,,h]oes ,,( ,,sci5ce4         ,,h]oes   
,,( ,,sci5ce4      ,,physici/s4         
,,by      ,,william ,,g>nett1 ,m4,a41   
,d4,c4,l41       ,,=m]ly ,,fell[ ,,(    
,,/4 ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge2  
,,pr9cipal ,,(     ,,! ,,durham         
,,college ,,( ,,sci5ce1                 
,,newca/le-,,^u-,,tyne2 ,,hon4 ,,memb]  
,,( ,,! ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl& ,,in/itute   
,,( ,,m9+ ,,& ,,me*anical     ,,eng9e]s4
      ,,publi%$ ,,"u ,,! ,,direction ,,(
 ,,! ,,committee ,,( ,,g5]al            
,,lit]ature ,,& ,,education ,,appo9t$   
,,by ,,! ,,society ,,= ,,promot+        
,,*ri/ian ,,k4      ,,london3           
,,society ,,= ,,promot+ ,,*ri/ian ,,k1  
,,nor?umb]l& ,,av5ue1 ,,*>+ ,,cross1    
,w4,c42      #dc1 ,,que5 ,,victoria     
,,/reet1 ,e4,c42     #bf1 ,,/4          
,,george',s ,,place1 ,,hyde ,,p>k       
,,corn]1 ,s4,w4     ,,brighton3 #ace1   
,,nor? ,,/reet4      ,,new ,,york3 ,e4  
,j4 ,b4 ,,"y ,,& ,,co4     ,,preface4   
,! foll[+ pages claim no orig9ality1 &  
no m]its beyond t ( br++ )9 rea* ( e boy

 & girl mat]ial :i* w\ld o!rwise be     
available only to ^? :o _h ext5sive     
libr>ies at _! comm&1 & mu* "t at _!    
disposal4 ,9 ! s*ools & colleges 9 :i* !
 pr9ciples ( physical sci5ce are well   
taught1 ! hi/ory ( ! discov]ies :]eby ^?
 pr9ciples h be5 e/abli%$ has be5 too   
mu* neglect$4 ,! s]ies to :i* ! pres5t  
volume belongs is int5d$1 9 "s measure1 
to meet ?is defici5cy4  ,a complete     
hi/ory ( physical sci5ce w\ld1 if x c\ld
 be writt51 =m a libr>y ( consid]able   
dim5sions4 ,! foll[+ pages deal only ) !
 biographies ( a few di/+ui%$ m51 :o1 by
 bir?1 7 ,briti% subjects1 & incid5tal  
allusions only are made to liv+         
philosoph]s2 b1 not)/&+ ^! n>r[         
re/rictions1 ! f\ndations ( ! ,royal    
,society ( ,london1 ( ! ,am]ican        
,philosophical ,society1 ( ! great      
,libr>y ( ,p5nsylvania1 & ( ! ,royal    
,in/itution1 are ev5ts1 "s acc\nt ( :i* 
comes )9 ! compass ( ! volume4 ,!       
gradual developm5t ( our k (            
electricity1 ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat1 

& ( ! undulatory !ory ( optics1 w be    
f\nd del9eat$ 9 ! biographies select$1  
?\gh no cont9u\s hi/ory is trac$ 9 !    
case ( any "o ( ^! bran*es ( physics4   
,! s\rces f :i* ! matt] conta9$ 9 !     
foll[+ pages has be5 d]iv$ h be51 9     
addition to ! publi%$ works ( ! subjects
 ( ! sev]al sket*es1 ! foll[+3--  ,!    
,encyclopa$ia ,britannica4  ,memoir ( ! 
,hon\rable ,rob]t ,boyle1 by ,?omas     
,bir*1 ,m4,a41 prefix$ to ! folio       
edition ( 8 works1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9      
,london 9 #agdc4  ,life ( ,b5jam9       
,frankl91 f 8 own writ+s1 by ,john      
,bigel[4  ,dr4 ,g4 ,wilson's ,life (    
,cav5di%1 :i* =ms ! fir/ volume ( !     
publications ( ! ,cav5di% ,society2 & ! 
,electrical ,rese>*es ( ! ,hon4 ,h5ry   
,cav5di%1 ,f4,r4,s41 edit$ by ! late    
,pr(essor ,james ,cl]k ,maxwell4  ,!    
,life ( ,sir ,b5jam9 ,?ompson1 ,c\nt    
,rum=d1 by ,george ,e4 ,ellis1 publi%$  
by ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts &        
,sci5ces1 9 connection ) ! complete     
edition ( 8 works4  ,memoir ( ,?omas    

,"y1 by ! late ,dean ,peacock4  ,dr4    
,b5ce ,jones's ,life ( ,f>aday2 &       
,pr(essor ,tyndall's ,f>aday z a        
,discov]]4  ,life ( ,james ,cl]k        
,maxwell1 by ,pr(essor ,lewis ,campbell 
& ,william ,g>nett4  ,x is hop$ t !     
p]usal ( ! foll[+ sket*es may prove z   
in/ructive to ! read] z _! prep>ation   
has be5 to ! writ]4      ,,wm4 ,,g>nett4
      ,,newca/le-,,^u-,,tyne1           
,decemb]1 #ahhe4     ,,cont5ts4         
,,page ,,introduction            #a     
,,rob]t ,,boyle            #e ,,b5jam9  
,,frankl9      #ch ,,h5ry ,,cav5di%     
#abe ,,c\nt ,,rum=d         #adh ,,?omas
 ,,"y          #aid ,,mi*ael ,,f>aday   
#bcg ,,james ,,cl]k ,,maxwell   #bgh    
,,conclusion            #cji     ,,h]oes
 ,,( ,,sci5ce4     ,,introduction4   ,! 
dawn ( true ideas respect+ me*anics has 
be5 describ$ 9 ! volume ( ?is s]ies     
devot$ to a/ronom]s4 ,at ! "t :5 ! fir/ 
( ! foll[+ biographies op5s !re 7 a few 
m5 :o held s\nd views respect+ ! laws ( 
motion & ! pr9ciples ( hydro/atics4     

,consid]able advance _h be5 made 9 !    
subject ( geometrical optics2 !         
rectil9e> propagation ( light & ! laws (
 reflection hav+ be5 kn[n to ! ,greeks &
 ,arabians1 :il/ ,willebrod ,snellius1  
,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,leyd51 _h    
correctly enunciat$ ! laws ( refraction 
v e>ly 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,pl9y       
m5tions ! action ( a sph]e ( rock-cry/al
 & ( a glass globe fill$ ) wat] 9 br++  
light to a focus4 ,rog] ,bacon us$      
segm5ts ( a glass sph]e z l5ses2 & 9 !  
elev5? c5tury ,alhaz5 made _m           
measurem5ts ( ! angles ( incid5ce &     
refraction1 ?\gh he did n succe$ 9      
discov]+ ! law4 ,huygh5s develop$ to a  
great ext5t ! undulatory !ory2 :ile     
,newton at ! same "t made great         
contributions to ! subject ( geometrical
 optics1 decompos$ :ite light by means (
 a prism1 inve/igat$ ! col\rs ( ?9      
plates1 & "s cases ( diffraction1 &     
speculat$ on ! nature1 prop]ties1 &     
functions ( ! e!r1 :i* 0 equally        
necess>y to ! corpuscul> z to !         

undulatory !ory ( light1 if any ( !     
ph5om5a ( int]f]5ce 7 to be expla9$4 ,! 
velocity ( light 0 fir/ measur$ by      
,roem]1 9 #afgf4 ,! cam]a obscura 0     
inv5t$ by ,bapti/a ,porta1 a weal?y     
,neapolitan1 9 #aefj2 & ,kepl] expla9$ !
 action ( ! eye z an optical in/rum5t1 9
 #afjd4 ,antonio de ,dom9is1 ,ar*bi%op (
 ,spalatro1 discov]$ ! fr+e ( col\rs    
produc$ by sunlight once reflect$ f !   
int]ior ( a globe ( wat]1 & ?is l$1 9   
,newton's h&s1 to ! complete explanation
 ( ! ra9b[4  ,! g]m ( ! me*anical !ory (
 heat is to be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,"l    
,bacon4 ,! fir/ !rmomet]s :i* 7 bl[n 9  
glass ) a bulb & tube h]metically seal$1
 7 made by a craftsman 9 ,flor5ce1 9 !  
"t ( ,torricelli4 ,! graduations on ^!  
!rmomet]s 7 made by atta*+ little beads 
( col\r$ glass to _! /ems1 & !y 7 c>ri$ 
ab\t ,europe by memb]s ( ! ,flor5t9e    
,academy1 9 ord] to le>n :e!r ice melt$ 
at ! same temp]ature 9 all latitudes4   
,9 electricity ! attraction ( light     
bodies by amb] :5 rubb$1 0 kn[n at lea/ 

six hundr$ ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & !
 %ocks ( ! torp$o 7 describ$ by ,pl9y & 
by ,ari/otle2 b ! ph5om5a 7 n associat$ 
9 m5's m9ds until rec5t times4 ,dr4     
,gilb]t1 ( ,col*e/]1 ,physician to ,que5
 ,elizabe?1 may be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! 
mod]n sci5ce4 ,he di/+ui%$ two classes (
 bodies1 viz4 electrics1 or ^? :i* w\ld 
attract light bodies :5 rubb$2 &        
non-electrics1 or ^? :i* c\ld n be s    
excit$4 ,! fir/ electric ma*9e 0        
con/ruct$ by ,otto von ,gu]icke1 !      
inv5tor ( ! ,magdeburg hemisph]es1 :o   
m\nt$ a ball ( sulphur s t x c\ld be    
made rapidly to rotate :ile x 0 excit$  
by ! friction ( ! h&4 ,he obs]v$ !      
repulsion :i* g5]ally foll[s !          
attraction ( a light body by an         
electrifi$ object aft] ! two h come 9   
contact4 ,he also notic$ t c]ta9 bodies 
plac$ ne> to electrifi$ bodies possess$ 
simil> p[]s ( attraction to ^? ( !      
electrifi$ bodies !mselves4 ,newton     
replac$ ! sulphur globe ( ,otto von     
,gu]icke by a globe ( glass4 ,/eph5     

,gray discov]$ ! conduction (           
electricity1 9 #agbi1 :5 he succe$$ 9   
transmitt+ a *>ge to a di/ance ( #hhf   
feet along a pack-?read susp5d$ by silk 
/r+s s z to insulate x f ! e>?4         
,desaguli]s %[$ t ,gilb]t's electrics 7 
simply ^? bodies :i* c\ld n conduct     
electricity1 :ile all conductors 7      
non-electrics2 & ,dufay %[$ t all bodies
 c\ld be electrifi$ by friction if      
support$ on insulat+ /&s4 ,he also %[$ t
 !re 7 two k9ds ( electrification1 &    
call$ "o vitre\s1 ! o!r res9\s4 ,gray1  
,hawksbee1 & ,dr4 ,wall all notic$ !    
simil>ity betwe5 lightn+ & ! electric   
dis*>ge4 ,! prime conductor 0 fir/ add$ 
to ! electric ma*9e by ,boze1 (         
,witt5b]g2 & ,w9kl]1 ( ,leipsic1 employ$
 a cu%ion in/ead ( ! h& to produce      
friction aga9/ ! glass4 ,! accumulation 
( electricity 9 ! ,leyd5 j> 0 discov]$  
accid5tally by ,cuneus1 a pupil (       
,mus*5broeck1 ( ,leyd51 ab\t #agde1 :ile
 attempt+ to electrify wat] 9 a bottle  
held 9 8 h&4 ,a nail pass$ ?r\gh ! cork1

 by :i* ! electricity 0 communicat$ to !
 wat]4 ,on t\*+ ! nail aft] *>g+ ! wat]1
 he receiv$ ! %ock ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,?is  
br+s ! hi/ory ( electrical discov]y d[n 
to ! "t ( ,frankl94     ,,rob]t ,,boyle4
   ,rob]t ,boyle 0 desc5d$ f a family   
:o1 9 ,saxon times1 held l& 9 ! c\nty ( 
,h]e=d1 & ^: "n 9 ! ,doomsday ,book is  
writt5 ,biuvile4 ,8 fa!r 0 ,ri*>d       
,boyle1 ,e>l ( ,cork1 to :om ! =tunes ( 
! family 7 l>gely due4 ,ri*>d ,boyle 0  
born 9 ! city ( ,cant]bury1 ,octob] #c1 
#aeff4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,b5e't ,college 
7n[ ,corpus ,*ri/i ,college71           
,cambridge1 & aft]w>ds became a memb] ( 
! ,middle ,temple4 ,f9d+ 8 means        
insuffici5t = ! prosecution ( 8 legal   
/udies1 he det]m9$ to seek 8 =tune      
abroad4 ,9 #aeie he m>ri$1 at ,lim]ick1 
"o ( ! daught]s ( ,william ,apsley1 :o  
br\ght him l& ( ! value ( ,l#ejj p]     
annum4 ,9 8 autobiography ! ,e>l ( ,cork
 writes3--      ,:5 fir/ ,i arriv$ at   
,dubl91 9 ,irel&1 ! #bcrd ( ,june       
#aehh1 all my weal? !n 0 tw5ty-sev5     

p\nds ?ree %ill+s     9 money1 & two    
tok5s :i* my "m _h giv5 me1 viz4 a      
diamond r+1 :i* ,i h ev] s9ce & /ill d  
we>1 & a     bracelet ( gold wor? ab\t  
t5 p\nds2 a taffety d\blet cut     ) &  
^u taffety1 a pair ( black velvet       
bree*es lac$1 a     new ,milan fu/ian   
suit lac$ & cut ^u taffety1 two cloaks1 
compet5t l951 & necess>ies1 ) my rapi] &
 dagg]4 ,&     s9ce1 ! bless+ ( ,god1 ^:
 heav5ly provid5ce guid$ me     hi!r1   
ha? enri*$ my weak e/ate1 9 beg9n+ ) su*
 a     =tune1 z ,i ne$ n envy any ( my  
neighb\rs1 & add$ no     c>e or bur!n ( 
my consci5ce !reunto4 ,& ! #bcrd (      
,june1 #afcb1 ,i h s]v$ my ,god1 ,que5  
,elizabe?1 ,k+ ,james1     & ,k+ ,*>les1
 full =ty-f\r ye>s1 & s long aft] z x   
%all please ,god to enable me4  ,ri*>d  
,boyle's prop]ty 9 ,irel& increas$ s    
rapidly t he 0 accus$ to ,que5 ,elizabe?
 ( receiv+ pay f "s =eign p[]4 ,:5 ab\t 
to visit ,engl& 9 ord] to cle> himself (
 ?is *>ge1 ! rebellion 9 ,mun/] broke   
out2 8 l&s 7 wa/$1 & 8 income = ! "t    

de/roy$4 ,rea*+ ,london1 he return$ to 8
 old *amb]s 9 ! ,middle ,temple1 until  
he ent]$ ! s]vice ( ! ,e>l ( ,essex1 to 
:om ! gov]nm5t ( ,irel& _h be5 entru/$4 
,! *>ges aga9/ him 7 !n resum$1 & he 0  
made a prison]1 & kept 9 conf9em5t until
 ! ,e>l ( ,essex _h gone ov] to ,irel&4 
,at l5g? he obta9$ a he>+ be=e ! que51  
:o fully acquitt$ him ( ! *>ges1 gave   
him h] h& to kiss1 & promis$ to employ  
him 9 h] own s]vice2 at ! same "t %e    
dismiss$ ,sir ,h5ry ,wallop1 :o 0       
,treasur] = ,irel&1 & prom95t among     
,boyle's accus]s1 f 8 (fice4  ,a few    
days aft]w>ds1 ,ri*>d ,boyle 0 appo9t$  
by ! que5 ,cl]k to ! ,c\ncil ( ,mun/]1 &
 hav+ pur*as$ a %ip ( ,sir ,walt]       
,raleigh1 he return$ to ,irel& )        
ammunition & provisions4  ,!n1 z ,cl]k (
 ! ,c\ncil1 ,i att5d$ ! ,"l ,presid5t 9 
all 8 employm5ts1 & wait$ ^u him at !   
siege ( ,k+sale1 & 0 employ$ by 8       
,lord%ip to h] ,maje/y1 ) ! news ( t    
happy victory2 9 :i* employm5t ,i made a
 spe$y exp$ition to ! c\rt2 = ,i left my

 ,"l ,presid5t at ,%annon ,ca/le1 ne>   
,corke1 on ! ,monday morn+1 ab\t two ( !
 clock1 & ! next day1 be+ ,tuesday1 ,i  
deliv]$ my packet1 & supp$ ) ,sir ,rob]t
 ,cecil1 be+ !n pr9cipal ,secret>y (    
,/ate1 at 8 h\se 9 ! ,/r&2 :o1 aft]     
supp]1 held me 9 disc\rse till two ( !  
clock 9 ! morn+2 & by sev5 t morn+ call$
 ^u me to att5d him to ! c\rt1 :]e he   
pres5t$ me to h] ,maje/y 9 h] b$-*amb]1 
:o rememb]$ me1 call+ me by my "n1 &    
giv+ me h] h& to kiss1 tell+ me t %e 0  
glad t ,i 0 ! happy man to br+ ! fir/   
news ( t glori\s victory 444 & s ,i 0   
dismiss$ ) grace & fav\r4  ,9 read+ (   
?is j\rney f ,cork to ,london1 x is     
almo/ necess>y to be rem9d$ t x took    
place two hundr$ & fifty ye>s be=e !    
introduction ( /eam-boats & railways4   
,at ! close ( ! rebellion1 ,ri*>d ,boyle
 pur*as$ f ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh all 8   
l&s 9 ,mun/]2 & on ,july #be1 #afjc1 he 
m>ri$ 8 second wife1 ,ca?>9e1 ! only    
daught] ( ,sir ,ge(frey ,f5ton1 pr9cipal
 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 & ,privy ,c\ncillor 

9 ,irel&1 ) :om ,i nev] dem&$ any       
m>riage portion1 nei!r promise ( any1 x 
n be+ 9 my consid]ation2 yet h] fa!r1   
aft] my m>riage1 gave me "o ?\s& p\nds 9
 gold ) h]4 ,b t gift ( 8 daught] unto  
me ,i mu/ ev] ?ankfully ackn[l$ge z !   
cr[n ( all my bless+s2 = %e 0 a mo/     
religi\s1 virtu\s1 lov+1 & ob$i5t wife  
unto me all ! days ( h] life4 ,he 0     
knight$ by ! ,"l ,deputy ( ,irel&1 ,sir 
,george ,c>ew1 on 8 w$d+-day2 0 sworn   
,privy ,c\ncillor ( ,/ate ( ! ,k+dom (  
,irel& 9 #afab2 creat$ ,"l ,boyle1 ,b>on
 ( ,y\ghall1 ,septemb] #bi1 #afaf2 ,"l  
,visc\nt ( ,dung>von & ,e>l ( ,cork1    
,octob] #bf1 #afbj2 "o ( ! ,lords       
,ju/ices ( ,irel&1 ) a sal>y ( ,l#abjj  
p] annum1 9 #afbi2 & ,"l ,high ,treasur]
 ( ,irel&1 ,novemb] #i1 #afca4  ,rob]t  
,boyle1 ! sev5? son ( ! ,e>l ( ,cork1 0 
born ,janu>y #be1 #afbg4 ,8 "m di$      
,febru>y #af1 #afcj4 ,! e>l liv$ 9      
prosp]ity 9 ,irel& till ! break+ out ( !
 rebellion 9 #afda1 & di$ at ,y\ghall 9 
,septemb]1 #afdc4 ,x is said t :5       

,cromwell saw ! va/ improvem5ts :i* !   
e>l _h made on 8 e/ate 9 ,mun/]1 he     
decl>$ t if !re _h be5 an ,e>l ( ,cork 9
 e prov9ce1 x w\ld h be5 impossible = ! 
,iri% to h rais$ a rebellion4  ,at a v  
e>ly age ,rob]t 0 s5t by 8 fa!r to a    
c\ntry nurse1 :o1 by e>ly inur+ him1 by 
sl[ degrees1 to a co>se b cleanly diet1 
& to ! usual passion ( ! air1 gave him s
 vigor\s a complexion t bo? h>d%ips 7   
made easy to him by cu/om1 & ! delights 
( conv5i5ces & ease 7 ende>$ to him by  
_! r>ity4 ,mak+ ! acqua9tance ( "s      
*ildr5 :o /utt]$ 9 _! spee*1 he1 by     
imitation1 acquir$ ! same habit1 s      
contagi\s & cat*+ are m5's faults1 & s  
dang]\s is ! famili> comm]ce ( ^?       
condemnable cu/oms1 t1 be+ imitat$ b 9  
je/1 come to be le>n$ & acquir$ 9 e>ne/4
 ,be=e go+ to s*ool he /udi$ ,fr5* &    
,lat91 & %[$ consid]able aptitude =     
s*ol>%ip4 ,he 0 !n s5t to ,eton1 :]e 8  
ma/] took mu* notice ( him1 & w\ld      
sometimes give him unask$ play-days1 &  
(t be/[ ^u him su* balls & tops & o!r   

implem5ts ( idl5ess z he _h tak5 away f 
o!rs t _h unduly us$ !m4  ,:ile at      
s*ool1 9 ! e>ly morn+1 a "p ( ! wall ( !
 b$room1 ) ! b$1 *airs1 books1 &        
furniture ( ! room above1 fell on him & 
8 bro!r4 ,8 bro!r _h 8 b& torn ab\t 8   
neck1 & 8 coat ^u 8 back1 & 8 *air cru%$
 & brok5 "u him2 b by a lu/y y\?1 !n    
accid5tally 9 ! room1 0 snat*$ f out !  
ru9s1 by :i* ,rob]t _h1 9 all           
probability1 be5 imm$iately oppress$1 _h
 n 8 b$ be5 curta9$ by a wat*ful        
,provid5ce1 :i* kept all heavy ?+s f    
fall+ on x2 b ! du/ ( ! crumbl$ rubbi%  
rais$ 0 s ?ick t he might !re h be5     
/ifl$ _h n he rememb]$ to wrap 8 head 9 
! %eet1 :i* s]v$ him z a /ra9]1 ?r\gh   
:i* none b ! pur] air c\ld f9d a        
passage4 ,at ,eton he sp5t ne>ly f\r    
ye>s1 9 ! la/ ( :i* he =got mu* ( t     
,lat9 he _h got1 = he 0 s addict$ to m  
solid p>ts ( k t he hat$ ! /udy ( b>e   
words naturally1 z some?+ t reli%$ too  
mu* ( p$antry to consort ) 8 disposition
 & designs4 ,on leav+ ,eton he jo9$ 8   

fa!r at ,/albridge1 9 ,dorset%ire1 & 0  
s5t to reside ) ,mr4 ,w4 ,d\*1 !n p>son 
( t place1 :o took ! sup]vision ( 8     
/udies4 ,"h he r5ew$ 8 acqua9tance )    
,lat91 & devot$ "s att5tion to ,engli%  
v]se1 sp5d+ "s ( 8 idle h\rs 9 compos+  
v]ses1 mo/ ( :i*1 ! day he came ( age1  
he sacrific$ to ,vulcan1 ) a design to  
make ! re/ p]i% by ! same fate4 ,a      
little lat] he return$ to 8 fa!r's h\se 
9 ,/albridge1 & 0 plac$ "u ! tutelage ( 
a ,fr5* g5tleman1 :o _h be5 tutor to two
 ( 8 bro!rs4  ,9 ,octob]1 #afch1 ,rob]t 
,boyle & 8 bro!r 7 s5t into ,france4    
,aft] a %ort /ay at ,lyons1 !y rea*$    
,g5eva1 :]e ,rob]t rema9$ ) 8 tutor =   
ab\t a ye> & ?ree qu>t]s4 ,dur+ 8       
resid5ce "h an incid5t occurr$ :i* he   
reg>d$ z ! mo/ important ev5t ( 8 life1 
& :i* we !re=e give 9 8 own words4  ,to 
frame a "r appreh5sion ( ?is1 y mu/     
und]/& t1 ?\gh 8 incl9ations 7 ev]      
virtu\s1 & 8 life free f sc&al &        
in(f5sive1 yet _h ! piety he 0 ma/] (   
already s div]t$ him f aspir+ unto m1 t 

,*ri/1 :o long _h la9 asleep 9 8        
consci5ce 7z ,he once did 9 ! %ip71 mu/ 
n[1 z !n1 be wak$ by a /orm4 ,= at a "t 
:i* 7be+ ! v heat ( summ]7 promis$ no?+ 
less1 ab\t ! dead ( night1 t adds mo/   
t]ror to su* accid5ts1 he 0 sudd5ly wak$
 9 a fright ) su* l\d claps ( ?und] 7:i*
 are (t5times v t]rible 9 ^? hot climes 
& seasons71 t he ?\ght ! e>? w\ld owe an
 ague to ! air1 & e clap 0 bo? prec$$ & 
att5d$ ) fla%es ( lightn+1 s frequ5t & s
 dazzl+ t he began to imag9e !m !       
sallies ( t fire t mu/ consume ! _w4 ,! 
long cont9uance ( t dismal tempe/1 :]e !
 w9ds 7 s l\d z almo/ dr[n$ ! noise ( ! 
v ?und]1 & ! %[]s s hide\s z almo/ qu5*$
 ! lightn+ ere x c\ld rea* 8 eyes1      
confirm$ him 9 8 appreh5sions ( ! day ( 
judgm5t's be+ at h&4 ,:]eupon !         
consid]ation ( 8 unprep>$ness to welcome
 x1 & ! hide\sness ( be+ surpris$ by x 9
 an unfit condition1 made him resolve & 
v[ t1 if 8 fe>s 7 t night disappo9t$1   
all 8 fur!r additions to 8 life %\ld be 
m religi\sly & wat*fully employ$4 ,!    

morn+ came1 & a s]5e1 cl\dless sky      
return$1 :5 he ratifi$ 8 det]m9ations s 
solemnly1 t f t day he dat$ 8 conv]sion1
 r5ew+1 n[ he 0 pa/ dang]1 ! v[ he _h   
made :il/ he believ$ himself to be 9 x2 
& ?\gh 8 fe> 0 7& he blu%$ x 0 s7 !     
occasion ( 8 resolution ( am5dm5t1 yet  
at lea/ he might n owe 8 m delib]ate    
consecration ( himself to piety to any  
less noble motive ?an t ( its own       
excell5ce4  ,aft] leav+ ,g5eva1 he      
cross$ ! ,alps & travell$ ?r\gh ,nor!rn 
,italy4 ,"h he sp5t mu* "t 9 le>n+      
,italian2 ! re/ ( 8 sp>e h\rs he sp5t 9 
read+ ! mod]n hi/ory 9 ,italian1 & ! new
 p>adoxes ( ! great />gaz] ,galileo1 ^: 
+5i\s books1 p]haps because !y c\ld n be
 s o!rwise1 7 confut$ by a decree f     
,rome2 8 highness ! ,pope1 x seems1     
presum+1 & t ju/ly1 t ! infallibility ( 
8 *air ext5d$ equally to det]m9e po9ts 9
 philosophy z 9 religion1 & lo? to h !  
/ability ( t e>? que/ion$ 9 :i* he _h   
e/abli%$ 8 k+dom4  ,hav+ visit$ ,rome1  
he at l5g? return$ to ,france1 & 0      

deta9$ at ,m>seilles1 await+ a          
remittance f ! e>l to enable him to     
cont9ue 8 travels4 ,?r\gh "s misc>riage1
 ! money :i* ! e>l s5t did n arrive1 &  
,rob]t & 8 bro!r _h to dep5d on ! cr$it 
( ! tutor to procure ! means to enable  
!m to return home4 ,!y rea*$ ,engl& 9 ! 
summ] ( #afdd1 :]e we f\nd ?+s 9 su*    
confusion t1 al?\gh ! manor ( ,/albridge
 71 by my fa!r's decease1 desc5d$ unto  
me1 yet x 0 ne> f\r mon?s be=e ,i c\ld  
get ?i!r4 ,on rea*+ ,london1 ,rob]t     
,boyle resid$ = "s "t ) 8 si/]1 ,lady   
,ranelagh1 & 0 ?us prev5t$ f ent]+ !    
,royali/ ,army4 ,lat] on he return$ = a 
%ort "t to ,france2 visit$ ,cambridge 9 
,decemb]1 #afde1 & !n took up 8 resid5ce
 at ,/albridge till ,may1 #afej1 :]e he 
comm5c$ ! /udy ( *emi/ry & natural      
philosophy4  ,x 0 9 ,octob]1 #afdf1 t   
,boyle fir/ made m5tion ( ! invisible   
college1 :i* aft]w>ds develop$ into !   
,royal ,society4 ,writ+ to a ,fell[ (   
,magdal5 ,college1 ,cambridge1 9        
,febru>y1 #afdg1 he says1 ,! corn]-/ones

 ( ! invisible1 or1 z !y t]m !mselves1 !
 philosophical college1 d n[ & !n hon\r 
me ) _! company4 ,x appe>s t a desire to
 escape f ! tr\bles ( ! times _h induc$ 
sev]al p]sons to take refuge 9          
philosophical pursuits1 &1 meet+ toge!r 
to discuss ! subjects ( _! /udy1 !y =m$ 
! invisible college4 ,boyle says1 ,i w  
conclude _! praises ) ! recital ( _!    
*iefe/ fault1 :i* is v incid5t to almo/ 
all good ?+s1 & t is1 t !re is n en\gh (
 !m4 ,dr4 ,wallis1 "o ( ! fir/ memb]s ( 
! society1 /ates t ,mr4 ,!odore ,hooke1 
a ,g]man ( ! ,palat9ate1 !n resid5t 9   
,london1 gave ! fir/ occasion & fir/    
sugge/$ ^? meet+s & _m o!rs4 ,^! meet+s 
we held sometimes at ,dr4 ,godd>d's     
lodg+1 9 ,wood ,/reet 7or "s conv5i5t   
place ne>71 on occasion ( 8 keep+ an    
op]ator 9 8 h\se1 = gr9d+ glasses =     
telescopes & microscopes1 & sometimes at
 a conv5i5t place 9 ,*eapside2 sometimes
 at ,gre%am ,college1 or "s place ne>   
adjo9+4 ,our bus9ess 0 7preclud+ !ology 
& ,/ate affairs7 to disc\rse & consid] (

 philosophical inquiries1 & su* z relat$
 !reunto2 z physic1 anatomy1 geometry1  
a/ronomy1 navigation1 /atics1 magnetics1
 *emics1 me*anics1 & natural exp]im5ts1 
) ! /ate ( ^! /udies z !n cultivat$ at  
home & abroad4 ,ab\t ! ye> #afdh-di "s (
 u be+ remov$ to ,ox=d1 fir/ ,dr4       
,wilk9s1 !n ,i1 & soon aft] ,dr4        
,godd>d1 our company divid$4 ,^? 9      
,london cont9u$ to meet !re z be=e1 & we
 ) !m :5 we _h occasion to be !re4 ,& ^?
 ( u at ,ox=d1 ) ,dr4 ,w>d1 s9ce ,bi%op 
( ,salisbury1 ,dr4 ,ralph ,ba?ur/1 n[   
,presid5t ( ,tr9ity ,college 9 ,ox=d1   
,dr4 ,petty1 s9ce ,sir ,william ,petty1 
,dr4 ,willis1 !n an em95t physician 9   
,ox=d1 & div]s o!rs1 cont9u$ su* meet+s 
9 ,ox=d1 & br\ght ^? /udies into fa%ion 
!re2 meet+ fir/ at ,dr4 ,petty's lodg+s1
 9 an apo!c>y's h\se1 because ( !       
conv5i5ce ( inspect+ drugs & ! l1 z !re 
0 occasion2 & aft] 8 remove to ,irel&   
7?\gh n s con/antly7 at ! lodg+s ( ,dr4 
,wilk9s1 !n ,w>d5 ( ,wadham ,college2 & 
aft] 8 removal to ,tr9ity ,college 9    

,cambridge1 at ! lodg+s ( ! ,hon\rable  
,mr4 ,rob]t ,boyle1 !n resid5t = div]s  
ye>s 9 ,ox=d4 ,^! meet+s 9 ,london      
cont9u$1 & aft] ! k+'s return1 9 #affj1 
7 increas$ ) ! accession ( div]s wor?y &
 hon\rable p]sons1 & 7 aft]w>ds         
incorporat$ by ! "n ( ! ,royal ,society1
 & s cont9ue to ?is day4  ,boyle 0 only 
ab\t tw5ty ye>s ( age :5 he wrote 8     
,free ,disc\rse aga9/ ,swe>+2 8 ,s]aphic
 ,love2 or1 ,"s ,motives & ,inc5tives to
 ! ,love ( ,god2 & 8 ,essay on ,mi/ak5  
,mode/y4 ,s]aphic ,love 0 ! la/ ( a     
s]ies ( treatises on love1 b ! only "o (
 ! s]ies t he publi%$1 z he consid]$ !  
o!rs too trifl+ to be publi%$ alone or 9
 conjunction ) x4 ,9 a lett] to ,lady   
,ranelagh1 he ref]s to 8 laboratory z a 
k9d ( ,elysium1 & !re 7 few ?+s :i* gave
 him s mu* pleasure z 8 furnaces &      
philosophical exp]im5ts4 ,9 #afeb he    
visit$ ,irel&1 return+ 9 ! foll[+ summ]4
 ,9 ! autumn he 0 aga9 oblig$ to visit  
,irel&1 & rema9$ !re till ! summ] (     
#afed1 ?\gh resid5ce 9 t c\ntry 0 f> f  

agreeable to him4 ,he /yl$ x a b>b>\s   
c\ntry1 :]e *emical spirits 7 s         
misund]/ood1 & *emical in/rum5ts s      
unprocurable1 t x 0 h>d to h any h]metic
 ?\ghts 9 x4 ,on 8 return he settl$ 9   
,ox=d1 & !re 8 lodg+s soon became !     
c5tre ( ! sci5tific life ( ! univ]sity4 
,boyle & 8 fri5ds may be reg>d$ z !     
pione]s ( exp]im5tal philosophy 9 ?is   
c\ntry4 ,to ,boyle ! me?ods ( ,ari/otle 
appe>$ little m ?an discussions on      
words2 = a long "t he refus$ to /udy !  
philosophy ( ,desc>tes1 le/ he %\ld be  
turn$ aside f reason+ bas$ /rictly on ! 
results ( exp]im5t4 ,! me?od pursu$ by  
^! philosoph]s _h be5 fully discuss$ by 
,"l ,bacon1 b at be/ 8 exp]im5tal       
me?ods1 ?\gh mo/ complete & sy/ematic1  
exi/$ only ^u pap]1 & x 0 res]v$ =      
,boyle & 8 fri5ds to put ! ,baconian    
philosophy into actual practice4  ,x 0  
dur+ 8 resid5ce at ,ox=d t he inv5t$ !  
air-pump1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds improv$ = him  
by ,hooke1 & ) :i* he conduct$ mo/ ( ^? 
exp]im5ts on ! spr+ & weight ( ! air1   

:i* l$ up to ! inve/igations t h r5d]$ 8
 "n insep>ably connect$ ) ! gase\s laws4
 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,galileo & ( ,torricelli
 _h %[n t ! pressure ( ! air 0 capable (
 support+ a column ( wat] ab\t ?irty-f\r
 feet 9 height1 or a column ( m]cury    
ne>ly ?irty in*es high4 ,! y\ng]        
,pascal1 at ! reque/ ( ,torricelli1 _h  
c>ri$ a b>omet] to ! summit ( ! ,puy de 
,dome1 & demon/rat$ t ! height ( !      
column ( m]cury support$ by ! air       
dim9i%es z ! altitude is increas$4 ,otto
 von ,gu]icke _h con/ruct$ ! ,magdeburg 
hemisph]es1 & %[n t1 :5 exhau/$1 !y c\ld
 n be sep>at$ by sixte5 horses1 eight   
pull+ "o way & eight ! o!r4 ,he 0 aw>e t
 ! same traction c\ld h be5 produc$ by  
eight horses if "o ( ! hemisph]es _h be5
 atta*$ to a fix$ ob/acle2 b1 ) !       
in/9cts ( a popul> lectur]1 he consid]$ 
t ! spectacle w\ld ?us be r5d]$ less    
/rik+1 & x 0 prep>$ = ! k+'s ent]ta9m5t4
 ,boyle wi%$ = an air-pump ) an ap]ture 
9 ! receiv] suffici5tly l>ge = !        
introduction ( v>i\s objects1 & an      

arrangem5t = exhau/+ x )\t fill+ !      
receiv] ) wat] or o!rwise int]f]+ ) !   
objects plac$ !re94 ,8 app>atus consi/$ 
( a l>ge glass globe capable ( conta9+  
ab\t ?ree gallons or !reab\ts1 t]m9at+ 9
 an op5 tube bel[1 & ) an ap]ture ( ab\t
 f\r in*es diamet] at ! top4 ,ar\nd ?is 
ap]ture 0 cem5t$ a turn$ brass r+1 !    
inn] surface be+ conical1 & into ?is    
conical seat 0 fitt$ a brass plate ) a  
?ick rim1 b drill$ ) a small hole 9 !   
c5tre4 ,to ?is hole1 :i* 0 also conical1
 0 fitt$ a brass /opp]1 :i* c\ld be     
turn$ r\nd :5 ! receiv] 0 exhau/$4 ,by  
atta*+ a /r+ to ?is /opp]1 :i* 0 s long 
z to ent] ! receiv] to ! dep? ( two or  
?ree in*es1 & turn+ ! /opp] 9 its seat1 
! /r+ c\ld be w\nd up1 & ?us objects    
c\ld be mov$ )9 ! receiv]4 ,! tube at ! 
bottom ( ! receiv] communicat$ ) a      
/op-cock1 & ?is ) ! upp] end ( !        
pumpb>rel1 :i* 0 inv]t$1 s t ?is        
/op-cock1 :i* 0 at ! top ( ! b>rel1 took
 ! place ( ! foot-valve4 ,! pi/on 0     
solid1 made ( wood1 & surr\nd$ ) sole   

lea!r1 :i* 0 kept well greas$4 ,!re be+ 
no valve 9 ! pi/on1 x 0 necess>y to     
place an exhau/-valve 9 ! upp] end ( !  
cyl9d]4 ,?is consi/$ ( a small brass    
plug clos+ a conical hole s t x c\ld be 
remov$ at pleasure4 ,! con/ruction ( !  
cyl9d] 01 !re=e1 simil> to t ( an ord9>y
 =ce-pump1 except t ! valves _h to be   
mov$ by h& 7z 9 ! e>ly =ms ( !          
/eam-eng9e74 ,! pi/on 0 rais$ & depress$
 by means ( a rack & p9ion4 ,! pumps    
c\ld be us$ ei!r = exhau/+ ! receiv] or 
= =c+ air into x1 accord+ to ! ord] 9   
:i* ! valves 7 op5$4 ,if ! /op-cock     
communicat+ ) ! receiv] 7 op5 :ile !    
pi/on 0 be+ drawn d[n1 & ! brass plug   
remov$ s z to op5 ! exhau/-valve :5 !   
pi/on 0 be+ =c$ up1 ! receiv] w\ld      
gradually be exhau/$4 ,if ! brass plug 7
 remov$ dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & !    
/op-cock op5$ dur+ its asc5t1 air w\ld  
be =c$ into ! receiv]4 ,9 ! latt] case x
 0 necess>y to take special precautions 
to prev5t ! brass plate at ! top ( !    
receiv] be+ rais$ f its seat4 ,all jo9ts

 7 made air-tight ) dia*ylon1 & :51     
?r\gh ! bur/+ ( a glass bulb )9 x1 !    
receiv] became crack$1 ! crack 0 r5d]$  
air-tight by ! same means4 ,o!r receiv]s
 ( small] capacity 7 also provid$1 on   
acc\nt ( ! great] read9ess ) :i* !y c\ld
 be exhau/$4  ,) ?is app>atus ,boyle    
c>ri$ out a long s]ies ( exp]im5ts4 ,he 
c\ld r$uce ! pressure 9 ! l>ge receiv]  
to some:at less ?an t correspond+ to an 
in* ( m]cury1 or ab\t a foot ( wat]4    
,squeez+ a bladd] s z to expel ne>ly all
 ! air1 ty+ ! neck1 & !n introduc+ x    
into ! receiv]1 he f\nd1 on work+ !     
pump1 t ! bladd] swell$ s t at l5g? x   
became completely di/5d$4 ,9 ord] to    
acc\nt = ?is great expansibility1 ,boyle
 pictur$ ! con/itution ( ! air 9 !      
foll[+ way4 ,he suppos$ ! air to consi/ 
( sep>ate p>ticles1 ea* resembl+ a      
spiral spr+1 :i* became tightly w\nd :5 
expos$ to great pressure1 b :i* exp&$ s 
z to occupy a l>g] circle :5 ! pressure 
0 dim9i%$4 ,ea* ( ^! little spirals he  
suppos$ to rotate ab\t a diamet] s z to 

exclude e o!r body f ! sph]e 9 :i* x    
mov$4 ,increas+ ! l5g? ( ! diamet]      
t5fold w\ld increase ! volume ( "o ( ^! 
sph]es1 & !re=e ! volume ( ! gas1 a     
?\s&fold4 ,possibly ?is 0 only int5d$ z 
a m5tal illu/ration1 exhibit+ a me*anism
 by :i* v great expansion might         
conceivably be produc$1 & sc>cely       
pret5d+ to be consid]$ a !ory ( !       
con/itution ( ! air4 ,boyle's fir/ idea 
seems to h be5 d]iv$ f a lock ( wool 9  
:i* ! ela/icity ( ea* fibre caus$ ! lock
 to exp& aft] x _h be5 compress$ 9 ! h&4
 ,9 ano!r passage he speaks ( ! air z   
consi/+ ( a numb] ( bodies capable (    
/rik+ aga9/ a surface expos$ to !m4 ,he 
demon/rat$ ! weight ( ! air by plac+ a  
delicate balance )9 ! receiv]1 susp5d+ f
 "o arm a bladd] half fill$ ) wat]1 &   
balanc+ x ) brass weights4 ,on exhau/+ !
 air1 ! bladd] prepond]at$1 &1 by       
repeat+ ! exp]im5t ) additional weights 
on ! o!r arm until a balance 0 effect$ 9
 ! exhau/$ receiv]1 he det]m9$ ! am\nt (
 ! prepond]ance4 ,9 ano!r exp]im5t he   

compress$ air 9 a bladd] by ty+ a       
pack-?read r\nd x1 balanc$ x f "o arm ( 
8 balance 9 ! op5 air2 !n1 prick+ !     
bladd] s z to relieve ! pressure1 he    
f\nd t ) ! escape ( ! compress$ air !   
weight dim9i%$4  ,"o ( ! mo/ important (
 8 exp]im5ts ) ! air-pump 0 ! foll[+4   
,he plac$ )9 ! receiv] ! ci/]n ( a      
m]curial b>omet]1 ! tube ( :i* 0 made to
 pass ?r\gh ! c5tral hole 9 ! brass     
plate1 f :i* ! /opp] _h be5 remov$4 ,!  
space ar\nd ! tube 0 fill$ up ) cem5t1 &
 ! receiv] exhau/$4 ,at ea* /roke ( !   
pump ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] tube desc5d$1 
b ?r\gh successively dim9i%+ di/ances1  
until at l5g? x /ood only an in* above !
 m]cury 9 ! ci/]n4 ,! exp]im5t 0 !n     
repeat$ ) a tube f\r feet long & fill$ )
 wat]4 ,?is con/itut$ ! n9ete5? exp]im5t
 ref]r$ to lat] on4 ,a great _m /rokes (
 ! pump _h to be made be=e ! wat] began 
to desc5d4 ,at l5g? x fell till !       
surface 9 ! tube /ood only ab\t a foot  
above t 9 ! tank4 ,plac+ vessels (      
ord9>y spr+-wat] & ( di/ill$ ra9-wat] 9 

! receiv]1 he f\nd t1 aft] ! exhau/ion  
_h rea*$ a c]ta9 /age1 bubbles ( gas 7  
copi\sly evolv$ f ! spr+-wat]1 b n f !  
di/ill$ wat]4 ,on ano!r occasion he     
caus$ w>m wat] to boil by a few /rokes (
 ! pump2 &1 cont9u+ ! exhau/ion1 ! wat] 
0 made to boil at int]vals until x      
became only lukew>m4 ,! exp]im5t 0      
repeat$ ) sev]al volatile liquids4 ,he  
also notic$ ! cl\d =m$ 9 ! receiv] :5 ! 
air 0 all[$ rapidly to exp&2 b !        
me*anical !ory ( heat _h n !n made      
suffici5t progress to enable him to     
acc\nt = ! cond5sation by ! loss ( heat 
due to ! "w done by ! exp&+ air4 ,! v   
m9ute accuracy ( 8 obs]vations is       
conspicu\s 9 ! descriptions ( mo/ ( 8   
exp]im5ts4 ,t ! air is ! usual m$ium = !
 conveyance ( s\nd 0 %[n by susp5d+ a   
wat* by a l95 ?read )9 ! receiv]4 ,on   
exhau/+ ! air1 ! tick+ ( ! wat* ceas$ to
 be he>d4 ,a pretty exp]im5t consi/$ 9  
plac+ a bottle ( a c]ta9 fum+ liquid )9 
! receiv]2 on exhau/+ ! air1 ! fumes    
fell ov] ! neck ( ! bottle & p\r$ ov] ! 

/& on :i* x 0 plac$ l a /ream ( wat]4   
,ano!r exp]im5t1 ! ?irty-second1 is     
wor?y ( m5tion on acc\nt ( ! use to :i* 
x 0 aft]w>ds appli$ 9 ! controv]sy      
respect+ ! cause ( suction4 ,! receiv]1 
hav+ be5 exhau/$1 0 remov$ f ! cyl9d]1 !
 /op-cock be+ turn$ (f1 & a small brass 
valve1 to :i* a scale-pan 0 atta*$1 0   
plac$ j "u ! ap]ture ( ! tube bel[ !    
/op-cock4 ,on turn+ ! latt]1 ! /ream (  
air rais$ ! valve1 clos+ ! ap]ture1 & ! 
atmosph]ic pressure support$ x until a  
consid]able weight _h be5 plac$ 9 !     
scale-pan4 ,because ! receiv] c\ld n be 
exhau/$ s ?or\ghly z ! pump-cyl9d]1     
,boyle attempt$ to measure ! pressure ( 
! air by det]m9+ :at weight c\ld be     
support$ by ! pi/on4 ,he f\nd fir/ t a  
weight ( tw5ty-eight p\nds susp5d$      
directly f ! pi/on 0 suffici5t to       
ov]come friction :5 air 0 admitt$ above 
! pi/on4 ,:5 ! access ( air to ! top ( !
 pi/on 0 prev5t$1 m ?an "o hundr$ p\nds 
additional weight 0 requir$ to draw d[n 
! pi/on4 ,! diamet] ( ! cyl9d] 0 ab\t   

?ree in*es4  ,boyle's /yle ( reason+ is 
well illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ f 8 pap] on  
,! ,spr+ ( ! ,air3--  ,9 ! next place1  
^! exp]im5ts may tea* u :at to judge ( !
 vulg> axiom receiv$ = s _m ages z an   
und\bt$ tru? 9 ! p]ipatetick s*ools1 t  
,nature abhors & flie? a vacuum1 & t to 
su* a degree t no human p[] 7to g no    
high]7 is able to make "o 9 ! univ]se2  
:]e9 heav5 & e>? w\ld *ange places1 &   
all its o!r bodies r act contr>y to _!  
own nature ?an suff] x4444 ,x w n       
easily1 !n1 be intelligibly made out h[ 
hatr$ or av]sation1 :i* is a passion ( !
 s\l1 c ei!r = a vacuum or any o!r      
object be suppos$ to be 9 wat]1 or su* l
 inanimate body1 :i* _c be presum$ to "k
 :5 a vacuum w\ld ensue1 if !y did n    
be/ir !mselves to prev5t x2 nor to be s 
g5]\s z to act contr>y to :at is mo/    
conducive to _! own p>ticul> pres]vation
 = ! public good ( ! univ]se4 ,z mu*1   
!n1 ( intelligible & probable tru? z is 
conta9$ 9 ?is metaphorical expression   
seems to am\nt b to ?is--t by ! wise    

,au?or ( nature 7:o is ju/ly said to h  
made all ?+s 9 numb]1 weight1 & measure7
 ! univ]se1 & ! p>ts ( x1 are s contriv$
 t x is h>d to make a vacuum 9 x1 z if  
!y /udi\sly conspir$ to prev5t x4 ,& h[ 
f> ?is itself may be grant$ des]ves to  
be fur!r consid]$4  ,=1 9 ! next place1 
our exp]im5ts seem to tea* t ! suppos$  
av]sation ( ,nature to a vacuum is b    
accid5tal1 or 9 consequ5ce1 p>tly ( !   
weight & fluidity1 or1 at lea/1         
fluxility ( ! bodies "h bel[2 & p>tly1 &
 p]haps pr9cipally1 ( ! air1 ^: re/less 
endeav\r to exp& itself e way makes x   
ei!r ru% 9 itself or compel ! int]pos$  
bodies into all spaces :]e x f9ds no    
great] resi/ance ?an x c surm\nt4 ,& t 9
 ^? motions :i* are made ob fugam vacui 
7z ! common phrase is71 bodies act )\t  
su* g5]osity & consid]ation z is wont to
 be ascrib$ to !m1 is app>5t en\gh 9 our
 ?irty-second exp]im5t1 :]e ! torr5t (  
air1 t seem$ to /rive to get into !     
empti$ receiv]1 did pla9ly prev5t its   
own design1 by s impell+ ! valve z to   

make x %ut ! only orifice ! air 0 to get
 9 at4 ,& if aft]w>ds ei!r ,nature or ! 
int]nal air _h a design ! ext]nal air   
%\ld be attract$1 !y seem$ to prosecute 
x v unwisely by cont9u+ to suck ! valve 
s /rongly1 :5 !y f\nd t by t suction !  
valve itself c\ld n be drawn 92 :]eas1  
by =be>+ to suck1 ! valve w\ld1 by its  
own weight1 h fall5 d[n & suff]$ !      
exclud$ air to return freely1 & to fill 
aga9 ! exhau/$ vessel4444  ,& z = ! c>e 
( ! public good ( ! univ]se ascrib$ to  
dead & /upid bodies1 we %all only dem&  
:y1 9 our n9ete5? exp]im5t1 ^u !        
exsuction ( ! ambi5t air1 ! wat] des]t$ 
! upp] half ( ! glass tube1 & did n     
asc5d to fill x up till ! ext]nal air 0 
let 9 ^u x4 ,:]eas1 by its easy & sudd5 
rejo9+ t upp] "p ( ! tube1 x appe>$ bo? 
t !re 0 !n mu* space devoid ( air1 & t !
 wat] might1 ) small or no resi/ance1 h 
asc5d$ into x1 if x c\ld h done s )\t ! 
impulsion ( ! readmitt$ air2 :i*1 x     
seems1 0 necess>y to m9d ! wat] ( its   
=m]ly neglect$ duty to ! univ]se4       

,boyle !n goes on to expla9 ! ph5om5a   
correctly by ! pressure ( ! air4        
,else:]e he acc\nts = ! dim9i%$ pressure
 on ! top ( a m\nta9 by ! dim9i%$ weight
 ( ! sup]9cumb5t column ( air4  ,!      
treatise on ,! ,spr+ ( ! ,air met ) mu* 
opposition1 & ,boyle consid]$ x necess>y
 to def5d 8 doctr9e aga9/ ! objections (
 ,franciscus ,l9us & ,hobbes4 ,9 ?is    
def5ce he describ$ ! exp]im5t 9         
connection ) :i* he is mo/ g5]ally      
rememb]$4 ,l9us _h admitt$ t ! air might
 possess a c]ta9 small am\nt (          
ela/icity1 b ma9ta9$ t ! =ce ) :i*      
m]cury rose 9 a b>omet] tube 0 due ma9ly
 to a totally diff]5t action1 z ?\gh a  
/r+ 7 pull+ ^u x f above4 ,?is 0 8      
funicul> hypo!sis4 ,boyle und]took to %[
 t ! pressure ( ! air might be made to  
support a mu* high] column ( m]cury ?an 
t ( ! b>omet]4 ,to ?is end he took a    
glass tube sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 & b5t s z
 to =m two v]tical legs connect$ bel[4  
,! %ort] leg 0 little m ?an a foot long1
 & h]metically clos$ at ! top4 ,! long] 

leg 0 ne>ly eight feet 9 l5g?1 & op5 at 
! top4 ,! tube 0 susp5d$ by /r+s ^u !   
/aircase1 ! b5d at ! bottom press+      
lightly aga9/ ! bottom ( a box plac$ to 
receive ! m]cury employ$ 9 case (       
accid5t4 ,ea* leg ( ! tube 0 provid$ ) a
 pap] scale4 ,m]cury 0 p\r$ 9 at ! op5  
end1 ! tube be+ tilt$ s z to all[ "s ( !
 air to escape f ! %ort] limb until !   
m]cury /ood at ! same level 9 bo? legs  
:5 ! tube 0 v]tical4 ,! l5g? ( ! clos$  
tube occupi$ by ! air 0 !n j twelve     
in*es4 ,! height ( ! b>omet] 0 ab\t     
#bi-a_/h in*es4 ,m]cury 0 g5tly p\r$    
into ! op5 limb by "o op]ator1 :ile     
ano!r wat*$ its height 9 ! clos$ limb4  
,! results ( ! exp]im5ts are giv5 9 !   
table on ! opposite page4  ,9 ?is table 
! ?ird column gives ! result ( add+ to !
 second column ! height ( ! b>omet]1 :i*
 expresses 9 in*es ( m]cury ! pressure (
 ! air on ! free surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! 
long] limb4 ,! f\r? column gives ! total
 pressure1 9 in*es ( m]cury1 on !       
hypo!sis t ! pressure ( ! air v>ies     

inv]sely z ! volume4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 
! ?ird & f\r? columns is v close1       
consid]+ ! r\ghness ( ! exp]im5t & t no 
tr\ble appe>s to h be5 tak5 to calibrate
 ! %ort] limb ( ! tube1 & ju/ifi$ ,boyle
 9 conclud+ t ! hypo!sis ref]r$ to      
expresses ! relation betwe5 ! volume &  
pressure ( a giv5 mass ( air4           
----------------------------------------
----------------     ,l5g? (  ,height ( 
,total pressure  ,total pressure        
clos$ tubem]cury 9 op5on air 9          
in*esaccord+ to       occupi$   tube    
above t( m]cury4     ,boyle's law4      
by air4    9 clos$ tube4                
----------------------------------------
----------------       #ab            #j
            #bi-b_/af         #bi-b_/af 
#aa-a_/b        #a-g_/af       #cj-i_/af
         #cj-f_/af           #aa        
#b-ac_/af      #ca-ae_/af               
#ca-ab_/af          #aj-a_/b            
#d-f_/af       #cc-h_/af                
#cc-a_/g            #aj                 
#f-c_/af       #ce-e_/af         #ce    

#i-a_/b        #g-ad_/af      #cg       
#cf-ae_/ai           #i                 
#aj-a_/af       #ci-c_/af               
#ch-g_/h             #h-a_/b            
#ab-h_/af       #da-aj_/af              
#da-b_/ag            #h                 
#ae-a_/af       #dd-c_/af               
#dc-aa_/af           #g-a_/b            
#ag-ae_/af      #dg-a_/af               
#df-c_/e             #g                 
#ba-c_/af       #ej-e_/af         #ej   
#f-a_/b       #be-c_/af       #ed-e_/af 
#ec-aj_/ac           #f                 
#bi-aa_/af      #eh-ac_/af              
#eh-b_/h             #e-c_/d            
#cb-c_/af       #fa-e_/af               
#fj-ac_/bc           #e-a_/b            
#cd-ae_/af      #fd-a_/af               
#fc-f_/aa            #e-a_/d            
#cg-ae_/af      #fg-a_/af               
#ff-d_/g             #e                 
#da-i_/af       #gj-aa_/af        #gj   
#d-c_/d       #de            #gd-b_/af  
#gc-aa_/ai           #d-a_/b            
#dh-ab_/af      #gg-ad_/af              

#gg-b_/c             #d-a_/d            
#ec-aa_/af      #hb-ac_/af              
#hb-d_/ag            #d                 
#eh-b_/af       #hg-ad_/af              
#hg-a_/h             #c-c_/d            
#fc-ae_/af      #ic-a_/af               
#ic-a_/e             #c-a_/b            
#ga-e_/af      #ajj-g_/af               
#ii-f_/g             #c-a_/d            
#gh-aa_/af     #ajg-ac_/af              
#ajg-g_/ac            #c                
#hh-g_/af      #aag-i_/af               
#aaf-d_/h                               
----------------------------------------
----------------  ,to ext5d !           
inve/igation s z to include expansion   
bel[ atmosph]ic pressure1 a diff]5t     
app>atus 0 employ$4 ,x consi/$ ( a glass
 tube ab\t six feet 9 l5g?1 clos$ at !  
l[] end & fill$ ) m]cury4 ,into ?is ba? 
( m]cury 0 plung$ a l5g? ( quill tube1 &
 ! upp] end 0 seal$ ) wax4 ,:5 ! wax &  
air 9 ! tube _h cool$1 a hot p9 0 pass$ 
?r\gh ! wax1 mak+ a small orifice by :i*
 ! am\nt ( air 9 ! tube 0 adju/$ s z to 

occupy exactly "o in* ( its l5g? z      
measur$ by a pap] scale atta*$ !reto1   
aft] aga9 seal+ ! wax4 ,! quill tube 0  
!n rais$1 & ! height ( ! surface ( !    
m]cury 9 ! tube above t 9 ! ba? notic$1 
toge!r ) ! l5g? ( ! tube occupi$ by !   
air4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! height ( !    
b>omet] & ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube  
above t 9 ! ba? gave ! pressure on !    
imprison$ air 9 in*es ( m]cury4 ,!      
result %[$ t ! volume v>i$ v ne>ly 9 !  
inv]se ratio ( ! pressure4 ,a c]ta9     
am\nt ( air1 h[ev]1 clung to ! sides ( !
 quill tube :5 imm]s$ 9 ! m]cury1 & no  
c>e 0 tak5 to remove x by boil+ ! m]cury
 or o!rwise2 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 z !    
m]cury desc5d$1 ?is air escap$ & jo9$ ! 
re/ ( ! air 9 ! tube4 ,?is made !       
pressure r great] ?an x %\ld h be5 t[>ds
 ! end ( ! exp]im5t1 & :5 ! tube 0 aga9 
press$ d[n into ! ba? x 0 f\nd t1 :5 !  
surfaces ( ! m]cury )9 & )\t ! tube 7 at
 ! same level1 ! air occupi$ ne>ly      
#a-a_/h in* in/ead ( "o in* ( ! tube4   
,^! exp]im5ts fir/ e/abli%$ ! tru? ( !  

great law kn[n z ,boyle's law1 :i* /ates
 t ! volume ( a giv5 mass ( a p]fect gas
 v>ies inv]sely z ! pressure to :i* x is
 expos$4  ,ano!r exp]im5t1 to %[ t !    
pressure ( ! air 0 ! cause ( suction1   
,boyle succe$$ 9 c>ry+ out at a lat]    
date4 ,two discs ( m>ble 7 c>efully     
poli%$1 s t :5 a little _s ( turp5t9e 0 
plac$ betwe5 !m ! l[] disc1 ) a p\nd    
weight susp5d$ f x1 0 support$ by ! upp]
 "o4 ,! app>atus 0 introduc$ into !     
air-pump1 & a consid]able am\nt ( %ak+  
prov$ insuffici5t to sep>ate ! discs4   
,aft] sixte5 /rokes ( ! pump1 on op5+ ! 
communication betwe5 ! receiv] & cyl9d]1
 :5 no me*anical vibration occurr$1 !   
discs sep>at$4  ,^u ! ,re/oration 9     
#affj1 ! ,e>l ( ,cl>5don1 :o 0 ,"l      
,*ancellor ( ,engl&1 endeav\r$ to       
p]suade ,boyle to ent] holy ord]s1 urg+ 
! int]e/ ( ! ,*ur* z ! *ief motive = !  
proce$+4 ,?is made "s impression ^u     
,boyle1 b he decl9$ = two reasons--fir/1
 because he ?\ght t he w\ld h a great]  
influ5ce = good if he _h no %>e 9 !     

patrimony ( ! ,*ur*2 & next1 because he 
_h nev] felt an inw>d motion to x by !  
,holy ,gho/4  ,9 #afdi an association 0 
incorporat$ by ,p>liam5t1 to be call$ ! 
,presid5t & ,society = ! ,propagation ( 
! ,gospel 9 ,new ,engl&1 ^: object %\ld 
be to receive & dispose ( moneys 9 su*  
mann] z %all be/ & pr9cipally conduce to
 ! prea*+ & propagat+ ! gospel among !  
natives1 & = ! ma9t5ance ( s*ools &     
nurs]ies ( le>n+ = ! education ( !      
*ildr5 ( ! natives2 = :i* purpose a     
g5]al collection 0 appo9t$ to be made 9 
& ?r\gh all ! c\nties1 cities1 t[ns1 &  
p>i%es ( ,engl& & ,wales1 = a *>itable  
contribution1 to be z ! f\ndation ( s   
pi\s & great an und]tak+4 ,! society 0  
reviv$ by special *>t] 9 #affa1 & ,boyle
 0 appo9t$ presid5t1 an (fice he cont9u$
 to hold until %ortly be=e 8 dea?4 ,!   
society aft]w>ds enl>g$ its sph]e (     
op]ations1 & became ! ,society = !      
,propagation ( ! ,gospel 9 ,=eign ,p>ts4
  ,9 ! same ye> 7#affa7 ,boyle publi%$  
,"s ,consid]ations on ! ,usefulness (   

,exp]im5tal ,natural ,philosophy1 etc41 
& 9 #affc an extremely int]e/+ pap] on  
,exp]im5ts & ,consid]ations t\*+        
,col\rs4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is pap] he       
describes "s v beautiful exp]im5ts ) a  
t9cture ( ,lignum nephriticum1 :]e9 !   
di*roism ( ! extract is made app>5t4    
,boyle f\nd t by transmitt$ light x     
appe>$ ( a bright gold5 col\r1 b :5     
view$ f ! side f :i* x 0 illum9at$ !    
light emitt$ 0 sky blue1 & 9 "s cases   
bright gre54 ,by arrang+ exp]im5ts s t  
"s p>ts ( ! liquid 7 se5 by ! transmitt$
 light & "s by ! scatt]$ light1 v       
beautiful effects 7 produc$4 ,boyle     
endeav\r$ to le>n some?+ ( ! nature (   
col\rs by project+ spectra on diff]5tly 
col\r$ pap]s1 & obs]v+ ! appe>ance ( !  
pap]s :5 illum9at$ by ! sev]al spectral 
rays4 ,he also pass$ sunlight1          
conc5trat$ by a l5s1 ?r\gh plates (     
diff]5tly col\r$ glass sup]pos$1 all[+ !
 light to fall on a :ite pap] scre51 &  
obs]v+ ! t9t ( ! light :i* pass$ ?r\gh  
ea* comb9ation4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ^!   

