucidate the subject1 have been undertaken4 ,it was sufficiently proved by ,spallanzani that the digestive fluid was incapable of dissolving grains of barley1 c41 in their unbruised state2 and this he ascertained by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of metal or glass with grain1 and causing them to be swallowed by turkeys and other fowls2 when examined1 after twenty-four and forty-eight hours1 the grains were found to be unaffected by the gastric fluid2 but when he filled similar balls and tubes with bruised grains1 and caused them to be swallowed1 he found1 after a lapse of the same number of hours1 that they were more or less dissolved by the action of the gastric juice4 ,in other experiments1 he found that metallic tubes introduced into the gizzard of common fowls and turkeys1 were bruised1 crushed1 and distorted1 and even that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into blunt fragments without having produced the slightest injury to the gizzard4 ,but these experiments go rather to prove the extraordinary force and grinding powers of the gizzard1 than to throw light upon the positive use of the pebbles swallowed2 which1 after all1 ,spallanzani thought were swallowed without any definite object1 but from mere stupidity4 ,blumenbach and ,dr4 ,bostock aver that fowls1 however well supplied with food1 grow lean without them1 and to this we can bear our own testimony4 ,yet the question1 what is their precise effect8 remains to be answered4 ,boerhave thought it probable that they might act as absorbents to superabundant acid2 others have regarded them as irritants or stimulants to digestion2 and ,borelli supposed that they might really contribute some degree of nutriment4 ,sir ,everard ,home1 in his ,comparative ,anatomy1 says3 ,when the external form of this organ is first attentively examined1 viewing that side which is anterior in the living bird1 and on which the two bellies of the muscle and middle are more distinct1 there being no other part to obstruct the view1 the belly of the muscle on the left side is seen to be larger than on the right4 ,this appears1 on reflection1 to be of great advantage in producing the necessary motion2 for if the two muscles were of equal strength1 they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is necessary2 while1 in the present case1 the principal effect is produced by that of the left side1 and a smaller force is used by that on the right to bring the parts back again4 ,the two bellies of the muscle1 by their alternate action1 produce two effects--the one a constant friction on the contents of the cavity2 the other1 a pressure on them4 ,this last arises from a swelling of the muscle inwards1 which readily explains all the instances which have been given by ,spallanzani and others1 of the force of the gizzard upon substances introduced into it--a force which is found by their experiments always to act in an oblique direction4 ,the internal cavity1 when opened in this distended state1 is found to be of an oval form1 the long diameter being in the line of the body2 its capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's egg2 and on the sides there are ridges in their horny coat 7lining membrane7 in the long direction of the oval4 ,when the horny coat is examined in its internal structure1 the fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction perpendicular to the ligamentous substance behind it2 but in the upper portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards4 ,from this form of cavity it is evident that no part of the sides is ever intended to be brought in contact1 and that the food is triturated by being mixed with hard bodies1 and acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard4 ,the experiments of ,spallanzani show that the muscular action of the gizzard is equally powerful whether the small stones are present or not2 and that they are not at all necessary to the trituration of the firmest food1 or the hardest foreign substances2 but it is also quite clear that when these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the gizzard they assist in crushing the grain1 and at the same time prevent it from consolidating into a thick1 heavy1 compacted mass1 which would take a far longer time in undergoing the digestive process than when separated and intermingled with the pebbles4 ,this was the opinion of the great physiologist1 ,john ,hunter1 who1 in his treatise ,on the ,animal ,economy1 after noticing the grinding powers of the gizzard1 says1 in reference to the pebbles swallowed1 ,we are not1 however1 to conclude that stones are entirely useless2 for if we compare the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals which masticate their food with those of birds who do not1 we shall say that the parts are well calculated for the purpose of mastication2 yet we are not thence to infer that the teeth in such jaws are useless1 even although we have proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are gone4 ,if pebbles are of use1 which we may reasonably conclude they are1 birds have an advantage over animals having teeth1 so far as pebbles are always to be found1 while the teeth are not renewed4 ,if we constantly find in an organ substances which can only be subservient to the functions of that organ1 should we deny their use1 although the part can do its office without them8 ,the stones assist in grinding down the grain1 and1 by separating its parts1 allow the gastric juice to come more readily in contact with it4 ,when a paddock is used as a run for a large number of poultry1 it should be enclosed either by a wall or paling1 but not by a hedge1 as the fowls can get through it1 and will also lay their eggs under the hedge4 ,the paddock should be well drained1 and it will be a great advantage if it contains a pond1 or has a stream of water running through or by it4 ,mowbray advises that the grass run should be sown with common trefoil or wild clover1 with a mixture of burnet1 spurry1 or storgrass1 which last two kinds are particularly salubrious to poultry4 ,if the grass is well rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it1 they may range there for several hours daily1 according to its extent and their number1 but it should be renewed in the spring by sowing where it has become bare or thin4 ,a dry common1 or pasture fields1 in which they may freely wander and pick up grubs1 insects1 ants' eggs1 worms1 and leaves of plants1 is a great advantage1 and they may be accustomed to return from it at a call4 ,where there is a cropped field1 orchard1 or garden1 in which fowls may roam at certain seasons1 when the crops are safe from injury1 each brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a few hours daily1 or on different days1 as may be most convenient4 ,a garden dung-heap1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 overgrown with artichokes1 mallows1 c41 is an excellent covert for chickens1 especially in hot weather4 ,they find shelter and meet with many insects there4 ,when horse-dung is procured for the garden1 or supplied from your stables1 some should be placed in a small trench1 and frequently renewed1 in which the fowls will amuse themselves1 particularly in winter1 by scraping for corn and worms4 ,when fowls have not the advantage of a grass run they should be indulged with a square or two of fresh turf1 as often as it can be obtained1 on which they will feed and amuse themselves4 ,it should be heavy enough to enable them to tear off the grass1 without being obliged to drag the turf about with them4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,food4 ,the following table1 which first appeared in the ,poultry ,diary1 will show at a glance the relative constituents and qualities of the different kinds of food1 and may be consulted with great advantage by the poultry-keeper1 as it will enable him to proportion mixed food correctly1 and to change it according to the production of growth1 flesh1 or fat that may be desired1 and according to the temperature of the season4 ,these proportions1 of course1 are not absolutely invariable1 for the relative proportions of the constituents of the grain will vary with the soil1 manure used1 and the growing and ripening characteristics of the season4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,flesh- ,warmth- ,bone- ,husk ,water4 forminggiving making or ,there is in every ,food4 ,food4 ,food4 ,fibre4 #ajj lbs4 of ------------------------------ ,gluten1,fat or ,starch1 ,mineral c4 ,oil4 c4 ,substance ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,oats #ae #f #dg #b #bj #aj ,oatmeal #ah #f #fc #b #b #i ,middlings or fine ,sharps #ah #f #ec #e #d #ad ,wheat #ab #c #gj #b #a #ab ,barley #aa #b #fj #b #ad #a ,indian ,corn #aa #h #fe #a #e #aj ,rice #g a trace #hj a trace -- #ac ,beans and ,peas #be #b #dh #b #h #ae ,milk #da_/b #c #e #c_/d -- #hfc_/d ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,barley is more generally used than any other grain1 and1 reckoned by weight1 is cheaper than wheat or oats2 but1 unless in the form of meal1 should not be the only grain given1 for fowls do not fatten upon it1 as1 though possessing a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances1 it contains a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties of corn4 ,in ,surrey barley is the usual grain given1 excepting during the time of incubation1 when the sitting hens have oats1 as being less heating to the system than the former4 ,barley-meal contains the same component parts as the whole grain1 being ground with the husk1 but only inferior barley is made into meal4 ,wheat of the best description is dearer than barley1 both by weight and measure1 and possesses but about one-twelfth part more flesh-forming material1 but it is fortunate that the small cheap wheat is the best for poultry1 for ,professor ,johnston says1 the small or tail corn which the farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is richer in gluten 7flesh-forming food7 than the full-grown grain1 and is therefore more nutritious4 ,the ,henwife finds light wheats or tailings the best grain for daily use1 and next to that barley4 ,oats are dearer than barley by weight4 ,the heaviest should be bought1 as they contain very little more husk than the lightest1 and are therefore cheaper in proportion4 ,oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming material than any other kind of grain1 and double the amount of fatty material than wheat1 and three times as much as barley4 ,mowbray says oats are apt to cause scouring1 and chickens become tired of them2 but they are recommended by many for promoting laying1 and in ,kent1 ,sussex1 and ,surrey for fattening4 ,fowls frequently refuse the lighter samples of oats1 but if soaked in water for a few hours so as to swell the kernel1 they will not refuse them4 ,the meal contains more flesh-forming material than the whole grain4 ,the meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the whole grain1 but oatmeal is drier and separated from a large portion of the husk1 which makes it too dear except for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest chickens1 for which it is the very best food4 ,fine middlings1 also termed sharps and thirds1 and in ,london coarse country flour1 are much like oatmeal1 but cheaper than the best1 and may be cheaply and advantageously employed instead of oatmeal1 or mixed with boiled or steamed small potatoes or roots4 ,many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls1 and the greater number of poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps think such light common grain the cheapest food2 but this is a great mistake1 as1 though young fowls may be fed on offal and refuse1 it is the best economy to give the older birds the finest kind of grain1 both for fattening and laying1 and even the young fowls should be fed upon the best if fine birds for breeding or exhibition are desired4 ,instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening or breeding poultry1 says ,mowbray1 ,i have always found it most advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best2 thus putting the confined fowls on a level with those at the barn-door1 where they are sure to get their share of the weightiest and finest corn4 ,this high feeding shows itself not only in the size and flesh of the fowls1 but in the size1 weight1 and substantial goodness of their eggs1 which1 in these valuable particulars1 will prove far superior to the eggs of fowls fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes2 two eggs of the former going further in domestic use than three of the latter4 ,sweepings sometimes contain poisonous or hurtful substances1 and are always dearer1 weight for weight1 than sound grain4 ,some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should be boiled1 which makes it swell greatly1 and consequently fills the fowl's crop with a smaller quantity1 and the bird is satisfied with less than if dry grain be given2 but others say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the same quantity of grain unboiled4 ,indeed1 it seems evident that a portion of the nutriment must pass into the water1 and also evaporate in steam4 ,the fowl's gizzard being a powerful grinding mill1 evidently designed by ,providence for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal1 it is clear that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls1 and that softer kinds of food are chiefly to be used for the first or morning meal for fowls confined in houses 7see p4 #cd71 and for those being fattened artificially in coops1 where it is desired to help the fowl's digestive powers1 and to convert the food into flesh as quickly as possible4 ,indian corn or maize1 either whole or in meal1 must not be given in too great a proportion1 as it is very fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains2 but mixed with barley or barley-meal1 it is a most economical and useful food4 ,it is useful for a change1 but is not a good food by itself4 ,it may be given once or twice a week1 especially in the winter1 with advantage4 ,from its size small birds cannot eat it and rob the fowls4 ,whether whole or in meal1 the maize should be scalded1 that the swelling may be done before it is eaten4 ,the yellow-coloured maize is not so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown4 ,buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming food1 and is very much used on the ,continent4 ,mr4 ,wright has a strong opinion that the enormous production of eggs and fowls in ,france is to some extent connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by ,french poultry-keepers4 ,it is not often to be had cheap in this country1 but is hardy and may be grown anywhere at little cost4 ,mr4 ,edwards says1 he obtained 7without manure7 forty bushels to the acre1 on very poor sandy soil1 that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats4 ,the seed is angular in form1 not unlike hempseed2 and is stimulating1 from the quantity of spirit it contains4 ,peas1 beans1 and tares contain an extraordinary quantity of flesh-forming material1 and very little of fat-forming1 but are too stimulating for general use1 and would harden the muscular fibres and give too great firmness of flesh to fowls that are being fattened1 but where tares are at a low price1 or peas or beans plentiful1 stock fowls may be advantageously fed upon any of these1 and they may be given occasionally to fowls that are being fattened4 ,it is better to give them boiled than in a raw state1 especially if they are hard and dry1 and the beans in particular may be too large for the fowls to swallow comfortably4 ,near ,geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares4 ,poultry reject the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond4 ,rice is not a cheap food4 ,when boiled it absorbs a great quantity of water and forms a large substance1 but1 of course1 only contains the original quantity of grain which is of inferior value1 especially for growing chickens1 as it consists almost entirely of starch1 and does not contain quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats4 ,when broken or slightly damaged it may be had much cheaper1 and will do as well as the finest4 ,boil it for half an hour in skim-milk or water1 and then let it stand in the water till cold1 when it will have swollen greatly1 and be so firm that it can be taken out in lumps1 and easily broken into pieces4 ,in addition to its strengthening and fattening qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the flesh4 ,fowls are especially fond of it at first1 but soon grow tired of this food4 ,if mixed with less cloying food1 such as bran1 they would probably continue to relish it4 ,hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time1 and should then be given freely1 especially in cold localities4 ,linseed steeped is occasionally given1 chiefly to birds intended for exhibition1 to increase the secretion of oil1 and give lustre to their plumage4 ,potatoes1 from the large quantity of starch they contain1 are not good unmixed1 as regular food1 but mixed with bran or meal are most conducive to good condition and laying4 ,they contain a great proportion of nutriment1 comparatively to their bulk and price2 and may be advantageously and profitably given where the number of eggs produced is of more consequence than their flavour or goodness4 ,a good morning meal of soft food for a few fowls may be provided daily almost for nothing by boiling the potato peelings till soft1 and mashing them up with enough bran1 slightly scalded1 to make a tolerably stiff dry paste4 ,the peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons at the dinner table4 ,a little salt should always be added1 and in winter a slight sprinkling of pepper is good4 ,it is indispensable1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 to give the potatoes to fowls not only in a boiled state1 but hot2 not so hot1 however1 as to burn their mouths1 as they are stupid enough to do if permitted4 ,they dislike cold potatoes1 and will not eat them willingly4 ,it is likewise requisite to break all the potatoes a little1 for they will not unfrequently leave a potato when thrown down unbroken1 taking it1 probably1 for a stone1 since the moment the skin is broken and the white of the interior is brought into view1 they fall upon it greedily4 ,when pieces of raw potatoes are accidentally in their way1 fowls will sometimes eat them1 though they are not fond of these1 and it is doubtful whether they are not injurious4 ,mangold-wurtzel1 swedes1 or other turnips1 boiled with a very small quantity of water1 until quite soft1 and then thickened with the very best middlings or meal1 is the very best soft food1 especially for ,dorkings4 ,soft food should always be mixed rather dry and friable1 and not porridgy1 for they do not like sticky food1 which clings round their beaks and annoys them1 besides often causing diarrhoea4 ,there should never be enough water in food to cause it to glisten in the light4 ,if the soft food is mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven1 or covered with a cloth1 it will be warm in the morning1 in which state it should always be given in cold weather4 ,fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human beings1 some preferring one kind of grain to all others1 which grain is again disliked by other fowls4 ,they also grow tired of the same food1 and will thrive all the better for having as much variety of diet as possible1 some little change in the food being made every few days4 ,fowls should not be forced or pressed to take food to which they show a dislike4 ,it is most important to give them chiefly that which they like best1 as it is a rule1 with but few exceptions1 that what is eaten with most relish agrees best and is most easily digested2 but care must be taken not to give too much1 for one sort of grain being more pleasing to their palate than another1 induces them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or healthy4 ,m4 ,reaumur made many careful experiments upon the feeding of fowls1 and among them found that they were much more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the greedy voracity which they exhibit when they are fed1 and that the sorts of food most easily digested by them are those of which they eat the greatest quantity4 ,no definite scale can be given for the quantity of food which fowls require1 as it must necessarily vary with the different breeds1 sizes1 ages1 condition1 and health of the fowls2 and with the seasons of the year1 and the temperature of the season1 much more food being necessary to keep up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in summer2 and the amount of seeds1 insects1 vegetables1 and other food that they may pick up in a run of more or less extent4 ,over-feeding1 whether by excess of quantity or excess of stimulating constituents1 is the cause of the most general diseases1 the greater proportion of these diseases1 and of most of the deaths from natural causes among fowls4 ,when fowls are neither laying well nor moulting1 they should not be fed very abundantly2 for in such a state over-feeding1 especially with rich food1 may cause them to accumulate too much fat4 ,a fat hen ceases to lay1 or nearly1 while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless1 and may die of apoplexy4 ,but half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table or to produce eggs4 ,a fowl cannot get fat or make an egg a day upon little or poor food4 ,a hen producing eggs will eat nearly twice as much food as at another time4 ,in cold weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale4 ,poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground4 ,no plan1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 is so extravagant or so injurious as to throw down heaps once or twice per day4 ,they should have it scattered as far and wide as possible1 that the birds may be long and healthily employed in finding it1 and may not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy them for hours4 ,for this reason every sort of feeder or hopper is bad4 ,it is the nature of fowls to take a grain at a time1 and to pick grass and dirt with it1 which assist digestion4 ,they should feed as pheasants1 partridges1 grouse1 and other game do in a state of nature2 if1 contrary to this1 they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls1 their crops are soon overfilled1 and they seek relief in excessive draughts of water4 ,nothing is more injurious than this1 and the inactivity that attends the discomfort caused by it lays the foundation of many disorders4 ,the advantage of scattering the food is1 that all then get their share2 while if it is thrown only on a small space the master birds get the greater part1 while the others wait around4 ,in most poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted2 the same quantity is thrown down day after day1 without reference to time of year1 alteration of numbers1 or variation of appetite1 and that which is not eaten is trodden about1 or taken by small birds4 ,many a poultry-yard is coated with corn and meal4 ,if two fowls will not run after one piece1 they do not want it4 ,if a trough is used1 the best kind is the simplest1 being merely a long1 open one1 shaped like that used for pigs1 but on a smaller scale4 ,it should be placed about a foot from one of the sides of the yard1 behind some round rails driven into the ground three inches apart1 so that the fowls cannot get into the troughs1 so as to upset them1 or tread in or otherwise dirty the food4 ,the rails should be all of the same height1 and a slanting board be fixed over the trough4 ,some persons give but one meal a day1 and that generally in the morning2 this is false economy1 for the whole of the nutriment contained in the one meal is absorbed in keeping up the animal heat1 and there is no material for producing eggs4 ,the number of meals per day1 says ,mr4 ,wright1 best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three1 according to the size of the run4 ,if it be of moderate extent1 so that they can in any degree forage for themselves1 two are quite sufficient1 at least in summer1 and should be given early in the morning and the last thing before the birds go to roost4 ,in any case1 these will be the principal meals2 but when the fowls are kept in confinement they will require1 in addition1 a scanty feed at mid-day4 ,the first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind4 ,the birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed2 and it is important1 especially in cold weather1 that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the system1 and not merely into the crop4 ,but if grain be given1 it has to be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested1 and on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial4 ,but1 for the very same reason1 at the evening meal grain forms the best food which can be supplied2 it is digested slowly1 and during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls4 ,they should be fed at regular hours1 and will then soon become accustomed to them1 and not loiter about the house or kitchen door all day long1 expecting food1 which they will do if fed irregularly or too often1 and neglect to forage about for themselves1 and thus cost more for food4 ,grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry1 and where they have no paddock1 or grass-plot1 fresh vegetables must be given them daily1 as green food is essential to the health of all poultry1 even of the very youngest chickens4 ,cabbage and lettuce leaves1 spinach1 endive1 turnip-tops1 turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain1 or cut in two1 radish-leaves1 or any refuse1 but not stale vegetables will do2 but the best thing is a large sod of fresh-cut turf4 ,they are partial to all the mild succulent weeds1 such as chickweed and ,chenopodium1 or fat-hen1 and eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs1 even those of evergreens2 but they reject the leaves of strawberries1 celery1 parsnips1 carrots1 potatoes1 onions1 and leeks4 ,the supply of green food may be unlimited1 but poultry should never be entirely fed on raw greens4 ,cabbage and spinach are still more relaxing when boiled than raw4 ,they are very fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees1 and will enjoy any that falls1 and prevent it from being wasted4 ,insect food is important to fowls1 and essential for chickens and laying hens4 ,there is no sort of insect1 perhaps1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 which fowls will not eat4 ,they are exceedingly fond of flies1 beetles1 grasshoppers1 and crickets1 but more particularly of every sort of grub1 caterpillar1 and maggot1 with the remarkable exception of the caterpillar moth of the magpie 7,abraxas ,grossularia71 which no bird will touch4 ,m4 ,reaumur mentions the circumstance of a quantity of wheat stored in a corn-loft being much infected with the caterpillars of the small corn-moth1 which spins a web and unites several grains together4 ,a young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to the loft to feed on the caterpillars1 of which they were so fond that in a few days they devoured them all1 without touching a single grain of the corn4 ,mr4 ,dickson observes1 that biscuit-dust from ships' stores1 which consists of biscuit mouldered into meal1 mixed with fragments still unbroken1 would be an excellent food for poultry1 if soaked in boiling water and given them hot4 ,it is thus used for feeding pigs near the larger seaports1 where it can sometimes be had in considerable quantity1 and at a very reasonable price4 ,it will be no detriment to this material if it be full of weevils and their grubs1 of which fowls are fonder than of the biscuit itself4 ,there is not any food of which poultry generally are so fond as of earthworms2 but all fowls are not equally fond of them1 and some will not touch them4 ,they will not eat dead worms4 ,too many ought not to be given1 or they will become too fat and cease laying4 ,when fowls are intended for the table worms should not be given1 as they are said always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of the flesh4 ,a good supply may easily be obtained4 ,by stamping hard upon the ground1 as anglers do1 worms will rise to the surface2 but a better method is to thrust a strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground1 to the depth of a foot or so1 and jerk it backwards and forwards1 so as to shake the soil all around4 ,by going out with a light at night in calm1 mild weather1 particularly when there is dew1 or after rain1 a cautious observer will see large numbers of worms lying on the ground1 gravel-walks1 grass-plots or pastures2 but they are easily frightened into their holes1 though with caution and dexterity a great number1 and those chiefly of the largest size1 may be captured4 ,mr4 ,dickson advises that cottagers' children should be employed to imitate the example of the rooks1 by following the plough or the digger1 and collecting the worms which are disclosed to view2 and also to collect cock-chafers1 and1 what would be more advantageous1 they might be set to collect the grubs of this destructive insect after the plough1 and thus1 while providing a rich banquet for the poultry1 they would be clearing the fields of a most destructive insect4 ,fowls are very fond of shell snails4 ,they are still more fattening than worms1 and therefore too many must not be given when laying1 but they do not injure the flavour of the flesh4 ,some will eat slugs1 but they are not generally fond of these1 and many fowls will not touch them4 ,one great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is1 that hens cannot thrive and lay without a considerable quantity of animal food1 and therefore if they cannot obtain a sufficient quantity in the form of insects1 it must be supplied in meat1 which1 minced small1 should be given daily and also to all fowls in winter1 as insects are then not to be had4 ,mr4 ,baily says3 ,do not give fowls meat1 but always have the bones thrown out to them after dinner2 they enjoy picking them1 and perform the operation perfectly4 ,do not feed on raw meat2 it makes fowls quarrelsome1 and gives them a propensity to peck each other1 especially in moulting time if the accustomed meat be withheld4 ,they will peck at the wound of another fowl to procure blood1 and even at their own wounds when within reach4 ,take care that long pieces of membrane1 or thick skin1 tough gristle or sinew1 or pieces of bone1 are not left sticking to the meat1 or it may choke them1 or form a lodgment in the crop4 ,pieces of suet or fat1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 are liked by fowls better than any other sort of animal food2 but1 if supplied in any quantity1 will soon render them too fat for continuing to lay4 ,should there be any quantity of fat to dispose of1 it ought1 therefore1 to be given at intervals1 and mixed or accompanied with bran1 which will serve to fill their crops without producing too much nutriment4 ,it is a good plan when there are plenty of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well1 and mix bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the fowls1 as it makes the meat easier to mince1 and extracts nourishment from the bones4 ,when minced-meat is required for a large number of fowls1 a mincing or sausage machine will save much time and prepare the meat better than chopping4 ,they are as fond of fish1 whether salted or fresh1 as of flesh4 ,crumbs1 fragments of pastry1 and all the refuse and slops of the kitchen may be given them4 ,greaves1 so much advertised for fowls1 are very bad1 rapidly throwing them out of condition1 causing their feathers to fall off1 spoiling the flavour of the flesh2 they cause premature decrepitude1 and engender many diseases1 the most common being dropsy of an incurable character4 ,where there is no danger from thieves1 foxes1 or other vermin1 and the run is extensive1 it is the best plan to leave the small door of the fowl-house open1 and the fowls will go out at daybreak and pick up many an early worm and insect4 ,the morning meal may be given when the household has risen4 ,a constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable4 ,fountains are preferable to open vessels1 in which the fowls are apt to void their dung1 and the chickens to dabble and catch cold1 often causing roup1 cramp1 c4 ,the simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red pottery1 containing several circular1 concentric troughs1 each about an inch wide1 and of the same depth4 ,chickens cannot get drowned in these shallow vessels1 but unless placed behind rails the water will be dirtied by the fowls4 ,they are sold at all earthenware shops1 and are used for forcing early mustard in4 ,a capital fountain may be made with an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot saucer4 ,bore a small hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch and a half from the edge of the rim1 or detach a piece about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch wide1 from the rim1 and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in the bottom airtight with a piece of cork2 fill the vessel with water1 place the saucer bottom upwards on the top1 press it closely1 and quickly turn both upside down1 when the water will flow into the saucer1 filling up the space between it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole in the side of the jar or flower-pot1 therefore the hole in the side of the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the height of the side of the saucer2 and above all the plug in the flower-pot must be airtight4 ,this fountain is cheap1 