exp]im5ts 0 ! actual mixture ( light (  
diff]5t col\rs by =m+ two spectra1 "o by
 means ( a fix$ prism1 ! o!r by a prism 
held 9 ! h&1 & sup]pos+ ! latt] on ! =m]
 s t diff]5t col\rs 7 made to co9cide4  
,?is exp]im5t 0 repeat$ 9 a modifi$ =m1 
ne>ly two hundr$ ye>s lat]1 by          
,helmholtz1 :o f\nd t ! mixture ( blue &
 yell[ lights produc$ p9k4 ,un=tunately1
 ,boyle's spectra 7 f> f pure1 =1 !     
s\rce ( light be+ ( consid]able         
dim5sions1 ! diff]5t col\rs ov]lapp$ "o 
ano!r1 z 9 ,newton's exp]im5ts1 & 9     
consequ5ce "s ( 8 conclusions 7         
inaccurate4 ,?us blue pap] 9 ! yell[ "p 
( ! spectrum appe>$ to ,boyle gre5      
in/ead ( black1 b ?is 0 due to !        
admixture ( gre5 light ) ! yell[4 ,he   
conclud$ t bodies appe> black because !y
 damp ! light s z to reflect v little to
 ! eye1 b t ! surfaces ( :ite bodies    
consi/ ( innum]able little facets :i*   
reflect ! light 9 all directions4 ,9 !  
same ye> he publi%$ "s ,obs]vations on a
 ,diamond1 :i* %9es 9 ! ,d>k2 & an      

ext5sive treatise on ,"s ,consid]ations 
t\*+ ! ,/yle ( ! ,holy ,scriptures4     
,next ye> appe>$ sev]al pap]s f 8 p51 ! 
mo/ important be+ ,occasional           
,reflections ^u ,sev]al ,subjects1 !    
wide scope ( :i* may be ga!r$ f ! title4
 ,8 ,new ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations t\*+ 
,cold 7 pr9t$ 9 #affe4 ,9 ?is pap] he   
discuss$ ! cause ( ! =ce ex]t$ by wat] 9
 freez+1 me?ods ( measur+ degrees (     
cold1 ! action ( freez+-mixtures1 & _m  
o!r que/ions4 ,he cont5d$ t cold 0      
probably only privative1 & n a positive 
exi/5ce4  ,"l ,bacon _h ass]t$ t !      
ess5tial self ( heat 0 probably motion &
 no?+ m1 & _h adduc$ sev]al exp]im5ts & 
obs]vations 9 support ( ?is op9ion4 ,9 8
 pap] on ! me*anical orig9 ( heat &     
cold1 ,boyle ma9ta9$ t heat 0 motion1 b 
motion ( ! v small p>ticles ( bodies1 v 
int5se1 & tak+ place 9 all directions2 &
 t heat c\ld be produc$ by any means    
:atev] by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies c\ld  
be agitat$4 ,on "o occasion he caus$ two
 pieces ( brass1 "o convex & ! o!r      

concave1 to be press$ aga9/ ea* o!r by a
 spr+1 & !n rubb$ toge!r 9 a vacuum by a
 rot>y motion communicat$ by a %aft :i* 
pass$ air-tight ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! cov] ( 
! receiv]1 a little em]y be+ ins]t$     
betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! second exp]im5t !       
brasses became s hot t he c\ld n endure 
to hold 8 h& on ei!r ( !m4 ,?is exp]im5t
 0 int5d$1 l ! rubb+ ( ! blocks ( ice 9 
vacuo by ,davy1 to meet ! objection t ! 
heat develop$ by friction 0 due to !    
action ( ! air4 ,! foll[+ extract f a   
pap] int5d$ to %[ t ! s5se ( t\* _c be  
reli$ ^u = ! e/imation ( temp]ature1 %[s
 t ,boyle possess$ a v cle> insight into
 ! "q3--,! acc\nt ^u :i* we judge a body
 to be cold seems to be t we feel its   
p>ticles less vehem5tly agitat$ ?an ^? (
 our f+]s or o!r p>ts ( ! organ ( t\*+2 
&1 consequ5tly1 if ! temp] ( t organ be 
*ang$1 ! object w appe> m or less cold  
to u1 ?\gh itself cont9ue ( "o & ! same 
temp]ature4 ,to det]m9e ! expansion (   
wat] 9 freez+1 he fill$ ! bulb & "p ( ! 
/em ( a bulb tube1 or1 z x 0 !n g5]ally 

call$1 a philosophical egg1 ) wat]1 &   
apply+ a freez+-mixture1 at fir/ to !   
bottom ( ! bulb1 he succe$$ 9 freez+ !  
wat] )\t injury to ! glass1 & f\nd t #hb
 volumes ( wat] exp&$ to #ia-a_/h       
volumes ( ice--an expansion ( ab\t      
#aa-a_/h p] c5t4 ,probably air-bubbles  
caus$ ! ice to appe> to h a great]      
volume ?an x really possess$1 ! true    
expansion be+ ab\t n9e p] c5t4 ( !      
volume ( ! wat] at #d deg4,c4 ,!        
expansion ( wat] 9 freez+ he employ$ 9  
ord] to compress air to a great] ext5t  
?an he _h be5 able o!rwise to compress  
x4 ,hav+ ne>ly fill$ a tube ) wat]1 b   
left a little air above1 & !n hav+ seal$
 ! top ( ! tube1 he froze ! wat] f !    
bottom upw>ds1 s t 9 exp&+ x compress$ !
 air to "o-t5? ( its =m] volume4        
,magnetism & electricity came 9 = "s %>e
 ( ,boyle's att5tion4 ,he c>ri$ out a   
numb] ( exp]im5ts on magnetic induction1
 & f\nd t lode/ones1 z well z pieces (  
iron1 :5 heat$ & all[$ to cool1 became  
magnetiz$ by ! induction ( ! e>?4 ,8    

lat] exp]im5ts ) exhau/$ receiv]s 7 n   
made ) 8 fir/ pump1 b ) a two-b>rell$   
pump1 9 :i* ! pi/ons 7 connect$ by a    
cord pass+ ov] a l>ge fix$ pulley1 s t1 
:5 ! receiv] 0 ne>ly exhau/$1 ! pressure
 ( ! air on ! desc5d+ pi/on dur+ !      
great] "p ( ! /roke ne>ly balanc$ t on !
 asc5d+ pi/on4 ,9 ?is respect ! pump    
diff]$ only f ,hawksbee's 9 hav+ !      
pulley & cord in/ead ( ! p9ion & two    
racks4 ,x also resembl$ ,hawksbee's pump
 9 hav+ self-clos+ valves 9 ! pi/ons &  
at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]s1 :i*1 9 ?is     
pump1 _h _! op5 ends at ! top4 ,! pi/ons
 7 alt]nately rais$ & l[]$ by ! feet ( !
 op]ator1 :i* 7 plac$ 9 /irrups1 ( :i*  
"o 0 fix$ on ea* pi/on4 ,! l[] portions 
( ! b>rels 7 fill$ ) wat]1 ?r\gh :i* !  
air bubbl$1 & ?is1 occupy+ ! cle>ance1  
enabl$ a mu* high] degree ( exhau/ion to
 be produc$ ?an c\ld be obta9$ )\t its  
employm5t4  ,9 #affe ,boyle 0 nom9at$   
,provo/ ( ,eton1 b decl9$ to accept !   
appo9tm5t4 ,8 ,hydro/atical ,p>adoxes1  
publi%$ ab\t ?is "t1 conta9 all ! ord9>y

 !orems respect+ ! pressure ( fluids "u 
! action ( gravity demon/rat$           
exp]im5tally4  ,9 #afgg ,boyle pr9t$1 at
 8 own exp5se1 five hundr$ copies ( !   
f\r ,gospels & ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les 9 ! 
,malayan tongue4 ,?is 0 b "o ( 8 _m     
contributions t[>ds simil> objects4  ,on
 ,novemb] #cj1 #afhj1 ! ,royal ,society 
*ose ,boyle = ,presid5t4 ,he1 h[ev]1    
decl9$ to accept ! appo9tm5t1 because he
 _h consci5ti\s objections to tak+ ! oa?
 requir$ ( ! ,presid5t by ! *>t] ( !    
,society4  ,x appe>s t v _m ( ,boyle's  
manuscripts1 :i* 7 writt5 9 b\nd books1 
7 tak5 away1 & o!rs mutilat$ by         
corrosive liquors4 ,9 ,may1 #afhh1 he   
made ?is kn[n to 8 fri5ds1 b1 ?\gh ^!   
losses put him on 8 gu>d1 he compla9$   
aft]w>ds t all 8 c>e & circumspection _h
 n prev5t$ ! loss ( six c5turies (      
matt]s ( fact 9 "o p>cel1 besides _m o!r
 small] pap]s4 ,8 works1 h[ev]1 :i* h   
be5 publi%$ are s num]\s t x w\ld take  
sev]al pages = ! b>e enum]ation ( _!    
titles1 _m ( !m be+ devot$ to m$ical    

subjects4 ,! edition publi%$ 9 ,london 9
 #agdc comprises ne>ly ?ree ?\s& pages (
 folio4 ,boyle always suff]$ f weak     
eyes1 & 9 consequ5ce he decl9$ to revise
 8 pro(s4 ,9 ! adv]tisem5t to ! orig9al 
edition ( 8 works ! publi%] m5tion$ ?is1
 & at ! same "t plead$ 8 own bus9ess    
engagem5ts z an excuse = n revis+ !     
pro(s himself6 ,x 0 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! 
injury to 8 manuscripts1 & p>tly ?r\gh  
fail+ heal?1 t 9 #afhi he set ap>t two  
days 9 ! week1 dur+ :i* he decl9$ to    
receive visitors1 t he might devote     
himself to 8 "w1 & especially to !      
rep>ation ( ! injur$ writ+s4 ,ab\t ?is  
"t he succe$$ 9 procur+ ! repeal ( an   
,act pass$ 9 ! fif? ye> ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 to
 ! effect t none f !nce=? %\ld use to   
multiply gold or silv]1 or use ! craft (
 multiplication2 & if any ! same d1 !y  
%\ld incur ! pa9 ( felony4 ,by ?is      
repeal x 0 made legal to extract gold & 
silv] f ores1 or f _! mixtures ) o!r    
metals1 9 ?is c\ntry provid$ t ! gold & 
silv] s procur$ %\ld be put to no o!r   

use ?an ! increase ( moneys4 ,x is      
curi\s t ,boyle seems always to h       
believ$ 9 ! possibility ( transmut+ o!r 
metals into gold4  ,8 si/]1 ,lady       
,ranelagh1 di$ on ,decemb] #bc1 #afia1 &
 ,boyle surviv$ h] b a few days1 = he   
di$ on ,decemb] #cj1 & 8 body 0 int]r$  
ne> 8 si/]'s grave 9 ! *ancel ( ,/4     
,m>t9's-9-!-,fields4 ,dr4 ,%aw1 9 8     
preface to ,boyle's works1 writes1 ,! m5
 ( wit & le>n+ h1 9 all ages1 busi$     
!mselves 9 expla9+ nature by words2 b x 
is ,mr4 ,boyle alone :o has :olly laid  
himself out 9 %[+ philosophy 9 action4  
,! s+le po9t he p]petually keeps 9 view 
is to r5d] 8 read]1 n a talkative or a  
speculative1 b an actual & practical    
philosoph]4 ,himself sets ! example2 he 
made all ! exp]im5ts he possibly c\ld ^u
 natural bodies1 & communicat$ !m ) all 
desirable c&\r & fidelity4 ,! second "p 
( 8 treatise on ,! ,*ri/ian ,virtuoso1  
,boyle conclud$ ) a numb] ( aphorisms1 (
 :i* ! foll[+ well repres5t 8 views     
respect+ sci5ce3--  ,i ?9k x becomes    

,*ri/ian philosoph]s r to try :e!r !y c 
inve/igate ! f9al causes ( ?+s ?an1 )\t 
trial1 to take x = grant$ t !y are      
undiscov]able4  ,! book ( ,nature is a  
f9e & l>ge piece ( tape/ry roll$ up1 :i*
 we are n able to see all at once1 b mu/
 be cont5t to wait = ! discov]y ( its   
beauty & symmetry1 little by little1 z x
 gradually comes to be m unfold$ or     
display$4     ,,b5jam9 ,,frankl94       
,among ^? ^: contributions to physics h 
immortaliz$ _! names 9 ! annals (       
sci5ce1 !re is none t holds a m prom95t 
position 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w ?an ,b5jam9  
,frankl94 ,at "o "t a j\rneyman pr9t]1  
liv+ 9 obscure lodg+s 9 ,london1 he     
became1 dur+ ! ,am]ican ,w> (           
,indep5d5ce1 "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s      
figures 9 ,europe1 & among ,am]icans 8  
reputation 0 probably second to none1   
,g5]al ,wa%+ton n except$4  ,pr(essor   
,lab\laye says ( ,frankl93 ,no "o ev]   
/>t$ f a l[] po9t ?an ! poor appr5tice (
 ,bo/on4 ,no "o ev] rais$ himself high] 
by 8 own unaid$ =ces ?an ! inv5tor ( !  

lightn+-rod4 ,no "o has r5d]$ great]    
s]vice to 8 c\ntry ?an ! diplomati/ :o  
sign$ ! treaty ( #aghc1 & assur$ !      
indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,bett] ?an
 ! biographies ( ,plut>*1 ?is life1 s   
long & s well fill$1 is a s\rce (       
p]petual in/ruction to all m54 ,e "o c  
!re f9d c\nsel & example4  ,a great "p (
 ! hi/ory ( 8 life 0 writt5 by ,frankl9 
himself1 at fir/ = ! edification ( !    
memb]s ( 8 own family1 & aft]w>ds at !  
press+ reque/ ( "s ( 8 fri5ds 9 ,london 
& ,p>is4 ,8 autobiography does n1 h[ev]1
 comprise mu* m ?an ! fir/ fifty ye>s ( 
8 life4 ,! fir/ "p 0 writt5 :ile he 0 ! 
gue/ ( ! ,bi%op ( ,/4 ,asaph1 at ,twy=d2
 ! second portion at ,passy1 9 ! h\se ( 
,m4 de ,*aumont2 & ! la/ "p 9           
,philadelphia1 :5 he 0 retir+ f public  
life at ! age ( eighty-two4 ,! =m] "p ( 
?is autobiography 0 translat$ into      
,fr5*1 & publi%$ 9 ,p>is1 9 #agic1 ?\gh 
x is n kn[n h[ ! manuscript came into ! 
publi%]'s h&s4 ,! ,fr5* v]sion 0        
translat$ into ,engli%1 & publi%$ 9     

,engl& & ,am]ica1 toge!r ) su* o!r (    
,frankl9's works z c\ld be collect$1    
be=e ! latt] "p 0 giv5 to ! _w by       
,frankl9's gr&son1 to :om he _h bequea!d
 8 pap]s1 & :o fir/ publi%$ !m 9 ,am]ica
 9 #ahag4  ,= a p]iod ( ?ree hundr$ ye>s
 at lea/ ,frankl9's family liv$ on a    
small freehold ( ab\t ?irty acres1 9 !  
village ( ,ecton1 9 ,nor?ampton%ire1 !  
elde/ son1 :o inh]it$ ! prop]ty1 be+    
always br\ght up to ! trade ( a smi?4   
,frankl9 himself 0 ! y\nge/ son ( !     
y\nge/ son = five g5]ations back4 ,8    
gr&fa!r liv$ at ,ecton till he 0 too old
 to foll[ 8 bus9ess1 :5 he w5t to live )
 8 second son1 ,john1 :o 0 a dy] at     
,banbury4 ,to ?is bus9ess ,frankl9's    
fa!r1 ,josiah1 0 appr5tic$4 ,! elde/    
son1 ,?omas1 0 br\ght up a smi?1 b      
aft]w>ds became a solicitor2 ! o!r son1 
,b5jam91 0 a silk-dy]1 & foll[$ ,josiah 
to ,am]ica4 ,he 0 fond ( writ+ poetry & 
s]mons4 ,! latt] he wrote 9 a %or?& ( 8 
own inv5t+1 :i* he taught to 8 nephew & 
namesake1 9 ord] t he might utilize !   

s]mons if1 z 0 propos$1 he became a     
,presbyt]ian m9i/]4 ,frankl9's fa!r1    
,josiah1 took 8 wife & ?ree *ildr5 to   
,new ,engl&1 9 #afhb1 :]e he practis$ ! 
trade ( a tall[-*&l] & soap-boil]4      
,frankl9 0 born 9 ,bo/on on ,janu>y #f  
7,o4,s471 #agjf1 & 0 ! y\nge/ ( sev5te5 
*ildr51 ( :om ?irte5 grew up & m>ri$4   
,b5jam9 be+ ! y\nge/ ( t5 sons1 8 fa!r  
int5d$ him = ! s]vice ( ! ,*ur*1 & s5t  
him to ! gramm> s*ool :5 eight ye>s (   
age1 :]e he cont9u$ only a ye>1 al?\gh  
he made v rapid progress 9 ! s*ool2 = 8 
fa!r conclud$ t he c\ld n af=d ! exp5se 
( a college education1 & at ! end ( !   
ye> remov$ him to a private comm]cial   
s*ool4 ,at ! age ( t5 "y ,b5jam9 0 tak5 
home to assi/ 9 cutt+ ! wicks ( c&les1 &
 o!rwise to make himself useful 9 8     
fa!r's bus9ess4 ,8 ent]pris+ "* z a boy 
is %[n by ! foll[+ /ory1 :i* is 9 8 own 
words3--      ,!re 0 a salt m>% t b\nd$ 
"p ( ! mill-pond1 on     ! edge ( :i*1  
at high-wat]1 we us$ to /& to fi% =     
m9n[s4 ,by mu* trampl+ we _h made x a   

m]e quagmire4 ,my     proposal 0 to     
build a :>f !re fit = u to /& ^u1     & 
,i %[$ my comrades a l>ge heap ( /ones1 
:i* 7     int5d$ = a new h\se ne> ! m>%1
 & :i* w\ld v     well suit our purpose4
 ,accord+ly1 9 ! ev5+1 :5 !     workm5 7
 gone1 ,i assembl$ a numb] ( my         
play-fell[s1 &     work+ ) !m dilig5tly1
 l s _m emmets1 sometimes two     or    
?ree to a /one1 we br\ght !m all away & 
built our     little :>f4 ,! next morn+ 
! workm5 7 surpris$ at     miss+ !      
/ones1 :i* 7 f\nd 9 our :>f4 ,inquiry 0 
made aft] ! remov]s2 we 7 discov]$ &    
compla9$ (2     sev]al ( u 7 correct$ by
 our fa!rs2 &1 ?\gh ,i     plead$ !     
usefulness ( ! "w1 m9e conv9c$ me t     
no?+ 0 useful :i* 0 n hone/4  ,until    
twelve ye>s ( age ,b5jam9 cont9u$ 9 8   
fa!r's bus9ess1 b z he manife/$ a great 
dislike = x1 & 8 p>5ts fe>$ t he might  
"o day run away to sea1 !y set ab\t f9d+
 "s trade :i* w\ld be m cong5ial to 8   
ta/es4 ,) ?is view 8 fa!r took him to   
see v>i\s artific]s at _! "w1 t he might

 obs]ve ! ta/es ( ! boy4 ,?is exp]i5ce 0
 v valuable to him1 z x taught him to d 
_m little jobs = himself :5 workm5 c\ld 
n readily be procur$4 ,dur+ ?is "t      
,b5jam9 sp5t mo/ ( 8 pocket-money 9     
pur*as+ books1 "s ( :i* he sold :5 he _h
 read !m1 9 ord] to buy o!rs4 ,he read  
?r\gh mo/ ( ! books 9 8 fa!r's v limit$ 
libr>y4 ,^! ma9ly consi/$ ( works on    
!ological controv]sy1 :i* ,frankl9      
aft]w>ds consid]$ to h be5 n v pr(itable
 to him4  ,!re 0 ano!r booki% lad 9 !   
t[n1 ,john ,coll9s by "n1 ) :om ,i 0    
intimately acqua9t$4 ,we sometimes      
disput$1 & v fond we 7 ( argum5t1 & v   
desir\s ( confut+ "o ano!r1 :i*         
disputati\s turn1 by ! way1 is apt to   
become a v bad habit1 mak+ p (t5 v      
disagreeable 9 company by !             
contradiction t is necess>y to br+ x    
into practice2 & !nce1 besides s\r+ &   
spoil+ ! conv]sation1 is productive (   
disgu/s & p]haps enmities :5 y may h    
occasion = fri5d%ip4 ,i _h caught x by  
read+ my fa!r's books ( dispute ab\t    

religion4 ,p]sons ( good s5se1 ,i h s9ce
 obs]v$1 seldom fall into x1 except     
lawy]s1 univ]sity m51 & m5 ( all sorts t
 h be5 br$ at ,ed9burgh4  ,at l5g?      
,frankl9's fondness = books caus$ 8 fa!r
 to decide to make him a pr9t]4 ,8 bro!r
 ,james _h already ent]$ t bus9ess1 & _h
 set up 9 ,bo/on ) a new press & types  
:i* he _h br\ght f ,engl&4 ,he sign$ 8  
ind5tures :5 only twelve ye>s old1 !reby
 appr5tic+ himself to 8 bro!r until he  
%\ld atta9 ! age ( tw5ty-"o4 ,!         
acqua9tance :i* he =m$ ) booksell]s     
?r\gh ! pr9t+ bus9ess enabl$ him to     
borr[ a bett] class ( books ?an he _h   
be5 accu/om$ to1 & he frequ5tly sat up !
 great] "p ( ! night to read a book :i* 
he _h to return 9 ! morn+4  ,:ile work+ 
) 8 bro!r1 ! "y appr5tice wrote two     
ballads1 :i* he pr9t$ & sold 9 ! /reets 
( ,bo/on4 ,8 fa!r1 h[ev]1 ridicul$ !    
p]=mance2 s he escap$ be+ a poet4 ,he   
adopt$ at ?is "t a some:at orig9al me?od
 to improve 8 prose writ+4 ,meet+ ) an  
odd volume ( ! ,spectator1 he pur*as$ x 

& read x ov] & ov]1 & wi%$ to imitate ! 
/yle4 ,mak+ %ort notes ( ! s5tim5t 9 ea*
 s5t5ce1 he laid !m by1 & aft]w>ds tri$ 
to write out ! pap]s )\t look+ at !     
orig9al4 ,!n on comp>ison he discov]$ 8 
faults & correct$ !m4 ,f9d+ 8 vocabul>y 
defici5t1 he turn$ "s ( ! tales into    
v]se1 !n retranslat$ !m into prose1     
believ+ t ! attempt to make v]ses w\ld  
necessitate a se>* = sev]al words ( !   
same mean+4 ,i also sometimes jumbl$ my 
collection ( h9ts into confusion1 & aft]
 "s weeks endeav\r$ to r$uce !m into !  
be/ ord]1 be=e ,i began to =m ! full    
s5t5ce & complete ! pap]4 ,?is 0 to tea*
 me me?od 9 ! arrangem5t ( my ?\ghts4   
,meet+ ) a book on veget>ianism1        
,frankl9 det]m9$ to give ! sy/em a      
trial4 ,?is l$ to "s inconv5i5ce 9 8    
bro!r's h\se-keep+1 s ,frankl9 propos$  
to bo>d himself if 8 bro!r w\ld give him
 half ! sum he paid = 8 bo>d1 & out (   
?is he 0 able to save a consid]able     
am\nt = ! purpose ( buy+ books4         
,moreov]1 ! "t requir$ = meals 0 s %ort 

t ! d9n] h\r af=d$ consid]able leisure =
 read+4 ,x 0 on 8 j\rney f ,bo/on to    
,philadelphia t he fir/ violat$         
veget>ian pr9ciples2 =1 a l>ge cod hav+ 
be5 caught by ! sailors1 "s small fi%es 
7 f\nd 9 its /oma*1 :]eupon ,frankl9    
argu$ t if fi%es ate "o ano!r1 !re c\ld 
be no reason aga9/ eat+ !m1 s he d9$ on 
cod dur+ ! re/ ( ! j\rney4  ,aft] read+ 
,x5ophon's ,memorabilia1 ,frankl9 took  
up /rongly ) ! ,socratic me?od (        
discussion1 & became s artful & exp]t 9 
draw+ p1 ev5 ( sup]ior k1 into          
concessions1 ! consequ5ce ( :i* !y did n
 =esee1 t "s "t aft]w>ds "o ( 8         
employ]s1 be=e answ]+ ! mo/ simple "q1  
w\ld frequ5tly ask :at he int5d$ to inf]
 f ! answ]4 ,?is practice he gradually  
gave up1 reta9+ only ! habit ( express+ 
8 op9ions ) mode/ diffid5ce4  ,9 #agbj  
or #agba ,james ,frankl9 began to pr9t a
 newspap]1 ! ,new ,engl& ,c\rant4 ,to   
?is pap]1 :i* he help$ to compose &     
pr9t1 ,b5jam9 became an anonym\s        
contributor4 ,! memb]s ( ! /aff spoke   

highly ( 8 contributions1 b :5 !        
au?or%ip became kn[n1 ,james appe>s to h
 conceiv$ a jeal\sy ( 8 y\ng] bro!r1 :i*
 ultimately l$ to _! sep>ation4 ,an     
article 9 ! pap] hav+ (f5d$ ! ,assembly1
 ,james 0 imprison$ = a mon? & =bidd5 to
 pr9t ! pap]4 ,he !n fre$ ,b5jam9 f 8   
ind5tures1 9 ord] t ! pap] might be     
publi%$ 9 8 "n4 ,at l5g?1 "s disagreem5t
 aris+1 ,b5jam9 took advantage ( !      
cancell+ ( 8 ind5tures to quit 8 bro!r's
 s]vice4 ,z he c\ld get no employm5t 9  
,bo/on1 he obta9$ a passage to ,new     
,york1 :5ce he 0 recomm5d$ to g to      
,philadelphia1 :i* he rea*$ aft] a v    
tr\blesome j\rney4 ,8 :ole /ock ( ca% !n
 consi/$ ( a ,dut* doll> & ab\t a       
%ill+'s wor? ( copp]s4 ,! copp]s he gave
 to ! boatm5 ) :om he came across f     
,burl+ton4 ,8 fir/ appe>ance 9          
,philadelphia1 ab\t eight o'clock on a  
,sunday morn+1 0 c]ta9ly /rik+4 ,a y\?  
betwe5 sev5te5 & eighte5 ye>s ( age1    
dress$ 9 8 work+ clo!s1 :i* 7 dirty     
?r\gh 8 j\rney1 ) 8 pockets /uff$ out ) 

/ock+s & %irts1 8 aspect 0 n calculat$  
to comm& respect4  ,!n ,i walk$ up !    
/reet1 gaz+ ab\t till ne> ! m>ket-h\se  
,i met a boy ) bread4 ,i _h made _m a   
meal on bread1 &1 inquir+ :]e he got x1 
,i w5t imm$iately to ! bak]'s he direct$
 me to1 9 ,second ,/reet1 & ask'd =     
bisket1 int5d+ su* z we _h 9 ,bo/on2 b  
!y1 x seems1 7 n made 9 ,philadelphia4  
,!n ,i ask$ = a ?reep5ny loaf1 & 0 told 
!y _h none su*4 ,s1 n consid]+ or kn[+ !
 diff]5ce ( money1 & ! great] *eapness1 
nor ! "n ( 8 bread1 ,i bad him give me  
?ree-p5ny-wor? ( any sort4 ,he gave me1 
accord+ly1 ?ree great puffy rolls4 ,i 0 
surpriz'd at ! quantity1 b took x1 &    
hav+ no room 9 my pockets1 walk'd (f ) a
 roll "u ea* arm1 & eat+ ! o!r4 ,?us ,i 
w5t up ,m>ket ,/reet z f> z ,f\r?       
,/reet1 pass+ by ! door ( ,mr4 ,read1 my
 future wife's fa!r2 :5 %e1 /&+ at !    
door1 saw me1 & ?\ght ,i made1 z ,i     
c]ta9ly did1 a mo/ awkw>d1 ridicul\s    
appe>ance4 ,!n ,i turn$ & w5t d[n       
,*e/nut ,/reet & "p ( ,walnut ,/reet1   

eat+ my roll all ! way1 &1 com+ r\nd1   
f\nd myself aga9 at ,m>ket ,/reet ,:>f1 
ne> ! boat ,i came 91 to :i* ,i w5t = a 
draught ( ! riv] wat]2 &1 be+ fill$ out 
) "o ( my rolls1 gave ! o!r two to a    
woman & h] *ild t came d[n ! riv] 9 !   
boat ) u1 & 7 wait+ to g fur!r4  ,9     
,philadelphia ,frankl9 obta9$ an        
introduction1 ?r\gh a g5tleman he _h met
 at ,new ,york1 to a pr9t]1 nam$ ,keim]1
 :o _h j set up bus9ess ) an old press  
:i* he appe>$ n to "k h[ to use1 & "o   
pair ( cases ( ,engli% type4 ,"h        
,frankl9 obta9$ employm5t :5 ! bus9ess  
on h& w\ld p]mit1 & he put ! press 9    
ord] & work$ x4 ,keim] obta9$ lodg+s =  
him at ! h\se ( ,mr4 ,read1 &1 by       
indu/ry & economical liv+1 ,frankl9 f\nd
 himself 9 easy circum/ances4 ,sir      
,william ,kei? 0 !n ,gov]nor (          
,p5nsylvania1 & he>+ ( ,frankl91 he     
call$ ^u him at ,keim]'s pr9t+-(fice1   
invit$ him to take w9e at a neighb\r+   
tav]n1 & promis$ to obta9 = him !       
,gov]nm5t pr9t+ if he w\ld set up =     

himself4 ,x 0 !n arrang$ t ,frankl9 %\ld
 return to ,bo/on by ! fir/ %ip1 9 ord] 
to see :at help 8 fa!r w\ld give t[>ds  
sett+ him up 9 bus9ess4 ,9 ! mean :ile  
he 0 frequ5tly invit$ to d9e at !       
gov]nor's h\se4 ,not)/&+ ,sir ,william  
,kei?'s recomm5dation1 ,josiah ,frankl9 
?\ght 8 son too "y to take !            
responsibility ( a bus9ess1 & w\ld only 
promise to assi/ him if1 :5 he 0        
tw5ty-"o1 he _h himself sav$ suffici5t  
to pur*ase mo/ ( ! requisite plant4 ,on 
8 return to ,philadelphia1 he deliv]$ 8 
fa!r's lett] to ,sir ,william ,kei?1    
:]eon ! gov]nor1 /at+ t he 0 det]m9$ to 
h a good pr9t] !re1 promis$ to f9d !    
means ( equipp+ ! pr9t+-(fice himself1 &
 sugge/$ ! desirability ( ,frankl9's    
mak+ a j\rney to ,engl& 9 ord] to       
pur*ase ! plant4 ,he promis$ lett]s (   
introduction to v>i\s p]sons 9 ,engl&1 z
 well z a lett] ( cr$it to furni% !     
money = ! pur*ase ( ! pr9t+-plant4 ,^!  
lett]s ,frankl9 0 to call =1 b !re 0    
always "s excuse = _! n be+ ready4 ,at  

la/ !y 7 to be s5t on bo>d ! %ip1 &     
,frankl91 hav+ gone on bo>d1 await$ !   
lett]s4 ,:5 ! gov]nor's despat*es came1 
!y 7 all put into a bag toge!r1 & !     
capta9 promis$ to let ,frankl9 h 8      
lett]s be=e l&+4 ,on op5+ ! bag (f      
,plym\?1 !re 7 no lett]s ( ! k9d        
promis$1 & ,frankl9 0 left )\t          
introductions & almo/ )\t money1 to make
 8 own way 9 ! _w4 ,9 ,london he le>n$ t
 ,gov]nor ,kei? 0 well kn[n z a man 9   
:om no dep5d5ce c\ld be plac$1 & z to 8 
giv+ a lett] ( cr$it1 he _h no cr$it to 
give4  ,a fri5d ( ,frankl9's1 nam$      
,ralph1 accompani$ him f ,am]ica1 & !   
two took lodg+s toge!r 9 ,little ,brita9
 at ?ree %ill+s & sixp5ce p] week4      
,frankl9 imm$iately obta9$ employm5t at 
,palm]'s pr9t+-(fice1 9 ,b>?olomew      
,close2 b ,ralph1 :o knew no trade1 b   
aim$ at lit]ature1 0 unable to get any  
"w4 ,he c\ld n obta9 employm5t1 ev5     
among ! law /ation]s z a copy+ cl]k1 s =
 "s "t ! wages :i* ,frankl9 e>n$ _h to  
support ! two4 ,at ,palm]'s ,frankl9 0  

employ$ 9 compos+ ,wolla/on's ,religion 
( ,nature4 ,on ?is he wrote a %ort      
critique1 :i* he pr9t$4 x 0 entitl$ ,a  
,diss]tation on ,lib]ty & ,necessity1   
,pleasure & ,pa94 ,! publication ( ?is  
he aft]w>ds regrett$1 b x obta9$ = him  
introductions to "s lit]>y p]sons 9     
,london4 ,subsequ5tly he left ,palm]'s &
 obta9$ "w at ,watts's pr9t+-(fice1 :]e 
he rema9$ dur+ ! re/ ( 8 /ay 9 ,london4 
,! be]-dr9k+ capabilities ( "s ( 8      
fell[-workm5 excit$ 8 a/oni%m5t4 ,he    
says3--      ,we _h an aleh\se boy :o   
att5d$ always 9 ! h\se to     supply !  
workm54 ,my companion at ! press drank e
 day a     p9t be=e breakfa/1 a p9t at  
breakfa/ ) 8 bread &     *eese1 a p9t   
betwe5 breakfa/ & d9n]1 a p9t at d9n]1 a
     p9t 9 ! aft]noon ab\t six o'clock1 
& ano!r :5 he _h     done 8 day's "w4 ,i
 ?\ght x a dete/able cu/om1 b x     0   
necess>y1 he suppos'd1 to dr9k /rong    
be]1 t he     might be /rong to lab\r4  
,i endeav\r$ to conv9ce him t     !     
bodily /r5g? af=d$ by be] c\ld only be 9

 proportion     to ! gra9 or fl\r ( !   
b>ley dissolv$ 9 ! wat] (     :i* x 0   
made2 t !re 0 m fl\r 9 a p5nywor? (     
bread2 & !re=e1 if he w\ld eat t ) a p9t
 ( wat]1     x w\ld give him m /r5g? ?an
 a qu>t ( be]4 ,he drank     on1 h[ev]1 
& _h f\r or five %ill+s to pay out ( 8  
wages e ,saturday night = t muddl+      
liquor2 an exp5se     ,i 0 free f4 ,&   
?us ^! poor devils keep !mselves        
always "u4  ,aft]w>ds ,frankl9 succe$$ 9
 p]suad+ sev]al ( ! compositors to give 
up _! muddl+ breakfa/ ( be] & bread &   
*eese1 = a porr+] ( hot-wat] gruel1 )   
pepp]1 breadcrumbs1 & butt]1 :i* !y     
obta9$ f a neighb\r+ h\se at a co/ (    
?ree halfp5ce4  ,among ,frankl9's       
fell[-pass5g]s f ,philadelphia to ,engl&
 0 an ,am]ican m]*ant1 a ,mr4 ,d5ham1 :o
 _h =m]ly be5 9 bus9ess 9 ,bri/ol1 b    
fail$ & comp\nd$ ) 8 cr$itors4 ,he !n   
w5t to ,am]ica1 :]e he soon acquir$ a   
=tune1 & return$ 9 ,frankl9's %ip4 ,he  
invit$ all 8 old cr$itors to d9e ) him4 
,at ! d9n] ea* gue/ f\nd "u 8 plate a   

*eque = ! balance :i* _h be5 due to him1
 ) int]e/ to date4 ,?is g5tleman always 
rema9$ a firm fri5d to ,frankl91 :o1    
dur+ 8 /ay 9 ,london1 s\ght 8 advice :5 
any important que/ions arose4 ,:5 ,mr4  
,d5ham return$ to ,philadelphia ) a     
quantity ( m]*&ise1 he (f]$ ,frankl9 an 
appo9tm5t z cl]k1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds to     
develop into a commission ag5cy4 ,! (f] 
0 accept$1 &1 aft] a voyage ( ne>ly ?ree
 mon?s1 ,frankl9 rea*$ ,philadelphia on 
,octob] #aa1 #agbf4 ,"h he f\nd ,gov]nor
 ,kei? _h be5 sup]s$$ by ,major ,gordon1
 &1 :at 0 ( m importance to him1 t ,miss
 ,read1 to :om he _h become engag$ be=e 
leav+ = ,engl&1 & to :om he _h writt5   
only once dur+ 8 abs5ce1 _h m>ri$4      
,%ortly aft] />t+ 9 bus9ess1 ,mr4 ,d5ham
 di$1 & ?us left ,frankl9 to comm5ce    
life aga9 = himself4 ,keim] _h by ?is "t
 obta9$ a fairly ext5sive e/abli%m5t1 & 
employ$ a numb] ( h&s1 b none ( !m 7 (  
mu* value2 & he made ov]tures to        
,frankl9 to take ! managem5t ( 8        
pr9t+-(fice1 app>5tly ) ! int5tion (    

gett+ 8 m5 taught _! bus9ess1 s t he    
might aft]w>ds be able to disp5se ) !   
manag]4 ,frankl9 set ! pr9t+-h\se 9     
ord]1 />t$ type-f\nd+1 made ! ink1 &1 :5
 necess>y1 execut$ engrav+s4 ,z ! o!r   
h&s improv$ "u 8 sup]9t5d5ce1 ,keim]    
began to treat 8 manag] less civilly1 & 
app>5tly desir$ to curtail 8 /ip5d4 ,at 
l5g?1 ?r\gh an outbreak ( temp] on ! "p 
( ,keim]1 ,frankl9 left1 b 0 aft]w>ds   
induc$ to return 9 ord] to prep>e       
copp]-plates & a press = pr9t+ pap]     
money = ,new ,j]sey4  ,:ile work+ =     
,keim]1 ,frankl9 =m$ a club1 :i* 0 de/9$
 to ex]t consid]able influ5ce on        
,am]ican politics4 ,! club met on       
,friday ev5+s1 & 0 call$ ! ,junto4 ,x 0 
ess5tially a debat+ society1 ! subject =
 ea* ev5+'s discussion be+ propos$ at ! 
prec$+ meet+4 ,"o ( ! rules 0 t !       
exi/5ce ( ! club %\ld rema9 a secret1 & 
t its memb]s %\ld be limit$ to twelve4  
,aft]w>ds o!r simil> clubs 7 =m$ by its 
memb]s2 b ! exi/5ce ( ! ,junto 0 kept a 
secret f !m4 ,! club la/$ = ab\t =ty    

ye>s1 & became ! nucleus ( ! ,am]ican   
,philosophical ,society1 ( :i* ,frankl9 
0 ! fir/ presid5t4 ,?is1 & ! fact t _m (
 ! great que/ions t arose previ\sly to !
 ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce 7 discuss$ 9 
! ,junto 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 give to !    
club a special importance4 ,! foll[+ are
 specim5s ( subjects discuss$ by !      
club3--  ,is s\nd an entity or body8    
,h[ may ! ph5om5a ( vap\rs be expla9$8  
,is self-int]e/ ! rudd] t /e]s mank9d1 !
 univ]sal mon>* to :om all are          
tribut>ies8  ,:i* is ! be/ =m (         
gov]nm5t8 & :at 0 t =m :i* fir/ prevail$
 among mank9d8  ,c any "o p>ticul> =m ( 
gov]nm5t suit all mank9d8  ,:at is !    
reason t ! tides rise high] 9 ! ,bay (  
,fundy ?an ! ,bay ( ,delaw>e8  ,is !    
emission ( pap] money safe8  ,:at is !  
reason t m5 ( ! greate/ k are n ! mo/   
happy8  ,h[ may ! possessions ( ! ,lakes
 be improv$ to our advantage8  ,:y are  
tumultu\s1 uneasy s5sations unit$ ) our 
desires8  ,:e!r x ought to be ! aim (   
philosophy to eradicate ! passions4  ,h[

 may smoky *imneys be be/ cur$8  ,:y    
does ! flame ( a c&le t5d upw>ds 9 a    
spire8  ,:i* is lea/ crim9al--a bad     
action jo9$ ) a good int5tion1 or a good
 action ) a bad int5tion8  ,is x        
consi/5t ) ! pr9ciples ( lib]ty 9 a free
 gov]nm5t to puni% a man z a libell] :5 
he speaks ! tru?8  ,on leav+ ,keim]'s1  
,frankl9 w5t into p>tn]%ip ) "o ( 8     
fell[-workm51 ,hugh ,m]$i?1 ^: fa!r f\nd
 ! necess>y capital1 & a pr9t+-(fice 0  
/>t$ :i* soon excell$ its two rivals 9  
,philadelphia4 ,frankl9's indu/ry       
attract$ ! att5tion ( ! t[nsfolk1 &     
inspir$ ! m]*ants ) confid5ce 9 !       
prospects ( ! new conc]n4 ,keim] />t$ a 
newspap]1 :i* he _h n ! ability to c>ry 
on2 ,frankl9 pur*as$ x f him = a trifle1
 remodell$ x1 & cont9u$ x 9 a v spirit$ 
mann] "u ! title ( ! ,p5nsylvania       
,gazette4 ,8 political articles soon    
attract$ ! att5tion ( ! pr9cipal m5 ( ! 
/ate2 ! numb] ( subscrib]s increas$     
rapidly1 & ! pap] became a s\rce (      
consid]able pr(it4 ,soon aft]1 ! pr9t+ =

 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives came into !  
h&s ( ! firm4 ,m]$i? nev] took to !     
bus9ess1 & 0 seldom sob]1 & at l5g? 0   
b\ght out by 8 p>tn]1 on ,july #ad1     
#agcj4 ,! discussion 9 ! ,junto on pap] 
curr5cy induc$ ,frankl9 to publi% a pap]
 entitl$ ,! ,nature & ,necessity ( a    
,pap] ,curr5cy4 ,?is 0 a prom95t subject
 be=e ! ,h\se1 b ! introduction ( pap]  
money 0 oppos$ by ! capitali/s4 ,!y 7   
unable1 h[ev]1 to answ] ,frankl9's      
argum5ts2 ! po9t 0 c>ri$ 9 ! ,h\se1 &   
,frankl9 0 employ$ to pr9t ! money4 ,!  
am\nt ( pap] money 9 ,p5nsylvania 9     
#agci am\nt$ to ,l#hj1jjj2 dur+ ! w> x  
rose to m ?an ,l#cej1jjj4  ,9 ord] to   
secure my cr$it & "* z a tradesman1 ,i  
took c>e n only to be 9 reality         
indu/ri\s & frugal1 b to avoid all      
appe>ances to ! contr>y4 ,i dre/ pla9ly2
 ,i 0 se5 at no places ( idle div]sion4 
,i nev] w5t out a-fi%+ or %oot+2 a book1
 inde$1 sometimes debau*'d me f my "w1 b
 t 0 seldom1 snug1 & gave no sc&al2 &1  
to %[ t ,i 0 n above my bus9ess1 ,i     

sometimes br\ght home ! pap] ,i pur*as'd
 at ! /ores ?ro' ! /reets on a :eelb>r[4
 ,?us be+ e/eem'd an indu/ri\s1 ?riv+ "y
 man1 & pay+ duly = :at ,i b\ght1 !     
m]*ants :o import$ /ation]y solicit$ my 
cu/om2 o!rs propos$ supply+ me ) books1 
& ,i w5t on swimm+ly4 ,9 ! mean "t1     
,keim]'s cr$it & bus9ess decl9+ daily1  
he 0 at la/ =c'd to sell 8 pr9t+-h\se to
 satisfy 8 cr$itors4  ,on ,septemb] #a1 
#agcj1 ,frankl9 m>ri$ 8 =m] fiancee1 ^: 
previ\s husb& _h left h] & 0 report$ to 
h di$ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! m>riage 0 a v
 happy "o1 & cont9u$ ov] =ty ye>s1 ,mrs4
 ,frankl9 liv+ until ! end ( #aggd4     
,indu/ry & frugality reign$ 9 ! h\sehold
 ( ! "y pr9t]4 ,mrs4 ,frankl9 n only    
manag$ ! h\se1 b assi/$ 9 ! bus9ess1    
fold+ & /it*+ pamphlets1 & 9 o!r ways   
mak+ h]self useful4 ,! fir/ "p (        
,frankl9's autobiography concludes ) an 
acc\nt ( ! f\ndation ( ! fir/           
subscription libr>y4 ,by ! co-op]ation (
 ! memb]s ( ! ,junto1 fifty subscrib]s 7
 obta9$1 :o ea* paid 9 ! fir/ in/ance   

=ty %ill+s1 & aft]w>ds t5 %ill+s p]     
annum4 ,we aft]w>ds obta9$ a *>t]1 !    
company be+ increas$ to "o hundr$4 ,?is 
0 ! "m ( all ! ,nor? ,am]ican           
subscription libr>ies1 n[ s num]\s4 ,x  
is become a great ?+ itself1 &          
cont9ually increas+4 ,^! libr>ies h     
improv$ ! g5]al conv]sation ( !         
,am]icans1 made ! common tradesm5 &     
f>m]s z intellig5t z mo/ g5tlem5 f o!r  
c\ntries1 & p]haps h contribut$ 9 "s    
degree to ! /& s g5]ally made ?r\gh\t ! 
colonies 9 def5ce ( _! privileges4  ,t5 
ye>s ago ?is libr>y conta9$ betwe5      
sev5ty & eighty ?\s& volumes4           
,frankl9's success 9 bus9ess 0 attribut$
 by him l>gely to 8 e>ly tra9+4 ,my     
circum/ances1 h[ev]1 grew daily easi]4  
,my orig9al habits ( frugality cont9u+1 
& my fa!r hav+1 among 8 in/ructions to  
me :5 a boy1 frequ5tly repeat$ a prov]b 
( ,solomon1 ',see/ ?\ a man dilig5t 9 8 
bus9ess8 he %all /& be=e k+s2 he %all n 
/& be=e mean m51' ,i f !nce consid]$    
indu/ry z a means ( obta9+ weal? &      

di/9ction1 :i* enc\rag'd me1 ?o' ,i did 
n ?9k t ,i %\ld ev] lit]ally /& be=e    
k+s1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has s9ce happ5$2 = ,i h
 /ood be=e five1 & ev5 _h ! hon\r (     
sitt+ d[n ) "o1 ! ,k+ ( ,d5m>k1 to d9n]4
  ,aft] 8 m>riage1 ,frankl9 conceiv$ !  
idea ( obta9+ moral p]fection4 ,he 0 n  
altoge!r satisfi$ ) ! result1 b ?\ght 8 
me?od wor?y ( imitation4 ,assum+ t he   
possess$ complete k ( :at 0 "r or wrong1
 he saw no reason :y he %\ld n always   
act 9 accordance !re)4 ,8 pr9ciple 0 to 
devote 8 att5tion to "o virtue only at  
fir/ = a week1 at ! end ( :i* "t he     
expect$ ! practice ( t virtue to h      
become a habit4 ,he !n add$ ano!r virtue
 to 8 li/1 & devot$ 8 att5tion to ! same
 = ! next week1 & s on1 until he _h     
exhau/$ 8 li/ ( virtues4 ,he !n comm5c$ 
aga9 at ! beg9n+4 ,z 8 moral code       
compris$ ?irte5 virtues1 x 0 possible to
 g ?r\gh ! complete curriculum f\r times
 9 a ye>4 ,aft]w>ds he occupi$ a ye> 9  
go+ once ?r\gh ! li/1 & subsequ5tly     
employ$ sev]al ye>s 9 "o c\rse4 ,a      

little book 0 rul$1 ) a column = ea* day
 & a l9e = ea* virtue1 & 9 ?is a m>k 0  
made = e failure :i* c\ld be rememb]$ on
 exam9ation at ! end ( ! day4 ,x is easy
 to believe 8 /atem5t3 ,i am surpris$ to
 f9d myself s mu* full] ( faults ?an ,i 
_h imag9$2 b ,i _h ! satisfaction ( see+
 !m dim9i%4  ,?is my little book _h =   
its motto ^! l9es f ,addison's          
',cato'3--      ',"h w ,i hold4 ,if     
!re's a ,p[] above u     7,& t !re is1  
all ,nature cries al\d     ,?ro' all h] 
"w71 ,he mu/ delight 9 virtue2     ,& t 
:i* ,he delights 9 mu/ be happy4'       
,ano!r f ,cic]o3--  ',o vitae           
,philosophia dux6 ,o virtutum indagatrix
 expultrixque vitiorum6 ,unus dies ex   
praeceptis tuis actus1 peccanti         
immortalitati e/ antepon5dus4'  ,ano!r f
 ! ,prov]bs ( ,solomon1 speak+ ( wisdom 
& virtue3--  ',l5g? ( days is 9 h] "r   
h&2 & 9 h] left h& ri*es & hon\r4 ,h]   
ways are ways ( pleasantness1 & all h]  
pa?s are peace4'  ,& conceiv+ ,god to be
 ! f\nta9 ( wisdom1 ,i ?\ght x "r &     

necess>y to solicit ,8 assi/ance =      
obta9+ x2 to ?is end ,i =m$ ! foll[+    
little pray]1 :i* 0 prefix$ to my tables
 ( exam9ation1 = daily use3--  ',o      
p[]ful ,goodness6 b\ntiful ,fa!r6       
m]ciful ,guide6 increase 9 me t wisdom  
:i* discov]s my true/ int]e/4 ,/r5g!n my
 resolutions to p]=m :at t wisdom       
dictates4 ,accept my k9d (fices to ,?y  
o!r *ildr5 z ! only return 9 my p[] =   
,?y cont9ual fav\rs to me4'  ,i us$ also
 sometimes a little pray] :i* ,i took f 
,?omson's ,poems1 viz43--      ',fa!r ( 
light & life1 ,?\ ,good ,supreme6       
,oh tea* me :at is good2 tea* me        
,?yself6     ,save me f folly1 vanity1 &
 vice1     ,f e l[ pursuit2 & fill my   
s\l     ,) k1 consci\s peace1 & virtue  
pure2     ,sacr$1 sub/antial1 nev]-fail+
 bliss6'  ,! s5ses 9 :i* ,frankl9's     
?irte5 virtues 7 to be und]/ood 7       
expla9$ by %ort precepts :i* foll[$ !m 9
 8 li/4 ,! li/ 0 z foll[s3--  #a4       
,,temp]ance4  ,eat n to dulness2 dr9k n 
to elevation4  #b4 ,,sil5ce4  ,speak n b

 :at may b5efit o!rs or y\rself2 avoid  
trifl+ conv]sation4  #c4 ,,ord]4  ,let  
all y\r ?+s h _! places2 let ea* "p (   
y\r bus9ess h its "t4  #d4 ,,resolution4
  ,resolve to p]=m :at y ought2 p]=m )\t
 fail :at y resolve4  #e4 ,,frugality4  
,make no exp5se b to d good to o!rs or  
y\rself2 i4e4 wa/e no?+4  #f4 ,,indu/ry4
  ,lose no "t2 be always employ$ 9      
some?+ useful2 cut (f all unnecess>y    
actions4  #g4 ,,s9c]ity4  ,use no       
hurtful deceit2 ?9k innoc5tly & ju/ly2  
&1 if y speak1 speak accord+ly4  #h4    
,,ju/ice4  ,wrong none by do+ injuries1 
or omitt+ ! b5efits t are y\r duty4  #i4
 ,,mod]ation4  ,avoid extremes2 =be>    
res5t+ injuries s mu* z y ?9k !y des]ve4
  #aj4 ,,cleanl9ess4  ,tol]ate no       
uncleanness 9 body1 clo!s1 or           
habitation4  #aa4 ,,tranquillity4  ,be n
 di/urb$ at trifles1 or accid5ts common 
or unavoidable4  #ab4 ,,*a/ity4  #ac4   
,,humility4  ,imitate ,jesus &          
,socrates4  ,! la/ ( ^! 0 add$ to ! li/ 
at ! sugge/ion ( a ,quak] fri5d4        

,frankl9 claims to h acquir$ a good deal
 ( ! appe>ance ( x1 b conclud$ t 9      
reality !re 0 no passion s h>d to subdue
 z pride4 ,= ev5 if ,i c\ld conceive t  
,i _h completely ov]come x1 ,i %\ld     
probably be pr\d ( my humility4 ,!      
virtue :i* gave him mo/ tr\ble1 h[ev]1 0
 ord]1 & ?is he nev] acquir$4  ,9 #agcb 
appe>$ ! fir/ copy ( ,poor ,ri*>d's     
,almanack4 ,?is 0 prep>$1 pr9t$1 &      
publi%$ by ,frankl9 = ab\t tw5ty-five   
ye>s 9 succession1 & ne>ly t5 ?\s&      
copies 7 sold annually4 ,besides ! usual
 a/ronomical in=mation1 x conta9$ a     
collection ( ent]ta9+ anecdotes1 v]ses1 
je/s1 etc41 :ile ! little spaces t      
occurr$ betwe5 ! rem>kable ev5ts 9 !    
cal5d> 7 fill$ ) prov]bial say+s1       
inculcat+ indu/ry & frugality z helps to
 virtue4 ,^! say+s 7 collect$ & prefix$ 
to ! almanack ( #ageg1 :5ce !y 7 copi$  
into ! ,am]ican newspap]s1 & aft]w>ds   
repr9t$ z a broad-%eet 9 ,engl& & 9     
,france4  ,9 #agcc ,frankl9 comm5c$     
/udy+ mod]n languages1 & acquir$        

suffici5t k ( ,fr5*1 ,italian1 & ,spani%
 to be able to read books 9 ^?          
languages4 ,9 #agcf he 0 *os5 ,cl]k to !
 ,g5]al ,assembly1 an (fice to :i* he 0 
annually re-elect$ until he became a    
memb] ( ! ,assembly ab\t #agej4 ,!re 0  
"o memb] :o1 on ! second occasion ( 8   
election1 made a long spee* aga9/ him4  
,frankl9 det]m9$ to secure ! fri5d%ip ( 
?is memb]4 ,accord+ly he wrote to him to
 reque/ ! loan ( a v sc>ce & curi\s book
 :i* 0 9 8 libr>y4 ,! book 0 l5t &      
return$ 9 ab\t a week1 ) a note ( ?anks4
 ,! memb] ev] aft] manife/$ a read9ess  
to s]ve ,frankl91 & !y became great     
fri5ds--,ano!r in/ance ( ! tru? ( an old
 maxim ,i _h le>n$1 :i* says1 ',he t has
 once done y a k9dness w be m ready to d
 y ano!r ?an he :om y y\rself h oblig$4'
 ,& x %[s h[ mu* m pr(itable x is       
prud5tly to remove1 ?an to res5t1       
return1 & cont9ue inimical proce$+s4  ,9
 #agcg ,frankl9 0 appo9t$               
,deputy-,po/ma/]-,g5]al = ,p5nsylvania4 
,he 0 aft]w>ds made ,po/ma/]-,g5]al ( ! 