simple1 and easily cleaned4 ,water may also be kept in troughs1 or earthenware pans1 placed in the same way4 ,the fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh water once every day1 and oftener in warm weather2 and they should occasionally be scoured with sand to remove the green slime which collects on the surface1 and produces roup1 gapes1 and other diseases4 ,in winter the vessels should always be emptied at night1 in order to avoid ice from forming in them1 which is troublesome to remove1 and snow must never be allowed to fall into them1 snow-water being most injurious to poultry4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,eggs4 ,during the natural process of moulting1 hens cease laying because all the superabundant nutriment is required for the production of the new feathers4 ,fowls moult later each time2 the moulting occupies a longer period1 and is more severe as it becomes later1 and if the weather should be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying for some time4 ,but young fowls moult in spring4 ,therefore1 by having pullets and hens of different ages1 and moulting at different times1 a healthy laying stock may be kept up4 ,pullets hatched in ,march1 and constantly fed highly1 not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn1 but when killed in the following ,february or ,march1 are as fat as any one could or need desire them to be1 and open more like ,michaelmas geese than chickens4 ,when eggs alone are wanted1 you can commence by buying in the spring as many hens as you require1 and your run will accommodate1 not more than a year or eighteen months old4 ,if in good health and condition1 they will be already laying1 or will begin almost immediately2 and1 if well housed and fed1 will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the autumn4 ,when these hens have ceased laying1 and before they lose their good condition by moulting1 they should be either killed or sold1 unless they are ,hamburgs1 ,brahmas1 or ,cochins1 and replaced by pullets hatched in ,march or ,april1 which will have moulted early1 and1 if properly housed and fed1 will begin to lay by ,november at the latest1 and continue laying until ,february or ,march1 when they may be sold or killed1 being then in prime condition1 and replaced as before2 or1 as they will not stop laying for any length of time1 the best may be kept until the autumn1 when1 if profit is the chief consideration1 they must be disposed of4#c ,but ,brahmas1 ,cochins1 and ,hamburgs will lay through the winter up to their second1 or even third year4 ,if you commence poultry-keeping in the autumn you should buy pullets hatched in the preceding spring4 ,the best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock is to keep a full-feathered ,cochin or two for ,march or ,april sitting2 and1 if necessary1 procure eggs of the breed you desire4 ,the ,cochin will sit again1 being only too often ready for the task2 and the later-hatched chickens can be fattened profitably for the table4 ,but if you wish to obtain eggs all the year round1 and to avoid replacing of stock1 or object to the trouble of rearing chickens1 keep only those breeds that are non-sitters1 as the ,hamburgs1 ,polands1 and ,spanish2 but you must purchase younger birds from time to time to keep a supply of laying hens while others are moulting4 ,warmth is most essential for promoting laying4 ,a severe frost will suddenly stop the laying of even the most prolific hens4 ,when1 says ,m4 ,bosc1 it is wished to have eggs during the cold season1 even in the dead of winter1 it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven1 in a stable1 in a shed where many cattle are kept1 or to erect a stove in the fowl-house on purpose4 ,by such methods1 the farmers of ,ange have chickens fit for the table in the month of ,april1 a period when they are only beginning to be hatched in the farms around ,paris1 although farther to the south4 ,it is the winter management of fowls that decides the question of profit or loss1 for hens will be sure to pay in the summer1 even if only tolerably attended to4 ,it is thought by many that each hen can produce only a certain number of eggs2 and if such be the case1 it is very advantageous to obtain a portion of them in winter when they are generally scarce and can be eaten while fresh1 instead of having the whole number produced in the summer1 when so many are spoiled from too long keeping in consequence of more being produced than are required for use at the time4 ,when the time for her laying approaches1 her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red1 the eye brightens1 the gait becomes more spirited1 and sometimes she cackles for three or four days4 ,after laying her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud cackling cry1 to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched kind of scream2 but some hens after laying leave the nest in silence4 ,some hens will lay an egg in three days1 some every other day1 and others every day4 ,hens should not be forced4 ,by unnaturally forcing a fowl with stimulating food1 and more particularly with hempseed and tallow greaves1 to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have been the produce of several1 the hen becomes prematurely old and diseased2 and it is reasonable to suppose that the eggs are not so good as they would have been if nature had been left to run its own course4 ,the eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may be expected to be laid2 for if left in the nest1 the heat of the hens when laying next day will tend to corrupt them4 ,when the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft1 it is because the hens are rather inclined to grow too fat4 ,it is then proper to mix up a little chalk in their water1 and to put a little mortar rubbish in their food1 the quantity of which should be diminished4 ,we give the following remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old school1 as valuable from being the result of practice3 ,the hen sometimes experiences a difficulty in laying4 ,in this case a few grains of salt or garlic put into the vent have been successfully tried4 ,the keeper should indeed make use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen has laid without his knowledge2 for1 as the hen will be in haste to deposit her egg1 her pace towards the nest will be quickened2 she may then be followed and her secret found out4 ,though one particular form1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 is so common to eggs1 that it is known by the familiar name of egg-shaped1 yet all keepers of poultry must be aware that eggs are sometimes nearly round1 and sometimes almost cylindrical1 besides innumerable minor shades of difference4 ,in fact1 eggs differ so much in shape1 that it is said experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of the eggs alone the hen that laid them2 for1 strange to say1 however different in size the eggs of any particular hen may be occasionally1 they are very rarely different in form4 ,among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those of the ,shanghae1 or ,cochin-,china fowl1 which are of a pale chocolate colour2 and those of the ,dorking fowl1 which are of a pure white1 and nearly as round as balls4 ,the eggs of the ,malay fowls are brown2 those of the ,polish fowl1 which are very much pointed at one end1 are of a delicate pinkish white2 and those of the ,bantam are of a long oval4 ,a very important part of the egg is the air-bag1 or folliculus aeris1 which is placed at the larger end1 between the shell and its lining membranes4 ,it is1 according to ,dr4 ,paris1 about the size of the eye of a small bird in new laid eggs1 but enlarges to ten times that size during the process of incubation4 ,this air-bag1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 is of such great importance to the development of the chick1 probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen1 that if the blunt end of the egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle 7a stratagem which malice not unfrequently suggests71 the egg cannot be hatched1 but perishes4 ,an egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion of its moisture1 the place of which is filled by the entrance of air1 and the egg consequently becomes stale1 and after a time putrid4 ,m4 ,reaumur made many experiments in preserving eggs1 and found that1 by coating them with varnish1 it was impossible to distinguish those which had been kept for a year from those newly laid2 but varnish1 though not expensive1 is not always to be had in country places1 and it also remained on the eggs placed under a hen and impeded the hatching1 while in boiling them1 the varnish1 not being soluble in hot water1 prevented them from being properly cooked4 ,he tried other substances1 and found that fat or grease1 such as suet1 lard1 dripping1 butter1 and oil1 were well adapted for the purpose1 the best of these being a mixture of mutton and beef suet thoroughly melted together over a slow fire1 and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan4 ,it is only requisite1 he says1 to take a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the end of the finger1 and rub it all over the shell1 by passing and repassing the finger so that no part be left untouched2 the transpiration of matter from the egg being as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat or grease as by a thick coating1 so that no part of the shell be left ungreased1 or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed over the shell in the same manner4 ,if it is desired that the eggs should look clean1 they may be afterwards wiped with a towel1 for sufficient grease or oil enters the pores of the shell to prevent all transpiration without its being necessary that any should be left to fill up the spaces between the pores4 ,they can be boiled as usual without rubbing off the fat1 as it will melt in the hot water1 and when taken out of the water the little grease that is left upon the egg is easily wiped off with a napkin4 ,eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for hatching1 as the fat easily melts away by the heat of the hen2 and by this means the eggs of foreign fowls might be carried to a distance1 hatched1 and naturalised in this and other countries4 ,the ,french also find that a mixture of melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative4 ,eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them in sawdust1 in an earthen vessel1 and covering the top with melted mutton suet or fat2 as fruit is sometimes preserved4 ,they are also said to keep well in salt1 in a barrel arranged in layers of salt and eggs alternately4 ,if the salt should become damp1 it would penetrate through the pores of the shell and pickle them to a certain extent4 ,m4 ,gagne says that eggs may be preserved in a mixture made of one bushel of quick-lime1 two pounds of salt1 and eight ounces of cream of tartar1 with sufficient water to make it into a paste of a consistency to receive the eggs1 which1 it is said1 may be kept in it fresh for two years2 but eggs become tasteless when preserved with lime4 ,it may be as well to mention here that eggs are comparatively wasted when used in making a rice pudding1 as they render it too hard and dry1 and the pudding without them1 if properly made1 will be just of the right consistency4 ,another way to preserve eggs1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 is to have them cooked in boiling water the same day they are laid4 ,on taking them out of the water they are marked with red ink1 to record their date1 and put away in a cool place1 where they will keep1 it is said1 for several months4 ,when they are wanted for use1 they are again put into hot water to warm them4 ,the curdy part which is usually seen in new-laid eggs is so abundant1 and the taste is said to be so well preserved1 that the nicest people may be made to believe that they are new laid4 ,at the end of three or four months1 however1 the membrane lining the shell becomes much thickened1 and the eggs lose their flavour4 ,eggs so preserved have the advantage of not suffering from being carried about4 ,it ought not to be overlooked1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 with respect to the preservation of eggs1 that they not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents1 in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell2 but also by being moved about1 and jostled when carried to a distance by sea or land4 ,any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures the membranes which keep the white1 the yolk1 and the germ of the chick in their proper places1 and upon these becoming mixed1 putrefaction soon follows4 ,if the eggs are to be kept for setting1 place a box1 divided by partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different breeds1 in a dry corner of your kitchen1 but not too near to the fire2 fill the divisions with bran previously well dried in an oven2 place the eggs in it upright1 with the larger ends uppermost1 as soon as they are laid1 and cover them with the bran4 ,mark each egg in pencil with the date when laid1 and description of breed or cross4 ,they should be kept in a cool place or a warm place according to the season4 ,airtight jars1 closed with airtight stoppers1 may be used if the eggs are intended to be kept for a very long time4 ,in selecting eggs for setting1 choose the freshest1 those of moderate size1 well-shaped1 and having the air-vessel distinctly visible1 either in the centre of the top of the egg1 or slightly to the side1 when the egg is held between the eye and a lighted candle1 in a darkened room4 ,reject very small eggs1 which generally have no yolk1 those that are ill-shaped1 and those of equal thickness at both ends1 which latter is the usual shape of eggs with double yolks4 ,these should be avoided1 as they are apt generally to prove unfertile1 or produce monstrosities4 ,it has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken can be ascertained by the position of the air-vessel2 that if it be on the top the egg will produce a cockerel1 and if on the side a pullet2 but there is no proof of the truth of this1 and1 notwithstanding such assertions1 it appears to be impossible to foretell the sex of the chick1 from the shape of the egg or in any other way4 ,in selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls that are to be kept for laying only1 being non-sitters1 choose eggs only from those hens that are prolific layers1 for prolific laying is often as characteristic of some fowls of a breed as it is of the particular breeds1 and by careful selection this faculty1 like others1 may be further developed1 or continued if already fully developed4 ,if carefully packed1 eggs for setting may be carried great distances--hundreds and even thousands of miles--without injury2 vibration and even moderate shaking1 and very considerable changes of temperature1 producing no ill effect upon the germ4 ,the chief point is to prevent the escape of moisture by evaporation1 and consequent admission of air4 ,a hamper travels with less vibration than a box1 and is therefore preferable1 especially for a long journey4 ,they should be packed in hay1 by which they will be preserved from breakage much better than by being packed in short1 close material like bran1 chaff1 oats1 or sawdust2 these being shaken into smaller space by the vibration of travelling1 the eggs often strike and crack each other4 ,the hamper or box should be large enough to admit of some soft1 yielding packing material being placed all round the eggs4 ,the bottom should be first covered with a good layer of hay1 straw1 or moss4 ,it is a good plan to roll each egg separately in hay or moss1 fastened with a little wool or worsted4 ,they should be covered with well-rubbed straw1 pressed down carefully and gently4 ,the lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly all round1 or in three or four places at least4 ,if a box is used1 the lid should be fastened by cords or screws1 but not with nails1 as the hammering would probably destroy the germ of the egg4 ,in procuring eggs for hatching1 be sure that the parent birds are of mature age1 but not too old1 well-shaped1 vigorous1 and in perfect health2 that one cock is kept to every six or seven hens2 and that they are well fed and attended to4 ,have a steady broody hen ready to take the eggs4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,sitting ,,hen4 ,all hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to hatch and bring up one brood of chickens a year2 for1 if altogether restrained from sitting1 a hen suffers much in moulting1 and is restless and excited for the remainder of the season4 ,it is unnatural1 and therefore must be injurious4 ,the period of incubation gives her rest from producing eggs4 ,the hen that is always stimulated to produce eggs1 and not allowed to vary that process by hatching and bringing up a young brood1 must ultimately suffer from this constant drain upon her system1 and the eggs are said to be unwholesome4 ,but hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient1 or in autumn or winter1 when it is not advisable1 unless very late or early chickens are desired1 and every attention can be given to them4 ,to check this desire1 the old-fashioned plan with farmers' wives1 of plunging the broody hen into cold water1 and keeping her there for some minutes1 was not only a cruel practice1 but often failed to effect its object1 and must naturally always have caused ultimate disease in the poor bird4 ,when it is absolutely necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit1 the best plan is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week1 then remove and coop her for a few days1 away from the place where she made her nest1 low diet1 as boiled potatoes and boiled rice1 and water being placed near2 meanwhile taking away the eggs and destroying the nest1 and1 not finding it on her return1 she will generally not seek for another1 unless she is a ,cochin1 or the desire exceedingly strong4 ,when a hen wishes to sit1 she utters a peculiar cluck1 ruffles her feathers1 wanders about1 searches obscure corners and recesses1 is very fidgety1 feverishly hot1 impatient1 anxiously restless1 and seeks for a nest4 ,highly-fed hens feel this desire sooner than those that are not so highly fed4 ,a hen may be induced to sit at any season1 by confining her in a dark room in a covered basket1 only large enough to contain her nest1 keeping her warm1 and feeding her on stimulating food1 such as bread steeped in ale1 a little raw liver or fresh meat chopped small1 and potatoes mashed warm with milk and oatmeal4 ,every large poultry establishment should have a separate house for the sitting hens1 and the run that should be provided for their relaxation must be divided from that of the other fowls by wire or lattice work1 to prevent any intrusion4 ,where there is a large number of sitting hens1 each nest should be numbered1 and the date of setting1 number and description of eggs1 entered in a diary or memorandum book opposite to the number2 and the number of chickens hatched1 and any particulars likely to be useful on a future occasion1 should afterwards be entered4 ,a separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great advantage1 as it prevents other hens from going to the nest during her absence1 or herself from returning to the wrong nest1 as will often happen in a common house4 ,the run should not be large1 or the hen may be inclined to wander and stay away too long from her nest4 ,a separate division for the sitting hen is often otherwise useful1 for the purpose of keeping the cock apart from the hens1 or for keeping a few additional birds for which accommodation has not been prepared1 or for the use of a pen of birds about to be sent for exhibition4 ,boxes1 of which every carpenter knows the form1 says ,mowbray1 are to be arranged round the walls1 and it is proper to have a sufficient number1 the hens being apt to dispute possession1 and sit upon one another4 ,the board or step at the entrance should be of sufficient height to prevent the eggs from rolling out4 ,provision of a few railed doors may be made for occasional use1 to be hung before the entrance1 in order to prevent other hens from intruding to lay their eggs upon those which sit1 a habit to which some are much addicted1 and by which a brood is often injured4 ,the common deep square boxes1 uncovered at top1 are extremely improper1 because that form obliges the hen to jump down upon her eggs1 whereas for safety she should descend upon them from a very small height1 or in a manner walk in upon them4 ,the same objection lies against hampers1 with the additional one of the wicker-work admitting the cold in variable weather1 during winter or early spring sittings4 ,many breeders prefer to have all the nests upon the ground1 on account of the danger of chickens falling from the nests which are placed above4 ,the ground is preferable for other reasons4 ,the damp arising from the ground assists very materially in incubation4 ,when fowls sit upon wooden floors1 or in boxes1 the eggs become so dry and parched as to prevent the chicken from disencumbering itself of the shell1 and it is liable to perish in its attempts4 ,hens in a state of nature make their nests upon the ground2 and fowls1 when left to choose a nest for themselves1 generally fix upon a hedge1 where the hen conceals herself under the branches of the hedge1 and among the grass4 ,in general1 the sitting places are too close and confined1 and very different in this respect to those that hens select for themselves4 ,but nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the ground1 unless properly secured from vermin1 particularly from rats1 which will frequently convey away the whole of the eggs from under a hen4 ,and other considerations may render it necessary to have them on a floor1 in boxes on the ground1 or placed above2 in which cases the eggs must be kept properly moistened1 for1 unless the egg is kept sufficiently damp1 its inner membrane becomes so hard and dry that the chicken cannot break through1 and perishes4 ,when a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of evergreens or bushes1 she makes it on the damp ground4 ,she goes in search of food early in the morning1 before the dew is off the grass1 and returns to her nest with her feathers saturated with moisture4 ,this is the cause of the comparatively successful hatching of the eggs of wild birds4 ,the old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of damping eggs1 but frequently complained of their not hatching1 although chickens were found in them1 which was1 in most cases1 entirely caused by want of damping4 ,if1 therefore1 the weather is warm and wet1 all will probably go well2 but if the air should be very dry1 moisture must be imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly1 when the hen is off feeding1 by means of a small brush dipped in tepid water4 ,a small flat brush such as is used by painters is excellent for this purpose1 as it does not distribute the water too freely4 ,the ground round about1 also1 should be watered with hot water1 to cause a steam4 ,but the natural moisture of a damp soil is preferable1 and never fails4 ,the nest may be of any shape4 ,a long box divided by partitions into several compartments is much used1 but separate boxes or baskets are preferable as being more easily cleaned and freed from vermin4 ,wooden nest-boxes are preferable to wicker baskets in winter1 as the latter let in the cold air1 but many prefer wicker baskets in summer for their airiness4 ,a round glazed earthen pan1 with shelving sides1 like those used in the midland counties for milk1 and partially filled with moss1 forms a good nest1 the moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than in a box4 ,the nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill it1 not very deep1 and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as possible1 so that the eggs may not lean against each other1 or they may get broken1 especially by the hen turning them4 ,the best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand1 mould1 coal or wood ashes placed on a cut turf1 covering it and lining the sides with a little well-broken dry grass1 moss1 bruised straw1 lichen1 or liverwort collected from trees1 or dry heather1 which is the best of all1 but cannot always be had4 ,hay1 though soft at first1 soon becomes hard and matted1 and is also said to breed vermin4 ,straw is good material1 but must be cut into short pieces1 for if long straw is used and the hen should catch her foot in it1 and drag it after her when she leaves the nest1 it will disturb1 if not break1 the eggs4 ,the nests of the sitting hens in ,her ,majesty's poultry-yard at ,windsor are made of heather1 which offers an excellent medium between the natural damp hedge-nest of the hen and the dryness of a box filled with straw1 and also enables her to free herself from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting hens4 ,a thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold weather will keep in the heat of the hen4 ,a little ,scotch snuff is a good thing to keep the nests free from vermin4 ,where only a few fowls are kept1 and a separate place cannot be found for the sitting hen1 she can be placed on a nest which should be covered over with a coop1 closed in with a little boarding or some other contrivance for a day or two1 to prevent her being disturbed by any other fowls that have been accustomed to lay there4 ,they will then soon use another nest4 ,she should be carefully lifted off her nest1 by taking hold of her under the wings1 regularly every morning1 exercised and fed1 and then shut in1 so that she cannot be annoyed4 ,it is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has chosen when she shows an inclination to sit2 and if she continues to sit steadily1 and has not a sufficient number of eggs under her1 or the eggs you desire her to hatch1 remove her gently at night1 replace the eggs with the proper batch1 and place her quietly upon the nest again4 ,hens are very fond of choosing their own nests in out of the way places2 and where the spot is not unsafe1 or too much exposed to the weather1 it is best to let her keep possession1 for it has been noticed that1 when she selects her own nest and manages for herself1 she generally brings forth a good and numerous brood4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier observes that he has reason to believe1 indeed1 that whatever care may be taken in keeping eggs1 their vitality is better preserved when they are allowed to remain in the nest4 ,perhaps the periodical visits of the hen1 while adding to her store of eggs1 has a stimulating influence4 ,the warmth communicated in the half-hour during which she occupies the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo in a vigorous state4 ,it is a good plan1 before giving an untried hen choice eggs1 to let her sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few days1 and if she continue to sit with constancy1 then to give her the batch for hatching4 ,when choice can be made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of eggs1 one should be selected with rather short legs1 a broad body1 large wings well furnished with feathers1 and having the nails and spurs not too long or sharp4 ,as a rule1 hens which are the best layers are the worst sitters1 and those with short legs are good sitters1 while long-legged hens are not4 ,dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds1 and by high feeding may be induced to sit in ,october1 especially if they have moulted early1 and with great care and attention chickens may be reared and made fit for table by ,christmas4 ,early in the spring ,dorkings only should be employed as mothers1 for they remain much longer with their chickens than the ,cochin-,chinas1 but the latter may safely be entrusted with a brood after ,april4 ,cochins are excellent sitters1 and1 from the quantity of fluff which is peculiar to them1 keep the eggs at a high and regular degree of heat4 ,their short legs also are advantageous for sitting4 ,a ,cochin hen can always be easily induced to sit1 and eggs of theirs or of ,brahma ,pootras for sitting1 are not wanted in the coldest weather4 ,old hens are more steady sitters than pullets1 more fond of their brood1 and not so apt as pullets to leave them too soon4 ,indeed1 pullets were formerly never allowed to sit before the second year of their laying1 but now many eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they show a strong desire to do so1 considering that the prejudice against them upon this point is unfounded1 and that young hens sit as well as older fowls4 ,pullets hatched early will generally begin to lay in ,november or ,december1 if kept warm and well fed1 and will sit in ,january or ,february4 ,broody hens brought from a distance should be carried in a basket1 covered over with a cloth4 ,the number of eggs to be set under a hen must be according to the extent of her wings and the temperature of the weather4 ,some say that the number may vary from nine to fourteen1 but others would never give more than nine in winter and early spring1 and eleven in summer1 to the largest hen1 and two fewer to the smaller fowls4 ,a ,cochin-,china may have fifteen of her own in summer4 ,a hen should not be allowed more eggs than she can completely cover2 for eggs that are not thoroughly covered become chilled1 and fewer and weaker chickens will be hatched from too large a number than from a more moderate allowance4 ,it is not only necessary to consider how many eggs a hen can hatch1 but also how many chickens she can cover when they are partly grown4 ,in ,january and ,february1 not more than seven or eight eggs should be placed under the hen1 as she cannot cover more than that number of chickens when they grow large1 and exposure to the cold during the long winter nights would destroy many4 ,the common order to set egges1 says ,mascall1 is in odde numbers1 as seven1 nyne1 eleven1 thirteen1 c41 whiche is to make them lye round the neste1 and to have the odde egge in the middest4 ,eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old1 if possible1 and never more than a month4 ,fresh eggs hatch in proper time1 and1 if good1 produce strong1 lively chicks2 while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as much as two days later than new laid1 and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell1 while of those well out fewer will probably be reared4 ,it is certain1 as a general rule1 that the older the egg the weaker will be its progeny4 ,every egg should be marked by a pencil or ink line drawn quite round it1 so that it can be known without touching1 and if another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and removed1 for hens will sometimes lay several after they have commenced sitting4 ,place the eggs under the hen with their larger ends uppermost4 ,let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before putting her on the nest4 ,whole barley and soft food1 chiefly barley-meal and mashed potatoes1 should be given to her when she comes off the nest1 and she must have as much as she will eat1 for she leaves the nest but once daily1 and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without plenty of food2 or she may have the same food as the general stock4 ,a good supply of water must be always within her reach4 ,a good-sized shallow box or pan1 containing fine coal-ashes1 sand1 or dry earth1 to cleanse herself in1 should always be ready near to the nest4 ,she should be left undisturbed1 and1 as far as possible1 allowed to manage her own business4 ,when a hen shows impatience of her confinement1 and frequently leaves the nest1 ,m4 ,parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal should be given1 after which she should be replaced on the nest and fed from the hand with hemp or millet seed1 which will induce her to stay constantly on her eggs4 ,others will sit so long and closely that they become faint for want of food4 ,such hens should not be fed on the nest1 but gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little exercise1 for they will not leave their eggs of their own accord1 and feeding on the nest has crippled many a good sitter4 ,it is not healthy for the hen to feed while sitting on or close by the nest1 for she requires a little exercise and rolling in the dust-heap1 as well as that the eggs should be exposed for the air to carry off any of that stagnant vapour which ,m4 ,reaumur proved to be so destructive to the embryo chickens2 and it has also been shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused by this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply of air to penetrate through the pores of the shell1 for the respiration of the chick4 ,when there are many hens sitting at the same time1 it is a good plan to take them off their nests regularly at the same time every morning to feed1 and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse themselves in a convenient dusting-place1 and1 if possible1 allow them exercise in a good grass run4 ,a hen should never be caught1 but driven back gently to her nest4 ,a good hen will not stay away more than half an hour1 unless infested with vermin1 from want of having a proper dust-heap4 ,but hens have often been absent for more than an hour1 and yet have hatched seven or eight chickens2 and instances have been known of their being absent for five and even for nine hours1 and yet hatching a few4 ,the following remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent authority3 ,eggs had been supplied and a sitting hen lent to a neighbour1 and1 when she had set in a granary ten days1 she was shut out through the carelessness of a servant4 ,being a stranger in the farmyard1 the hen was not recognised1 but supposed to have strayed in from an adjoining walk1 and thirty hours elapsed before it was discovered that the hen had left her nest4 ,the farmer's wife despaired of her brood2 but1 to her surprise and pleasure1 eight chickens were hatched4 ,the tiled roof of the granary was fully exposed to the rays of the sun1 and the temperature very high1 probably above #hj deg4 during the day1 and not much lower at night4 ,valuable eggs1 therefore1 should not be abandoned on account of a rather lengthened absence2 and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight or so2 but if she has been sitting for only a few days1 it is safer to throw them away1 and have a fresh batch4 ,during the hen's absence1 always look at the eggs1 remove any that may have been broken1 and very gently wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a flannel dipped in milk-warm water4 ,see that they are dry before putting them back4 ,if the nest is also dirty1 replace it with fresh material of the same kind4 ,gently drive the hen back to her nest as quickly as possible1 to prevent any damage from the eggs becoming chilled4 ,if a hen should break an egg with her feet or otherwise1 it should be removed as soon as it is seen1 or she may eat it1 and1 liking the taste1 break and eat the others4 ,some hens have a bad habit of breaking and eating the eggs on which they are sitting1 to cure which some recommend to boil an egg hard1 bore a few holes in it1 so that the inside can be seen1 and give it while hot to the culprit1 who will peck at the holes and burn herself2 but hens with such propensities should be fattened for the table1 for they are generally useless either for sitting or laying4 ,some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat upon them for six or seven days1 and remove all that are sterile1 by which plan more warmth and space are gained for those that are fertile1 and the warmth is not wasted upon barren eggs4 ,they may be easily proved by holding them near to the flame of a candle1 the eye being kept shaded by one hand1 when the fertile eggs will appear dark and the sterile transparent4 ,another plan is to place the eggs on a drum1 or between the hands1 in the sunshine1 and observe the shadow4 ,if this wavers1 by the motion of the chick1 the eggs are good2 but if the shadow shows no motion1 they are unfertile4 ,if two hens have been sitting during the same time1 and many unfertile eggs are found in the two nests1 all the fertile eggs should be placed under one hen1 and a fresh batch given to the other4 ,the eggs should not be moved after this time1 except by the hen1 more especially when incubation has proceeded for some time1 lest the position of the chick be interfered with1 for if taken up a little time before its exit1 and incautiously replaced with the large end lowermost1 the chicken1 from its position1 will not be able to chip the shell1 and must therefore perish4 ,the forepart of the chicken is towards the biggest end of the egg1 and it is so placed in the shell that the beak is always uppermost4 ,when the egg of a choice breed has been cracked towards the end of the period of incubation1 the crack may be covered with a slip of gummed paper1 or the unprinted border that is round a sheet of postage stamps1 and the damaged egg will probably yet produce a fine chick4 ,it is a good plan to set two hens on the same day1 for the two broods may be united under one if desirable1 and on the hatching day1 to prevent the newly-born chickens being crushed by the unhatched eggs1 all that are hatched can be given to one hen1 and the other take charge of the eggs1 which are then more likely to be hatched1 as1 while the chickens are under the hen1 she will sit higher from the eggs1 and afford them less warmth when they require it most4 ,the hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls1 from the ,bantam to the ,cochin-,china1 sits for twenty-one days1 at which time1 on an average1 the chickens break the shell2 but if the eggs are new laid it will often lessen the time by five or six hours1 while stale eggs will always be behind time4 ,for the purpose of breaking the shell1 the yet soft beak of the chicken is furnished1 just above the point of the upper mandible1 with a small1 hard1 horny scale1 which1 from the position of the head1 as ,mr4 ,yarrell observes1 is brought in contact with the inner surface of the shell4 ,this scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched chickens1 but in the course of a short time peels off4 ,it should not be removed4 ,the peculiar sound1 incorrectly called tapping1 so perceptible within the egg about the nineteenth day of incubation1 which was universally believed to be produced by the bill of the chick striking against the shell in order to break it and effect its release1 has been incontestably proved1 by the late ,dr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,horner1 of ,hull1 in a paper read by him before the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 to be a totally distinct sound1 being nothing more than the natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick1 which first begins to breathe at that period4 ,of course there is also an occasional sound made by the tapping of the beak in endeavouring to break the shell4 ,the time occupied in breaking the shell varies1 according to the strength of the chick1 from one to three hours usually1 but extends sometimes to twenty-four1 and even more4 ,i have seen1 says ,reaumur1 chicks continue at work for two days together2 some work incessantly1 while others take rest at intervals1 according to their physical strength4 ,some1 ,i have observed1 begin to break the shell a great deal too soon2 for1 be it observed1 they ought1 before they make their exit1 to have within them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food1 and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk enters through the navel4 ,the chick1 indeed1 which comes out of the shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to droop and die in a few days after it is hatched4 ,the assistance which ,i have occasionally tried to give to several of them1 by way of completing their deliverance1 has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had begun to break their shells before this was accomplished2 and ,i have opened many eggs much fractured1 in each of which the chick had as yet much of the yolk not absorbed4 ,some chicks have greater obstacles to overcome than others1 since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor of an equal consistence2 and the same inequality takes place in the lining membrane1 and offers still greater difficulty to the emergent chick4 ,the shells of the eggs of birds of various species are of a thickness proportionate to the strength of the chick that is obliged to break through them4 ,the canary-bird would never be able to break the shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of a barn-door fowl4 ,the chick of a barn-door fowl1 again1 would in vain try to break its shell if it were as thick and hard as that of an ostrich2 indeed1 though an ostrich ready to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the common chick1 it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill can be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china cup1 and the smoothness and gloss of which indicate that it is nearly as hard--sufficiently so to form1 as may be often seen1 a firm drinking-cup4 ,it is the practice in some countries to dip the eggs into warm water at the time they are expected to chip1 on the supposition that the shell is thereby rendered more fragile1 and the labour of the chick lightened4 ,but1 though the water should soften it1 upon drying in the air it would become as hard as at first4 ,when the chick is entirely or almost out of the shell1 it draws its head from under its wing1 where it had hitherto been placed1 stretches out its neck1 directing it forwards1 but for several minutes is unable to raise it4 ,on seeing for the first time a chick in this condition1 we are led to infer that its strength is exhausted1 and that it is ready to expire2 but in most cases it recruits rapidly1 its organs acquire strength1 and in a very short time it appears quite another creature4 ,after having dragged itself on its legs a little while1 it becomes capable of standing on them1 and of lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions1 and at length of holding up its head4 ,at this period the feathers are merely fine down1 but1 as they are wet with the fluid of the egg1 the chick appears almost naked4 ,from the multitude of their branchlets these down feathers resemble minute shrubs2 when1 however1 these branchlets are wet and sticking to each other1 they take up but very little room2 as they dry they become disentangled and separated4 ,the branchlets1 plumules1 or beards of each feather are at first enclosed in a membranous tube1 by which they are pressed and kept close together2 but as soon as this dries it splits asunder1 an effect assisted also by the elasticity of the plumules themselves1 which causes them to recede and spread themselves out4 ,this being accomplished1 each down feather extends over a considerable space1 and when they all become dry and straight1 the chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of soft down4 ,if they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been broken1 and the hole is not enlarged1 they are probably glued to the shell4 ,look through the egg then1 and1 if all the yolk has passed into the body of the chicken1 you may assist it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of fine scissors1 cutting up towards the large end of the egg1 never downwards4 ,if1 says ,miss ,watts1 the time has arrived when the chicken may with safety be liberated1 there will be no appearance of blood in the minute blood-vessels spread over the interior of the shell2 they have done their work1 and are no longer needed by the now fully developed and breathing chick4 ,if there should be the slightest appearance of blood1 resist at once1 for its escape would generally be fatal4 ,do not attempt to let the chicken out at once1 but help it a little every two or three hours4 ,the object is not to hurry the chicken out of its shell1 but to prevent its being suffocated by being close shut up within it4 ,if the chick is tolerably strong1 and the assistance needful1 it will aid its deliverance with its own exertions4 ,when the chicken at last makes its way out1 do not interfere with it in any way1 or attempt to feed it4 ,animal heat alone can restore it4 ,weakness has caused the delay1 and this has probably arisen from insufficient warmth1 perhaps from the hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly1 or they may have been stale when set4 ,should you have to assist it out of the shell1 take it out gently with your fingers1 taking great care not to tear any of its tender skin1 when freeing the feathers from the shell4 ,mr4 ,wright says3 ,we never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the shell4 ,if the eggs were fresh1 and proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during incubation1 no assistance is ever needed4 ,to fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly2 and we have always found that1 even where the poor little creature survived at the time1 it never lived to maturity4 ,should the reader attempt such assistance1 in cases where an egg has been long chipped1 and no further progress made1 let the shell be cracked gently all round1 without tearing the inside membrane2 if that be perforated1 the viscid fluid inside dries and glues the chick to the shell4 ,should this happen1 or should both shell and membrane be perforated at first1 introduce the point of a pair of scissors and cut up the egg towards the large end1 where there will be an empty space1 remembering that1 if blood flows1 all hope is at end4 ,then put the chick back under the hen2 she will probably squeeze it to death1 it is true--it is so very weak2 but it will never live if put by the fire1 at least we always found it so4 ,indeed1 as we have said1 we consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all4 ,the fact is1 it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist in the case of ordinary eggs1 but if the breed is valuable the labour may be well bestowed4 ,some hens are reluctant to give up sitting1 and will hatch a second brood with evident pleasure2 but it is cruel to overtask their strength and patience1 and they are sure to suffer1 more or less1 from the unnatural exertion4 ,some breeders use a contrivance called an artificial mother for broods hatched under the hen1 and it may be employed very advantageously when any accident has happened to her4 ,it is made in various forms1 such as a wooden frame1 or shallow box1 open at both ends1 and sloping like a writing-desk1 with a perforated lid lined with sheep or lamb's skin1 goose-down1 or some similar warm fleecy material hanging down1 under and between which the chickens nestle1 heat being applied to the lid either by hot water or hot air1 so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's breast4 ,when chickens are hatched by artificial means1 such as by the ,hydro-,incubator1 or the ,eccaleobion1 or in an oven according to the method practised by the ,egyptians1 these protectors are essential2 for without a good substitute for the hen's natural warmth the chickens would perish4 ,artificial incubators are now extensively used1 and where gas is laid on they are easily managed1 but the chief difficulty is in rearing the chickens4 ,for information on the subject see the works of ,tegetmeier1 ,dickson1 and ,wright1 on ,poultry4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,rearing ,,and ,,fattening ,,fowls4 ,the first want which the chick will feel will be that of warmth1 and there is no warmth so suited for them as that of the hen's body4 ,some persons remove the chicks from under the mother as soon as they are hatched1 one by one1 placing them in a basket covered up with flannel1 and keep them there in a warm place1 until the last chick is out1 when they are put back under the hen4 ,but this is very seldom necessary unless the weather is very cold and the hen restless1 and is generally more likely to annoy than benefit her4 ,nor should the hen be induced to leave the nest1 but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own accord1 when the last hatched chickens will be in a better condition to follow her than if she had been tempted to leave earlier4 ,in a few hours they are able to run about and follow their parent2 they do not require to be fed in the nest like most birds1 but pick up the food which their mother shows them2 and repose at night huddled up beneath her wings4 ,the chicken during its development in the egg is nourished by the yolk1 and the remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous to its leaving the shell1 being designed for its first nourishment2 and the chicken1 therefore1 does not require any food whatever during the first day4 ,the old-fashioned plan1 so popular with practical farmers' wives1 of cramming a peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick is absurd and injurious4 ,the first food must be very light and delicate1 such as crumbs of bread soaked in milk1 the yolk of an egg boiled hard1 and curds2 but very little of anything at first except water1 for thirst will come before hunger4 ,the thirsty hen will herself soon teach the little ones how to drink4 ,if your chicks be very weakly1 you may cram them with crumbs of good white bread1 steeped in milk or wine1 but at the same time recollect that their little craws are not capable of holding more than the bulk of a pea2 so rather under than over feed them4 ,as soon as the hen leaves the nest1 she should have as much grain as she can eat1 and a good supply of pure1 clean water4 ,in winter1 or settled wet weather1 she should1 if possible1 be kept on her nest for a day1 and1 when removed1 be cooped in a warm1 dry shed or outhouse2 but in summer1 if the weather be fine1 and the chickens well upon their legs1 they may be at once cooped out in the sun1 on dry gravel1 or if possible on a nice grass-plot1 with food and water within her reach4 ,the hen is cooped to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them about until they are over-tired1 besides being exposed to danger from cats1 hawks1 and vermin1 tumbling into ditches1 or getting wet in the high grass4 ,they can pass in and out between the bars of the coop1 and will come when she calls1 or they wish to shelter under her wings4 ,it is a good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon some dry sand1 so that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably4 ,the common basket coop should only be used in fine weather1 and some straw1 kept down by a stone1 matting1 or other covering1 should be placed on the top1 to shelter them from the mid-day sun2 otherwise a wooden coop should be used1 open in front only1 about two and a half or three feet square2 well-made of stout1 sound boards1 with a gabled roof covered with felt2 and at night a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front1 sufficient space being left for proper ventilation1 but not to admit cold draught1 or to allow the chicks to get out4 ,mr4 ,wright describes an excellent coop which is very common in some parts of ,france1 and consists of two compartments1 separated by a partition of bars1 one compartment being closed in front1 the other fronted with bars like the partition4 ,each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a door1 and the whole coop should be tight and sound4 ,it is best to have no bottom1 but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes1 an inch or two deep4 ,each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square1 and may or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass4 ,the advantage of such a coop is that1 except in very severe weather1 no further shelter is required1 even at night if placed under a shed4 ,during the day the hen is kept in the outer compartment1 the chickens having liberty1 and the food and water being placed outside2 whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop1 and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half4 ,if the top be glazed1 a little food and the water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at night1 and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the morning1 being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air4 ,it will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few minutes1 to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh4 ,there should1 if possible1 be a grass-plot in front of the shed1 the floor of which should be covered with dry1 loose dust or earth4 ,the hen should be kept under a coop until the brood has grown strong4 ,some breeders object to cooping1 on account of its preventing the hen from scratching for worms and insects for her brood1 and which are far superior to the substitutes with which they must be supplied1 unless1 indeed1 a good supply of worms1 ants' eggs1 insects1 or gentles can be had4 ,the hen too has not sufficient exercise after her long sitting4 ,cooping thus has its advantages and disadvantages1 and its adoption or not should depend upon circumstances4 ,if it is preferred not to coop the hen1 and she should be inclined to roam too far1 a small run may be made with network1 or with the moveable wire-work described on page #ba4 ,winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in a warm place1 which must be kept at an equal temperature4 ,they return a large profit for the great care they require in hatching and rearing4 ,chickens should be fed very often2 every two hours is not too frequently4 ,the number of these meals must be reduced by degrees to four or five1 which may be continued until they are full grown4 ,grain should not be given to newly-hatched chickens4 ,the very best food for them1 after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg1 is made of two parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal1 mixed into a thick crumbly paste with milk or water4 ,if milk is used1 it must be fresh mixed for each meal1 or it will become sour4 ,cold oatmeal porridge is an excellent food1 and much liked by them4 ,after the first week they may have cheaper food1 such as bran1 oatmeal1 and ,indian meal mixed1 or potatoes mashed with bran4 ,in a few days they may also have some whole grain1 which their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind4 ,grits1 crushed wheat1 or bruised oats1 should form the last meal at night4 ,bread sopped in water is the worst food they can have1 and even with milk is still inferior to meal4 ,for the first three or four days they may also have daily the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up small1 which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks2 and afterwards1 a piece of cooked meat1 rather underdone1 the size of a good walnut1 minced fine1 should be daily given to the brood until they are three weeks old4 ,in winter and very early spring this stimulating diet may be given regularly1 and once a day they should also have some stale bread soaked in ale2 and whenever chickens suffer from bad feathering1 caused either by the coldness of the season or delicacy of constitution1 they must be fed highly1 and have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale4 ,ants' eggs1 which are well known as the very best animal diet for young pheasants1 are also excellent for young chickens2 and when a nest can be obtained it should be thrown with its surrounding mould into the run for them to peck at4 ,where there is no grass-plot they should have some grass cut into small pieces1 or other vegetable food minced small1 until they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves4 ,onion tops and leeks chopped small1 cress1 lettuce1 and cabbage1 are much relished by all young poultry4 ,the ,french breeders give a few dried nettle seeds occasionally4 ,young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food1 so long as they eat it with a good appetite1 and do not tread any about1 or otherwise leave it to waste4 ,young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded4 ,they should not be allowed to roost on the branches of trees or shrubs1 or otherwise out of doors1 even in the warmest weather1 or they will acquire the habit of sleeping out1 which cannot be easily overcome2 not that they would suffer much from even severe weather1 when once accustomed to roosting out of doors1 but from want of warmth the supply of eggs would decrease1 and it would1 in many places1 be unsafe and1 in most1 inconvenient4 ,the sooner chickens can be fattened1 of course the greater must be the profit4 ,they should be put up for fattening as soon as they have quitted the hen1 for they are then generally in good condition1 but begin to lose flesh as their bones develop and become stronger1 particularly those fowls which stand high on the leg4 ,fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are fully developed4 ,by keeping young fowls1 especially the cockerels1 too long before fattening them for market or home consumption1 they eat up all the profit that would be made by disposing of them when the pullets have ceased laying just before their first adult moult1 and the cockerels before their appetites have become large4 ,fowls intended to be fattened should be well and abundantly fed from their birth2 for if they are badly fed during their growth they become stunted1 the bones do not attain their full size1 and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply these defects and transform them into fine1 large birds4 ,poultry that have been constantly fed well from their birth will not only be always ready for the table1 with very little extra attention and feeding1 but their flesh will be superior in juiciness and rich flavour to those which are fattened up from a poor state4 ,in choosing full-grown fowls for fattening1 the short-legged and early-hatched should be preferred4 ,in fattening poultry1 the well-known common methods1 ,mowbray observes1 are1 first1 to give fowls the run of the farmyard1 where they thrive upon the offals of the stables and other refuse1 with perhaps some small regular feeds2 but at threshing time they become fat1 and are thence styled barn-door fowls1 probably the most delicate and high-flavoured of all others1 both from their full allowance of the finest corn and from the constant health in which they are kept1 by living in the natural state1 and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise2 or secondly1 they are confined during a certain number of weeks in coops2 those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as wanted4 ,the former method1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 is immeasurably the best as regards the flavour and even wholesomeness of the fowls as food1 and though the latter mode may1 in some cases1 make the fowls fatter1 it is only when they have been always accustomed to confinement2 for when barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week or two under the notion of improving them for the table1 and increasing their fat1 it rarely succeeds1 since the fowls generally pine for their liberty1 and1 slighting their food1 lose instead of gaining additional flesh4 ,to fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door1 ,mowbray recommends fattening-houses large enough to contain twenty or thirty fowls1 warm and airy1 with well-raised earth floors1 slightly littered down with straw1 which should be often changed1 and the whole place kept perfectly clean4 ,sandy gravel1 he says1 should be placed in several different layers1 and often changed4 ,a sufficient number of troughs for both water and food should be placed around1 that the stock may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other1 and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those birds which are inclined to perch1 which few of them will desire after they have begun to fatten1 but it helps to keep them easy and contented until that period4 ,in this manner fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch1 and yet preserved in a healthy state1 their flesh being nearly equal in quality to the barn-door fowl4 ,to suffer fattening fowls to perch is contrary to the general practice1 since it is supposed to bend and deform the backbone2 but as soon as they become heavy and indolent from feeding1 they will rather incline to roost in the straw1 and the liberty of perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they wish for rest4 ,the practice of fattening fowls in coops1 if carried to a moderate extent1 is not objectionable1 and may be necessary in many cases4 ,the coop may be three feet high1 two feet wide1 and four feet long1 which will accommodate six or eight birds1 according to their size2 or it may be constructed in compartments1 each being about nine inches by eighteen1 and about eighteen inches high4 ,the floor should not consist of board1 but be formed of bars two inches wide1 and placed two inches apart4 ,the bars should be laid from side to side1 and not from the back to the front of the coop4 ,they should be two inches wide at the upper part1 with slanting or rounded sides1 so as to prevent the dung from sticking to them instead of falling straight between4 ,the front should be made of rails three inches apart4 ,the house in which the coops are placed should be properly ventilated1 but free from cold draughts1 and kept of an even temperature1 which should be moderately warm4 ,the fronts of the coops should be covered with matting or other kind of protection in cold weather4 ,the coop should be placed about two inches from the ground1 and a shallow tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed underneath to catch the droppings1 and renewed every day4 ,when fowls are put up to fat they should not have any food given to them for some hours1 and they will take it then more eagerly than if pressed upon them when first put into the coop4 ,but little grain should be given to fowls during the time they are fattening in coops2 indeed the chief secret of success consists in supplying them with the most fattening food without stint1 in such a form that their digestive mills shall find no difficulty in grinding it4 ,buckwheat-meal is the best food for fattening2 and to its use the ,french1 in a great measure1 owe the splendid condition of the fowls they send to market4 ,if it cannot be had1 the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal and barley-meal4 ,the meal may be mixed with skim milk if available4 ,oatmeal and barley-meal alternately1 mixed with milk1 and occasionally with a little dripping1 is good fattening food4 ,milk is most excellent for all young poultry4 ,a little chopped green food should be given daily1 to keep their bowels in a proper state4 ,the feeding-troughs1 which must be kept clean by frequent scouring1 should be placed before the fowls at regular times1 and when they have eaten sufficient it is best to remove them1 and place a little gravel within reach to assist digestion4 ,each fowl should have as much food as it will eat at one time1 but none should be left to become sour4 ,a little barley may1 however1 be scattered within their reach4 ,a good supply of clean water must be always within their reach4 ,if a bird appears to be troubled with vermin1 some powdered sulphur1 well rubbed into the roots of the feathers1 will give immediate relief4 ,the coops should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls are removed1 and well dried before fresh birds are put up in them4 ,it is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a process called cramming1 by which they are loaded with greasy fat in a very short time4 ,but it is evident that such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive powers1 want of exercise and fresh air1 confinement in a small space1 and partial deprivation of light1 without which nothing living1 either animal or vegetable1 can flourish1 cannot produce healthy or wholesome flesh4 ,indeed1 as ,mowbray observes1 it seems contrary to reason1 that fowls fed upon such greasy1 impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh or fat so firm1 delicate1 high-flavoured1 or nourishing1 as those fattened upon more simple and substantial food2 as for example1 meal and milk1 and perhaps either treacle or sugar4 ,with respect to grease of any kind1 its chief effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse flavour4 ,neither can any advantage be gained1 except perhaps a commercial one1 by very quick feeding2 for real excellence cannot be obtained but by waiting nature's time1 and using the best food4 ,besides all this1 ,i have been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten fowls by cramming2 they seem to loathe the crams1 to pine1 and to lose the flesh they were put up with1 instead of acquiring flesh2 and when crammed fowls do succeed1 they must necessarily1 in the height of their fat1 be in a state of disease4 ,mr4 ,muirhead1 poulterer to ,her ,majesty in ,scotland1 says3 ,with regard to cramming1 ,i may say that it is wholly unnecessary1 provided the fowls have abundance of the best food at regular intervals1 fresh air1 and a free run2 in confinement fowls may gain fat1 but they lose flesh4 ,none but those who have had experience can form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in a natural way4 ,i have seen fowls reared at ,inchmartine 7which had never been shut up1 or had food forced upon them71 equal1 if not superior1 to the finest ,surrey fowl1 or those fattened by myself for the ,royal table4 ,if cramming is practised it should be done in the following manner3 ,the feeder1 usually a female1 should take the fowl carefully out of the fatting-coop by placing both her hands gently under its breast1 then sit down with the bird upon her lap1 its rump under her left arm1 open its mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand1 take the pellet with the right1 dip it well into water1 milk1 or pot liquor1 shake the superfluous moisture from it1 put it into the mouth1 cram it gently into the gullet with her forefinger1 then close the beak and gently assist it down into the crop with the forefinger and thumb1 without breaking the pellet1 and taking great care not to pinch the throat4 ,when the fowl has been crammed it should be carefully carried back to its coop1 both hands being placed under its breast as before4 ,chickens should be crammed regularly every twelve hours4 ,the cramming should commence with a few pellets1 and the number be gradually increased at each meal until it amounts to about fifteen4 ,but always before you begin to feed gently feel the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal has been digested1 and if you find it to contain food1 let the bird wait until it is all digested1 and give it fewer pellets at the next meal4 ,if the crams should become hardened in the crop1 some lukewarm water must be given to the bird1 or poured down its throat if disinclined to drink1 and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can grind it4 ,the food chiefly used in ,france for cramming fowls is buckwheat-meal bolted very fine and mixed with milk4 ,it should be prepared in the following manner3 ,pour the milk1 which should be lukewarm in winter1 into a hole made in the heap of meal1 mixing it up with a wooden spoon a little at a time as long as the meal will take up the milk1 and make it into the consistency of dough1 keep kneading it until it will not stick to the hands1 