,colonies4 ,he read a pap] 9 ! ,junto on
 ! organization ( ! ,city wat*1 & !     
propriety ( rat+ ! inhabitants on !     
value ( _! premises 9 ord] to support ! 
same4 ,! subject 0 also discuss$ 9 ! o!r
 clubs :i* _h sprung f ! ,junto1 & ?us !
 way 0 prep>$ = ! law :i* a few ye>s    
aft]w>ds c>ri$ ,frankl9's proposals into
 effect4 ,8 next s*eme 0 ! =mation ( a  
fire brigade1 9 :i* he met ) 8 usual    
success1 & o!r clubs foll[$1 until mo/ (
 ! m5 ( prop]ty 9 ! city 7 memb]s ( "o  
club or ano!r4 ,! orig9al brigade1 kn[n 
z ! ,union ,fire ,company1 0 =m$        
,decemb] #g1 #agcf4 ,x 0 9 active s]vice
 9 #agia4  ,frankl9 f\nd$ ! ,am]ican    
,philosophical ,society 9 #agdc4 ,!     
head-qu>t]s ( ! society 7 fix$ 9        
,philadelphia1 :]e x 0 arrang$ t !re    
%\ld always be at lea/ sev5 memb]s1 viz4
 a physician1 a botani/1 a ma!matician1 
a *emi/1 a me*anician1 a geograph]1 & a 
g5]al natural philosoph]1 besides a     
presid5t1 treasur]1 & secret>y4 ,! o!r  
memb]s might be resid5t 9 any "p (      

,am]ica4 ,correspond5ce 0 to be kept up 
) ! ,royal ,society ( ,london & ! ,dubl9
 ,society1 & ab/racts ( ! communications
 7 to be s5t qu>t]ly to all ! memb]s4   
,frankl9 became ! fir/ secret>y4  ,spa91
 hav+ be5 = "s ye>s at w> ) ,engl&1 0   
jo9$ at l5g? by ,france4 ,?is ?reat5$   
dang] to ! ,am]ican colonies1 z ,france 
!n held ,canada1 & no organization = _! 
def5ce exi/$4 ,frankl9 publi%$ a        
pamphlet entitl$ ,pla9 ,tru?1 sett+ =? !
 un>m$ condition ( ! colonies1 &        
recomm5d+ ! =mation ( a volunte] =ce =  
def5sive purposes4 ,! pamphlet excit$   
mu* att5tion4 ,a public meet+ 0 held &  
address$ by ,frankl92 at ?is meet+      
twelve hundr$ jo9$ ! association4 ,at   
l5g? ! numb] ( memb]s enroll$ exce$$ t5 
?\s&4 ,^! all provid$ !mselves ) arms1  
=m$ regim5ts & companies1 elect$ _! own 
(fic]s1 & att5d$ once a week = milit>y  
drill4 ,frankl9 0 elect$ colonel ( !    
,philadelphia ,regim5t1 b decl9$ !      
appo9tm5t1 & s]v$ z a private soldi]4 ,!
 provision ( w> mat]ial 0 a difficulty )

 ! ,assembly1 :i* consi/$ l>gely (      
,quak]s1 :o1 ?\gh !y appe>$ privately to
 be will+ t ! c\ntry %\ld be put 9 a    
/ate ( def5ce1 hesitat$ to vote 9       
opposition to _! peace pr9ciples4 ,h5ce 
x 0 t1 :5 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,new ,engl& ask$
 a grant ( gunp[d] f ,p5nsylvania1 !    
,assembly vot$ ,l#cjjj = ! pur*as+ (    
bread1 fl\r1 :eat1 or o!r gra94         
,pebble-p[d] 0 n !n 9 use4 ,:5 x 0      
propos$ to devote ,l#fj1 :i* 0 a balance
 9 ! h&s ( ! ,union ,fire ,company1 z a 
contribution t[>ds ! erection ( a batt]y
 bel[ ! t[n1 ,frankl9 sugge/$ t x %\ld  
be propos$ t a fire-eng9e be pur*as$ ) !
 money1 & t ! committee %\ld buy a great
 gun1 :i* is c]ta9ly a fire-eng9e4  ,!  
,p5nsylvania fireplace 0 inv5t$ 9 #agdb4
 ,a pat5t 0 (f]$ to ,frankl9 by !       
,gov]nor ( ,p5nsylvania1 b he decl9$ x  
on ! pr9ciple t1 z we enjoy great       
advantages f ! inv5tions ( o!rs1 we %\ld
 be glad ( an opportunity to s]ve o!rs  
by any inv5tion ( ours2 & ?is we %\ld d 
freely & g5]\sly4 ,an ironmong] 9       

,london made slight alt]ations1 :i* 7 n 
improvem5ts1 9 ! design1 & took out a   
pat5t = ! fireplace1 :]eby he made a    
small =tune4 ,frankl9 nev] conte/$ !    
pat5t1 hav+ no desire ( pr(it+ by pat5ts
 himself1 & hat+ disputes4 ,?is         
fireplace 0 design$ to burn wood1 b1    
unlike ! ,g]man /oves1 x 0 completely   
op5 9 front1 ?\gh enclos$ at ! sides &  
top4 ,an air-*amb] 0 =m$ 9 ! middle ( ! 
/ove1 s arrang$ t1 :ile ! burn+ wood 0 9
 contact ) ! front ( ! *amb]1 ! flame   
pass$ above & beh9d x on its way to !   
flue4 ,?r\gh ?is *amb] a con/ant curr5t 
( air pass$1 ent]+ ! room heat$1 b n    
contam9at$1 by ! products ( combu/ion4  
,9 ?is way ! /ove furni%$ a con/ant     
supply ( fre% w>m air to ! room1 :ile x 
possess$ all ! advantages ( an op5      
fireplace4 ,subsequ5tly ,frankl9        
contriv$ a special fireplace = !        
combu/ion ( coal4 ,9 ! sci5tific ?\ght  
:i* he devot$ to ! requirem5ts ( !      
dome/ic economi/1 z 9 v _m o!r          
p>ticul>s1 ,frankl9 /rongly rem9ds u (  

,c\nt ,rum=d4  ,! next important        
ent]prise :i* ,frankl9 und]took1 p>tly  
?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! ,junto1 0 to e/abli%  
an academy :i* soon develop$ into !     
,univ]sity ( ,philadelphia4 ,! memb]s ( 
! club hav+ tak5 up ! subject1 ! next   
/ep 0 to enli/ ! sympa?y ( a wid]       
con/itu5cy1 & ?is ,frankl9 effect$1 9 8 
usual way1 by ! publication ( a         
pamphlet4 ,he !n set on foot a          
subscription1 ! paym5ts to ext5d ov]    
five ye>s1 & !reby obta9$ ab\t ,l#ejjj4 
,a h\se 0 tak5 & s*ools op5$ 9 #agdi4 ,!
 classes soon became too l>ge = ! h\se1 
& ! tru/ees ( ! academy !n took ov] a   
l>ge build+1 or tab]nacle1 :i* _h be5   
erect$ = ,george ,:itefield :5 he 0     
prea*+ 9 ,philadelphia4 ,! hall 0 divid$
 into /ories1 & at a v small exp5se     
adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( ! classes4    
,frankl91 hav+ tak5 a p>tn] 9 8 pr9t+   
bus9ess1 took ! ov]sight ( ! "w4        
,aft]w>ds ! funds 7 increas$ by ,engli% 
subscriptions1 by a grant f ! ,assembly1
 & by gifts ( l& f ! propriet>ies2 & ?us

 0 e/abli%$ ! ,univ]sity (              
,philadelphia4  ,hav+ practically retir$
 f bus9ess1 ,frankl9 int5d$ to devote   
himself to philosophical /udies1 hav+   
comm5c$ 8 electrical rese>*es "s "t be=e
 9 conjunction ) ! o!r memb]s ( !       
,libr>y ,company4 ,public bus9ess1      
h[ev]1 cr[d$ ^u him4 ,he 0 elect$ a     
memb] ( ! ,assembly1 a c\ncillor &      
aft]w>ds an ald]man ( ! city1 & by !    
gov]nor 0 made a ju/ice ( ! peace4 ,z a 
memb] ( ! ,assembly1 he 0 l>gely conc]n$
 9 provid+ ! means = ! erection ( a     
hospital1 & 9 arrang+ = ! pav+ & cleans+
 ( ! /reets ( ! city4 ,9 #agec he 0     
appo9t$1 9 conjunction ) ,mr4 ,hunt]1   
,po/ma/]-,g5]al ( ,am]ica4 ,! po/-(fice 
( ! colonies _h previ\sly be5 conduct$  
at a loss4 ,9 a few ye>s1 "u ,frankl9's 
managem5t1 x n only paid ! /ip5ds (     
himself & ,mr4 ,hunt]1 b yield$ a       
consid]able rev5ue to ! ,cr[n4 ,b x 0 n 
only 9 ! conduct ( public bus9ess t     
,frankl9's m]its 7 recogniz$4 ,by ?is "t
 he _h secur$ 8 reputation z an         

electrician1 & bo? ,yale ,college &     
,cambridge ,univ]sity 7,new ,engl&7     
conf]r$ on him ! honor>y degree ( ,ma/] 
( ,arts4 ,9 ! same ye> t he 0 made      
,po/ma/]-,g5]al ( ,am]ica he 0 aw>d$ !  
,copley ,m$al & elect$ a ,fell[ ( !     
,royal ,society ( ,london1 ! usual fees 
be+ remitt$ 9 8 case4  ,be=e 8 election 
z memb]1 ,frankl9 _h = sev]al ye>s held 
! appo9tm5t ( ,cl]k to ! ,assembly1 & he
 us$ to relieve ! dulness ( ! debates by
 amus+ himself 9 ! con/ruction ( magic  
circles & squ>es1 & acquir$ su* a knack 
at x t he c\ld fill ! cells ( any magic 
squ>e ( reasonable size ) a s]ies (     
numb]s z fa/ z he c\ld write !m4 ,_m    
ye>s aft]w>ds ,mr4 ,logan %[$ ,frankl9 a
 ,fr5* folio volume fill$ ) magic       
squ>es1 & aft]w>ds a magic squ>e ( #af1 
:i* ,mr4 ,logan ?\ght mu/ h be5 a "w (  
great lab\r1 ?\gh x possess$ only !     
common prop]ties ( mak+ #bjef 9 e r[1   
horizontal1 v]tical1 & diagonal4 ,dur+ !
 ev5+ ,frankl9 made ! squ>e %[n on !    
opposite page4 ,?is ,i s5t to our fri5d 

! next morn+1 :o1 aft] "s days1 s5t x   
back 9 a lett]1 ) ^! words3 ',i return  
to !e ?y a/oni%+ & mo/ /up5d\s piece ( !
 magical squ>e1 9 :i*----2' b !         
complim5t is too extravagant1 & !re=e1 =
 8 sake z well z my own1 ,i ought n to  
repeat x4 ,nor is x necess>y2 = ,i make 
no "q t y w readily all[ ?is squ>e ( #af
 to be ! mo/ magically magical ( any    
magic squ>e ev] made by any magician4   
,! squ>e has ! foll[+ prop]ties3--,e    
/raight r[ ( sixte5 numb]s1 :e!r        
v]tical1 horizontal1 or diagonal1 makes 
#bjef4  ,e b5t r[ ( sixte5 numb]s1 z %[n
 by ! diagonal l9es 9 ! figure1 makes   
#bjef4  ,if a squ>e hole be cut 9 a     
piece ( pap]1 s z to %[ ?r\gh x j sixte5
 ( ! little squ>es1 & ! pap] be laid on 
! magic squ>e1 !n1 :]ev] ! pap] is      
plac$1 ! sum ( ! sixte5 numb]s visible  
?r\gh ! hole w be #bjef4  ,illu/ration3 
#bjj #bag #bcb #bdi   #h  #be  #dj  #eg 
#gb  #hi #ajd #aba #acf #aec #afh #ahe  
#eh  #ci  #bf   #g #bej #bca #bah #aii  
#ahf #afg #aed #ace #abb #ajc  #ij  #ga 

#aih #bai #bcj #bea   #f  #bg  #ch  #ei 
#gj  #ia #ajb #abc #acd #aee #aff #ahg  
#fj  #cg  #bh   #e #beb #bbi #bbj #aig  
#ahh #afe #aef #acc #abd #aja  #ib  #fi 
#bja #baf #bcc #bdh   #i  #bd  #da  #ef 
#gc  #hh #aje #abj #acg #aeb #afi #ahd  
#ee  #db  #bc  #aj #bdg #bcd #bae #bjb  
#ahc #agj #aea #ach #aai #ajf  #hg  #gd 
#bjc #bad #bce #bdf  #aa  #bb  #dc  #ed 
#ge  #hf #ajg #aah #aci #aej #aga #ahb  
#ec  #dd  #ba  #ab #bde #bcf #bac #bjd  
#aha #agb #adi #adj #aag #ajh  #he  #gf 
#bje #bab #bcg #bdd  #ac  #bj  #de  #eb 
#gg  #hd #aji #aaf #ada #adh #agc #ahj  
#ea  #df  #ai  #ad #bdc #bch #baa #bjf  
#agi #agd #adg #adb #aae #aaj  #hc  #gh 
#bjg #baj #bci #bdb  #ae  #ah  #dg  #ej 
#gi  #hb #aaa #aad #adc #adf #age #agh  
#di  #dh  #ag  #af #bda #bdj #bji #bjh  
#agg #agf #ade #add #aac #aab  #ha  #hj 
#aif #bba #bbh #bec   #d  #bi  #cf  #fa 
#fh  #ic #ajj #abe #acb #aeg #afd #ahi  
#fb  #ce  #cj   #c #bed #bbg #bbb #aie  
#aij #afc #aeh #aca #abf  #ii  #id  #fg 
#aid #bbc #bbf #bee   #b  #ca  #cd  #fc 

#ff  #ie  #ih #abg #acj #aei #afb #aia  
#fd  #cc  #cb   #a #bef #bbe #bbd #aic  
#aib #afa #afj #abi #abh  #ig  #if  #fe 
,9 #aged w> ) ,france appe>$ to be aga9 
imm95t1 & a ,congress ( ,commission]s f 
! sev]al colonies 0 arrang$ =4 ,( c\rse1
 ,frankl9 0 "o ( ! repres5tatives (     
,p5nsylvania1 & 0 also "o ( ! memb]s :o 
indep5d5tly drew up a plan = ! union (  
all ! colonies "u "o gov]nm5t1 =        
def5sive & o!r g5]al purposes1 & 8 0 !  
plan f9ally approv$ by ,congress = !    
union1 ?\gh x 0 n accept$ by !          
,assemblies or by ! ,engli% ,gov]nm5t1  
be+ reg>d$ by ! =m] z hav+ too mu* ( !  
pr]ogative 9 x1 by ! latt] z be+ too    
democratic4 ,frankl9 wrote respect+ ?is 
s*eme3 ,! diff]5t & contr>y reasons (   
dislike to my plan makes me suspect t x 
0 really ! true m$ium2 & ,i am /ill (   
op9ion t x w\ld h be5 happy = bo? sides 
( ! wat] if x _h be5 adopt$4 ,!         
colonies1 s unit$1 w\ld h be5           
suffici5tly /rong to h def5d$ !mselves2 
!re w\ld !n h be5 no ne$ ( troops f     

,engl&2 ( c\rse1 ! subsequ5t pret5ce =  
tax+ ,am]ica1 & ! bloody conte/ x       
occasion$1 w\ld h be5 avoid$4  ,) ?is w>
 aga9/ ,france began ! /ruggle ( !      
,assemblies & ! propriet>ies on ! "q (  
tax+ ! e/ates ( ! latt]4 ,! gov]nors    
receiv$ /rict in/ructions to approve no 
bills = ! rais+ ( money = ! purposes (  
def5ce1 unless ! e/ates ( ! propriet>ies
 7 specially exempt$ f ! tax4 ,!        
,assembly ( ,p5nsylvania resolv$ to     
contribute ,l#aj1jjj to assi/ !         
,gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts ,bay 9 an     
attack ^u ,cr[n ,po9t1 b ! gov]nor      
refus$ 8 ass5t to ! bill = rais+ !      
money4 ,at ?is juncture ,frankl9 propos$
 a s*eme by :i* ! money c\ld be rais$   
)\t ! cons5t ( ! gov]nor4 ,8 plan 0     
successful1 & ! difficulty 0 surm\nt$ = 
! "t1 b 0 de/9$ to recur aga9 & aga9    
dur+ ! progress ( ! w>4  ,! ,briti%     
,gov]nm5t1 n approv+ ( ! s*eme ( union1 
:]eby ! colonies might h def5d$         
!mselves1 s5t ,g5]al ,braddock to       
,virg9ia1 ) two regim5ts ( regul>       

troops4 ,on _! arrival !y f\nd x        
impossible to obta9 waggons = !         
conveyance ( _! baggage1 & ! g5]al      
commission$ ,frankl9 to provide !m 9    
,p5nsylvania4 ,by giv+ 8 private bond = 
_! safety1 ,frankl9 succe$$ 9 engag+ "o 
hundr$ & fifty f\r-horse waggons1 & two 
hundr$ & fifty-n9e pack-horses4 ,8 mode/
 w>n+s aga9/ ,indian ambuscades 7       
disreg>d$ by ! g5]al1 ! little army 0   
cut to pieces1 & ! rema9d] took to      
flight1 sacrific+ ! :ole ( _! baggage & 
/ores4 ,frankl9 0 nev] fully rec\p$ by !
 ,briti% ,gov]nm5t = ! paym5ts he _h to 
make on acc\nt ( provisions :i* ! g5]al 
_h in/ruct$ him to procure = ! use ( !  
army4  ,aft] ?is1 ,frankl9 appe>$ = "s  
"t 9 a purely milit>y capacity1 hav+    
yield$ to ! gov]nor's p]suasions to     
und]take ! def5ce ( ! nor?-we/]n        
fronti]1 to raise troops1 & to build a  
l9e ( =ts4 ,aft] build+ & mann+ ?ree    
wood5 =ts1 he 0 recall$ by ! ,assembly1 
^: relations ) ! gov]nor _h become m & m
 /ra9$4 ,at l5g? ! ,assembly det]m9$ to 

s5d ,frankl9 to ,engl&1 to pres5t a     
petition to ! k+ respect+ ! conduct ( ! 
propriet>ies1 viz4 ,ri*>d & ,?omas ,p5n1
 ! successors ( ,william ,p5n4 ,a bill  
_h be5 fram$ by ! ,h\se to provide      
,l#fj1jjj = ! k+'s use 9 ! def5ce ( !   
prov9ce4 ,?is ! gov]nor refus$ to pass1 
because ! propriet>y e/ates 7 n exempt$ 
f ! taxation4 ,! petition to ! k+ 0     
drawn up1 & ,frankl9's baggage 0 on bo>d
 ! %ip :i* 0 to convey him to ,engl&1 :5
 ,g5]al ,"l ,l\don endeav\r$ to make an 
arrangem5t betwe5 ! p>ties4 ,! gov]nor  
plead$ 8 in/ructions1 & ! bond he _h    
giv5 = c>ry+ !m out1 & ! ,assembly 0    
prevail$ ^u to recon/ruct ! bill 9      
accordance ) ! gov]nor's wi%es4 ,?is 0  
done "u prote/2 9 ! mean "t ,frankl9's  
%ip _h sail$1 c>ry+ 8 baggage4 ,aft] a  
great deal ( unnecess>y delay on acc\nt 
( ! g5]al's inability to decide ^u !    
despat* ( ! packet-boats1 ,frankl9 at   
la/ got away f ,new ,york1 &1 hav+      
n>r[ly escap$ %ipwreck (f ,falm\?1 he   
rea*$ ,london on ,july #bg1 #ageg4  ,on 

arriv+ 9 ,london1 ,frankl9 0 introduc$  
to ,"l ,granville1 :o told him t ! k+'s 
in/ructions 7 laws 9 ! colonies4        
,frankl9 repli$ t he _h always und]/ood 
t ! ,assemblies made ! laws1 :i* !n only
 requir$ ! k+'s cons5t4 ,i recollect$ t1
 ab\t tw5ty ye>s be=e1 a clause 9 a bill
 br\ght into ,p>liam5t by ! ,m9i/ry _h  
propos$ to make ! k+'s in/ructions laws 
9 ! colonies1 b ! clause 0 ?r[n out by !
 ,commons1 = :i* we ador$ !m z our      
fri5ds & ! fri5ds ( lib]ty1 till1 by _! 
conduct t[>ds u 9 #agfe1 x seem'd t !y  
_h refus'd t po9t ( sov]eignty to ! k+  
only t !y might res]ve x = !mselves4 ,a 
meet+ 0 %ortly aft]w>ds arrang$ betwe5  
,frankl9 & ! propriet>ies at ,mr4 ,t4   
,p5n's h\se2 b _! views 7 s discordant  
t1 aft] "s discussion1 ,frankl9 0       
reque/$ to give !m 9 writ+ ! heads ( 8  
compla9ts1 & ! :ole "q 0 submitt$ to !  
op9ion ( ! attorney- & solicitor-g5]al4 
,x 0 ne>ly a ye> be=e ?is op9ion 0 giv54
 ,! propriet>ies !n communicat$ directly
 ) ! ,assembly1 b 9 ! mean :ile ,gov]nor

 ,d5ny _h cons5t$ to a bill = rais+     
,l#ajj1jjj = ! k+'s use1 9 :i* x 0      
provid$ t ! propriet>y e/ates %\ld be   
tax$ ) ! o!rs4 ,:5 ?is bill rea*$       
,engl&1 ! propriet>ies det]m9$ to oppose
 its receiv+ ! royal ass5t4 ,frankl9    
engag$ c\nsel on behalf ( ! ,assembly1 &
 on 8 und]tak+ t ! assessm5t %\ld be    
fairly made betwe5 ! e/ates ( !         
propriet>ies & o!rs1 ! bill 0 all[$ to  
pass4  ,by ?is "t ,frankl9's c>e] z a   
sci5tific inve/igator 0 practically at  
an end4 ,political bus9ess almo/        
completely occupi$ 8 att5tion1 & 9 "o   
s5se ! diplomati/ replac$ ! philosoph]4 
,8 public sci5tific c>e] 0 ( %ort       
duration4 ,x may be said to h begun 9   
#agdf1 :5 ,mr4 ,pet] ,coll9son pres5t$  
an electrical tube to ! ,libr>y ,company
 9 ,philadelphia1 :i* 0 "s "t aft]      
foll[$ by a pres5t ( a complete set (   
electrical app>atus f ! propriet>ies1 b 
by #agee ,frankl9's "t 0 s mu* tak5 up  
by public bus9ess t !re 0 v little      
opportunity = exp]im5tal "w4 ,?r\gh\t 8 

life he frequ5tly express$ 9 8 lett]s 8 
/rong desire to return to philosophy1 b 
! opportunity nev] came1 & :51 at ! age 
( eighty-two1 he 0 lib]at$ f public     
duty1 8 /r5g? 0 insuffici5t to enable   
him to complete ev5 8 autobiography4  ,x
 0 on a visit to ,bo/on 9 #agdf t       
,frankl9 met ) ,dr4 ,sp5ce1 a ,scot*man1
 :o exhibit$ "s electrical exp]im5ts4   
,soon aft] 8 return to ,philadelphia !  
tube arriv$ f ,mr4 ,coll9son1 & ,frankl9
 acquir$ consid]able dext]ity 9 its use4
 ,8 h\se 0 cont9ually full ( visitors1  
:o came to see ! exp]im5ts1 &1 to       
relieve ! pressure ^u 8 "t1 he _h a     
numb] ( simil> tubes bl[n at !          
glass-h\se1 & ^! he di/ribut$ to 8      
fri5ds1 s t !re 7 soon a numb] ( p]=m]s 
9 ,philadelphia4 ,"o ( ^! 0 ,mr4        
,k9n]sley1 :o1 hav+ no o!r employm5t1 0 
induc$ by ,frankl9 to become an it9]ant 
lectur]4 ,frankl9 drew up a s*eme = !   
lectures1 & ,k9n]sley obta9$ sev]al     
well-con/ruct$ in/rum5ts f ,frankl9's   
r\gh & home-made models4 ,k9n]sley &    

,frankl9 appe> to h work$ toge!r a good 
deal1 & :5 ,k9n]sley 0 travell+ on 8    
lecture t\r1 ea* communicat$ to ! o!r ! 
results ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,frankl9 s5t 8   
pap]s to ,mr4 ,coll9son1 :o pres5t$ !m  
to ! ,royal ,society1 b !y 7 n at fir/  
judg$ wor?y ( a place 9 ! ,transactions4
 ,! pap] on ! id5tity ( lightn+ &       
electricity 0 s5t to ,dr4 ,mit*ell1 :o  
read x be=e ! ,royal ,society1 :5 x 0   
laugh$ at by ! connoisseurs4 ,! pap]s 7 
subsequ5tly publi%$ 9 a pamphlet1 b did 
n at fir/ receive mu* att5tion 9 ,engl&4
 ,on ! recomm5dation ( ,c\nt de ,buffon1
 !y 7 translat$ into ,fr5*4 ,! ,abbe    
,nollet1 :o _h previ\sly publi%$ a !ory 
( 8 own respect+ electricity1 wrote &   
publi%$ a volume ( lett]s def5d+ 8 !ory1
 & d5y+ ! accuracy ( "s ( ,frankl9's    
exp]im5tal results4 ,to ^! lett]s       
,frankl9 made no reply1 b !y 7 answ]$ by
 ,m4 le ,roy4 ,m4 de ,lor und]took to   
repeat 9 ,p>is all ,frankl9's exp]im5ts1
 & !y 7 p]=m$ be=e ! k+ & c\rt4 ,n      
cont5t ) ! exp]im5ts :i* ,frankl9 _h    

actually p]=m$1 he tri$ ^? :i* _h be5   
only sugge/$1 & s 0 ! fir/ to obta9     
electricity f ! cl\ds by means ( ! po9t$
 rod4 ,?is exp]im5t produc$ a great     
s5sation ev]y:]e1 & 0 aft]w>ds repeat$  
by ,frankl9 at ,philadelphia4 ,frankl9's
 pap]s 7 translat$ into ,italian1       
,g]man1 & ,lat92 8 !ory met ) all b     
univ]sal acceptance1 & great surprise 0 
express$ t 8 pap]s _h excit$ s little   
int]e/ 9 ,engl&4 ,dr4 ,watson !n drew up
 a summ>y ( all ,frankl9's pap]s1 & ?is 
0 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical            
,transactions2 ,mr4 ,canton v]ifi$ !    
exp]im5t ( procur+ electricity f ! cl\ds
 by means ( a po9t$ rod1 & ! ,royal     
,society aw>d$ to ,frankl9 ! ,copley    
,m$al = #agec1 :i* 0 convey$ to him by  
,gov]nor ,d5ny4  ,we mu/ n[ give a %ort 
acc\nt ( ,frankl9's contributions to    
electrical sci5ce4  ,! fir/ is !        
wond]ful effect ( po9t$ bodies1 bo? 9   
draw+ (f & ?r[+ (f ! electrical fire4   
,x w be obs]v$ t ?is /atem5t is made 9 !
 language ( ! "o-fluid !ory1 ( :i*      

,frankl9 may be reg>d$ z ! au?or4 ,?is  
!ory w be aga9 ref]r$ to pres5tly4      
,frankl9 electrifi$ a cannon-ball s t x 
repell$ a cork4 ,on br++ ne> x ! po9t ( 
a bodk91 ! repulsion disappe>$4 ,a blunt
 body _h to be br\ght ne> en\gh = a sp>k
 to pass 9 ord] to produce ! same       
effect4 ,to prove t ! electrical fire is
 drawn (f by ! po9t1 if y take ! blade (
 ! bodk9 out ( ! wood5 h&le1 & fix x 9 a
 /ick ( seal+-wax1 & !n pres5t x at !   
di/ance a=esaid1 or if y br+ x v ne>1 no
 su* effect foll[s2 b slid+ "o f+] along
 ! wax till y t\* ! blade1 & ! ball     
flies to ! %ot imm$iately4 ,if y pres5t 
! po9t 9 ! d>k1 y w see1 sometimes at a 
foot di/ance or m1 a light ga!r ^u x l t
 ( a fire-fly or gl[-worm2 ! less %>p ! 
po9t1 ! ne>] y mu/ br+ x to obs]ve !    
light2 & at :atev] di/ance y see !      
light1 y may draw (f ! electrical fire1 
& de/roy ! repell+4  ,by lay+ a ne$le ^u
 ! %ot1 ,frankl9 %[$ t po9ts w ?r[ (f z 
well z draw (f ! electrical fire4 ,a    
c&le-flame 0 f\nd to be equally effici5t

 ) a %>p po9t 9 draw+ (f ! electricity f
 a *>g$ conductor4 ,! effect ( !        
c&le-flame ,frankl9 acc\nt$ = by suppos+
 ! p>ticles sep>at$ f ! c&le to be fir/ 
attract$ & !n repell$1 c>ry+ (f !       
electric matt] ) !m4 ,! effect ( po9ts  
is a direct consequ5ce ( ! law (        
electrical repulsion4 ,:5 a conductor is
 electrifi$1 ! d5sity ( ! electricity is
 greate/ :]e ! curvature is greate/4    
,?us1 if a numb] ( sph]es are electrifi$
 f ! same s\rce1 ! d5sity ( !           
electricity on ! diff]5t sph]es w v>y   
inv]sely z _! diamet]s4 ,! =ce t5d+ to  
drive ! electricity (f a conductor is   
ev]y:]e proportional to ! d5sity1 & h5ce
 9 ! case ( ! sph]es w be greate/ = !   
smalle/ sph]e4 ,on ?is pr9ciple1 !      
d5sity ( electricity on a p]fectly %>p  
po9t1 if su* c\ld exi/1 on a *>g$       
conductor1 w\ld be inf9ite & ! =ce t5d+ 
to drive x (f w\ld be inf9ite also4     
,h5ce a mod]ately %>p po9t is suffici5t 
to dissipate ! electricity f a highly   
*>g$ conductor1 or to neutralize x if ! 

po9t is connect$ to e>? & br\ght ne> !  
conductor s z to be electrifi$ by       
induction4  ,frankl9 next f\nd t1 if !  
p]son rubb+ ! electric tube /ood ^u a   
cake ( res91 & ! p]son tak+ ! *>ge f !  
tube /ood also on an insulat+ /&1 a     
/rong] sp>k w\ld pass betwe5 ^! two     
p]sons ?an betwe5 ei!r ( !m & ! e>?2 t1 
aft] ! sp>k _h pass$1 nei!r p]son 0     
electrifi$1 ?\gh ea* _h appe>$          
electrifi$ be=e4 ,^! exp]im5ts sugge/$ !
 idea ( positive & negative             
electrification2 & ,frankl91 reg>d+ !   
electric fluid z correspond+ to positive
 electrification1 rem>k$ t y may        
circulate x z ,mr4 ,watson has %[n2 y   
may also accumulate or subtract x ^u or 
f any body1 z y connect t body ) ! rubb]
 or ) ! receiv]1 ! common /ock be+ cut  
(f4 ,?us ,frankl9 reg>d$ electricity z a
 fluid1 ( :i* ev]y?+ 9 its normal /ate  
possesses a c]ta9 am\nt2 t1 by          
appropriate means1 "s ( ! fluid may be  
remov$ f "o body & giv5 to ano!r4 ,! =m]
 is !n electrifi$ negatively1 ! latt]   

positively1 & all processes by :i*      
bodies are electrifi$ consi/ 9 ! removal
 ( electricity f "o body or sy/em & giv+
 x to ano!r4 ,he reg>d$ ! electric fluid
 z repell+ itself & attract+ matt]4     
,a,epinus aft]w>ds add$ ! supposition t 
matt]1 :5 devoid ( electricity1 is      
self-repulsive1 & ?us complet$ !        
"o-fluid !ory1 & acc\nt$ = ! repulsion  
obs]v$ betwe5 negatively electrifi$     
bodies4  ,x _h be5 usual to employ wat] 
= ! int]ior armatures ( ,leyd5 j>s1 or  
phials1 z !y 7 !n g5]ally call$4        
,frankl9 sub/itut$ granulat$ lead = !   
wat]1 !reby improv+ ! insulation by     
keep+ ! glass dry4 ,) ^! phials he      
contriv$ _m +5i\s exp]im5ts1 & imitat$  
lightn+ by dis*>g+ !m ?r\gh ! gild+ ( a 
mirror or ! gold l9es on ! cov] ( a     
book4 ,he f\nd t ! inn] & out] armatures
 ( 8 ,leyd5 j>s 7 oppositely electrifi$4
 ,"h we h a bottle conta9+ at ! same "t 
a pl5um ( electrical fire & a vacuum ( !
 same fire2 & yet ! equilibrium _c be   
re/or$ betwe5 !m b by a communication   

)\t6 ?\gh ! pl5um presses viol5tly to   
exp&1 & ! hungry vacuum seems to attract
 z viol5tly 9 ord] to be fill$4 ,! *>g+ 
( ,leyd5 j>s by cascade1 t is by        
insulat+ all ! j>s except ! la/1        
connect+ ! out] armature ( ! fir/ ) !   
inn] armature ( ! second1 & s on ?r\gh\t
 ! s]ies1 0 well und]/ood by ,frankl91 &
 he knew too t by ?is me?od ! ext5t to  
:i* ea* j> c\ld be *>g$ f a giv5 s\rce  
v>i$ inv]sely z ! numb] ( j>s4 ,!       
dis*>ge ( ! ,leyd5 j> by alt]nate       
contacts 0 also c>ri$ out by him2 & he  
f\nd t1 if ! j> is fir/ plac$ on an     
insulat+ /&1 x may be held by ! hook 7or
 knob7 )\t dis*>g+ x4 ,frankl91 9 fact1 
appe>s to h kn[n almo/ z mu* ab\t !     
,leyd5 j> z is kn[n to-day4 ,he f\nd t1 
:5 ! armatures 7 remov$ f a j>1 no      
dis*>ge w\ld pass betwe5 !m1 b :5 a fre%
 pair ( armatures 7 suppli$ to ! glass1 
! j> c\ld be dis*>g$4 ,we are ( op9ion t
 !re is really no m electrical fire 9 ! 
phial aft] :at is call$ its *>g+ ?an    
be=e1 nor less aft] its dis*>g+2 except+

 only ! small sp>k t might be giv5 to & 
tak5 f ! non-electric matt]1 if sep>at$ 
f ! bottle1 :i* sp>k may n be equal to a
 five-hundr$? "p ( :at is call$ !       
explosion4  ,! phial w n suff] :at is   
call$ a *>g+ unless z mu* fire c g out (
 x "o way z is ?r[n 9 by ano!r4  ,:5 a  
bottle is *>g$ 9 ! common way1 its      
inside & outside surfaces /& ready1 ! "o
 to give fire by ! hook1 ! o!r to       
receive x by ! coat+2 ! "o is full &    
ready to ?r[ out1 ! o!r empty &         
extremely hungry2 yet1 z ! fir/ w n give
 out unless ! o!r c at ! same "t receive
 91 s nei!r w ! latt] receive 9 unless !
 fir/ c at ! same "t give out4 ,:5 bo? c
 be done at once1 x is done )           
inconceivable quickness & viol5ce4  ,!n 
foll[s a v beautiful illu/ration ( !    
condition ( ! glass 9 ! ,leyd5 j>4  ,s a
 /raight spr+ 7?\gh ! comp>ison does n  
agree 9 e p>ticul>71 :5 =cibly b5t1 mu/1
 to re/ore itself1 contract t side :i* 9
 ! b5d+ 0 ext5d$1 & ext5d t :i* 0       
contract$2 if ei!r ( ^! two op]ations be

 h9d]$1 ! o!r _c be done4  ,glass1 9 l  
mann]1 has1 )9 its sub/ance1 always !   
same quantity ( electrical fire1 & t a v
 great quantity 9 proportion to ! mass (
 ! glass1 z %all be %[n h]eaft]4  ,?is  
quantity proportion$ to ! glass x       
/rongly & ob/9ately reta9s1 & w h nei!r 
m nor less1 ?\gh x w suff] a *ange to be
 made 9 its p>ts & situation2 i4e4 we   
may take away "p ( x f "o ( ! sides1    
provid$ we ?r[ an equal quantity into ! 
o!r4  ,! :ole =ce ( ! bottle1 & p[] (   
giv+ a %ock1 is 9 ! ,,glass ,,itself2 ! 
non-electrics 9 contact ) ! two surfaces
 s]v+ only to give & receive to & f !   
sev]al p>ts ( ! glass1 t is1 to give on 
"o side & take away f ! o!r4  ,all ^!   
/atem5ts 71 z f> z possible1 fully      
sub/antiat$ by exp]im5t4 ,!y are        
p]fectly consi/5t ) ! views held by     
,cav5di% & by ,cl]k ,maxwell1 &1 ?\gh ! 
phraseology is n t ( ! mod]n text-books1
 ! /atem5ts !mselves c h>dly be improv$ 
^u to-day4  ,"o ( ,frankl9's e>ly       
contrivances 0 an electro-motor1 :i* 0  

driv5 by ! alt]nate electrical          
attraction & repulsion ( lead5 bullets  
:i* dis*>g$ ,leyd5 j>s by alt]nate      
contacts4 ,frankl9 conclud$ 8 acc\nt (  
^! exp]im5ts z foll[s3--      ,*agr9$ a 
little t we h be5 hi!rto able to produce
     no?+ 9 ?is way ( use to mank9d1 & !
 hot wea!r     com+ on1 :5 electrical   
exp]im5ts are n s agreeable1 x     is   
propos$ to put an end to !m = ?is       
season1 some:at     humor\sly1 9 a p>ty 
( pleasure1 on ! banks ( ,skuylkil4     
,spirits1 at ! same "t1 are to be fir$  
by a sp>k s5t f     side to side ?r\gh !
 riv]1 )\t any o!r conductor ?an     !  
wat]--an exp]im5t :i* we "s "t s9ce     
p]=m$1 to     ! amazem5t ( _m4 ,a turkey
 is to be kill$ = our d9n]     by !     
electrical %ock1 & roa/$ by ! electrical
 jack     be=e a fire k9dl$ by !        
electrifi$ bottle1 :5 !     heal?s ( all
 ! fam\s electricians 9 ,engl&1 ,holl&1 
,france1 & ,g]many1 are to be drunk 9   
electrifi$ bump]s1     "u ! dis*>ge (   
guns f ! electrical batt]y4  ,frankl9's 

electrical batt]y consi/$ ( elev5 l>ge  
panes ( glass coat$ on ea* side ) %eet  
lead4 ,! electrifi$ bump] 0 a ?9 tumbl] 
ne>ly fill$ ) w9e & electrifi$ z a      
,leyd5 j>1 s z to give a %ock ?r\gh !   
lips4  ,frankl9's !ory ( ! mann] 9 :i*  
?und]-cl\ds become electrifi$ he f\nd to
 be n consi/5t ) 8 subsequ5t exp]im5ts4 
,9 ! pap] :i* he wrote expla9+ ?is !ory1
 h[ev]1 he %[s "s k ( ! effects ( br++  
conductors into contact 9 dim9i%+ _!    
capacity4 ,he /ates t two gun-b>rels    
electrifi$ equally & !n unit$1 w give a 
sp>k at a great] di/ance ?an "o alone4  
,h5ce he asks1 ,to :at a great di/ance  
may t5 ?\s& acres ( electrifi$ cl\d     
/rike & give its fire1 & h[ l\d mu/ be t
 crack8  ,an electrical sp>k1 drawn f an
 irregul> body at "s di/ance1 is sc>cely
 ev] /raight1 b %[s crook$ & wav+ 9 !   
air4 ,s d ! fla%es ( lightn+1 ! cl\ds   
be+ v irregul> bodies4  ,z electrifi$   
cl\ds pass ov] a c\ntry1 high hills &   
high trees1 l(ty t[]s1 spires1 ma/s (   
%ips1 *imneys1 etc41 z s _m prom95ces & 

po9ts1 draw ! electrical fire1 & ! :ole 
cl\d dis*>ges !re4  ,dang]\s1 !re=e1 is 
x to take %elt] "u a tree dur+ a        
?und]-gu/4 ,x has be5 fatal to _m1 bo?  
m5 & bea/s4  ,x is saf] to be 9 ! op5   
field = ano!r reason4 ,:5 ! clo!s are   
wet1 if a fla% 9 its way to ! gr\nd %\ld
 /rike y\r head1 x may run 9 ! wat] ov] 
! surface ( y\r body2 :]eas1 if y\r     
clo!s 7 dry1 x w\ld g ?r\gh ! body1     
because ! blood & o!r hum\rs1 conta9+ s 
mu* wat]1 are m ready conductors4  ,h5ce
 a wet rat _c be kill$ by ! explod+     
electrical bottle a qu>t j>1 :ile a dry 
rat may4  ,9 ! above quotations we see1 
s to speak1 ! g]m ( ! lightn+-rod4 ,?is 
0 develop$ 9 a lett] address$ to ,mr4   
,coll9son1 & dat$ ,july #bi1 #agej4 ,!  
foll[+ quotations w give an idea ( its  
cont5ts3--  ,! electrical matt] consi/s 
( p>ticles extremely subtile1 s9ce x c  
p]meate common matt]1 ev5 ! d5se/       
metals1 ) su* ease & fre$om z n to      
receive any p]ceptible resi/ance4#a     
,footnote #a3 ,frankl9 0 aw>e ( !       

resi/ance ( conductors 7see p4 #if74    
,if any "o %\ld d\bt :e!r ! electrical  
matt] passes ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( bodies  
or only ov] & along _! surfaces1 a %ock 
f an electrifi$ l>ge glass j>1 tak5     
?r\gh 8 own body1 w probably conv9ce    
him4  ,common matt] is a k9d ( sponge to
 ! electrical fluid4  ,we "k t !        
electrical fluid is 9 common matt]1     
because we c pump x out by ! globe or   
tube4 ,we "k t common matt] has ne> z   
mu* z x c conta91 because :5 we add a   
little m to any portion ( x1 !          
additional quantity does n ent]1 b =ms  
an electrical atmosph]e4  ,to illu/rate 
! action ( a lightn+-conductor on a     
?und]-cl\d1 ,frankl9 susp5d$ f ! ceil+ a
 pair ( scales by a twi/$ /r+ s t ! beam
 revolv$4 ,^u ! floor1 9 su* a position 
t ! scale-pans pass$ ov] x1 he plac$ a  
blunt /eel pun*4 ,! scale-pans 7 susp5d$
 by silk ?reads1 & "o ( !m electrifi$4  
,:5 ?is pass$ ov] ! pun* x dipp$ t[>ds  
x1 & sometimes dis*>g$ into x by a sp>k4
 ,:5 a ne$le 0 plac$ ) its po9t upp]mo/ 

by ! side ( ! pun*1 no attraction 0     
app>5t1 = ! ne$le dis*>g$ ! scale-pan   
be=e x came ne>4  ,n[1 if ! fire (      
electricity & t ( lightn+ be ! same1 z  
,i h endeav\r$ to %[ at l>ge 9 a =m]    
pap] 444 ^! scales may repres5t         
electrifi$ cl\ds4444 ,! horizontal      
motion ( ! scales ov] ! floor may       
repres5t ! motion ( ! cl\ds ov] ! e>?1 &
 ! erect iron pun* a hill or high       
build+2 & !n we see h[ electrifi$ cl\ds1
 pass+ ov] hills or high build+s at too 
great a height to /rike1 may be attract$
 l[] till )9 _! /rik+ di/ance2 & la/ly1 
if a ne$le fix$ on ! pun*1 ) its po9t   
upright1 or ev5 on ! floor bel[ ! pun*1 
w draw ! fire f ! scale sil5tly at a mu*
 great] ?an ! /rik+ di/ance1 & s prev5t 
its desc5d+ t[>ds ! pun*2 or if 9 its   
c\rse x w\ld h come nigh en\gh to /rike1
 yet1 be+ fir/ depriv$ ( its fire1 x _c1
 & ! pun* is !reby secur$ f its         
/roke2--,i say1 if ^! ?+s are s1 may n !
 k ( ?is p[] ( po9ts be ( use to mank9d1
 9 pres]v+ h\ses1 *ur*es1 %ips1 etc41 f 

! /roke ( ! lightn+1 by direct+ u to    
fix1 on ! highe/ p>ts ( ^? edifices1    
upright rods ( iron made %>p z a ne$le1 
& gilt to prev5t ru/+1 & f ! foot ( ^?  
rods a wire d[n ! outside ( ! build+    
into ! gr\nd1 or d[n r\nd "o ( ! %r\ds (
 a %ip1 & d[n h] side till x rea*es !   
wat]8 ,w\ld n ^! po9t$ rods probably    
draw ! electrical fire sil5tly out ( a  
cl\d be=e x came nigh en\gh to /rike1 & 
!reby secure u f t mo/ sudd5 & t]rible  
mis*ief8  ,frankl9 goes on to sugge/ !  
possibility ( obta9+ electricity f !    
cl\ds by means ( a po9t$ rod fix$ on !  
top ( a high build+ & insulat$4 ,su* a  
rod he aft]w>ds erect$ 9 8 own h\se4    
,ano!r rod connect$ to ! e>? he br\ght  
)9 six in*es ( x1 &1 atta*+ a small bell
 to ea* rod1 he susp5d$ a little ball or
 clapp] by a silk ?read1 s t x c\ld     
/rike ei!r bell :5 attract$ to x4 ,on ! 
approa* ( a ?und]-cl\d1 & occasionally  
:5 no cl\ds 7 ne>1 ! bells w\ld r+1     
indicat+ t ! rod _h become /rongly      
electrifi$4 ,on "o occasion ,frankl9 0  

di/urb$ by a l\d noise1 &1 com+ out ( 8 
b$room1 he f\nd an app>5tly cont9u\s & v
 lum9\s dis*>ge tak+ place betwe5 !     
bells1 =m+ a /ream ( fire ab\t z l>ge z 
a p5cil4  ,a v pretty exp]im5t (        
,frankl9's 0 t ( ! gold5 fi%4 ,a small  
piece ( gold-leaf is cut into a         
quadrilat]al hav+ "o ( its angles ab\t  
#aej deg41 ! opposite angle ab\t #cj    
deg41 & ! o!r two "r angles4 ,if y take 
x by ! tail1 & hold x at a foot or      
great] horizontal di/ance f ! prime     
conductor1 x w1 :5 let g1 fly to x ) a  
brisk b wav]+ motion1 l t ( an eel ?r\gh
 ! wat]2 x w !n take place "u ! prime   
conductor1 at p]haps a qu>t] or half an 
in* di/ance1 & keep a cont9ual %ak+ (   
its tail l a fi%1 s t x seems animat$4  
,turn its tail t[>ds ! prime conductor1 
& !n x flies to y\r f+]1 & seems to     
nibble x4 ,& if y hold a pewt] plate "u 
x at six or eight in*es di/ance1 & cease
 turn+ ! globe1 :5 ! electrical         
atmosph]e ( ! conductor gr[s small x w  
desc5d to ! plate & swim back aga9      

sev]al times ) ! same fi%-l motion2     
greatly to ! ent]ta9m5t ( spectators4   
,by a little practice 9 blunt+ or %>p5+ 
! heads or tails ( ^! figures1 y may    
make !m take place z desir$1 ne>] or    
fur!r f ! electrifi$ plate4  ,by !      
dis*>ge ( ! batt]y1 ,frankl9 succe$$ 9  
melt+ & volatiliz+ gold-leaf1 ?9 /rips (
 t9foil1 etc4 ,8 views on ! nature (    
light are be/ giv5 9 8 own words4  ,i am
 n satisfi$ ) ! doctr9e t supposes      
p>ticles ( matt] call$ light1 cont9ually
 driv5 (f f ! sun's surface1 ) a        
swiftness s prodigi\s6 ,mu/ n ! smalle/ 
p>ticle conceivable h1 ) su* a motion1 a
 =ce exce$+ t ( a tw5ty-f\r p\nd]       
dis*>g$ f a cannon8444 ,yet ^! p>ticles1
 ) ?is amaz+ motion1 w n drive be=e !m1 
or remove1 ! lea/ & lighte/ du/ !y meet 
)4  ,may n all ! ph5om5a ( light be m   
conv5i5tly solv$ by suppos+ univ]sal    
space fill$ ) a subtile ela/ic fluid1   
:i*1 :5 at re/1 is n visible1 b ^:      
vibrations affect t f9e s5se 9 ! eye1 z 
^? ( air d ! gross] organs ( ! e>8 ,we d

 n1 9 ! case ( s\nd1 imag9e t any       
sonor\s p>ticles are ?r[n (f f a bell1 =
 in/ance1 & fly 9 /raight l9es to ! e>2 
:y mu/ we believe t lum9\s p>ticles     
leave ! sun & proce$ to ! eye8 ,"s      
diamonds1 if rubb$1 %9e 9 ! d>k )\t los+
 any "p ( _! matt]4 ,i c make an        
electrical sp>k z big z ! flame ( a     
c&le1 mu* bright]1 & !re=e visible      
fur!r2 yet ?is is )\t fuel2 & ,i am     
p]suad$ no "p ( ! electrical fluid flies
 (f 9 su* case to di/ant places1 b all  
goes directly & is to be f\nd 9 ! place 
to :i* ,i de/9e x4 ,may n diff]5t       
degrees ( ! vibration ( ! abovem5tion$  
univ]sal m$ium occasion ! appe>ances (  
diff]5t col\rs8 ,i ?9k ! electric fluid 
is always ! same2 yet ,i f9d t weak] &  
/rong] sp>ks diff] 9 app>5t col\r1 "s   
:ite1 blue1 purple1 r$3 ! /ronge/1 :ite2
 weak ones1 r$4 ,?us diff]5t degrees (  
vibration giv5 to ! air produce ! sev5  
diff]5t s\nds 9 music1 analog\s to !    
sev5 col\rs1 yet ! m$ium1 air1 is !     
same4  ,mr4 ,k9n]sley hav+ call$        

,frankl9's att5tion to ! fact t a       
sulphur globe :5 rubb$ produc$          
electrification ( an opposite k9d f t   
produc$ by a glass globe1 ,frankl9      
repeat$ ! exp]im5t1 & notic$ t ! dis*>ge
 f ! end ( a wire connect$ ) ! conductor
 0 diff]5t 9 ! two cases1 be+ long1     
l>ge1 & mu* div]g+ :5 ! glass globe is  
us$1 & makes a snapp+ 7or rattl+7 noise2
 b :5 ! sulphur "o is us$ x is %ort1    
small1 & makes a hiss+ noise2 & j !     
rev]se ( bo? happ5s :5 y hold ! same    
wire 9 y\r h& & ! globes are work$      
alt]nately4444 ,:5 ! bru% is long1 l>ge1
 & mu* div]g+1 ! body to :i* x is jo9$  
seems to be ?r[+ ! fire out2 & :5 !     
contr>y appe>s x seems to be dr9k+ 94   
,on ,octob] #ai1 #ageb1 ,frankl9 wrote  
to ,mr4 ,pet] ,coll9son z foll[s3--     
,z frequ5t m5tion is made 9 public pap]s
 f ,europe ( !     success ( !          
,philadelphia exp]im5t = draw+ !        
electric     fire f cl\ds by means (    
po9t$ rods ( iron erect$ on     high    
build+s1 etc41 x may be agreeable to !  

curi\s to be     in=m$ t ! same exp]im5t
 has succe$$ 9     ,philadelphia1 ?\gh  
made 9 a diff]5t & m easy mann]1     :i*
 is z foll[s3--      ,make a small cross
 ( two light /rips ( c$>1 ! arms s      
long z to rea* to ! f\r corn]s ( a l>ge 
?9 silk     h&k]*ief :5 ext5d$4 ,tie !  
corn]s ( ! h&k]*ief     to ! extremities
 ( ! cross1 s y h ! body ( a kite2      
:i*1 be+ prop]ly accommodat$ ) a tail1  
loop1 &     /r+1 w rise 9 ! air l ^?    
made ( pap]2 b ?is     be+ ( silk is    
fitt] to be> ! wet & w9d ( a            
?und]-gu/ )\t te>+4 ,to ! top ( !       
upright /ick (     ! cross is to be fix$
 a v %>p-po9t$ wire1 ris+ a     foot or 
m above ! wood4 ,to ! end ( ! tw9e1 next
 !     h&1 is to be ti$ a silk ribbon1  
&1 :]e ! silk & tw9e     jo91 a key may 
be fa/5$4 ,?is kite is to be rais$ :5 a 
?und]-gu/ appe>s to be com+ on1 & !     
p]son :o holds     ! /r+ mu/ /& )9 a    
door or w9d[1 or "u "s     cov] s t !   
silk ribbon may n be wet1 & c>e mu/ be  
tak5 t ! tw9e does n t\* ! frame ( !    

door or     w9d[4 ,z soon z any ( !     
?und]-cl\ds come ov] ! kite1     ! po9t$
 wire w draw ! electric fire f !m1 & !  
kite1 ) all ! tw9e1 w be electrifi$1 & !
 loose     filam5ts ( ! tw9e w /& out e 
way1 & be     attract$ by an approa*+   
f+]4 ,& :5 ! ra9 has wett$     ! kite & 
tw9e s t x c conduct ! electric fire    
freely1 y w f9d x /ream out pl5tifully f
 ! key on     ! approa* ( y\r knuckle4  
,at ?is key ! phial may be     *>g$1 & f
 electric fire !re obta9$ spirits may be
     k9dl$1 & all ! o!r electric        
exp]im5ts be p]=m$     :i* are usually  
done by ! help ( a rubb$ glass globe or 
tube1 & !reby ! sam5ess ( ! electric    
matt] ) t     ( lightn+ completely      
demon/rat$4  ,hav+1 9 ,septemb]1 #ageb1 
erect$ ! iron rod & bells 9 8 own h\se1 
z previ\sly m5tion$1 ,frankl9 succe$$1 9
 ,april1 #agec1 9 *>g+ a ,leyd5 j> f !  
rod1 & f\nd its *>ge 0 negative4 ,on    
,june #f1 h[ev]1 he obta9$ a positive   
*>ge f a cl\d4 ,! results ( 8           
obs]vations l$ him to ! conclusion ,t ! 

cl\ds ( a ?und]-gu/ are mo/ commonly 9 a
 negative /ate ( electricity1 b         
sometimes 9 a positive /ate4  ,9 ord] to
 illu/rate a !ory respect+ !            
electrification ( cl\ds1 ,frankl9 plac$ 
a silv] c on a w9e-glass4 ,inside ! c 0 
plac$ a consid]able l5g? ( *a91 :i* c\ld
 be drawn out by means ( a silk ?read4  
,he electrifi$ ! c f a ,leyd5 j> until x
 w\ld receive no m electricity4 ,!n     
rais+ ! silk ?read1 he gradually drew ! 
*a9 out ( ! c1 & f\nd t ! great] ! l5g? 
( *a9 drawn out ! great] 0 ! *>ge :i* ! 
j> w\ld give to ! sy/em1 & z ! *a9 0    
rais$1 sp>k aft] sp>k pass$ f ! j> to ! 
silv] c1 ?us %[+ t ! capacity ( ! sy/em 
0 increas$ by increas+ ! am\nt ( *a9    
expos$4  ,9 #agee ,frankl9 obs]v$ !     
effects ( induction2 =1 hav+ atta*$ to 8
 prime conductor a tassel made ( damp   
?reads & electrifi$ ! conductor1 he f\nd
 t ! ?reads repell$ ea* o!r & /ood out4 
,br++ an excit$ glass tube ne> ! o!r end
 ( ! conductor1 ! ?reads 7 f\nd to      
div]ge m1 because ! atmosph]e ( ! prime 

conductor is press$ by ! atmosph]e ( !  
excit$ tube1 & driv5 t[>ds ! end :]e !  
?reads are1 by :i* ea* ?read acquires m 
atmosph]e4 ,:5 ! excit$ tube 0 br\ght   
ne> ! ?reads1 !y clos$ a little1 because
 ! atmosph]e ( ! glass tube repels _!   
atmosph]es1 & drives "p ( !m back on !  
prime conductor4 ,a numb] ( o!r         
exp]im5ts illu/rat+ electrical induction
 7 also c>ri$ out4  ,9 writ+ to ,dr4    
,liv+1 ( ,*>le/[n1 "u date ,m>* #ah1    
#agee1 ,frankl9 gave ! foll[+ extracts (
 ! m9utes ( 8 exp]im5ts z expla9+ ! tra9
 ( ?\ght :i* l$ him to attempt to obta9 
electricity f ! cl\ds3--  ,novemb] #g1  
#agdi4 ,electrical fluid agrees )       
lightn+ 9 ^! p>ticul>s3 #a4 ,giv+ light4
 #b4 ,col\r ( ! light4 #c4 ,crook$      
direction4 #d4 ,swift motion4 #e4 ,be+  
conduct$ by metals4 #f4 ,crack or noise 
9 explod+4 #g4 ,subsi/+ 9 wat] or ice4  
#h4 ,r5d+ bodies x passes ?r\gh4 #i4    
,de/roy+ animals4 #aj4 ,melt+ metals4   
#aa4 ,fir+ inflammable sub/ances4 #ab4  
,sulphure\s smell4 ,! electric fluid is 

attract$ by po9ts4 ,we d n "k :e!r ?is  
prop]ty is 9 lightn+4 ,b s9ce !y agree 9
 all ! p>ticul>s :]e9 we c already      
comp>e !m1 is x n probable !y agree     
likewise 9 ?is8 ,let ! exp]im5t be made4
  ,ano!r exp]im5t v important 9 its be>+
 on ! !ory ( electricity 0 describ$ by  
,frankl9 9 ! same lett] to ,dr4 ,liv+4  
,x 0 aft]w>ds repeat$ 9 a mu* m complete
 =m by ,cav5di%1 :o d$uc$ f x ! great   
law t electrical repulsion v>ies        
inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! 
*>ges4 ,! same exp]im5t 0 repeat$ 9 o!r 
=ms by ,f>aday1 :o _h no means ( kn[+   
:at ,cav5di% _h done4 ,frankl9 writes3--
      ,i electrifi$ a silv] fruit-c on  
an electric /&1 & !n     l[]$ into x a  
cork ball ( ab\t an in* 9 diamet]1      
hang+ by a silk /r+1 till ! cork t\*$ ! 
bottom (     ! c4 ,! cork 0 n attract$  
to ! inside ( ! c1 z     x w\ld h be5 to
 ! outside1 & ?\gh x t\*$ !     bottom1 
yet1 :5 drawn out1 x 0 n f\nd to be     
electrifi$     by t t\*1 z x w\ld h be5 
by t\*+ ! outside4     ,! fact is s+ul>4

 ,y require ! reason8 ,i d n "k x4      
,p]haps y may discov] x1 & !n y w be s  
good z to     communicate x to me4 ,i   
f9d a frank ackn[l$gm5t ( "o's          
ignorance is n only ! easie/ way to get 
rid ( a     difficulty1 b ! likelie/ way
 to obta9 in=mation1 &     !re=e ,i     
practise x4 ,i ?9k x is an hone/ policy4
  ,a note app5d$ to ?is lett] runs z    
foll[s3--      ,mr4 ,f4 has s9ce ?\ght  
t1 possibly1 ! mutual repulsion (     ! 
inn] opposite sides ( ! electriz$ c may 
prev5t !     accumulat+ an electric     
atmosph]e ^u !m1 & occasion x     to /& 
*iefly on ! outside4 ,b recomm5ds x to !
     fur!r exam9ation ( ! curi\s4  ,!   
explanation 9 ?is note is ! correct "o1 
& f ! fact t 9 ! case ( a completely    
clos$ holl[ conductor ! *>ge is n only  
*iefly b :olly on ! outside1 ! law (    
inv]se squ>es above ref]r$ to foll[s z a
 ma!matical consequ5ce4  ,on writ+ to   
,m4 ,dalib>d1 ( ,p>is1 on ,june #bi1    
#agee1 ,frankl9 compla9$ t1 ?\gh he     
always 7except once7 assign$ to         

lightn+-rods ! alt]native duty ( ei!r   
prev5t+ a /roke or ( conduct+ ! lightn+ 
) safety to ! gr\nd1 yet 9 ,europe      
att5tion 0 paid only to ! prev5tion ( ! 
/roke1 :i* 0 only a "p ( ! duty assign$ 
to ! conductors4 ,?is is foll[$ by !    
description ( ! effect ( a /roke ^u a   
*ur*-/eeple at ,newbury1 9 ,new ,engl&4 
,! spire 0 split all to pieces1 s t no?+
 rema9$ above ! bell4 ,! lightn+ !n     
pass$ d[n a wire to ! clock1 !n d[n !   
p5dulum1 )\t injury to ! build+4 ,f !   
end ( ! p5dulum1 d[n q to ! gr\nd1 !    
build+ 0 exce$+ly r5t & damag$1 & "s    
/ones 9 ! f\ndation-wall torn out & ?r[n
 to ! di/ance ( tw5ty or ?irty feet4 ,! 
p5dulum-rod 0 un9jur$1 b ! f9e wire     
lead+ f ! bell to ! clock 0 vaporiz$    
except = ab\t two in*es at ea* end4     
,mr4 ,james ,alex&]1 ( ,new ,york1 hav+ 
propos$ to ,frankl9 t ! velocity ( !    
electric dis*>ge might be measur$ by    
dis*>g+ a j> ?r\gh a long circuit (     
riv]-wat]1 ,frankl91 9 8 reply1 expla9$ 
t su* an exp]im5t1 if successful1 w\ld n

 det]m9e ! actual velocity ( electricity
 9 ! conductor4 ,he comp>$ ! electricity
 9 conductors to an incompressible      
fluid1 s t :5 a little additional fluid 
is inject$ at "o end ( a conductor1 an  
equal am\nt mu/ be extrud$ at ! o!r     
end--8 view app>5tly be+ id5tical ) t ( 
,maxwell1 :o held t all electric        
displacem5ts mu/ take place 9 clos$     
circuits4  ,suppose a tube ( any l5g?   
op5 at bo? ends4444 ,if ! tube be fill$ 
) wat]1 & ,i inject an additional in* ( 
wat] at "o end1 ,i =ce out an equal     
quantity at ! o!r 9 ! v same in/ant4  ,&
 ! wat] =c$ out at "o end ( ! tube is n 
! v same wat] t 0 =c$ 9 at ! o!r end at 
! same "t2 x 0 only "o motion at ! same 
"t4  ,! long wire1 made use ( 9 !       
exp]im5t to discov] ! velocity ( !      
electric fluid1 is itself fill$ ) :at we
 call its natural quantity ( t fluid1   
be=e ! hook ( ! ,leyd5 bottle is appli$ 
at "o end ( x4  ,! outside ( ! bottle   
be+ at ! "t ( su* application 9 contact 
) ! o!r end ( ! wire1 ! :ole quantity ( 

electric fluid conta9$ 9 ! wire is1     
probably1 put 9 motion at once4  ,= at !
 in/ant ! hook1 connect$ ) ! inside ( ! 
bottle1 gives out1 ! coat+ or outside ( 
! bottle draws 91 a portion ( t         
fluid4444  ,s t ?is exp]im5t only %[s ! 
extreme facility ) :i* ! electric fluid 
moves 9 metal2 x c nev] det]m9e !       
velocity4  ,&1 !re=e1 ! propos$ exp]im5t
 7?\gh well imag9$ & v +5i\s7 ( s5d+ !  
sp>k r\nd ?r\gh a va/ l5g? ( space1 by !
 wat]s ( ,susquehannah1 or ,pot[mack1 & 
,ohio1 w\ld n af=d ! satisfaction       
desir$1 ?\gh we c\ld be sure t ! motion 
( ! electric fluid w\ld be 9 t tract1 & 
n und]gr\nd 9 ! wet e>? by ! %orte/ way4
  ,9 8 inve/igations ( ! s\rce (        
electricity 9 ?und]-cl\ds1 ,frankl9 tri$
 an exp]im5t :i* has be5 frequ5tly      
repeat$ ) v>i\s modifications4 ,hav+    
insulat$ a l>ge brass plate :i* _h be5  
previ\sly heat$1 he spr9kl$ wat] ^u x1 9
 ord]1 if possible1 to obta9 electricity
 by ! evaporation ( ! wat]1 b no trace (
 electrification c\ld be detect$4  ,dur+

 8 visit to ,engl&1 ,frankl9 wrote _m   
lett]s to ,mr4 ,k9n]sley & o!rs on      
philosophical que/ions1 b !y consi/$    
ma9ly ( acc\nts ( ! "w done by o!r      
exp]im5t]s 9 ,engl&1 8 public bus9ess   
occupy+ too mu* ( 8 att5tion to all[ him
 to conduct inve/igations = himself4 ,9 
"o ( 8 lett]s1 speak+ ( ,"l ,*>les      
,cav5di%1 he says3--      ,x 7 to be    
wi%$ t ?is noble philosoph] w\ld        
communicate m ( 8 exp]im5ts to ! _w1 z  
he makes     _m1 & ) great accuracy4    
,:5 ! controv]sy betwe5 ! relative m]its
 ( po9ts & knobs = ! t]m9als (          
lightn+-conductors arose1 ,frankl9 wrote
 to ,mr4 ,k9n]sley3--      ,"h are "s   
electricians t recomm5d knobs in/ead (  
po9ts on ! upp] end ( ! rods1 f a       
supposition t !     po9ts invite !      
/roke4 ,x is true t po9ts draw          
electricity at great] di/ances 9 !      
gradual sil5t way2 b     knobs w draw at
 ! greate/ di/ance a /roke4 ,!re is an  
exp]im5t :i* w settle ?is4 ,take a      
crook$ wire ( !     ?ickness ( a quill1 

& ( su* a l5g? z t1 "o end (     x be+  
appli$ to ! l[] "p ( a *>g$ bottle1 !   
upp] may be br\ght ne> ! ball on ! top (
 ! wire t     is 9 ! bottle4 ,let "o end
 ( ?is wire be furni%$ ) a     knob1 & !
 o!r may be gradually tap]$ to a f9e    
po9t4     ,:5 ! po9t is pres5t$ to      
dis*>ge ! bottle1 x mu/ be     br\ght   
mu* ne>] be=e x w receive ! /roke ?an ! 
knob requires to be4 ,po9ts1 besides1   
t5d to repel !     fragm5ts ( an        
electrical cl\d2 knobs draw !m ne>]4 ,an
     exp]im5t1 :i* ,i believe ,i h %[n  
y1 ( cotton fleece     hang+ f an       
electriz$ body1 %[s ?is cle>ly :5 a po9t
     or a knob is pres5t$ "u x4  ,!     
foll[+ quotation f ,frankl9's pap] on ! 
me?od ( secur+ build+s & p]sons f !     
effects ( lightn+ is wor?y ( att5tion1 =
 ( late ye>s a good deal ( money has be5
 wa/$ 9 provid+ insulators =            
lightn+-rods4 ,a few ye>s ago ! vic> &  
*ur*w>d5s ( a ,l9coln%ire p>i% 7 /rongly
 urg$ to g to ! exp5se ( insulat+ !     
conductor ?r\gh\t ! :ole height ( ! v   

l(ty t[] & spire ( _! p>i% *ur*4        
,happily !y 7 wise en\gh to s5d !       
lightn+-rod man ab\t 8 bus9ess4 ,b ?is  
is n ! only case :i* has come "u !      
writ]'s notice1 %[+ t !re is /ill a     
widespread impression t                 
lightn+-conductors %\ld be c>efully     
insulat$4 ,frankl9 says3--  ,! rod may  
be fa/5$ to ! wall1 *imney1 etc41 )     
/aples ( iron4 ,! lightn+ w n leave !   
rod 7a good conductor7 to pass into !   
wall 7a bad conductor7 ?r\gh ^! /aples4 
,x w\ld r1 if any 7 9 ! wall1 pass out (
 x into ! rod1 to get m readily by t    
conductor into ! e>?4#b  ,footnote #b3  
,see p4 #ada4  ,! conditions to be      
secur$ 9 a lightn+-conductor are1       
fir/ly1 a %>p po9t project+ above !     
highe/ "p ( ! build+1 & gild$ to prev5t 
corrosion2 secondly1 metallic cont9uity 
f ! po9t to ! l[] end ( ! conductor2 &1 
?irdly1 a good e>?-contact4 ,! la/ c    
frequ5tly be secur$ by sold]+ !         
conductor to iron wat]-pipes und]gr\nd4 
,:]e ^! are n available1 a copp] plate1 

two or ?ree feet squ>e1 imb$d$ 9 clay or
 o!r damp e>?1 w s]ve ! purpose4 ,!     
me?od ( secur+ a build+ :i* is erect$ on
 granite or o!r f\ndation af=d+ no good 
e>?-connection1 w be ref]r$ to 9 a      
subsequ5t biographical sket*4  ,!       
controv]sy ( po9ts v]sus knobs 0 aga9   
reviv$ 9 ,london :5 ,frankl9 0 9 ,p>is1 
& ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce _h begun4 ,frankl9
 0 consult$ on ! subject1 ! "q hav+     
aris5 9 connection ) ! conductor at !   
palace4 ,8 reply 0 *>act]i/ic4  ,z to my
 writ+ any?+ on ! subject1 :i* y seem to
 desire1 ,i ?9k x n necess>y1 especially
 z ,i h no?+ to add to :at ,i h already 
said ^u x 9 a pap] read to ! committee  
:o ord]$ ! conductors at ,purfleet1 :i* 
pap] is pr9t$ 9 ! la/ ,fr5* edition ( my
 writ+s4  ,i h nev] ent]$ into any      
controv]sy 9 def5ce ( my philosophical  
op9ions4 ,i leave !m to take _! *ance 9 
! _w4 ,if !y are "r1 tru? & exp]i5ce w  
support !m2 if wrong1 !y ought to be    
refut$ & reject$4 ,disputes are apt to  
s\r "o's temp] & di/urb "o's quiet4 ,i h

 no private int]e/ 9 ! reception ( my   
inv5tions by ! _w1 hav+ nev] made1 nor  
propos$ to make1 ! lea/ pr(it by any (  
!m4 ,! k+'s *ang+ 8 po9t$ conductors =  
blunt ones is1 !re=e1 a matt] ( small   
importance to me4 ,if ,i _h a wi% ab\t  
x1 x w\ld be t he _h reject$ !m altoge!r
 z ineffectual4 ,= x is only s9ce he    
?\ght himself & family safe f ! ?und] ( 
,heav51 t he d>$ to use 8 own ?und] 9   
de/roy+ 8 innoc5t subjects4  ,! pap]    
ref]r$ to 0 read be=e ! committee       
appo9t$ to consid] ! erect+ conductors  
to secure ! magaz9es at ,purfleet1 on   
,augu/ #bg1 #aggb4 ,x describ$ a v>iety 
( exp]im5ts cle>ly demon/rat+ ! effect (
 po9ts 9 dis*>g+ a conductor4 ,?is 0 a  
committee ( ! ,royal ,society1 to :om ! 
"q _h be5 ref]r$ on acc\nt ( ,dr4       
,wilson's recomm5dation ( a blunt       
conductor4 ,! committee decid$ 9 fav\r (
 ,frankl9's view1 & :51 9 #aggg1 ! "q 0 
aga9 rais$ & aga9 ref]r$ to a committee 
( ! ,royal ,society1 ! decision ( ! =m] 
committee 0 confirm$1 conceiv+ t !      

exp]im5ts & reasons made & alleg$ to !  
contr>y by ,mr4 ,wilson are             
inconclusive4  ,?\gh ,frankl9's         
sci5tific reputation re/s ma9ly on 8    
electrical rese>*es1 he did n leave o!r 
bran*es ( sci5ce unt\*$4 ,besides 8 "w  
on atmosph]ic electricity1 he devot$ a  
great deal ( ?\ght to meteorology1      
especially to ! vortical motion (       
wat]sp\ts4 ,! ,gulf-/ream receiv$ a %>e 
( 8 att5tion4 ,8 improvem5ts 9          
fireplaces h already be5 notic$2 ! cure 
( smoky *imneys 0 ! subject ( a long    
pap] address$ to ,dr4 ,+5h\sz1 & ( "s   
o!r lett]s4 ,"o ( 8 exp]im5ts on !      
absorption ( radiant en]gy has be5      
des]v$ly rememb]$4  ,my exp]im5t 0 ?is3 
,i took a numb] ( little squ>e pieces ( 
broad-clo? f a tailor's patt]n-c>d1 (   
v>i\s col\rs4 ,!re 7 black1 deep blue1  
light] blue1 gre51 purple1 r$1 yell[1   
:ite1 & o!r col\rs or %ades ( col\rs4 ,i
 laid !m all out ^u ! sn[ 9 a bright1   
sun-%9y morn+4 ,9 a few h\rs 7,i _c n[  
be exact z to ! "t7 ! black1 be+ w>m$   

mo/ by ! sun1 0 sunk s l[ z to be bel[ !
 /roke ( ! sun's rays2 ! d>k blue almo/ 
z l[1 ! light] blue n q s mu* z ! d>k1 !
 o!r col\rs less z !y 7 light]2 & ! q   
:ite rema9$ on ! surface ( ! sn[1 n hav+
 ent]$ x at all4  ,:at signifies        
philosophy t does n apply to "s use8    
,may we n le>n f h5ce t black clo!s are 
n s fit to we> 9 a hot1 sunny climate or
 season1 z :ite ones8  ,frankl9 knew mu*
 ab\t electricity1 b 8 k ( human nature 
0 deep] /ill4 ,?is appe>s 9 all 8       
transactions4 ,8 political economy 01   
p]haps1 n always s\nd1 b 8 judgm5t ( m5 
0 seldom at fault4  ,f9ally1 !re seem to
 be b ?ree ways = a nation to acquire   
weal?4 ,! fir/ is by w>1 z ! ,romans    
did1 9 plund]+ _! conqu]$ neighb\r3 ?is 
is robb]y4 ,! second by comm]ce1 :i* is 
g5]ally *eat+4 ,! ?ird by agriculture1 !
 only hone/ way1 :]e9 man receives a    
real increase ( ! se$ ?r[n into ! gr\nd1
 9 a k9d ( cont9ual miracle wr\ght by ! 
h& ( ,god 9 8 fav\r1 z a rew>d = 8      
innoc5t life & 8 virtu\s indu/ry4  ,:5  

,frankl9 rea*$ ,london 9 #ageg he took  
up 8 abode ) ,mrs4 ,m>g>et ,/ev5son1 9  
,crav5 ,/reet1 ,/r&4 ,= ,mrs4 ,/ev5son &
 h] daught] ,m>y1 !n a "y lady (        
eighte51 he acquir$ a s9c]e affection1  
:i* cont9u$ ?r\gh\t _! lives4 ,miss     
,/ev5son sp5t mu* ( h] "t ) an aunt 9 ! 
c\ntry1 & "s ( ,frankl9's lett]s to h]  
respect+ ! conduct ( h] high] education 
are among ! mo/ int]e/+ ( 8 writ+s4     
,miss ,/ev5son treat$ him z a fa!r1 &   
consult$ him on e "q ( importance 9 h]  
life4 ,:5 %e 0 a wid[ & ,frankl9 eighty 
ye>s ( age1 he urg$ ^u h] to come to    
,philadelphia1 = ! sake ( ! bett]       
prospects :i* ! new c\ntry (f]$ h] boys4
 ,9 com+ to ,engl&1 ,frankl9 br\ght )   
him 8 son ,william1 :o ent]$ ! ,middle  
,temple1 b he left beh9d 8 only daught]1
 ,s>ah1 9 *>ge ( h] "m4 ,to 8 wife &    
daught] he frequ5tly s5t pres5ts f      
,london1 & 8 lett]s to ,mrs4 ,frankl9   
give a pretty full acc\nt ( all 8 do+s  
:ile 9 ,engl&4 ,dur+ 8 visit he receiv$ 
! honor>y degrees ( ,d4,c4,l4 f !       

,univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 & ,,ll4,d4 f t (    
,ed9burgh4 ,at ,cambridge he 0          
sumptu\sly ent]ta9$4 ,9 ,augu/1 #agfb1  
he />t$ aga9 = ,am]ica1 & rea*$         
,philadelphia on ,novemb] #a1 aft] an   
abs5ce ( five ye>s4 ,8 son ,william _h  
%ortly be=e be5 appo9t$ ,gov]nor ( ,new 
,j]sey4 ,f ?is "t ,william ,frankl9     
became v mu* ! s]vant ( ! propriet>ies &
 ( ! ,engli% ,gov]nm5t1 b no (f] (      
patronage produc$ any effect on ! fa!r4 
,frankl9's /ay 9 ,am]ica 0 ( %ort       
duration1 b :ile !re he 0 ma9ly         
in/rum5tal 9 quell+ an insurrection 9   
,p5nsylvania4 ,he made a t\r (          
inspection ?r\gh ! nor!rn colonies 9 !  
summ] ( #agfc1 to regulate ! po/-(fices4
 ,! disord] j ref]r$ to 9 ! prov9ce     
caus$ ! gov]nor1 z well z ! ,assembly1  
to det]m9e on ! =mation ( a militia4 ,a 
committee1 ( :i* ,frankl9 0 a memb]1    
drew up ! necess>y bill4 ,! gov]nor     
claim$ ! sole p[] ( appo9t+ (fic]s1 &   
requir$ t trials %\ld be by c\rt-m>tial1
 "s (f5ces be+ puni%able ) dea?4 ,!     

,assembly refus$ to agree to ^!         
consid]ations4 ,! ill feel+ 0 increas$  
by ! gov]nor insi/+ on tax+ all         
propriet>y l&s at ! same rate z         
uncultivat$ l& belong+ to o!r p]sons1   
:e!r ! propriet>y l&s 7 cultivat$ or n4 
,! ,assembly1 be=e adj\rn+1 express$ an 
op9ion t peace & happ9ess w\ld n be     
secur$ until ! gov]nm5t 0 lodg$ directly
 9 ! ,cr[n4 ,:5 ! ,assembly aga9 met1   
petitions to ! k+ came 9 f m ?an ?ree   
?\s& inhabitants4 ,9 ! mean :ile !      
,briti% ,m9i/ry _h propos$ ! ,/amp ,act1
 :i* 0 simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! ,engli%   
,/amp ,act1 :i* requires t all          
agreem5ts1 receipts1 bills ( ex*ange1   
m>riage & bir? c]tificates1 & all o!r   
legal docum5ts %\ld be provid$ ) an inl&
 rev5ue /amp ( a p>ticul> value1 9 ord] 
t !y might be valid4 ,z soon z !        
,assembly 0 conv5$1 x det]m9$ to s5d    
,frankl9 to ,engl&1 to take *>ge ( a    
petition = a *ange ( gov]nm5t4 ,!       
m]*ants subscrib$ ,l#aajj t[>ds 8       
exp5ses 9 a few h\rs1 & 9 twelve days he

 0 on 8 j\rney1 be+ accompani$ to ! %ip1
 a di/ance ( sixte5 miles1 by a         
cavalcade ( ?ree hundr$ ( 8 fri5ds1 & 9 
?irty days he rea*$ ,london4 ,arriv$ 9  
,london1 he at once took up 8 abode 9 8 
old lodg+s ) ,mrs4 ,/ev5son4 ,he 0 a    
ma/] ( satire1 equall$ only by ,swift1 &
 dur+ ! qu>rels :i* prec$$ ! ,w> (      
,indep5d5ce1 z well z dur+ ! w>1 he made
 good use ( 8 p[]s 9 ?is respect4       
,articles appe>$ 9 "s ( ! ,engli% pap]s 
t5d+ to raise an al>m respect+ !        
competition ( ! colonies ) ,engli%      
manufactur]s4 ,frankl9's contribution to
 ! discussion 0 a c>icature ( ! ,engli% 
press writ]s4  ,x is object$ by         
sup]ficial read]s1 :o yet pret5d to "s k
 ( ^? c\ntries1 t su* e/abli%m5ts       
manufactories = wooll5 goods1 etc4 are n
 only improbable1 b impossible1 = t _!  
%eep h b little wool1 n 9 ! :ole        
suffici5t = a pair ( /ock+s a ye> to ea*
 inhabitant2 t1 f ! univ]sal de>ness (  
lab\r among !m1 ! work+ ( iron & o!r    
mat]ials1 except 9 a few co>se in/ances1

 is impracticable to any advantage4     
,de> sir1 d n let u suff] ourselves to  
be amus$ ) su* gr\ndless objections4 ,! 
v tails ( ! ,am]ican %eep are s lad5 )  
wool t ea* has a little c> or waggon on 
f\r little :eels to support & keep x f  
trail+ on ! gr\nd4 ,w\ld !y caulk _!    
%ips1 w\ld !y ev5 litt] _! horses )     
wool1 if x 7 n bo? pl5ty & *eap8 ,& :at 
signifies ! de>ness ( lab\r1 :5 an      
,engli% %ill+ passes = five & tw5ty8 ,_!
 engag+ ?ree hundr$ silk ?r[/]s "h 9 "o 
week = ,new ,york 0 treat$ z a fable1   
because1 =soo?1 !y h 'no silk !re to    
?r[6' ,^? :o make ?is objection p]haps d
 n "k t1 at ! same "t1 ! ag5ts = ! ,k+ (
 ,spa9 7 at ,quebec1 to contract = "o   
?\s& pieces ( cannon to be made !re = ! 
=tification ( ,mexico1 & at ,new ,york  
engag+ ! usual supply ( wooll5          
floor-c>pets = _! ,we/ ,india h\ses4    
,o!r ag5ts f ! ,emp]or ( ,*9a 7 at      
,bo/on1 treat+ ab\t an ex*ange ( raw    
silk = wool1 to be c>ri$ 9 ,*9ese junks 
?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,magellan4  ,& yet all

 ?is is z c]ta9ly true z ! acc\nt said  
to be f ,quebec 9 all ! pap]s ( la/     
week1 t ! inhabitants ( ,canada are mak+
 prep>ations = a cod & :ale fi%]y ?is   
summ] 9 ! upp] ,lakes4 ,ignorant p may  
object t ! upp] ,lakes are fre%1 & t cod
 & :ales are salt-wat] fi%2 b let !m "k1
 sir1 t cod1 l o!r fi% :5 attack$ by _! 
enemies1 fly into any wat] :]e !y c be  
safe/2 t :ales1 :5 !y h a m9d to eat    
cod1 pursue !m :]ev] !y fly2 & t ! gr&  
leap ( ! :ale 9 ! *ase up ! ,falls (    
,niag>a is e/eem$1 by all :o h se5 x1 z 
"o ( ! f9e/ spectacles 9 nature4  ,"o ( 
,frankl9's *ief objects 9 com+ to ,engl&
 0 to prev5t ! pass+ ( ,mr4 ,gr5ville's 
bill1 previ\sly ref]r$ to z ! ,/amp     
,act4 ,! coloni/s urg$ t !y _h always   
be5 lib]al 9 _! votes1 :5ev] money 0    
requir$ by ! ,cr[n1 & t taxation &      
repres5tation mu/1 9 accordance ) !     
,briti% con/itution1 g h&-9-h&1 s t !   
,engli% ,p>liam5t _h no "r to raise     
taxes 9 ,am]ica1 s long z ! coloni/s 7  
unrepres5t$ 9 ,p>liam5t4 ,_h ,mr4       

,gr5ville1 in/ead ( t act1 appli$ to !  
k+ 9 ,c\ncil = su* requisitional lett]s 
i4e4 reque/s to ! ,assemblies = volunt>y
 grants1 to be circulat$ by ! ,secret>y 
( ,/ate1 ,i am sure he w\ld h obta9$ m  
money f ! colonies by _! volunt>y grants
 ?an he himself expect$ f ! sale (      
/amps4 ,b he *ose compulsion r ?an      
p]suasion1 & w\ld n receive f _! good w 
:at he ?\ght he c\ld obta9 )\t x4 ,!    
,/amp ,act 0 pass$1 /amps 7 pr9t$1      
di/ributors 7 appo9t$1 b ! coloni/s w\ld
 h no?+ to d ) ! /amps4 ,! di/ributors 7
 compell$ to resign _! commissions1 & ! 
capta9s ( vessels 7 =bidd5 to l& ! /amp$
 pap]4 ,! co/ ( pr9t+ & di/ribut+ am\nt$
 to ,l#ab1jjj2 ! :ole return 0 ab\t     
,l#aejj1 f ,canada & ! ,we/ ,indies4  ,!
 pass+ ( ! ,/amp ,act 0 soon foll[$ by a
 *ange ( ,m9i/ry1 :5 ! "q aga9 came be=e
 ,p>liam5t4 ,frankl9 submitt$ to a long 
exam9ation be=e a ,committee ( ! :ole   
,h\se4 ,! feel+ preval5t 9 ,am]ica      
respect+ ! ,/amp ,act may be inf]r$ f "s
 ( 8 answ]s4  #ca4 ,q4 ,d y ?9k ! p (   

,am]ica w\ld submit to pay ! /amp duty  
if x 0 mod]at$8  ,a4 ,no1 nev]1 unless  
compell$ by =ce ( arms4  #cf4 ,q4 ,:at 0
 ! temp] ( ,am]ica t[>ds ,great ,brita9 
be=e ! ye> #agfc8c  ,footnote #c3 ,!    
date ( ! ,sug> ,act4  ,a4 ,! be/ 9 ! _w4
 ,!y submitt$ will+ly to ! gov]nm5t ( ! 
,cr[n1 & paid1 9 _! c\rts1 ob$i5ce to ! 
,acts ( ,p>liam5t4 ,num]\s z ! p are 9 !
 sev]al old prov9ces1 !y co/ y no?+ 9   
=ts1 citadels1 g>risons1 or armies to   
keep !m 9 subjection4 ,!y 7 gov]n$ by   
?is c\ntry at ! exp5se only ( a little  
p51 ink1 & pap]2 !y 7 l$ by a ?read4 ,!y
 _h n only a respect1 b an affection1 = 
,great ,brita9--= its laws1 its cu/oms &
 mann]s1 & ev5 a fondness = its fa%ions1
 t greatly increas$ ! comm]ce4 ,natives 
( ,brita9 7 always treat$ ) p>ticul>    
reg>d2 to be an ,old-,engl&man 01 (     
itself1 a "* ( "s respect1 & gave a k9d 
( rank among u4  #cg4 ,q4 ,& :at is _!  
temp] n[8  ,a4 ,oh1 v mu* alt]$4  #ej4  
,q4 ,0 x an op9ion 9 ,am]ica be=e #agfc 
t ! ,p>liam5t _h no "r to lay taxes &   

duties !re8  ,a4 ,i nev] he>d any       
objection to ! "r ( lay+ duties to      
regulate comm]ce2 b a "r to lay int]nal 
taxes 0 nev] suppos$ to be 9 ,p>liam5t1 
z we are n repres5t$ !re4  #ei4 ,q4 ,y  
say ! colonies h always submitt$ to     
ext]nal taxes1 & object to ! "r (       
,p>liam5t only 9 lay+ int]nal taxes2 n[1
 c y %[ t !re is any k9d ( diff]5ce     
betwe5 ! two taxes to ! colony on :i* !y
 may be laid8  ,a4 ,i ?9k ! diff]5ce is 
v great4 ,an ext]nal tax is a duty laid 
on commodities import$2 t duty is add$  
to ! fir/ co/ & o!r *>ges on !          
commodity1 &1 :5 x is (f]$ to sale1     
makes a "p ( ! price4 ,if ! p d n l x at
 t price1 !y refuse x2 !y are n oblig$  
to pay x4 ,b an int]nal tax is =c$ ^u ! 
p )\t _! cons5t1 if n laid by _! own    
repres5tatives4 ,! ,/amp ,act says we   
%all h no comm]ce1 make no ex*ange (    
prop]ty ) ea* o!r1 nei!r pur*ase1 nor   
grant1 nor recov] debts2 we %all nei!r  
m>ry nor make our wills1 unless we pay  
su* & su* sums2 & ?us x is int5d$ to    

extort our money f u1 or ru9 u by !     
consequ5ces ( refus+ to pay x4  #fa4 ,q4
 ,don't y ?9k clo? f ,engl& absolutely  
necess>y to !m8  ,a4 ,no1 by no means   
absolutely necess>y2 ) indu/ry & good   
managem5t !y may v well supply !mselves 
) all !y want4  #fb4 ,q4 ,w x n take a  
long "t to e/abli% t manufacture among  
!m8 & mu/ !y n 9 ! mean :ile suff]      
greatly8  ,a4 ,i ?9k n4 ,!y h made a    
surpris+ progress already4 ,& ,i am (   
op9ion t1 be=e _! old clo!s are worn    
out1 !y w h new ones ( _! own mak+4     
#hd4 ,q4 ,if ! ,act is n repeal$1 :at d 
y ?9k w be ! consequ5ce8  ,a4 ,a total  
loss ( ! respect & affection ! p (      
,am]ica be> to ?is c\ntry1 & ( all !    
comm]ce t dep5ds on t respect &         
affection4  #he4 ,q4 ,h[ c ! comm]ce be 
affect$8  ,a4 ,y w f9d t1 if ! ,act is n
 repeal$1 !y w take a v little ( y\r    
manufactures 9 a %ort "t4  #hf4 ,q4 ,is 
x 9 _! p[] to d )\t !m8  ,a4 ,i ?9k !y  
may v well d )\t !m4  #hg4 ,q4 ,is x _! 
int]e/ n to take !m8  ,a4 ,! goods !y   

take f ,brita9 are ei!r necess>ies1 m]e 
conv5i5ces1 or sup]fluities4 ,! fir/1 z 
clo?1 etc41 ) a little indu/ry !y c make
 at home2 ! second !y c d )\t till !y   
are able to provide !m among !mselves2 &
 ! la/1 :i* are mu* ! greate/ "p1 !y w  
/rike (f imm$iately4 ,!y are m]e        
articles ( fa%ion1 pur*as$ & consum$    
because ! fa%ion 9 a respect$ c\ntry2 b 
w n[ be dete/$ & reject$4 ,! p h already
 /ruck (f1 by g5]al agreem5t1 ! use (   
all goods fa%ionable 9 m\rn+s1 & _m ?\s&
 p\nds' wor? are s5t back z unsaleable4 
#agc4 ,q4 ,:at us$ to be ! pride ( !    
,am]icans8  ,a4 ,to indulge 9 ! fa%ions 
& manufactures ( ,great ,brita94  #agd4 
,q4 ,:at is n[ _! pride8  ,a4 ,to we> _!
 old clo!s ov] aga9 till !y c make new  
ones4  ,! mon? foll[+ ,frankl9's        
exam9ation1 ! repeal ( ! ,/amp ,act     
receiv$ ! royal ass5t4 ,!reupon ,frankl9
 s5t 8 wife & daught] new dresses1 & a  
numb] ( o!r little luxuries 7or toilet  
necess>ies74  ,9 #agfg ,frankl9 visit$  
,p>is4 ,9 ! same ye> 8 daught] m>ri$    

,mr4 ,ri*>d ,ba*e4 ,?\gh ,p>liam5t _h   
repeal$ ! ,/amp ,act1 x nev]!less insi/$
 on its "r to tax ! colonies4 ,! ,duty  
,act 0 sc>cely less objectionable ?an   
its pr$ecessor4 ,on ,frankl9's return f 
! ,cont95t1 he he>d ( ! retaliatory     
measures ( ! ,bo/on p1 :o _h assembl$ 9 
t[n-meet+s1 =mally resolv$ to enc\rage  
home manufactures1 to ab&on             
sup]fluities1 &1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 to    
give up ! use ( "s articles ( =eign     
manufacture4 ,^! associations aft]w>ds  
became v g5]al 9 ! colonies1 s t 9 "o   
ye> ! importations by ! coloni/s ( ,new 
,york fell f ,l#dhb1jjj to ,l#gd1jjj1 & 
9 ,p5nsylvania f ,l#dcb1jjj to          
,l#aai1jjj4  ,! effect ( ! ,duty ,act 0 
to enc\rage ! ,dut* & o!r nations to    
smuggle tea & probably o!r ,india       
produce into ,am]ica4 ,! exclusion f !  
,am]ican m>kets ( tea s5t f ,engl& plac$
 ! ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 great         
difficulties2 = :ile !y 7 unable to meet
 _! bills1 !y _h 9 /ock two million     
p\nds' wor? ( tea & o!r goods4 ,!       

balance ( ! rev5ue collect$ "u ! ,duty  
,act1 aft] pay+ sal>ies1 etc41 am\nt$ to
 only ,l#he = ! ye>1 & = ?is a fleet _h 
to be ma9ta9$1 to gu>d ! fifte5 hundr$  
miles ( ,am]ican coa/2 :ile ! fall 9    
,ea/ ,india ,/ock depriv$ ! rev5ue (    
,l#djj1jjj p] annum1 :i* ! ,ea/ ,india  
,company w\ld o!rwise h paid4 ,at l5g? a
 lic5ce 0 grant$ to ! ,ea/ ,india       
,company to c>ry tea into ,am]ica1 duty 
free4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 exclud$ all o!r    
m]*ants f ! ,am]ican tea-trade4 ,a      
quantity ( tea s5t by ! ,ea/ ,india     
,company to ,bo/on 0 de/roy$ by ! p4 ,! 
,briti% ,gov]nm5t !n blockad$ ! port4   
,?is soon l$ to op5 ho/ilities4 ,frankl9
 work$ h>d to effect a reconciliation4  
,he drew up a s*eme1 sett+ =? !         
conditions "u :i* he conceiv$ a         
reconciliation might be br\ght ab\t1 &  
discuss$ x fully ) ,mr4 ,daniel ,b>clay 
& ,dr4 ,fo!rgill4 ,?is s*eme 0 %[n to   
,"l ,h[e1 & aft]w>ds br\ght be=e !      
,m9i/ry1 b 0 reject$4 ,o!r plans 7      
consid]$1 & ,frankl9 (f]$ to pay = ! tea

 :i* _h be5 de/roy$ at ,bo/on4 ,all 8   
negotiations 71 h[ev]1 fruitless4 ,at   
la/ he address$ a memorial to ! ,e>l (  
,d>tm\?1 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 compla9+ ( !
 blockade ( ,bo/on1 :i* _h !n cont9u$ = 
n9e mon?s1 & _h dur+ e week ( its       
cont9uance done damage to t t[n1 equal  
to :at 0 suff]$ !re by ! ,india         
,company2 & claim+ rep>ation = su*      
injury beyond ! value ( ! tea :i* _h be5
 de/roy$4 ,! memorial also compla9$ ( ! 
exclusion ( ! coloni/s f ! ,newf\ndl&   
fi%]ies1 = :i* rep>ation w\ld "o day be 
requir$4 ,?is memorial 0 return$ to     
,frankl9 by ,mr4 ,walpole1 & ,frankl9   
%ortly aft]w>ds return$ to              
,philadelphia4  ,dur+ ?is visit to      
,engl& he _h lo/ 8 wife1 :o di$ on      
,decemb] #ai1 #aggd2 & 8 fri5d ,miss    
,/ev5son _h m>ri$ & be5 left a wid[4  ,9
 ,april1 #agfh1 ,frankl9 0 appo9t$ ,ag5t
 = ,georgia1 9 ! foll[+ ye> = ,new      
,j]sey1 & 9 #aggj = ,massa*usetts1 s t  
he 0 !n ! repres5tative 9 ,engl& ( f\r  
colonies1 ) an income ( ,l#abjj p]      

annum4  ,9 #agga he sp5t ?ree weeks at  
,twy=d1 ) ! ,bi%op ( ,/4 ,asaph1 :o     
rema9$ a fa/ fri5d ( ,frankl9's until 8 
dea?4 ,9 #aggb he 0 nom9at$ by ! ,k+ (  
,france z ,=eign ,associate ( ! ,academy
 ( ,sci5ces4  ,dur+ 8 negotiations ) !  
,briti% ,gov]nm5t ,frankl9 wrote two    
satirical pieces1 sett+ =? ! treatm5t   
:i* ! ,am]ican coloni/s 7 receiv+4 ,!   
fir/ 0 entitl$ ,rules = ,r$uc+ a ,great 
,empire to a ,small ,"o1 ! rules be+    
precisely ^? :i*1 9 ,frankl9's op9ion1  
_h be5 foll[$ by ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t 9  
its deal+s ) ,am]ica4 ,! o!r 0 ,an      
,edict by ! ,k+ ( ,prussia1 9 :i* ! k+  
claim$ ! "r ( tax+ ! ,briti% nation2 (  
=bidd+ ,engli% manufacture1 & compell+  
,engli%m5 to pur*ase ,prussian goods2 ( 
transport+ prison]s to ,brita91 &       
g5]ally ( ex]cis+ all su* controls ov] !
 ,engli% p z _h be5 claim$ ov] ,am]ica  
by v>i\s ,acts ( ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t1 on
 ! gr\nd t ,engl& 0 orig9ally coloniz$  
by emigrants f ,prussia4  ,be=e ,frankl9
 rea*$ ,am]ica1 ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1    

?\gh n =mally decl>$1 _h fairly begun4  
,he 0 appo9t$ a memb] ( ! second        
,cont95tal ,congress1 & "o ( a committee
 ( ?ree to conf] ) ,g5]al ,wa%+ton      
respect+ ! support & regulation ( !     
,cont95tal ,army4 ,?is latt] (fice      
necessitat$ 8 sp5d+ "s "t 9 ! camp4 ,on 
,octob] #c1 #agge1 he wrote to          
,prie/ley3--      ,tell our de> good    
fri5d1 ,dr4 ,price1 :o sometimes has 8  
d\bts & despond5cies ab\t our firmness1 
t ,am]ica is     det]m9$ & unanim\s2 a v
 few ,tories & placem5     except$1 :o w
 probably soon export !mselves4 ,brita91
 at     ! exp5se ( ?ree millions1 has   
kill$ a hundr$ & fifty     ,yankees ?is 
campaign1 :i* is ,l#bj1jjj a head2 & at 
,bunk]'s     ,hill %e ga9$ a mile (     
gr\nd1 half ( :i* %e lo/ aga9     by our
 tak+ ! po/ on ,pl\gh$ ,hill4 ,dur+ !   
same "t     sixty ?\s& *ildr5 h be5 born
 9 ,am]ica4 ,f ^!     data 8 ma!matical 
head w easily calculate ! "t &          
exp5se necess>y to kill u all & conqu]  
our :ole     t]ritory4  ,9 #aggf        

,frankl91 !n sev5ty ye>s old1 0 appo9t$ 
"o ( ?ree ,commission]s to visit        
,canada1 9 ord]1 if possible1 to promote
 a union betwe5 x & ! ,/ates4 ,f9d+ t   
only "o ,canadian 9 five hundr$ c\ld    
read1 & t ! /ate ( feel+ 9 ,canada 0    
fatal to ! success ( ! ,commission]s1 !y
 return$1 & ,frankl9 sugge/$ t ! next   
,commission s5t to ,canada %\ld consi/ (
 s*oolma/]s4 ,on ! #d? ( ,july ,frankl9 
took "p 9 ! sign+ ( ! ,decl>ation (     
,indep5d5ce4 ,:5 ! docum5t 0 ab\t to be 
sign$1 ,mr4 ,hancock rem>k$1 ,we mu/ be 
unanim\s2 !re mu/ be no pull+ diff]5t   
ways2 we mu/ all hang toge!r4 ,frankl9  
repli$1 ,yes1 we mu/ inde$ all hang     
toge!r1 or mo/ assur$ly we %all all hang
 sep>ately4  ,9 ! autumn ( #aggf        
,frankl9 0 unanim\sly *os5 a ,special   
,commission] to ! ,fr5* ,c\rt4 ,he took 
) him 8 two gr&sons1 ,william ,temple   
,frankl9 & ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 ,ba*e1 &    
leav+ ,m>cus ,hook on ,octob] #bh1      
cross$ ! ,atlantic 9 a sloop ( sixte5   
guns4 ,9 ,p>is he met ) an en?usia/ic   

reception4 ,m4 de ,*aumont plac$ at 8   
disposal 8 h\se at ,passy1 !n ab\t a    
mile f ,p>is1 b n[ )9 ! city4 ,"h he    
resid$ = n9e ye>s1 be+ a con/ant visitor
 at ! ,fr5* ,c\rt1 & c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ 
conspicu\s figures 9 ,p>is4 ,he 0 oblig$
 to s]ve 9 _m capacities1 & 0 v mu*     
burd5$ ) "w4 ,n only 7 !re 8 duties z   
,commission] at ! ,fr5* ,c\rt1 b he 0   
also made ,admiralty ,judge & ,f9ancial 
,ag5t1 s t all ! c\pons = ! paym5t (    
int]e/ on ! money borr[$ = ! prosecution
 ( ! w>1 z well z all f9ancial          
negotiations1 ei!r ) ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t  
or contractors1 _h to pass ?r\gh 8 h&s4 
,p]haps ! mo/ unpleasant "p ( 8 "w 0 8  
cont9u$ applications to ! ,fr5* ,c\rt = 
monet>y advances4 ,! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t1 z 
is well kn[n1 w>mly esp\s$ ! cause ( !  
,am]icans1 & to ! utmo/ ( its ability   
assi/$ !m ) money1 mat]ial1 & m54       
,frankl9 0 worri$ a good deal by        
applications f ,fr5* (fic]s =           
introductions to ,g5]al ,wa%+ton1 t !y  
might obta9 employm5t 9 ! ,am]ican      

,army4 ,at la/ he fram$ a model lett] ( 
recomm5dation1 :i* may be useful to _m 9
 ?is c\ntry 9 ! pres5t day4 ,x 0 z      
foll[s3--      ,,sir1      ,! be>] (    
?is1 :o is go+ to ,am]ica1 presses me to
 give     him a lett] ( recomm5dation1  
?\gh ,i "k no?+ ( him1     n ev5 8 "n4  
,?is may seem extraord9>y1 b ,i assure y
     x is n uncommon "h4 ,sometimes1    
inde$1 "o unkn[n p]son     br+s ano!r   
equally unkn[n1 to recomm5d him2 &      
sometimes     !y recomm5d "o ano!r6 ,z  
to ?is g5tleman1 ,i mu/ ref]     y to   
himself = 8 "* & m]its1 ) :i* he is     
c]ta9ly bett] acqua9t$ ?an ,i c possibly
 be4 ,i recomm5d     him1 h[ev]1 to ^?  
civilities :i* e /rang]1 ( :om     "o   
kn[s no h>m1 has a "r to2 & ,i reque/ y 
w d him     all ! good (fices & %[ him  
all ! fav\r t1 on     fur!r acqua9tance1
 y %all f9d him to des]ve4      ,i h !  
hon\r to be1 etc4  ,capta9 ,wickes1 ( ! 
,refusal1 hav+ tak5 ab\t a hundr$       
,briti% seam5 prison]s1 ,frankl9 &      
,silas ,deane1 "o ( ! o!r ,commission]s1

 wrote to ,"l ,/ormont1 ! ,briti%       
ambassador1 respect+ an ex*ange4        
,receiv+ no answ]1 !y wrote aga91 &     
v5tur$ to compla9 ( ! treatm5t :i* !    
,am]ican prison]s 7 receiv+ 9 ! ,engli% 
prisons1 & 9 be+ compell$ to fight aga9/
 _! own c\ntrym54 ,to ?is communication 
,"l ,/ormont repli$3--      ,! k+'s     
ambassador receives no applications f   
rebels1     unless !y come to implore 8 
,maje/y's m]cy4  ,to ?is ! ,commission]s
 rejo9$3--      ,9 answ] to a lett]1 :i*
 conc]ns "s ( ! mo/ mat]ial     int]e/s 
( humanity1 & ( ! two nations1 ,great   
,brita9 &     ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1
 n[ at w>1 we receiv$ !     enclos$     
indec5t pap]1 z com+ f y\r ,lord%ip1 :i*
     we return = y\r ,lord%ip's m mature
 consid]ation4  ,at fir/ ! ,briti%      
,gov]nm5t1 reg>d+ ! ,am]icans z rebels1 
did n treat _! prison]s z prison]s ( w>1
 b ?reat5$ to try !m = high treason4 ,_!
 suff]+s 9 ! ,engli% prisons 7 v great4 
,mr4 ,david ,h>tley did mu* to relieve  
!m1 & ,frankl9 transmitt$ money = !     

purpose4 ,:5 a treaty _h be5 =m$ betwe5 
,france & ! ,/ates1 & ,france _h engag$ 
9 ! w>1 & :5 =tune began to turn 9 fav\r
 ( ! unit$ armies1 ! ,am]ican prison]s  
receiv$ bett] treatm5t f ! ,engli%      
,gov]nm5t1 & ex*anges took place freely4
 ,9 ,april1 #aggh1 ,mr4 ,h>tley visit$  
,frankl9 at ,passy1 app>5tly = ! purpose
 ( prev5t+1 if possible1 ! (f5sive &    
def5sive alliance betwe5 ,am]ica &      
,france4 ,v _m attempts 7 made to       
produce a rupture betwe5 ! ,fr5*        
,gov]nm5t & ! ,am]ican ,commission]s1 b 
,frankl9 insi/$ t no treaty ( peace c\ld
 be made betwe5 ,engl& & ,am]ica 9 :i*  
,france 0 n includ$4 ,9 #aggi ! o!r     
,commission]s 7 recall$1 & ,frankl9 0   
made ,m9i/] ,pl5ipot5ti>y to ! ,c\rt (  
,france4  ,9 a lett] to ,mr4 ,david     
,h>tley1 dat$ ,febru>y #b1 #aghj1       
,frankl9 %[$ some?+ ( ! feel+s ( !      
,am]icans ) respect to ! ,engli% at t   
"t3--      ,y may h he>d t acc\nts ^u   
oa? h be5 tak5 9     ,am]ica1 by ord] ( 
,congress1 ( ! ,briti% b>b>ities        

committ$ !re4 ,x is expect$ ( me to make
 a s*ool-book (     !m1 & to h          
?irty-five pr9ts design$ "h by good     
arti/s1 & engrav$1 ea* express+ "o or m 
( ! horrid     facts1 9 ord] to impress 
! m9ds ( *ildr5 & po/]ity     ) a deep  
s5se ( y\r bloody & insatiable malice & 
wick$ness4 ,e k9dness ,i he> ( done by  
an ,engli%man to an     ,am]ican prison]
 makes me resolve n to proce$ 9 ! "w4   
,:ile at ,passy1 ,frankl9 address$ to ! 
,j\rnal ( ,p>is a pap] on an economical 
project = dim9i%+ ! co/ ( light4 ,!     
proposal 0 to utilize ! sunlight in/ead 
( c&les1 & !reby save to ! city ( ,p>is 
! sum ( #if1jge1jjj livres p] annum4 ,8 
reputation 9 ,p>is is %[n by ! foll[+   
quotation f a contempor>y writ]3--      
,i d n (t5 speak ( ,mr4 ,frankl91       
because ! gazettes tell     y en\gh (   
him4 ,h[ev]1 ,i w say to y t our        
,p>isians     are no m s5sible 9 _!     
att5tions to him ?an !y 7     t[>ds     
,voltaire1 ( :om !y h n spok5 s9ce ! day
     foll[+ 8 dea?4 ,mr4 ,frankl9 is    

besieg$1 foll[$1     admir$1 ador$1     
:]ev] he %[s himself1 ) a fury1 a       
fanaticism1 capable no d\bt ( flatt]+   
him & ( do+ him     hon\r1 b :i* at !   
same "t proves t we %all nev] be        
reasonable1 & t ! virtues & bett]       
qualities ( our     nation w always be  
balanc$ by a levity1 an inconsequ5ce1   
& an en?usiasm too excessive to be      
durable4  ,frankl9 always advocat$ free 
trade1 ev5 9 "t ( w>4 ,he 0 ( op9ion t !
 m]*ant1 ! agriculturi/1 & ! fi%]man 7  
b5efactors to mank9d4 ,he condemn$      
private]+ 9 e =m1 & endeav\r$ to br+    
ab\t an agreem5t betwe5 all ! civiliz$  
p[]s aga9/ ! fitt+ out ( private]s4 ,he 
held t no m]*antm5 %\ld be int]f]$ )    
unless c>ry+ w> mat]ial4 ,he greatly    
lam5t$ ! horrors ( ! w>1 b pref]r$ any?+
 to a di%on\rable peace4 ,to ,prie/ley  
he wrote3--      ,p]haps z y gr[ old] y 
may 444 rep5t ( hav+ murd]$     9       
mephitic air s _m hone/1 h>mless mice1 &
 wi% t1 to     prev5t mis*ief1 y _h us$ 
boys & girls in/ead ( !m4     ,9 :at    

light we are view$ by sup]ior be+s may  
be ga!r$     f a piece ( late ,we/      
,india news1 :i* possibly has n yet     
rea*$ y4 ,a "y angel ( di/9ction1 be+   
s5t d[n to     ?is _w on "s bus9ess = ! 
fir/ "t1 _h an old     c\ri]-_s assign$ 
him z a guide4 ,!y arriv$ ov] !     seas
 ( ,m>t9ico1 9 ! middle ( ! long day (  
ob/9ate     fight betwe5 ! fleets (     
,rodney & ,de ,grasse4 ,:51 ?r\gh     ! 
cl\ds ( smoke1 he saw ! fire ( ! guns1 !
 decks     cov]$ ) mangl$ limbs & bodies
 dead or dy+2 ! %ips     s9k+1 burn+1 or
 bl[n into ! air2 & ! quantity (        
pa91 mis]y1 & de/ruction ! crews yet    
alive 7 ?us )     s mu* eag]ness deal+  
r\nd to "o ano!r1--he turn$     angrily 
to 8 guide1 & said1 ',y blund]+         
blockhead1 y     are ignorant ( y\r     
bus9ess2 y und]took to conduct me to    
! e>?1 & y h br\ght me into hell6' ',no1
 sir1' says     ! guide1 ',i h made no  
mi/ake2 ?is is really ! e>?1     & ^!   
are m54 ,devils nev] treat "o ano!r 9   
?is cruel     mann]2 !y h m s5se & m (  

:at m5 7va9ly7 call     humanity4'      
,frankl9 ma9ta9$ t x w\ld be f> *eap] = 
a nation to ext5d its possessions by    
pur*ase f o!r nations ?an to pay ! co/ (
 w> = ! sake ( conque/4  ,two ,briti%   
armies1 "u ,g5]al ,burgoyne & ,"l       
,cornwallis1 hav+ be5 :olly tak5        
prison]s dur+ ! w>1 at la/1 aft] two    
ye>s' negotiations1 a def9itive treaty (
 peace 0 sign$ on ,septemb] #c1 #aghb1  
betwe5 ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 ,frankl9 be+ "o ( ! ,commission]s = !  
latt]1 & ,mr4 ,h>tley = ! =m]4 ,on !    
same day a treaty ( peace betwe5 ,great 
,brita9 & ,france 0 sign$ at ,v]sailles4
 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,treaty 0 ratifi$ by !
 k+ on ,april #i1 & !re) t]m9at$ ! sev5 
ye>s' ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,frankl9       
celebrat$ ! surr5d] ( ! armies (        
,burgoyne & ,cornwallis by a m$al1 on   
:i* ! infant ,h]cules appe>s /rangl+ two
 s]p5ts4  ,:5 peace 0 at l5g? realiz$1 a
 s*eme 0 propos$ = an h]$it>y knigh?ood 
( ! ord] ( ,c9c9natus1 to be be/[$ ^u ! 
,am]ican (fic]s :o _h di/+ui%$ !mselves 

9 ! w>4 ,frankl9 condemn$ ! h]$it>y     
pr9ciple4 ,he po9t$ out t1 9 ! n9?      
g5]ation1 ! "y noble w\ld be only "o    
five hundr$ & twelf? "p ( ! pres5t      
knight1 #ajbb m5 & wom5 be+ c\nt$ among 
8 ance/ors1 reckon+ only f ! f\ndation (
 ! knigh?ood4 ,po/]ity w h mu* reason to
 boa/ ( ! noble blood ( ! !n exi/+ set (
 ,*evali]s ( ,c9c9natus4  ,on ,may #b1  
#aghe1 ,frankl9 receiv$ f ,congress     
p]mission to return to ,am]ica4 ,he 0 !n
 9 8 eightie? ye>4 ,on ,july #ab he left
 ,passy = ,havre1 :5ce he cross$ to     
,s\?ampton1 & !re saw = ! la/ "t 8 old  
fri5d1 ! ,bi%op ( ,/4 ,asaph1 & 8       
family4 ,he rea*$ 8 home 9 ,philadelphia
 e>ly 9 ,septemb]1 & ! day aft] 8       
arrival he receiv$ a congratulatory     
address f ! ,assembly ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,9
 ! foll[+ mon? he 0 elect$ ,presid5t ( !
 ,/ate1 & 0 twice re-elect$ to ! same   
(fice1 x be+ contr>y to ! con/itution = 
any presid5t to be elect$ = m ?an ?ree  
ye>s 9 succession4  ,! foll[+ extract f 
a lett]1 writt5 mo/ probably to ,tom    

,pa9e1 is wor?y ( ! att5tion ( "s       
writ]s3--      ,i h read y\r manuscript 
) "s att5tion4 ,by ! argum5t     x      
conta9s aga9/ a p>ticul> ,provid5ce1    
?\gh y all[ a     g5]al ,provid5ce1 y   
/rike at ! f\ndations ( all             
religion4 ,= )\t ! belief ( a ,provid5ce
 t takes     cognizance (1 gu>ds1 &     
guides1 & may fav\r p>ticul>     p]sons1
 !re is no motive to wor%ip a ,deity1 to
 fe> ,8     displeasure1 or to pray = ,8
 protection4 ,i w n ent]     into any   
discussion ( y\r pr9ciples1 ?\gh y seem 
to     desire x4 ,at pres5t ,i %all only
 give y my op9ion1 t1     ?\gh y\r      
reason+s are subtle1 & may prevail ) "s 
read]s1 y w n succe$ s z to *ange !     
g5]al     s5tim5ts ( mank9d on t        
subject1 & ! consequ5ce (     pr9t+ ?is 
piece w be a great deal ( odium drawn ^u
     y\rself1 mis*ief to y1 & no b5efit 
to o!rs4 ,he t     spits aga9/ ! w9d    
spits 9 8 own face4      ,b 7 y to      
succe$1 d y imag9e any good w\ld be done
     by x8 ,y y\rself may f9d x easy to 

live a virtu\s life     )\t ! assi/ance 
af=d$ by religion2 y hav+ a cle>        
p]ception ( ! advantages ( virtue & !   
disadvantages (     vice1 & possess+    
/r5g? ( resolution suffici5t to enable  
y to resi/ common temptations4 ,b ?9k h[
 great a portion     ( mank9d consi/s ( 
weak & ignorant m5 & wom51 & (          
inexp]i5c$1 inconsid]ate y\? ( bo?      
sexes1 :o h ne$     ( ! motives (       
religion to re/ra9 !m f vice1 to        
support _! virtue1 & reta9 !m 9 !       
practice ( x till     x becomes         
habitual1 :i* is ! great po9t = its     
security4 ,& p]haps y are indebt$ to h] 
orig9ally1 t     is1 to y\r religi\s    
education1 = ! habits ( virtue ^u       
:i* y n[ ju/ly value y\rself4 ,y might  
easily display     y\r excell5t tal5ts (
 reason+ ^u a less haz>d\s     subject1 
& !reby obta9 a rank ) our mo/ di/+ui%$ 
au?ors4 ,= among u x is n necess>y1 z   
among !     ,hott5tots1 t a y\?1 to be  
rais$ into ! company ( m51     %\ld     
prove 8 manhood by beat+ 8 "m4      ,i  

w\ld advise y1 !re=e1 n to attempt      
un*a9+ !     tig]1 b to burn ?is piece  
be=e x is se5 by any o!r     p]son2     
:]eby y w save y\rself a great deal (   
mortification by ! enemies x may raise  
aga9/ y1 &     p]haps a good deal (     
regret & rep5tance4 ,if m5 are s        
wick$ ) religion1 :at w\ld !y be if )\t 
x8 ,i     int5d ?is lett] itself z a    
pro( ( my fri5d%ip1 &     !re=e add no  
pr(essions to x2 b subscribe simply     
y\rs4  ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ( 8 life    
,frankl9 suff]$ f a pa9ful disease1 :i* 
conf9$ him to 8 b$ & s]i\sly int]f]$ ) 8
 lit]>y "w1 prev5t+ him f complet+ 8    
biography4 ,dur+ ?is "t he 0 c>$ = by 8 
daught]1 ,mrs4 ,ba*e1 :o resid$ 9 ! same
 h\se ) him4 ,he di$ on ,april #ag1     
#agij1 ! imm$iate cause ( dea? be+ an   
affection ( ! lungs4 ,he 0 buri$ beside 
8 wife 9 ! cemet]y ( ,*ri/ ,*ur*1       
,philadelphia1 ! m>ble slab ^u ! grave  
be>+ no o!r inscription ?an ! "n & date 
( dea?4 ,9 8 e>ly days 7#agbh7 he _h    
writt5 ! foll[+ epitaph = himself3--    

,,! ,,body      ,,(      ,,b5jam9       
,,frankl91      ,,pr9t]1      7,,l ,,!  
,,cov] ,,( ,,an ,,old ,,book1     ,,its 
,,cont5ts ,,torn ,,out     ,,& ,,/ript  
,,( ,,its ,,lett]+ ,,& ,,gild+17        
,,lies ,,"h1 ,,food ,,= ,,worms4     ,,b
 ,,! ,,"w ,,%all ,,n ,,be ,,lo/1     ,,=
 ,,x ,,w 7,,z ,,he ,,believ$7 ,,appe>   
,,once ,,m     ,,9 ,a ,,new ,,& ,,m     
,,elegant ,,edition1     ,,revis$ ,,&   
,,correct$     ,,by      ,,! ,,au?or4   
,:5 ! news ( 8 dea? rea*$ ! ,national   
,assembly ( ,france1 ,mirabeau rose &   
said3--  ,frankl9 is dead6  ,! g5ius1   
:i* gave fre$om to ,am]ica1 & scatt]$   
torr5ts ( light ^u ,europe1 is return$  
to ! bosom ( ! ,div9ity4  ,! sage1 :om  
two worlds claim2 ! man1 disput$ by !   
hi/ory ( ! sci5ces & ! hi/ory ( empires1
 holds1 mo/ und\bt$ly1 an elevat$ rank  
among ! human species4  ,political      
cab9ets h b too long notifi$ ! dea? ( ^?
 :o 7 nev] great b 9 _! fun]al orations2
 ! etiquette ( c\rts has b too long     
sanction$ hypocritical grief4 ,nations  

ought only to m\rn = _! b5efactors2 !   
repres5tatives ( free m5 ought nev] to  
recomm5d any o!r ?an ! h]oes ( humanity 
to _! homage4  ,! ,congress ha? ord]$ a 
g5]al m\rn+ = "o mon? ?r\gh\t ! f\rte5  
conf$]at$ ,/ates on acc\nt ( ! dea? (   
,frankl92 & ,am]ica ha? ?us acquitt$ h] 
tribute ( admiration 9 behalf ( "o ( !  
fa!rs ( h] con/itution4  ,w\ld x n be   
wor?y ( y1 fell[-legislators1 to unite  
y\rselves 9 ?is religi\s act1 to        
p>ticipate 9 ?is homage r5d]$ 9 ! face (
 ! univ]se to ! rights ( man1 & to !    
philosoph] :o has s em95tly propagat$ ! 
conque/ ( !m ?r\gh\t ! _w8  ,antiquity  
w\ld h elevat$ alt>s to t mortal :o1 = !
 advantage ( ! human race1 embrac+ bo?  
heav5 & e>? 9 8 va/ & ext5sive m9d1 knew
 h[ to subdue ?und] & tyranny4          
,enlight5$ & free1 ,europe at lea/ owes 
its remembrance & its regret to "o ( !  
greate/ m5 :o has ev] s]v$ ! cause (    
philosophy & lib]ty4  ,i propose1 !re=e1
 t a decree d n[ pass1 enact+ t !       
,national ,assembly %all we> m\rn+ dur+ 

?ree days = ,b5jam9 ,frankl94     ,,h5ry
 ,,cav5di%4   ,x w\ld n be easy to      
m5tion two m5 betwe5 :om !re 0 a great] 
contra/1 bo? 9 respect ( _! *>act]s &   
lives1 ?an t :i* exi/$ betwe5 ,b5jam9   
,frankl9 & ! ,hon\rable ,h5ry ,cav5di%4 
,! =m] ( humble bir?1 b ( great public  
_s1 possess$ social qualities :i* 7 on a
 p> ) 8 sci5tific atta9m5ts1 & t[>d !   
close ( 8 life 0 m r5[n$ z a /atesman   
?an z a philosoph]2 ! latt]1 a memb] (  
"o ( ! mo/ noble families ( ,engl&1 &   
possess$ ( weal? f> exce$+ 8 own        
capacity = ! enjoym5t ( x1 0 kn[n to v  
few1 0 intimate ) no "o1 & devot$       
himself to sci5tific pursuits r = ! sake
 ( ! satisfaction :i* 8 results af=d$ to
 himself ?an f any hope t !y might be   
useful to mank9d1 or f any desire to    
secure a reputation by mak+ !m kn[n1 &  
pass$ a long life1 ! mo/ unev5tful t c  
be imag9$4  ,?\gh ! records ( 8 family  
may be trac$ to ! ,norman ,conque/1 !   
fam\s ,elizabe? ,h>dwicke1 ! f\ndress ( 
two ducal families & ! build] (         

,h>dwicke ,hall & ( ,*atswor? z x 0 be=e
 ! erection ( ! pres5t mansion1 0 ! mo/ 
rem>kable p]son 9 ! g5ealogy4 ,h] second
 son1 ,william1 0 rais$ to ! pe]age by  
,james ,i41 ?us becom+ ,b>on ,cav5di%1 &
 0 subsequ5tly creat$ fir/ ,e>l (       
,devon%ire by ! same mon>*4 ,8          
great-gr&son1 ! f\r? e>l1 0 creat$ fir/ 
,duke ( ,devon%ire by ,william ,,iii41  
to :om he _h r5d]$ valuable s]vices4 ,he
 0 succe$$ by 8 elde/ son 9 #agjg1 & !  
?ird son ( ! second duke 0 ,"l ,*>les   
,cav5di%1 ! fa!r ( ,h5ry & ,fr$]ick1 (  
:om ,h5ry 0 ! eld]1 hav+ be5 born at    
,nice1 ,octob] #ac1 #agca4 ,8 "m di$ :5 
he 0 two ye>s old1 & v little inde$ is  
kn[n respect+ 8 e>ly life4 ,9 #agdb he  
ent]$ ,dr4 ,newcome's s*ool at ,hackney1
 :]e he rema9$ until he ent]$ ,pet]h\se1
 9 #agdi4 ,he rema9$ at ,cambridge until
 ,febru>y1 #agec1 :5 he left ! univ]sity
 )\t tak+ 8 degree1 object+1 mo/        
probably1 to ! religi\s te/s :i* 7 !n   
requir$ ( all graduates4 ,9 ?is respect 
8 bro!r ,fr$]ick foll[$ 8 example4 ,on  

leav+ ,cambridge ,cav5di% appe>s to h   
resid$ ) 8 fa!r 9 ,m>lbor\gh ,/reet1 &  
to h occasionally assi/$ him 9 8        
sci5tific exp]im5ts1 b ! inve/igations (
 ! son soon eclips$ ^? ( ! fa!r4 ,x is  
said t ! rooms allott$ to ,h5ry ,cav5di%
 7 a set ( /ables1 fitt$ up = 8         
accommodation1 & "h he c>ri$ out _m ( 8 
exp]im5ts1 includ+ all ^? electrical    
inve/igations 9 :i* he =e/all$ s mu* ( !
 "w ( ! pres5t c5tury4  ,dur+ 8 fa!r's  
life1 or1 at any rate1 till )9 a few    
ye>s ( its close1 ,h5ry ,cav5di% appe>s 
to h enjoy$ a v n>r[ income4 ,he        
frequ5tly d9$ at ! ,royal ,society      
,club1 & on ^! occasions w\ld come      
provid$ ) ! five %ill+s to be paid = !  
d9n]1 b no m4 ,^u 8 fa!r's dea?1 :i*    
took place 9 #aghc1 :5 ,h5ry 0 m ?an    
fifty ye>s ( age1 8 circum/ances 7 v mu*
 *ang$1 b x seems t ! great] "p ( 8     
weal? 0 left him by an uncle :o _h be5  
an ,indian (fic]1 & ?is legacy may h    
come into 8 possession be=e 8 fa!r's    
dea?4 ,he appe>s to h be5 v lib]al :5 x 

0 sugge/$ to him t 8 assi/ance w\ld be (
 s]vice1 b x nev] occurr$ to him to (f] 
a contribution t[>ds any sci5tific or   
public und]tak+1 & ?\gh at ! "t ( 8 dea?
 he is said to h _h m money 9 ! funds   
?an any o!r p]son 9 ! c\ntry1 besides a 
balance ( ,l#ej1jjj on 8 curr5t acc\nt  
at 8 bank1 & v>i\s o!r prop]ty1 he      
bequea!d none to sci5tific societies or 
simil> in/itutions4 ,?r\gh\t ! latt] "p 
( 8 life he seems to h be5 q c>eless    
ab\t money1 & to h be5 satisfi$ if he   
c\ld only avoid ! tr\ble ( att5d+ to 8  
own f9ancial affairs4 ,h5ce he w\ld all[
 enorm\s sums to accumulate at 8        
bank]'s1 & on "o occasion1 be+ pres5t at
 a *ri/5+1 & he>+ t x 0 cu/om>y = gue/s 
to give some?+ to ! nurse1 he drew f 8  
pocket a h&ful ( gu9eas1 & h&$ !m to h] 
)\t c\nt+ !m4 ,aft] 8 fa!r's dea?1      
,cav5di% resid$ 9 8 own h\se on ,clapham
 ,common4 ,"h a few rooms at ! top ( !  
h\se 7 made habitable2 ! re/ 7 fill$ )  
app>atus ( all descriptions1 among :i* !
 mo/ num]\s examples 7 !rmomet]s ( e    

k9d4 ,he seldom ent]ta9$ visitors1 b :51
 on r>e occasions1 a gue/ _h to be      
ent]ta9$1 ! repa/ inv>iably consi/$ ( a 
leg ( mutton4 ,8 extreme %yness caus$   
him to dislike all k9ds ( company1 & he 
_h a special av]sion to be+ address$ by 
a /rang]4 ,on "o occasion1 at a         
reception giv5 by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1  
,dr4 ,+5h\sz introduc$ to him a di/+ui%$
 ,au/rian philosoph]1 :o pr(ess$ t 8 ma9
 object 9 com+ to ,engl& 0 to obta9 a   
sight ( s di/+ui%$ a man4 ,cav5di% li/5$
 ) 8 gaze fix$ on ! floor2 !n1 obs]v+ a 
gap 9 ! cr[d1 he made a ru% to ! door1  
nor did he pause till he _h rea*$ 8     
c>riage4 ,8 av]sion to wom5 0 /ill      
great]2 8 ord]s = ! day he w\ld write   
out & leave at a /at$ "t on !           
hall-table1 :]e 8 h\se-keep]1 at ano!r  
/at$ "t1 w\ld f9d !m4 ,s]vants 7 all[$  
access to ! portion ( ! h\se :i* he     
occupi$ only at fix$ times :5 he 0 away2
 & hav+ once met a s]vant on ! /airs1 a 
back /aircase 0 imm$iately erect$4 ,8   
regul> walk 0 d[n ,night+ale ,lane to   

,w&swor? ,common1 & home by ano!r r\te4 
,on "o occasion1 z he 0 cross+ a /ile1  
he saw t he 0 wat*$1 & !nce=? he took 8 
walks 9 ! ev5+1 b nev] along ! same     
road4 ,!re 7 only two occasions on :i* x
 is record$ t sci5tific m5 7 admitt$ to 
,cav5di%'s laboratory4 ,! fir/ 0 9      
#agge1 :5 ,hunt]1 ,prie/ley1 ,romayne1  
,lane1 & ,nairne 7 invit$ to see !      
exp]im5ts ) ! artificial torp$o4 ,!     
second 0 :5 8 exp]im5t on ! =mation (   
nitric acid by electric sp>ks 9 air _h  
be5 unsuccessfully attempt$ by ,van     
,m>um1 ,lavoisi]1 & ,monge1 & he ?\ght x
 "r to take "s measures to au!nticate ! 
tru? ( x4  ,besides 8 h\se at ,clapham1 
,cav5di% occupi$ 7by 8 in/rum5ts7 a h\se
 9 ,bloomsbury1 ne> ! ,briti% ,museum1  
:ile a mansion 9 ,dean ,/reet1 ,soho1 0 
set ap>t z a libr>y4 ,to ?is libr>y a   
numb] ( p]sons 7 admitt$1 :o c\ld take  
out ! books on deposit+ a receipt = !m4 
,cav5di% 0 p]fectly me?odical 9 all 8   
actions1 & :5ev] he borr[$ "o ( 8 own   
books he duly left ! receipt 9 its      

place4 ,! only relief to 8 solit>y life 
0 af=d$ by ! meet+s ( ! ,royal ,society1
 ( :i* he 0 elect$ a ,fell[ 9 #agfj2 by 
! occasional receptions at ! resid5ce ( 
,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,p4,r4,s42 & by 8 n
 infrequ5t d9n]s ) ! ,royal ,society    
,club at ! ,cr[n & ,an*or2 & he may     
sometimes h jo9$ ! social ga!r+s ( ano!r
 club :i* met at ! ,cat & ,bagpipes1 9  
,d[n+ ,/reet4 ,x 0 to 8 visits to !     
,royal ,society ,club t we are indebt$ =
 ! only portrait t exi/s ( him4 ,alex&]1
 ! draughtsman to ! ,*9a ,embassy1 0 b5t
 ^u procur+ a portrait ( ,cav5di%1 &    
induc$ a fri5d to invite him to ! club  
d9n]1 :]e he c\ld easily succe$1 by tak+
 8 seat ne> ! end ( ! table1 f :5ce he  
c\ld sket* ! peculi> great-coat ( a     
greyi%-gre5 col\r1 & ! rem>kable        
?ree-corn]$ hat1 inv>iably worn by      
,cav5di%1 & obta91 unobs]v$1 su* an     
outl9e ( ! face z1 :5 ins]t$ betwe5 !   
hat & coat1 w\ld make1 he 0 q sure1 a   
full-l5g? portrait t no "o c\ld mi/ake4 
,x 0 s contriv$1 & e "o :o saw x        

recogniz$ x at once4 ,ano!r incid5t is  
record$ ( ! ,royal ,society ,club :i*1  
p]haps1 reflects z mu* cr$it ^u ,cav5di%
 z ^u ! ,society4 ,"o ev5+ we obs]v$ a v
 pretty girl look+ out f an upp] w9d[ on
 ! opposite side ( ! /reet1 wat*+ !     
philosoph]s at d9n]4 ,%e attract$       
notice1 & "o by "o we got up & mu/]$    
r\nd ! w9d[ to admire ! fair "o4        
,cav5di%1 :o ?\ght we 7 look+ at ! moon1
 hu/l$ up to u 9 8 odd way1 & :5 he saw 
! real object ( our /udy1 turn$ away )  
int5se disgu/1 & grunt$ out1 ',p%aw6'   
,9 ! spr+ & autumn ( #aghe1 #aghf1      
#aghg1 & #agic1 ,cav5di% made t\rs ?r\gh
 mo/ ( ! s\!rn1 midl&1 & we/]n c\nties1 
& rea*$ z f> nor? z ,:itby4 ,! mo/      
memorable ( ^! j\rneys 0 t und]tak5 9   
#aghe1 s9ce dur+ its c\rse he visit$    
,james ,watt at ! ,soho ,works1 &       
manife/$ great int]e/ 9 ,watt's         
inv5tions4 ,?is 0 only two ye>s aft] !  
great controv]sy z to ! discov]y ( !    
composition ( wat]1 b ! meet+ ( !       
philosoph]s 0 ( ! mo/ fri5dly "*4 ,on   

all ^! j\rneys consid]able att5tion 0   
paid to ! geology ( ! c\ntry4  ,allusion
 has already be5 made to ! two          
committees ( ! ,royal ,society to :i* ! 
que/ions ( ! lightn+-conductors at      
,purfleet1 & ( po9ts v]sus knobs = !    
t]m9als ( conductors1 7 ref]r$4 ,cav5di%
 s]v$ on ea* ( ^! committees1 & support$
 ,frankl9's view aga9/ ! recomm5dation (
 ,mr4 ,wilson4 ,on ! fir/ committee he  
probably came into p]sonal communication
 ) ,frankl9 himself4  ,cav5di%'s life   
consi/$ almo/ entirely ( 8 philosophical
 exp]im5ts4 ,9 o!r respects x 0 ne>ly   
)\t incid5t4 ,he appe>s to h be5 s      
con/itut$ t he mu/ subject ev]y?+ to    
accurate measurem5t4 ,he r>ely made     
exp]im5ts :i* 7 n quantitative2 & he may
 be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( quantitative     
philosophy4 ,! lab\r :i* he exp5d$ ov]  
"s ( 8 measurem5ts mu/ h be5 v great1 & 
! accuracy ( _m ( 8 results is m>vell\s 
consid]+ ! appliances he _h at disposal4
 ,:5 he _h satisfi$ himself ) ! result (
 an exp]im5t1 he wrote out a full acc\nt