then divide it into pieces twice as large as an egg1 which form into rolls generally about as thick as a small finger1 but more or less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed1 and divide the rolls into pellets about two and a half inches in length by a slanting cut1 which leaves pointed ends1 that are easier to cram the fowls with than if they were square4 ,the pellets should be rolled up as dry as possible4 ,the operation of caponising as performed in ,england is barbarous1 extremely painful1 and dangerous4 ,in ,france it is performed in a much more scientific and skilful manner4 ,but the small advantage gained by this unnatural operation is more than counterbalanced by the unnecessary pain inflicted on the bird1 and the great risk of losing it4 ,capons never moult1 and lose their previously strong1 shrill voice4 ,in warm1 dry countries they grow to a large size1 and soon fatten1 but do not succeed well in our moist1 cold climate4 ,they are not common in this country1 and most of the fowls sold in the ,london markets as capons are merely young cockerels well crammed4 ,if capons are kept they should have a separate house1 for the other fowls will not allow those even of their own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them4 ,the hens not only show them indifference1 but decided aversion4 ,hen chickens1 deprived of their reproductive organs in order to fatten them sooner1 are common in ,france1 where they are styled poulardes4 ,fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty days4 ,when fowls are once fattened up they should be killed1 for they cannot be kept fat1 but begin to lose flesh and become feverish1 which renders their flesh red and unsaleable1 and frequently causes their death4 ,great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers1 higglers1 and others1 in twisting the necks of poultry4 ,an easy mode of killing a fowl is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt stick1 such as a child's bat or wooden sword1 at the back of the neck1 about the second or third joint from the head1 which will1 if properly done1 sever the spine and cause death very speedily4 ,but the knife is the most merciful means2 the bird being first hung up by the legs1 the mouth must be opened wide1 and a long1 narrow1 sharp-pointed knife1 like a long penknife1 which instrument is made for the purpose1 should be thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the brain1 which will cause almost instant death4 ,another mode of killing is to pluck a few feathers from the side of the head1 just below the ear1 and make a deep incision there4 ,some say that fowls should not be bled to death like turkeys and geese1 as1 from the loss of blood1 the flesh becomes dry and insipid4 ,but when great whiteness of flesh is desired1 the fowl should be hung up by its legs immediately after being killed1 and if it has been killed without the flow of blood1 an incision should be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely4 ,fowls that have been kept without food and water for twelve hours before being killed will keep much better than if they had been recently fed1 as the food is apt to ferment in the crop and bowels1 which often causes the fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather4 ,if empty they should not be drawn1 and they will keep much better4 ,fowls are easiest plucked at once1 while warm2 they should afterwards be scalded by dipping them for a moment in boiling water1 which will give a plump appearance to any good fowl4 ,fowls should not be packed for market before they are quite cold4 ,old fowls should not be roasted1 but boiled1 and they will then prove tolerably good eating4 ,the feathers are valuable and should be preserved1 which is very easily managed4 ,strip the plumage1 says ,mr4 ,wright1 from the quills of the larger feathers1 and mix with the small ones1 putting the whole loosely in paper bags1 which should be hung up in the kitchen1 or some other warm place1 for a few days to dry4 ,then let the bags be baked three or four times for half an hour each time1 in a cool oven1 drying for two days between each baking1 and the process will be completed4 ,less trouble than this will do1 and is often made to suffice2 but the feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated1 and may occasionally become offensive4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,stock1 ,,breeding1 ,,and ,,crossing4 ,keep only good1 healthy1 vigorous1 well-bred fowls1 whether you keep them to produce eggs or chickens1 or both4 ,the ill-bred mongrel fowls which are so commonly kept1 are the most voracious1 and consume larger quantities of food1 without turning it to any account2 while well-bred fowls eat less1 and quickly convert that into fat1 flesh1 and eggs4 ,large1 well-bred fowls1 says ,mr4 ,edwards1 do not consume more food than ravenous1 mongrel breeds4 ,it is the same with fowls as with other stock4 ,i have at this moment two store pigs1 one highly bred1 the other a rough1 ill-bred animal4 ,they have1 since they left their mothers1 been fed together and upon the same food4 ,the former1 ,i am confident 7from observation71 ate considerably less than the latter1 which was particularly ravenous4 ,the former pig1 however1 is in excellent condition1 kind1 and in a measure fat2 whereas the latter looks hard1 starved1 and thin1 and ,i am sure she will require one-third more food to make bacon of4 ,for the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens1 and does not long for prize cups1 excellent birds possessing nearly all the best characteristics of their breeds1 but rendered imperfect by a few blemishes1 may be purchased at a small cost1 and will be as good layers or chicken-producers1 and answer his purpose as well as the most expensive that can be bought4 ,the choice of breed must depend upon the object for which the fowls are kept1 whether chiefly for eggs or to produce chickens1 or for both2 the climate1 soil1 and situation2 the space that can be allotted to them2 and the amount of attention that can be devoted to their care4 ,if fowls are to be bred for exhibition1 you must be guided by your own taste1 pocket1 and resources1 as well as by the suitability of the situation for the particular breed desired4 ,the advantages1 disadvantages1 and peculiarities of the various breeds will be described under their respective heads4 ,in commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and healthy birds4 ,no one sign is infallible to the inexperienced4 ,in general1 however1 the legs of a young hen look delicate and smooth1 her comb and wattles are soft and fresh1 and her general outline1 even in good condition 7unless when fattened for the table71 rather light and graceful2 whilst an old one will have rather hard1 horny-looking shanks2 her comb and wattles look somewhat harder1 drier1 and more scurfy1 and her figure is well filled out4 ,but any of these signs may be deceptive1 and the beginner should use his own powers of observation1 and try and catch the old look1 which he will soon learn to know4 ,all authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two years of age1 though some birds show every sign of full vigour when only four months old4 ,it is agreed by nearly all the greatest authorities that the ages of the cocks and hens should be different2 however1 good birds may be bred from parents of the same age1 but they should not be less than a year old4 ,the strongest chickens are obtained from two-year old hens by a cockerel of about a year old2 but such broods contain a disproportion of cocks1 and1 therefore1 most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from well-grown pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two years of age4 ,the cock should not be related to the hens4 ,it is1 therefore1 not advisable to purchase him from the same breeder of whom you procure the hens4 ,do not let him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are his own offspring4 ,breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls as in all other animals4 ,some birds retain all their fire and energy until five or even six years of age1 but they are beyond their prime after the third1 or at the latest their fourth year2 and should be replaced by younger birds of the same breed1 but from a different stock4 ,poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper number of hens that should be allowed to one cock4 ,columella1 who wrote upon poultry about two thousand years ago1 advised twelve hens to one cock1 but stated that our ancestors did use to give but five hens4 ,stephanus gave the same number as ,columella4 ,bradley1 and the authors of the ,complete ,farmer1 and the article upon the subject in ,rees's ,cyclopaedia1 give seven or eight2 and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting the number of hens to four or five for one cock1 in order to obtain strong chickens4 ,if fine1 strong chickens be desired for fattening or breeding1 there should not be more than five or six hens to one cock2 but if the supply of eggs is the chief consideration1 ten or twelve may be allowed2 indeed1 if eggs are the sole object1 he can be dispensed with altogether1 and his food saved1 as hens lay1 if there be any difference1 rather better without one4 ,the russet red is the most hardy colour1 white the most delicate1 and black the most prolific4 ,general directions for the choice of fowls1 as to size1 shape1 and colour1 cannot be applicable to all breeds1 which must necessarily vary upon these points4 ,but in all breeds the cock should1 as ,m4 ,parmentier says1 carry his head high1 have a quick1 animated look1 a strong1 shrill voice 7except in the ,cochins1 which have a fuller tone71 a fine red comb1 shining as if varnished1 large wattles of the same colour1 strong wings1 muscular thighs1 thick legs furnished with strong spurs1 the claws rather bent and sharply pointed4 ,he ought also to be free in his motions1 to crow frequently1 and to scratch the ground often in search of worms1 not so much for himself1 as to treat his hens4 ,he ought1 withal1 to be brisk1 spirited1 ardent1 and ready in caressing the hens1 quick in defending them1 attentive in soliciting them to eat1 in keeping them together1 and in assembling them at night4 ,to prevent cocks from fighting1 old ,mascall1 following ,columella1 says3 ,now1 to slacke that heate of jealousie1 ye shall slitte two pieces of thicke leather1 and put them on his legges1 and those will hang over his feete1 which will correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him2 and ,m4 ,parmentier observes that such a bit of leather will cause the most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man who is fettered at the feet1 hands1 and neck4 ,the hen should be of good constitution and temper1 and1 if required to sit1 large in the body and wide in the wings1 so as to cover many eggs and shelter many chickens1 but short in the legs1 or she could not sit well4 ,m4 ,parmentier advises the rejection of savage1 quarrelsome1 or peevish hens1 as such are seldom favourites with the cocks1 scarcely ever lay1 and do not hatch well2 also all above four or five years of age1 those that are too fat to lay1 and those whose combs and claws are rough1 which are signs that they have ceased to lay4 ,hens should not be kept over their third year unless very good or choice4 ,hens are not uncommon with the plumage and spurs of the cock1 and which imitate1 though badly1 his full-toned crow4 ,in such fowls the power of producing eggs is invariably lost from internal disease1 as has been fully demonstrated by ,mr4 ,yarrell in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahbg1 and in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society for #ahca4 ,such birds should be fattened and killed as soon as observed4 ,by careful study of the characteristics of the various breeds1 breeding from select specimens1 and judicious crossing1 great size may be attained1 maturity early developed1 facility in putting on flesh encouraged1 hardiness of constitution and strength gained1 and the inclination to sit or the faculty of laying increased4 ,sir ,john ,sebright1 speaking of breeding cattle1 says3 ,animals may be said to be improved when any desired quality has been increased by art beyond what that quality was in the same breed in a state of nature4 ,the swiftness of the racehorse1 the propensity to fatten in cattle1 and to produce fine wool in sheep1 are improvements which have been made in particular varieties in the species to which these animals belong4 ,what has been produced by art must be continued by the same means1 for the most improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature1 or perhaps defects will arise which did not exist when the breed was in its natural state1 unless the greatest attention is paid to the selection of the individuals who are to breed together4 ,the exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its numerous varieties is unknown4 ,it is doubtless derived from one or more of the wild or jungle fowls of ,india4 ,some naturalists are of opinion that it is derived from the common jungle fowl known as the ,gallus ,bankiva of ,temminck1 or ,gallus ,ferrugineus of ,gmelin1 which very closely resembles the variety known as ,black-breasted ,red ,game1 except that the tail of the cock is more depressed2 while others consider it to have been produced by the crossing of that species with one or more others1 as the ,malay gigantic fowl1 known as the ,gallus giganteus of ,temminck1 ,sonnerat's ,jungle ,fowl1 ,gallus sonneratii1 and probably some other species4 ,at what period or by what people it was reclaimed is not known1 but it was probably first domesticated in ,india4 ,the writers of antiquity speak of it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in their days4 ,very likely there are many species unknown to us in ,sumatra1 ,java1 and the rich woods of ,borneo4 ,the process by which the various breeds have been produced is simple and easily understood1 says ,mr4 ,wright4 ,even in the wild state the original breed will show some amount of variation in colour1 form1 and size2 whilst in domestication the tendency to change1 as every one knows1 is very much increased4 ,by breeding from birds which show any marked feature1 stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that feature in an increased degree2 and by again selecting the best specimens1 the special points sought may be developed to almost any degree required4 ,a good example of such a process of development may be seen in the 'white face' so conspicuous in the ,spanish breed4 ,white ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls2 even in such breeds as ,cochins or ,brahmas1 where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal blemishes2 they continually occur1 and by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from1 they might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the characteristics4 ,a large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly established1 traces of the white face will now and then be found1 and by a similar method is capable of development and fixture2 whilst any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and established in the same way4 ,the original amount of character required is very slight2 a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a whole breed4 ,any peculiarity of constitution1 such as constant laying1 or frequent incubation1 may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner1 all that is necessary being care and time4 ,that such has been the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our poultry1 is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection4 ,if the very best examples of a breed are selected as the starting-point1 and the produce is bred from indiscriminately for many generations1 the distinctive points1 whatever they are1 rapidly decline1 and there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type1 in size and even colour of the plumage4 ,the purest black or white originally1 rapidly becomes first marked with1 and ultimately changed into1 the original red or brown1 whilst the other features simultaneously disappear4 ,if1 however1 the process of artificial selection be carried too far1 and with reference only to one prominent point1 any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected1 and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned--the white-faced ,spanish4 ,we know from old fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy1 and even in winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs4 ,but of late years attention has been so exclusively directed to the 'white-face1' that whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never before known1 the breed has become one of the most delicate of all1 and the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off4 ,it would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating principle1 which admits of crossing4 ,that principle is1 that any desired point possessed in perfection by a foreign breed1 may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired to improve1 and every other characteristic of the cross be1 by selection1 afterwards bred out again4 ,or one or more of these additional characteristics may be also retained1 and thus a new variety be established1 as many have been within the last few years4 ,size may be imparted to the ,dorking by crossing it with the ,cochin1 and the disposition to feather on the legs bred out again by judicious selection2 and the constitution may be strengthened by crossing with the ,game breed4 ,game fowls that have deteriorated in size1 strength1 and fierceness1 by a long course of breeding in-and-in1 may have all these qualities restored by crossing with the fierce1 powerful1 and gigantic ,malay1 and his peculiarities may be afterwards bred out4 ,the size of the eggs of the ,hamburg might very probably be increased without decreasing1 or with very slightly decreasing1 the number of eggs1 by crossing with a ,houdan cock2 and the size would also be increased for the table4 ,the ,french breeds1 ,creve-,coeur1 ,houdan1 and ,la ,fleche1 gain in size and hardiness by being crossed with the ,brahma cock4 ,the cross between a ,houdan cock and a ,brahma hen produces1 says the ,henwife1 the finest possible chickens for market1 but not to breed from4 ,pure ,brahmas and ,houdans alone must be kept for that purpose2 ,i have always found the second cross worthless4 ,in crossing1 the cockerels will more or less resemble the male1 and the pullets the hen4 ,long experience1 says ,mr4 ,wright1 has ascertained that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny1 and also upon the comb1 and what may be called the 'fancy points1' of any breed generally2 whilst the form1 size1 and useful qualities are principally derived from the hen4 ,breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls4 ,in the breeding of poultry it is a rule1 as in all other cases of organised life1 that the best-shaped be used for the purpose of propagation4 ,if a cock and hen have both the same defect1 however trifling it may be1 they should never be allowed to breed together1 for the object is to improve the breed1 not to deteriorate it1 even in the slightest degree4 ,hens should never be allowed to associate with a cock of a different breed if you wish to keep the breed pure1 and if you desire superior birds1 not even with an inferior male of their own variety4 ,no time1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 has ever been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been running with cocks of divers breeds1 and afterwards been placed with their legitimate partners1 can be depended upon to produce purely-bred chickens2 ,i am disposed to think at least two months4 ,time of year may have much to do with it4 ,in the winter the escape of a hen from one run to the other1 or the intrusion of a cock1 is of little moment2 but it may be serious in the spring1 and destroy the hopes of a season4 ,many poultry-keepers separate the cocks and hens after the breeding season1 considering that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next season4 ,where there is a separate house and run for the sitting hen this can be conveniently done when that compartment is vacant4 ,in order to preserve a breed perfectly pure1 it will be necessary1 where there is not a large stock of the race1 to breed from birds sprung from the same parents1 but the blood should be crossed every year by procuring one or more fowls of the same breed from a distance1 or by the exchange of eggs with some neighbouring stock1 of colour and qualities as nearly allied as possible with the original breed4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,poultry ,,shows4 ,a few years ago poultry shows were unknown4 ,in #ahdf1 the first was held in the ,gardens of the ,zoological ,society1 in the ,regent's ,park2 ,mr4 ,baily being the sole judge4 ,it was a very fair beginning1 but did not succeed1 and it was not till the ,cochin-,china breed was introduced into this country1 and the first ,birmingham show was held1 that these exhibitions became successful4 ,in #ahdi1 the first poultry show that was ever held in 'the good old town of ,birmingham1' was beset with all the untried difficulties of such a scheme1 when without the experiences of the present day1 then altogether unavailable1 a few spirited individuals carried to a successful issue an event that has now proved the foster-parent of the many others of similar character that abound in almost every principal town of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it is quite essential1 that ,i may be clearly understood1 to preface my narrative by assuring fanciers that in those former days poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the present time2 few and far between were their locations2 and though even then1 among the few who felt interest in fowls1 emulation existed1 generally speaking1 the keeping of poultry was regarded as 'a useless hobby1' 'a mere individual caprice1' 'an idle whim from which no good result could by possibility accrue'2 nay1 sometimes it was hinted1 ',what a pity they have not something better to employ them during leisure hours6' and they were styled 'enthusiasts4' ,but have not the records of every age proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of improvement8 ,and time1 too1 substantiated the verity of this rule in reference to our subject2 for1 among other proofs1 it brought incontestable evidence that the raising of poultry was by no means the unremunerative folly idlers supposed it to be1 and hesitated not rashly to declaim it2 likewise1 that it simply required to be fairly brought under public notice1 to prove its general utility1 and to induce the acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source of emolument had been hitherto neglected and overlooked4 ,at the ,birmingham ,show of #aheb1 about five thousand fowls were exhibited1 and the specimens sold during the four days of the show amounted to nearly two thousand pounds1 notwithstanding the high prices affixed to the pens1 and that many were placed at enormous prices amounting to a prohibition1 the owners not wishing to sell them4 ,the ,birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to two thousand pens of fowls and water-fowls1 arranged in nearly one hundred classes2 besides an equal proportion of pigeons4 ,this show is the finest and most important1 but there are many others of very high character and great extent4 ,poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable extent at agricultural meetings4 ,any one may see the wonderful improvement that has been made in poultry-breeding by visiting the next ,birmingham or other first-class show1 and comparing the fowls there exhibited with those of his earliest recollections1 and with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still be seen in too many farmyards4 ,points that were said to be impossible of attainment have been obtained with comparative ease by perserverance and skill1 and the worst birds of a show are now often superior to the chief prize fowls of former days4 ,indeed1 a modern prize bird1 says the ,henwife1 almost merits the character which a ,parisian waiter gave of a melon1 when asked to pronounce whether it was a fruit or a vegetable1 ',gentlemen1' said he1 'a melon is neither2 it is a work of art4' ,such shows must have great influence on the improvement of the breeds and the general management of poultry1 though like all other prize exhibitions they have certain disadvantages4 ,we cannot but think1 says ,mr4 ,wright1 that our poultry shows have1 to some extent1 by the character of the judging1 hindered the improvement of many breeds4 ,it will be readily admitted in theory that a breed of fowls becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased1 and the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved1 with a small amount of bone and offal in proportion4 ,but1 if we except the ,dorking1 which certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl1 all this is totally lost sight of both by breeders and judges1 and attention is fixed exclusively upon colour1 comb1 face1 and other equally fancy 'points4' ,beauty and utility might be both secured4 ,the ,french have taught us a lesson of some value in this respect4 ,within a comparatively recent period they have produced1 by crossing and selection1 four new varieties1 which1 although inferior in some points to others of older standing1 are all eminently valuable as table fowls2 and which in one particular are superior to any ,english variety1 not even excepting the ,dorking--we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal4 ,this is really useful and scientific breeding1 brought to bear upon one definite object1 and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with regard to others equally valuable4 ,we should be afraid to say how much might be done if ,english breeders would bring their perseverance and experience to bear in a similar direction4 ,agricultural ,societies in particular might be expected in their exhibitions to show some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as useful stock1 and to them especially we commend the matter4 ,the rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at different shows1 and may be obtained by applying to the secretary4 ,notices of exhibitions are advertised in the local papers1 and in the ,field and other ,london papers of an agricultural character4 ,in breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one cock should not exceed four or five1 but if only two or three hens of the breed are possessed1 the proper number of his harem should be made up by the addition of hens of another breed1 those being chosen whose eggs are easily known from the others4 ,if it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at the ,june1 ,july1 or ,august shows1 the earlier they are hatched the better1 and therefore a sitting should be made in ,january1 if you have a young1 healthy hen broody4 ,set her on the ground in a warm1 sheltered1 and quiet place1 perfectly secure from rain1 or from any flow of snow water4 ,feed her well1 and keep water and small quantities of food constantly within her reach1 so that she may not be tempted to leave the nest in search of food2 for the eggs soon chill in winter4 ,mix the best oatmeal with hot water1 and give it to her warm twice a day4 ,a few grains of hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of the day4 ,the great difficulty to overcome in rearing early chickens is to sustain their vital powers during the very long winter nights1 when they are for so many hours without food1 the only substitute for which is warmth1 and this can only be well got from the hen4 ,consequently a young ,cochin-,china with plenty of fluff will provide most warmth4 ,the hen should not be set on more than five1 or at most seven eggs2 for if she has more1 although she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very small1 she will not be able to do so when they grow larger1 and the outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push themselves into the inside places1 and then the displaced chickens being warm are sure to get more chilled than the others2 and so the greater number of the brood1 even if they survive1 will probably be weakly1 puny things1 through the greedy desire to rear so many1 while if she hatch but five chickens she will probably rear four4 ,the hen should be cooped until the chickens are at least ten weeks old1 and covered up at night with matting1 sacking1 or a piece of carpet4 ,give them plenty of curd1 chopped egg1 and oatmeal1 mixed with new milk4 ,stiff oatmeal porridge is the best stock food4 ,some onion tops minced fine will be an excellent addition if they can be had4 ,they should have some milk to drink4 ,feed the hen well4 ,the best warmth the chickens can have is that of their mother1 and the best warmth for her is generated by generous1 but proper1 food1 and a good supply of it4 ,early chickens rearing for show should be fed twice after dark1 say at eight and eleven o'clock1 and again at seven in the morning1 so that they will not be without food for more than eight hours4 ,the hen should be fed at the same times1 and she will become accustomed to it1 and call the chickens to feed2 it will also generate more warmth in her for their benefit4 ,yolk of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening for weakly chickens2 or it may be mixed with their oatmeal4 ,the tender breeds should not be hatched till ,april or ,may1 unless in a mild climate1 or with exceptional advantages4 ,for winter exhibition1 ,march and ,april hatched birds are preferable to those hatched earlier4 ,not more than seven eggs should be set1 for a hen cannot scratch up insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more than six chickens4 ,if the chickens have not a good grass run1 they must be supplied with abundance of green food4 ,they should not be allowed to roost before they are three months old1 and the perches must be sufficiently large4 ,mr4 ,wright recommends a bed of clean1 dry ashes1 an inch deep1 for those that leave the hen before the proper age for roosting1 and does not allow his chickens1 even while with the hen1 to bed upon straw1 considering the ashes to be much cleaner and also warmer4 ,the chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished from their companions by small stripes of different coloured silks loosely sewn round their legs1 which distinguishing colours should be entered in the poultry-book4 ,a few good birds should always be kept in reserve to fill up the pen in case of accidents4 ,weight is more important in the ,december and later winter shows than at those held between ,august and ,november1 but at all shows feather and other points of competitors being equal weight must carry the day1 ,game and ,bantams excepted4 ,it is not safe to trust to the apparent weight of a bird1 for the feathers deceive1 and it is therefore advisable to weigh the birds occasionally4 ,each should be weighed in a basket1 allowance being made for the weight of the basket1 and they should if possible be weighed before a meal4 ,but fowls that are over-fattened1 as some judges very improperly desire1 cannot be in good health anymore than crammed fowls1 and are useless for breeding1 producing at best a few puny1 delicate1 or sickly chickens2 thus making the exhibition a mere show1 barren of all useful results4 ,pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay1 which almost or quite stops their growth2 and therefore if great size is desired for exhibition1 they should be kept from the cockerels and partly from stimulating food until a month before the show1 when they will be required to be matched in pens4 ,during this month they should have extra food and attention4 ,if fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit1 the chickens are apt to cause injury to their plumage1 and loss of condition1 while if prevented from sitting1 they are liable to suffer in moulting4 ,their chickens may be given to other hens1 but the best and safest plan is to set a broody exhibition hen on duck's eggs1 which will satisfy her natural desire for sitting1 while the young ducklings will give her much less trouble1 and leave her sooner than a brood of her own kind4 ,all the birds in a pen should match in comb1 colour of their legs1 and indeed in every particular4 ,mr4 ,baily mentions a common fault in exhibitors who send two pens composed of three excellent and three inferior birds1 so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one highly commended pen3 whereas a different selection would make one of unusual merit4 ,if an amateur who wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to choose from1 and to form a pen of a cock and two hens1 he should study and scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning4 ,he should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen1 wherein he can put the selected birds2 they should be raised to the height at which he can best see them1 and before he has looked long at them defects will become apparent one after the other till1 in all probability1 neither of the subjects of his first selection will go to the show4 ,we also advise him rather to look for defects than to dwell on beauties--the latter are always prominent enough4 ,the pen of which we speak should be a moveable one for convenience' sake1 and it is well to leave the fowls in it for a time that they may become accustomed to each other1 and also to an exhibition pen4 ,birds that are strangers should never be put into the same hamper1 for not only the cocks but even the hens will fight with and disfigure each other4 ,some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to impart lustre to the plumage1 by increasing the secretion of oil4 ,a small quantity of the meal should be mixed with their usual soft food1 as fowls generally refuse the whole grain4 ,but buckwheat and hempseed1 mixed in equal proportions1 if given for the evening meal during the last ten or twelve days1 is healthier for the bird1 much liked1 and will not only impart equal lustre to the plumage1 but also improve the appearance of the comb and wattles4 ,spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some days before the show1 with just enough light to enable them to feed and perch1 and the place should be littered with clean straw4 ,this greatly improves their condition2 why we know not1 but it is an established fact4 ,game fowls should be kept in for a few days1 and fed on meal1 barley1 and bread1 with a few peas1 which tend to make the plumage hard1 but will make them too fat if given freely4 ,dark and golden birds should be allowed to run about till they have to be sent off4 ,remove all scurf or dead skin from the comb1 dry dirt from the beak1 and stains from the plumage1 and wash their legs clean4 ,white and light fowls that have a good grass run and plenty of clean straw in their houses and yards to scratch in1 will seldom require washing1 but town birds1 and country ones if not perfectly clean1 should be washed the day before the show with tepid water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel1 care being taken to wash the feathers downwards1 so as not to break or ruffle them2 afterwards wiped with a piece of flannel that has been thoroughly soaked in clean water1 and gently dried with soft towels before the fire2 or the bird may be entirely dipped into a pan of warm water1 then rinsed thoroughly in cold water1 wiped with a flannel1 and placed in a basket with soft straw before a fire to dry4 ,they should then be shut up in their houses with plenty of clean straw4 ,they should have their feet washed if dirty1 and be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put into the travelling-basket1 for hard food is apt to cause fever and heat while travelling1 and1 having to be digested without gravel or exercise1 causes indigestion1 which ruffles the plumage1 dulls its colour1 darkens the comb1 and altogether spoils the appearance of the bird4 ,sopped or steeped bread is excellent4 ,the hampers should always be round or oval in form1 as fowls invariably creep into corners and destroy their plumage4 ,they should be high enough for the cocks to stand upright in1 without touching the top with their combs4 ,some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids1 considering that the former preserve the fowls' combs from injury if they should strike against the top1 while others prefer the latter as being more secure1 and allowing one hamper to be placed upon another if necessary1 and also preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or package should otherwise be placed over it4 ,a good plan is to have a double canvas top1 the space between being filled with hay4 ,a thick layer of hay or straw should be placed at the bottom of the basket4 ,wheaten straw is the best in summer and early autumn1 and oat or barley straw later in the year and during winter4 ,a good lining also is essential2 coarse calico stitched round the inside of the basket is the best4 ,ducks and geese do not require their hampers to be lined1 except in very cold weather2 and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of pulled straw round the inside of the basket4 ,turkeys should have their hampers lined1 for although they are very hardy1 cold and wet damage their appearance more than other poultry4 ,take care that the geese cannot get at the label1 for they will eat it1 and also devour the hempen fastenings if within their reach4 ,be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition2 describe their ages1 breed1 c41 exactly and accurately1 and see yourself to the packing and labelling of their hampers4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,wragg1 the superintendent of the poultry-yard of ,r4 ,w4 ,boyle1 ,esq41 whose fowls have a sea voyage from ,ireland besides the railway journey1 and yet always appear in splendid condition and bloom1 ties on one side of the hamper1 near the top1 a fresh-pulled cabbage1 and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf1 of which they will eat away all the soft part4 ,before starting1 ,i give each bird half a tablespoonful of port wine1 which makes them sleep a good part of the journey4 ,of course1 if ,i go with my birds1 as ,i generally do1 ,i see that they1 as well as myself1 have 'refreshment' on the road4,a ,the cabbage will always be a treat1 and the loaf and wine may be added for long journeys4 ,birds are frequently over-fed at the show1 particularly with barley1 which cannot be properly digested for want of gravel and exercise2 and therefore1 if upon their return their crops are hard and combs look dark1 give a tablespoonful of castor oil2 but if they look well do not interfere with them4 ,they should not have any grain1 but be fed sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale1 with two or three mouthfuls of tepid water1 for liquid is most hurtful if given in quantity4 ,they should not be put into the yard with the other fowls which may treat them1 after their absence1 as intruders1 but be joined with them at night when the others have gone to roost4 ,on the next day give them a moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of water1 or stale bread sopped in water1 and a sod of grass or half a cabbage leaf each1 but no other green food2 and on the following day they may have their usual food4 ,when the fowls are brought back1 take out the linings1 wash them1 and put them by to be ready for the next show2 and after the exhibition season1 on a fine dry day1 wash the hampers1 dry them thoroughly1 and put them in a dry place4 ,never use them as quiet berths for sick birds1 which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the next occupants2 or as nesting-places for sitting hens1 which may leave insects in the crevices that will be difficult to eradicate4 ,in our descriptions of the various ,breeds1 we have given sufficient general information upon the ,exhibition ,points from the best authorities2 but considerable differences of opinion have been expressed of late years1 and eminent breeders dissent in some cases even from the generally recognised authority of the popular ,standard of ,excellence4 ,we1 therefore1 advise intending exhibitors to ascertain the standards to be followed at the show and the predilections of the judges1 and to breed accordingly1 or1 if they object to the views held1 not to compete at that exhibition4 ,,technical ,,terms4 ,coverts4--,the upper and lower wing coverts are those ranges of feathers which cover the primary quills2 and the tail coverts are those feathers growing on each side of the tail1 and are longer than the body feathers1 but shorter than those of the tail4 ,dubbing4--,cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock2 an operation usually confined to ,game cocks4 ,ear-lobe4--,the small feathers covering the organ of hearing1 which is placed a little behind the eye4 ,flight4--,the last five feathers of each wing4 ,fluff4--,the silky feathers growing on the thighs and hinder parts of ,cochin-,china fowls4 ,hackles4--,the neck hackles are feathers growing from the neck1 and covering the shoulders and part of the back2 and the saddle hackles those growing from the end of the back1 and falling over the sides4 ,legs4--,the legs are properly the lower and scaly limbs1 the upper part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called legs1 being correctly styled the thighs4 ,primary ,quills4--,the long1 strong quills1 usually ten in number1 forming the chief portion of each wing1 and the means of flight4 ,vulture-hocked4--,feathers growing from the thigh1 and projecting backwards below the knee4 ,illustration3 ,buff and ,white ,cochin-,china4 ,malay ,cock4 ,light and ,dark ,brahmas4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,cochin-,,chinas1 ,,or ,,shanghaes4 ,like many other fowls these possess a name which is incorrectly applied1 for they came from ,shanghae1 not ,cochin-,china1 where they were comparatively unknown4 ,mr4 ,fortune1 who1 from his travels in ,china1 is well qualified to give an opinion1 states that they are a ,chinese breed1 kept in great numbers at ,shanghae2 the real ,cochin-,china breed being small and elegantly shaped4 ,but all attempts to give them the name of the port from which they were brought have failed1 and the majority of breeders persist in calling them ,cochins4 ,in the ,united ,states both names are used1 the feather-legged being called ,shanghaes1 and the clean-legged ,cochins4 ,the first ,shanghae fowls brought to this country were sent from ,india to ,her ,majesty1 which gave them great importance2 and the eggs having been freely distributed by the kindness of the ,queen and the ,prince ,consort1 the breed was soon widely spread4 ,they were first introduced into this country when the northern ports of ,china1 including ,shanghae1 were thrown open to ,european vessels on the conclusion of the ,chinese war in #ahdc2 but some assign the date of their introduction from #ahdd to #ahdg1 and say that those called ,cochins1 exhibited by the ,queen in #ahdc1 were not the true breed1 having been not only entirely without feathers on the shanks1 but also altogether different in form and general characteristics4 ,a pair which were sent by ,her ,majesty for exhibition at the ,dublin ,cattle ,show in ,april1 #ahdf1 created such a sensation from their great size and immense weight1 and the full1 loud1 deep-pitched crowing of the cock1 that almost every one seemed desirous to possess some of the breed1 and enormous prices were given for the eggs and chickens4 ,with his propensity for exaggeration1 ,paddy boasted that they laid five eggs in two days1 each weighing three ounces1 that the fowls equalled turkeys in size1 and ,cochin eggs became in as great demand as though they had been laid by the fabled golden goose4 ,philosophers1 poets1 merchants1 and sweeps had alike partook of the mania2 and although the latter could hardly come up to the price of a real ,cochin1 there were plenty of vagabond dealers about1 with counterfeit crossed birds of all kinds1 which were advertised to be the genuine article4 ,for to such a pitch did the excitement rise1 that they who never kept a fowl in their lives1 and would hardly know a ,bantam from a ,dorking1 puzzled their shallow brains as to the proper place to keep them1 and the proper diet to feed them on4 ,their justly-deserved popularity speedily grew into a mania1 and the price which had been from fifteen to thirty shillings each1 then considered a high price for a fowl1 rose to ten pounds for a fine specimen1 and ultimately a hundred guineas was repeatedly paid for a single cock1 and was not an uncommon price for a pair of really fine birds4 ,they were afterwards bred1 says ,miss ,watts1 for qualities difficult of attainment1 and1 as the result proved1 little worth trying for1 and fowls with many excellent qualities were blamed for not being perfect1 and they fell from their high place1 and were as unjustly depreciated as they had been unduly exalted4 ,had these birds1 wrote ,mr4 ,baily many years since1 been shy breeders--if like song birds the produce of a pair were four1 or at most five1 birds in the year1 prices might have been maintained2 but as they are marvellous layers they increased4 ,they bred in large numbers1 and consequently became cheaper1 and then the mania ended1 because those who dealt most largely in them did so not from a love of the birds or the pursuit1 but as a speculation4 ,as they had over-praised them before1 they now treated them with contempt4 ,anything like a moderate profit was despised1 and the birds were left to their own merits4 ,these were sufficient to ensure their popularity1 and now after fluctuating in value more than anything except shares1 after being over-praised and then abused1 they have remained favourites with a large portion of the public1 sell at a remunerating price1 and form one of the largest classes at all the great exhibitions4 ,this has proved to be a perfectly correct view1 and the breed is now firmly established in public estimation1 and unusually fine birds will still sell for from five to twenty pounds each4 ,the mania did great service to the breeding and improvement of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject throughout the kingdom which has lasted4 ,they are the best of all fowls for a limited space1 and not inclined to wander even when they have an extensive run4 ,they cannot fly1 and a fence three feet high will keep them in4 ,but if kept in a confined space they must have an unlimited supply of green food4 ,they give us eggs when they are most expensive1 and indeed1 with regard to new-laid eggs1 when they are almost impossible to be had at any price4 ,they begin to lay soon after they are five months old1 regardless of the season or weather1 and lay throughout the year1 except when requiring to sit1 which they do twice or thrice a year1 and some oftener4 ,pullets will sometimes lay at fourteen weeks1 and want to sit before they are six months old4 ,cochins have been known to lay twice in a day1 but not again on the following day1 and the instances are exceptional4 ,their eggs are of a pale chocolate colour1 of excellent flavour1 and usually weigh #b-a_/d ounces each4 ,they are excellent sitters and mothers4 ,pullets will frequently hatch1 lay again1 and sit with the chickens of the first brood around them4 ,cochins are most valuable as sitters early in the year1 being broody when other fowls are beginning to lay2 but unless cooped they are apt to leave their chickens too soon1 especially for early broods1 and lay again4 ,they are very hardy1 and their chickens easy to rear1 doing well even in bleak places without any unusual care4 ,but they are backward in fledging1 chickens bred from immature fowls being the most backward4 ,those which are cockerels show their flight feathers earliest4 ,they are very early matured4 ,a writer in the ,poultry ,chronicle well says3 ,these fowls were sent to provide food for man2 by many they are not thought good table fowls2 but when others fail1 if you keep them1 you shall never want the luxury of a really new-laid egg on your breakfast table4 ,the snow may fall1 the frost may be thick on your windows when you first look out on a ,december morning1 but your ,cochins will provide you eggs4 ,your children shall learn gentleness and kindness from them1 for they are kind and gentle1 and you shall be at peace with your neighbours1 for they will not wander nor become depredators4 ,they have fallen in price because they were unnaturally exalted2 but their sun is not eclipsed2 they have good qualities1 and valuable4 ,they shall now be within the reach of all2 and will make the delight of many by their domestic habits1 which will allow them to be kept where others would be an annoyance4 ,they will let you take them off their roost1 handle and examine them1 and put them back without struggling4 ,the fault of the ,cochin-,chinas as table birds is1 that they produce most meat on the inferior parts2 thus1 there is generally too little on the breast which is the prime part of a fowl1 while the leg which is an inferior part1 is unusually fleshy1 but it must be admitted that the leg is more tender than in other breeds4 ,a greater quantity of flesh may be raised within a given time1 on a certain quantity of food1 from these fowls than from any other breed4 ,the cross with the ,dorking is easily reared1 and produces a very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table1 and a good layer4 ,a great hue and cry1 says ,miss ,watts1 has been raised against the ,cochin-,chinas as fowls for the table1 but we believe none have bestowed attention on breeding them with a view to this valuable consideration4 ,square1 compact1 short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain colour of feather1 and a broad chest was given up for the wedge-form at the very time that was pronounced a fault in the fowl4 ,it is said that yellow-legged fowls are yellow also in the skin1 and that white skin and white legs accompany each other2 but how pertinaciously the yellow leg of the ,cochin is adhered to6 ,yet all who have bred them will attest that a little careful breeding would perpetuate white-legged ,cochins4 ,exhibitions are generally excellent2 but to this fowl they certainly have only been injurious1 by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at the expense of those which are solid and useful4 ,who would favour1 or even sanction1 a ,dorking in which size and shape1 and every property we value in them1 was sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular colour8 and this is what we have been doing with the ,cochin-,china4 ,many breeders say1 eat ,cochins while very young2 but we have found them much better for the table as fowls than as chickens4 ,a fine ,cochin1 from five to seven months old1 is like a turkey1 and very juicy and fine in flavour4 ,a peculiar characteristic of these birds1 technically called fluff1 is a quantity of beautifully soft1 long feathers1 covering the thighs till they project considerably1 and garnishing all the hinder parts of the bird in the same manner1 so that the broadest part of the bird is behind4 ,its quality is a good indication of the breed2 if fine and downy the birds are probably well-bred1 but if rank and coarse they are inferior4 ,the cocks are frequently somewhat scanty in fluff1 but should be chosen with as much as possible2 but vulture-hocks which often accompany the heaviest feathered birds should be avoided1 as they now disqualify at the best shows4 ,the fluff1 says a good authority1 in the hen especially1 should so cover the tail feathers as to give the appearance of a very short back1 the line taking an upward direction from within an inch or so of the point of junction with the hackle4 ,the last joint of the wings folds up1 so that the ends of the flight feathers are concealed by the middle feathers1 and their extremities are again covered by the copious saddle1 which peculiarity has caused them to be also called the ostrich-fowl4 ,a good ,cochin cock should be compact1 large1 and square built2 broad across the loins and hind-quarters2 with a deep keel2 broad1 short back2 short neck2 small1 delicately-shaped1 well-arched head2 short1 strong1 curved beak2 rather small1 finely and evenly serrated1 straight1 single1 erect comb1 wholly free from reduplications and sprigs2 brilliant red face1 and pendant wattles2 long hanging ear-lobe1 of pure red1 white being inadmissible2 bright1 bold eye1 approaching the plumage in colour2 rich1 full1 long hackle2 small1 closely-folded wings2 short tail1 scarcely any in some fine specimens1 not very erect1 with slightly twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those of the ostrich2 stout legs set widely apart1 yellow and heavily feathered to the toe2 and erect carriage4 ,the chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast1 which should therefore be sought for as full as possible4 ,the hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that of the cock4 ,she resembles him upon most points1 but differs in some2 her comb having many indentations2 the fluff being softer1 and of almost silky quality2 the tail has upright instead of falling feathers1 and comes to a blunt point2 and her carriage is less upright4 ,cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed1 and moult with more difficulty each time4 ,they are in their greatest beauty at from nine to eighteen months old4 ,the cocks' tails increase with age4 ,in buying ,cochins avoid clean legs1 fifth toes1 which show that it has been crossed with the ,dorking1 double combs that betray ,malay blood1 and long tails1 particularly taking care that the cock has not1 and ascertaining that he never had1 sickle feathers4 ,the cock ought not to weigh less than ten or eleven pounds1 and a very fine bird will reach thirteen2 the hens from eight to ten pounds4 ,the principal colours now bred are ,buff1 ,cinnamon1 ,partridge1 ,grouse1 ,black1 and ,white4 ,the ,buff and ,white are the most popular4 ,buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes1 but the less there is the better4 ,black-pencilling in the hackle is considered objectionable at good shows4 ,the cock's neck hackles1 wing coverts1 back1 and saddle hackles1 are usually of a rich gold colour1 but his breast and the lower parts of his body should match with those of his hens4 ,buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than themselves4 ,most birds become rather lighter at each moult4 ,in making up an exhibition pen1 observe that ,grouse and ,partridge hens should have a black-breasted cock2 and that ,buff and ,cinnamon birds should not be placed together1 but all the birds in the pen should be either ,buff or ,cinnamon4 ,the ,cinnamon are of two shades1 the ,light ,cinnamon and the ,silver1 which is a pale washy tint1 that looks very delicate and pretty when perfectly clean4 ,silver ,cinnamon hens should not be penned with a pale ,yellow cock1 but with one as near to their own tint as can be found4 ,mr4 ,andrews's celebrated strain of ,cochins sometimes produced both cocks and hens which were ,silver ,cinnamon1 with streaks of gold in the hackle4 ,in ,partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles should be of a bright red1 striped with black1 his back and wings of dark red1 the latter crossed with a well-defined bar of metallic greenish black1 and the breast and under parts of his body should be black1 and not mottled4 ,the hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold1 striped with black1 and all the other portions of her body of a light brown1 pencilled with very dark brown4 ,the ,grouse are very dark ,partridge1 have a very rich appearance1 and are particularly beautiful when laced4 ,they are far from common1 and well worth cultivating4 ,the ,partridge are more mossed in their markings1 and not so rich in colour as the ,grouse4 ,cuckoo ,cochins are marked like the ,cuckoo ,dorkings1 and difficult to breed free of yellow4 ,the ,white and ,black were introduced later than the others4 ,mr4 ,baily says the ,white were principally bred from a pair imported and given to the ,dean of ,worcester1 and which afterwards became the property of ,mrs4 ,herbert1 of ,powick4 ,white ,cochins for exhibition must have yellow legs1 and they are prone to green4 ,the origin of the ,black is disputed4 ,it is said to be a sport from the ,white1 or to have been produced by a cross between the ,buff and the ,white4 ,by careful breeding it has been fixed as a decided sub-variety1 but it is difficult1 if not almost impossible1 to rear a cock to complete maturity entirely free from coloured feathers4 ,they keep perfectly pure in colour till six months old1 after which age they sometimes show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing1 or a few streaks of red upon the hackle1 of so dark a shade as to be imperceptible except in a strong light1 and are often found on close examination to have white under feathers1 and others barred with white4 ,the legs in all the colours should be yellow4 ,flesh-coloured legs are admissible1 but green1 black1 or white are defects4 ,in the ,partridge and ,grouse a slight wash1 as of indigo1 appears to be thrown over them1 which in the ,black assumes a still darker shade2 but in all three yellow should appear partially even here beneath the scales1 as the pink tinge does in the ,buff and ,white birds4 ,cochin-,chinas being much inclined to accumulate internal fat1 which frequently results in apoplexy1 should not be fed on food of a very fattening character1 such as ,indian corn4 ,they are liable to have inflamed feet if they are obliged to roost on very high1 small1 or sharp perches1 or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones4 ,they are also subject to an affection called ,white ,comb1 which is a white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles like powdered chalk2 and if not properly treated in time1 will spread over the whole body1 causing the feathers to fall off4 ,it is caused by want of cleanliness1 over-stimulating or bad food1 and most frequently by want of green food1 which must be supplied1 and the place rubbed with an ointment composed of two parts of cocoanut oil1 and one of turmeric powder1 to which some persons add one half part of sulphur2 and six grains of jalap may be given to clear the bowels4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,brahma-,,pootras4 ,it is a disputed point among great authorities whether ,brahmas form a distinct variety1 or whether they originated in a cross with the ,cochin1 and have become established by careful breeding4 ,when they were first introduced1 ,mr4 ,baily considered them to be a distinct breed1 and has since seen nothing to alter his opinion4 ,their nature and habits are quite dissimilar1 for they wander from home and will get their own living where a ,cochin would starve1 have more spirit1 deeper breasts1 are hardier1 lay larger eggs1 are less prone to sit1 and never produce a clean-legged chicken4 ,whatever their origin1 by slow and sure degrees1 without any mania1 they have become more and more popular1 standing upon their own merits1 and are now one of the most favourite varieties4 ,the worst accusation1 says ,miss ,watts1 their enemies can advance against them is1 that no one knows their origin2 but this is applicable to them only as it is when applied to ,dorkings1 ,spanish1 ,polands1 and all the other kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful breeding1 working on good originals4 ,all we have in ,england are descended from fowls imported from the ,united ,states1 and the best account of them is1 that a sailor 7rather vague1 certainly7 appeared in an ,american town 7,boston or ,new ,york1 ,i forget which7 with a new kind of fowl for sale1 and that a pair bought from him were the parents of all the ,brahmas4 ,uncertain as this appears1 the accounts of those who pretend to trace their origin as cross-bred fowls is1 at least1 equally so1 and ,i believe we may just act towards the ,brahmas as we do with regard to ,dorkings and other good fowls1 and be satisfied to possess a first-rate1 useful kind1 although we may be unable to trace its genealogical tree back to the root4 ,whatever may be their origin1 ,i find them distinct in their characteristics4 ,i have found them true to their points1 generation after generation1 in all the years that ,i have kept them4 ,the pea-comb is very peculiar1 and ,i have never had one chicken untrue in this among all that ,i have bred4 ,their habits are very unlike the ,cochins4 ,although docile1 they are much less inert2 they lay a larger number of eggs1 and sit less frequently4 ,many of my hens only wish to sit once a year2 a few oftener than that1 perhaps twice or even three times in rare instances1 but never at the end of each small batch of eggs1 as ,i find 7my almost equal favourites7 the ,cochins do4 ,the division of ,light and ,dark ,brahmas is a fancy of the judges1 which any one who keeps them can humour with a little care in breeding4 ,my idea of their colour is1 that it should be black and grey 7iron grey1 with more or less of a blue tinge1 and devoid of any brown7 on a clear white ground1 and ,i do not care whether the white or the marking predominates4 ,i believe breeders could bear me out1 if they would1 when ,i say many fowls which pass muster as ,brahmas are the result of a cross1 employed to increase size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges affect4 ,for strength of constitution1 both as chickens and fowls1 they surpass all other breeds4 ,brahmas like an extensive range1 but bear confinement as well as any fowls1 and keep cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any that have white feathers4 ,they are capital foragers where they have their liberty1 are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than ,cochins1 and most prolific in eggs4 ,they lay regularly on an average five fine large eggs a week all the year round1 even when snow is on the ground1 except when moulting or tending their brood4 ,mr4 ,boyle1 of ,bray1 ,ireland1 the most eminent breeder of ,dark ,brahmas in ,great ,britain1 says he has repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn1 and never stop--let it be hail1 rain1 snow1 or storm--for a single day till next spring4 ,they usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to sit4 ,the hens do not sit so often as ,cochins1 and a week's change of place will generally banish the desire4 ,they put on flesh well1 with plenty of breast-meat1 and are more juicy and better shaped for the table than most ,cochins2 though1 after they are six months old1 the flesh is much inferior to that of the ,dorking4 ,a cross with a ,dorking or ,creve-,coeur cock produces the finest possible table fowl1 carrying almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality4 ,the chickens are hardy and easy to rear4 ,they vary in colour when first hatched1 being all shades of brown1 yellow1 and grey1 and are often streaked on the back and spotted about the head2 but this variety gives place1 as the feathers come1 to the mixture of black1 white1 and grey1 which forms the distinguishing colour of the ,brahma4 ,mr4 ,baily has hatched them in snow1 and reared them all out of doors without any other shelter than a piece of mat or carpet thrown over the coop at night4 ,they reach their full size at an early age1 and the pullets are in their prime at eight months4 ,miss ,watts noticed that ,brahmas are more clever in the treatment of themselves when they are ill than other fowls2 when they get out of order1 they will generally fast until eating is no longer injurious1 which peculiarity is corroborated by the experienced ,henwife4 ,the feathers of the ,brahma-,pootra are said to be nearly equal to goose feathers4 ,the head should have a slight fulness over the eye1 giving breadth to the top2 a full1 pearl eye is much admired1 but far from common2 comb either a small single1 or pea-comb--the single resembling that of the ,cochin2 the neck short2 the breast wide and full2 the legs short1 yellow1 and well-feathered1 but not so fully as in the finest ,cochins2 and the tail short but full1 and in the cock opening into a fan4 ,they should be wide and deep made1 large and weighty1 and have a free1 noble carriage1 equally distinct from the waddle of the ,cochin1 and the erect bearing of the ,malay4 ,unlike the ,cochins1 they keep constantly to their colour1 which is a mixture of black1 white1 and grey2 the lightest being almost white1 and the darkest consisting of grey markings on a white ground4 ,the colour is entirely a matter of taste1 but the bottom colour should always be grey4 ,after breeding ,brahmas for many years1 says ,miss ,watts1 through many generations and crosses 7always1 however1 keeping to families imported direct from ,america71 we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the pea-comb is the comb for the ,brahma2 and this seems now a settled question1 for single-combed birds never take prizes when passable pea-combed birds are present4 ,the leading characteristic of the peculiar comb1 named by the ,americans the pea-comb1 is its triple character4 ,it may be developed and separated almost like three combs1 or nearly united into one2 but its triple form is always evident4 ,what we think most beautiful is1 where the centre division is a little fluted1 slightly serrated1 and flanked by two little side combs4 ,the degree of the division into three varies1 and the peculiarities of the comb may be less perceptible in ,december than when the hens are laying2 but the triple character of the pea-comb is always evident4 ,it shows itself in the chick at a few days old1 in three tiny paralleled lines4 ,it is thick at the base1 and like three combs joined into one1 the centre comb being higher than the other1 but the comb altogether must be low1 rounded at the top1 and the indentations must not be deep4 ,whether single or triple1 all the combs in a pen should be uniform4 ,the dark and light varieties should not be crossed1 as1 according to ,mr4 ,teebay1 who was formerly the most extensive and successful breeder of ,brahmas in ,england1 the result is never satisfactory4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,malays4 ,this was the first of the gigantic ,asiatic breeds imported into this country1 and in height and size exceeds any fowl yet known4 ,the origin of the ,malay breed is supposed to be the ,gallus giganteus of ,temminck4 ,this large and very remarkable species1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 is a native of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,the comb is thick and low1 and destitute of serrations1 appearing as if it had been partially cut off2 the wattles are small1 and the throat is bare4 ,the neck is covered with elongated feathers1 or hackles1 of a pale golden-reddish colour1 which advance upon the back1 and hackles of the same colour cover the rump1 and drop on each side of the base of the tail4 ,the middle of the back and the shoulders of the wings are of a dark chestnut1 the feathers being of a loose texture4 ,the greater wing-coverts are of a glossy green1 and form a bar of that colour across the wing4 ,the primary and secondary quill feathers are yellowish1 with a tinge of rufous4 ,the tail feathers are of a glossy green4 ,the under surface uniformly is of a glossy blackish green1 but