 & pres]v$ x1 b v seldom gave x to !    
public1 & :5 he did publi% acc\nts ( any
 ( 8 inve/igations x 0 usually a long "t
 aft] ! exp]im5ts _h be5 complet$4 ,"o (
 ! consequ5ces ( 8 reluctance to publi% 
any?+ 0 ! long controv]sy on ! discov]y 
( ! composition ( wat]1 :i* 0 reviv$ _m 
ye>s aft]w>ds by ,arago's eloge on      
,james ,watt2 b a mu* m s]i\s result 0 !
 loss to ! _w = s _m ye>s ( discov]ies &
 measurem5ts :i* _h to be made ov] aga9 
by ,f>aday1 ,kohlraus*1 & o!rs4 ,! pap]s
 he publi%$ appe>$ 9 ! ,philosophical   
,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 to   
:i* he began to communicate !m 9 #agff4 
,on ,m>* #be1 #ahjc1 he 0 elect$ "o ( ! 
eight ,=eign ,associates ( ! ,in/itute (
 ,france4 ,8 eloge 0 pron\nc$ by ,cuvi]1
 9 #ahab1 :o said1 ,8 demean\r & ! mode/
 tone ( 8 writ+s procur$ him ! uncommon 
di/9ction ( nev] hav+ 8 repose di/urb$  
ei!r by jeal\sy or by criticism4 ,dr4   
,wilson says1 ,he 0 almo/ passionless4  
,all t ne$$ = its appreh5sion m ?an !   
pure intellect1 or requir$ ! ex]cise (  

fancy1 imag9ation1 affection1 or fai?1 0
 di/a/eful to ,cav5di%4 ,an intellectual
 head ?9k+1 a pair ( wond]fully acute   
eyes obs]v+1 & a pair ( v skilful h&s   
exp]im5t+ or record+1 are all t ,i      
realize 9 read+ 8 memorials4 ,he appe>$ 
to h no eye = beauty2 he c>$ no?+ =     
natural sc5]y1 & 8 app>atus1 provid$ x 7
 effici5t1 might be clumsy 9 appe>ance &
 ( ! *eape/ mat]ials2 b he 0 extremely  
p>ticul> ab\t accuracy ( con/ruction 9  
all ess5tial details4 ,he rem9ds u ( "o 
( our =emo/ m5 ( sci5ce1 :o1 :5 8       
att5tion 0 direct$ to ! beautiful lant]n
 t[] ( a ca!dral1 beh9d :i* ! full moon 
0 %9+1 rem>k$1 ,i see =m & col\r1 b ,i  
don't "k :at y mean by beauty4  ,!      
acc\nts ( ,cav5di%'s dea? diff] to "s   
ext5t 9 _! details1 b o!rwise are v     
simil>4 ,x appe>s t he reque/$ 8 s]vant1
 z he _h some?+ p>ticul> to engage 8    
?\ghts1 & did n wi% to be di/urb$ by any
 "o1 to leave him & n to return until a 
c]ta9 h\r4 ,:5 ! s]vant came back1 at ! 
"t appo9t$1 he f\nd 8 ma/] dead4 ,?is 0 

on ,febru>y #bd1 #ahaj1 aft] an illness 
( only two or ?ree days4  ,x is ma9ly on
 acc\nt ( 8 rese>*es 9 electricity t !  
biography ( ,cav5di% f9ds a place 9 ?is 
volume4 ,^! inve/igations took place    
betwe5 ! ye>s #agfj & #aghc1 &1 z       
already /at$1 7 all conduct$ 9 ! /ables 
atta*$ to 8 fa!r's h\se 9 ,m>lbor\gh    
,/reet4 ,x 0 by ^! exp]im5ts t          
electricity 0 fir/ br\ght )9 ! doma9 (  
measurem5t1 & _m ( ! num]ical results   
obta9$ f> exce$$ 9 accuracy ^? ( any o!r
 obs]v] until ! in/rum5ts ( ,sir ,w4    
,?omson r5d]$ _m electrical measurem5ts 
a comp>atively easy matt]4 ,! ne>       
agreem5t ( ,cav5di%'s results ) ^? ( !  
be/ mod]n electricians has made !m a    
p]petual monum5t to ! g5ius ( _! au?or4 
,x 0 at ! reque/ ( ,sir ,w4 ,?omson1    
,mr4 ,*>les ,toml9son1 & o!rs1 t        
,cav5di%'s electrical rese>*es might be 
giv5 to ! public1 t ! ,duke (           
,devon%ire1 9 #ahgd1 entru/$ !          
manuscripts to ! c>e ( ! late ,pr(essor 
,cl]k ,maxwell4 ,!y _h previ\sly be5 9 !

 h&s ( ,sir ,william ,sn[ ,h>ris1 :o    
report$ ^u !m1 b aft] 8 dea?1 9 #ahfg1 !
 report c\ld n be f\nd4 ,! pap]s1 ) an  
introduction & a numb] ( v valuable     
notes by ! editor1 7 publi%$ by !       
,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 j be=e !  
dea? ( ,cl]k ,maxwell1 9 #ahgi4 ,sir ,w4
 ,?omson quotes ! foll[+ illu/ration ( !
 accuracy ( ,cav5di%'s "w3--,i f9d      
already t ! capacity ( a disc 0 det]m9$ 
exp]im5tally by ,cav5di% z #a_/a4eg ( t 
( a sph]e ( ! same radius4 ,n[ we h     
capacity ( disc  7#b_/pi7a  a_/#a4ega6  
,cav5di% adopt$ ,frankl9's !ory (       
electricity1 treat+ x z an              
incompressible fluid p]vad+ all bodies1 
& admitt+ ( displacem5t only 9 a clos$  
circuit1 unless1 inde$1 ! di/urbance    
might ext5d to inf9ity4 ,?is fluid he   
suppos$1 ) ,frankl91 to be              
self-repulsive1 b to attract matt]1 :ile
 matt] devoid ( electricity1 & !re=e 9 !
 highe/ possible condition ( negative   
electrification1 he suppos$1 )          
,a,epinus1 to be1 l electricity1        

self-repulsive4 ,"o ( ,cav5di%'s e>lie/ 
exp]im5ts 0 ! det]m9ation ( ! precise   
law accord+ to :i* electrical action    
v>ies ) ! di/ance betwe5 ! *>ges4       
,frankl9 _h %[n t !re 0 no s5sible am\nt
 ( electricity on ! int]ior ( a deep    
holl[ vessel1 h[ev] its ext]ior surface 
might be *>g$4 ,cav5di% m\nt$ a sph]e ( 
#ab4a in*es 9 diamet]1 s t x c\ld be    
completely enclos$ 7except :]e its      
insulat+ support pass$ ?r\gh7 )9 two    
hemisph]es ( #ac4c in*es diamet]1 :i* 7 
c>ri$ by h+$ frames1 & c\ld ?us be all[$
 to close completely ov] ! sph]e1 or    
op5$ & remov$ altoge!r f its            
neighb\rhood4 ,a piece ( wire pass$     
?r\gh "o ( ! hemisph]es s z to t\* !    
inn] sph]e1 b c\ld be remov$ at pleasure
 by means ( a silk /r+4 ,! hemisph]es   
be+ clos$ ) ! globe )9 !m1 & ! wire     
ins]t$ s z to make communication betwe5 
! inn] & out] sph]es1 ! :ole app>atus 0 
electrifi$ by a wire f a *>g$ ,leyd5 j>4
 ,?is wire 0 !n remov$ by means ( a     
silk5 /r+ & ! same motion ( ! h& :i*    

drew away ! wire by :i* ! hemisph]es 7  
electrifi$1 imm$iately aft] t 0 done1   
drew out ! wire :i* made ! communication
 betwe5 ! hemisph]es & ! inn] globe1 &1 
imm$iately aft] t 0 drawn out1 sep>at$ !
 hemisph]es f ea* o!r1 & appli$ !       
electromet] to ! inn] globe4 ,x 0 also  
contriv$ s t ! electricity ( !          
hemisph]es & ( ! wire by :i* !y 7       
electrifi$ 0 dis*>g$ z soon z !y 7      
sep>at$ f ea* o!r4444 ,! inn] globe &   
hemisph]es 7 also bo? coat$ ) t9foil to 
make !m ! m p]fect conductors (         
electricity4 ,! electromet] consi/$ ( a 
pair ( pi?-balls2 b1 ?\gh ! exp]im5t 0  
sev]al times repeat$1 !y %ew$ no signs (
 electrification4 ,f ?is x 0 cle> t1 z  
!re c\ld h be5 no communication betwe5 !
 globe & hemisph]es :5 ! connect+ wire 0
 )drawn1 !re mu/ h be5 no               
electrification on ! globe :ile !       
hemisph]es1 ?\gh !mselves highly *>g$1  
surr\nd$ x4 ,to te/ ! delicacy ( !      
exp]im5t1 a *>ge 0 giv5 to ! globe less 
?an "o-sixtie? ( t previ\sly giv5 to !  

hemisph]es1 & ?is 0 readily detect$ by !
 electromet]4 ,f ! result ,cav5di%      
inf]r$ t !re is no reason to ?9k ! inn] 
globe to be at all *>g$ dur+ ! exp]im5t4
 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! electric attraction 
& repulsion mu/ be inv]sely z ! squ>e ( 
! di/ance1 & t1 :5 a globe is positively
 electrifi$1 ! r$undant fluid 9 x is    
lodg$ entirely on its surface4 ,?is     
conclusion ,cav5di% %[$ to be a         
ma!matical consequ5ce ( ! abs5ce (      
electrification f ! inn] sph]e2 =1 7 !  
law o!rwise1 ! inn] sph]e mu/ be        
electrifi$ positively or negatively1    
accord+ z ! inv]se p[] 7 high] or l[]   
?an ! second1 & t ! accuracy ( !        
exp]im5t %[$ ! law mu/ lie betwe5 !     
#b-a_/ej & ! #a-di_/ej p[] ( ! di/ance4 
,) 8 torsion-balance1 ,c\lomb obta9$ !  
same law1 b ,cav5di%'s me?od is mu*     
easi] to c>ry out1 & admits ( mu* great]
 accuracy ?an t ( ,c\lomb4 ,cav5di%'s   
exp]im5t 0 repeat$ by ,dr4 ,mac,alister1
 "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ,cl]k ,maxwell1 9 ! 
,cav5di% ,laboratory1 ! abs5ce (        

electrification be+ te/$ by ,?omson's   
quadrant electromet]1 & x 0 %[n t !     
deviation f ! law ( inv]se squ>es c\ld n
 exce$ "o 9 #gb1jjj4  ,! di/9ction      
betwe5 electrical *>ge or quantity (    
electricity & degree ( electrification 0
 fir/ cle>ly made by ,cav5di%4 ,! latt] 
phrase 0 subsequ5tly replac$ by         
int5sity1 b electric int5sity is n[ us$ 
9 ano!r s5se4 ,cav5di%'s phrase1 degree 
( electrification1 corresponds precisely
 ) our notion ( electric pot5tial1 & is 
measur$ by ! "w done on a unit (        
electricity by ! electric =ces 9 remov+ 
x f ! po9t 9 "q to ! e>? or to inf9ity4 
,along ) ?is notion ,cav5di% introduc$ !
 fur!r conception ( ! am\nt (           
electricity requir$ to raise a conductor
 to a giv5 degree ( electrification1 t  
is1 ! capacity ( ! conductor4 ,9 mod]n  
language1 ! capacity ( a conductor is   
def9$ z ! numb] ( units ( electricity   
requir$ to raise x to unit pot5tial2 &  
?is def9ition is 9 precise accordance ) 
! notion ( ,cav5di%1 :o may be reg>d$ z 

! f\nd] ( ! ma!matical !ory (           
electricity4 ,f9d+ t ! capacities (     
simil> conductors are proportional to _!
 l9e> dim5sions1 he adopt$ a sph]e ( "o 
in* diamet] z ! unit ( capacity1 & :5 he
 speaks ( a capacity ( s _m in*es (     
electricity1 he means a capacity s _m   
times t ( 8 "o-in* sph]e1 or equal to t 
( a sph]e ^: diamet] is s _m in*es4 ,!  
mod]n unit ( capacity 9 ! electro-/atic 
sy/em is t ( a sph]e ( "o c5timetre     
radius1 & ! capacity ( any sph]e is     
num]ically equal to its radius express$ 
9 c5timetres4 ,cav5di% det]m9$ !        
capacities ( ne>ly all ! pieces (       
app>atus he employ$4 ,= ?is purpose he  
prep>$ plates ( glass1 coat$ on ea* side
 ) circles ( t9foil1 & arrang$ 9 ?ree   
sets ( ?ree1 ea* plate ( a set hav+ !   
same capacity1 b ea* set hav+ ?ree times
 ! capacity ( ! prec$+4 ,!re 0 also a   
t5? plate1 hav+ a capacity equal to !   
:ole ( ! l>ge/ set4 ,! capacity ( ! t5  
plates 0 ?us sixty-six times t ( "o ( ! 
smalle/ set4 ,) ^! z /&>ds ( comp>ison1 

he measur$ ! capacities ( 8 o!r         
app>atus1 &1 :5 possible1 modifi$ 8     
conductors s z to make !m equal to "o ( 
8 /&>ds4 ,8 l>ge ,leyd5 batt]y he f\nd  
to h a capacity ( ab\t #cba1jjj in*es ( 
electricity1 s t x 0 equival5t to a     
sph]e m ?an five miles 9 diamet]4 ,"o ( 
8 in/rum5ts employ$ 9 ! measurem5t (    
capacities 0 a trial plate1 consi/+ ( a 
%eet ( metal1 ) a second %eet :i* c\ld  
be made to slide ^u x & to lie entirely 
on ! top ( ! l>g] plate1 or to re/ ) any
 portion ( its area ext5d+ ov] ! edge ( 
! =m]4 ,?is 0 a conductor ^: capacity   
c\ld be v>i$ at w )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,f9d+
 ! capacity ( two plates ( t9foil on    
glass mu* great] ?an 8 calculations l$  
him to expect1 ,cav5di% comp>$ !m ) two 
equal plates hav+ air betwe51 & f\nd _! 
capacity v mu* to exce$ t ( ! air       
cond5s]4 ,! same 0 ! case1 ?\gh 9 a less
 degree1 ) cond5s]s hav+ %ellac or      
bee's-wax = _! dielectrics1 & ?us       
,cav5di% n only discov]$ ! prop]ty to   
:i* ,f>aday aft]w>ds gave ! "n (        

specific inductive capacity1 b det]m9$  
its measure 9 ^! dielectrics4 ,he also  
discov]$ t ! app>5t capacity ( a ,leyd5 
j> increases at fir/ = "s "t aft] x has 
be5 *>g$--a ph5om5on connect$ ) !       
s-call$ residual *>ge ( ! ,leyd5 j>4    
,ano!r feature on :i* he laid "s /ress1 
& :i* 0 br\ght to 8 notice by !         
comp>ison ( 8 coat$ panes1 0 ! creep+ ( 
electricity ov] ! surface ( ! glass     
beyond ! edge ( ! t9foil1 :i* _h ! same 
effect on ! capacity z an increase 9 !  
dim5sions ( ! t9foil4 ,! electricity    
appe>$ to spread to a di/ance ( #j4jg   
in* all r\nd ! t9foil on glass plates ^:
 ?ickness 0 #j4ba in*1 & #j4ji in* 9 !  
case ( plates #j4jh in* ?ick4  ,8 pap]  
on ! torp$o 0 read be=e ! ,royal        
,society 9 #aggf4 ,! exp]im5ts 7        
und]tak5 9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r !       
ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,john ,wal% 9    
connection ) ! torp$o c\ld be s f>      
imitat$ by electricity z to ju/ify !    
conclusion t ! %ock ( ! torp$o is an    
electric dis*>ge4 ,= ?is purpose        

,cav5di% con/ruct$ a wood5 torp$o )     
electrical organs1 consi/+ ( a pewt]    
plate on ea* side1 cov]$ ) lea!r4 ,!    
plates 7 connect$ ) a *>g$ ,leyd5       
batt]y1 by means ( wires c>ri$ 9 glass  
tubes1 & ?us ! batt]y 0 dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! 
wat] 9 :i* ! torp$o 0 imm]s$1 & :i* 0   
r5d]$ ( ab\t ! same degree ( saltness z 
! sea4 ,cav5di% comp>$ ! %ock giv5 ?r\gh
 ! wat] ) t giv5 by ! model fi% 9 air1 &
 f\nd ! diff]5ce mu* great] ?an 9 ! case
 ( ! real torp$o1 b1 by increas+ !      
capacity ( ! batt]y & dim9i%+ ! pot5tial
 to :i* x 0 *>g$1 ?is discrepancy 0     
dim9i%$1 & x 0 f\nd to be v mu* less 9 !
 case ( a second model hav+ a lea!r1    
in/ead ( a wood51 body1 s t ! body ( !  
fi% itself (f]$ less resi/ance to !     
dis*>ge4 ,"o ( ! *ief difficulties lay 9
 ! fact t no "o _h succe$$ 9 obta9+ a   
visible sp>k f ! dis*>ge ( ! torp$o1 :i*
 w n pass ?r\gh ! smalle/ ?ickness (    
air4 ,cav5di% acc\nt$ = ?is by suppos+ !
 quantity ( electricity dis*>g$ to be v 
great1 & its pot5tial v small1 & %[$ t !

 m ! *>ge 0 increas$ & ! pot5tial       
dim9i%$ 9 8 model1 ! m closely did x    
imitate ! behavi\r ( ! torp$o4  ,b ! ma9
 int]e/ 9 ?is pap] lies 9 ! indications 
:i* x gives t ,cav5di% 0 aw>e ( ! laws  
:i* regulate ! fl[ ( electricity ?r\gh  
multiple conductors1 & 9 ! comp>isons ( 
electrical resi/ance :i* are introduc$4 
,x _h be5 =m]ly believ$ t electricity   
w\ld always select ! %orte/ or be/ pa?1 
& t ! :ole ( ! dis*>ge w\ld take place  
along t r\te4 ,frankl9 seems to h assum$
 ?is 9 ! passage quot$#d respect+ !     
dis*>ge ( ! lightn+ d[n ! un9sulat$     
conductor in/ead ( ?r\gh ! build+4 ,!   
tru?1 h[ev]1 is t1 :5 a numb] ( pa?s are
 op5 to an electric curr5t1 x w divide  
itself betwe5 !m 9 ! inv]se ratios ( _! 
resi/ances1 or directly z _!            
conductivities1 s t1 h[ev] great !      
resi/ance ( "o ( ! conductors1 "s       
portion1 ?\gh x may be a v small        
fraction1 ( ! dis*>ge w take place ?r\gh
 x4 ,b ?is law does n hold 9 ! case (   
insulators l ! air1 ?r\gh :i*           

electricity passes only by disruptive   
dis*>ges1 & :i* completely prev5t its   
passage unless ! electro-motive =ce is  
suffici5t to break ?r\gh _! sub/ance4 ,9
 ! case ( ! lightn+-conductor1 h[ev]1   
its resi/ance is g5]ally s small 9      
comp>ison ) t ( ! build+ x is us$ to    
protect1 t ,frankl9's conclusion is     
practically correct4  ,footnote #d3     
,page #if4  ,9 8 pap] on ! torp$o       
,cav5di% /at$ t "s exp]im5ts _h %[n t   
iron wire conduct$ #djj1jjj1jjj times   
bett] ?an ra9 or di/ill$ wat]1 sea-wat] 
#ajj times1 & saturat$ solution (       
sea-salt ab\t #gbj times1 bett] ?an     
ra9-wat]4 ,maxwell po9t$ out t ?is      
comp>ison ( iron wire ) sea-wat] w\ld   
agree almo/ precisely ) ! measurem5ts ( 
,mat?ies5 & ,kohlraus* at #aa deg4,c4 ,!
 records ( ! exp]im5ts :i* l$ to ^!     
results 7 f\nd among ,cav5di%'s         
unpubli%$ pap]s1 & ! exp]im5ts also %[$ 
t ! conductivity ( sal9e solutions 0 v  
ne>ly proportional to ! p]c5tage ( salt 
conta9$1 :5 ?is 0 n v l>ge--a result    

also obta9$ long aft]w>ds by ,kohlraus*4
 ,9 mak+ ^! measurem5ts ,cav5di% 0 8 own
 galvanomet]4 ,! solutions 7 conta9$ 9  
glass tubes m ?an ?ree feet long1 & a   
wire ins]t$ to diff]5t di/ances into !  
solution2 ?us ! dis*>ge c\ld be made to 
pass ?r\gh any l5g? ( ! liquid column   
less ?an t ( ! tube itself4 ,f ! ,leyd5 
batt]y ( =ty-n9e j>s1 six j>s ( ne>ly   
equal capacity 7 select$ & *>g$ toge!r1 
& ! *>ge ( "o j> only 0 employ$ = ea*   
%ock4 ,! dis*>ge pass$ ?r\gh ! column ( 
liquid conta9$ 9 ! tube1 f a wire ins]t$
 at ! fur!r end1 until x rea*$ ! slid+  
wire1 :5 ne>ly ! :ole curr5t betook     
itself to ! wire on acc\nt ( its small] 
resi/ance1 & !nce pass$ ?r\gh !         
galvanomet]1 :i* 0 ,cav5di% himself4    
,two tubes 7 g5]ally comp>$ toge!r1 & ! 
j>s dis*>g$ alt]nately ?r\gh ! tubes1 & 
! tube :i* gave ! greate/ %ock 0 assum$ 
to possess ! lea/ resi/ance4 ,! wires 7 
!n adju/$ till ! %ocks 7 ne>ly equal1 & 
positions det]m9$ :i* made ! fir/ tube  
possess a great] & !n a less resi/ance  

?an ! second4 ,f ^! positions ! l5g? ( !
 column ( liquid 0 e/imat$ :i* w\ld make
 ! resi/ances ( ! two tubes exactly     
equal4 ,b ! result :i* has ! greate/    
!oretical int]e/ 0 obta9$ by dis*>g+ !  
,leyd5 j>s ?r\gh wide & n>r[ tubes      
conta9+ ! same solutions4 ,by ^!        
exp]im5ts ,cav5di% f\nd t ! resi/ances (
 ! conductors 7 indep5d5t ( ! /r5g?s ( !
 curr5ts fl[+ 9 !m2 t is to say1 he     
e/abli%$ ,ohm's law = electrolytes 9 a  
=m :i* c>ri$ ) x its full explanation4  
,?is 0 9 ,janu>y1 #agha4 ,ohm's law 0   
fir/ =mally /at$ 9 #ahbg4 ,! physical   
fact :i* is express$ by x is t ! ratio (
 ! electro-motive =ce to ! curr5t       
produc$ is ! same = ! same conductor1   
o!rwise "u ! same physical conditions1  
h[ev] great or small t electro-motive   
=ce may be4  ,cav5di% devot$ consid]able
 att5tion to ! subject ( heat1          
especially !rmometry4 ,9 _m ( 8         
inve/igations on lat5t & specific heat  
he work$ on ! same l9es z ,black1 & at  
ab\t ! same "t2 b x is difficult to     

det]m9e ! exact date ( "s ( ,cav5di%'s  
"w1 z he frequ5tly did n publi% x = a   
long "t aft] its completion1 & mo/ (    
,black's results 7 made public only to 8
 lecture audi5ce4 ,cav5di%1 h[ev]1      
improv$ ^u ,black 9 8 mode ( /at+ "s ( 8
 results4 ,! heat1 = in/ance1 :i* is    
absorb$ by a body 9 pass+ f ! solid to !
 liquid1 or f ! liquid to ! gase\s1     
condition1 ,black call$ lat5t heat1 &   
suppos$ x to become lat5t )9 ! sub/ance1
 ready to reveal itself :5 ! body       
return$ to its orig9al condition4 ,?is  
heat ,cav5di% spoke ( z be+ de/roy$ or  
g5]at$1 & ?is is 9 accordance ) :at we  
n[ "k respect+ ! nature ( heat1 = :5 a  
body passes f ! solid to ! liquid1 or f 
! liquid or solid to ! gase\s1          
condition1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( "w has to be 
done1 & a correspond+ am\nt ( heat is   
us$ up 9 ! do+ ( x4 ,:5 ! body returns  
to its orig9al condition1 ! heat is     
re/or$1 z :5 a heavy body falls to !    
gr\nd1 or a b5t spr+ returns to its     
orig9al =m4 ,cav5di%'s det]m9ation ( !  

s-call$ lat5t heat ( /eam 0 v slightly 9
 error4  ,ab\t #agfj v extraord9>y      
beliefs 7 curr5t respect+ ! excessive   
degree ( cold & ! rapid v>iations (     
temp]ature :i* take place 9 ! ,arctic   
regions4 ,braun1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 _h   
obs]v$ t m]cury1 9 solidify+ 9 ! tube ( 
a !rmomet]1 desc5d$ ?r\gh m ?an f\r     
hundr$ degrees1 & x 0 assum$ t ! melt+  
po9t ( m]cury 0 ab\t #djj deg4 bel[     
,fahr5heit's z]o4 ,x !n became necess>y 
to suppose t1 :ile ! m]cury 9 a !rmomet]
 0 freez+1 !re 0 a v>iation ( temp]ature
 to ?is ext5t1 & ?us ^! wild reports    
became curr5t4 ,cav5di% & ,black        
indep5d5tly expla9$ ! anomaly1 & ea*    
sugge/$ ! same me?od ( det]m9+ ! freez+ 
po9t ( m]cury4 ,cav5di%1 h[ev]1 _h a    
piece ( app>atus prep>$ :i* he s5t to   
,gov]nor ,hut*9s1 at ,albany ,=t1       
,hudson's ,bay4 ,x consi/$ ( an out]    
vessel1 9 :i* ! m]cury 0 all[$ to       
freeze1 b n ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( its mass1 &
 ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] 0 kept imm]s$ 9 !  
liquid metal 9 ! int]ior4 ,9 ?is way !  

m]cury 9 ! !rmomet] 0 cool$ d[n to !    
melt+ po9t )\t comm5c+ to solidify1 & ! 
temp]ature 0 f\nd to be betwe5 #ci deg4 
& #dj deg4 bel[ ,fahr5heit's z]o4  ,z a 
*emi/1 ,cav5di% is r5[n$ = 8 eudiometric
 analysis1 :]eby he det]m9$ ! p]c5tage (
 oxyg5 9 air ) an am\nt ( accuracy t    
w\ld be cr$itable to a *emi/ ( to-day1 &
 = 8 discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]2 b 
to ! _w g5]ally he is p]haps be/ kn[n by
 ! fam\s ,cav5di% exp]im5t = det]m9+ !  
mass1 & h5ce ! mean d5sity1 ( ! e>?4 ,! 
app>atus 0 orig9ally sugge/$ by ! ,rev4 
,john ,mi*ell1 b 0 fir/ employ$ by      
,cav5di%1 :o !reby det]m9$ ! mean d5sity
 ( ! e>? to be #e4de4 ,at ! reque/ ( !  
,a/ronomical ,society1 ! inve/igation 0 
aft]w>ds tak5 up by ,mr4 ,francis       
,baily1 :o1 aft] mu* lab\r1 discov]$ t !
 pr9cipal s\rces ( error 7 due to       
radiation ( heat1 & consequ5t v>iation (
 temp]ature ( p>ts ( ! app>atus dur+ !  
exp]im5t4 ,to m9imize ! radiation &     
absorption1 he gild$ ! pr9cipal portions
 ( ! app>atus & ! int]ior ( ! case 9 :i*

 x 0 conta9$1 & 8 results !n became     
consi/5t4 ,cav5di% _h himself sugge/$ ! 
cause ( ! discrepancy1 b ! gild+ 0      
propos$ by ,pr9cipal ,=bes4 ,z a mean ( 
_m hundr$s ( exp]im5ts1 ,mr4 ,baily     
d$uc$ = ! mean d5sity ( ! e>? #e4ffjd4  
,cav5di%'s app>atus 0 a delicate        
torsion-balance1 :]eby two lead5 balls 7
 support$ ^u ! extremities ( a wood5    
rod1 :i* 0 susp5d$ by a ?9 wire4 ,^!    
balls 7 ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 & !   
exp]im5t consi/$ 9 det]m9+ ! deflection 
( ! wood5 arm by ! attraction ( two l>ge
 solid sph]es ( lead br\ght v ne> !     
balls1 & s situat$ t ! attraction ( ea* 
t5d$ to twi/ ! rod horizontally 9 ! same
 direction4 ,! =ce requir$ to produce ! 
obs]v$ deflection 0 calculat$ f ! "t (  
sw+ ( ! rod & balls :5 left to !mselves4
 ,! =ce ex]t$ ^u ei!r ball by a kn[n    
sph]ical mass ( metal1 ) its c5tre at a 
kn[n di/ance1 be+ ?us det]m9$1 x 0 easy 
to calculate :at mass1 hav+ its c5tre at
 ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 w\ld be requir$ to    
attract "o ( ! balls ) ! =ce ) :i* ! e>?

 0 kn[n to attract x4  ,dr4 ,wilson sums
 up ,cav5di%'s view ( life 9 ^! words3--
      ,8 !ory ( ! univ]se seems to h be5
 t x consi/$     solely ( a multitude ( 
objects :i* c\ld be weigh$1     numb]$1 
& measur$2 & ! vocation to :i* he       
consid]$     himself call$ 0 to weigh1  
numb]1 & measure z _m (     ^! objects z
 8 allott$ ?ree score ye>s & t5 w\ld    
p]mit4 ,?is conviction bias$ all 8      
do+s--alike 8 great     sci5tific       
ent]prises & ! petty details ( 8 daily  
life4     ,greek3 ,panta metro1 kai     
ari?mo1 kai /a?mo1 0 8 motto2     & 9 ! 
microcosm ( 8 own nature he tri$ to     
reflect &     repeat ! subjection to    
inflexible rule & ! necessitat$         
h>mony :i* are ! appo9t$ conditions ( ! 
macrocosm (     ,god's univ]se4         
,,c\nt ,,rum=d4   ,b5jam9 ,?ompson1 l   
,frankl91 0 a native ( ,massa*usetts1 8 
ance/ors = sev]al g5]ations hav+ be5    
yeom5 9 t prov9ce1 & desc5dants ( ! fir/
 coloni/s ( ! ,bay4 ,9 ! diploma ( arms 
grant$ him :5 he 0 knight$ by ,george   

,,iii41 he is describ$ z son ( ,b5jam9  
,?ompson1 late ( ! prov9ce (            
,massa*usetts ,bay1 9 ,new ,engl&1 g5t4 
,he 0 born 9 ! h\se ( 8 gr&fa!r1 ,eb5ez]
 ,?ompson1 at ,woburn1 ,massa*usetts1 on
 ,m>* #bf1 #agec4 ,8 fa!r di$ at ! age (
 tw5ty-six1 on ,novemb] #g1 #aged1 leav+
 ! infant ,b5jam9 & 8 "m to ! c>e ( !   
gr&p>5ts4 ,! wid[ m>ri$ ,josiah ,pi]ce1 
junior1 9 ,m>*1 #agef1 & ) h] *ild1 n[ a
 boy ( ?ree1 w5t to live 9 a h\se b a   
%ort di/ance f h] =m] resid5ce4  ,"y    
,?ompson appe>s to h receiv$ a s\nd     
elem5t>y education at ! village s*ool4  
,f "s rem>ks made by him 9 aft] ye>s to 
8 fri5d1 ,m4 ,pictet1 x has be5 inf]r$ t
 he did n receive v k9d treatm5t at !   
h&s ( 8 /epfa!r4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t ! 
mo/ affectionate relation%ips always    
obta9$ betwe5 him & 8 "m1 & ! latt]     
appe>s to h _h no cause to compla9 ( !  
treatm5t %e receiv$ f h] second husb&1 )
 :om %e liv$ to a v good old age4 ,t    
,?ompson 9 e>ly boyhood develop$ "s     
t5d5cies :i* did n meet ) ready sympa?y 

f ^? ar\nd him is1 h[ev]1 equally cle>4 
,8 gu>dians de/9$ him = a f>m]1 l 8     
ance/ors1 & 8 exp]im5ts 9 me*anics1 :i* 
took up mu* ( 8 playtime & 9 all        
probability n a few h\rs :i* %\ld h be5 
devot$ to less int]e/+ "w1 7 n reg>d$ z 
t5d+ t[>ds ! end 9 view4 ,h5ce he 0     
probably look$ ^u z indol5t1 flighty1 & 
unpromis+4 ,lat] on he 0 s5t to s*ool 9 
,byfield1 & 9 #agfd1 at ! age ( elev51 0
 put "u ! tuition ( ,mr4 ,hill1 an able 
tea*] 9 ,m$=d1 a t[n adjo9+ ,woburn4 ,at
 l5g?1 8 fri5ds hav+ giv5 up all hope ( 
ev] mak+ a f>m] ( ! boy1 he 0 appr5tic$1
 on ,octob] #ad1 #agff1 to ,mr4 ,john   
,appleton1 ( ,salem1 an import] (       
,briti% goods & deal] 9 miscellane\s    
articles4 ,he liv$ ) 8 ma/]1 & seems to 
h done 8 "w 9 a mann] satisfactory on ! 
:ole1 b !re is evid5ce t he w\ld1 dur+  
bus9ess h\rs1 occupy 8 sp>e mom5ts )    
me*anical contrivances1 :i* he us$ to   
hide "u ! c\nt]1 & ev5 v5tur$           
occasionally to practise on 8 fiddle 9 !
 /ore4 ,he /ay$ ) ,mr4 ,appleton till ! 

autumn ( #agfi1 & dur+ ?is "t he att5d$ 
! m9i/ry ( ! ,rev4 ,?omas ,b>n>d4 ,?is  
g5tleman seems to h tak5 great int]e/ 9 
! boy1 & to h taught him ma!matics1 s t 
at ! age ( fifte5 he 0 able to calculate
 an eclipse1 & 0 delight$ :5 ! eclipse  
comm5c$ )9 six seconds ( 8 calculat$ "t4
 ,?ompson1 :ile an appr5tice1 %[$ a     
great faculty = draw+ & design+1 & us$  
to c>ve devices = 8 fri5ds on ! h&les ( 
_! knives or o!r implem5ts4 ,x 0 at ?is 
"t he con/ruct$ an elaborate contrivance
 to produce p]petual motion1 & on "o    
ev5+ x is said t he walk$ f ,salem to   
,woburn1 to %[ x to ,loammi ,baldw91 :o 
0 n9e ye>s old] ?an himself1 b 8 mo/    
intimate fri5d4 ,l _m o!r devices       
design$ = ! same purpose1 x _h only "o  
fault--x w\ldn't g4  ,x 0 9 #agfi1 :ile 
prep>+ fireworks = ! illum9ation on !   
abolition ( ! ,/amp ,act1 t ,?ompson 0  
injur$ by a sev]e explosion z he 0 gr9d+
 8 mat]ials 9 a mort>4 ,8 note-book     
conta9$ _m directions = ! manufacture ( 
fireworks4  ,dur+ ,?ompson's            

appr5tice%ip ^? que/ions 7 agitat+ !    
public m9d :i* f9ally _h _! outcome 9 ! 
,w> ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,mr4 ,appleton 0 "o (
 ^? :o sign$ ! agreem5t refus+ to import
 ,briti% goods1 & ?is s affect$ ! trade 
( ! /ore t he _h no fur!r ne$ = !       
appr5tice4 ,h5ce x 0 t1 9 ! autumn (    
#agfi1 ,?ompson w5t to ,bo/on z         
appr5tice-cl]k 9 a dry goods /ore1 b _h 
to leave aft] a few mon?s1 ?r\gh !      
depression 9 trade consequ5t on !       
non-importation agreem5t4  ,8 note-book1
 conta9+ ! entries made at ?is "t1      
compris$ sev]al comic sket*es v well    
drawn1 & a quantity ( bus9ess memor&a   
:i* %[ t he 0 v sy/ematic 9 keep+ 8     
acc\nts4 ,8 *ief me?od ( e>n+ money1 or 
r ( mak+ up ! ,cr4 side ( 8 acc\nts1 0  
by cutt+ & cord+ wood4 ,a s]ies (       
entries made 9 ,july & ,augu/1 #agga1 %[
 ! exp5se he incurr$ 9 con/ruct+ an     
electrical ma*9e4 ,x is n easy to       
det]m9e1 f ! li/ ( items pur*as$1 ! "* (
 ! ma*9e he con/ruct$2 b x is int]e/+ to
 note t ! price 9 ,am]ica at t "t (     

nitric acid 0 #bs4 #f;d4 p] ounce2 (    
lacqu]1 #djs4 p] p9t2 ( %ellac1 #es4 p] 
ounce2 brass wire1 #djs4 p] p\nd2 & iron
 wire1 #as4 #c;d4 p] y>d4 ,! nature ( ! 
problems :i* occupi$ 8 ?\ghts dur+ ! la/
 ye> or two ( 8 bus9ess life are app>5t 
9 ! foll[+ lett]s3--      ,woburn1      
,augu/ #af1 #agfi4      ,mr4 ,loammi    
,baldw91      ,,sir1      ,please to    
in=m me 9 :at mann] fire op]ates ^u clay
 to     *ange ! col\r f ! natural col\r 
to r$1 & f r$     to black1 etc42 & h[ x
 op]ates ^u silv] to *ange x to         
blue4      ,i am y\r mo/ humble & ob$i5t
 s]vant1      ,,b5jam9 ,,?ompson        
,god save ! k+4       ,woburn1 ,augu/1  
#agfi4      ,mr4 ,loammi ,baldw91       
,,sir1      ,please to give ! nature1   
ess5ce1 beg9n+ ( exi/5ce1 &     rise ( !
 w9d 9 g5]al1 ) ! :ole !ory !re(1 s     
z to be able to answ] all que/ions      
relative !reto4      ,y\rs1             
,,b5jam9 ,,?ompson4  ,?is 0 an ext5sive 
reque/1 & ! reply 0 probably n altoge!r 
satisfactory to ! inquir]4 ,on ! back ( 

! above lett] 0 writt53--      ,woburn1 
,augu/ #ae1 #agfi4      ,,sir1      ,!re
 0 b few be+s 7= inhabitants ( ?is _w7  
creat$     be=e ! airy elem5t 02 s x has
 n be5 transmitt$ d[n     to u h[ !     
,great ,creator =m$ ! matt] !re(4 ,s ,i 
%all leave x till ,i am ask$ only !     
,natural ,cause1 & :y     x bl[s s _m   
ways 9 s %ort a "t z x does4  ,?ompson  
appe>s n[ to h giv5 up bus9ess & comm5c$
 ! /udy ( m$ic9e "u ,dr4 ,hay1 to :om = 
a ye> & a half he paid =ty %ill+s p]    
week = 8 bo>d4 ,dur+ ?is "t he paid "p (
 8 exp5ses by keep+ s*ool = a few weeks 
consecutively at ,wilm+ton & ,brad=d1 & 
ano!r "p 0 paid by cords ( wood4 ,8     
bus9ess capacity1 z well z 8 dislike (  
ord9>y "w1 is %[n by "s arrangem5ts :i* 
he made = gett+ wood cut & cord$ at     
prices consid]ably bel[ ^? at :i* he 0  
himself paid = x4 ,8 note-book made at  
?is "t conta9s1 besides bus9ess entries1
 sev]al receipts = m$ic9es &            
descriptions ( surgical op]ations1 9 "s 
cases illu/rat$ by sket*es4 ,9 8 "w he 0

 me?odical & indu/ri\s1 & ! life ( a    
m$ical /ud5t suit$ 8 g5ius f> bett] ?an 
t ( a cl]k 9 a dry goods /ore4 ,:5 tea*+
 at ,wilm+ton he seems to h attract$    
att5tion by ! gymna/ic p]=mances ) :i*  
he ex]cis$ bo? himself & 8 pupils4 ,:ile
 a /ud5t ) ,dr4 ,hay1 he att5d$ "s ( !  
sci5tific lectures at ,h>v>d ,college4  
,! pleasure & pr(it :i* he d]iv$ f ^!   
lectures are suffici5tly indicat$ by !  
fact t =ty ye>s aft]w>ds he made !      
college 8 residu>y legatee4  ,?ompson   
won su* a reputation z a tea*] dur+ !   
few weeks t he taught 9 village s*ools 9
 ! c\rse ( 8 /ud5t life1 t he receiv$ an
 invitation f ,colonel ,timo?y ,walk] to
 come to ,concord1 9 ,new ,hamp%ire1 on 
! ,m]rimack1 & accept a p]man5t         
situation 9 a high] grade s*ool4 ,x 0 f 
?is place t he aft]w>ds took 8 title1 = 
! e>ly "n ( ,concord 0 ,rum=d1 & ! "n 0 
*ang$ to ,concord to m>k ! re/oration ( 
h>mony aft] a long p]iod ( agitation z  
to its prov9cial jurisdiction & its     
relation ) its neighb\rs4  ,! "y        

s*oolma/] ( ,concord 0 soon on v        
intimate t]ms ) ! m9i/] ( ! t[n1 ! ,rev4
 ,timo?y ,walk]1#e a man :o 0 s mu*     
respect$ t he _h ?rice be5 s5t to       
,brita9 on diplomatic bus9ess4 ,mr4     
,walk]'s daught] _h be5 m>ri$ to        
,colonel ,rolfe1 a man ( weal? &        
position1 &1 ) ! exception ( ! ,gov]nor 
( ,portsm\?1 said to h be5 ! fir/ man 9 
,new ,hamp%ire to drive a curricle &    
pair ( horses4 ,?ompson soon m>ri$--or1 
z he told ,pictet1 0 m>ri$ to--! "y     
wid[4 ,:atev] may h be5 impli$ by ?is   
o!r way ( putt+ ! "q1 !re is no d\bt t  
,?ompson always _h ! greate/ possible   
respect = 8 fa!r-9-law1 & ev] rememb]$  
him ) s9c]e gratitude4 ,! =tunes ( !    
gallant "y s*oolma/] n[ appe>$ to be    
made2 :5 ! engagem5t 0 settl$1 ! c>riage
 & pair 7 br\ght out aga91 & ! y\? 0    
attir$ 9 8 fav\rite sc>let z a man (    
weal? & position4 ,9 ?is g>b he drove to
 ,woburn1 & introduc$ 8 future wife to 8
 "m1 ^: surprise c be bett] imag9$ ?an  
describ$4  ,footnote #e3 ,fa!r ( !      

colonel4  ,! exact date ( ,?ompson's    
m>riage is n kn[n4 ,8 daught] ,s>ah1    
aft]w>ds ,c\ntess ( ,rum=d1 0 born 9 !  
,rolfe mansion on ,octob] #ah1 #aggd4 ,x
 is ne$less to say t ! engagem5t to     
,mrs4 ,rolfe t]m9at$ ! tea*+ at ! s*ool4
  ,?ompson n[ _h a l>ge e/ate & ample   
means to improve x4 ,he gave mu*        
att5tion to g>d5+1 & s5t to ,engl& =    
g>d5 se$s4 ,9 "s way he attract$ !      
att5tion ( ,gov]nor ,w5twor?1 ! ,gov]nor
 ( ,portsm\?1 :o invit$ him to !        
,gov]nm5t ,h\se1 & 0 s tak5 ) ! =m]     
appr5tice1 m$ical /ud5t1 & s*oolma/]1 t 
he gave him at once a commission z      
major4 ,?is appo9tm5t 0 ! cause ( !     
mis=tunes :i* almo/ imm$iately began to 
ov]take him4 ,he incurr$ ! jeal\sy ( 8  
fell[-(fic]s1 ov] :om he _h be5 appo9t$1
 & he fail$ to secure ! confid5ce ( !   
civilians ( ,concord4  ,public feel+ 9  
,new ,engl& 0 v mu* excit$ aga9/ ! "m   
c\ntry4 ,repres5tations 7 s5t to !      
,briti% ,gov]nm5t1 b appe>$ to be treat$
 ) contempt4 ,v _m ( ^! docum5ts 7 f\nd1

 aft] ! w> 0 ov]1 unop5$ 9 draw]s at !  
,colonial ,(fice4 ,briti% m9i/]s appe>$ 
to "k little ab\t ! ne$s ( _! ,am]ican  
dep5d5cies1 & relations rapidly became m
 & m /ra9$4 ,! patriots appo9t$         
committees to wat* ov] ! patriotism ( _!
 fell[-t[nsm51 & ?us ! fre$om ( a free  
c\ntry 0 inaugurat$ by an in/itution    
bord]+ 9 "* v closely ^u ! ,inquisition2
 & ! ,committees ( ,correspond5ce &     
,safety accept$ evid5ce f e spy or      
eavesdropp] :o came be=e !m ) reports ( 
suspect$ p]sons4 ,?ompson 0 accus$ (    
,toryism2 ! only def9ite *>ge aga9/ him 
be+ t he _h secur$ remission ( puni%m5t 
= "s des]t]s f ,bo/on :o _h = "s "t     
work$ ^u 8 e/ate4 ,he 0 summon$ be=e !  
,committee ( ,safety1 b refus$ to make  
any confession ( acts injuri\s to 8     
c\ntry1 on ! gr\nd t he _h no?+ to      
confess4 ,8 :ole aft]-life %[s t 8      
sympa?ies 7 v mu* on ! side ( mon>*y &  
c5tralization1 b at ?is "t !re appe>s to
 h be5 no evid5ce t c\ld be br\ght aga9/
 him4 ,! populace1 h[ev]1 /orm$ 8 h\se1 

& he ow$ 8 safety to ! fact t he _h     
receiv$ notice ( _! int5tions1 & _h made
 8 escape a few h\rs be=e4 ,?is 0 9     
,novemb]1 #aggd4 ,?ompson !n took refuge
 at ,woburn1 ) 8 "m1 b ! popul> ill     
feel+ tr\bl$ him "h1 s t 8 life 0 "o (  
great anxiety4  ,:ile at ,woburn1 8 wife
 & *ild jo9$ him1 & /ay$ !re = "s mon?s4
 ,at l5g? he 0 arre/$ & conf9$ 9 ! t[n  
^u suspicion ( be+ inimical to ! int]e/s
 ( 8 c\ntry4 ,:5 he 0 br\ght be=e !     
,committee ( ,inquiry1 !re 0 no evid5ce 
br\ght aga9/ him4 ,major ,?ompson !n    
petition$ to be he>d be=e ! ,committee (
 ! ,prov9cial ,congress at ,wa%+ton4    
,?is petition he entru/$ to 8 fri5d     
,colonel ,baldw9 to pres5t4 ,! petition 
0 ref]r$ by ! committee to ,congress1 by
 :om x 0 def]r$ = ! sake ( m press+     
bus9ess4 ,at l5g? he secur$ a he>+ 9 8  
native t[n1 b ! result 0 indecisive1 &  
he did n obta9 ! public acquittal t he  
desir$1 ?\gh ! ,committee (             
,correspond5ce f\nd t ! said ,?ompson _h
 n 9 any "o in/ance %[n a disposition   

unfri5dly to ,am]ican lib]ty2 b t 8     
g5]al behavi\r has ev9c$ ! direct       
contr>y2 & z he has n[ giv5 u ! /ronge/ 
assurances ( 8 good int5tions1 we       
recomm5d him to ! fri5d%ip1 confid5ce1 &
 protection ( all good p 9 ?is & !      
neighb\r+ prov9ces4 ,?is decision1      
h[ev]1 does n appe> to h be5 made       
public2 & ,?ompson1 on 8 release1 retir$
 to ,*>le/[n1 ne> ,bo/on4 ,:5 ! build+s 
( ,h>v>d ,college 7 conv]t$ into        
b>racks1 ,major ,?ompson assi/$ 9 !     
transf] ( ! books to ,concord4 ,x is    
said t1 aft] ! battle ( ,*>le/[n1       
,?ompson 0 introduc$ to ,g5]al ,wa%+ton1
 & w\ld probably h receiv$ a commission 
"u him b = ! opposition ( "s ( ! ,new   
,hamp%ire (fic]s4 ,he aft]w>ds took     
refuge 9 ,bo/on1 & x does n appe> t he  
ev] aga9 saw 8 wife or h] fa!r4 ,8      
daught] he did n see aga9 till #agif1 :5
 %e 0 tw5ty-two ye>s ( age4 ,on ,m>*    
#bd1 #aggf1 ,g5]al ,wa%+ton oblig$ !    
,briti% troops to evacuate ,bo/on2      
,?ompson 0 ! fir/ (ficial be>] ( ?is    

intellig5ce to ,london4 ,( c\rse1 8     
prop]ty at ,concord 0 confiscat$ to !   
commonweal? ( ,massa*usetts1 & he       
himself 0 proscrib$ 9 ! ,ali5ation ,act 
( ,new ,hamp%ire1 9 #aggh4  ,:5 ,?ompson
 rea*$ ,london ) ! intellig5ce ( !      
evacuation ( ,bo/on1 ,"l ,george        
,g]ma9e1 ! ,secret>y = ,w>1 saw t he    
c\ld af=d mu* in=mation :i* w\ld be (   
value to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,an appo9tm5t 0   
soon f\nd = him 9 ! ,colonial ,(fice1 & 
aft]w>ds he 0 made ,secret>y ( !        
,prov9ce ( ,georgia1 9 :i* latt]        
capacity1 h[ev]1 he _h no duties to     
fulfil4 ,?r\gh\t 8 c>e] 9 ! ,colonial   
,(fice he rema9$ on v intimate t]ms )   
,"l ,george ,g]ma9e1 & g5]ally breakfa/$
 ) him4 ,9 ,july1 #aggh1 he 0 gue/ ( ,"l
 ,george at ,/onel& ,lodge1 & "h1 9     
company ) ,mr4 ,ball1 ! ,rector (       
,)yham1 he und]took exp]im5ts to det]m9e
 ! mo/ advantage\s situation = ! v5t 9  
fire>ms1 & to measure ! velocities (    
bullets & ! recoil "u v>i\s             
circum/ances4  ,! results ( ^!          

inve/igations procur$ = him ! fri5d%ip (
 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ! ,presid5t ( !   
,royal ,society1 & ,?ompson 0 n ! man to
 lose opportunities = want ( mak+ use ( 
!m4 ,9 #aggi he 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( !   
,royal ,society1 z a g5tleman well v]s$ 
9 natural k & _m bran*es ( polite le>n+4
 ,9 ! same ye> he w5t = a cruise 9 !    
,victory ) ,sir ,*>les ,h>dy1 9 ord] to 
pursue 8 exp]im5ts on gunp[d] ) heavy   
guns4 ,"h he /udi$ ! pr9ciples ( naval  
artill]y1 & devis$ a new code ( m>9e    
signals4 ,9 #aghj he 0 made             
,"u-,secret>y ( ,/ate = ! ,nor!rn       
,dep>tm5t1 & 9 t capacity _h ! ov]sight 
( ! transport & commiss>iat arrangem5ts 
= ! ,briti% =ces4  ,on ! defeat (       
,cornwallis1 ,"l ,george ,g]ma9e & 8    
dep>tm5t _h to be> ! brunt ( ,p>liam5t>y
 dissatisfaction4 ,"l ,george resign$ 8 
position 9 ! ,gov]nm5t1 & 0 creat$      
,visc\nt ,sackville4 ,he _h1 h[ev]1     
previ\sly conf]r$ on ,?ompson a         
commission z lieut5ant-colonel 9 !      
,briti% army1 & ,?ompson1 probably      

=esee+ ! outcome ( ev5ts & its effect on
 ! ,m9i/ry1 0 already 9 ,am]ica :5 ,"l  
,george resign$4 ,he _h int5d$ l&+ at   
,new ,york1 b contr>y w9ds drove him to 
,*>le/[n4 ,x is ne$less to trace ! sad  
ev5ts :i* prec$$ ! end ( ! w>4 ,x 0 to  
be expect$ t _m bitt] /atem5ts w\ld be  
made by 8 c\ntrym5 respect+ ,?ompson's  
own actions z colonel comm&+ a ,briti%  
g>rison1 = at l5g? he succe$$ 9 rea*+   
,long ,isl&1 & tak+ ! comm& ( ! ,k+'s   
,am]ican ,dragoons1 :o 7 !re await+ him4
 ,! _s ( w> always acts injuri\sly on ^?
 expos$ to its influ5ce1 &              
,lieut5ant-,colonel ,?ompson 9 ,long    
,isl& 0 d\btless a v diff]5t man f t :i*
 we f9d him to h be5 be=e & aft]2 nor 7 
! mon?s s sp5t v fruitful 9 sci5tific   
"w4  ,9 #aghc1 be=e ! f9al disb&+ ( !   
,briti% =ces1 ,?ompson return$ to       
,engl&1 & 0 promot$ to ! rank ( colonel1
 ) half-pay = ! re/ ( 8 life4 ,/ill     
anxi\s = milit>y s]vice1 he obta9$      
p]mission to travel on ! ,cont95t1 9    
hopes ( s]v+ 9 ! ,au/rian army aga9/ !  

,turks4 ,he took ) him ?ree ,engli%     
horses1 :i* r5d]$ !mselves v            
objectionable to 8 fell[-travell]s :ile 
cross+ ! ,*annel 9 a small boat4        
,?ompson w5t to ,/rasb\rg1 :]e he       
attract$ ! att5tion ( ! ,pr9ce          
,maximilian1 !n ,field-,m>%al ( ,france1
 b aft]w>ds ,elector ( ,bav>ia4 ,on     
leav+ ,/rasb\rg1 ! pr9ce gave him an    
introduction to 8 uncle1 ! ,elector (   
,bav>ia4 ,he /ay$ "s days at ,muni*1 b  
on rea*+ ,vi5na le>n$ t ! w> aga9/ !    
,turks w\ld n be c>ri$ on1 s he return$ 
to ,muni*1 & !nce to ,engl&4  ,m4       
,pictet gives ! foll[+ z ,rum=d's acc\nt
 ( ! mann] 9 :i* he 0 cur$ ( 8 passion =
 w>3--  ',i owe x1' said he to me1 "o   
day1 'to a b5efic5t ,deity1 t ,i 0 cur$ 
9 season ( ?is m>tial folly4 ,i met1 at 
! h\se ( ! ,pr9ce de ,kaunitz1 a lady1  
ag$ sev5ty ye>s1 ( inf9ite _s & full (  
in=mation4 ,%e 0 ! wife ( ,g5]al        
,b\rghaus54 ,! emp]or1 ,joseph ,,ii41   
came (t5 to pass ! ev5+ ) h]4 ,?is      
excell5t p]son conceiv$ a reg>d = me2 %e

 gave me ! wise/ advice1 made my ideas  
take a new direction1 & op5$ my eyes to 
o!r k9ds ( glory ?an t ( victory 9      
battle4'  ,if ! c\rse 9 life :i*        
,colonel ,?ompson aft]w>ds took 0 due to
 ! advice ( ?is lady1 %e des]ves a      
,european reputation4 ,! ,elector (     
,bav>ia1 ,*>les ,!odore1 gave ,?ompson a
 press+ invitation to ent] 8 s]vice 9 a 
sort ( semi-milit>y & semi-civil        
capacity1 to assi/ 9 reorganiz+ 8       
dom9ions & remov+ ! abuses :i* _h crept 
94 ,be=e accept+ ?is appo9tm5t1 x 0     
necess>y to obta9 ! p]mission ( ,george 
,,iii4 ,! k+ n only approv$ ( !         
arrangem5t1 b on ,febru>y #bc1 #aghd1   
conf]r$ on ! colonel ! hon\r (          
knigh?ood4 ,sir ,b5jam9 !n return$ to   
,bav>ia1 & 0 appo9t$ by ! elector       
colonel ( a regim5t ( cavalry & g5]al   
aide-de-camp4 ,a palatial resid5ce 9    
,muni* 0 furni%$ = him1 & "h he liv$ m z
 a pr9ce ?an a soldi]4 ,x 0 elev5 ye>s  
be=e he return$1 ev5 on a visit1 to     
,engl&1 & ^! ye>s 7 sp5t by him 9 works 

( philan?ropy & /atesman%ip1 to :i* x is
 difficult to f9d a p>allel4 ,at "o "t  
he is f\nd reorganiz+ ! milit>y sy/em ( 
! c\ntry1 arrang+ a complete sy/em (    
milit>y police1 erect+ ars5als at       
,mannheim & ,muni*2 at ano!r "t he is   
c>ry+ out sci5tific inve/igations 9 "o (
 ^! ars5als2 & !n he is cook+ *eap d9n]s
 = ! poor ( ! c\ntry4  ,"o great evil ( 
a /&+ army is ! idl5ess :i* x develops 9
 its memb]s1 unfitt+ !m = ! bus9ess (   
life :5 _! milit>y s]vice is end$4      
,?ompson comm5c$ by attack+ ?is evil4 ,9
 #aghh he 0 made major-g5]al ( cavalry &
 ,privy ,c\ncillor ( ,/ate1 & 0 put at !
 head ( ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t1 ) in/ructions  
to c>ry out any s*emes :i* he _h        
develop$ = ! re=m ( ! army & ! removal (
 m5dicity4 ,f\r ye>s aft] 8 arrival 9   
,muni* he began to put "s ( 8 plans into
 op]ation4 ,! pay ( ! soldi]s 0 only    
?reep5ce p] day1 & _! qu>t]s extremely  
uncom=table1 :ile _! drill & discipl9e 7
 unnecess>ily irksome4 ,?ompson set to  
"w to make soldi]s citiz5s & citiz5s    

soldi]s4 ,! soldi]'s pay1 uni=m1 &      
qu>t]s 7 improv$2 ! discipl9e r5d]$ less
 irksome2 & s*ools 9 :i* ! ?ree ,r's 7  
taught 7 connect$ ) all ! regim5ts1--&  
"h n only ! soldi]s1 b _! *ildr5 z well 
z o!r *ildr51 7 taught gratuit\sly4 ,n  
only 7 ! soldi]s employ$ 9 public works1
 & ?us accu/om$ to habits ( indu/ry1    
:ile !y 7 enliv5$ 9 _! "w by ! /ra9s (  
_! own milit>y b&s1 b !y 7 suppli$ ) raw
 mat]ial ( v>i\s k9ds1 & all[$1 :5 n on 
duty1 to manufacture v>i\s articles &   
sell !m = _! own b5efit--an arrangem5t  
:i* 9 ?is c\ntry to-day w\ld probably   
raise a /orm ( opposition f ! v>i\s     
trades4 ,! g>risons 7 made p]man5t1 s t 
soldi]s might all be ne> _! homes &     
rema9 !re1 & 9 "t ( peace only a small  
portion ( ! =ce 0 requir$ to be 9       
g>rison at any "t1 s t ! great "p ( 8   
life 0 sp5t by ea* soldi] at home4 ,ea* 
soldi] _h a small g>d5 appropriat$ to 8 
use1 & its produce 0 8 sole prop]ty4    
,g>d5 se$s1 & especially se$ potatoes1 7
 provid$ = ! m51 = at t "t ! potato 0   

almo/ unkn[n 9 ,bav>ia4 ,"u ^!          
circum/ances a re=m 0 quickly effect$2  
idle m5 began to take int]e/ 9 _! g>d5s1
 & all look$ on ,sir ,b5jam9 z a        
b5efactor4  ,hav+ ?us secur$ !          
co-op]ation ( ! army1 ,?ompson det]m9$  
to attack ! m5dicants4 ,! numb] ( begg>s
 may be e/imat$ f ! fact t 9 ,muni*1 ) a
 population ( sixty ?\s&1 no less ?an   
two ?\s& six hundr$ begg>s 7 seiz$ 9 a  
week4 ,9 ! t[ns1 !y possess$ a complete 
organization1 & positions ( advantage 7 
assign$ 9 regul> ord]1 or inh]it$       
accord+ to def9ite cu/oms4 ,9 ! c\ntry1 
f>m lab\r]s begg$ ( travell]s1 & *ildr5 
7 br\ght up to begg>y f _! infancy4 ,(  
c\rse1 ! evils did n cease ) simple     
begg+4 ,*ildr5 7 /ol5 & ill treat$1 = ! 
purpose ( assi/+ 9 enli/+ sympa?y1 & ! p
 _h come to reg>d ^! evils z inevitable4
 ,?ompson organiz$ a regul> sy/em (     
milit>y patrol ?r\gh e village ( !      
c\ntry1 f\r regim5ts ( cavalry be+ set  
ap>t = ?is "w4 ,!n on ,janu>y #a1 #agij1
 :5 ! begg>s 7 out 9 full =ce to keep _!