the base of each feather is a chestnut1 and this colour appears on the least derangement of the plumage4 ,the limbs are remarkably stout1 and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour4 ,the voice is a sort of crow--hoarse and short1 and very different from the clear notes of defiance uttered by our farmyard chanticleer4 ,this species has the habit1 when fatigued1 of resting on the tarsi or legs1 as we have seen the emu do under similar circumstances4 ,in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society for #ahcb1 we find the following notice respecting this breed1 by ,colonel ,sykes1 who observed it domesticated in the ,deccan3 ,known by the name of the ,kulm cock by ,europeans in ,india4 ,met with only as a domestic bird2 and ,colonel ,sykes has reason to believe that it is not a native of ,india1 but has been introduced by the ,mussulmans from ,sumatra or ,java4 ,the iris of the real game bird should be whitish or straw yellow4 ,colonel ,sykes landed two cocks and a hen in ,england in ,june1 #ahca4 ,they bore the winter well2 the hen laid freely1 and has reared two broods of chickens4 ,the cock has not the shrill clear pipe of the domestic bird1 and his scale of note appears more limited4 ,a cock in the possession of ,colonel ,sykes stood twenty-six inches high to the crown of the head2 but they attain a greater height4 ,length from the tip of the bill to the insertion of the tail1 twenty-three inches4 ,hen one-third smaller than the male4 ,shaw very justly describes the habit of the cock1 of resting1 when tired1 on the first joint of the leg4 ,it is a long1 large1 heavy bird1 standing remarkably upright1 having an almost uninterrupted slope from the head to the insertion of the tail2 with very long1 though strong1 yellow legs1 quite free from feathers2 long1 stout1 firm thighs1 and stands very erect2 the cock1 when full grown1 being at least two feet six inches1 and sometimes over three feet in height1 and weighing from eight to eleven pounds4 ,the head has great fulness over the eye1 and is flattened above1 resembling that of the snake4 ,the small1 thick1 hard comb1 scarcely rising from the head1 and barely as long1 like half a strawberry1 resembles that of a ,game fowl dubbed4 ,the wattles are very small2 the neck closely feathered1 and like a rope1 with a space for an inch below the beak bare of feathers4 ,it has a hard1 cruel expression of face2 a brilliant bold eye1 pearled around the edge of the lids2 skinny red face2 very strong curved yellow beak2 and small1 drooping tail1 with very beautiful1 though short1 sickle feathers4 ,the hen resembles the cock upon all these points1 but is smaller4 ,their colours now comprise different shades of red and deep chestnut1 in combination with rich browns1 and there are also black and white varieties1 each of which should be uniform4 ,the feathers should be hard and close1 which causes it to be heavier than it appears4 ,malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers1 but the pullets commence laying early1 and are often good winter layers4 ,their eggs1 which weigh about #b-a_/b ounces each1 are of a deep buff or pale chocolate colour1 surpass all others in flavour1 and are so rich that two of them are considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls4 ,they are nearly always fertile4 ,their chief excellence is as table fowls1 carrying1 as they do1 a great quantity of meat1 which1 when under a year old1 is of very good quality and flavour4 ,crossed with the ,spanish and ,dorking1 they produce excellent table fowls2 the latter cross being also good layers4 ,malays are good sitters and mothers1 if they have roomy nests4 ,their chickens should not be hatched after ,june1 as they feather slowly1 and are delicate2 but the adult birds are hardy enough1 and seem especially adapted to crowded localities1 such as courts and alleys4 ,malays1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 will live anywhere2 they will inhabit a back yard of small dimensions2 they will scratch in the dust-hole1 and roost under the water-butt2 and yet not only lay well1 but show in good condition when requisite4 ,like the ,game fowl1 it is terribly pugnacious1 and in its native country is kept and trained for fighting4 ,this propensity1 which is still greater in confinement1 is its greatest disadvantage4 ,when closely confined they are apt to eat each other's feathers1 the cure for which is turning them into a grass run1 and giving them a good supply of lettuce leaves1 with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap4 ,the ,chittagong is said to be a variety of the ,malay4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,game4 ,this is the kind expressly called the ,english breed by ,buffon and the ,french writers1 and is the noblest and most beautiful of all breeds1 combining an admirable figure1 brilliant plumage1 and stately gait4 ,it is most probably derived from the larger or continental ,indian species of the ,javanese1 or ,bankiva ,jungle ,fowl--the ,gallus ,bankiva of ,temminck--which is a distinct species1 distinguished chiefly from the ,javanese fowl by its larger size4 7,see page #abd47 ,of this continental species1 ,sir ,w4 ,jardine states that he has seen three or four specimens1 all of which came from ,india proper4 ,the ,game cock is the undisputed king of all poultry1 and is unsurpassed for courage4 ,the ,malay is more cruel and ferocious1 but has less real courage4 ,game fowls are in every respect fighting birds1 and1 although cock-fighting is now very properly prohibited by law1 ,game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to fighting qualities4 ,but their pugnacious disposition renders them very troublesome1 especially if they have not ample range1 although it does not disqualify them for small runs to the extent generally supposed4 ,a blow with his spur is dangerous1 and instances have been recorded of very severe injuries inflicted upon children1 even causing death4 ,an old newspaper states that ,mr4 ,johnson1 a farmer in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 who has a famous breed of the ,game fowl1 has had the great misfortune to lose his little son1 a boy of three years old1 who was attacked by a ,game cock1 and so severely injured that he died shortly afterwards4 ,high-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as the cocks4 ,the chickens are very quarrelsome1 and both cocks and hens fight so furiously1 that frequently one-half of a brood is destroyed1 and the other half have to be killed4 ,game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty1 but cannot be well kept in a confined space4 ,they eat little1 and are excellent for an unprotected place1 because by their activity they avoid danger themselves1 and by their courage defend their chickens from enemies4 ,the hen is a prolific layer1 and1 if she has a good run1 equal to any breed4 ,the eggs1 though of moderate size only1 are remarkable for delicacy of flavour4 ,she is an excellent sitter1 and still more excellent mother4 ,the chickens are easily reared1 require little food1 and are more robust in constitution than almost any other variety4 ,the flesh of the ,game fowl is beautifully white1 and superior to that of all other breeds for richness and delicacy of flavour4 ,they should never be put up to fat1 as they are impatient of confinement4 ,they are in no way fit for the fattening-coop1 says ,mr4 ,baily4 ,they cannot bear the extra food without excitement1 and that is not favourable to obesity4 ,nevertheless1 they have their merits4 ,if they are reared like pheasants round a keeper's house1 and allowed to run semi-wild in the woods1 to frequent sunny banks and dry ditches1 they will grow up like them2 they will have little fat1 but they will be full of meat4 ,they must be eaten young2 and a ,game pullet four or five months old1 caught up wild in this way1 and killed two days before she is eaten1 is1 perhaps1 the most delicious chicken there is in point of flavour4 ,the ,game-fowl continues to breed for many years without showing any signs of decay1 and in this respect is superior to the ,cochin1 ,brahma1 and even to the ,dorking4 ,the cock's head should be long1 but fine2 beak long1 curved1 and strong2 comb single1 small1 upright1 and bright red2 wattles and face bright red2 eyes large and brilliant2 neck long1 arched1 and strong2 breast well developed2 back short and broad between the shoulders1 but tapering to the tail2 thighs muscular1 but short compared to the shanks2 spur low2 foot flat1 with powerful claws1 and his carriage erect4 ,the form of the hen should resemble the above on a smaller scale1 with small1 fine comb and face1 and wattles of a less intense red4 ,the feathers of both should be very hard1 firm1 and close1 very strong in the quills1 and seem so united that it should be almost impossible to ruffle them1 each feather if lifted up falling readily into its original place4 ,size is not a point of merit1 from four to six pounds being considered sufficient1 and better than heavier weights4 ,among the list of imperfections in ,game cocks1 ,sketchley enumerates flat sides1 short legs1 thin thighs1 crooked or indented breast1 short thin neck1 imperfect eye1 and duck or short feet4 ,it is the custom1 says ,miss ,watts1 consequently imperative1 that all birds which are exhibited should have been dubbed1 and this should not be done until the comb is so much developed that it will not spring again after the dubbing4 ,this will be safe if the chicken is nearly six months old1 but some are more set than others at a certain age4 ,a keen pair of scissors is the best instrument with which to operate4 ,hold the fowl with a firm hand1 cut away the deaf ears and wattles1 then cut the comb1 cutting a certain distance from the back1 and then from the front to join this cut1 taking especial care not to go too near the skull4 ,some operators put a finger inside the mouth to get a firm purchase4 ,we should like to see dubbing done away with1 leaving these beautiful fowls as nature makes them2 but since amateurs and shows will not agree to this1 it is best to give directions for dubbing1 as an operation bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary pain4 ,to save the bird from excessive loss of blood his wattles are usually cut off a week later4 ,every superfluous piece of flesh and skin should be removed4 ,the ,henwife well says3 ,why these poor birds are condemned to submit to this cruel operation is a mystery1 unfathomable1 ,i suspect1 even by the judges themselves4 ,cock-fighting being forbidden by law1 the cocks should1 on principle1 be left undubbed1 as a protest against this brutal amusement4 ,the comb of the ,game male bird is as beautifully formed as that of the ,dorking2 why then rob it of this great ornament8 ,it is asserted that it is necessary to remove the comb to prevent the cocks injuring each other fatally in fighting2 but this is not true2 a ,dorking will fight for the championship as ardently as any ,game bird1 and yet his comb is spared4 ,cockerels will not quarrel if kept apart from hens until the breeding season1 when they should be separated1 and put on their several walks4 ,if pugnaciously inclined ,i do not believe that the absence of the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction2 therefore ,i raise my voice for pity1 in favour of the beautiful ,game cock4 ,the colours are various1 and they are classed into numerous varieties and sub-varieties1 of which the chief are--,black-breasted ,red2 ,brown-,red2 ,silver ,duck-wing ,greys1 so called from the feathers resembling those of a duck2 ,greys2 ,blues2 ,duns2 ,piles1 or ,pieds2 ,black2 ,white2 and ,brassy-winged1 which is ,black with yellow on the lesser wing coverts4 ,colours and markings must be allowed a somewhat wide range in this breed2 and figure1 with courage1 may be held to prove purity of blood though the colour be doubtful4 ,mr4 ,douglas considers the ,black-breasted ,red the finest feathered ,game1 and states that he never found any come so true to colour as a brood of that variety4 ,white in the tail feathers is highly objectionable1 though not an absolute disqualification4 ,white fowls should be entirely white1 with white legs4 ,the rules for the coloured legs are very undecided4 ,light legs match light-coloured birds best4 ,no particular colour is imperative1 but it should harmonise with the plumage1 and all in a pen must agree4 ,the best layers are the ,black-breasted ,reds with willow legs1 and the worst the ,greys4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,dorkings4 ,this is one of the finest breeds1 and especially ,english4 ,a pure ,dorking is distinguished by an additional or fifth toe4 ,there are several varieties1 which are all comprised in two distinct classes--the ,white and the ,coloured4 ,the rose-combed white breed is the ,dorking of the old fanciers1 and most probably the original breed1 from which the coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the old ,sussex1 or some other large coloured fowl4 ,that such was the case1 says ,mr4 ,wright1 is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens1 even of the best strains4 ,such uncertainty in any important point is always an indication of mixed blood2 and that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding1 which has now rendered the fifth toe permanent1 and finally established the variety4 ,mr4 ,brent says3 ,the old ,dorking1 the pure ,dorking1 the only ,dorking1 is the ,white ,dorking4 ,it is of good size1 compact and plump form1 with short neck1 short white legs1 five toes1 a full rose-comb1 a large breast1 and a plumage of spotless white4 ,the practice of crossing with a ,game cock was much in vogue with the old breeders1 to improve a worn-out stock 7which1 however1 would have been better accomplished by procuring a fresh bird of the same kind1 but not related74 ,this cross shows itself in single combs1 loss of a claw1 or an occasional red feather1 but what is still more objectionable1 in pale-yellow legs and a yellow circle about the beak1 which also indicates a yellowish skin4 ,these1 then1 are faults to be avoided4 ,as regards size1 the ,white ,dorking is generally inferior to the ,sussex fowl 7or 'coloured ,dorking'71 but in this respect it only requires attention and careful breeding4 ,the pure ,white ,dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock1 as well as useful1 because they will breed true to their points2 but the grey ,sussex1 ,surrey or ,coloured ,dorking1 often sport4 ,to the breeders and admirers of the so-called ',coloured ,dorkings' ,i would say1 continue to improve the fowl of your choice1 but let him be known by his right title2 do not support him on another's fame1 nor yet deny that the rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a ,dorking1 because your favourites are not constant to those points4 ,the absence of the fifth claw to the ,dorking would be a great defect1 but to the ,sussex fowl 7erroneously called a ',coloured ,dorking'7 it is my opinion it would be an improvement1 provided the leg did not get longer with the loss4 ,the fifth toe should not be excessively large1 or too far above the ordinary toe4 ,the ,white ,dorking must have the plumage uniformly white1 though in the older birds the hackle and saddle may attain a light golden tint4 ,the rose-comb is preferable1 and the beak and legs should be light and clear4 ,the ,coloured ,dorking is now bred to great size and beauty4 ,it is a large1 plump1 compact1 square-made bird1 with short white legs1 and should have a well-developed fifth toe4 ,the plumage is very varied1 and may have a wide range1 and might almost be termed immaterial1 provided a coarse mealy appearance be avoided1 and the pen is well matched4 ,this latitude in respect of plumage is so generally admitted that the assertion you cannot breed ,dorkings true to colour1 has almost acquired the authority of a proverb4 ,they may be shown with either rose or single combs1 but all the birds in a pen must match4 ,the ,dorking is the perfection of a table bird1 combining delicately-flavoured white flesh1 which is produced in greatest quantity in the choicest parts--the breast1 merry-thought1 and wings--equal distribution of fat1 and symmetrical shape4 ,mr4 ,baily prefers the ,speckled or ,grey to the ,white1 as they are larger1 hardier1 and fatten more readily1 and although it may appear anomalous1 it is not less true that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to yellowness in the flesh and fat4 ,size is an important point in ,dorkings4 ,coloured prize birds weigh from seven to fourteen pounds1 and eight months' chickens six or seven pounds4 ,the ,white ,dorking is smaller4 ,they are not good layers1 except when very young1 and are bad winter layers4 ,the eggs are large1 averaging #b-c_/d ounces1 pure white1 very much rounded1 and nearly equal in size at each end4 ,the hen is an excellent sitter and mother4 ,the chickens are very delicate1 requiring more care when young than most breeds1 and none show a greater mortality1 no more than two-thirds of a brood usually surviving the fourth week of their life4 ,they should not be hatched before ,march1 and must be kept on gravel soil1 hard clay1 or other equally dry ground1 and never on brick1 stone1 or wooden flooring4 ,this breed will only thrive on a dry soil4 ,they are fond of a wide range1 and cannot be kept within a fence of less than seven feet in height4 ,when allowed unlimited range they appear to grow hardy1 and are as easily reared as any other breed if not hatched too early4 ,if kept in confinement they should have fresh turf every day1 besides other vegetable food4 ,dorkings degenerate more than any breed by inter-breeding1 and rapidly decrease in size4 ,dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation or abscess of the foot1 known as bumble-foot1 which probably originated in heavy fowls descending from high perches and walking over sharp stones4 ,the additional toe may have rendered them more liable to this disease4 ,it may now arise from the same cause1 and is best prevented by using broad1 low perches1 and keeping their runs clear of sharp1 rough stones1 but it also appears to have become hereditary in some birds4 ,there is no cure for it when matured except its removal1 and this operation fails oftener than it succeeds2 but ,mr4 ,tegetmeier states1 that he has in early cases removed the corn-like or wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with which the disease begins1 and cauterised the part with nitrate of silver successfully4 ,illustration3 ,golden-pencilled and ,silver-spangled ,hamburgs4 ,black ,spanish ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,spanish4 ,this splendid breed was originally imported from ,spain1 and is characterised by its peculiar white face1 which in the cock should extend from the comb downwards1 including the entire face1 and meet beneath in a white cravat1 hidden by the wattles2 and in the hen should be equally striking4 ,the plumage is perfectly black1 with brilliant metallic lustre1 reflecting rich green and purple tints4 ,the tail should resemble a sickle in the cock1 and be square in the hen4 ,the comb should be of a bright red1 large1 and high1 upright in the cock1 but pendent in the hen2 the legs blue1 clean1 and long1 and the bearing proud and gallant4 ,with care they will thrive in a very small space1 and are perhaps better adapted for town than any other variety4 ,they are tolerably hardy when grown1 but suffer much from cold and wet4 ,their combs and wattles are liable to be injured by severe cold1 from which these fowls should be carefully protected4 ,if frost-bitten1 the parts should be rubbed with snow or cold water1 and the birds must not be taken into a warm room until recovered4 ,the ,spanish are excellent layers1 producing five or six eggs weekly from ,february to ,august1 and two or three weekly from ,november to ,february1 and also laying earlier than any other breed except the ,brahma1 the pullets beginning to lay before they are six months old4 ,although the hens are only of an average size1 and but moderate eaters1 their eggs are larger than those of any other breed1 averaging #c-a_/b ounces1 and some weighing #d-a_/b ounces1 each4 ,the shells are very thin and white1 and the largest eggs are laid in the spring4 ,the flesh is excellent1 but the body is small compared to that of the ,dorking4 ,they very seldom show any inclination to sit1 and if they hatch a brood are bad nurses4 ,the chickens are very delicate1 and are best hatched at the end of ,april and during ,may4 ,they do not feather till almost three-parts grown1 and require a steady mother that will keep with them till they are safely feathered1 and therefore the eggs should be set under a ,dorking hen1 because that breed remains longer with the chicks than any other4 ,they almost always have white feathers in the flight of the wings1 but these become black4 ,in purchasing ,spanish fowls1 says an excellent authority1 blue legs1 the entire absence of white or coloured feathers in the plumage1 and a large white face1 with a very large1 high comb1 which should be erect in the cock1 though pendent in the hen1 should be insisted on4 ,legginess is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid4 ,the cockerels show the white face earlier than the pullets1 and a blue1 shrivelly appearance in the face of the chickens is a better sign of future whiteness than a red fleshiness4 ,pullets are rarely fully white-faced till above a year old4 ,the white face1 says an excellent authority1 should always extend well around the eye1 and up to the point of junction with the comb1 though a line of short black feathers is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired presence4 ,it is certainly objectionable1 and the less of it the better2 but any attempt to remove or disguise this eyesore should be followed by immediate disqualification4 ,some exhibitors of ,spanish shave the down of the edges of the white-face1 in order to make it smooth and larger4 ,this disgraceful practice is not allowed at the ,birmingham ,show4 ,one test of condition1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 more particularly of the pullets1 is the state of the comb1 which will be red1 soft1 and developed1 just in proportion to the condition of the bird4 ,while moulting--and they are almost naked during this process--the comb entirely shrivels up4 ,the ,white-faced ,,white ,,spanish is thought to be merely a sport of the ,white-faced ,black ,spanish4 ,but1 whatever their origin may have been1 they possess every indication of common blood with their ,black relatives1 and their claims to appear by their side in the exhibition room are as good as those of the ,white ,cochins and the ,white ,polish4 ,the plumage is uniformly white1 but in all other respects they resemble the ,black breed4 ,from the absence of contrast of colour shown in the face1 comb1 and plumage of the ,black ,spanish1 the ,white variety is far less striking in appearance4 ,the ,,andalusian are so called from having been brought from the ,spanish province of ,andalusia4 ,this breed is of a bluish grey1 sometimes slightly laced with a darker shade1 but having the neck hackles and tail feathers of a glossy black1 with red face and white ears4 ,the chickens are very hardy1 and feather well1 and earlier than the ,spanish4 ,the ,,minorca is so called from having been imported from that island1 and is a larger and more compactly-formed breed1 resembling the ,spanish in its general characteristics2 black1 with metallic lustre1 but with red face1 and having only the ear-lobes white2 showing even a larger comb1 and with shorter legs4 ,they are better as table fowls than the ,spanish1 but the ,andalusian are superior to either4 ,the ,minorca is the best layer of all the ,spanish breeds1 its chickens are tolerably hardy1 and it is altogether far superior to the ,white-faced breed4 ,,ancona is a provincial term applied to black and white mottled1 or cuckoo1 which on all other points resemble ,minorcas1 but are smaller4 ,the ,black ,rot1 to which ,spanish fowls are subject1 is a blackening of the comb1 swelling of the legs and feet1 and general wasting of the system2 and can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent purgings with castor oil1 combined with warm nourishing food1 and strong ale1 or other stimulants1 given freely4 ,they are also subject to a peculiar kind of swelled face1 which first appears like a small knob under the skin1 and increases till it has covered one side of the face4 ,it is considered to be incurable4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,hamburgs4 ,this breed is medium-sized1 and should have a brilliant red1 finely-serrated rose-comb1 terminating in a spike at the back1 taper blue legs1 ample tail1 exact markings1 a well-developed white deaf-ear1 and a quick1 spirited bearing4 ,they are classed in three varieties1 the ,pencilled1 ,spangled1 and ,black varieties1 with the sub-varieties of ,gold and ,silver in the two former4 ,the ,pencilled ,hamburg is of two ground colours1 gold and silver1 that is1 of a brown yellow or white1 and very minutely marked4 ,the hens of both colours should have the body clearly pencilled across with several bars of black4 ,the hackle in both sexes should be free from dark marks4 ,in the ,golden-pencilled variety the cock should be of one uniform red all over his body without any pencilling whatever1 and his tail copper colour2 but many first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle feathers should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper4 ,in the ,silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white1 with yellowish wing-coverts1 and a brown or chestnut patch on the flight feathers of his wing4 ,the tail should be black and the sickle feathers tinged with a reddish white4 ,the ,speckled or ,spangled ,hamburg1 also called ,pheasant ,fowl1 from the false idea that the pheasant was one of its parents1 is of two kinds1 the ,golden-speckled and ,silver-speckled1 according to their ground colour1 the marking taking the form of a spot upon each feather4 ,they have very full double and firmly fixed combs1 the point at the end turning upwards1 a dark rim round the eyes1 blue legs1 and mixed hackle4 ,they were also called ,moss ,fowls1 and ,mooneys1 the latter probably because the end of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow or white ground4 ,in the ,golden-spangled some judges prefer cocks with a pure black breast1 but others desire them spangled4 ,one chief cause of discussion1 says ,miss ,watts1 relating to the ,hamburg1 regarded the markings on the cocks4 ,the ,yorkshire breed1 which had been a favourite in that county for many years1 produced henny cocks--i4e4 cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen4 ,the feathers of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of cocks generally1 but were short and rounded like those of the hen2 the saddle-feathers were the same1 and the tail1 instead of being graced with fine flowing sickle feathers1 was merely square like that of a hen4 ,the ,lancashire ,mooneys1 on the contrary1 produce cocks with as fine flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land1 and tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long1 fine flowing saddle-feathers1 and abundant hackle4 ,the hen-tail cocks had the markings1 as well as the form1 of the hen2 the long feathers of the others cannot1 from their form1 have these markings4 ,on this question party-spirit ran high3 ,york and ,lancaster1 ,cavalier and ,roundhead1 were small discussions compared with it2 but the hen-cocks were beaten1 and we now seldom hear of them4 ,a mixture of the two breeds has been tried2 but by it valuable qualities and purity of race have been sacrificed4 ,the ,black ,hamburg is of a beautiful black with a metallic lustre1 and is a noble-looking bird1 the cocks often weighing seven pounds4 ,there is little doubt that it was produced by crossing with the ,spanish1 which blood shows itself in the white face1 which is often half apparent1 and in the darker legs4 ,but it is well established as a distinct variety1 and good birds breed true to colour and points4 ,the cocks' combs are larger1 and the hens' legs shorter1 than the other varieties4 ,bolton ,bays and ,greys1 ,chitteprats1 ,turkish1 and ,creoles or ,corals1 ,pencilled ,dutch fowls1 and ,dutch every-day layers1 are but incorrect names for the ,hamburgs1 with which they are identical4 ,the ,hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until three years old4 ,as a general rule1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 no true bred ,hamburg fowl has top-knot1 single comb1 white legs1 any approach to feather on the legs1 white tail1 or spotted hackle4 ,the white ear-lobe being so characteristic a feature in all the ,hamburgs1 becomes most important in judging their merits4 ,weight is not considered1 but still the ,pencilled cock should not weigh less than four and a half pounds1 nor the hen than three and a half2 and the ,spangled cock five pounds and the hen four4 ,the ,hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally1 without over-stimulating feeding1 surpassing all others in the number of their eggs1 and deserve their popular name of everlasting layers4 ,their eggs are white1 and do not weigh more than #a-a_/b ounce to #a-c_/d ounce each2 and the hens are known to average #bdj eggs yearly4 ,not being large eaters1 they are very profitable fowls to keep4 ,the eggs of the ,golden-spangled are the largest1 and it is the hardiest variety1 but the ,pencilled lay more4 ,the ,black variety produces large eggs1 and lays a greater number than any known breed4 ,they very seldom show any desire to sit except when they have a free woodland range1 for even if free it must be wild to induce any desire to perpetuate the species1 and they never sit if confined to a yard4 ,the chickens should not be hatched earlier than ,may1 but in the ,south of ,england they will do very well if hatched by a ,cochin-,china hen at the beginning of ,march4 ,they are small birds for table1 but of excellent quality4 ,hamburgs do not bear confinement well1 and will not thrive without a good run2 a grass field is the best4 ,being small and light1 even a ten-feet fence will not keep them within a small run4 ,they may indeed be kept in a shed1 but the number must be very few in proportion to its size1 and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean4 ,they are excellent guards in the country1 for if disturbed in their roosting-place they will make a great noise4 ,the breed has improved in this country1 and ,british bred fowls are much stronger than the imported birds4 ,illustration3 ,white-crested ,black4 ,golden and ,silver-spangled4 ,,polish4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,polands4 ,this breed might with good reason be divided into more families1 but it is usual to rank as ,polands all fowls with their chief distinguishing characteristic1 a full1 large1 round1 compact tuft on the head4 ,the breed is quite unknown in ,poland1 and takes its name1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 from some resemblance having been fancied between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the ,polish soldiers4 ,it is much esteemed in ,egypt1 and equally abundant at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where their legs are feathered4 ,some travellers assert that the ,mexican poultry are crested1 and that what are called ,poland fowls are natives of either ,mexico or ,south ,america2 but others believe that they are natives of the ,east1 and that they1 as well as all the other fowls on the ,continent of ,america1 have been introduced from the ,old ,world4 ,the ,golden-spangled and ,silver-spangled are the most beautiful varieties1 the first being of a gold colour and the second white1 both spangled with black4 ,the more uniform the colour of the tuft is with that of the bird1 the higher it is valued4 ,the ,black ,poland is of a deep velvety black2 has a large1 white1 round tuft1 and should not have a comb1 but many have a little comb in the form of two small points before the tuft4 ,the tuft to be perfect should be entirely white1 but it is rare to meet with one without a slight bordering of black1 or partly black1 feathers round the front4 ,there are also ,yellow1 laced with white1 ,buff or ,chamois1 spangled with white1 ,blue1 ,grey1 ,black1 and ,white mottled4 ,all the sub-varieties should be of medium size1 neat compact form1 plump1 full-breasted1 and have lead-coloured legs and ample tails4 ,the top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight feathers1 growing from the centre of the crown1 and falling over outside1 but not so much as to intercept the sight1 and form a circular crest4 ,that of the hen should be formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the extremity1 so as to resemble a cauliflower1 and it should be even1 firm1 and as nearly round as possible4 ,large1 uneven top-knots composed of loose feathers do not equal smaller but firm and well-shaped crests4 ,the white ear-lobe is essential in all the varieties4 ,beards in ,polands were formerly not admired4 ,among the early birds brought from the continent1 not one in a hundred was bearded1 and those that were so were often rejected1 and it was a question of dispute whether the pure bird should have them or not4 ,bearded birds at shows were the exceptions1 but an unbearded pen of ,polands is now seldom or ever seen4 ,there was formerly a breed of ,white1 with black top-knots1 but that is lost1 although it seems to have been not only the most ornamental1 but the largest and most valuable of all the ,polish varieties4 ,the last specimen known was seen by ,mr4 ,brent at ,st4 ,omer in #ahed1 and it is possible that the breed may still exist in ,france or ,ireland4 ,the ,,serai ,,ta-,,ook1 or ,,fowl ,,of ,,the ,,sultan1 is the latest ,polish fowl introduced into this country4 ,they were imported in #ahed by ,miss ,watts1 who says3 ,with regard to the name1 ,serai is the name of the ,sultan's palace2 ,tae-ook is ,turkish for fowl2 the simplest translation of this is1 ,sultan's fowls1 or fowls of the ,sultan2 a name which has the double advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have been known in their own country1 and of designating the country from which they came4 ,in general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered1 but not kept in as easily as ,cochin-,chinas4 ,they are very good layers2 their eggs are large and white2 they are non-sitters1 and small eaters4 ,a grass run with them will remain green long after the crop would have been cleared by either ,brahmas or ,cochins1 and with scattered food they soon become satisfied and walk away4 ,they are the size of our ,english ,poland fowls4 ,their plumage is white and flowing2 they have a full-sized compact ,poland tuft on the head1 are muffed1 have a good flowing tail1 short well-feathered legs1 and five toes upon each foot4 ,the comb is merely two little points1 and the wattles very small4 ,we have never seen fowls more fully decorated--full tail1 abundant furnishing1 in hackle almost touching the ground1 boots1 vulture-hocks1 beards1 whiskers1 and full round ,poland crests4 ,their colour is pure white4 ,they are prolific layers during spring and summer4 ,their eggs are white1 and weigh from #b ounces to #b-a_/d ounces each1 the ,spangled varieties producing the largest4 ,they rarely sit1 and generally leave their eggs after five or six days1 and are not good mothers4 ,the chickens require great care for six weeks4 ,they should never be hatched by heavy hens1 as the prominence in the skull which supports the top-knot is never completely covered with bone1 and very sensible to injury4 ,like the ,game breed they improve in feather for several years4 ,polands never thrive on a wet or cold soil1 and are more affected by bad weather than any other breed2 the top-knots being very liable to be saturated with wet4 ,they are easily fattened1 and their flesh is white1 juicy1 and rich-flavoured1 but they are not sufficiently large for the market4 ,mr4 ,hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize birds suddenly1 as the crest obscures their sight1 and1 being taken by surprise1 they are frequently so frightened as to die in the hand4 ,they should1 therefore1 always be spoken to1 or their attention otherwise attracted before being touched4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,bantams4 ,of this breed one kind is ,game1 and resembles the ,game fowl1 except in size2 another is feathered to the very toes1 the feathers on the tarsi1 or beam of the leg1 being long and stiff1 and often brushing the ground4 ,they are peculiarly fancy fowls4 ,there are several varieties1 the ,white1 ,black1 ,nankin1 ,partridge1 ,booted or ,feather-legged1 ,game1 and the ,golden-laced and ,silver-laced1 or ,sebright ,bantam4 ,all should be very small1 varying from fourteen to twenty ounces in the hen1 and from sixteen to twenty-four in the cock4 ,the head should be narrow2 beak curved2 forehead rounded2 eyes bright2 back short2 body round and full2 breast very prominent2 legs short and clean1 except in the ,booted variety2 wings depressed2 and the carriage unusually erect1 the back of the neck and the tail feathers almost touching2 and the whole bearing graceful1 bold1 and proud4 ,illustration3 ,black4 ,sebright's ,gold and ,silver-laced4 ,white4 ,game4 ,,bantams4 ,the ,javanese jungle-fowl 7,gallus ,bankiva71 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 the ,ayam-utan of the ,malays1 is a native of ,java2 but either a variety or a distinct species of larger size1 yet very similar in colouring1 is found in continental ,india4 ,the ,javanese1 or ,bankiva jungle-fowl1 is about the size of an ordinary ,bantam1 and in plumage resembles the black-breasted red ,game-bird of our country1 with1 a steel-blue mark across the wings4 ,the comb is high1 its edge is deeply serrated1 and the wattles are rather large4 ,the hackle feathers of the neck and rump are long and of a glossy golden orange2 the shoulders are chestnut red1 the greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue1 the quill feathers brownish black1 edged with pale1 reddish yellow1 or sandy red4 ,the tail is of a black colour1 with metallic reflections of green and blue4 ,the under parts are black the naked space round the eyes1 the comb1 and wattles are scarlet4 ,the hen closely resembles a brown hen of the ,game breed1 except in being very much smaller4 ,that this bird1 or its continental ally1 is one of the sources--perhaps the main source--of our domestic race1 cannot be doubted4 ,it inter-breeds freely with our common poultry1 and the progeny is fertile4 ,most beautiful cross-breeds between the ,bankiva jungle-fowl and ,bantam may be seen in the gardens of the ,zoological ,society4 ,that the ,bankiva jungle-fowl of ,java1 or its larger continental variety1 if it be not a distinct species 7and of which ,sir ,w4 ,jardine states that he has seen several specimens71 is one of the sources of our domestic breeds1 cannot1 we think1 be for a moment doubted4 ,it would be difficult to discover any difference between a clean-limbed1 black-breasted red ,bantam-cock1 and a cock ,bankiva jungle-fowl4 ,indeed1 the very term ,bantam goes far to prove their specific identity4 ,bantam is a town or city at the bottom of a bay on the northern coast of ,java2 it was first visited by the ,portuguese in #aeaa1 at which time a great trade was carried on by the town with ,arabia1 ,hindostan1 and ,china1 chiefly in pepper4 ,subsequently it fell into the hands of the ,dutch1 and was at one time the great rendezvous for ,european shipping4 ,it is now a place of comparative insignificance4 ,from this it would seem that the jungle-fowls domesticated and sold to the ,europeans at ,bantam continued to be designated by the name of the place where they were obtained1 and in process of time the name was appropriated to all our dwarfish breeds4 ,game ,bantams are exact miniatures of real ,game fowls1 in ,black-breasted red1 ,duck-wing1 and other varieties4 ,the cocks must not have the strut of the ,bantam1 but the bold1 martial bearing of the ,game cock4 ,their wings should be carried closely1 and their feathers be hard and close4 ,the ,duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked with blue1 forming a bar across each wing4 ,the ,,sebright1 or ,,gold ,,and ,,silver-,,laced ,,bantam1 is a breed with clean legs1 and of most elegantly spangled plumage1 which was bred and has been brought to great perfection by ,sir ,john ,sebright1 after whom they are named4 ,the attitude of the cock is singularly bold and proud1 the head being often thrown so much back as to meet the tail feathers1 which are simple like those of a hen1 the ordinary sickle-like feathers being abbreviated and broad4 ,the ,gold-laced ,sebright ,bantams should have golden brownish-yellow plumage1 each feather being bordered with a lacing of black2 the tail square like that of the hen1 without sickle feathers1 and carried well over the back1 each feather being tipped with black1 a rose-comb pointed at the back1 the wings drooping to the ground1 neither saddle nor neck hackles1 clean lead-coloured legs and feet1 and white ear-lobes2 and the hen should correspond exactly with him1 but be much smaller4 ,the ,silver-laced birds have exactly the same points except in the ground feathering1 which should be silvery1 and the nearer the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be the bird4 ,their carriage should resemble that of a good ,fantail pigeon4 ,the ,,black ,,bantams should be uniform in colour1 with well-developed white ear-lobes1 rose-combs1 full hackles1 sickled and flowing tail1 and deep slate-coloured legs4 ,the ,,white ,,bantams should have white legs and beak4 ,both should be of tiny size4 ,the ,,nankin1 or ,,common ,,yellow ,,bantam1 is probably the nearest approach to the original type of the family--the ,bankiva fowl4 ,the cock has a large proportion of red and dark chestnut on the body1 with a full black tail2 while the hen is a pale orange yellow1 with a tail tipped with black1 and the hackle lightly pencilled with the same colour1 and clean legs4 ,combs vary1 but the rose is decidedly preferable4 ,true-bred specimens of these birds being by no means common1 considerable deviations from the above description may consequently be expected in birds passing under this appellation4 ,the ,,booted ,,bantams have their legs plumed to the toes1 not on one side only like ,cochin-,chinas1 but completely on both1 with stiff1 long feathers1 which brush the ground4 ,the most beautiful specimens are of a pure white4 ,feathered-legged ,bantams1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 may be of any colour2 the old-fashioned birds were very small1 falcon-hocked1 and feathered1 with long quill feathers to the extremity of the toe4 ,many of them were bearded4 ,they are now very scarce2 indeed1 till exhibitions brought them again into notice1 these beautiful specimens of their tribe were all neglected and fast passing away4 ,nothing but the ,sebright was cultivated2 but now we bid fair to revive the pets of our ancestors in all their beauty4 ,the ,,pekin1 or ,,cochin ,,bantams1 were taken from the ,summer ,palace at ,pekin during the ,chinese war1 and brought to this country4 ,they exactly resemble the ,buff ,cochins in all respects except size4 ,they are very tame4 ,the ,,japanese ,,bantam is a recent importation1 and differs from most of the other varieties in having a very large single comb4 ,it has very short well-feathered legs1 and the colour varies4 ,some are quite white1 some have pure white bodies1 with glossy1 jet-black tails1 others are mottled and buff4 ,they throw the tail up and the head back till they nearly meet1 as in the ,fantailed pigeon4 ,they are said to be the constant companions of man in their native country1 and have a droll and good-natured expression4 ,all the ,bantam cocks are very pugnacious1 and though the hens are good mothers to their own chickens1 they will attack any stranger with fury4 ,they are good layers of small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs4 ,but no breed produces so great a proportion of unfertile eggs4 ,june is the best month for hatching1 as the chickens are delicate4 ,they feather more quickly than most breeds1 and are apt to die at that period through the great drain upon the system in producing feathers4 ,when fully feathered they are quite hardy4 ,the hens are excellent mothers4 ,the chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls1 and extra attention for a week or two in keeping them dry4 ,bantams are very useful in a garden1 eating many slugs and insects1 and doing little damage4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,french ,,and ,,various4 ,the ,french breeds are remarkable for great weight and excellent quality of flesh1 with a very small proportion of bones and offal2 their breeders having paid great attention to those important1 substantial1 and commercial points instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to colour and other fancy points as we have done4 ,as a rule they are all non-sitters1 or sit but rarely4 ,illustration3 ,houdans4 ,la ,fleche1 cock4 ,creve-,coeur1 hen4 ,,french4 ,the ,,creve-,,coeur has been known the longest and most generally4 ,this breed is said to derive its name from a village so called in ,normandy1 whence its origin can be distinctly traced2 but others fancifully say1 from the resemblance of its peculiar comb to a broken heart4 ,it is scarce1 and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure4 ,the ,creve-,coeur is a fine large bird1 black in plumage1 or nearly so1 with short1 clean black legs1 square body1 deep chest1 and a large and extraordinary crest or comb1 which is thus described by ,m4 ,jacque3 ,various1 but always forming two horns1 sometimes parallel1 straight1 and fleshy2 sometimes joined at the base1 slightly notched1 pointed1 and separating at their extremities2 sometimes adding to this latter description interior ramifications like the horns of a young stag4 ,the comb1 shaped like horns1 gives the ,creve-,coeur the appearance of a devil4 ,it is bearded1 and has a top-knot or crest behind the comb4 ,they are very quiet1 walk slowly1 scratch but little1 do not fly1 are very tame1 ramble but little1 and prefer seeking their food on the dunghill in the poultry-yard to wandering afar off4 ,they are the most contented of all breeds in confinement1 and will thrive in a limited space4 ,they are tame1 tractable fowls1 but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our climate1 and therefore prosper most on a dry1 light soil1 and can scarcely have too much sun4 ,they are excellent layers of very large white eggs4 ,the chickens grow so fast1 and are so inclined to fatten1 that they may be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of age1 and well fattened in fifteen days4 ,the ,creve-,coeur is a splendid table bird1 both for the quantity and quality of its flesh4 ,the hen is heavy in proportion to the cock1 weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a half1 and the pullets always outweigh the cockerels4 ,,la ,,fleche is thus described by ,m4 ,jacque3 ,a strong1 firm body1 well placed on its legs1 and long muscular feet1 appearing less than it really is1 because the feathers are close2 every muscular part well developed2 black plumage4 ,the ,la ,fleche is the tallest of all ,french cocks2 it has many points of resemblance with the ,spanish1 from which ,i believe it to be descended by crossing with the ,creve-,coeur4 ,others believe that it is connected with the ,breda1 which it does1 in fact1 resemble1 in some particulars4 ,it has white1 loose1 and transparent skin2 short1 juicy1 and delicate flesh1 which puts on fat easily4 ,the comb is transversal1 double1 forming two horns bending forward1 united at their base1 divided at their summits1 sometimes even and pointed1 sometimes having ramifications on the inner sides4 ,a little double 'combling' protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils1 and although hardly as large as a pea1 this combling1 which surmounts the sort of rising formed by the protrusion of the nostrils1 contributes to the singular aspect of the head4 ,this measured prominence of the comb seems to add to the characteristic depression of the beak1 and gives the bird a likeness to a rhinoceros4 ,the plumage is jet black1 with a very rich metallic lustre2 large ear-lobe of pure white2 bright red face1 unusually free from feathers2 and bright lead-coloured legs1 with hard1 firm scales4 ,they are very handsome1 showy1 large1 and lively birds1 more inclined to wander than the ,creve-,coeur1 and hardier when full grown2 but their chickens are even more delicate in wet weather1 and should not be hatched before ,may4 ,they are easily reared1 and grow quickly4 ,they are excellent layers of very large white eggs1 but do not lay well in winter1 unless under very favourable circumstances1 and resemble the ,spanish in the size and number of their eggs1 and the time and duration of laying4 ,their flesh is excellent1 juicy1 and resembles that of the ,game fowl1 and the skin white and transparent1 but the legs are dark4 ,this breed is larger and has more style than the ,creve-,coeur1 and is better adapted to our climate2 but the fowls lack constitution1 particularly the cocks1 and are very liable to leg weakness and disease of the knee-joint1 and when they get out of condition seldom recover4 ,they are found in the north of ,france1 but are not common even there4 ,the ,,houdan has the size1 deep compact body1 short legs1 and fifth toe of the ,dorking4 ,they are generally white1 some having black spots as large as a shilling1 are bearded1 and should have good top-knots of black and white feathers1 falling backwards like a lark's crest2 and the remarkable comb is thus described by ,m4 ,jacque3 ,triple1 transversal in the direction of the beak1 composed of two flattened spikes1 of long and rectangular form1 opening from right to left1 like two leaves of a book2 thick1 fleshy1 and variegated at the edges4 ,a third spike grows between these two1 having somewhat the shape of an irregular strawberry1 and the size of a long nut4 ,another1 quite detached from the others1 about the size of a pea1 should show between the nostrils1 above the beak4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,schroeder1 of the ,national ,poultry ,company1 considered that this surpassed all the ,french breeds1 combining the size1 shape1 and quality of flesh of the ,dorking with earlier maturity2 prolific laying of good-sized eggs1 which are nearly always fertile1 and on this point the opposite of the ,dorking2 and early and rapid feathering in the chickens1 which are1 notwithstanding1 hardier than any breeds except the ,cochin and ,brahma4 ,they are very hardy1 never sick1 and will thrive in a small space4 ,they are smaller than the ,creve-,coeur or ,la ,fleche1 but well shaped and plump2 and for combining size and quality of flesh with quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them4 ,,scotch ,,dumpies1 ,,go ,,laighs1 ,,bakies1 or ,,creepers1 are almost extinct2 but they are profitable fowls1 and ought to be more common1 as they are very hardy1 productive layers of fine large eggs1 and their flesh is white and of excellent quality4 ,they should have large1 heavy bodies2 short1 white1 clean legs1 not above an inch and a half or two inches in length4 ,the plumage is a mixture of black or brown1 and white4 ,they are good layers of fine large eggs4 ,they cannot be surpassed as sitters and mothers1 and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching the eggs of pheasants4 ,the cocks should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six pounds4 ,the ,,silky fowl is so called from its plumage1 which is snowy white1 being all discomposed and loose1 and of a silky appearance1 resembling spun glass4 ,the comb and wattles are purple2 the bones and the periosteum1 or membrane covering the bones1 black1 and the skin blue or purple2 but the flesh1 however1 is white and tender1 and superior to that of most breeds4 ,it is a good layer of small1 round1 and excellent eggs4 ,the cock generally weighs less than three1 and the hen less than two1 pounds4 ,it comes from ,japan and ,china1 and generally thrives in our climate4 ,the chickens are easily reared if not hatched before ,april nor later than ,june4 ,they are capital foster mothers for partridges1 and other small and tender game4 ,the ,,rumpkin1 or ,,rumpless fowl1 a ,persian breed1 not only lacks the tail-feathers but the tail itself4 ,it is hardy1 of moderate size1 and varies in colour1 but is generally black or brown1 and from the absence of tail appears rounder than other fowls4 ,the hens are good layers1 but the eggs are often unfertile4 ,they are good sitters and mothers1 and the flesh is of fair quality4 ,the ,,friesland1 so named from confounding the term frizzled with ,friesland1 is remarkable from having all the feathers1 except those of the wings and tail1 frizzled1 or curled up the wrong way4 ,it is small1 very delicate1 and a shower drenches it to the skin4 ,,barn-,,door fowl are a mongrel race1 compounded by chance1 usually of the ,game1 ,dorking1 and ,polish breeds4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,turkeys4 ,turkeys are not considered profitable except on light1 dry soils1 which is said to be the cause of their success in ,norfolk4 ,they prosper1 however1 in ,ireland2 but although the air there is moist1 the soil is dry1 except in the boggy districts4 ,miss ,watts believes that any place in which turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with ,norfolk4 ,very fine birds may be seen in ,surrey1 and other places near ,london4 ,the general opinion of the best judges is1 that they can barely be made to repay the cost of their food1 which is doubtless owing to the usual great mortality among the chicks1 which loss outbalances all profit2 but others make them yield a fair profit1 simply because1 from good situation and judicious management1 they rear all1 or nearly all1 the chicks4 ,a single brood may be reared with ease on a small farm or private establishment without much extra expense1 where sufficient attention can be devoted to them2 but to make them profitable they should be bred on a large scale1 and receive exclusive attention4 ,they should have a large shed or house1 with a boarded floor1 to themselves4 ,illustration3 ,turkey and ,guinea-fowls4 ,turkeys must have space1 for they are birds of rambling habits1 and only fitted for the farmyard1 or extensive runs1 delighting to wander in the fields in quest of insects1 on which1 with green herbage1 berries1 beech-mast1 and various seeds1 they greedily feed4 ,the troop will ramble about all day1 returning to roost in the evening1 when they should have a good supply of grain2 and another should be given in the morning1 which will not only induce them to return home regularly every night1 but keep them in good store condition1 so that they can at any time be speedily fattened4 ,peas1 vetches1 tares1 and most sorts of pulse1 are almost poisonous to them4 ,their feeding-place must be separate from the other poultry1 or they will gobble up more than their share4 ,turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house1 and should have a very high open shed1 the perches being placed as high as possible4 ,they are extremely hardy1 roosting1 if allowed1 on the highest trees in the severest weather4 ,but this should be prevented1 as their feet are apt to become frost-bitten in severe weather4 ,the chickens are as delicate4 ,wet is fatal to them1 and the very slightest shower even in warm weather will frequently destroy half a brood4 ,the breeding birds should be carefully selected1 any malformation almost invariably proving itself hereditary4 ,the cock is at maturity when a year old1 but not in his prime till he has attained his third year1 and is entering upon his fourth1 and he continues in vigour for three or four years more4 ,he should be vigorous1 broad-breasted1 clean-legged1 with ample wings1 well-developed tail1 bright eyes1 and the carunculated skin of the neck full and rapid in its changes of colour4 ,the largest possible hen should be chosen1 the size of the brood depending far more upon the female than the male4 ,one visit to the male is sufficient to render all the eggs fertile1 and the number of hens may be unlimited1 but to obtain fine birds1 twelve or fifteen hens to one cock is the best proportion4 ,the hen breeds in the spring following that in which she was hatched1 but is not in her prime till two or three years old1 and continues for two or three years in full vigour4 ,the hen generally commences laying about the middle of ,march1 but sometimes earlier4 ,when from her uttering a peculiar cry and prying about in quest of a secret spot for sitting1 it is evident that she is ready to lay1 she should be confined in the shed1 barn1 or other place where the nest has been prepared for her1 and let out when she has laid an egg4 ,the nest should be made of straw and dried leaves1 in a large wicker basket1 in a quiet secluded place1 and an egg or nest-egg of chalk should be placed in it to induce her to adopt it4 ,turkeys like to choose their own laying-places1 and keep to them though their eggs are removed daily1 provided a nest-egg is left there4 ,they will wander to a distance in search of a secluded spot for laying1 and pay their visits to the nest so cleverly that sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a brood there1 which1 however1 does not generally prove a strong or large one as in the case of ordinary fowls4 ,when a hen has chosen a safe1 quiet1 and sheltered place for her nest1 it is best to give her more eggs when she shows a desire to sit1 and let her stay there4 ,the hen generally lays from fifteen to twenty eggs1 sometimes fewer and often many more4 ,as soon as seven are produced1 they should be placed under a good common hen1 a ,cochin is the best1 and the remainder can be put under her when she wants to sit4 ,the best hatching period is from the end of ,march to ,may1 and none should be hatched later than ,june4 ,the broody hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place1 as they are patient1 constant sitters1 and will not leave their eggs wherever they may be put4 ,a hen may be allowed from nine to fifteen eggs1 according to her size4 ,during the time the hen is sitting she requires constant attention4 ,she must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed1 and regularly supplied with fresh water2 otherwise she will continue to sit without leaving for food1 till completely exhausted4 ,in general1 do not let the cock go near the sitting hen1 or he will destroy the eggs or chicks2 but some behave well1 and may be left at large with safety4 ,she should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the person she is accustomed to be fed by1 and the eggs should not be touched unnecessarily4 ,the chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth day1 but sometimes as late as the thirty-first4 ,let them remain in the nest for twenty-four hours1 but remove the shells1 and next morning place the hen under a roomy coop or crate1 on boards1 in a warm outhouse4 ,keep her and her brood cooped up for two months1 moving the coop every fine day into a dry grass field1 but keep them in an outhouse in cold or wet weather4 ,the chicks having a great tendency to diarrhoea1 the very best food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs1 chopped small1 mixed with minced dandelion1 and when that cannot be had1 with boiled nettles4 ,they may then have boiled egg1 bread-crumbs1 and barley-meal for a fortnight1 when the egg may be replaced by boiled potato1 and small grain may soon be added4 ,do not force them to eat1 but give them a little food on the tip of your finger1 and they will soon learn to pick it out of the trough4 ,a little hempseed1 suet1 onion-tops1 green mustard1 and nettle-tops1 chopped very fine1 should be mixed with their food4 ,curds are excellent food1 and easily prepared by mixing powdered alum with milk slightly warmed1 in the proportion of one teaspoonful of alum to four quarts of milk1 and1 when curdled1 separating the curds from the whey4 ,they should be squeezed very dry1 and must always be given in a soft state4 ,water should be given but sparingly1 and never allowed to stand by them1 but when they have had sufficient it should be taken or thrown away4 ,the water must be put in pans so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves4 7,see page #ch47 ,fresh milk is apt to disagree with the young chicks1 and is not necessary4 ,if a chick shows weakness1 or has taken cold1 give it some carraway seeds4 ,in their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a season1 and it is not advisable to induce the domesticated bird by any expedients to hatch a second1 for it would be not only detrimental to her1 but the brood would be hatched late in the season1 and very difficult to rear1 while those reared would not be strong1 healthy birds4 ,the coop should be like that used for common fowls1 but two feet broad1 and higher1 being about three feet high in front and one foot at the back2 this greater slant of the roof being made in order to confine her movements1 as otherwise she would move about too much1 and trample upon her brood4 ,when they have grown larger they must have a larger coop1 made of open bars wide enough apart for them to go in and out1 but too close to let in fowls to eat their delicate food1 and the hen must be placed under it with them4 ,a large empty crate1 such as is used to contain crockery-ware1 will make a good coop for large poults2 but if one cannot be had1 a coop may be made of laths or rails1 with the bars four inches apart2 it should be about five feet long1 four feet broad1 and three feet high4 ,keep her cooped for two months1 moving the coop every fine1 dry day into a grass field1 but on cold or wet days keep them in the outhouse4 ,if she is allowed her liberty before they are well grown and strong1 she will wander away with them through the long grass1 hedges1 and ditches1 over highway1 common1 and meadow1 mile after mile1 losing them on the road1 and straying on with the greatest complacency1 and perfectly satisfied so long as she has one or two following her1 and never once turning her head to see how her panting chicks are getting on1 nor troubled when they squat down tired out1 and implore her plaintively to come back2 and all this arises from sheer heedlessness1 and not from want of affection1 for she will fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for hers4 ,when full grown they should never be allowed to roam with her while there is heavy dew or white frost on the grass1 but be kept in till the fields and hedgerows are dry4 ,they will pick up many seeds and insects while wandering about in the fields with her1 but must be fed by hand three or four times a day at regular intervals4 ,they cease to be chicks or chickens1 and are called turkey-poults when the male and female distinctive characteristics are fairly established1 the carunculated skin and comb of the cock being developed1 which is called shooting the red1 or putting out the red1 and begins when they are eight or ten weeks old4 ,it is the most critical period of their lives--much more so than moulting1 and during the process their food must be increased in quantity1 and made more nourishing by the addition of boiled egg-yolks1 bread crumbled in ale1 wheaten flour1 bruised hempseed1 and the like1 and they must be well housed at night4 ,when this process is completed they will be hardy1 and able to take care of themselves2 but till they are fully fledged it will be advisable to keep them from rain and cold1 and not to try their hardness too suddenly4 ,vegetables1 as chopped nettles1 turnip-tops1 cabbage sprouts1 onions1 docks1 and the like1 boiled down and well mixed with barley-meal1 oatmeal1 or wheaten flour1 and curds1 if they can be afforded1 form excellent food for the young poults2 also steamed potatoes1 boiled carrots1 turnips1 and the like4 ,with this diet may be given buckwheat1 barley1 oats1 beans1 and sunflower seeds4 ,when they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and fields1 they are placed in charge of a boy or girl of from twelve to fifteen years old1 who can easily manage one hundred poults4 ,they are driven with a long bean stick1 and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from fighting1 to lead them to every place where there are acorns1 beech-mast1 corn1 wild fruit1 insects1 or other food to be picked up4 ,he must not allow them to get fatigued with too long rambles1 as they are not fully grown1 and must shelter them from the burning sun1 and hasten them home on the approach of rain4 ,the best times for these rambles are from eight to ten in the morning1 when the dew is off the grass1 and from four till seven in the evening1 before it begins to fall4 ,turkeys are crammed for the ,london markets4 ,the process of fattening may commence when they are six months old1 as they require a longer time to become fit for the market than fowls4 ,the large birds which are seen at ,christmas are usually males of the preceding year1 and about twenty months old4 ,all experienced breeders repudiate cramming4 ,to obtain fine birds the chickens must be fed abundantly from their birth until they are sent to market1 and while they are being fattened they should be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time daily1 and their food must be increased in quantity and improved in quality4 ,early hatched1 well fed young ,norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three pounds by ,christmas of the same year1 and two-year-old birds will sometimes attain to twenty pounds4 ,when two or more years old they are called stags4 ,the domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be divided into distinct breeds like the common fowl1 the several varieties being distinguished by colour only1 but identical in their form and habits4 ,they vary considerably in colour--some being of a bronzed black1 others of a coppery tint1 of a delicate fawn colour1 or buff1 and some of pure white4 ,the dark coloured birds are generally considered the most hardy1 and are usually the largest4 ,the chief varieties are the ,cambridge1 ,norfolk1 ,irish1 ,american1 and ,french4 ,the ,cambridge combines enormous size1 a tendency to fatten speedily1 and first-rate flavour4 ,the tortoiseshell character of its plumage gives the adult birds a very prepossessing appearance around the homestead1 and a striking character in the exhibition room4 ,the colours may vary from pale to dark grey1 with a deep metallic brown tint1 and light legs4 ,the legs should be stout and long4 ,the ,norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned1 and produces a large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness and excellent quality4 ,the cocks are almost as heavy as the ,cambridge breed1 but the hens are smaller and more compact4 ,the ,norfolk should be jet1 not blue black1 and free from any other colour1 being uniform throughout1 including the legs and feet4 ,all the birds in a pen must be uniform4 ,the ,american wild turkey has become naturalised in this country1 but being of a very wandering disposition is best adapted to be kept in parks and on large tracts of wild land4 ,it is slender in shape1 but of good size1 with uniform metallic bronze plumage1 the flight feathers being barred with white1 and the tail alternately with white1 rich dark brown1 and black1 and with bright pink legs4 ,the wattles are smaller than in the other breeds1 and of a bluish tinge4 ,they are very hardy1 but more spiteful than others1 and are said to be also more prolific4 ,crosses often take place in ,america between the wild and tame races1 and are highly valued both for their appearance and for the table4 ,eggs of the wild turkey have also often been taken from their nests1 and hatched under the domesticated hen4 ,the flavour of the flesh of the ,american breed is peculiar and exceedingly good1 but they do not attain a large size4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,guinea-,,fowls4 ,the ,guinea-fowl1 ,gallina1 or ,pintado 7,numida ,meleagris71 is the true meleagris of the ancients1 a term generically applied by ,belon1 ,aldrovandus1 and ,gesner to the turkey1 and now retained1 although the error is acknowledged1 in order to prevent confusion4 ,it is a native of ,africa1 where it is extensively distributed4 ,they associate in large flocks and frequent open glades1 the borders of forests1 and banks of rivers1 which offer abundant supplies of grain1 berries1 and insects1 in quest of which they wander during the day1 and collect together at evening1 and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or shrubs4 ,several other wild species are known1 some of which are remarkable for their beauty2 but the common ,guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in ,europe4 ,the ,guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long1 and from standing high on its legs1 and having loose1 full plumage1 appears to be larger than it really is1 for when plucked it does not weigh more than an ordinary ,dorking4 ,it is very plump and well-proportioned4 ,the ,guinea-fowl is not bred so much as the turkey in ,england or ,france1 is very rare in the northern parts of ,europe1 and in ,india is bred almost exclusively by ,europeans1 although it thrives as well there as in its native country4 ,it is turbulent and restless1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 continually moving from place to place1 and domineering over the whole poultry-yard1 boldly attacking even the fiercest turkey cock1 and keeping all in alarm by its petulant pugnacity2 and the males1 although without spurs1 can inflict serious injury on other poultry with their short1 hard beaks4 ,the ,guinea-fowls make very little use of their wings1 and if forced to take to flight1 fly but a short distance1 then alight1 and trust to their rapid mode of running1 and their dexterity in threading the mazes of brushwood and dense herbage1 for security4 ,they are shy1 wary1 and alert4 ,it is not much kept1 its habits being wandering1 and requiring an extensive range1 but as it picks up nearly all its food1 and is very prolific1 it may be made very profitable in certain localities4 ,the whole management of both the young and the old may be precisely the same as that of turkeys1 in hatching1 feeding1 and fattening4 ,this species1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 differs from all other poultry1 in its being difficult to distinguish the cock from the hen1 the chief difference being in the colour of the wattles1 which are more of a red hue in the cock1 and more tinged with blue in the hen4 ,the cock has also a more stately strut4 ,they mate in pairs1 and therefore an equal number of cocks and hens must be kept1 or the eggs will prove unfertile4 ,to obtain stock1 some of their eggs must be procured1 and placed under a common hen2 for if old birds are bought1 they will wander away for miles in search of their old home1 and never return4 ,they should be fed regularly1 and must always have one meal at night1 or they will scarcely ever roost at home4 ,they will not sleep in the fowl-house1 but prefer roosting in the lower branches of a tree1 or on a thick bush1 and retire early4 ,they make a peculiar1 harsh1 querulous noise1 which is oft-repeated1 and not agreeable4 ,the hens are prolific layers1 beginning in ,may1 and continuing during the whole summer4 ,their eggs are small1 but of excellent flavour1 of a pale yellowish red1 finely dotted with a darker tint1 and remarkable for the hardness of the shell4 ,the hen usually lays on a dry bank1 in secret places2 and a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off is quite as likely to contain her nest as any situation nearer her home4 ,she is very shy1 and1 if the eggs are taken from her nest1 will desert it1 and find another2 a few should1 therefore1 always be left1 and it should never be visited when she is in sight4 ,but she often contrives to elude all watching1 and hatch a brood1 frequently at a late period1 when the weather is too cold for the chickens4 ,as the ,guinea-fowl seldom shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint1 and frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in this country1 it is a general practice to place her eggs under a common fowl--,game and ,bantams are the best for the purpose4 ,about twenty of the earliest eggs should be set in ,may4 ,the ,guinea-hen will hatch another brood when she feels inclined4 ,they sit for twenty-six to twenty-nine or thirty days4 ,when she sits in due season she generally rears a large brood1 twenty not being an unusual number4 ,the chickens are very tender1 and should not be hatched too early in spring1 as a cold ,march wind is generally fatal to them4 ,they must be treated like those of the turkey1 and as carefully4 ,they should be fed almost immediately1 within six hours of being hatched1 abundantly1 and often2 and they require more animal food than other chickens4 ,egg boiled hard1 chopped very fine1 and mixed with oatmeal1 is the best food4 ,they will die if kept without food for three or four hours2 and should have a constant supply near them until they are allowed to have full liberty and forage for themselves4 ,they will soon pick up insects1 c41 and will keep themselves in good condition with a little extra food4 ,they are very strong on their legs1 and those hatched under common hens may be allowed to range with her at the end of six weeks1 and be fed on the same food and at the same times as other chickens4 ,the ,guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate between the pheasant and turkey4 ,after the pheasant season1 young birds that have been hatched the same year are excellent substitutes for that fine game1 and fetch a fair price4 ,they should never be fattened1 but have a good supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being killed4 ,the flesh of the young bird is very delicate1 juicy1 and well-flavoured1 but the old birds1 even of the second year1 are dry1 tough1 and tasteless4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ducks4 ,ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought1 except it is purchased wholesale1 and they are reared for town markets1 for their appetites are voracious1 and they do not graze like geese4 ,they may be kept in a limited space1 but more profitably and conveniently where they have the run of a paddock1 orchard1 kitchen garden1 flat common1 green lane1 or farmyard1 with ditches and water4 ,they will return at night1 and come to the call of the feeder4 ,nothing comes amiss to them--green vegetables1 especially when boiled1 all kinds of meal made into porridge1 all kinds of grain1 bread1 oatcake1 the refuse and offal of the kitchen1 worms1 slugs1 snails1 insects and their larvae1 are devoured eagerly4 ,where many fowls are kept1 a few ducks may be added profitably1 for they may be fed very nearly on what the hens refuse4 ,ducks require water to swim in1 but it is a mistake1 says ,mr4 ,baily1 to imagine that ducks require a great deal of water4 ,they may be kept where there is but very little1 and only want a pond or tank just deep enough to swim in4 ,the early ,aylesbury ducklings that realise such large prices in the ,london market have hardly ever had a swim2 and in rearing ducks1 where size is a desideratum1 they will grow faster and become larger when kept in pens1 farmyards1 or in pastures1 than where they are at and in the water all day4 ,where a large number of geese and ducks are kept1 water on a sufficient scale1 and easily accessible1 should be in the neighbourhood4 ,illustration3 ,toulouse ,goose4 ,rouen and ,aylesbury ,ducks4 ,ducks1 being aquatic birds1 do not require heated apartments1 nor roosts on which to perch during the night4 ,they squat on the floors1 which must be dry and warm4 ,they should1 if possible1 be kept in a house separate from the other poultry1 and it should have a brick floor1 so that it can be easily washed4 ,in winter the floor should be littered with a thin layer of straw1 rushes1 or fern leaves1 fresh every day4 ,the hatching-houses should be separated from the lodging apartments1 and provided with boxes for the purpose of incubation and hatching4 ,in its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate3 the domestic duck has become polygamous1 and five ducks may be allowed to one drake1 but not more than two or three ducks should be given to one drake if eggs are required for setting4 ,ducks begin laying in ,january1 and usually from that time only during the spring2 but those hatched in ,march will often lay in the autumn1 and continue for two or three months4 ,they usually lay fifty or sixty eggs1 and have been known to produce #bej4 ,the faculty of laying might be greatly developed1 as it has been in some breeds of fowls2 but they have been hitherto chiefly bred for their flesh4 ,they require constant watching when beginning to lay1 for they drop their eggs everywhere but in the nest made for them1 but as they generally lay in the night1 or early in the morning1 when in perfect health1 they should therefore be kept in every morning till they have laid4 ,one of the surest signs of indisposition among them is irregularity in laying4 ,the eggs of the duck1 says ,mr4 ,dickson1 are readily known from those of the common fowl by their bluish colour and larger size1 the shell being smoother1 not so thick1 and with much fewer pores4 ,when boiled1 the white is never curdy like that of a new-laid hen's egg1 but transparent and glassy1 while the yolk is much darker in colour4 ,the flavour is by no means so delicate4 ,for omelets1 however1 as well as for puddings and pastry1 duck eggs are much better than hen's eggs1 giving a finer colour and flavour1 and requiring less butter2 qualities so highly esteemed in ,picardy1 that the women will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to make their holiday cakes4 ,a hen is often made to hatch ducklings1 being considered a better nurse than a duck1 which is apt to take them while too young to the pond1 dragging them under beetling banks in search of food1 and generally leaving half of them in the water unable to get out2 and if the fly or the gnat is on the water1 she will stay there till after dark1 and lose part of her brood4 ,ducks' eggs may be advantageously placed under a broody exhibition hen4 7,see page #hh47 ,a turkey is much better than either1 from the large expanse of the wings in covering the broods1 and the greater heat of body2 but if the duck is a good sitter1 it is best to let her hatch her own eggs1 taking care to keep her and them from the water till they are strong4 ,the nest should be on the ground1 and in a damp place4 ,choose the freshest eggs1 and place from nine to eleven under her4 ,feed her morning and evening while sitting1 and place food and water within her reach4 ,the duck always covers her eggs upon leaving them1 and loose straw should be placed near the house for that purpose4 ,they are hatched in thirty days4 ,they may generally be left with their mother upon the nest for her own time4 ,when she moves coop her on the short grass if fine weather1 or under shelter if otherwise1 for a week or ten days1 when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour at a time4 ,when hatched they require constant feeding4 ,a little curd1 bread-crumbs1 and meal1 mixed with chopped green food1 is the best food when first hatched4 ,boiled cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for ducklings for the first ten days2 afterwards barley-meal1 pollard1 and oats1 with plenty of green food4 ,never give them hard spring water to drink1 but that from a pond4 ,ducklings are easily reared1 soon able to shift for themselves1 and to pick up worms1 slugs1 and insects1 and can be cooped together in numbers at night if protected from rats4 ,an old pigsty is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks4 ,ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till feathers have supplied the place of their early down1 for the latter will get saturated with the water while the former throws off the wet4 ,though the young ducklings1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 take early to the water1 it is better that they should gain a little strength before they be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers2 a shallow vessel of water filled to the brim and sunk in the ground will suffice for the first week or ten days1 and this rule is more especially to be adhered to when they are under the care of a common hen1 which cannot follow them into the pond1 and the calls of which when there they pay little or no regard to4 ,rats1 weasels1 pike1 and eels are formidable foes to ducklings3 we have known entire broods destroyed by the former1 which1 having their burrows in a steep bank around a sequestered pond1 it was found impossible to extirpate4 ,if the ducklings stay too long in the water they will have diarrhoea1 in which case coop them close for a few days1 and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their ordinary food4 ,a troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen garden in the summer or autumn1 when they can do no mischief by devouring delicate salads and young sprouting vegetables4 ,they will search industriously for snails1 slugs1 woodlice1 and millipedes1 and gobble them up eagerly1 getting positively fat on slugs and snails4 ,strawberries1 of which they are very fond1 must be protected from them4 ,where steamed food is daily prepared for pigs and cattle1 a portion of this mixed with bran and barley-meal is the cheapest mode of satisfying their voracious appetites4 ,they should never be stinted in food4 ,to fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food as they will eat1 bruised oats and peameal being the standard1 plenty of exercise1 and clean water4 ,boiled roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent food1 with a little milk added during fattening4 ,they require neither penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness1 and if well fed should be fit for market in eight or ten weeks4 ,celery imparts a delicious flavour4 ,the ,aylesbury is the finest breed1 and should be of a spotless white1 with long1 flat1 broad beak of a pale flesh colour1 grey eyes1 long head and neck1 broad and flat body and breast1 and orange legs1 placed wide apart4 ,as it lays early1 its ducklings are the earliest ready for market4 ,they have produced #aej large eggs in a year1 and are better sitters than the ,rouen4 ,the ,rouen is hardy and easily reared1 but rarely lay till ,february or ,march4 ,they thrive better in most parts of ,england than the ,aylesburys1 and care less for the water than the other varieties4 ,they are very handsome1 and weigh eight or nine pounds each1 and their flesh is excellent4 ,the ,muscovy duck is so called1 says ,ray1 not because it comes from ,muscovy1 but because it exhales a somewhat powerful odour of musk4 ,little is known of its origin1 which is generally thought to be ,south ,america2 nor has the date of its introduction into ,europe been ascertained4 ,this species1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 will inter-breed with the common duck1 but we believe the progeny are not fertile4 ,the ,musk duck greatly exceeds the ordinary kind in size1 and moreover1 differs in the colours and character of the plumage1 in general contour1 and the form of the head4 ,the general colour is glossy blue-black1 varied more or less with white2 the head is crested1 and a space of naked scarlet skin1 more or less clouded with violet1 surrounds the eye1 continued from scarlet caruncles on the base of the beak2 the top of the head is crested1 the feathers of the body are larger1 more lax1 softer1 and less closely compacted together than in the common duck1 and seem to indicate less aquatic habits4 ,the male far surpasses the female in size2 there are no curled feathers in his tail4 ,the male is fierce and quarrelsome1 and when enraged has a savage appearance1 and utters deep1 hoarse sounds4 ,the flesh is very good1 but the breed is inferior as a layer to the ,aylesbury or ,rouen4 ,the ,buenos ,ayres1 ,labrador1 or ,east ,indian1 brought most probably from the first-named country1 is a small and very beautiful variety1 with the plumage of a uniform rich1 lustrous1 greenish-black1 and dark legs and bills2 the drake rarely weighing five pounds1 and the duck four pounds4 ,their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured matter1 but the shell is really of a dull white4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,geese4 ,geese require much the same management as ducks4 ,they may be kept profitably where there is a rough pasture or common into which they may be turned1 and the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep1 as is generally the case2 but even when the pasturage is good1 a supply of oats1 barley1 or other grain should be allowed every morning and evening4 ,where the pasturage is poor or bad1 the old geese become thin and weak1 and the young broods never thrive and often die unless fully fed at home4 ,a goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet long by six feet wide and six or seven feet high1 with a smooth floor of brick4 ,a little clean straw should be spread over it every other day1 after removing that previously used1 and washing the floor4 ,each goose should have a compartment two feet and a half square for laying and sitting1 as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg4 ,the house must be well ventilated4 ,all damp must be avoided4 ,a pigsty makes a capital pen4 ,although a pond is an advantage1 they do not require more than a large trough or tank to bathe in4 ,for breeding not more than four geese should be kept to one gander4 ,their breeding powers continue to more than twenty years old4 ,it is often difficult to distinguish the sexes1 no one sign being infallible except close examination4 ,the goose lays early in a mild spring1 or in an ordinary season1 if fed high throughout the winter with corn1 and on the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley1 malt1 fresh grains1 and fine pollard mixed up with ale1 or other stimulants2 by which two broods may be obtained in a year4 ,the common goose lays from nine to seventeen eggs1 usually about thirteen1 and generally carries straws about previously to laying4 ,thirteen eggs are quite enough for the largest goose to sit on4 ,they sit from thirty to thirty-five days4 ,march or early ,april is the best period for hatching1 and the geese should therefore begin to sit in ,february or early ,march2 for goslings hatched at any time after ,april are difficult to rear4 ,food and water should be placed near to her1 for she sits closely4 ,she ought to leave her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring pond4 ,the gander is very attentive1 and sits by her1 and is vigilant and daring in her defence4 ,when her eggs are placed under a common hen they should be sprinkled with water daily or every other day1 for the moisture of the goose's breast is beneficial to them4 7,see page #ej47 ,a turkey is an excellent mother for goslings4 ,she should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot or meadow1 with grain and water by her1 of which the goslings will eat2 and they should also be supplied with chopped cabbage or beet leaves1 or other green food4 ,they must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from rats4 ,their only dangers are heavy rains1 damp floors1 and vermin2 and they require but little care for the first fortnight2 while the old birds are singularly free from maladies of all kinds common to poultry4 ,when a fortnight old they may be allowed to go abroad with their mother and frequent the pond4 ,it has been formerly recommended1 says ,mowbray1 to keep the newly-hatched gulls in house during a week1 lest they get cramp from the damp earth2 but we did not find this indoor confinement necessary2 penning the goose and her brood between four hurdles upon a piece of dry grass well sheltered1 putting them out late in the morning1 or not at all in severe weather1 and ever taking them in early in the evening4 ,sometimes we have pitched double the number of hurdles1 for the convenience of two broods1 there being no quarrels among this sociable and harmless part of the feathered race4 ,we did not even find it necessary to interpose a parting hurdle1 which1 on occasion1 may be always conveniently done4 ,for the first range a convenient field containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common1 over which the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose1 until they become cramped or tired1 some of them squatting down and remaining behind at evening4 ,all the hemlock or deadly nightshade within range should be destroyed4 ,when the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned into the stubble which they will thoroughly glean1 and many of them will be in fine condition by ,michaelmas4 ,green geese are young geese fattened at about the age of four months1 usually on oatmeal and peas1 mixed with skim-milk or butter-milk1 or upon oats or other grain1 and are very delicate4 ,in fattening geese for ,christmas give oats mixed with water for the first fortnight1 and afterwards barley-meal made into a crumbling porridge4 ,they should be allowed to bathe for a few hours before being killed1 for they are then plucked more easily and the feathers are in better condition4 ,their feathers1 down1 and quills are very valuable4 ,geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops1 as well as young trees1 and must therefore be carefully kept out of orchards and plantations4 ,their dung1 though acrid and apt to injure at first1 will1 when it is mellowed1 much enrich the ground4 ,the ,toulouse or ,grey ,goose is very large1 of uniform grey plumage1 with long neck1 having a kind of dewlap under the throat2 the abdominal pouch very much developed1 almost touching the ground2 short legs2 flat feet2 short1 broad tail2 and very upright carriage1 almost like a penguin4 ,the ,toulouse lays a large number of eggs1 sometimes as many as thirty1 and even more1 but rarely wishes to sit1 and is a very bad mother4 ,the ,emden or pure ,white is very scarce4 ,the bill is flesh-colour1 and the legs and feet orange4 ,they require a pond4 ,the ,toulouse1 crossed with the large white or dark-coloured common breed1 produces greater weight than either1 and the objection to the former as indifferent sitters and mothers is avoided2 but is not desirable for breeding stock1 and must have a pond like the ,white4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,diseases4 ,it is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease1 and so save trouble1 loss of their carcases1 and the risk of infection4 ,but if the fowls are favourites1 or valuable1 it may be desirable to use every means of cure4 ,see to a sick fowl at once2 prompt attention may prevent serious illness1 and loss of the bird4 ,when a fowl's plumage is seen to be bristled up and disordered1 and its wings hanging or dragging1 it should be at once removed from the others1 and looked to4 ,pale and livid combs are as certain a sign of bad health in fowls1 as the paleness or lividness of the lips is in human beings4 ,every large establishment should have a warm1 properly ventilated1 and well-lighted house1 comfortably littered down with clean straw1 to be used as a hospital1 and every fowl should be removed to it upon showing any symptoms of illness1 even if the disease is not infectious1 for sick fowls are often pecked at1 ill treated1 and disliked by their healthy companions4 ,bear in mind that prevention is better than cure1 and that proper management and housing1 good feeding1 pure water and greens1 cleanliness and exercise1 will prevent all1 or nearly all1 these diseases4 ,,apoplexy arises from over-feeding1 and can seldom be treated in time to be of service4 ,the only remedy is bleeding1 by opening the large vein under the wing1 and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes4 ,open the vein with a lancet1 or if that is not at hand1 with a sharp-pointed penknife2 make the incision lengthways1 not across1 and press the vein with your thumb between the opening and the body1 when the blood will flow4 ,if the fowl should recover1 feed it on soft1 low food for a few days1 and keep it quiet4 ,it occurs most often in laying hens1 which frequently die on the nest while ejecting the egg2 and is frequently caused by too much of very stimulating food1 such as hempseed1 or improper diet of greaves1 and also by giving too much pea or bean meal4 ,,hard ,,crop1 or being ,,crop-,,bound1 is caused by too much food1 especially of hard grain1 being taken into the crop1 so that it cannot be softened by maceration1 and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach4 ,although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop1 the stomach becomes empty1 and the fowl eats still more food4 ,sometimes a fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach1 and being kept in the crop forms a kernel1 around which fibrous and other hard material collects4 ,mr4 ,baily says3 ,pour plenty of warm water down the throat1 and loosen the food till it is soft4 ,then give a tablespoonful of castor-oil1 or about as much jalap as will lie on a shilling1 mixed in butter2 make a pill of it1 and slide it into the crop4 ,the fowl will be well in the morning4 ,if the crop still remain hard after this1 an operation is the only remedy4 ,the feathers should be picked off the crop in a straight line down the middle4 ,generally speaking1 the crop will be found full of grass or hay1 that has formed a ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance4 7,i once took a piece of carrot three inches long out of a crop47 ,when the offence has been removed1 the crop should be washed out with warm water4 ,it should then be sewn up with coarse thread1 and the suture rubbed with grease4 ,afterwards the outer skin should be served the same4 ,the crop and skin must not be sewed together4 ,for three or four days the patient should have only gruel2 no hard food for a fortnight4 ,the slit should be made in the upper part of the crop1 and just large enough to admit a blunt instrument1 with which you must gently remove the hardened mass4 ,,diarrhoea is caused by exposure to much cold and wet1 reaction after constipation from having had too little green food1 unwholesome food1 and dirt4 ,feed on warm barley-meal1 or oatmeal mashed with a little warm ale1 and some but not very much green food1 and give five grains of powdered chalk1 one grain of opium1 and one grain of powdered ipecacuanha twice a day till the looseness is checked4 ,boiled rice1 with a little chalk and cayenne pepper mixed1 will also check the complaint4 ,when the evacuations are coloured with blood1 the diarrhoea has become dysentery1 and cure is very doubtful4 ,,gapes1 a frequent yawning or gaping1 is caused by worms in the windpipe1 which may be removed by introducing a feather1 stripped to within an inch of the point1 into the windpipe1 turning it round quickly1 and then drawing it out1 when the parasites will be found adhering with slime upon it2 but if this be not quickly and skilfully done1 and with some knowledge of the anatomy of the parts touched1 the bird may be killed instead of cured4 ,another remedy is to put the fowl into a box1 placing in it at the same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot water plate filled with boiling water1 and repeating this for three or four days4 ,some persons recommend1 as a certain cure in a few days1 half a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine mixed with a handful of grain1 giving that quantity to two dozen of chickens each day4 ,a pinch of salt put as far back into the mouth as possible is also said to be effectual4 ,,leg ,,weakness1 shown by the bird resting on the first joint1 is generally caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the strength of the legs2 and this being entirely the result of weakness1 the remedy is to give strength by tonics and more nourishing food4 ,the quality should be improved1 but the quantity must not be increased1 as the disease has been caused by over-feeding having produced too much weight for the strength of the legs4 ,frequent bathing in cold water is very beneficial4 ,this is best effected by tying a towel round the fowl1 and suspending it over a pail of water1 with the legs only immersed4 ,,loss ,,of ,,feathers is almost always caused by want of green food1 or dust-heap for cleansing4 ,let the fowls have both1 and remove them to a grass run if possible4 ,but nothing will restore the feathers till the next moult4 ,fowls1 when too closely housed or not well supplied with green food and lime1 sometimes eat each other's feathers1 destroying the plumage till the next moult4 ,in such cases green food and mortar rubbish should be supplied1 exercise allowed1 the injured fowl should be removed to a separate place1 and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur ointment4 ,cut or broken feathers should be pulled out at once4 ,,pip1 a dry scale on the tongue1 is not a disease1 but the symptom of some disease1 being only analogous to a foul tongue in human beings4 ,do not scrape the tongue1 nor cut off the tip1 but cure the roup1 diarrhoea1 bad digestion1 gapes1 or whatever the disease may be1 and the pip will disappear4 ,,roup is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds4 ,it begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from cold1 and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils1 froth in the corners of the eyes1 and swollen lids4 ,it is very contagious4 ,separate the fowl from the others1 keep it warm1 add some ,douglass ,mixture 7see ,moulting7 to its water daily1 wash its head once or twice daily with tepid water1 feed it with meal1 only mixed with hot ale instead of water1 and plenty of green food4 ,mr4 ,wright advises half a grain of cayenne pepper with half a grain of powdered allspice in a bolus of the meal1 or one of ,baily's roup pills to be given daily4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier recommends one grain of sulphate of copper daily4 ,another advises a spoonful of castor-oil at once1 and a few hours afterwards one of ,baily's roup pills1 and to take the scale off the tongue1 which can easily be done by holding the beak open with your left hand1 and removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right hand2 with a pill every morning for a week4 ,if not almost well in a week it will be better to kill it4 ,,the ,,thrush may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water4 ,,paralysis generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to move4 ,it is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food4 ,there is no known remedy for this disease1 and the fowl seldom if ever recovers4 ,although chiefly affecting the legs of fowls1 it is quite a different disease from ,,leg ,,weakness4 ,,vertigo results from too great a flow of blood to the head1 and is generally caused by over-feeding4 ,pouring cold water upon the fowl's head1 or holding it under a tap for a few minutes1 will check this complaint1 and the bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or six grains of jalap4 ,,moulting4 ,all birds1 but especially old fowls1 require more warmth and more nourishing diet during this drain upon their system1 and should roost in a warm1 sheltered1 and properly-ventilated house1 free from all draught4 ,do not let them out early in the morning1 if the weather is chilly1 but feed them under cover1 and give them every morning warm1 soft food1 such as bread and ale1 oatmeal and milk1 potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor1 with a little pepper and a little boiled meat1 as liver1 c41 cut small1 and a little hempseed with their grain at night4 ,give them in their water some iron or ,douglass ,mixture1 which consists of one ounce of sulphate of iron and one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart of water2 a teaspoonful of the mixture is to be added to each pint of drinking water4 ,this chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young chickens1 and young birds that are disposed to outgrow their strength4 ,it increases their appetite1 improves the health1 imparts strength1 brightens the colour of the comb1 and increases the stamina of the birds4 ,when chickens droop and seem to suffer as the feathers on the head grow1 give them once a day meat minced fine and a little canary-seed4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,piper on ,poultry3 their ,varieties1 ,management1 ,breeding1 and ,diseases2 ,price #as4 ,groombridge ,sons1 #e1 ,paternoster ,row1 ,london4 ,footnote #b3 ,the ,practical ,poultry ,keeper4 ,by ,mr4 ,l4 ,wright4 ,cassell1 ,petter ,galpin4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,practical ,poultry ,keeper4 ,by ,mr4 ,l4 ,wright4 ,cassell1 ,petter ,galpin4