 annual holiday1 ,?ompson1 ) ! o!r field
 (fic]s & ! magi/rates ( ! city1 gave ! 
signal1 & all ! begg>s 9 ,muni* 7 seiz$ 
^u by ! ?ree regim5ts ( infantry !n 9   
g>rison4 ,! begg>s 7 tak5 to ! t[n hall1
 & _! names & addresses ent]$ on li/s   
prep>$ = ! purpose4 ,!y 7 ord]$ to      
pres5t !mselves next day at ! milit>y   
workh\se1 & a committee 0 appo9t$ to    
inquire into ! condition ( ea*1 ! city  
be+ divid$ into sixte5 di/ricts = t     
purpose4 ,reliev$ ( an evil :i* !y _h   
reg>d$ z inevitable1 ! t[nspeople       
readily subscrib$ = ! purpose ( af=d+   
sy/ematic relief1 :ile tradesm5 s5t     
articles ( food & o!r requisites to !   
relief committee4 ,9 ! milit>y workh\se 
! =m] m5dicants made all ! uni=ms = !   
troops1 besides a great deal ( clo!s =  
sale 9 ,bav>ia & o!r c\ntries4 ,?ompson 
himself fitt$ up & sup]9t5d$ ! kit*51   
:]e food 0 daily cook$ = betwe5 a ?\s& &
 fifte5 hundr$ p]sons2 &1 "u ,sir       
,b5jam9's managem5t1 a d9n] = a ?\s& 0  
cook$ at a co/ = fuel ( f\rp5ce         

halfp5ny--a result :i* has sc>cely be5  
surpass$ 9 mod]n times1 ev5 at          
,gate%ead4  ,t ,?ompson's "w 0          
appreciat$ by ^? 9 ^: int]e/ x 0        
und]tak5 is %[n by ! fact t :51 on "o   
occasion1 he 0 dang]\sly ill1 ! poor (  
,muni* w5t 9 public procession to !     
ca!dral to pray = him1 ?\gh he 0 a      
=eign] & a ,prote/ant4 ,p]haps x may    
appe> t 8 philan?ropic "w has little to 
d ) physical sci5ce2 b ) ,?ompson ev]y?+
 0 a sci5tific exp]im5t1 conduct$ 9 a   
truly sci5tific mann]4 ,= example1 !    
light+ ( ! milit>y workh\se af=d$ matt] 
= a long s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 describ$ 9 8
 pap]s on photometry1 col\r$ %ad[s1 etc4
 ,! inve/igations on ! be/ me?ods (     
employ+ fuel = cul9>y purposes l$ to "s 
( 8 mo/ elaborate essays2 & 8 essay on  
food 0 welcom$ alike 9 ,london & ,bav>ia
 at a "t ( great sc>city1 & :5 fam9e    
seem$ imp5d+4  ,! ,emp]or ,joseph 0     
succe$$ by ,leopold ,,ii41 b dur+ !     
int]regnum ! ,elector ( ,bav>ia 0 ,vic> 
( ! ,empire1 & he employ$ ! p[] ?us     

tempor>ily plac$ 9 8 h&s 9 rais+ ,sir   
,b5jam9 to ! dignity ( ,c\nt ( ! ,holy  
,roman ,empire1 ) ! ord] ( ! ,:ite      
,eagle1 & ! title :i* ! new c\nt select$
 0 ! old "n ( ! village 9 ,new ,engl&   
:]e he _h sp5t ! two or ?ree ye>s ( 8   
w$d$ life4  ,9 #agie ,c\nt ,rum=d       
return$ to ,engl&1 9 ord] to publi% 8   
essays1 & to make kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry     
some?+ ( ! "w 9 :i* he _h be5 engag$4   
,soon aft] 8 arrival he 0 robb$ ( mo/ ( 
8 manuscripts1 ! trunk conta9+ !m be+   
/ol5 f 8 c>riage 9 ,/4 ,paul's ,*ur*y>d4
 ,on ! invitation ( ,"l ,pelham1 he     
visit$ ,dubl91 & c>ri$ out "s ( 8       
improvem5ts 9 ! hospitals & o!r         
in/itutions ( t city4 ,on 8 return to   
,london he fitt$ up ! kit*5 ( ! ,f\ndl+ 
,hospital4  ,lady ,?ompson liv$ to he> (
 h] husb&'s high position 9 ,bav>ia1 b  
di$ on ,janu>y #bi1 #agib4 ,:5 ,rum=d   
came to ,london 9 #agie1 he wrote to 8  
daught]1 :o 0 !n tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 to
 meet him !re1 & on ,janu>y #bi1 #agif1 
%e />t$ 9 ! ,*>le/[n1 f ,bo/on4 ,%e     

rema9$ ) h] fa!r = m ?an ?ree ye>s1 & h]
 autobiography gives mu* in=mation      
respect+ ! c\nt's do+s dur+ ?is "t4     
,:ile 9 ,london1 ,c\nt ,rum=d atta9$ a  
high reputation z a cur] ( smoky        
*imneys4 ,"o firm ( build]s f\nd full   
employm5t 9 c>ry+ out "w 9 accordance ) 
8 in/ructions2 & 9 8 hotel at ,pall     
,mall he conduct$ exp]im5ts on          
fireplaces4 ,he conclud$ t ! sides ( a  
fireplace ought to make an angle ( #ace 
deg4 ) ! back1 s z to ?r[ ! heat /raight
 to ! front2 & t ! wid? ( ! back %\ld be
 "o-?ird ( t ( ! front op5+1 & be c>ri$ 
up p]p5dicul>ly till x jo9s ! brea/4 ,! 
,rum=d roa/] ga9$ a reputation n less   
?an t e>n$ by 8 op5 fireplace4  ,x 0    
dur+ ?is /ay 9 ,london t ,rum=d pres5t$ 
to ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 & to !  
,am]ican ,academy ( ,sci5ces ,l#ajjj    
,?ree p] ,c5t4 ,/ock1 = ! purpose (     
end[+ a m$al to be call$ ! ,rum=d ,m$al1
 & to be giv5 ea* alt]nate ye> = ! be/  
"w done dur+ ! prec$+ two ye>s 9 !      
subjects ( heat & light4 ,he direct$ t  

two m$als1 "o 9 gold & ! o!r 9 silv]1   
%\ld be /ruck f ! same die1 ! value ( ! 
two toge!r to am\nt to ,l#fj4 ,:5ev] no 
aw>d 0 made1 ! int]e/ 0 to be add$ to ! 
pr9cipal1 & ! excess ( ! income = two   
ye>s ov] ,l#fj 0 to be pres5t$ 9 ca% to 
! recipi5t ( ! m$al4 ,at pres5t ! am\nt 
?us pres5t$ is suffici5t to pay !       
composition fee = life memb]%ip ( !     
,royal ,society4 ,! fir/ aw>d ( ! m$al 0
 made 9 #ahjb1 to ,rum=d himself4 ,! o!r
 recipi5ts h be5 ,john ,leslie1 ,william
 ,murdock1 ,eti5ne-,l\is ,malus1        
,william ,*>les ,wells1 ,humphry ,davy1 
,david ,brew/]1 ,augu/9 ,jean ,fresnel1 
,mac$onio ,melloni1 ,james ,david ,=bes1
 ,jean ,bapti/e ,biot1 ,h5ry ,fox       
,talbot1 ,mi*ael ,f>aday1 ,m4 ,regnault1
 ,f4 ,j4 ,d4 ,arago1 ,george ,gabriel   
,/okes1 ,neil ,arnott1 ,m4 ,pa/eur1 ,m4 
,jam91 ,james ,cl]k ,maxwell1 ,kir*(f1  
,john ,tyndall1 ,a4 ,h4 ,l4 ,fizeau1    
,balf\r ,/ew>t1 ,a4 ,o4 des ,cloiseaux1 
,a4 ,j4 ,ang/roem1 ,j4 ,norman ,locky]1 
,p4 ,j4 ,c4 ,janss51 ,w4 ,hugg9s1       

,capta9 ,abney4  ,9 ! summ] ( #agif     
,rum=d & 8 daught] left ,engl& to return
 to ,muni*4 ,on acc\nt ( ! w>1 !y 7     
oblig$ to g by sea to ,hamburg2 :5ce !y 
drove to ,muni*1 :]e ! c\nt 0 anxi\sly  
expect$1 political tr\bles hav+ compell$
 ! elector to leave ! city4 ,aft] !     
battle ( ,fri$burg1 ! ,au/rians retir$  
to ,muni*1 &1 f9d+ ! gates ( ! city     
clos$1 !y =tifi$ !mselves on an em95ce  
ov]look+ ! city1 &1 ?r\gh "s misund]/&+ 
) ! local au?orities1 ! ,au/rian g5]al  
?reat5$ to attack ! city if any ,fr5*man
 %\ld be all[$ to ent]4 ,rum=d took     
supreme comm& ( ! ,bav>ian =ces1 & s    
ga9$ ! respect ( ! rival g5]als t nei!r 
! ,fr5* nor ! ,au/rians made any attempt
 to ent] ! city4 ,! l>ge numb] ( soldi]s
 n[ 9 ,muni* gave ,rum=d a good         
opportunity to ex]cise 8 skill 9 cook+  
on a l>ge scale1 & ?is he did1 add+ to !
 com=t ( ! soldi]s & r$uc+ ! co/ ( !    
commiss>iat4 ,on ! return ( ! elector1  
,miss ,s>ah 0 made a c\ntess1 & "o-half 
( h] fa!r's p5sion 0 secur$ to h]1 ?us  

provid+ h] ) an income ( ab\t ,l#bjj p] 
annum = life4 ,_m ( ! details ( ! home  
life & social int]c\rse dur+ ?is p]iod (
 resid5ce at ,muni* are pres]v$ 9 !     
autobiography ( ! c\ntess1 z well z     
acc\nts ( excursions1 includ+ a trip by 
riv] to ,salzburg = ! purpose ( inspect+
 ! salt-m9es4 ,aft] two ye>s' /ay 9     
,muni*1 ! c\nt 0 appo9t$ ,m9i/]         
,pl5ipot5ti>y f ,bav>ia to ! ,c\rt (    
,great ,brita94 ,aft] an unpleasant &   
p]il\s j\rney1 he rea*$ ,london1 via    
,hamburg1 9 ,septemb]1 #agih1 b 0       
t]ribly disappo9t$ on le>n+ t a ,briti% 
subject c\ld n be accept$ z an envoy f a
 ,=eign ,p[]4 ,z he did n !n wi% to     
return to ,bav>ia1 he pur*as$ a h\se 9  
,brompton ,r[4 ,b he _h be5 too mu*     
accu/om$ to great ent]prises to be      
cont5t ) a quiet life1 & 0 b\nd to h "s 
important s*eme on h&4 ,press+          
invitations 7 s5t him to return to      
,am]ica1 b he pref]r$ resid5ce 9        
,london1 & devot$ himself to ! f\ndation
 ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ?\gh ! c\ntess 

return$ to ! ,/ates 9 ,augu/1 #agii4 ,a 
lett] f ,colonel ,baldw9 to h] fa!r     
%ortly aft] h] return conta9s ! foll[+  
passage3--      ,9 ! cask ( fruit :i*   
y\r daught] & ,mr4 ,rolfe h s5t     y1  
!re is half a doz5 apples ( ! gr[? ( my 
f>m1     wrapp$ up 9 pap]s1 ) ! "n (    
,baldw9's apples     writt5 ^u !m4444 ,x
 is 7,i believe7 a spontane\s production
     ( ?is c\ntry2 t is1 x 0 n orig9ally
 engraft$ fruit4  ,! hi/ory ( ! rema9+  
p]iod ( ,rum=d's resid5ce 9 ,london is !
 e>ly hi/ory ( ! ,royal ,in/itution4  ,=
 _m ye>s ,rum=d _h _h at 8 disposal = 8 
philan?ropic projects all ! res\rces ( !
 electorate ( ,bav>ia1 & he _h done     
ev]y?+ on a royal scale4 ,8 orig9al plan
 = ! ,royal ,in/itution appe>s to embody
 to a v great ext5t ! "w ( ! ,sci5ce &  
,art ,dep>tm5t1 ! ,city & ,guilds       
,in/itute = ! ,advancem5t ( ,te*nical   
,education1 ! ,national ,s*ool (        
,cook]y1 ! ,london ,society = !         
,ext5sion ( ,univ]sity ,tea*+1 &1 9     
addition to all ?is1 to h compreh5d$ a  

sort ( p]petual ,int]national ,heal?    
,exhibition1 :]e e device = dome/ic     
purposes1 & especially = ! improvem5t ( 
! condition ( ! poor1 c\ld be inspect$4 
,h[ all ?is 0 to be c>ri$ out ) !       
res\rces :i* ! c\nt expect$ to be able  
to devote to ! purpose1 does n appe>4   
,=emo/ among ! objects ( ! in/itution 0 
plac$ ! managem5t ( fire2 = its promot] 
0 conv9c$ t m ?an half ! fuel consum$ 9 
! c\ntry might be sav$ by prop]         
arrangem5ts4  ,! philan?ropic objects ) 
:i* ! in/itution 0 />t$ are app>5t f !  
fact t x 0 ! ,society = ,bett]+ !       
,condition ( ! ,poor :i* appo9t$ a      
committee to conf] ) ,rum=d1 to report  
on ! s*eme1 & to raise ! funds necess>y 
= />t+ ! project2 & "o ( ,rum=d's hopes 
9 connection ) x 0 to make b5evol5ce    
fa%ionable4 ,x 0 arrang$ t donors (     
fifty gu9eas ea* %\ld be p]petual       
proprietors ( ! in/itution2 & t         
subscrib]s %\ld be admitt$ at a         
subscription ( two gu9eas p] annum1 or  
t5 gu9eas = life4 ,! price ( a          

proprietor's %>e 0 rais$ to sixty gu9eas
 f ,may #a1 #ahjj1 & aft]w>ds increas$  
by t5 gu9eas p] annum up to "o hundr$   
gu9eas4 ,9 a v %ort "t !re 7 fifty-eight
 fifty-gu9ea subscrib]s1 & to !m ,rum=d 
address$ a pamphlet1 sett+ =? 8 s*eme 9 
detail4 ,! foll[+ are specifi$ z "s ( ! 
cont5ts ( ! future in/itution3--,cottage
 fireplaces & kit*5 ut5sils = cottag]s2 
a f>m-h\se kit*5 ) its furni%+s2 a      
complete kit*51 ) its ut5sils1 = ! h\se 
( a g5tleman ( =tune2 a laundry1 includ+
 boil]s1 wa%+1 iron+1 & dry+ rooms1 = a 
g5tleman's h\se1 or = a public hospital2
 ! mo/ improv$ ,g]man1 ,sw$i%1 &        
,russian /oves = heat+ rooms & passages4
 ,z f> z possible all ^! ?+s 7 to be se5
 at "w4 ,!re 7 also to be ornam5tal op5 
/oves ) fires 9 !m2 work+ models (      
/eam-eng9es1 ( brew]s' boil]s1 (        
di/ill]s' copp]s & cond5s]s1 ( l>ge     
boil]s = hospital kit*5s1 & ( %ips'     
copp]s ) ! requisite ut5sils2 models (  
v5tilat+ app>atus1 sp9n+-:eels & looms  
adapt$ to ! circum/ances ( ! poor2      

models ( agricultural ma*9]y & bridges1 
& ( all su* o!r ma*9es & useful         
in/rum5ts z ! manag]s ( ! in/itution    
%all deem wor?y ( public notice4 ,all   
articles 7 to be provid$ ) prop]        
descriptions1 ) ! "n & address ( ! mak]1
 & ! price4  ,a lecture-room &          
laboratory 7 to be fitt$ up ) all       
necess>y philosophical app>atus1 & ! mo/
 em95t exp\nd]s ( sci5ce 7 to be engag$ 
= ! purpose ( tea*+ ! application (     
sci5ce to ! useful purposes ( life4  ,! 
lectures 7 to include w>m+ & v5tilation1
 ! pres]vation ( food1 agricultural     
*emi/ry1 ! *emi/ry ( dige/ion1 ( tann+1 
( blea*+ & dye+1 &1 9 g5]al1 ( all !    
me*anical arts z !y apply to ! v>i\s    
bran*es ( manufacture4 ,! in/itution 0  
to be gov]n$ by n9e manag]s1 ( :om ?ree 
7 to be elect$ ea* ye> by ! proprietors2
 & !re 0 also to be a committee (       
visitors1 ! memb]s ( :i* %\ld n be !    
manag]s4 ,! k+ became patron ( !        
in/itution1 & ! fir/ set ( (fic]s 0     
nom9at$ by him4 ,! ,e>l ( ,w9*elsea &   

,nott+ham 0 ,presid5t2 ! ,e>ls ( ,morton
 & ( ,egremont & ,sir ,joseph ,banks1   
,vice-,presid5ts2 ! ,e>ls ( ,bessbor\gh1
 ( ,egremont1 & ( ,morton1 & ,c\nt      
,rum=d1 7 among ! ,manag]s2 ! ,duke (   
,bridgewat]1 ,visc\nt ,palm]/on1 & ,e>l 
,sp5c] ! ,visitors2 & ,dr4 ,?omas       
,g>nett 0 appo9t$ fir/ ,pr(essor (      
,physics & ,*emi/ry4 ,! royal *>t] ( !  
in/itution 0 seal$ on ,janu>y #ac1      
#ahjj4 ,! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! j\rnals ( !   
in/itution 0 entru/$ to ,rum=d's c>e4 ,=
 "s "t ! c\nt resid$ 9 ! h\se 9         
,albem>le ,/reet1 :i* _h be5 pur*as$ by 
! in/itution1 & :ile !re he sup]9t5d$ ! 
workm5 & s]vants4  ,dr4 ,?omas ,g>nett1 
! fir/ pr(essor at ! in/itution1 0      
highly respect$ bo? z a man & a         
philosoph]1 & seems to h be5 ev]y:]e    
well spok5 (4 ,b ,rum=d & he c\ld n "w  
toge!r1 & 8 connection ) ! in/itution 0 
consequ5tly a %ort "o4 ,rum=d 0 !n      
au?oriz$ to engage ,dr4 ,"y z ,pr(essor 
( ,natural ,philosophy1 editor ( !      
j\rnals1 & g5]al sup]9t5d5t ( ! h\se1 at

 a sal>y ( ,l#cjj p] annum4 ,%ortly be=e
 ?is ! c\nt's att5tion _h be5 direct$ to
 ! exp]im5ts on heat1 made by ,humphry  
,davy1 & on ,febru>y #af1 #ahja1 x 0    
resolv$ t ,mr4 ,humphry ,davy be engag$ 
9 ! s]vice ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 9 !  
capacity ( ,assi/ant-,lectur] 9         
,*emi/ry1 ,director ( ! ,*emical        
,laboratory1 & ,assi/ant-,editor ( !    
,j\rnals ( ! ,in/itution2 & t he be     
all[$ to occupy a room 9 ! h\se1 & be   
furni%$ ) coals & c&les1 & t he be paid 
a sal>y ( "o hundr$ gu9eas p] annum4 ,9 
8 p]sonal appe>ance1 ,davy is said to h 
be5 at fir/ some:at unc\?1 & ! c\nt 0 by
 no means *>m$ ) him at _! fir/         
int]view4 ,x 0 n till he _h he>d him    
lecture 9 private t ,rum=d w\ld all[    
,davy to lecture 9 ! !atre ( !          
in/itution2 b he aft]w>ds %[$ 8 complete
 confid5ce 9 ! "y *emi/ by ord]+ t all !
 res\rces ( ! in/itution %\ld be at 8   
s]vice4 ,davy d9$ ) ,rum=d at ! c\nt's  
h\se 9 ,auteuil1 :5 he visit$ ,p>is )   
,lady ,davy & ,f>aday1 9 #ahac4 ,he     

comm5c$ 8 duties at ! in/itution on ,m>*
 #aa1 #ahja4 ,x 0 on ,june #ae1 9 ! same
 ye>1 t ! manag]s hav+ object$ to !     
syllabus ( 8 lectures1 ,dr4 ,g>nett's   
resignation 0 accept$2 & on ,july #f    
,dr4 ,"y 0 appo9t$ 9 8 /ead4 ,dr4 ,"y   
resign$ aft] hold+ ! appo9tm5t only two 
ye>s1 z he f\nd ! duties incompatible ) 
8 "w z a physician4  ,rum=d's life 9    
,london n[ became daily m unpleasant to 
himself4 ,accu/om$1 z he _h be5 9       
,bav>ia1 to c>ry out all 8 projects l an
 emp]or1 x 0 difficult = him to "w z "o 
memb] ( a body ( manag]s4 ,"o by "o he  
qu>rell$ ) 8 colleagues1 & at l5g? left 
,engl&1 9 ,may1 #ahjb1 nev] to return4  
,:5 di/+ui%$ m5 ( sci5ce are plac$ at ! 
head ( an in/itution l t :i* ,rum=d     
f\nd$1 !re is always a t5d5cy = !       
te*nical tea*+ ( ! e/abli%m5t to become 
gradually m]g$ into sci5tific rese>*2 & 
9 ?is case1 aft] ,rum=d's dep>ture1 !   
g5ius ( ,davy gradually conv]t$ ! ,royal
 ,in/itution into ! e/abli%m5t =        
sci5tific rese>* :i* x has be5 = m ?an  

?ree qu>t]s ( a c5tury4 ,probably ! man 
:o has come ne>e/ to realiz+ all t ,c\nt
 ,rum=d _h plann$ = 8 in/itution is !   
late ,sir ,h5ry ,cole2 b he succe$$ only
 ?r\gh ! res\rces ( ! ,treasury4  ,on   
leav+ ,engl& 9 ,may1 #ahjb1 ,rum=d w5t  
to ,p>is1 :]e he /ay$ till ,july or     
,augu/1 :5 he revisit$ ,bav>ia & rema9$ 
!re till ! foll[+ ye>1 :5 he return$ to 
,p>is4 ,he 0 aga9 at ,muni* 9 #ahje2 b  
"u ! new elector1 ?\gh an old fri5d ( ! 
c\nt1 relation%ips d n seem to h be5 all
 t !y 7 ) 8 uncle1 & at l5g? ! elector  
himself 0 compell$ to leave ,muni*1 &   
soon aft] ! ,bav>ian sov]eign became a  
vassal ( ,napoleon4 ,on ,octob] #bd1    
#ahje1 ,rum=d m>ri$ ,madame ,lavoisi]1 a
 lady ( brilliant tal5ts & ample =tune4 
,t 8 position might be ne>ly equal to   
h]s1 ! ,elector ( ,bav>ia rais$ 8 p5sion
 to ,l#abjj p] annum4 ,a h\se1 ,rue     
d',anj\1 ,no4 #ci1 0 pur*as$ = six ?\s& 
gu9eas1 & ,rum=d exp5d$ mu* ?\ght &     
en]gy 9 mak+ x1 ) its g>d5 ( two acres1 
all t he c\ld desire4 ,b ! union 0 n s  

happy z he anticipat$4 ,! c\nt lov$     
quiet2 ,madame de ,rum=d 0 fond (       
company3 to ! =m] ! pleasure ( ! table  
_h no *>ms2 ! latt] took delight 9      
sumptu\s d9n]-p>ties4 ,z "t w5t on1     
dome/ic affairs became m & m unpleasant1
 & at l5g? a fri5dly sep>ation 0 agre$  
^u1 aft] !y _h liv$ toge!r = ab\t ?ree  
ye>s & a half4 ,! c\nt !n retir$ to a   
small e/ate :i* he hir$ at ,auteuil1    
ab\t f\r miles f ,p>is4 ,! ,elector (   
,bav>ia 0 cr[n$ k+ on ,janu>y #a1 #ahjf1
 & 9 #ahaj ,rum=d 0 aga9 at ,muni*1 = ! 
purpose ( =m+1 at ! k+'s reque/1 an     
,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces4 ,at        
,auteuil ! c\nt 0 jo9$ by 8 daught] 9   
,decemb]1 #ahaa1 h] j\rney hav+ be5 mu* 
delay$ ?r\gh ! capture ( ! vessel 9 :i* 
%e _h tak5 h] passage1 (f ,bordeaux4 ,an
 engrav+ ( ! h\se at ,auteuil1 & ! room 
9 :i* ,rum=d c>ri$ on 8 exp]im5ts1 0    
publi%$ 9 ! ,illu/rat$ ,london ,news (  
,janu>y #bb1 #ahgj4  ,:ile resid5t at   
,auteuil1 ,rum=d frequ5tly read pap]s   
be=e ! ,in/itute ( ,france1 ( :i* he 0 a

 memb]4 ,he compla9$ v mu* ( ! jeal\sy  
exhibit$ by ! o!r memb]s ) ref]5ce to   
any discov]ies made by a =eign]4 ,he di$
 9 8 h\se at ,auteuil1 on ,augu/ #ba1   
#ahad1 9 ! sixty-second ye> ( 8 age4 ,9 
#ahjd he _h made ov]1 by de$ ( gift to 8
 "m1 ! sum ( t5 ?\s& doll>s1 t %e might 
leave x by w to h] y\ng] *ildr54 ,z be=e
 m5tion$1 ,h>v>d ,college 0 8 residu>y  
legatee1 & ! prop]ty s bequea!d f\nd$ ! 
,rum=d ,pr(essor%ip 9 t in/itution4     
,cuvi]1 z ,secret>y ( ! ,in/itute1      
pron\nc$ ! cu/om>y eulogy ov] its late  
memb]4 ,! foll[+ passages ?r[ "s light  
on ! reputation 9 :i* ! c\nt 0 held3--  
,he has con/ruct$ two s+ul>ly +5i\s     
in/rum5ts ( 8     own contriv+4 ,"o is a
 new calorimet] = measur+ !     am\nt ( 
heat produc$ by ! combu/ion ( any body4 
,x is a     receptacle conta9+ a giv5   
quantity ( wat]1 ?r\gh :i*     passes1  
by a s]p5t9e tube1 ! product ( !        
combu/ion2 &     ! heat t is g5]at$ is  
transmitt$ ?r\gh ! wat]1     :i*1 be+   
rais$ by a fix$ numb] ( degrees1 s]ves z

 !     basis ( ! calculations4 ,! mann] 
9 :i* ! ext]ior heat     is prev5t$ f   
affect+ ! exp]im5t is v simple &     v  
+5i\s4 ,he beg9s ! op]ation at a c]ta9  
numb] (     degrees bel[ ! outside heat1
 & t]m9ates x at ! same     numb] (     
degrees above x4 ,! ext]nal air takes   
back dur+     ! second half ( ! exp]im5t
 exactly :at x gave up dur+     ! fir/4 
,! o!r in/rum5t s]ves = not+ ! mo/      
trifl+ diff]5ces 9 ! temp]ature (       
bodies1 or 9 !     rapidity ( its       
*anges4 ,x consi/s ( two glass bulbs    
fill$     ) air1 unit$ by a tube1 9 !   
middle ( :i* is a pellet     ( col\r$   
spirits ( w9e2 ! slighte/ increase (    
heat 9     "o ( ! bulbs drives ! pellet 
t[>ds ! o!r4 ,?is     in/rum5t1 :i* he  
call$ a !rmoscope1 0 ( especial         
s]vice 9 mak+ kn[n to him ! v>i$ &      
p[]ful influ5ce     ( diff]5t surfaces 9
 ! transmission ( heat1 & also =        
indicat+ a v>iety ( me?ods = ret>d+ or  
ha/5+ at     w ! processes ( heat+ &    
freez+4444      ,he ?\ght x 0 n wise or 

good to entru/ to m51 9 !     mass1 !   
c>e ( _! own well-be+4 ,! "r1 :i* seems 
s natural to !m1 ( judg+ :e!r !y are    
wisely gov]n$1     appe>$ to him to be a
 fictiti\s fancy born ( false notions   
( enlight5m5t4 ,8 views ( slav]y 7 ne>ly
 ! same z     ^? ( a plantation-own]4   
,he reg>d$ ! gov]nm5t ( ,*9a     z com+ 
ne>e/ to p]fection1 because1 9 giv+ ov] 
!     p to ! absolute control ( _! only 
intellig5t m51     & 9 lift+ ea* ( ^? :o
 belong$ to ?is hi]>*y on     ! scale   
accord+ to ! degree ( 8 intellig5ce1 x  
made1     s to speak1 s _m millions (   
arms ! passive organs ( !     w ( a few 
s\nd heads--a notion :i* ,i /ate )\t    
pret5d+ 9 ! slighte/ degree to approve  
x1 & :i*1 z     we "k1 w\ld be poorly   
calculat$ to f9d preval5ce among        
,european nations4      ,z = ! re/1     
:atev] 7 ! s5tim5ts ( ,m4 ,rum=d =      
m51 !y 9 no way less5$ 8 rev]5ce = ,god4
 ,he nev]     omitt$ any opportunity 9 8
 works ( express+ 8 religi\s            
admiration ( ,provid5ce1 & ( propos+ = t

 admiration     by o!rs1 ! innum]able & 
v>i$ provisions :i* are made     = !    
pres]vation ( all creatures2 inde$1 ev5 
8     political views came f 8 firm     
p]suasion t pr9ces ought     to imitate 
,provid5ce 9 ?is respect by tak+ *>ge ( 
u     )\t be+ am5able to u4  ,9 front ( 
! new ,gov]nm5t (fices & ! ,national    
,museum 9 ! ,maximilian ,/rasse1 9      
,muni*1 /&1 on granite p$e/als1 f\r     
bronze figures1 t5 feet 9 height4 ,^!   
repres5t ,g5]al ,d]oy1 ,fraunh(]1       
,s*ell+1 & ,c\nt ,rum=d4 ,! /atue (     
,rum=d 0 erect$ 9 #ahfg1 at ! k+'s      
private exp5se4 ,9 ! ,engli% g>d5 :i*   
,rum=d plann$ & laid out is ! monum5t   
erect$ dur+ 8 abs5ce 9 ,engl& 9 #agif1 &
 be>+ allegorical figures ( ,peace &    
,pl5ty1 & a m$allion ( ! c\nt4  ,! b>e  
enum]ation ( ,rum=d's publi%$ pap]s w\ld
 occupy consid]able space1 b _m ( !m h m
 to d ) philan?ropy & dome/ic economy   
?an ) physics4 ,we h se5 t1 :5 gue/ (   
,"l ,george ,g]ma9e1 he 0 engag$ 9      
exp]im5ts on gunp[d]4 ,! exp]im5ts 7    

made 9 ! usual mann] by fir+ bullets    
into a balli/ic p5dulum1 & record+ ! sw+
 ( ! p5dulum4 ,?ompson sugge/$ a        
modification ( ! balli/ic p5dulum1      
atta*+ ! gun-b>rel to ! p5dulum1 &      
obs]v+ ! recoil1 & mak+ all[ance = !    
recoil due to ! dis*>ge f ! gun ( !     
products ( combu/ion ( ! p[d]1 ! excess 
enabl$ ! velocity ( ! bullet to be      
calculat$4 ,aft]w>ds he made exp]im5ts  
on ! maximum pressure produc$ by !      
explosion ( p[d]1 & po9t$ out t ! value 
( p[d] 9 ordnance does n dep5d simply on
 ! :ole am\nt ( gas produc$1 b also on !
 rapidity ( combu/ion4 ,:ile sup]9t5d+ !
 ars5al at ,muni*1 ,rum=d explod$ small 
*>ges ( p[d] 9 a specially con/ruct$    
receiv]1 :i* 0 clos$ by a plug (        
well-greas$ lea!r1 & on ?is 0 plac$ a   
hemisph]e ( /eel press$ d[n by a        
#bd-p\nd] brass cannon weigh+ #hjha     
p\nds4 ,he f\nd t ! weight ( ! gun 0    
lift$ by ! explosion ( quantities ( p[d]
 v>y+ f twelve to fifte5 gra9s1 & h5ce  
conclud$ t1 if ! products ( combu/ion ( 

! p[d] 7 conf9$ to ! space actually     
occupi$ by ! solid p[d]1 ! initial      
pressure w\ld exce$ tw5ty ?\s&          
atmosph]es4 ,rum=d's calculation ( !    
pressure1 bas$ ^u ! bur/+ ( a b>rel1 :i*
 he _h previ\sly con/ruct$1 is n        
satisfactory1 inasmu* z he takes no     
acc\nt ( ! fact t ! inn] portions ( !   
metal w\ld give way long be=e ! out]    
lay]s ex]t$ any?+ l _! maximum t5sion4  
,:5 a holl[ vessel ) ?ick walls1 su* z a
 gun-b>rel or %ell1 is bur/ by gase\s   
pressure f )91 ! inn] lay]s ( mat]ial   
are /ret*$ to _! break+ t5sion be=e !y  
receive mu* support f ! out] lay]s2 a   
rift is ?us made 9 ! int]ior1 into :i* !
 gas ent]s1 & ! surface on :i* ! gas    
presses be+ ?us increas$1 ! rift deep5s 
till ! fracture is complete4 ,9 ord] to 
ga9 ! full /r5g? due to ! mat]ial       
employ$1 e portion ( t mat]ial %\ld be  
/ret*$ simultane\sly to ! ext5t ( its   
maximum safe load4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 fir/ 
practically adopt$ by ,sir ,w4 ,g4      
,arm/rong1 :o1 by build+ up ! bree* ( ! 

gun ) cyl9d]s %runk on1 & s arrang$ t ! 
t5sion increas$ t[>ds ! ext]ior1 avail$ 
himself ( ne>ly ! :ole /r5g? ( ! metal  
employ$ to resi/ ! explosion4 ,_h       
,rum=d's b>rel be5 con/ruct$ on ?is     
pr9ciple1 he w\ld h obta9$ a mu* m      
satisfactory result4  ,^! inve/igations 
7 foll[$ by a v int]e/+ s]ies (         
exp]im5ts on ! conduct+ p[] ( fluids =  
heat1 &1 al?\gh he pu%$ 8 conclusions   
fur!r ?an 8 exp]im5ts w>rant$1 he %[$   
conclusively t convection curr5ts are ! 
pr9cipal means by :i* heat is transf]r$ 
?r\gh ! sub/ance ( fluids1 & describ$   
h[1 :5 a vessel ( wat] is heat$1 !re is 
g5]ally an asc5d+ curr5t 9 ! c5tre1 & a 
desc5d+ curr5t all r\nd ! p]iph]y4 ,h5ce
 x is only :5 a liquid exp&s by increase
 ( temp]ature t a l>ge mass c be readily
 heat$ f bel[4 ,wat] bel[ #ci deg4      
,fahr4 contracts :5 heat$4 ,rum=d1 9 8  
pap]1 enl>ges on ! be>+ ( ?is fact on ! 
economy ( ! univ]se1 & ! foll[+ extracts
 af=d a good specim5 ( 8 /yle1 & ju/ify 
"s ( ! /atem5ts made by ,cuvi] 9 8      

eulogy3--      ,i feel ! dang] to :i* a 
mortal exposes himself :o has !         
tem]ity to und]take to expla9 ! designs 
( ,inf9ite ,wisdom4     ,! ent]prise is 
adv5tur\s1 b x _c surely be improp]4    
,! wond]ful simplicity ( ! means employ$
 by ! ,creator (     ! _w to produce !  
*anges ( ! seasons1 ) all !             
innum]able advantages to ! inhabitants (
 ! e>? :i*     fl[ f !m1 _c fail to make
 a v deep & la/+     impression on e    
human be+ ^: m9d is n degrad$ &     q   
call\s to e +5u\s & noble s5tim5t2 b !  
fur!r we pursue our inquiries respect+ !
 con/itution (     ! univ]se1 & ! m     
att5tively we exam9e ! effects          
produc$ by ! v>i\s modifications ( !    
active p[]s :i*     we p]ceive1 ! m we  
%all be dispos$ to admire1 adore1 &     
love t great ,fir/ ,cause :i* br\ght all
 ?+s into     exi/5ce4      ,?\gh w9t] &
 summ]1 spr+ & autumn1 & all ! v>iety   
( ! seasons are produc$ 9 a mann] at !  
same "t !     mo/ simple & ! mo/ /up5d\s
 7by ! incl9ation ( !     axis ( ! e>?  

to ! plane ( ! ecliptic71 yet ?is       
me*anical contrivance alone w\ld n h be5
 suffici5t 7z     ,i %all endeav\r to   
%[7 to produce t gradual *ange (        
temp]ature 9 ! v>i\s climates :i* we f9d
 to exi/1 &     :i* d\btless is         
indisp5sably necess>y to ! pres]vation  
( animal & vegetable life4444      ,b 9 
v cold c\ntries ! gr\nd is froz5 & cov]$
 )     sn[1 & all ! lakes & riv]s are   
froz5 ov] 9 ! v     beg9n+ ( w9t]4 ,!   
cold !n fir/ beg9s to be extreme1     & 
!re appe>s to be no s\rce ( heat left   
:i* is     suffici5t to mod]ate x 9 any 
s5sible degree4      ,let u see :at mu/ 
h happ5$ if ?+s _h be5 left to     :at  
might be call$ _! natural c\rse--if !   
cond5sation     ( wat]1 on be+ depriv$ (
 its heat1 _h foll[$ ! law     :i* we   
f9d obta9s 9 o!r fluids1 & ev5 9 wat]   
itself     9 "s cases1 namely1 :5 x is  
mix$ ) c]ta9 bodies4      ,_h n         
,provid5ce int]f]$ on ?is occasion 9 a  
mann] :i*     may well be consid]$      
miracul\s1 all ! fre% wat] )9     ! pol>

 circle mu/ inevitably h be5 froz5 to a 
v     great dep? 9 "o w9t]1 & e plant & 
tree de/roy$2     & x is m ?an probable 
t ! region ( et]nal fro/     w\ld h     
spread on e side f ! poles1 &1 advanc+  
t[>ds ! equator1 w\ld h ext5d$ its dre>y
 & solit>y     reign ov] a great "p (   
:at are n[ ! mo/ f]tile &     mo/       
inhabit$ climates ( ! _w6444      ,let u
 ) becom+ diffid5ce & awe endeav\r to   
see :at     ! means are :i* h be5       
employ$ by an almighty &     b5evol5t   
,god to protect ,8 fair creation4  ,he  
!n goes on to expla9 h[ l>ge bodies (   
wat] are prev5t$ f freez+ at great dep?s
 on acc\nt ( ! expansion :i* takes place
 on cool+ bel[ #ci deg4 ,fahr41 & !     
fur!r expansion :i* occurs on freez+1 & 
m5tions t 9 ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 at a dep? 
( a ?\s& feet1 ,m4 ,pictet f\nd !       
temp]ature to be #dj deg4 ,fahr4  ,we _c
 suffici5tly admire ! simplicity ( !    
contrivance by :i* all ?is heat is sav$4
 ,x well des]ves to be comp>$ ) t by :i*
 ! seasons are produc$2 & ,i mu/ ?9k t e

 c&id inquir] :o w beg9 by dive/+       
himself ( all unreasonable prejudice w  
agree ) me 9 attribut+ !m bo? ,,to ,,!  
,,same ,,au?or4444  ,b ,i mu/ take c>e n
 to tire my read] by pursu+ ^!          
speculations too f>4 ,if ,i h p]si/$ 9  
!m1 if ,i h dwelt on !m ) peculi>       
satisfaction & complac5cy1 x is because 
,i ?9k !m uncommonly int]e/+1 & also    
because ,i conceiv$ t !y might be (     
value 9 ?is age ( ref9em5t & scepticism4
  ,if1 among b>b>\s nations1 ! fe> ( a  
,god1 & ! practice ( religi\s duties1   
t5d to s(t5 savage dispositions1 & to   
prep>e ! m9d = all ^? sweet enjoym5ts   
:i* result f peace1 ord]1 indu/ry1 &    
fri5dly int]c\rse2 a belief 9 ! exi/5ce 
( a ,supreme ,intellig5ce1 :o rules &   
gov]ns ! univ]se ) wisdom & goodness1 is
 n less ess5tial to ! happ9ess ( ^? :o1 
by cultivat+ _! m5tal p[]s1 ,,h ,,le>n$ 
,,to ,,"k ,,h[ ,,little ,,c ,,be ,,kn[n4
  ,rum=d1 9 connection ) 8 exp]im5ts on 
! conduct+ p[] ( liquids1 tri$ ! effect 
( increas+ ! viscosity ( wat] by !      

addition ( />*1 & ( imp$+ its movem5ts  
by ! introduction ( eid]-d[n1 on ! rate 
( diffusion ( heat ?r\gh x4 ,h5ce he    
expla9$ ! inequalities ( temp]ature :i* 
may obta9 9 a mass ( ?ick               
s\p--inequalities :i* _h once caus$ him 
to burn 8 m\?--&1 apply+ ! same         
pr9ciples to air1 he at once turn$ 8    
conclusions to practical acc\nt 9 !     
matt] ( w>m clo?+4  ,aft] an attempt to 
det]m9e1 if possible1 ! weight ( a      
def9ite quantity ( heat--an attempt 9   
:i* v great precautions 7 tak5 to       
exclude di/urb+ causes1 :ile ! balance  
employ$ 0 capable ( indicat+ "o-million?
 "p ( ! weight ( ! body weigh$--,rum=d1 
f9d+ no s5sible effect on ! balance1    
conclud$ t if ! weight ( gold is nei!r  
augm5t$ nor less5$ by "o-million? "p1 ^u
 be+ heat$ f ! po9t ( freez+ wat] to t (
 a bright r$ heat1 ,i ?9k we may v      
safely conclude t ,,all ,,attempts ,,to 
,,discov] ,,any ,,effect ,,( ,,heat ,,^u
 ,,! ,,app>5t ,,weights ,,( ,,bodies ,,w
 ,,be ,,fruitless4 ,! !oretical         

inve/igations ( ,pr9cipal ,hicks1 bas$  
on ! vortex !ory ( matt] & ! dynamical  
!ory ( heat1 h rec5tly l$ him to !      
conclusion t ! attraction ( gravitation 
may dep5d to "s ext5t on temp]ature4  ,a
 s]ies ( v valuable exp]im5ts on !      
radiat+ p[]s ( diff]5t surfaces %[$ h[ t
 p[] v>i$ ) ! nature ( ! surface1 & !   
effect ( a coat+ ( lamp-black 9 increas+
 ! radiat+ p[] ( a body4 ,9 ord] to     
det]m9e ! effect ( radiation 9 ! cool+ (
 bodies1 ,rum=d employ$ ! !rmoscope     
ref]r$ to by ,cuvi]4 ,! foll[+ passage  
is wor?y ( att5tion1 z ! tru? x exp\nds 
9 ! la/ ?irte5 words appe>s to h be5 b v
 imp]fectly recogniz$ _m ye>s aft] x 0  
writt53--  ,all ! heat :i* a hot body   
loses :5 x is expos$ 9 ! air to cool is 
n giv5 (f to ! air :i* comes into       
contact ) x1 b 444 a l>ge proportion ( x
 escapes 9 rays1 :i* d n heat !         
transp>5t air ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 b1 l   
light1 g5]ate heat only :5 & :]e !y are 
/opp$ & absorb$4  ,rum=d !n inve/igat$ !
 absorption ( heat by diff]5t surfaces1 

& e/abli%$ ! law t good radiators are   
good absorb]s2 & recomm5d$ t vessels 9  
:i* wat] is to be heat$ %\ld be black5$ 
on ! outside4 ,9 speculat+ on ! use ( ! 
col\r+ matt] 9 ! sk9 ( ! negro1 he %[s 8
 fondness = exp]im5t3--  ,all ,i w      
v5ture to say on ! subject is t1 7 ,i   
call$ to inhabit a v hot c\ntry1 no?+   
%\ld prev5t me f mak+ ! exp]im5t (      
black5+ my sk91 or at lea/1 ( we>+ a    
black %irt1 9 ! %ade1 & especially at   
night1 9 ord] to f9d out if1 by ^?      
means1 ,i c\ld contrive to make myself m
 com=table4  ,9 8 exp]im5ts on !        
conduction ( heat1 ,rum=d employ$ a     
cyl9d] ) "o end imm]s$ 9 boil+ wat] & ! 
o!r 9 melt+ ice1 & det]m9$ ! temp]ature 
at diff]5t po9ts 9 ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d]4   
,he f\nd ! difficulty :i* has rec5tly   
be5 =cibly po9t$ out by ,sir ,wm4       
,?omson1 9 ! article ,heat1 9 !         
,encyclopa$ia ,britannica1 viz4 t !     
circulation ( ! wat] 0 n suffici5tly    
rapid to keep ! temp]ature ( ! lay] 9   
contact ) ! metal ! same z t ( ! re/ ( !

 wat]2 & he also call$ att5tion to !    
arbitr>y "* ( !rmomet]-scales1 &        
recomm5d$ t m att5tion %\ld be giv5 to !
 scale ( ! air !rmomet]4 ,x 0 9 8 visit 
to ,ed9burgh1 9 #ahjj1 t1 9 company ) "s
 ( ! univ]sity pr(essors1 ! c\nt        
conduct$ "s exp]im5ts 9 ! univ]sity     
laboratory on ! app>5t radiation ( cold4
 ,rum=d's views respect+ frigorific rays
 h n be5 g5]ally accept$1 & ,prevo/'s   
!ory ( ex*anges completely expla9s !    
app>5t radiation ( cold )\t suppos+ t   
cold is any?+ else ?an ! m]e abs5ce (   
heat4  ,we mu/ pass ov] ,rum=d's pap]s  
on ! use ( /eam z a vehicle ( heat1 on  
new boil]s & /oves = ! purpose (        
economiz+ fuel1 & all ! pap]s be>+ on ! 
nutritive value ( diff]5t foods4 ,!     
calorimet] ) :i* he det]m9$ ! am\nt (   
heat g5]at$ by ! combu/ion1 & ! lat5t   
heat ( evaporation1 ( v>i\s bodies has  
be5 already allud$ to4 ,( ! f\r volumes 
( ,rum=d's works publi%$ by ! ,am]ican  
,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 ! ?ird is  
tak5 up entirely ) descriptions (       

fireplaces & ( cook+ ut5sils4  ,be=e    
decid+ on ! be/ way to light ! milit>y  
workh\se at ,muni*1 ,rum=d made a s]ies 
( exp]im5ts on ! relative economy (     
diff]5t me?ods1 & = ?is purpose design$ 
8 well-kn[n %ad[-photomet]4 ,9 ! f9al =m
 ( ?is in/rum5t ! %ad[s 7 ?r[n on a     
plate ( gr\nd glass cov]$ ) pap]1 =m+ ! 
back ( a small box1 f :i* all extrane\s 
light 0 exclud$4 ,two rods 7 plac$ 9    
front ( ?is scre51 & ! lights to be     
comp>$ 7 s situat$ t ! %ad[ ( "o rod    
?r[n by ! fir/ light might be j 9       
contact ) t ( ! o!r rod ?r[n by ! second
 light4 ,by introduc+ col\r$ glasses 9  
front ( ! lights1 ,rum=d comp>$ !       
illum9at+ p[]s ( diff]5t s\rces )       
respect to light ( a p>ticul> col\r4 ,! 
complem5t>y t9ts exhibit$ by ! %ad[s    
caus$ him to devise 8 !ory ( ! h>mony ( 
complem5t>y col\rs4 ,"o result is wor?y 
( m5tion3 x is a conclusion to :i*      
public att5tion has s9ce be5 call$ 9    
connection ) duplex burn]s4 ,rum=d f\nd 
t ) wax tap]s ! am\nt ( light emitt$ p] 

gra9 ( wax consum$ dim9i%$ ) ! dim9ution
 ( ! consumption1 s t a small tap] gave 
out only "o-sixte5? z mu* light z an    
ord9>y c&le = ! same consumption ( wax4 
,he says3--  ,?is result c be easily    
expla9$ if we admit ! hypo!sis :i*      
supposes light to be analog\s to        
s\nd4444 ,! p>ticles 444 7 s rapidly    
cool$ 444 t !y _h h>dly "t to %9e "o    
in/ant be=e !y became too cold to be any
 long] visible4  ,an arg& lamp1 :5      
comp>$ ) a lamp hav+ a flat wick1 gave m
 light 9 ! ratio ( #ajj to #he = ! same 
consumption ( oil4  ,"o ( ! late/       
inve/igations ( ,rum=d 0 t be>+ on !    
effect ( ! wid? ( ! :eels on ! draught (
 a c>riage4 ,to 8 own c>riage1 weigh+1 )
 its pass5g]s1 ne>ly a ton1 he fitt$ a  
spr+ dynamomet] by means ( a set (      
pulleys atta*$ to ! "u-c>riage & !      
spl9t]-b>4 ,he us$ ?ree sets ( :eels1   
respectively #a-c_/d1 #b-a_/d1 & #d     
in*es wide1 &1 introduc+ weights into ! 
c>riage to make up = ! diff]5ce 9 !     
weights ( ! :eels1 he f\nd a v s5sible  

dim9ution 9 ! tractive =ce requir$ z !  
wid? ( ! :eels 0 increas$1 & 9 a truly  
sci5tific _s1 despis+ ! ridicule ca/ ^u 
him1 he p]si/$ 9 rid+ ab\t ,p>is 9 a    
c>riage ) f\r-in* tyres4  ,b ! piece (  
"w by :i* ,rum=d w be be/ kn[n to future
 g5]ations is t describ$ 9 8 pap]       
entitl$ ,an ,inquiry conc]n+ ! ,s\rce ( 
! ,heat :i* is excit$ by ,friction4 ,x 0
 :ile sup]9t5d+ ! bor+ ( cannon 9 !     
ars5al at ,muni* t ,rum=d 0 /ruck ) !   
enorm\s am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by !        
friction ( ! bor+-b> aga9/ ! metal4 ,9  
ord] to det]m9e :e!r ! heat _h come f ! 
*ips ( metal !mselves1 he took a        
quantity ( ! abrad$ bor+s & an equal    
weight ( *ips cut f ! metal ) a f9e saw1
 &1 heat+ !m to ! temp]ature ( boil+    
wat]1 he imm]s$ !m 9 equal quantities ( 
wat] at #ei-a_/b deg4 ,fahr4 ,! *ange ( 
temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 ! same 9 bo?      
cases1 & ,rum=d f\nd t !re 0 no *ange   
:i* he c\ld discov] 9 reg>d to its      
capacity = heat produc$ 9 ! metal by !  
action ( ! bor]4  ,9 ord] to prev5t !   

honeycomb+ ( ! ca/+s by ! escap+ gas1 ! 
cannon 7 ca/ 9 a v]tical position ) !   
bree* at ! bottom ( ! m\ld & a %ort     
cyl9d] project+ ab\t two feet beyond !  
muzzle ( ! gun1 s t any imp]fections 9 !
 ca/+ w\ld appe> 9 ?is project+ cyl9d]4 
,x 0 on "o ( ^! pieces ( wa/e metal1    
:ile /ill atta*$ to ! gun1 t ,rum=d     
conduct$ 8 exp]im5ts4 ,hav+ turn$ !     
cyl9d]1 he cut away ! metal 9 front ( ! 
muzzle until ! project+ piece 0 connect$
 ) ! gun by a n>r[ cyl9drical neck1 #b4b
 in*es 9 diamet] & #c4h in*es long4 ,!  
ext]nal diamet] ( ! cyl9d] 0 #g4ge      
in*es1 & its l5g? #i4h in*es1 & x 0 bor$
 to a dep? ( #g4b in*es1 ! diamet] ( !  
bore be+ #c4g in*es4 ,! cannon 0 m\nt$ 9
 ! bor+-la!1 & a blunt bor] press$ by a 
screw aga9/ ! bottom ( ! bore ) a =ce   
equal to ! weight ( #aj1jjj p\nds4 ,a   
small transv]se hole 0 made 9 ! cyl9d]  
ne> its base = ! introduction ( a       
!rmomet]4 ,! cyl9d] weigh$ #aac4ac      
p\nds1 &1 ) ! gun1 0 turn$ at ! rate (  
?irty-two revolutions p] m9ute by       

horse-p[]4 ,to prev5t loss ( heat1 !    
cyl9d] 0 cov]$ ) flannel4 ,aft] ?irty   
m9utes' "w1 ! !rmomet]1 :5 introduc$    
into ! cyl9d]1 %[$ a temp]ature ( #acj  
deg4 ,fahr4 ,! loss ( heat dur+ !       
exp]im5t 0 e/imat$ f obs]vations ( !    
rate ( cool+ ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! weight (    
metal abrad$ 0 #hcg gra9s1 :ile ! am\nt 
( heat produc$ 0 suffici5t to raise     
ne>ly five p\nds ( ice-cold wat] to !   
boil+ po9t4  ,to exclude ! action ( !   
air1 ! cyl9d] 0 clos$ by an air-tight   
pi/on1 b no *ange 0 produc$ 9 ! result4 
,z ! air _h access to ! metal :]e x 0   
rubb$ by ! pi/on1 & ,rum=d ?\ght ?is    
might possibly affect ! result1 a deal  
box 0 con/ruct$1 ) slits at ea* end     
clos$ by slid+ %utt]s1 & s arrang$ t x  
c\ld be plac$ ) ! bor+ b> pass+ ?r\gh "o
 slit & ! n>r[ neck connect+ ! cyl9d] ) 
! gun ?r\gh ! o!r slit1 ! slid+ %utt]s1 
) ! help ( coll>s ( oil$ lea!r1 s]v+ to 
make ! box wat]-tight4 ,! box 0 !n fill$
 ) wat] & ! lid plac$ on4 ,aft] turn+ = 
an h\r ! temp]ature 0 rais$ f #fj deg4  

to #ajg deg4 ,fahr41 aft] an h\r & a    
half x 0 #adb deg4 ,fahr41 at ! end (   
two h\rs ! temp]ature 0 #agh deg4       
,fahr41 at two h\rs & tw5ty m9utes x 0  
#bjj deg4 ,fahr41 & at two h\rs & ?irty 
m9utes x ,,actually ,,boil$6  ,x w\ld be
 difficult to describe ! surprise &     
a/oni%m5t express$ 9 ! c\nt5ances ( !   
by/&]s on see+ s l>ge a quantity ( cold 
wat] heat$ & actually made to boil )\t  
any fire4  ,?\gh !re 01 9 fact1 no?+ t  
c\ld ju/ly be consid]$ z surpris+ 9 ?is 
ev5t1 yet ,i ackn[l$ge fairly t x af=d$ 
me a degree ( *ildi% pleasure :i*1 7 ,i 
ambiti\s ( ! reputation ( a grave       
philosoph]1 ,i ought mo/ c]ta9ly r to   
hide ?an to discov]4  ,rum=d e/imat$ !  
total quantity ( ice-cold wat] :i*1 ) ! 
heat actually g5]at$ by ! friction &    
accumulat$ 9 two h\rs & ?irty m9utes1   
might h be5 heat$ #ahj degrees1 or made 
to boil at #bf4eh p\nds1 & ! rate (     
production he consid]$ exce$$ t ( n9e   
wax c&les1 ea* consum+ n9ety-eight gra9s
 ( wax p] h\r1 :ile ! "w ( turn+ ! la!  

c\ld easily h be5 p]=m$ by "o horse4    
,?is 0 ! fir/ r\gh attempt ev] made1 s  
f> z we "k1 to det]m9e ! me*anical      
equival5t ( heat4  ,9 8 reflections on  
^! exp]im5ts1 ,rum=d writes3--      ,x  
is h>dly necess>y to add t any?+ :i* any
     insulat$ body or sy/em ( bodies c  
cont9ue to furni%     )\t limitation _c 
possibly be a mat]ial sub/ance2     & x 
appe>s to me to be extremely difficult1 
if n q     impossible1 to =m any di/9ct 
idea ( any?+ capable (     be+ excit$ & 
communicat$ 9 ! mann] ! heat 0          
excit$ & communicat$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts1    
except x be     ,,motion4  ,x has be5   
/at$ t1 if ,rum=d _h dissolv$ 9 acid !  
bor+s & ! sawn /rips ( metal1 ! capacity
 = heat ( :i* he det]m9$1 & _h %[n t !  
heat develop$ 9 ! solution 0 ! same 9 ! 
two cases1 8 *a9 ( argum5t w\ld h be5   
absolutely complete4 ,consid]+ ! am\nt (
 heat produc$ 9 ! exp]im5ts1 !re are few
 m9ds ^: conviction w\ld be /r5g!n$ by  
?is exp]im5t1 & x is only ^? :o look =  
faultless logic t w refuse to ,rum=d !  

cr$it ( hav+ e/abli%$ ! dynamical nature
 ( heat4  ,davy aft]w>ds %[$ t two      
pieces ( ice c\ld be melt$ by be+ rubb$ 
aga9/ "o ano!r 9 a vacuum1 b he does n  
appe> to h made z mu* z he might ( !    
exp]im5t4 ,may] calculat$ ! me*anical   
equival5t ( heat f ! heat develop$ 9 !  
compression ( air1 b he assum$1 :at     
aft]w>ds 0 %[n by ,j\le to be ne>ly     
true1 t ! :ole ( ! "w done 9 !          
compression 0 conv]t$ into heat4 ,x 0   
,j\le1 h[ev]1 :o fir/ %[$ t heat &      
me*anical en]gy are mutually conv]tible1
 s t ea* may be express$ 9 t]ms ( ! o!r1
 a giv5 quantity ( heat always          
correspond+ to ! same am\nt ( me*anical 
en]gy1 :atev] may be ! int]m$iate /ages 
?r\gh :i* x passes1 & t we may !re=e    
def9e ! me*anical equival5t ( heat z !  
numb] ( units ( en]gy :i*1 :5 entirely  
conv]t$ into heat1 w raise unit mass (  
wat] "o degree f ! freez+ po9t4         
,,?omas ,,"y4   ,we "h meet ) a man     
altoge!r beyond ! common /&>d1 "o 9 :om 
natural end[m5t & s$ul\s cultivation    

rivall$ ea* o!r 9 ! production ( a true 
philosoph]2 nor d we hesitate to /ate   
our belief t1 s9ce ,newton1 ,?omas ,"y  
/&s unrivall$ 9 ! annals ( ,briti%      
sci5ce4 ,su* 0 ! v]dict ( ,pr9cipal     
,=bes on "o :o may n only be reg>d$ z "o
 ( ! f\nd]s ( ! undulatory !ory ( light1
 b :o 0 among ! fir/ to apply ! !ory (  
ela/icity to ! /r5g? ( /ructures1 :ile x
 is to him t we are indebt$ 9 ! fir/    
in/ance = all we "k ( ,egyptian         
hi]oglyphics1 & = ! va/ field (         
antiqu>ian rese>* :i* ! int]pretation ( 
^! symbols has op5$ up4  ,?omas ,"y 0 ! 
son ( ,?omas & ,s>ah ,"y1 & ! elde/ ( t5
 *ildr54 ,8 "m 0 a niece ( ! well-kn[n  
physician1 ,dr4 ,ri*>d ,brocklesby1 &   
bo? 8 fa!r & "m 7 memb]s ( ! ,society ( 
,fri5ds1 9 ^: pr9ciples all _! *ildr5 7 
v c>efully tra9$4 ,x 0 to ! indep5d5ce (
 "* ?us develop$ t ,dr4 ,"y attribut$ v 
mu* ( ! success :i* he aft]w>ds atta9$4 
,he 0 born at ,milv]ton1 9 ,som]set%ire1
 on ,june #ac1 #aggc4 ,= ! great] "p ( !
 fir/ sev5 ye>s ( 8 life he liv$ ) 8    

mat]nal gr&fa!r1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,davis1 at 
,m9ehead1 9 ,som]set%ire4 ,accord+ to 8 
own acc\nt1 he c\ld read ) consid]able  
flu5cy at ! age ( two1 &1 "u !          
in/ructions ( 8 aunt & a village        
s*oolmi/ress1 he _h read ! ,bible twice 
?r\gh1 & also ,watts's ,hymns1 be=e he  
atta9$ ! age ( f\r4 ,x may ) reason be  
?\ght t bo? ! s*oolmi/ress & ! aunt %\ld
 h be5 sev]ely reprim&$1 & x is c]ta9 t 
_! example is n to be comm5d$2 b ,"y's  
infantile con/itution seems to h be5    
pro( aga9/ ov]-pressure1 & be=e he 0    
five ye>s old he c\ld recite ! :ole (   
,goldsmi?'s ,des]t$ ,village1 ) sc>cely 
a mi/ake4 ,he comm5c$ le>n+ ,lat9 be=e  
he 0 six1 "u ! guidance ( a ,noncon=mi/ 
m9i/]1 :o also taught him to write4 ,:5 
n q sev5 ye>s ( age he w5t to           
bo>d+-s*ool1 :]e he rema9$ a ye> & a    
half2 b he appe>s to h le>n$ m by       
indep5d5t ef=t ?an "u ! guidance ( 8    
ma/]1 = privately he _h ma/]$ ! la/     
rules ( ,walk+hame's ',tutor's          
,assi/ant' be=e rea*+ ! middle ( ! book 

"u ! ma/]'s inspection4 ,aft] leav+ ?is 
s*ool1 he liv$ at home = six mon?s1 b   
frequ5tly visit$ a neighb\r :o 0 a l&   
surveyor1 & at ^: h\se he amus$ himself 
) philosophical in/rum5ts & sci5tific   
books1 especially a ,diction>y ( ,arts &
 ,sci5ces4 ,:5 ne>ly n9e he w5t to !    
s*ool ( ,mr4 ,?ompson1 at ,compton1 9   
,dorset%ire1 :]e he rema9$ ne>ly f\r    
ye>s1 & read sev]al ,greek & ,lat9      
au?ors1 z well z ! elem5ts ( natural    
philosophy--! latt] 9 books l5t him by  
,mr4 ,jeffrey1 ! assi/ant-ma/]4 ,?is    
,mr4 ,jeffrey appe>s to h be5 some?+ ( a
 me*anical g5ius1 & he gave ,"y lessons 
9 turn+1 draw+1 bookb9d+1 & ! gr9d+ &   
prep>ation ( col\rs4 ,be=e leav+ ?is    
s*ool1 at ! age ( ?irte51 ,"y _h read   
six *apt]s ( ! ,hebrew ,bible4  ,dur+ ! 
s*ool holidays ! con/ruction ( a        
microscope occupi$ consid]able "t1 & !  
read+ ( ,prie/ley on ,air turn$ ,"y's   
att5tion to ! subject ( *emi/ry4 ,hav+  
le>n$ a little ,fr5*1 he succe$$1 ) !   
help ( a s*oolfell[1 9 ga9+ an elem5t>y 

k ( ,italian4 ,aft] leav+ s*ool1 he liv$
 at home = "s "t1 & devot$ 8 en]gies    
ma9ly to ,hebrew & to turn+ &           
telescope-mak+2 b ,ea/]n languages      
receiv$ a %>e ( att5tion1 & by ! "t he 0
 f\rte5 he _h read mo/ ( ,sir ,william  
,jones's ,p]sian ,gramm>4 ,he !n w5t to 
,y\ngsbury1 9 ,h]t=d%ire1 & resid$ at ! 
h\se ( ,mr4 ,david ,b>clay1 p>tly z     
companion & p>tly z classical tutor to  
,mr4 ,b>clay's gr&son1 ,hudson ,gurney4 
,?is 0 ! beg9n+ ( a fri5d%ip :i* la/$ = 
life4 ,gurney 0 ab\t a ye> & a half     
junior to ,"y1 & = five ye>s ! boys     
/udi$ toge!r1 read+ ! classical works   
:i* ,"y _h previ\sly /udi$ at s*ool4    
,be=e ! end ( ^! five ye>s ,"y _h ga9$ m
 or less acqua9tance ) f\rte5 languages2
 b 8 /udies 7 = a "t delay$ ?r\gh a     
s]i\s illness :5 he 0 little m ?an      
sixte54 ,to ?is illness 8 uncle1 ,dr4   
,brocklesby1 ref]r$ 9 a lett]1 ( :i* !  
foll[+ extract is int]e/+ = sev]al      
reasons3--      ,recollect t ! lea/ slip
 7z :o c be secure aga9/     error87    

w\ld 9 y1 :o seem 9 all ?+s to set      
y\rself     above ord9>y humanity1 seem 
m mon/r\s or repreh5sible     ?an x     
might be 9 ! g5]ality ( mank9d4 ,y\r    
prud]y     ab\t ab/a9+ f ! use ( sug> on
 acc\nt ( ! negro     trade1 9 any "o   
else w\ld be altoge!r ridicul\s1 b z    
long z ! :ole ( y\r m9d keeps free f    
spiritual pride     or too mu*          
presumption 9 y\r facility ( acquir+    
language1     :i* is no m ?an ! dross ( 
k1 y may be     indulg$ 9 su* :ims1 till
 y\r m9d becomes enlight5$ )     m      
reason4 ,my late excell5t fri5d1 ,mr4   
,day1 ! au?or (     ',s&=d & ,m]ton1'   
abhorr$ ! base traffic 9 negroes'       
lives z mu* z y c d1 & ev5 ,mr4         
,granville ,%>p1 "o     ( ! e>lie/      
writ]s on ! subject1 has n done half z  
mu* s]vice 9 ! bus9ess z ,mr4 ,day 9 !  
above "w4 ,&     yet ,mr4 ,day dev\r$   
daily z mu* sug> z ,i d2 = he           
reasonably conclud$ t s great a sy/em z 
! sug>-culture     9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 :]e
 sixty millions ( ,briti% prop]ty are   

employ$1 c\ld nev] be affect$ ei!r way  
by "o or "o     hundr$ 9 ! nation deb>r+
 !mselves ! reasonable use (     x4     
,re=mation mu/ take its rise else:]e1 if
 ev] !re is a     g5]al mass ( public   
virtue suffici5t to resi/ su* private   
int]e/s4 ,read ,locke ) c>e1 = he op5s !
 av5ues (     k1 ?\gh he gives too      
little himself4  ,) respect to ! sug>1  
no d\bt v mu* may be said on ,"y's side 
( ! "q4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t 9 8 e>ly    
manhood !re 0 a good deal 9 8 conduct   
:i* to-day w\ld be reg>d$ z priggi%1    
?\gh x 0 some:at m 9 h>mony ) ! _s ( 8  
"t4  ,he left ,y\ngsbury at ! age (     
n9ete51 hav+ read1 besides 8 classical  
au?ors1 ! :ole ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia &  
,opticks1 & ! sy/ems ( *emi/ry by       
,lavoisi] & ,ni*olson1 besides works on 
botany1 m$ic9e1 m9]alogy1 & o!r         
sci5tific subjects4 ,"o ( ,"y's         
peculi>ities 0 ! extraord9>y neatness ( 
8 h&writ+1 & a translation 9 ,greek     
iambics ( ,wolsey's f>ewell to          
,cromwell1 :i* he s5t1 writt5 v neatly  

on vellum1 to 8 uncle1 ,dr4 ,brocklesby1
 attract$ ! att5tion ( ,mr4 ,burke1 ,dr4
 ,*>les ,burney1 & o!r classical s*ol>s1
 s t :51 a few mon?s lat]1 ,"y w5t to   
/ay ) 8 uncle 9 ,london1 & 0 ?r[n into  
contact ) "s ( ! *ief lit]>y m5 ( ! day1
 he f\nd t 8 fame z a s*ol> _h prec$$   
him4 ,?is neatness ( 8 h&writ+ & 8 p[] (
 draw+ 7 ( great use 9 8 rese>*es on !  
,egyptian hi]oglyphics4 ,he _h little   
fai? 9 natural g5ius1 b believ$ t any?+ 
c\ld be accompli%$ by p]sev]+           
application4      ,?\ say'/ n only skill
 is ga9$1     ,b g5ius too may be       
obta9$1         ,by /udi\s imitation4   
,9 ! autumn ( #agib ,"y w5t to ,london =
 ! purpose ( /udy+ m$ic9e4 ,he liv$ 9   
lodg+s 9 ,we/m9/]1 & att5d$ ! ,hunt]ian 
,s*ool ( ,anatomy4 ,a ye> aft]w>ds he   
ent]$ ,/4 ,b>?olomew's ,hospital z a    
m$ical /ud5t4 ,! notes :i* he took ( !  
lectures 7 writt5 sometimes 9 ,lat91    
int]sp]s$ ) ,greek quotations1 & n      
unfrequ5tly ) ma!matical calculations1  
:i* may be assum$ to h be5 made be=e !  

lecture comm5c$4 ,dur+ 8 s*ool days he  
_h paid "s att5tion to geometrical      
optics1 & _h con/ruct$ a microscope &   
telescope4 ,n[ 8 att5tion 0 attract$ to 
a f> m delicate in/rum5t--! eye itself4 
,"y _h le>n$ h[ a telescope c be focuss$
 s z to give cle> images ( objects m or 
less di/ant4 ,"s su* p[] ( adju/m5t mu/ 
be possess$ by ! eye1 or x c\ld nev] =m 
di/9ct images ( objects1 :e!r at a      
di/ance ( a foot or a mile4 ,! app>5tly 
fibr\s /ructure ( ! cry/all9e l5s ( !   
eye _h be5 notic$ & describ$ by         
,leuw5hoeck2 & ,pemb]ton1 a c5tury be=e 
,"y took up ! subject1 _h sugge/$ t !   
fibres 7 muscles1 by ! action ( :i* !   
eye 0 accommodat$ = ne> or di/ant       
vision4 ,9 dissect+ ! eye ( an ox ,"y   
?\ght he _h discov]$ evid5ce            
confirmatory ( ?is view1 & ! pap] :i* he
 wrote on ! subject 0 n only publi%$ 9 !
 ,philosophical ,transactions1 b secur$ 
8 election z a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal        
,society 9 ,june1 #agid4 ,?is pap] 0    
important1 n simply because x l$ to     

,"y's election to ! ,royal ,society1 b  
ma9ly because x 0 8 fir/ publi%$ pap] on
 optical subjects4 ,lat] on he %[$      
inconte/ably1 by exact measurem5ts1 t x 
is ! cry/all9e l5s :i* *anges its =m    
dur+ adju/m5t2 b he 0 wrong 9 suppos+ ! 
fibres ( ! l5s to be muscul>4 ,by       
c>efully measur+ ! di/ance betwe5 !     
images ( two c&les =m$ by reflection f !
 cornea1 he %[$ t ! cornea exp]i5c$ no  
*ange ( =m4 ,8 eyes 7 v prom95t2 & turn+
 !m s z to look v obliquely1 he measur$ 
! l5g? ( ! eye f back to front ) a pair 
( compasses ^: po9ts 7 protect$1 press+ 
"o po9t aga9/ ! cornea1 & ! o!r betwe5 !
 back ( ! eye & ! orbit1 & %[$ t1 :5 !  
eye 0 focuss$ = diff]5t di/ances1 !re 0 
no *ange 9 ! l5g? ( ! axis4 ,! cry/all9e
 l5s 0 ! only res\rce left :]eby !      
accommodation c\ld be effect$4 ,!       
accommodation is1 9 fact1 br\ght ab\t by
 ! action ( ! cili>y muscle4 ,! natural 
=m ( ! l5s is m convex ?an is consi/5t )
 di/9ct vision1 except = v ne> objects4 
,! t5sion ( ! susp5sory ligam5t1 :i* is 

atta*$ to ! front ( ! l5s all r\nd its  
edge1 r5d]s ! ant]ior surface ( ! l5s   
mu* less curv$ ?an x w\ld naturally be4 
,! cili>y muscle is a r+ ( muscul> fibre
 atta*$ to ! cili>y process close to !  
circumf]5ce ( ! susp5sory ligam5t4 ,by  
its contraction x =ms a small] r+1 &1   
dim9i%+ ! ext]nal diamet]1 x releases ! 
t5sion ( ! susp5sory ligam5t1 ?us all[+ 
! cry/all9e l5s to bulge out & adapt    
itself = ! div]g+ rays com+ f ne>       
objects4 ,x is ! ex]tion ( contract+ !  
cili>y muscle t con/itutes ! ef=t ( :i* 
we are consci\s :5 look+ at v ne>       
objects4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 till long aft] !
 "t ( ,dr4 ,"y t ?is complicat$ action 0
 fully made out1 ?\gh ! *ange ( =m ( !  
ant]ior surface ( ! cry/all9e l5s 0     
discov]$ by ! *ange 9 ! image ( a bright
 object =m$ by reflection4  ,9 ! spr+ ( 
#agid ,"y took a holiday t\r 9          
,cornwall1 ) ,hudson ,gurney1 visit+ on 
8 way ! ,duke ( ,ri*mond1 :o 0 dr9k+ !  
wat]s at ,ba?1 "u ! advice ( ,dr4       
,brocklesby4 ,9 ,cornwall1 ! m9+ ma*9]y 

attract$ 8 att5tion v mu* m ?an !       
natural beauties ( ! c\ntry4 ,t[>ds !   
end ( ! summ] he visit$ ! ,duke (       
,ri*mond at ,goodwood1 :5 ! duke (f]$   
him ! appo9tm5t ( private secret>y4 ,he 
resolv$1 h[ev]1 to cont9ue 8 m$ical     
c\rse1 "o ( ! reasons :i* he alleg$ be+ 
8 reg>d = ! ,society ( ,fri5ds1 ^:      
pr9ciples he consid]$ inconsi/5t ) !    
appo9tm5t ( ,private ,secret>y to !     
,ma/]-,g5]al ( ! ,ordnance4  ,! foll[+  
w9t] he sp5t z a m$ical /ud5t at        
,ed9burgh4 ,"h he gave up ! co/ume ( !  
,society ( ,fri5ds1 & 9 _m ways dep>t$ f
 _! rules ( conduct4 ,he m+l$ freely ) !
 univ]sity1 att5d$ ! !atre1 took lessons
 9 danc+ & play+ ! flute1 & g5]ally     
cultivat$ ! habits ( :at is te*nically  
kn[n z society4 ,?r\gh\t ?is *ange 9 8  
life he reta9$ 8 high moral pr9ciples z 
a guide ( conduct1 & appe>s to h act$ f 
a firm conviction ( :at 0 "r4 ,at ! same
 "t1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! break+ d[n (  
b>ri]s1 h[ev] conv5tional !y may be1 is 
an op]ation att5d$ 9 mo/ cases by n a   

little dang]4 ,) ,"y1 ! progress ( 8    
sci5tific education may h be5 delay$ on 
acc\nt ( ! new dem&s on 8 "t2 b besides 
! /udy ( ,g]man1 ,spani%1 & ,italian1 he
 appe>s to h read a consid]able am\nt ( 
g5]al lit]ature dur+ 8 w9t] session 9   
,ed9burgh4 ,! foll[+ summ] he took a t\r
 on horseback ?r\gh ! ,highl&s1 tak+ )  
him 8 flute1 draw+ mat]ials1 spirits =  
pres]v+ insects1 bo>ds = dry+ plants1   
pap] & tw9e = pack+ up m9]als1 & a      
!rmomet]2 b ! geological hamm] does n !n
 appe> to h be5 reg>d$ z an ess5tial to 
! equipm5t ( a philosoph]4 ,at ,ab]de5  
he /ay$ = ?ree days1 & report$ ?us on ! 
univ]sity3--      ,"s ( ! pr(essors are 
capable ( rais+ a univ]sity to          
celebrity1 especially ,copel& &         
,ogilvie2 b ! division &     proximity (
 ! two univ]sities 7,k+'s ,college &    
,m>is*al     ,college7 is n fav\rable to
 ! advancem5t ( le>n+2     besides1 !   
lectures are all1 or mo/ly1 giv5 at !   
same     h\r1 & ! same pr(essor cont9ues
 to in/ruct a class =     f\r ye>s 9 !  

diff]5t bran*es4 ,7 ! colleges unit$1   
& ! int]nal regulations ( ! sy/em new   
modell$1 !     *eapness ( ! place1 !    
numb] ( small burs>ies = poor     or    
di/+ui%$ /ud5ts1 & ! m]it ( !           
in/ructors1     might make ?is univ]sity
 a v respectable sem9>y 9 "s     bran*es
 ( sci5ce4 ,! fee to a pr(essor = a     
five-mon?s'     session is only a gu9ea 
& a half4 ,i 0 delight$ ) !             
inspection ( ! ri* /ore ( ma!matical &  
philosophical     app>atus belong+ to   
,pr(essor ,copel& ( ,m>is*al ,college1  
made 9 8 own h\se1 & p>tly ) 8 own h&s1 
f9i%$     ) no less c>e ?an elegance2 & 
t5d+ to illu/rate e     bran* ( physics 
9 ! c\rse ( 8 lectures1 :i* mu/ be      
equally ent]ta9+ & in/ructive4  ,be=e   
leav+ ! ,highl&s1 ,"y visit$ ,gordon    
,ca/le1 :]e he /ay$ two days2 & appe>s  
to h di/+ui%$ himself by ! p[]s (       
endurance he exhibit$ 9 danc+ reels4 ,on
 leav+ he writes3 ,i c\ld almo/ h wi%$  
to break or dislocate a limb by *ance1 t
 ,i might be deta9$ aga9/ my w2 ,i d n  

recollect t ,i h ev] pass$ my "t m      
agreeably1 or ) a p>ty t ,i ?\ght m     
cong5ial to my own dispositions3 & :at  
w\ld h>dly be cr$it$ by _m grave        
reason]s on life & mann]s1 t a p]son :o 
_h sp5t ! :ole ( 8 e>li] ye>s a recluse 
f ! gay _w1 & a total /rang] to all t 0 
pass+ 9 ! high] ranks ( society1 %\ld   
feel himself m at home & m at ease 9 !  
mo/ magnific5t palace 9 ! c\ntry ?an 9 !
 humble/ dwell+ ) ^? ^: bir? 0 mo/      
simil> to 8 own4 ,)\t enl>g+ on ! duke's
 good s5se & s9c]ity1 ! du*ess's _s &   
p[]s ( conv]sation1 ,lady ,madel9e's    
livel9ess & affability1 ,l\isa's beauty 
& sweetness1 ,georgiana's naivete &     
quickness ( p>ts1 "y ,s&y's good nature1
 ,i may say t ,i 0 truly sorry to "p ) e
 "o ( !m4  ,"y seems n to h kn[n at ?is 
"t t x is an ess5tial feature ( true    
g5tlefolk to dissipate all s5se (       
con/ra9t or uneas9ess f ^? ) :om !y are 
br\ght into contact & t 9 ?is !y c be   
readily di/+ui%$ f ^? :o h weal? )\t    
bre$+4 ,! ,du*ess ( ,gordon gave ,"y an 

introduction to ! ,duke ( ,argyll1 s1   
:ile travell+ ?r\gh ! ,we/]n ,highl&s1  
he paid a visit to ,inv]>y ,ca/le1 &    
gallop$ ov] ! c\ntry ) ! duke's         
daught]s4 ,speak+ ( ^! ladies1 he says1 
,lady ,*>lotte 444 is to ,lady ,augu/a  
:at ,v5us is to ,m9]va2 ,i suppose %e   
wi%es = no m4 ,bo? are goddesses4  ,on 8
 return to ! ,we/ ( ,engl&1 he visit$ ! 
,coalbrook ,dale ,iron ,works1 :5 ,mr4  
,reynolds told him t be=e ! w> he _h    
agre$ ) a man to make a flute a hundr$ &
 fifty feet long1 & two & a half 9      
diamet]1 to be bl[n by a /eam-eng9e &   
play$ on by b>rels4  ,on ! #g? ( !      
foll[+ ,octob] ,"y left ,london1 & aft] 
sp5d+ six days on ! voyage f ,y>m\? to  
,hamburg1 he rea*$ ,goett+5 on ! #bg? ( 
! same mon?2 two days aft]w>ds he       
matriculat$1 & on ,novemb] #c he comm5c$
 8 /udies z a memb] ( ! univ]sity4 ,he  
cont9u$ to take lessons 9 draw+1 danc+1 
rid+1 & music1 & comm5c$ le>n+ !        
clavi*ord4 ,! ,engli% /ud5ts at         
,goett+51 9 ord] to advance _! ,g]man   

conv]sation1 arrang$ to pay a f9e :5ev] 
!y spoke 9 ,engli% 9 "o ano!r's company4
 ,on ,sundays x 0 usual = ! pr(essors to
 give ent]ta9m5ts to ! /ud5ts1 ?\gh !y  
seldom invit$ !m to d9n] or supp]4      
,inde$1 !y c\ld n well af=d1 out ( a fee
 ( a l\is or two1 to give l>ge          
ent]ta9m5ts2 b ! abs5ce ( ! hospitality 
:i* prevails r m 9 ,brita91 is comp5sat$
 by ! light 9 :i* ! /ud5ts are reg>d$2  
!y are n ! less1 b p]haps ! m1 respect$ 
= be+ /ud5ts1 & inde$1 !y behave 9 g5]al
 l g5tlem51 mu* m s ?an 9 "s o!r ,g]man 
univ]sities4  ,at ,goett+5 ,"y att5d$1 9
 addition to 8 m$ical lectures1         
,spi?l]'s lectures on ! ,hi/ory &       
,con/itution ( ! ,european ,/ates1      
,heyne on ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,anci5t ,arts1 &
 ,li*t5b]g's c\rse on ,physics4 ,speak+ 
( ,blum5ba*'s lectures on ,natural      
,hi/ory1 ,"y says1 ,he %[$ u ye/]day a  
labori\s treatise1 ) elegant plates1    
publi%$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury at      
,wurzburg1 :i* is a mo/ s+ul> specim5 ( 
cr$ulity 9 affairs ( natural hi/ory4    

,dr4 ,behr+5 us$ to torm5t ! "y m5 ( a  
l>ge s*ool by oblig+ !m to g out ) him  
collect+ petrifactions2 & ! "y rogues1 9
 rev5ge1 sp5t a :ole w9t] 9 c\nt]feit+  
specim5s1 :i* !y buri$ 9 a hill :i* !   
good man meant to explore1 & impos$ !m  
^u him = mo/ wond]ful lusus naturae4 ,x 
is int]e/+ 9 a metaphysical po9t ( view 
to obs]ve h[ ! m9d attempts to          
accommodate itself2 9 "o case1 :]e !    
boys _h made ! figure ( a plant ?ick &  
clumsy1 ! doctor rem>ks ! diff]5ce1 &   
says t ,nature seems to h re/or$ to !   
plant 9 ?ickness t :i* %e _h tak5 away f
 its o!r dim5sions4  ,on ,april #cj1    
#agif1 ,"y pass$ ! exam9ation = 8 m$ical
 degree at ,goett+54 ,! exam9ation      
appe>s to h be5 entirely oral4 ,x la/$  
betwe5 f\r & five h\rs4 ,!re 7 f\r      
exam9]s seat$ r\nd a table provid$ )    
cakes1 sweetmeats1 & w9e1 :i* help$ to  
pass ! "t agreeably4 ,!y 7 n v sev]e 9  
exact+ accurate answ]s4 ,! subject he   
select$ = 8 public discussion 0 ! human 
voice1 & he con/ruct$ a univ]sal        

alphabet consi/+ ( =ty-sev5 lett]s1 (   
:i*1 h[ev]1 v little is kn[n4 ,?is /udy 
( s\nd laid ! f\ndation1 accord+ to 8   
own acc\nt1 ( 8 subsequ5t rese>*es 9 !  
undulatory !ory ( light4  ,! autumn (   
#agif ,"y sp5t 9 travell+ 9 ,g]many2 9 !
 foll[+ ,febru>y he return$ to ,engl&1 &
 0 admitt$ a fell[-common] ( ,emmanuel  
,college1 ,cambridge4 ,x is said t !    
,ma/]1 9 introduc+ ,"y to ! ,tutors &   
o!r ,fell[s1 said1 ,i h br\ght y a pupil
 qualifi$ to read lectures to 8 tutors4 
,"y's op9ion ( ,cambridge1 z comp>$ )   
,g]man univ]sities1 0 fav\rable to !    
=m]2 b z he _h compla9$ ( ! want (      
hospitality at ,goett+51 s 9 ,cambridge 
he compla9$ ( ! want ( social int]c\rse 
betwe5 ! s5ior memb]s ( ! univ]sity &   
p]sons 9 /atu pupill>i4 ,at t "t !re 0  
no sy/em ( m$ical education 9 !         
univ]sity1 & ! /atutes requir$ t six    
ye>s %\ld elapse betwe5 ! admission ( a 
m$ical /ud5t & 8 tak+ ! degree ( ,m4,b4 
,"y appe>s to h attract$ comp>atively   
little att5tion z an und]graduate 9     

college4 ,he did n c>e to associate )   
o!r und]graduates1 & _h little          
opportunity ( int]c\rse ) ! s5ior memb]s
 ( ! univ]sity4 ,he 0 /ill keep+ t]ms at
 ,cambridge :5 8 uncle1 ,dr4            
,brocklesby1 di$4 ,to ,"y he left ! h\se
 9 ,norfolk ,/reet1 ,p>k ,lane1 ) !     
furniture1 books1 pictures1 & pr9ts1 &  
ab\t ,l#aj1jjj4 ,9 ! summ] ( #agih a    
slight accid5t at ,cambridge compell$   
,"y to keep to 8 rooms1 & be+ ?us =cibly
 depriv$ ( 8 usual r\nd ( social        
int]c\rse1 he return$ to 8 fav\rite     
/udies 9 physics4 ,! mo/ important      
result ( ?is /udy 0 ! e/abli%m5t ( !    
pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce 9 s\nd1 :i* af=d$ !
 explanation ( ! ph5om5on ( beats 9     
music1 & :i* aft]w>ds l$ up to !        
discov]y ( ! int]f]5ce ( light--a       
discov]y :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el         
*>act]iz$ z ! key to all ! m ab/ruse &  
puzzl+ prop]ties ( light1 & :i* w\ld    
alone h suffic$ to place its au?or 9 !  
highe/ rank ( sci5tific immortality1 ev5
 7 8 o!r almo/ innum]able claims to su* 

a di/9ction disreg>d$4  ,! pr9ciple (   
int]f]5ce is briefly ?is3 ,:5 two waves 
meet ea* o!r1 x may happ5 t _! cre/s    
co9cide2 9 ?is case a wave w be =m$     
equal 9 height 7amplitude7 to ! sum ( ! 
heights ( ! two4 ,at ano!r po9t ! cre/ (
 "o wave may co9cide ) ! holl[ ( ano!r1 
&1 z ! waves pass1 ! height ( ! wave at 
?is po9t w be ! diff]5ce ( ! two        
heights1 & if ! waves are equal ! po9t w
 rema9 /ation>y4 ,if a rope be hung f ! 
ceil+ ( a l(ty room1 & ! l[] end receive
 a j]k f ! h&1 a wave w travel up !     
rope1 be reflect$ & rev]s$ at ! ceil+1 &
 !n desc5d4 ,if ano!r wave be !n s5t up1
 ! two w meet1 & _! pass+ c be obs]v$4  
,x w !n be se5 t1 if ! waves are exactly
 equal1 ! po9t at :i* !y meet w rema9 at
 re/ dur+ ! :ole "t ( transit4 ,if a    
numb] ( waves 9 succession be s5t up !  
/r+1 ! motions ( ! h& be+ prop]ly tim$1 
! /r+ w appe> to be divid$ into a numb] 
( vibrat+ segm5ts sep>at$ by /ation>y   
po9ts1 or nodes4 ,^! nodes are simply ! 
po9ts :i* rema9 at re/ on acc\nt ( !    

upw>d s]ies ( waves cross+ ! s]ies :i* h
 be5 reflect$ at ! top & are travell+   
d[nw>ds4 ,! division ( a vibrat+ /r+    
into nodes ?us af=ds a simple example ( 
! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce4 ,:5 a tun+-=k is
 vibrat+ !re are c]ta9 hyp]bolic l9es   
along :i* ! di/urbance caus$ by "o prong
 is exactly neutraliz$ by t due to ! o!r
 prong4 ,if a l>ge tun+-=k be /ruck & !n
 held ne> ! e> & sl[ly turn$ r\nd1 !    
positions ( comp>ative sil5ce w be      
readily p]ceiv$4 ,if two notes are be+  
s\nd$ side by side1 "o consi/+ ( two    
hundr$ vibrations p] second & ! o!r (   
two hundr$ & two1 !n1 at any di/ant     
po9t1 x is cle> t ! two sets ( waves w  
arrive 9 ! same condition1 or phase1    
twice 9 ea* second1 & twice !y w be 9   
opposite conditions1 &1 if ( ! same     
int5sity1 w exactly de/roy "o ano!r's   
effects1 ?us produc+ sil5ce4 ,h5ce twice
 9 ! second !re w be sil5ce & twice !re 
w be s\nd1 ! waves ( :i* h d\ble !      
amplitude due to ei!r s\rce1 & h5ce !   
s\nd w h f\r times ! int5sity ( ei!r    

note by itself4 ,?us !re w be two beats 
p] second due to int]f]5ce4 ,lat] on ?is
 pr9ciple 0 appli$ by ,"y to v _m       
optical ph5om5a ( :i* x af=d$ a complete
 explanation4  ,"y complet$ 8 la/ t]m ( 
resid5ce at ,cambridge 9 ,decemb]1      
#agii1 & 9 ! e>ly "p ( #ahjj he comm5c$ 
practice z a physician at #dh1 ,welbeck 
,/reet4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> he accept$ !    
*air ( ,natural ,philosophy 9 ! ,royal  
,in/itution1 :i* _h %ortly be=e be5     
f\nd$1 & soon aft]w>ds1 9 conjunction ) 
,davy1 ! ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 he       
und]took ! edit+ ( ! j\rnals ( !        
in/itution4 ,?is circum/ance has already
 be5 allud$ to 9 connection ) ,c\nt     
,rum=d1 ! f\nd] ( ! in/itution4 ,he     
lectur$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution = two   
ye>s only1 :5 he resign$ ! *air 9       
def]5ce to ! popul> belief t a physician
 %\ld give 8 att5tion :olly to 8        
pr(essional practice1 :e!r he has any or
 n4 ,?is fe> le/ a sci5tific reputation 
%\ld int]f]e ) 8 success z a physician  
haunt$ him = _m ye>s1 & sometimes       

prev5t$ 8 und]tak+ sci5tific "w1 :ile at
 o!r times x l$ him to publi% anonym\sly
 ! results he obta9$4 ,?is anonym\s     
publication ( sci5tific pap]s caus$ him 
great tr\ble aft]w>ds 9 ord] to e/abli% 
8 claim to 8 own discov]ies4 ,_m ( !    
articles :i* he contribut$ to !         
supplem5t to ! f\r?1 fif?1 & six?       
editions ( ! ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica 7
 anonym\s1 al?\gh ! honor>ium he receiv$
 = ?is "w 0 increas$ by #be p] c5t4 :5  
he w\ld all[ 8 "n to appe>4 ,! practical
 )drawal ( ,"y f ! sci5tific _w dur+    
sixte5 ye>s 0 a great loss to ! progress
 ( natural philosophy1 :ile ! abs5ce ( t
 suavity ( mann] :5 deal+ ) pati5ts :i* 
is s ess5tial to ! success ( a          
physician1 prev5t$ him f acquir+ a      
valuable private practice4 ,9 fact1 ,"y 
0 too mu* ( a philosoph] 9 8 behavi\r to
 succe$ z a physician2 he ?\ght too     
deeply be=e giv+ 8 op9ion on a          
diagnosis1 in/ead ( appe>+ to "k all    
ab\t ! subject be=e he comm5c$ 8        
exam9ation1 & ?is habit1 :i* is ess5tial

 to ! philosoph]1 does n inspire        
confid5ce 9 ! practition]4 ,8 fondness =
 society r5d]$ him unwill+ to live )9 ! 
means :i* 8 uncle _h left him1          
supplem5t$ by :at 8 sci5tific "w might  
br+1 & x 0 n until 8 income _h be5      
consid]ably increas$ by an appo9tm5t "u 
! ,admiralty t he 0 will+ to =ego !     
possible increase ( practice :i* might  
accrue by appe>+ to devote 8 :ole       
att5tion to ! subject ( m$ic9e4 ,x 0 ?is
 fe> ( public op9ion :i* caus$ him1 9   
#ahab1 to decl9e ! (f] ( ! appo9tm5t (  
,secret>y to ! ,royal ,society1 ( :i*1 9
 #ahjb1 he accept$ ! (fice ( ,=eign     
,secret>y4  ,"y's resignation ( ! *air (
 ,natural ,philosophy 01 h[ev]1 n a     
great loss to ! ,royal ,in/itution2 = ! 
lecture audi5ce !re 0 ess5tially ( a    
popul> "*1 & ,"y _c be consid]$ to h be5
 successful z a popul> lectur]4 ,8 own  
e>ly education _h be5 too mu* d]iv$ f   
private read+ = him to h become acqua9t$
 ) ! difficulties exp]i5c$ by beg9n]s ( 
only av]age ability1 & 8 lectures1 :ile 

mo/ valuable to ^? :o already possess$ a
 fair k ( ! subjects1 7 ill adapt$ to ! 
requirem5ts ( an unsci5tific audi5ce4 ,a
 syllabus ( 8 c\rse ( lectures 0 publi%$
 by ,"y 9 #ahjb1 b x 0 n till #ahjg t ! 
complete c\rse ( sixty lectures 0       
publi%$ 9 two qu>to volumes4 ,!y 7      
republi%$ 9 #ahde 9 octavo1 ) ref]5ces &
 notes by ,pr(essor ,kell&4 ,among !    
subjects treat$ 9 ^! lectures are       
me*anics1 includ+ /r5g? ( mat]ials1     
ar*itecture & c>p5try1 clocks1 draw+ &  
modell+2 hydro/atics & hydraulics2 s\nd 
& musical in/rum5ts2 optics1 includ+    
vision & ! physical nature ( light2     
a/ronomy2 geography2 ! ess5tial         
prop]ties ( matt]2 heat2 electricity &  
magnetism2 climate1 w9ds1 & meteorology 
g5]ally2 vegetation & animal life1 & !  
hi/ory ( ! prec$+ sci5ces4 ,! lectures 7
 foll[$ by a mo/ complete bibliography (
 ! :ole subject1 includ+ works 9        
,engli%1 ,fr5*1 ,g]man1 ,italian1 &     
,lat94 ,! foll[+ is ! syllabus ( "o     
lecture1 & illu/rates ! div]sity ( !    

subjects dealt )3--       ,,on ,,draw+1 
,,writ+1 ,,& ,,measur+4       ,subjects 
prelim9>y to ! /udy ( practical         
me*anics2      in/rum5tal geometry2     
/atics2 passive /r5g?2 friction2        
draw+2 outl9e2 p52 p5cil2 *alks2        
crayons2 ,indian ink2      wat]-col\rs2 
body col\rs2 m9iature2 di/emp]2 fresco2 
oil2      encau/ic pa9t+s2 enamel2      
mosaic "w4 ,writ+2 mat]ials      =      
writ+2 p5s2 inks2 use ( col\r$ inks =   
d5ot+      numb]s2 polygraph2 telegraph2
 geometrical in/rum5ts2 rul]s2          
compasses2 flexible rul]s2 squ>es2      
triangul> compasses2      p>allel rul]s2
 ,m>quois's scales2 pantograph2         
proportional      compasses2 sector4    
,measurem5t ( angles2 !odolites2        
quadrants2 divid+-eng9e2 v]ni]2 levell+2
 s9es (      angles2 ,gunt]'s scale2    
,ni*olson's circle2 d5dromet]2          
ari?metical ma*9es2 /&>d measures2      
quotation f      ,laplace2 new measures2
 decimal divisions2 l5g? ( !            
p5dulum & ( ! m]idian ( ! e>?2 measures 

( "t2      objections2 comp>ison (      
measures2 in/rum5ts = measur+2          
micrometrical scales2 log-l9es4  ,?is   
repres5ts an ext5sive area to cov] 9 a  
lecture ( "o h\r4  ,:5 ,newton1 by means
 ( a prism1      ,unravell$ all ! %9+   
robe ( day1  he %[$ t sunlight is made  
up ( light v>y+ 9 t9t f r$1 ?r\gh       
orange1 yell[1 gre51 & blue1 to violet1 
& t by recomb9+ all ^! k9ds ( light1 or 
c]ta9 ( !m select$ 9 an indef9ite numb] 
( ways1 :ite light c\ld be produc$4     
,subsequ5tly ,sir ,wm4 ,h]s*el %[$ t    
rays less refrangible ?an ! r$ 7 to be  
f\nd among ! sol> radiation2 & o!r rays 
m refrangible ?an ! violet1 b1 l !      
ultra-r$ rays1 incapable ( excit+       
vision1 7 f\nd by ,ritt] & ,wolla/on4 ,9
 speak+ ( ,newton's exp]im5ts1 9 8      
?irty-sev5? lecture1 ,"y says3--      ,x
 is c]ta9 t ! p]fect s5sations ( yell[ &
 ( blue     are produc$ respectively by 
mixtures ( r$ & gre5 & (     gre5 &     
violet light1 & !re is reason to suspect
 t     ^? s5sations are always comp\nd$ 

( ! sep>ate     s5sations comb9$2 at    
lea/1 ?is supposition simplifies !      
!ory ( col\rs4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be adopt$ 
) advantage1     until x be f\nd        
inconsi/5t ) any ( ! ph5om5a2 & we      
may consid] :ite light z compos$ ( a    
mixture ( r$1 gre51     & violet only1  
444 ) respect to ! quantity or int5sity 
( ! s5sations produc$4  ,x %\ld be      
notic$ t1 9 ! above quotation1 ,"y      
speaks only ( ! s5sations produc$4      
,objectively consid]$1 sunlight consi/s 
( an inf9ite numb] ( diff]5tly col\r$   
lights compris+ ne>ly all ! %ades f "o  
end ( ! spectrum to ! o!r1 ?\gh :ite    
light may h a mu* simpl] con/itution1 & 
may1 = example1 consi/ simply ( a       
mixture ( homog5e\s r$1 gre51 & violet  
lights1 or ( homog5e\s yell[ & blue     
lights1 prop]ly select$4 ,b consid]$    
subjectively1 ,"y implies t ! eye       
p]ceives ?ree1 & only ?ree1 di/9ct      
col\r-s5sations1 correspond+ to pure r$1
 gre51 & violet2 t :5 ^! ?ree s5sations 
are excit$ 9 a c]ta9 proportion1 !      

complex s5sation is t ( :ite light2 b if
 ! relative int5sities ( ! sep>ate      
s5sations diff] f ^! ratios1 ! p]ception
 is t ( "s col\r4 ,to exhibit ! effects 
( mix+ light ( diff]5t col\rs1 ,"y pa9t$
 diff]5tly col\r$ sectors on circles (  
c>dbo>d1 & !n made ! discs rotate       
rapidly ab\t _! c5tres1 :5 ! effect 0 ! 
same z ?\gh ! lights emitt$ by ! sectors
 7 mix$ 9 proportion to ! bread? ( !    
sectors4 ,?is contrivance _h be5        
previ\sly employ$ by ,newton1 & w be    
aga9 ref]r$ to 9 connection ) ano!r     
memoir4 ,! results ( ^! exp]im5ts 7     
embodi$ by ,"y 9 a diagram ( col\r1     
consi/+ ( an equilat]al triangle1 9 :i* 
! col\rs r$1 gre51 & violet1 correspond+
 to ! simple s5sations1 7 plac$ at !    
angles1 :ile ^? produc$ by mix+ ! prim>y
 col\rs 9 any proportions1 7 to be f\nd 
)9 ! triangle or along its sides2 ! rule
 be+ t ! col\r =m$ by ! admixture ( !   
prim>y col\rs 9 any proportions1 0 to be
 f\nd at ! c5tre ( gravity ( ?ree heavy 
p>ticles plac$ at ! angul> po9ts ( !    

triangle1 ) _! masses proportion$ to !  
correspond+ am\nts ( light4 ,?us !      
col\rs produc$ by ! admixture ( r$ &    
gre5 only1 9 diff]5t proportions1 7     
plac$ along "o side ( ! triangle1 ^!    
col\rs correspond+ to v>i\s t9ts (      
sc>let1 orange1 yell[1 & yell[i% gre52  
ano!r side conta9$ ! mixtures ( gre5 &  
violet repres5t+ ! v>i\s %ades ( blui%  
gre5 & blue2 & ! ?ird side compris$ !   
admixtures ( r$ & violet con/itut+      
crimsons & purples4 ,! int]ior ( !      
triangle conta9$ ! col\rs correspond+ to
 ! mixture ( all ?ree prim>y s5sations1 
! c5tre be+ neutral grey1 :i* is a pure 
:ite fa9tly illum9at$4 ,if :ite light ( 
a c]ta9 degree ( int5sity fall on :ite  
pap]1 ! pap] appe>s :ite1 b if a /rong] 
light fall on ano!r portion ( ! same    
%eet1 t :i* is less /rongly illum9at$   
appe>s grey by contra/4 ,%ad[s ?r[n on  
:ite pap] may possess any degree (      
int5sity1 correspond+ to v>y+ %ades (   
neutral grey1 up to absolute blackness1 
:i* corresponds to a total abs5ce (     

light4 ,?us consid]$1 *romatically black
 & :ite are ! same1 diff]+ only 9 !     
am\nt ( light !y reflect4 ,a piece (    
:ite pap] 9 moonlight is d>k] ?an black 
clo? 9 full sunlight4  ,x mu/ be        
rememb]$ t ,"y's diagram ( col\rs       
corresponds to ! admixture ( col\r$     
lights1 n ( col\r+ mat]ials or pigm5ts4 
,! admixture ( blue & yell[ lights 9    
prop] proportions may make :ite or p9k1 
b nev] gre54 ,! admixture ( blue & yell[
 pigm5ts makes a gre51 because ! blue   
absorbs ne>ly all ! light except gre51  
blue1 & a little violet1 :ile ! yell[   
absorbs all except orange1 yell[1 &     
gre54 ,! gre5 light is ! only light     
common to ! two1 & !re=e ! only light   
:i* escapes absorption :5 ! pigm5ts are 
mix$4 ,ano!r po9t already notic$ mu/    
also be c>efully borne 9 m9d4 ,"y 0 q   
aw>e t1 physically1 !re are an inf9ite  
numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( light diff]+     
cont9u\sly 9 wave-l5g? f ! ultra-r$ to !
 ultra-violet1 ?\gh col\r c h>dly be    
reg>d$ z an attribute ( ! light consid]$

 objectively4 ,! "q ( col\r is          
ess5tially "o ( p]ception--a            
physiological1 n a physical1 "q--& x is 
only 9 ?is s5se t ,"y ma9ta9$ ! doctr9e 
( ?ree prim>y col\rs4 ,9 8 pap] on !    
production ( col\rs1 read be=e ! ,royal 
,society on ,july #a1 #ahjb1 he speaks (
 ! proportions ( ! sympa!tic fibres ( ! 
ret9a1 correspond+ to ^! prim>y         
col\r-s5sations4 ,accord+ to ?is        
doctr9e1 :ite light w\ld always be      
produc$ :5 ! ?ree s5sations 7 affect$ 9 
c]ta9 proportions1 :e!r ! excit+ cause 7
 simply two k9ds ( homog5e\s light1     
correspond+ to two pure tones 9 music1  
or an inf9ite numb] ( diff]5t k9ds1 z 9 
sunlight2 & a p>ticul> yell[ s5sation   
might be excit$ by homog5e\s yell[ light
 f "o "p ( ! spectrum1 or by an inf9ite 
numb] ( rays ( diff]5t wave-l5g?s1      
correspond+ to v>i\s %ades ( r$1 orange1
 yell[1 & gre54 ,subjectively1 ! col\rs 
w\ld be ! same2 objectively1 ! light    
produc+ !m w\ld diff] exce$+ly4  ,b     
,"y's greate/ s]vice to sci5ce 0 8      

application ( ! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce--( 
:i* he _h already made good use 9 ! !ory
 ( s\nd--to ! ph5om5a ( light4 ,!       
results ( ^! rese>*es 7 pres5t$ to !    
,royal ,society1 & two ( ! pap]s 7      
select$ z ,bak]ian lectures 9 #ahja &   
#ahjc respectively4 ,unfav\rable        
criticisms ( ^! pap]s1 :i* appe>$ 9 !   
,ed9burgh ,review1 & 7 said to h be5    
writt5 by ,mr4 7aft]w>ds ,"l7 ,br\gham1 
seem to h caus$ _! cont5ts to be        
neglect$ by ,engli% m5 ( sci5ce = _m    
ye>s2 & x 0 to ,arago & ,fresnel t we   
are indebt$ = recall+ public att5tion to
 !m4 ,! undulatory !ory ( light1 :i*    
ma9ta9s t light consi/s ( waves         
transmitt$ ?r\gh an e!r1 :i* p]vades all
 space & all matt]1 owes its orig9 to   
,hooke & ,huygh5s4 ,huygh5s %[$ t ?is   
!ory expla9$1 9 a v beautiful mann]1 !  
laws ( reflection & ( refraction1 if x  
be all[$ t light travels m sl[ly ! d5s] 
! m$ium4 ,accord+ to ! celebrat$        
pr9ciple ( ,huygh5s1 e po9t 9 ! front ( 
a wave at any in/ant becomes a c5tre (  

di/urbance1 f :i* a second>y wave is    
propagat$4 ,! fronts ( ^! second>y waves
 all lie on a surface1 :i* becomes ! new
 surface ( ! prim>y wave4 ,:5 light     
ent]s a d5s] m$ium obliquely1 ! second>y
 waves :i* are propagat$ )9 ! d5s] m$ium
 ext5d to a less di/ance ?an ^?         
propagat$ 9 ! r>] m$ium1 & ?us ! front (
 ! prim>y wave becomes b5t at ! po9t :]e
 x meets ! common surface4 ,huygh5s     
expla9$1 n only ! laws ( ord9>y         
refraction 9 ?is mann]1 b1 by suppos+ ! 
second>y waves to =m sph]oids in/ead (  
sph]es1 he obta9$ ! laws ( refraction ( 
! extraord9>y ray 9 ,icel&-sp>4 ,he did 
n1 h[ev]1 succe$ 9 expla9+ :y light %\ld
 n div]ge lat]ally in/ead ( proce$+ 9   
/raight l9es4 ,newton support$ ! !ory t 
light consi/s ( p>ticles or corpuscles  
project$ 9 /raight l9es f ! lum9\s body1
 & sometimes transmitt$1 sometimes      
reflect$1 :5 incid5t on a transp>5t     
m$ium ( diff]5t d5sity4 ,to acc\nt = !  
p>ticle be+ sometimes transmitt$ &      
sometimes reflect$1 ,newton _h rec\rse  

to ! hypo!sis ( fits ( easy transmission
 & ( easy reflection1 &1 to acc\nt = !  
fits !mselves1 he suppos$ ! exi/5ce ( an
 e!r1 ! vibrations ( :i* affect$ !      
p>ticles4 ,! laws ( reflection 7 readily
 expla9$1 be+ ! same z = a p]fectly     
ela/ic ball2 ! laws ( refraction admitt$
 ( v simple explanation1 by suppos+ t ! 
p>ticles ( ! d5s] m$ium ex]t a great]   
attraction on ! p>ticles ( light ?an ^? 
( ! r>] m$ium1 b t ?is attraction acts  
only ?r\gh v %ort di/ances1 s t :5 !    
light-corpuscle is at a s5sible di/ance 
f ! surface1 x is attract$ equally all  
r\nd1 & moves z ?\gh !re 7 no =ce act+  
^u x4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is hypo!sis1 x 
foll[s t ! velocity ( light mu/ be      
great] ! d5s] ! m$ium1 :ile ! undulatory
 !ory leads to precisely ! opposite     
result4 ,:5 ,f\cault directly measur$ ! 
velocity ( light bo? 9 air & wat]1 &    
f\nd x less 9 ! d5s] m$ium1 ! result 0  
fatal to ! corpuscul> !ory4  ,dr4 ,"y   
call$ att5tion to ano!r crucial te/     
betwe5 ! two !ories4 ,:5 a piece (      

plate-glass is press$ aga9/ a slightly  
convex l5s1 or a wat*-glass1 a s]ies (  
col\r$ r+s is =m$ by reflect$ light1 ) a
 black spot 9 ! c5tre4 ,?is 0 acc\nt$ = 
by ,newton by suppos+ t ! light :i* 0   
reflect$ 9 any r+ 0 9 a fit ( easy      
transmission 7f glass to air7 :5 x rea*$
 ! fir/ surface ( ! film ( air1 & 9 a   
fit ( easy reflection :5 x rea*$ !      
second surface4 ,by measur+ ! ?ickness (
 a film ( air correspond+ to ! fir/ r+ (
 any p>ticul> col\r1 ! l5g? ( pa?       
correspond+ to ! int]val betwe5 two fits
 = t p>ticul> k9d ( light c\ld be       
det]m9$4 ,:5 wat] in/ead ( air is plac$ 
betwe5 ! glasses1 accord+ to !          
corpuscul> !ory ! r+s %\ld exp&2 b      
accord+ to ! undulatory !ory !y %\ld    
contract2 = ! wave-l5g? corresponds to !
 di/ance betwe5 successive fits ( ! same
 k9d on ! corpuscul> hypo!sis4 ,on try+ 
! exp]im5t1 ! r+s 7 se5 to contract4    
,?is result seem$ to fav\r ! undulatory 
!ory2 b ! objection urg$ by ,newton t   
rays ( light d n b5d r\nd ob/acles1 l   

waves ( s\nd1 /ill held its gr\nd4 ,?is 
objection ,"y completely demoli%$ by 8  
pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce4 ,he %[$ t :5 light
 passes ?r\gh an ap]ture 9 a scre51     
:atev] ! %ape ( ! ap]ture1 provid$ its  
wid? is l>ge 9 comp>ison ) ! l5g? ( a   
wave ( light 7"o fifty-?\s&? ( an in*71 
no s5sible am\nt ( light w rea* any po9t
 n directly 9 front ( ! ap]ture2 = if   
any po9t be tak5 to ! "r or left1 !     
di/urbances rea*+ t po9t f diff]5t po9ts
 ( ! ap]ture w neutralize "o ano!r by   
int]f]5ce1 & ?us no light w be          
appreciable4 ,:5 ! bread? ( ! ap]ture is
 only a small multiple ( a wave-l5g?1 !n
 !re w be "s po9ts outside ! direct beam
 at :i* ! di/urbances f diff]5t po9ts ( 
! ap]ture w n completely de/roy "o      
ano!r1 & o!rs at :i* !y w de/roy "o     
ano!r2 & ^! po9ts w be diff]5t = light (
 diff]5t wave-l5g?s4 ,9 ?is way ,"y n   
only expla9$ ! rectil9e> propagation (  
light1 b acc\nt$ = ! col\r$ b&s =m$ :5  
light div]ges f a po9t ?r\gh a v n>r[   
ap]ture4 ,9 a simil> way he acc\nt$ = ! 

hyp]bolic b&s ( col\r obs]v$ by         
,grimaldi )9 ! %ad[ ( a squ>e ne> its   
corn]s4 ,) a /rip ( c>d "o-?irtie? ( an 
in* 9 wid?1 ,"y obta9$ b&s ( col\r )9 ! 
%ad[ :i* completely disappe>$ :5 ! light
 0 cut (f f ei!r side ( ! /rip ( c>d1   
%[+ t !y 7 produc$ by int]f]5ce ( ! two 
portions ( light :i* _h pass$1 "o to !  
"r1 ! o!r to ! left1 ( ! /rip ( c>d4    
,pr(essor ,/okes has succe$$ 9 %[+ a    
bright spot at ! c5tre ( ! %ad[ ( a     
circul> disc ( ! size ( a sov]eign4 ,!  
n>r[ b&s ( col\r =m$ ne> ! edge ( ! %ad[
 ( any object1 :i* ,newton suppos$ to be
 due to ! inflection ( ! light by !     
attraction ( ! object1 ,"y %[$ to be    
indep5d5t ( ! mat]ial or ?ickness ( !   
edge1 & completely acc\nt$ = !m by !    
pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce4 ,newton's r+s 7   
expla9$ ) equal facility4 ,!y 7 due to !
 int]f]5ce ( light reflect$ f ! fir/ &  
second surfaces ( ! film ( air or wat]  
betwe5 ! glasses4 ,! black spot at !    
c5tre ( ! reflect$ r+s 0 due to !       
diff]5ce betwe5 reflection tak+ place f 

! surface ( a d5s] or a r>] m$ium1 half 
an undulation be+ lo/ :5 ! reflection   
takes place 9 glass at ! surface ( air4 
,if a little grease or wat] be plac$    
betwe5 two pieces ( glass :i* are ne>ly 
9 contact1 b ! space betwe5 be n fill$ )
 ! wat] or grease1 b conta9 air 9 "s    
p>ts1 & wat] or grease 9 o!rs1 a s]ies (
 r+s w be se5 by transmitt$ light1 :i* h
 be5 call$ ! col\rs ( mix$ plates4 ,"y  
%[$ t ^! col\rs c\ld be acc\nt$ = by    
int]f]5ce betwe5 ! light t _h pass$     
?r\gh ! air & t :i* _h pass$ ?r\gh !    
wat]1 & expla9$ ! fact t1 to obta9 !    
same col\r1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! plates   
mu/ be mu* great] ?an 9 ! case (        
,newton's r+s4  ,! b&s ( col\r produc$  
by ! int]f]5ce ( light proce$+ f a po9t 
& pass+ on ea* side ( a n>r[ /rip ( c>d1
 h already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! b&s are    
broad] ! n>r[] ! /rip ( c>d4 ,a f9e hair
 gives v broad b&s4 ,:5 a numb] ( hairs 
cross "o ano!r 9 all directions1 ^! b&s 
=m circul> r+s ( col\r4 ,if ! wid? ( !  
hairs be v v>iable1 ! r+s =m$ w be (    

diff]5t sizes & ov]lapp+ "o ano!r1 no   
di/9ct s]ies w be visible2 b :5 ! hairs 
are ( ne>ly ! same diamet]1 a s]ies (   
well-def9$ circles ( col\r1 resembl+    
,newton's r+s1 w be se51 & if ! diamet] 
( a p>ticul> r+ be measur$1 ! bread? ( !
 hairs c be inf]r$4 ,"y practically     
employ$ ?is me?od = measur+ ! diamet] ( 
! fibres ( diff]5t qualities ( wool 9   
ord] to det]m9e _! comm]cial value4 ,!  
in/rum5t employ$ he call$ ! eriomet]4 ,x
 consi/$ ( a plate ( brass pi]c$ ) a    
r\nd hole ab\t "o-?irtie? ( an in* 9    
diamet] 9 ! c5tre1 & ar\nd ?is a small  
circle1 ab\t "o-?ird ( an in* 9 diamet]1
 ( v f9e holes4 ,! plate 0 plac$ 9 front
 ( a lamp1 & ! specim5 ( wool 0 held on 
wires at su* a di/ance 9 front ( ! brass
 plate t ! fir/ gre5 r+ appe>$ to       
co9cide ) ! circle ( small holes4 ,! eye
 0 plac$ beh9d ! lock ( wool1 & !       
di/ance to :i* ! wool _h to be remov$ 9 
front ( ! brass plate 9 ord] t ! fir/   
gre5 r+ might exactly co9cide ) ! small 
circle ( f9e holes1 0 proportional to ! 

bread? ( ! fibres4 ,! same effect is    
produc$ if f9e p>ticles1 su* z          
lycopodium p[d]1 or blood-corpuscles1   
scatt]$ on a piece ( glass1 be sub/itut$
 = ! lock ( wool1 & ,"y employ$ !       
in/rum5t 9 ord] to det]m9e ! diamet] (  
blood-corpuscles4 ,he det]m9$ ! con/ant 
( 8 app>atus by comp>ison ) "s ( ,dr4   
,wolla/on's micrometric obs]vations4 ,! 
col\r$ halos sometimes se5 ar\nd ! sun  
,"y ref]r$ to ! exi/5ce ( small drops ( 
wat] ( ne>ly uni=m diamet]1 & calculat$ 
! necess>y diamet] = halos ( diff]5t    
angul> magnitudes4  ,! same pr9ciple (  
int]f]5ce af=d$ explanation ( ! col\rs (
 /riat$ surfaces1 su* z "m-(-pe>l1 :i*  
v>y ) ! direction 9 :i* !y are se54     
,view$ at "o angle light ( a p>ticul>   
col\r reflect$ f diff]5t ridges w be 9 a
 condition to int]f]e1 & ?is col\r w be 
abs5t f ! reflect$ light4 ,at a diff]5t 
incl9ation1 ! light rea*+ ! eye f all ! 
ridges 7)9 a c]ta9 angle7 w be 9        
precisely ! same phase1 & only !n w     
light ( t col\r be reflect$ 9 its full  

int5sity4 ,) a micromet] scale engrav$  
on glass by ,cov5try1 & conta9+ five    
hundr$ l9es to ! in*1 ,"y obta9$        
int]f]5ce spectra4 ,mod]n grat+s1 )     
sev]al ?\s& l9es to ! in*1 af=d ! pure/ 
spectra t c be obta9$1 & enable !       
wave-l5g? ( any p>ticul> k9d ( light to 
be measur$ ) ! greate/ accuracy4  ,"y's 
dislike ( ma!matical analysis prev5t$   
him f apply+ exact calculation to !     
int]f]5ce ph5om5a :i* he obs]v$1 su* z  
subsequ5tly enabl$ ,fresnel to ov]come !
 prejudice ( ! ,fr5* ,academy & to      
e/abli% ! pr9ciple on an incontrov]tible
 foot+4 ,"y's pap]s attract$ v little   
att5tion1 & ,fresnel made = himself _m (
 ,"y's e>li] discov]ies1 b at once gave 
,"y ! full cr$it ( ! "w :5 8 priority 0 
po9t$ out4 ,! ph5om5a ( pol>ization1    
h[ev]1 /ill rema9$ unexpla9$4 ,bo? ,"y &
 ,fresnel _h reg>d$ ! vibrations ( light
 z simil> to ^? ( s\nd1 & tak+ place 9 !
 direction 9 :i* ! wave is propagat$4 ,!
 fact t light :i* _h pass$ ?r\gh a      
cry/al ( ,icel&-sp>1 0 diff]5tly affect$

 by a second cry/al1 accord+ to !       
direction ( t cry/al ) respect to ! =m]1
 %[$ t light :i* _h be5 s transmitt$ 0 n
 l common light1 symmetrical 9 all      
azimu?s1 b _h acquir$ sides or poles4   
,su* want ( symmetry c\ld n be acc\nt$ =
 on ! hypo!sis t ! vibrations ( light   
took place at "r angles to ! wave-front1
 t is1 9 ! direction ( propagation ( !  
light4 ,! pol>ization ( light by        
reflection 0 discov]$ by ,malus1 9      
#ahji4 ,9 a lett] writt5 to ,arago1 9   
#ahag1 ,"y h9t$ at ! possibility ( !    
exi/5ce ( a compon5t vibration at "r    
angles to ! direction ( propagation1 9  
light :i* _h pass$ ?r\gh ,icel&-sp>4 ,9 
! foll[+ ye> ,fresnel arriv$ indep5d5tly
 at ! hypo!sis ( transv]se vibrations1 n
 z con/itut+ a small compon5t ( pol>iz$ 
light1 b z repres5t+ completely ! mode (
 vibration ( all light1 & 9 ! h&s (     
,fresnel ?is hypo!sis ( transv]se       
vibrations l$ to a !ory ( pol>ization & 
d\ble refraction bo? 9 uniaxal & biaxal 
cry/als :i*1 ?\gh x c h>dly be reg>d$ z 

complete f a me*anical po9t ( view1 is  
nev]!less "o ( ! mo/ beautiful &        
successful applications ( ma!matics to  
physics t has ev] be5 made4 ,to ,"y1    
h[ev]1 belongs ! cr$it ( sugge/+ t !    
sph]oidal =m ( ! waves 9 ,icel&-sp>     
might be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ !         
ela/icity diff]5t 9 ! direction ( !     
optic axis & at "r angles to t          
direction2 & he illu/rat$ 8 view by     
ref]5ce to c]ta9 exp]im5ts ( ,*ladni1 9 
:i* x _h be5 %[n t ! velocity ( s\nd 9 !
 wood ( ! ,scot* fir is diff]5t along1 &
 p]p5dicul> to1 ! fibre 9 ! ratio ( #e  
to #d4 ,"y 0 also ! fir/ to expla9 !    
col\rs exhibit$ by ?9 plates ( cry/als 9
 pol>iz$ light1 discov]$ by ,arago 9    
#ahaa1 by ! int]f]5ce ( ! ord9>y &      
extraord9>y rays1 & ,fresnel aft]w>ds   
complet$ ,"y's explanation 9 #ahbb4  ,x 
is = 8 contributions to ! undulatory    
!ory ( light t ,"y w be mo/ hon\rably   
rememb]$4 ,hooke1 9 #affd1 ref]r$ to    
light z a quick1 %ort1 vibrat+ motion2  
,huygh5s's ,traite de la ,lumi]e 0      

publi%$ 9 #afij4 ,f t "t ! undulatory   
!ory lo/ gr\nd1 until x 0 reviv$ by ,"y 
& ,fresnel4 ,x soon aft] receiv$ great  
support f ! e/abli%m5t1 by ,j\le & o!rs1
 ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat4 ,"o rem>k ( 
,"y's respect+ ! e!r op5s up a "q :i*   
has attract$ mu* att5tion ( late ye>s4  
,9 a lett] address$ to ! ,secret>y ( !  
,royal ,society1 & read ,janu>y #af1    
#ahjj1 he says3--      ,t a m$ium1      
resembl+ 9 _m prop]ties t :i* has be5   
d5om9at$ e!r1 does really exi/1 is      
und5iably prov$ by     ! ph5om5a (      
electricity2 & ! argum5ts aga9/ !       
exi/5ce ( su* an e!r ?r\gh\t ! univ]se h
 be5     pretty suffici5tly answ]$ by   
,eul]4 ,! rapid transmission (     !    
electrical %ock %[s t ! electric m$ium  
is possess$     ( an ela/icity z great z
 is necess>y to be suppos$ = !          
propagation ( light4 ,:e!r ! electric   
e!r is to be     consid]$ z ! same ) !  
lum9\s e!r--if su* a fluid              
exi/s--may p]haps at "s future "t be    
discov]$ by     exp]im5t4  ,besides 8   

contributions to optics1 ,"y made di/9ct
 advances 9 connection ) ela/icity1 & ) 
surface-t5sion1 or capill>ity4 ,x is    
said t ,leon>do da ,v9ci 0 ! fir/ to    
notice ! asc5t ( liquids 9 f9e tubes by 
s-call$ capill>y attraction4 ,?is1      
h[ev]1 is only "o ( a s]ies ( ph5om5a n[
 v g5]ally recogniz$1 & all ( :i* are   
ref]able to ! same action4 ,! hang+ ( a 
drop f ! neck ( a phial2 ! pressure (   
air requir$ to inflate a soap-bubble2 ! 
flotation ( a greasy ne$le on ! surface 
( wat]2 ! mann] 9 :i* "s insects re/ on 
wat]1 by depress+ ! surface1 )\t wett+  
_! legs2 ! possibility ( fill+ a tumbl] 
) wat] until ! surface /&s above ! edge 
( ! glass2 ! ne>ly sph]ical =m (        
ra9-drops & ( small drops ( m]cury1 ev5 
:5 !y are re/+ on a table1--are all     
examples ( ! effect ( surface-t5sion4   
,^! ph5om5a h rec5tly be5 /udi$ v       
c>efully by ,qu9cke & ,plateau1 & !y h  
be5 expla9$ 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( 
en]gy by ,gauss4 ,hawksbee1 h[ev]1 0 !  
fir/ to notice t ! rise ( a liquid 9 a  

f9e tube did n dep5d on ! ?ickness ( !  
walls ( ! tube1 & he !re=e inf]r$ t1 if 
! ph5om5a 7 due to ! attraction ( !     
glass = ! liquid1 x c\ld only be !      
sup]ficial lay]s :i* produc$ any effect4
 ,?is 0 9 #agji4 ,segn]1 9 #agea1       
introduc$ ! notion ( a surface-t5sion2  
&1 accord+ to 8 view1 ! surface ( a     
liquid mu/ be consid]$ z simil> to a ?9 
lay] ( /ret*$ indi>ubb]1 except t !     
t5sion is always ! same at ! surface    
b\nd+ ! same m$ia4 ,?is idea (          
surface-t5sion 0 tak5 up by ,"y1 :o %[$ 
t x af=d$ explanation ( all ! kn[n      
ph5om5a ( capill>ity1 :5 comb9$ ) !     
fact1 :i* he 0 himself ! fir/ to obs]ve1
 t ! angle ( contact ( ! same           
liquid-surface ) ! same solid is        
con/ant4 ,?is angle he call$ !          
appropriate angle4 ,b ,"y w5t fur!r1 &  
attempt$ to expla9 ! exi/5ce (          
surface-t5sion itself by suppos+ t !    
p>ticles ( a liquid n only ex]t an      
attractive =ce on "o ano!r1 :i* is      
con/ant1 b also a repulsive =ce :i*     

increases v rapidly :5 ! di/ance betwe5 
!m is made v small4 ,8 views on ?is     
subject 7 embodi$ 9 a pap] on ! cohesion
 ( liquids1 read be=e ! ,royal ,society 
9 #ahjd4 ,he aft]w>ds wrote an article  
on ! same subject = ! supplem5t ( !     
,encyclopa$ia ,britannica4  ,! *anges   
:i* solids und]go "u ! action ( ext]nal 
=ce1 & _! t5d5cy to recov] _! natural   
=ms1 7 /udi$ by ,hooke & ,graves&e4 ,!  
exp]im5tal fact t1 = small *anges ( =m1 
! ext5sion ( a rod or /r+ is            
proportional to ! t5sion to :i* x is    
expos$1 is kn[n z ,hooke's law4 ,!      
compression & ext5sion ( ! fibres ( a   
b5t beam 7 notic$ by ,james ,b]n\lli1 9 
#afcj1 by ,duhamel & o!rs4 ,! b5d+ (    
beams 0 also /udi$ by ,c\lomb &         
,robison1 b ,"y appe>s to h be5 almo/ ! 
fir/ to apply ! !ory ( ela/icity to !   
/atics ( /ructures4 ,9 a lett] to !     
,secret>y ( ! ,admiralty1 writt5 9      
#ahaa1 9 reply to an invitation to      
report on ,mr4 ,/epp+s's improvem5ts 9  
naval ar*itecture1 ,"y claim$ t he 0 !  

only p]son :o _h publi%$ any attempts to
 improve ! !ory ( c>p5try4 ,x may be "h 
m5tion$ t ,"y accept$ ! invitation ( !  
,admiralty1 & s5t 9 a v exhau/ive       
report1 :i* _! ,lord%ips reg>d$ z too   
le>n$ to be ( great practical value4    
,"y's contributions to ?is subject w be 
*iefly rememb]$ 9 connection ) 8 modulus
 ( ela/icity4 ,?is he orig9ally def9$ z 
foll[s3--  ,! modulus ( ! ela/icity (   
any sub/ance is a column ( ! same       
sub/ance capable ( produc+ a pressure on
 its base :i* is to ! weight caus+ a    
c]ta9 degree ( compression z ! l5g? ( ! 
sub/ance is to ! dim9ution ( its l5g?4  
,x is n usual n[ to express ,"y's       
modulus ( ela/icity 9 t]ms ( a l5g? ( ! 
sub/ance consid]$4 ,z n[ usually def9$1 
,"y's modulus ( ela/icity is ! =ce :i*  
w\ld /ret* a rod or /r+ to d\ble its    
natural l5g? if ,hooke's law 7 true = s 
great an ext5sion4  ,s mu* ( ,dr4 ,"y's 
sci5tific "w has be5 m5tion$ "h because 
x 0 dur+ 8 e>ly ye>s ( pr(essional      
practice t 8 mo/ orig9al sci5tific "w 0 

accompli%$4 ,z already /at$1 aft] two   
ye>s' t5ure ( ! ,natural ,philosophy    
*air at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,"y       
resign$ x because 8 fri5ds 7 ( op9ion t 
its t5ure militat$ aga9/ 8 prospects z a
 physician4 ,9 ! summ] ( #ahjb he       
escort$ ! great-nephews ( ! ,duke (     
,ri*mond to ,r\51 & took ! opportunity (
 visit+ ,p>is4 ,9 ,m>*1 #ahjc1 he took 8
 degree ( ,m4,b4 at ,cambridge1 & on    
,june #ad1 #ahjd1 he m>ri$ ,eliza1      
second daught] ( ,j4 ,p4 ,maxwell1      
,esq41 ^: c\ntry seat 0 ne> ,f>nbor\gh4 
,= sixte5 ye>s aft] 8 m>riage1 ,"y      
resid$ at ,wor?+ dur+ ! summ]1 :]e he   
made a v respectable practice1 return+  
to ,london 9 ,octob] or ,novemb]4 ,9    
,janu>y1 #ahaa1 he 0 elect$ "o ( !      
physicians ( ,/4 ,george's ,hospital1   
:i* appo9tm5t he reta9$ = ! re/ ( 8     
life4 ,9 ?is capacity 8 practice 0      
consid]ably 9 advance ( ! times1 = he   
reg>d$ m$ic9e z a sci5ce r ?an an       
empirical art1 & 8 c>eful me?ods (      
induction dem&$ an am\nt ( att5tion :i* 

m$ical /ud5ts1 :o pref]r$ ! m           
r\gh-&-ready me?ods !n 9 vogue1 7 sl[ to
 give4 ,! apo!c>y ( ! hospital /at$ t m 
( ,dr4 ,"y's pati5ts w5t away cur$ ?an (
 ^? :o 7 subject$ to ! m fa%ionable     
treatm5t2 b 8 private practice1 not)/&+ 
! sacrifices he _h made1 nev] became v  
valuable4  ,9 #ahaf ,"y 0 appo9t$       
,secret>y to a ,commission = det]m9+ !  
l5g? ( ! second's p5dulum4 ,! reports ( 
?is ,commission 7 drawn up by him1 ?\gh 
! exp]im5tal "w 0 c>ri$ out by ,capta9  
,kat]4 ,! result ( ! "w 0 embodi$ 9 an  
,act ( ,p>liam5t1 introduc$ by ,sir     
,george ,cl]k1 9 #ahbd1 :i* provid$ t if
 ! /&>d y>d %\ld be lo/ x %\ld be re/or$
 to ! same l5g?1 by mak+ x be> to ! l5g?
 ( ! second's p5dulum at sea-level 9    
,london1 ! ratio ( #cf to #ci4acic2 b   
be=e ! /&>ds 7 de/roy$1 9 #ahce1 s _m   
s\rces ( possible error 7 discov]$ 9 !  
r$uction ( p5dulum obs]vations1 t !     
,commission appo9t$ to re/ore ! /&>ds   
recomm5d$ t a mat]ial /&>d y>d %\ld be  
con/ruct$1 toge!r ) a numb] ( copies1 s 

t1 9 ! ev5t ( ! /&>d be+ aga9 de/roy$1 x
 might be re/or$ by comp>ison ) its     
copies4 ,9 #ahah ,"y 0 appo9t$          
,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,nautical ,almanac &    
,secret>y ( ! ,bo>d ( ,longitude4 ,:5   
?is ,bo>d 0 dissolv$ 9 #ahbh1 its       
functions 7 assum$ by ! ,admiralty1 &   
,"y1 ,f>aday1 & ,colonel ,sab9e 7       
appo9t$ a ,sci5tific ,committee (       
,ref]5ce to advise ! ,admiralty 9 all   
matt]s 9 :i* _! assi/ance might be      
requir$4 ,! income f ^! ,gov]nm5t       
appo9tm5ts r5d]$ ,"y m indep5d5t ( 8    
practice1 & he became less c>eful to    
publi% 8 sci5tific pap]s anonym\sly4 ,9 
#ahbj he left ,wor?+ & gave up 8        
practice !re4 ,! foll[+ ye>1 9 company )
 ,mrs4 ,"y1 he took a t\r ?r\gh ,france1
 ,switz]l&1 & ,italy1 & at ,p>is att5d$ 
a meet+ ( ! ,in/itute1 :]e he met       
,arago1 :o _h call$ on him 9 ,wor?+1 9  
#ahaf4 ,at ! same "t he made !          
acqua9tance ( ,laplace1 ,cuvi]1         
,humboldt1 & o!rs4 ,9 #ahbd he visit$   
,spa1 & took a t\r ?r\gh ,holl&4 ,9 !   

same ye> ,"y 0 appo9t$ ,inspector (     
,calculations & ,m$ical ,ref]ee to !    
,palladium ,insurance ,company4 ,?is    
caus$ him to turn 8 att5tion to !       
subject ( life assurance & bills (      
mortality4 ,9 #ahbe1 z ,=eign ,secret>y 
( ! ,royal ,society1 he _h !            
satisfaction ( =w>d+ to ,fresnel !      
,rum=d ,m$al 9 ackn[l$gm5t ( 8 rese>*es 
on pol>iz$ light4 ,fresnel di$1 9 8     
=tie? ye>1 a few days aft] receiv+ !    
m$al4  ,dr4 ,"y di$ on ,may #aj1 #ahbi1 
9 ! fifty-six? ye> ( 8 age1 8 excessive 
m5tal ex]tions 9 e>ly life hav+ app>5tly
 l$ to a premature old age4 ,he 0 buri$ 
9 ! p>i% *ur* ( ,f>nbor\gh1 & a m$allion
 by ,sir ,francis ,*antrey 0 erect$ to 8
 memory 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey4  ,b1 ?\gh ,"y
 0 ess5tially a sci5tific man1 8        
accompli%m5ts 7 all b univ]sal1 & any   
memoir ( him w\ld be v incomplete )\t "s
 sket* ( 8 rese>*es 9 ,egyptian         
hi]oglyphics4 ,8 classical tra9+1 8     
ext5sive k ( ,european & ,ea/]n         
languages1 & 8 neat h&writ+ & draw+1 h  

already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,to ^! atta9m5ts 
mu/ be add$ 8 sci5tific me?od & p[] (   
c>eful & sy/ematic obs]vation1 & x w be 
se5 t few p]sons c\ld come to ! task (  
deciph]+ an unkn[n language ) a bett]   
*ance ( success ?an ,dr4 ,"y4  ,!       
,rosetta ,/one 0 f\nd by ! ,fr5* :ile   
excavat+ at ,=t ,/4 ,pi]re1 ne>         
,rosetta1 9 #agii1 & 0 br\ght to ,engl& 
9 #ahjb4 ,! /one bore an inscription 9  
?ree diff]5t k9ds ( "*--! ,hi]oglyphic1 
! ,en*orial or ,demotic1 & ! ord9>y     
,greek4 ,"y's att5tion 0 fir/ call$ to !
 ,egyptian *>act]s by a manuscript :i* 0
 submitt$ to him 9 #ahad4 ,he !n obta9$ 
copies ( ! inscriptions on ! ,rosetta   
,/one & subject$ !m to a c>eful         
analysis4 ,! latt] "p ( ! ,greek        
inscription 0 v mu* injur$1 b 0 re/or$  
by ! conjectures ( ,porson & ,heyne1 &  
read z foll[s3--,:at is "h decre$ %all  
be inscrib$ on a block ( h>d /one1 9    
sacr$1 9 en*orial1 & 9 ,greek *>act]s1 &
 plac$ 9 ea* temple1 ( ! fir/1 second1 &
 ?ird gods4  ,?is indicat$ t ! ?ree     

inscriptions conta9$ ! same decree1 b1  
un=tunately1 ! beg9n+s ( ! fir/ & second
 inscriptions 7 lo/1 s t !re 7 no v     
def9itely fix$ po9ts to />t ^u4 ,! words
 ,alex&] & ,alex&ria1 h[ev]1 occurr$ 9 !
 ,greek1 & ^! words1 be+ s mu* alike1   
might be recogniz$ 9 ea* ( ! o!r        
inscriptions4 ,! ^w ,ptolemy appe>$     
elev5 times 9 ! ,greek inscription1 &   
!re 0 a ^w :i*1 f its l5g? & position1  
seem$ to correspond to x1 :i*1 h[ev]1   
appe>$ f\rte5 times 9 ! hi]oglyphic     
inscription4 ,?is ^w1 :5ev] x appe>$ 9 !
 hi]oglyphics1 0 surr\nd$ by a r+ =m+   
:at ,*ampollion call$ a c>t\*e1 :i* 0   
always employ$ to d5ote ! names ( royal 
p]sons4 ,^! words 7 id5tifi$ by ,b>on   
,sylve/re de ,sacy & ! ,sw$i% s*ol>     
,ak]blad4 ,"y appe>s to h />t$ ) ! idea1
 !n g5]ally curr5t1 t hi]oglyphic       
symbols 7 purely ideographic1 ea* sign  
repres5t+ a ^w4 ,8 k ( ,*9ese1 h[ev]1 l$
 him to modify ?is view4 ,9 t language  
native words are repres5t$ by s+le      
symbols1 b1 :5 x is necess>y to write a 

=eign ^w1 a gr\p ( ^w-symbols is        
employ$1 ea* ( :i* !n assumes a phonetic
 "* ( ! same value z ! initial lett] ( !
 ^w :i* x repres5ts4 ,! phonetic value (
 ^! signs is indicat$ 9 ,*9ese by a l9e 
at ! side1 or by enclos+ !m 9 a squ>e4  
,"y suppos$ t ! r+ surr\nd+ ! royal     
names 9 ! hi]oglyphic inscription _h !  
same value z ! phonetic m>k 9 ,*9ese1 & 
f ! symbols 9 ! "n ( ,ptolemy he comm5c$
 to con/ruct a hi]oglyphic alphabet4 ,he
 made an error1 h[ev]1 9 suppos+ t "s ( 
! symbols might be syllabic in/ead (    
alphabetic4 ,x is true t 9 ! old]       
inscriptions s+le signs h sometimes a   
syllabic value1 & sometimes are us$     
ideographically1 :ile 9 o!r cases a s+le
 sign repres5t+ ! :ole ^w is employ$ 9  
conjunction ) ! alphabetic signs1       
probably to di/+ui% ! ^w f o!rs spelt 9 
! same way1 b 9 inscriptions ( s late a 
date z ! ,rosetta ,/one1 ! symbols 7    
purely alphabetic4 ,ano!r important /ep 
made by ,"y 0 ! discov]y ( ! use (      
homophones1 or diff]5t symbols to       

repres5t ! same lett]4 ,"y's "w 0       
closely foll[$ up by ,*ampollion1 &     
aft]w>ds by ,lepsius1 ,birs*1 & o!rs4 ,!
 great] "p ( 8 rese>*es he nev] publi%$1
 ?\gh he made c>eful exam9ations (      
sev]al fun]al rolls & o!r docum5ts4  ,x 
w\ld occupy too mu* space to give an    
adequate acc\nt ( ,"y's rese>*es 9 ?is  
subject2 "s portion ( 8 "w he publi%$ 9 
a popul> =m 9 ! article ,egypt1 9 !     
supplem5t ( ! ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica1
 to :i* supplem5t he contribut$ ab\t    
sev5ty articles on widely diff]5t       
subjects4 ,p]haps x is n too mu* to say 
t to ,"y we owe ! f\ndation ( all we n[ 
"k ( hi]oglyphics & ! ,egyptian hi/ory  
:i* has be5 le>n$ f !m2 & ! obelisk on !
 ,?ames ,embankm5t %\ld call to m9d !   
memory ( no "o m prom95tly ?an t (      
,?omas ,"y4     ,,mi*ael ,,f>aday4   ,! 
"w ( ,mi*ael ,f>aday introduc$ a new era
 9 ! hi/ory ( physical sci5ce4          
,un5cumb]$ by pre-exi/+ !ories1 &       
untrammell$ by ! me?ods ( ! ma!matician1
 he set =? on a l9e ( 8 own1 &1 :ile    

engag$ 9 ! highe/ bran*es ( exp]im5tal  
rese>*1 he s\ght to expla9 8 results by 
ref]5ce to ! mo/ elem5t>y me*anical     
pr9ciples only4 ,h5ce x 0 t ^?          
conclusions :i* _h be5 obta9$ by        
ma!maticians only by ! help ( advanc$   
analytical me?ods1 & :i* 7 express$ by  
!m only 9 ! language ( ! integral       
calculus1 ,f>aday a*iev$ )\t any su*    
artificial aids to ?\ght1 & express$ 9  
simple language1 hav+ ref]5ce to !      
me*anism :i* he conceiv$ to be ! means  
by :i* su* results 7 br\ght ab\t4 ,= a  
long "t ,f>aday's me?ods 7 reg>d$ by    
ma!maticians ) some?+ m ?an suspicion1  
&1 :ile !y c\ld n b admire 8 exp]im5tal 
skill & 7 compell$ to admit ! accuracy (
 8 conclusions1 8 mode ( ?\ght diff]$   
too widely f t to :i* !y 7 accu/om$ to  
comm& _! ass5t4 ,9 ,sir ,william        
,?omson1 & 9 ,cl]k ,maxwell1 ,f>aday at 
l5g? f\nd int]pret]s betwe5 him & !     
ma!matical _w1 & to ! ma!matician p]haps
 ! greate/ monum5t ( ! g5ius ( ,f>aday  
is ! ,electricity & ,magnetism ( ,cl]k  

,maxwell4  ,mi*ael ,f>aday 0 born at    
,new+ton1 ,surrey1 on ,septemb] #bb1    
#agia1 & 0 ! ?ird ( f\r *ildr54 ,8 fa!r1
 ,james ,f>aday1 0 ! son ( ,rob]t &     
,elizabe? ,f>aday1 ( ,clapham ,wood     
,hall1 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,york%ire1 & 0    
br\ght up z a blacksmi?4 ,he 0 ! ?ird ( 
t5 *ildr51 &1 9 #aghf1 m>ri$ ,m>g>et    
,ha/well1 a f>m]'s daught]4 ,soon aft] 8
 m>riage he came to ,london1 :]e ,mi*ael
 0 born4 ,9 #agif ,james ,f>aday1 ) 8   
family1 mov$ f ,new+ton1 & took rooms   
ov] a coa*-h\se 9 ,jacob's ,well ,mews1 
,*>les ,/reet1 ,man*e/] ,squ>e4 ,9 look+
 at ?is humble abode "o c sc>cely help  
?9k+ t ! ,york%ire blacksmi? & 8 little 
family w\ld h be5 f> happi] 9 a c\ntry  
smiddy ne> 8 native moors ?an 9 a cr[d$ 
,london c\rt2 b1 _h he rema9$ !re1 x is 
difficult to see h[ ! g5ius ( "y ,mi*ael
 c\ld h met ) ! requisites = its        
developm5t4  ,james ,f>aday 0 f> f      
enjoy+ good heal?1 & 8 illness (t5      
necessitat$ 8 abs5ce f "w1 &1 z a       
consequ5ce1 8 family 7 frequ5tly 9 v    

/rait5$ circum/ances4 ,! e>ly education 
( ,mi*ael 01 !re=e1 n ( a v high ord]1 &
 consi/$ ( little m ?an ! rudim5ts (    
read+1 writ+1 & ari?metic4 ,l mo/ boys 9
 a simil> position 9 ,london1 he f\nd 8 
amusem5t = ! mo/ "p 9 ! /reets1 b1      
except t 9 8 games at m>bles we may     
assume t he play$ ) o!r boys1 we h no   
evid5ce :e!r 8 "t 0 sp5t mo/ly by       
himself1 or :e!r he 0 "o ( a set ( /reet
 companions4  ,9 #ahjd1 :5 ?irte5 ye>s (
 age1 ,mi*ael ,f>aday w5t z err&-boy to 
,mr4 ,geo4 ,riebau1 a booksell] 9 ,bl&=d
 ,/reet4 ,"p ( 8 duty 9 ?is capacity 0  
to c>ry r\nd pap]s l5t on hire by 8     
ma/]1 & 9 8 ,life ( ,f>aday1 ,dr4 ,b5ce 
,jones tells h[ anxi\s ! "y err&-boy 0  
to collect 8 pap]s on ,sunday morn+ 9 "t
 to att5d ! ,s&emanian s]vice ) ! o!r   
memb]s ( 8 family4  ,f>aday 0 appr5tic$ 
to ,mr4 ,riebau on ,octob] #g1 #ahje1 & 
le>n$ ! bus9ess ( a bookb9d]4 ,he       
occasionally occupi$ 8 sp>e "t 9 read+ !
 sci5tific books he _h to b9d1 & 0      
p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 ,mrs4 ,m>cet's     

,conv]sations 9 ,*emi/ry1 & 9 ! article 
on ,electricity 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia       
,britannica4 ,^! 7 days be=e ! exi/5ce (
 ! ,london ,society = ! ,ext5sion (     
,univ]sity ,tea*+1 &1 ?\gh ,pr(essor    
,&]son 9 ,glasg[ _h %[n h[ ! advantages 
( a univ]sity might be ext5d$ to ^? ^:  
=tunes prev5t$ !m f becom+ regul>       
univ]sity /ud5ts1 ,pr(essor ,/u>t _h n  
yet taught ! ,engli% univ]sities t !y _h
 responsibilities outside _! own bord]s1
 & t ! national univ]sities ( ! future  
mu/ be ! tea*]s ( all classes ( !       
community4 ,b private ent]prise suppli$ 
9 a measure ! neglect ( public bodies4  
,mr4 ,tatum1 ( #dc1 ,dorset ,/reet1     
,fleet ,/reet1 adv]tis$ a c\rse (       
lectures on natural philosophy1 to be   
deliv]$ at 8 resid5ce at eight o'clock 9
 ! ev5+s4 ,! price ( admission 0 high1  
be+ a %ill+ = ea* lecture1 b ,mi*ael's  
bro!r ,rob]t frequ5tly suppli$ him ) !  
money1 & 9 att5d+ ^! lectures ,f>aday   
made _m fri5d%ips :i* 7 valuable to him 
aft]w>ds4  ,f>aday appe>s to h be5 aw>e 

( ! value ( skill 9 draw+--a po9t to :i*
 mu* att5tion has rec5tly be5 call$ by  
^? int]e/$ 9 te*nical education--& he   
sp5t "s portion ( 8 "t 9 /udy+          
p]spective1 s z to be bett] able to     
illu/rate 8 notes ( ,mr4 ,tatum's       
lectures1 z well z ( "s ( ,sir ,humphry 
,davy's1 :i* he 0 enabl$ to he> at !    
,royal ,in/itution ?r\gh ! k9dness ( a  
cu/om] at ,mr4 ,riebau's %op4  ,9 #ahab1
 be=e ! end ( 8 appr5tice%ip1 ,f>aday 0 
engag$ 9 exp]im5ts ) voltaic batt]ies ( 
8 own con/ruction4 ,hav+ cut out sev5   
discs ( z9c ! size ( halfp5ce1 & cov]$  
!m ) sev5 halfp5ce1 he =m$ a pile by    
ins]t+ pieces ( pap] soak$ 9 common salt
 betwe5 ea* pair1 & f\nd t ! pile s     
con/ruct$ 0 capable ( decompos+ ,epsom  
salts4 ,) a some:at l>g] pile he        
decompos$ copp] sulphate & lead acetate1
 & made "s exp]im5ts on ! decomposition 
( wat]4 ,on ,july #ba1 #ahab1 9 writ+ to
 8 fri5d ,abbott1 he m5tions ! movem5ts 
( camphor :5 float+ on wat]1 & adds1    
,sci5ce may be illu/rat$ by ^? m9ute    

actions & effects1 almo/ z mu* z by m   
evid5t & obvi\s ph5om5a4444 ,my knife is
 s bad t ,i _c m5d my p5 ) x2 x is n[   
cov]$ ) copp]1 hav+ be5 employ$ to      
precipitate t metal f ! muriatic acid4  
,some?+ ( ,f>aday's disposition1 z well 
z ( ! results ( 8 self-education1 may be
 ga!r$ f ! foll[+ quotations f lett]s to
 ,abbott1 writt5 at ?is "t3--      ,i h 
aga9 gone ov] y\r lett]1 b am s bl9d$ t 
,i     _c see any subject except *lor9e 
to write on2 b be=e     ent]+ on :at ,i 
int5d %all fill up ! lett]1 ,i w ask    
y\r p>don = hav+ ma9ta9$ an op9ion aga9/
 "o :o 0     s ready to give 8 own up4  
,i suspect f t circum/ance ,i     am    
wrong4444 ,9 ! pres5t case ,i conceive t
 exp]im5ts may     be divid$ into ?ree  
classes3 fir/1 ^? :i* are = !     old   
!ory ( oxymuriatic acid1 & consequ5tly  
oppose ! new     "o2 second1 ^? :i* are 
= ! new "o1 & oppose ! old     !ory2 &  
?ird1 ^? :i* c be expla9$ by bo?        
!ories--app>5tly s only1 = 9 reality a  
false !ory c     nev] expla9 a fact4    

,x is n = me to affirm t ,i am "r & y   
wrong2     speak+ imp>tially1 ,i c z    
well say t ,i am wrong & y     "r1 or t 
we bo? are wrong & a ?ird "r4 ,i am n s 
self-op9ionat$ z to suppose t my judgm5t
 & p]ception     9 ?is or o!r matt]s is 
bett] or cle>] ?an t ( o!r     p]sons2  
nor d ,i mean to affirm t ?is is ! true 
!ory 9     reality1 b only t my judgm5t 
conceives x to be s4     ,judgm5ts      
sometimes oppose ea* o!r1 z 9 ?is case2 
& z     !re _c be two oppos+ facts 9    
nature1 s !re _c be     two oppos+ tru?s
 9 ! intellectual _w4 ,consequ5tly1     
:5 judgm5ts oppose1 "o mu/ be wrong--"o 
mu/ be false2 &     m9e may be s = aught
 ,i c tell4 ,i am n ( a sup]ior         
nature to e/imate exactly ! /r5g? &     
correctness ( my     own & o!r m5's     
und]/&+1 & w assure y1 de>     ,a----1 t
 ,i am f> f be+ conv9c$ t my own is     
always     "r4 ,i h giv5 y ! !ory--n z !
 true "o1 b z     ! "o :i* appe>$ true  
to me--& :5 ,i p]ceive errors 9     x1  
,i w imm$iately r5\nce x1 9 "p or :olly1

 z my     judgm5t may direct4 ,f ?is1   
de> fri5d1 y w see t ,i     am v op5 to 
conviction2 & f ! mann] 9 :i* ,i        
%all answ] y\r lett]1 y w also p]ceive t
 ,i mu/ be     conv9c$ be=e ,i r5\nce4  
,on ,octob] #g1 #ahab1 ,f>aday's        
appr5tice%ip t]m9at$1 & imm$iately      
aft]w>ds he />t$ life z a j\rneyman     
bookb9d]4 ,he n[ f\nd t he _h less "t at
 8 disposal = sci5tific "w ?an he _h    
enjoy$ :5 an appr5tice1 & 8 desire to   
give up 8 trade & ent] fully ^u         
sci5tific pursuits became /rong] ?an    
ev]4 ,dur+ 8 appr5tice%ip he _h writt5  
to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 !n ,presid5t ( !
 ,royal ,society1 9 ! hope ( obta9+ "s  
sci5tific employm5t2 he n[ appli$ to    
,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,9 a lett] writt5  
to ,dr4 ,p>is1 9 #ahbi1 ,f>aday gave an 
acc\nt ( ?is application4  ,my desire to
 escape f trade1 :i* ,i ?\ght vici\s &  
selfi%1 & to ent] into ! s]vice (       
sci5ce1 :i* ,i imag9$ made its pursu]s  
amiable & lib]al1 induc$ me at la/ to   
take ! bold & simple /ep ( writ+ to ,sir

 ,h4 ,davy1 express+ my wi%es1 & a hope 
t1 if an opportunity came 9 8 way1 he   
w\ld fav\r my views2 at ! same "t1 ,i   
s5t ! notes ,i _h tak5 ( 8 lectures4  ,!
 answ]1 :i* makes all ! po9t ( my       
communication1 ,i s5d y 9 ! orig9al1    
reque/+ y to take great c>e ( x1 & to   
let me h x back1 = y may imag9e h[ mu*  
,i value x4  ,y w obs]ve t ?is took     
place at ! end ( ! ye> #ahab2 & e>ly 9  
#ahac he reque/$ to see me1 & told me ( 
! situation ( assi/ant 9 ! laboratory ( 
! ,royal ,in/itution1 !n j vacant4  ,at 
! same "t t he ?us gratifi$ my desires z
 to sci5tific employm5t1 he /ill advis$ 
me n to give up ! prospects ,i _h be=e  
me1 tell+ me t ,sci5ce 0 a h>% mi/ress1 
&1 9 a pecuni>y po9t ( view1 b poorly   
rew>d+ ^? :o devot$ !mselves to h]      
s]vice4 ,he smil$ at my notion ( !      
sup]ior moral feel+s ( philosophic m51 &
 said he w\ld leave me to ! exp]i5ce ( a
 few ye>s to set me "r on t matt]4      
,f9ally1 ?r\gh 8 good ef=ts1 ,i w5t to !
 ,royal ,in/itution1 e>ly 9 ,m>* (      

#ahac1 z assi/ant 9 ! laboratory2 & 9   
,octob] ( ! same ye> w5t ) him abroad1 z
 8 assi/ant 9 exp]im5ts & 9 writ+4 ,i   
return$ ) him 9 ,april1 #ahae1 resum$ my
 /ation 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution1 & h1 z y
 "k1 ev] s9ce rema9$ !re4  ,sir ,h4     
,davy's lett] 0 z foll[s3--      ,,sir1 
,i am f> f displeas$ ) ! pro( y h giv5  
me (      y\r confid5ce1 & :i* displays 
great zeal1 p[] (      memory1 &        
att5tion4 ,i am oblig$ to g out ( t[n1 &
      %all n be settl$ 9 t[n till ! end 
( ,janu>y2 ,i w      !n see y at any "t 
y wi%4 ,x w\ld gratify me to be      (  
any s]vice to y2 ,i wi% x may be 9 my   
p[]4      ,i am1 sir1     ,y\r ob$i5t   
humble s]vant1     ,h4 ,,davy4  ,!      
m9utes ( ! meet+ ( manag]s ( ! ,royal   
,in/itution1 on ,m>* #a1 #ahac1 conta9 !
 foll[+ entry3--,sir ,humphry ,davy has 
! hon\r to in=m ! manag]s t he has f\nd 
a p]son :o is desir\s to occupy !       
situation 9 ! in/itution lately fill$ by
 ,william ,payne4 ,8 "n is ,mi*ael      
,f>aday4 ,he is a y\? ( tw5ty-two ye>s (

 age4 ,8 habits seem good1 8 disposition
 active & *e]ful1 & 8 mann] intellig5t4 
,he is will+ to engage himself on ! same
 t]ms z ^? giv5 to ,mr4 ,payne at ! "t (
 quitt+ ! in/itution4  ,resolv$1 t      
,mi*ael ,f>aday be engag$ to fill !     
situation lately occupi$ by ,mr4 ,payne1
 on ! same t]ms4  ,ab\t ?is "t ,f>aday  
jo9$ ! ,city ,philosophical ,society1   
:i* _h be5 />t$ at ,mr4 ,tatum's h\se 9 
#ahjh4 ,! memb]s met e ,w$nesday ev5+1  
ei!r = a lecture or discussion2 & p]haps
 ! society did n widely diff] f "s ( !  
/ud5ts' associations :i* h m rec5tly be5
 />t$ 9 connection ) o!r educational    
ent]prises4 ,magra? 0 secret>y ( ?is    
society1 & f x !re sprang a small] b& ( 
/ud5ts1 :o1 meet+ once a week1 ei!r at  
,magra?'s w>eh\se 9 ,wood ,/reet1 or at 
,f>aday's private rooms 9 ! attics ( !  
,royal ,in/itution1 = mutual improvem5t1
 read toge!r1 & freely criticiz$ ea*    
o!r's pronunciation & composition4 ,9 a 
lett] to ,abbott six weeks aft] comm5c+ 
"w at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,f>aday     

says3--      ,a /rang] w\ld c]ta9ly ?9k 
y & ,i 7 a c\ple ( v     simple be+s1   
s9ce we f9d x necess>y to write to ea*  
o!r1 ?\gh we s (t5 p]sonally meet2 b !  
/rang]     w\ld1 9 s judg+1 only fall   
into t error :i* envelops     all ^? :o 
decide f ! outw>d appe>ances ( ?+s4444  
,:5 writ+ to y ,i seek t opportunity (  
/riv+ to     describe a circum/ance or  
an exp]im5t cle>ly2 s t y     w see ,i  
am urg$ on by selfi% motives p>tly to   
our mutual     correspond5ce1 b1 ?\gh   
selfi%1 yet n c5surable4  ,dur+ ! summ] 
( #ahac ,f>aday1 9 8 lett]s to ,abbott1 
gave 8 fri5d ! b5efit ( 8 exp]i5ce on ! 
subject ( lectures & lectur]s 9 g5]al1 9
 a mann] t speaks v highly ( 8 p[] (    
obs]vation ( m5 z well z ?+s4 ,he 0 (   
op9ion t a lecture %\ld n la/ m ?an an  
h\r1 & t ! subject %\ld fit ! audi5ce4  
,a lectur] may consid] 8 audi5ce z be+  
polite or vulg> 7t]ms ,i wi% y to und]/&
 accord+ to ,%uffleton's new diction>y71
 le>n$ or unle>n$ 7) respect to !       
subject71 li/5]s or gaz]s4 ,polite      

company expect to be ent]ta9$1 n only by
 ! subject ( ! lecture1 b by ! mann] ( !
 lectur]2 !y look = respect1 = language 
consonant to _! dignity1 & ideas on a   
level ) _! own4 ,! vulg>--t is to say1 9
 g5]al1 ^? :o w take ! tr\ble ( ?9k+1 & 
! bees ( bus9ess--wi% = some?+ t !y c   
compreh5d4 ,?is may be deep & elaborate 
= ! le>n$1 b = ^? :o are z yet tyros &  
unacqua9t$ ) ! subject1 mu/ be simple & 
pla94 ,la/ly1 li/5]s expect reason &    
s5se1 :il/ gaz]s only require a         
succession ( words4  ,9 fav\r (         
exp]im5tal illu/ration he says3--  ,i   
ne$ n po9t out 444 ! diff]5ce 9 !       
p]ceptive p[]s ( ! eye & ! e>1 & !      
facility & cle>ness ) :i* ! fir/ ( ^!   
organs conveys ideas to ! m9d--ideas    
:i*1 be+ ?us ga9$1 are held f> m        
ret5tively & firmly 9 ! memory ?an :5   
introduc$ by ! e>4444 ,app>atus1 !re=e1 
is an ess5tial "p ( e lecture 9 :i* x c 
be introduc$4444 ,:5 444 app>atus is to 
be exhibit$1 "s k9d ( ord] %\ld be      
obs]v$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( !m on !         

lecture-table4 ,e p>ticul> "p           
illu/rative ( ! lecture %\ld be 9 view1 
no "o ?+ %\ld hide ano!r f ! audi5ce1   
nor %\ld any?+ /& 9 ! way ( or ob/ruct !
 lectur]4 ,!y %\ld be s plac$1 too1 z to
 produce a k9d ( uni=mity 9 appe>ance4  
,no "o "p %\ld appe> nak$ & ano!r cr[d$1
 unless "s p>ticul> reason exi/s & makes
 x necess>y to be s4  ,on ,octob] #ac1  
#ahac1 ,f>aday left ! ,royal            
,in/itution1 9 ord] to accompany ,sir   
,humphry ,davy 9 a t\r on ! ,cont95t4 ,8
 j\rnal gives "s int]e/+ details1 %[+ ! 
inconv5i5ces ( =eign travel at t "t4    
,sir ,humphry ,davy took 8 c>riage ) him
 9 pieces1 & ^! _h to be put toge!r aft]
 escap+ ! dang]s ( ! ,fr5* cu/om-h\se on
 ! quay at ,morlaix1 two ye>s be=e !    
battle ( ,wat]loo4  ,"o app>5tly trivial
 incid5t some:at m>r$ ,f>aday's pleasure
 ?r\gh\t ?is j\rney4 ,x 0 orig9ally     
int5d$ t ! p>ty %\ld comprise ,sir      
,humphry & ,lady ,davy1 ,f>aday1 & ,sir 
,humphry's valet1 b at ! la/ mom5t t mo/
 important function>y decl9$ to leave 8 

native %ores4 ,davy !n reque/$ ,f>aday  
to und]take su* ( ! duties ( valet z 7  
ess5tial to ! well-be+ ( ! p>ty1 promis+
 to secure ! s]vices ( a suitable p]son 
9 ,p>is4 ,b no eligible c&idate appe>$ =
 ! appo9tm5t1 & ?us ,f>aday _h ?r\gh\t  
to take *>ge ( dome/ic affairs z well z 
to assi/ 9 exp]im5ts4 ,_h !re be5 only  
,sir ,humphry & himself1 ?is w\ld h be5 
no h>d%ip4 ,sir ,humphry _h be5 accu/om$
 to humble life 9 8 e>ly days2 b ! case 
0 diff]5t ) 8 lady1 &1 app>5tly1 ,f>aday
 0 m ?an once on ! po9t ( leav+ 8 patron
 & return+ home alone4 ,a circum/ance   
:i* occurr$ at ,g5eva illu/rates !      
position ( affairs4 ,pr(essor ,e4 de la 
,rive invit$ ,sir ,humphry & ,lady ,davy
 & ,f>aday to d9n]4 ,sir ,humphry c\ld n
 g into society ) "o :o1 9 "s respects1 
act$ z 8 valet4 ,:5 ?is po9t 0 repres5t$
 to ! pr(essor1 he repli$ t he 0 sorry1 
z x w\ld necessitate 8 giv+ ano!r       
d9n]-p>ty4 ,f>aday subsequ5tly kept up a
 correspond5ce ) ,de la ,rive1 & cont9u$
 x ) 8 son4 ,9 writ+ to ! latt] he says1

 9 speak+ ( ,pr(essor ,e4 de la ,rive1 t
 he 0 ! fir/ :o p]sonally at ,g5eva1 &  
aft]w>ds by correspond5ce1 enc\rag$ & by
 t su/a9$ me4  ,at ,p>is ,f>aday met _m 
( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ m5 ( sci5ce ( ! "t4 ,"o
 morn+ ,amp]e1 ,clem5t1 & ,desormes     
call$ on ,davy1 to %[ him "s iod9e1 a   
sub/ance :i* _h be5 discov]$ only ab\t  
two ye>s be=e1 & ,davy1 :ile 9 ,p>is1 & 
aft]w>ds at ,montpelli]1 execut$ a s]ies
 ( exp]im5ts ^u x4 ,aft] ?ree mon?s'    
/ay1 ! p>ty left ,p>is = ,italy1 via    
,montpelli]1 ,aix1 & ,nice1 :5ce !y     
cross$ ! ,col de ,t5de to ,tur94 ,!     
transf] ( ! c>riage & baggage across !  
,alps 0 effect$ by a p>ty ( sixty-five  
m51 ) sl$ges & a numb] ( mules4 ,!      
description ( ! j\rney1 z record$ 9     
,f>aday's di>y1 makes u respect ! c\rage
 ( an ,engli%man :o1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is  
c5tury1 w\ld attempt ! conveyance ( a   
c>riage across ! ,alps 9 ! w9t]4  ,f    
,tur9 we proce$$ to ,g5oa1 :i* place we 
left aft]w>ds 9 an op5 boat1 & proce$$  
by sea t[>ds ,l]ici4 ,?is place we rea*$

 aft] a v disagreeable passage1 & n )\t 
appreh5sions ( be+ ov]set by ! way4 ,z  
!re 0 no?+ !re v entic+1 we cont9u$ our 
r\te to ,flor5ce2 &1 aft] a /ay ( ?ree  
weeks or a mon?1 left t f9e city1 & 9   
f\r days arriv$ "h at ,rome4 ,! =ego+ is
 f ,f>aday's lett] to 8 "m4 ,at ,flor5ce
 a good deal ( "t 0 sp5t 9 ! ,academia  
del ,cim5to4 ,"h ,f>aday saw ! telescope
 ) :i* ,galileo discov]$ ,jupit]'s      
satellites1 ) its tube ( wood & pap]    
ab\t ?ree feet & a half long1 & simple  
object-glass & eye-glass4 ,a r$ velvet  
electric ma*9e ) a rubb] ( gold pap]1   
,leyd5 j>s pi]c$ by ! dis*>ge betwe5 _! 
armatures1 ! fir/ l5s con/ruct$ by      
,galileo1 & a numb] ( o!r objects1 7    
full ( int]e/ to ! rec5tly enfran*is$   
bookb9d]'s appr5tice2 b x 0 ! great     
burn+-glass ( ! gr&-duke :i* 0 ! mo/    
s]viceable ( all ! treasures ( ! museum4
 ,) ?is glass--:i* consi/$ ( two convex 
l5ses ab\t ?ree feet six in*es ap>t1 !  
fir/ l5s hav+ a diamet] ( ab\t f\rte5 or
 fifte5 in*es1 & ! second a diamet] (   

?ree in*es--,davy succe$$ 9 burn+ sev]al
 diamonds 9 oxyg5 gas1 & 9 prov+ t !    
diamond consi/s ( little else ?an c>bon4
 ,9 #ahah ,f>aday publi%$ a pap] on ?is 
subject 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 
,at ,g5oa "s exp]im5ts 7 made ) !       
torp$o1 b ! specim5s caught 7 v small & 
weak1 & _! %ocks s feeble t no def9ite  
results 7 obta9$4 ,at ,rome ,davy       
attempt$ to repeat an exp]im5t ( ,signor
 ,morri*9i1 :]eby a /eel ne$le 0        
magnetiz$ by caus+ ! conc5trat$ violet &
 blue rays f ! sun to trav]se ! ne$le f 
! middle to ! nor? end sev]al times4 ,! 
exp]im5t did n succe$ 9 ! h&s ( ,davy & 
,f>aday1 & x 0 left to ! latt] to       
discov] a relation betwe5 magnetism &   
light4 ,f ,rome !y visit$ ,naples &     
asc5d$ ,vesuvius1 & %ortly aft]w>ds left
 ,italy = ,g5eva4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahad !y
 return$ f ,switz]l& ?r\gh ,g]many1     
visit+ ,b]ne1 ,zuri*1 ! ,tyrol1 ,padua1 
,v5ice1 & ,bologne1 to ,flor5ce1 :]e    
,davy aga9 c>ri$ out "s *emical         
inve/igations 9 ! laboratory ( !        

academy4 ,!nce !y return$ to ,rome1 & 9 
! spr+ w5t on to ,naples1 & aga9 visit$ 
,vesuvius1 return+ to ,engl& 9 ,april1  
via ,rome1 ! ,tyrol1 ,/uttg>t1          
,brussels1 & ,o/5d4  ,a =tnight aft] 8  
return f ! ,cont95t ,f>aday 0 aga9      
assi/ant at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 b ) a 
sal>y ( ?irty %ill+s a week4 ,8 "* w be 
suffici5tly evid5t f ! quotations :i* h 
be5 giv5 f 8 di>y & lett]s4 ,h5ce=? we  
mu/ be ma9ly occupi$ ) ! consid]ation ( 
8 sci5tific "w4  ,9 ,janu>y1 #ahaf1 he  
gave 8 fir/ lecture to ! ,city          
,philosophical ,society4 ,9 a lecture   
deliv]$ %ortly aft]w>ds be=e ! same     
society1 ! foll[+ passage1 :i* gives an 
idea ( "o ( ! curr5t beliefs ( ! "t1    
occurs3--  ,! conclusion t is n[ g5]ally
 receiv$ appe>s to be t light consi/s ( 
m9ute atoms ( matt] ( an octah$ral =m1  
possess+ pol>ity1 & v>y+ 9 size or 9    
velocity4444  ,if n[ we conceive a *ange
 z f> beyond vaporization z t is above  
fluidity1 & !n take into acc\nt also !  
proportional increas$ ext5t ( alt]ation 

z ! *anges rise1 we %all1 p]haps1 if we 
c =m any conception at all1 n fall f>   
%ort ( radiant matt]2#f & z 9 ! la/     
conv]sion _m qualities 7 lo/1 s "h also 
_m m w\ld disappe>4  ,footnote #f3 ,n   
,crookes's4  ,x 0 ! op9ion ( ,newton1 & 
( _m o!r di/+ui%$ philosoph]s1 t ?is    
conv]sion 0 possible1 & cont9ually go+  
on 9 ! processes ( nature1 & !y f\nd t !
 idea w\ld be> )\t injury ! application 
( ma!matical reason+--z reg>ds heat1 =  
in/ance4 ,if assum$1 we mu/ also assume 
! simplicity ( matt]2 = x w\ld foll[ t  
all ! v>iety ( sub/ances ) :i* we are   
acqua9t$ c\ld be conv]t$ into "o ( ?ree 
k9ds ( radiant matt]1 :i* aga9 may diff]
 f "o ano!r only 9 ! size ( _! p>ticles 
or _! =m4 ,! prop]ties ( kn[n bodies    
w\ld !n be suppos$ to arise f ! v>i$    
arrangem5ts ( _! ultimate atoms1 &      
belong to sub/ances only z long z _!    
comp\nd nature exi/$2 & ?us v>iety (    
matt] & v>iety ( prop]ties w\ld be f\nd 
co-ess5tial4 ,! simplicity ( su* a sy/em
 is s+ul>ly beautiful1 ! idea gr& &     

wor?y ( ,newton's approbation4 ,x 0 :at 
! anci5ts believ$1 & x may be :at a     
future race w realize4  ,9 ! clos+ words
 ( 8 fif? lecture to ! ,city            
,philosophical ,society1 ,f>aday said3--
  ,! philosoph] %\ld be a man will+ to  
li/5 to e sugge/ion1 b det]m9$ to judge 
= himself4 ,he %\ld n be biass$ by any  
appe>ances2 h no fav\rite hypo!sis2 be (
 no s*ool2 & 9 doctr9e h no ma/]4 ,he   
%\ld n be a respect] ( p]sons1 b ( ?+s4 
,tru? %\ld be 8 prim>y object4 ,if to ^!
 qualities be add$ indu/ry1 he may inde$
 hope to walk )9 ! veil ( ! temple (    
nature4  ,_m ye>s aft]w>ds he /at$ t1 ( 
all ! sugge/ions to :i* he _h pati5tly  
li/5$ aft] 8 lectures at ! ,royal       
,in/itution1 only "o prov$ on           
inve/igation to be ( any value1 & t l$  
to ! discov]y ( ! extra curr5t & ! :ole 
subject ( self-induction4  ,f>aday      
always kept a note-book1 9 :i* he jott$ 
d[n any ?\ghts :i* occurr$ to him 9     
ref]5ce to 8 "w1 z well z extracts f    
books or o!r publications :i* attract$ 8

 att5tion4 ,he call$ x 8                
commonplace-book4 ,_m ( ! qu]ies :i* he 
"h took note ( he subsequ5tly answ]$ by 
exp]im5t4 ,= example3--  ,qu]y3 ! nature
 ( s\nds produc$ by flame 9 tubes4      
,conv]t magnetism into electricity4     
,g5]al effects ( compression1 ei!r 9    
cond5s+ gases or produc+ solutions1 or  
ev5 giv+ comb9ations at l[ temp]ature4  
,d ! pi?-balls div]ge by ! di/urbance ( 
electricity ?r\gh mutual induction or n8
  ,speak+ ( ?is book1 he says1 ,i       
already owe mu* to ^! notes1 & ?9k su* a
 collection wor? ! mak+ by e sci5tific  
man4 ,i am sure none w\ld ?9k ! tr\ble  
lo/ aft] a ye>'s exp]i5ce4  ,9 a lett]  
dat$ ,may #c1 #ahah1 he writes3--       
,i h ?is ev5+ be5 busy ) an atmosph]ical
 electrical     app>atus4 ,x 0 a v      
tempor>y ?+1 b answ]$ !     purpose     
completely4 ,a wire1 ) "s small         
bru%-wire roll$     r\nd ! top ( x1 0   
elevat$ into ! atmosph]e by a ?9        
wood rod hav+ a glass tube at ! end1 &  
ti$ to a     *imney-pot on ! h\setop2 & 

?is wire 0 cont9u$ d[n     7tak+ c>e t x
 t\*$ no?+ 9 its way7 into !            
lecture-room2 & we succe$$1 at int]vals1
 9 gett+ sp>ks     f x ne>ly a qu>t] (  
an in* 9 l5g?1 & 9 *>g+ a     ,leyd5 j>1
 s z to give a /rong %ock4 ,!           
electricity 0     positive4 ,n[1 ,i ?9k 
y c\ld easily make an app>atus (     ?is
 k9d1 & x w\ld be a con/ant s\rce (     
int]e/+     matt]2 only take c>e y d n  
kill y\rself or knock d[n     ! h\se4   
,on ,june #ab1 #ahbj1 he m>ri$ ,miss    
,s>ah ,b>n>d1 ?ird daught] ( ,mr4       
,b>n>d1 ( ,pat]no/] ,r[--an ev5t :i*1 to
 use 8 own words1 m ?an any o!r         
contribut$ to 8 e>?ly happ9ess &        
heal?ful /ate ( m9d4 ,x 0 8 wi% t ! day 
%\ld be j l any o!r day--t !re %\ld be  
no bu/le1 no noise1 no hurry occasion$  
ev5 9 "o day's proce$+1 ?\gh 9 c>ry+ out
 ?is plan he (f5d$ "s ( 8 relations by n
 invit+ !m to 8 w$d+4  ,up to ?is "t    
,f>aday's exp]im5tal rese>*es _h be5 = !
 mo/ "p 9 ! doma9 ( *emi/ry1 & = two    
ye>s a great "p ( 8 en]gy _h be5 exp5d$ 

9 inve/igat+1 9 company ) ,mr4 ,/od>t1 a
 surgical in/rum5t-mak]1 ! prop]ties (  
c]ta9 alloys ( /eel1 ) a view to improve
 its manufacture = special purposes4 ,x 
0 9 #ahba t he comm5c$ 8 great          
discov]ies 9 electricity4 ,9 ! autumn ( 
t ye> he wrote an hi/orical sket* (     
electro-magnetism = ! ,annals (         
,philosophy1 & he repeat$ = himself mo/ 
( ! exp]im5ts :i* he describ$4 ,9 !     
c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts1 9 ,septemb]1      
#ahba1 he discov]$ ! rotation ( a wire  
convey+ an electric curr5t ar\nd ! pole 
( a magnet4 ,,oer/$ _h discov]$1 9      
#ahbj1 ! t5d5cy ( a magnetic ne$le to   
set itself at "r angles to a wire       
convey+ a curr5t4 ,?is action is due to 
a t5d5cy on ! "p ( ! nor? pole to       
revolve 9 a "r-h&$ direction ar\nd !    
curr5t1 :ile ! s\? pole t5ds to revolve 
9 ! opposite direction4 ,! pr9ciple t   
action & reaction are equal & opposite  
indicates t1 if a magnetic pole t5d to  
rotate ar\nd a conductor convey+ a      
curr5t1 !re mu/ be an equal t5d5cy = !  

conductor to rotate ar\nd ! pole4 ,x 0  
?is rotation t con/itut$ ,f>aday's fir/ 
great discov]y 9 electro-dynamics4 ,on  
,decemb] #ba1 9 ! same ye>1 ,f>aday %[$ 
t ! e>?'s magnetism 0 capable ( ex]t+ a 
directive action on a wire convey+ a    
curr5t4 ,writ+ to ,de la ,rive on !     
subject1 he says3--      ,i f9d all !   
usual attractions & repulsions ( !      
magnetic     ne$le by ! conjunctive wire
 are deceptions1 ! motions     be+1 n   
attractions or repulsions1 nor ! result 
( any     attractive or repulsive =ces1 
b ! result ( a =ce 9 !     wire1 :i*1   
in/ead ( br++ ! pole ( ! ne$le ne>]     
to or fur!r f ! wire1 endeav\rs to make 
x move r\nd x     9 a nev]-end+ circle &
 motion :il/ ! batt]y rema9s     9      
action4 ,i h succe$$1 n only 9 %[+ !    
exi/5ce     ( ?is motion !oretically1 b 
exp]im5tally1 & h be5     able to make !
 wire revolve r\nd a magnetic pole1 or a
     magnetic pole r\nd ! wire1 at      
pleasure4 ,! law (     revolution1 & to 
:i* all ! o!r motions ( ! ne$le are     

r$ucible1 is simple & beautiful4        
,conceive a portion ( connect+ wire nor?
 & s\?1 ! nor?     end be+ atta*$ to !  
positive pole ( a batt]y1 ! s\?     to !
 negative4 ,a nor? magnetic pole w\ld !n
 pass r\nd x     cont9ually 9 ! app>5t  
direction ( ! sun1 f ea/ to     we/     
above1 & f we/ to ea/ bel[4 ,rev]se !   
connections     ) ! batt]y1 & ! motion (
 ! pole is rev]s$2 or1 if     ! s\? pole
 be made to revolve1 ! motions w be 9 ! 
opposite direction1 z ) ! nor? pole4    
,if ! wire be made to revolve r\nd !    
pole1 ! motions are     accord+ to ^?   
m5tion$4444 ,n[1 ,i h be5 able1         
exp]im5tally1 to trace ?is motion into  
its v>i\s =ms1 z     exhibit$ by        
,amp]e's helices1 etc41 & 9 all cases to
 %[     t ! attractions & repulsions are
 only appe>ances due to     ?is         
circulation ( ! pole2 to %[ t dissimil> 
poles     repel z well z attract1 & t   
simil> poles attract z well     z repel2
 & to make1 ,i ?9k1 ! analogy betwe5 !  
helix     & common b> magnet f> /rong]  

?an be=e4 ,b yet ,i am by     no means  
decid$ t !re are curr5ts ( electricity 9
 !     common magnet4 ,i h no d\bt t    
electricity puts ! circles     ( ! helix
 into ! same /ate z ^? circles are 9 t  
may be conceiv$ 9 ! b> magnet2 b ,i am n
 c]ta9 t     ?is /ate is directly       
dep5d5t on ! electricity1 or t x     _c 
be produc$ by o!r ag5cies2 & !re=e1     
until !     pres5ce ( electric curr5ts  
be prov$ 9 ! magnet by o!r     ?an      
magnetical effects1 ,i %all rema9 9 d\bt
 ab\t ,amp]e's     !ory4  ,! mo/        
conv5i5t rule by :i* to rememb] !       
direction ( ^! electro-magnetic         
rotations is probably t giv5 by ,cl]k   
,maxwell1 :i* w be /at$ 9 its place4#g  
,if a circul> plate ( copp] & ano!r (   
z9c be connect$ by a piece 7or bett]1 by
 ?ree pieces7 ( insulat$ wire1 s t ! z9c
 is ab\t an in* above ! copp]1 & !      
comb9$ plates be susp5d$ by a silk fibre
 9 a small beak] ( dilute sulphuric     
acid1 :i* is plac$ on ! pole ( a l>ge   
magnet1 ! liquid w be se5 to rotate ab\t

 a v]tical axis 9 "o direction1 & ! two 
plates ) _! connect+ wires 9 ! opposite 
direction4 ,on rev]s+ ! pol>ity ( !     
magnet1 bo? rotations w be rev]s$4 ,?is 
is a v simple mode ( exhibit+ ,f>aday's 
discov]y4 ,a little p[d]$ res9 r5d]s !  
motion ( ! liquid readily visible4      
,footnote #g3 ,see p4 #cjb4  ,9 #ahbc   
,f>aday publi%$ 8 "w on ! liquefaction (
 gases1 f :i* he conclud$ t !re 0 no    
diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 gases & vap\rs4 ,9
 ! c\rse ( ?is "w he met ) m ?an "o     
s]i\s explosion4 ,on ,janu>y #h1 #ahbd1 
he 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal         
,society1 & 9 #ahbe1 on ! recomm5dation 
( ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 he 0 appo9t$     
,director ( ! ,laboratory ( ! ,royal    
,in/itution1 & 9 ?is capacity he        
in/itut$ ! laboratory conf]5ces1 :i*    
develop$ into ! ,friday ev5+ lectures4  
,= five ye>s aft] ?is1 ! great] "p (    
,f>aday's sp>e "t 0 occupi$ 9 "s        
inve/igations 9 connection ) optical    
glass1 made at ! reque/ ( ! ,royal      
,society1 & at ! exp5se ( ! ,gov]nm5t4  

,mr4 ,dollond & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 7    
associat$ ) him on ?is committee1 b !   
results obta9$ 7 n ( mu* value to       
opticians4 ,! silico-borate ( lead :i*  
,f>aday prep>$ 9 ! c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts 
01 h[ev]1 ! sub/ance ) :i* he fir/      
demon/rat$ ! effect ( a magnetic field  
on ! plane ( pol>ization ( light1 & )   
:i* he discov]$ diamagnetic action4     
,f>aday's exp]im5tal rese>*es 7 g5]ally 
guid$ by !oretical consid]ations4       
,frequ5tly ^! !ories 7 bas$ on v sl5d]  
premises1 & sometimes 7 little else ?an 
flights ( a sci5tific imag9ation1 b !y  
s]v$ to guide him into fruitful fields (
 discov]y1 & he seldom plac$ mu*        
confid5ce 9 8 conclusions till he _h    
succe$$ 9 v]ify+ !m exp]im5tally4 ,= _m 
ye>s he _h held ! op9ion t electric     
curr5ts %\ld exhibit ph5om5a analog\s to
 ^? ( electro-/atic induction4 ,aga9 &  
aga9 he return$ to ! inve/igation1 &    
attempt$ to obta9 an induc$ curr5t 9 "o 
wire ?r\gh ! passage ( a p[]ful curr5t  
?r\gh a neighb\r+ conductor2 b he look$ 

= a p]man5t induc$ curr5t to be ma9ta9$ 
dur+ ! :ole "t t ! prim>y curr5t 0 fl[+4
 ,at l5g?1 employ+ two wires w\nd toge!r
 z a helix on a wood5 rod1 ! fir/       
capable ( transmitt+ a p[]ful curr5t f a
 batt]y1 :ile ! second 0 connect$ ) a   
galvanomet]1 he obs]v$ t1 :5 ! curr5t   
/>t$ 9 ! prim>y1 !re 0 a movem5t ( !    
galvanomet]1 & :5 x ceas$ !re 0 a       
movem5t 9 ! opposite direction1 ?\gh !  
galvanomet] rema9$ at z]o :ile ! curr5t 
cont9u$ /eady4 ,h5ce x 0 app>5t t x is  
by *anges 9 ! prim>y curr5t t induc$    
curr5ts may be g5]at$1 & n by _! /eady  
cont9uance2 & x 0 demon/rat$ t1 :5 a    
curr5t is />t$ 9 a conductor1 a tempor>y
 curr5t is induc$ 9 a neighb\r+         
conductor 9 ! opposite direction1 :ile a
 curr5t is induc$ 9 ! same direction z !
 prim>y :5 ! latt] ceases to fl[4 ,be=e 
obta9+ ?is result ) ! wires on a wood5  
bobb91 he _h exp]im5t$ ) a wr\ght-iron  
r+ ab\t six in*es 9 diamet]1 & made (   
#g_/h-;in* r\nd iron4 ,he w\nd two sets 
( coils r\nd x1 "o occupy+ ne>ly half ! 

r+1 & ! o!r fill+ mo/ ( ! o!r half4 ,"o 
( ^! he connect$ ) a galvanomet]1 ! o!r 
c\ld be connect$ at w ) a batt]y4 ,on   
s5d+ ! batt]y curr5t ?r\gh ! latt] coil1
 ! galvanomet] ne$le swung completely   
r\nd f\r or five times1 & a simil>      
action took place1 b 9 ! opposite       
direction1 on /opp+ ! curr5t4 ,"h x 0   
cle>ly ! magnetism induc$ 9 ! iron r+   
:i* produc$ s p[]ful a curr5t 9 !       
galvanomet] circuit4 ,next he w\nd a    
quantity ( cov]$ copp] wire on a small  
iron b>1 & connect+ ! ends to a         
galvanomet]1 he plac$ ! little bobb9    
betwe5 ! opposite poles ( a pair ( b>   
magnets1 ^: o!r ends 7 9 contact4 ,z    
soon z ! iron core t\*$ ! magnets1 a    
curr5t appe>$ 9 ! galvanomet]4 ,on      
break+ contact1 ! curr5t 0 9 ! opposite 
direction4 ,!n came ! exp]im5t above    
m5tion$1 9 :i* no iron 0 employ$4 ,aft] 
?is1 "o end ( a cyl9drical b> magnet 0  
introduc$ into a helix ( copp] wire1 &  
!n sudd5ly ?ru/ completely 94 ,!        
galvanomet] connect$ ) ! coil %[$ a     

transi5t curr5t4 ,on )draw+ ! magnet1 ! 
curr5t appe>$ 9 ! opposite direction2 s 
t curr5ts 7 induc$ m]ely by ! relative  
motion ( a magnet & a conductor4  ,a    
copp] disc 0 m\nt$ s t x c\ld be made to
 rotate rapidly4 ,a wire 0 plac$ 9      
connection ) ! c5tre ( ! disc1 & !      
circuit complet$ by a rubb+ contact on !
 circumf]5ce4 ,a galvanomet] 0 ins]t$ 9 
! circuit1 & ! l>ge horse%oe magnet ( ! 
,royal ,in/itution s plac$ t ! portion (
 ! disc betwe5 ! c5tre & ! rubb+ contact
 pass$ betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnet4 ,a    
curr5t fl[$ ?r\gh ! galvanomet] z long z
 ! disc 0 kept sp9n+4 ,!n he f\nd t !   
m]e passage ( a copp] wire betwe5 !     
poles ( ! magnet 0 suffici5t to induce a
 curr5t 9 x1 & conclud$ t ! production (
 ! curr5t 0 connect$ ) ! cutt+ ( !      
magnetic curves1 or l9es ( magnetic =ce 
:i* w\ld be depict$ by iron fil+s4 ,?us 
9 ! c\rse ( t5 days' exp]im5tal "w1 9 ! 
autumn ( #ahca1 ,f>aday s completely    
inve/igat$ ! ph5om5a ( electro-magnetic 
induction z to leave little1 except     

practical applications1 to 8 successors4
 ,a few weeks lat] he obta9$ induction  
curr5ts by means ( ! e>?'s magnetism    
only1 fir/ ) a coil ( wire w\nd ^u an   
iron b> 9 :i* a /rong curr5t 0 produc$  
:5 x 0 be+ quickly plac$ 9 ! direction (
 ! magnetic dip or be+ remov$ f t       
position1 & aft]w>ds ) a coil ( wire )\t
 an iron core4 ,on ,febru>y #h1 #ahcb1  
he succe$$ 9 obta9+ a sp>k f ! induc$   
curr5t4 ,unless ! electro-motive =ce is 
v great1 x is n possible to obta9 a sp>k
 betwe5 two metallic surfaces :i* are   
sep>at$ by a s5sible ?ickness ( air4    
,if1 h[ev]1 ! circuit ( a wire is brok5 
:ile ! curr5t is pass+1 a little bridge 
( metallic vap\r is =m$1 across :i* = an
 in/ant ! sp>k leaps4 ,! induc$ curr5t  
be+ ( su* %ort duration1 ! difficulty 0 
to break ! circuit :ile x 0 fl[+4       
,f>aday w\nd a consid]able l5g? ( f9e   
wire ar\nd a %ort b> ( iron2 ! ends ( ! 
wire 7 cross$ s z j to be 9 contact ) "o
 ano!r1 b free to sep>ate if expos$ to a
 slight %ock4 ,! ends ( ! iron b>       

project$ beyond ! coil1 & 7 held j ov] !
 poles ( ! magnet4 ,on releas+ ! b> x   
fell s z to /rike ! magnetic poles &    
close ! circuit ( ! magnet4 ,an induc$  
curr5t 0 g5]at$ 9 ! wire1 b1 :ile ?is 0 
pass+1 ! %ock caus$ by ! b> /rik+ !     
magnet sep>at$ ! ends ( ! wire1 ?us     
break+ ! circuit ( ! conductor1 & a sp>k
 appe>$ at ! gap4 ,9 ?is little sp>k 0 !
 g]m ( ! electric light ( to-day4       
,subsequ5tly ,f>aday improv$ ! app>atus1
 by atta*+ a little disc ( amalgamat$   
copp] to "o end ( ! wire1 & b5d+ ov] !  
o!r end s z j to press lightly aga9/ !  
surface ( ! disc4 ,) ?is app>atus he %[$
 ! magnetic sp>k at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% 
,association at ,ox=d4  ,f>aday suppos$ 
t :5 a coil ( wire 0 9 ! neighb\rhood ( 
a magnet1 or ne> to a conductor convey+ 
a curr5t1 ! coil 0 ?r[n into a peculi>  
condition1 :i* he call$ ! electro-tonic 
/ate1 & t ! induc$ curr5ts appe>$ :5ev] 
?is /ate 0 assum$ or lo/ by ! coil4 ,he 
frequ5tly rev]t$ to 8 conception ( !    
electro-tonic /ate1 ?\gh he saw cle>ly  

t1 :5 ! curr5ts 7 induc$ by ! relative  
motion ( a wire & a magnet1 ! curr5t    
induc$ dep5d$ on ! rate at :i* ! l9es ( 
magnetic =ce _h be5 cut by ! wire4 ,( 8 
conception ( l9es ( =ce fill+ ! :ole (  
space1 we %all h m to say pres5tly4 ,x  
is suffici5t to rem>k "h t1 9 !         
electro-tonic /ate ( ,f>aday1 ,cl]k     
,maxwell recogniz$ ! numb] ( l9es (     
magnetic =ce enclos$ by ! circuit1 & %[$
 t ! electro-motive =ce induc$ is       
proportional to ! rate ( *ange ( ! numb]
 ( l9es ( =ce ?us enclos$4  ,x is seldom
 t a great discov]y is made :i* has n   
be5 gradually l$ up to by sev]al obs]v$ 
ph5om5a :i* await$ t discov]y = _!      
explanation4 ,9 ! case (                
electro-magnetic induction1 h[ev]1 !re  
appe>s to h be5 b "o exp]im5t :i* _h    
baffl$ philosoph]s1 & ! key to :i* 0    
f\nd 9 ,f>aday's discov]y1 :ile !       
complete explanation 0 giv5 by ,f>aday  
himself4 ,arago _h f\nd t1 if a copp]   
plate 7 made rapidly to rotate b5ea? a  
freely susp5d$ magnetic ne$le1 ! ne$le  

foll[$ 7sl[ly7 ! plate 9 its revolution1
 ?\gh a %eet ( glass 7 ins]t$ betwe5 !  
two to prev5t any air-curr5ts act+ on ! 
magnet4 ,! exp]im5t _h be5 repeat$ by   
,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ,mr4 ,babbage1 b no
 explanation 0 =?com+4 ,f>aday saw t !  
revolution ( ! disc b5ea? ! poles ( !   
magnet mu/ g5]ate induc$ curr5ts 9 !    
disc1 z ! diff]5t portions ( ! metal    
w\ld be con/antly cutt+ ! l9es ( =ce ( !
 magnet4 ,^! curr5ts w\ld react ^u !    
magnet1 caus+ a me*anical /ress to act  
betwe5 ! two1 :i*1 z /at$ by ,l5z1 w\ld 
be 9 ! direction t5d+ to oppose !       
relative motion1 & !re=e to drag !      
magnet aft] ! disc 9 its revolution4 ,9 
! above figure ! unfl$g$ arr[s %[ !     
g5]al di/ribution ( ! curr5ts 9 ! disc1 
:ile ! w+$ arr[s indicate ! direction ( 
! disc's rotation4 ,! curr5ts 9 !       
semicircle ,a w repel ! nor? pole &     
attract ! s\? pole4 ,^? 9 ! semicircle  
,b w produce ! opposite effect1 & h5ce  
!re w be a t5d5cy = ! magnet to revolve 
9 ! direction ( ! disc1 :ile ! motion ( 

! disc w be resi/$4 ,?is resi/ance to ! 
motion ( a conductor 9 a magnetic field 
0 notic$ by ,f>aday1 &1 indep5d5tly1 by 
,tyndall1 & x is suffici5tly obvi\s 9 ! 
p[] absorb$ by dynamos :5 !y are g5]at+ 
l>ge curr5ts4  ,f>aday's next s]ies (   
rese>*es 0 devot$ to ! exp]im5tal pro( (
 ! id5tity ( frictional & voltaic       
electricity4 ,he %[$ t a magnet c\ld be 
deflect$ & iodide ( potassium decompos$ 
by ! curr5t f 8 electrical ma*9e1 & came
 to ! conclusion t ! am\nt ( electricity
 requir$ to decompose a gra9 ( wat] 0   
equal to #hjj1jjj *>ges ( 8 l>ge ,leyd5 
batt]y4 ,! curr5t f ! frictional ma*9e  
also s]v$ to deflect ! ne$le ( 8        
galvanomet]4 ,^! inve/igations l$ on to 
a complete s]ies ( rese>*es on ! laws ( 
electrolysis1 :]e9 ,f>aday demon/rat$ ! 
pr9ciple t1 h[ev] ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t may
 be v>i$1 ! am\nt ( any comp\nd         
decompos$ is proportional to ! :ole     
quantity ( electricity :i* has pass$    
?r\gh ! electrolyte4 ,:5 ! same curr5t  
is s5t ?r\gh diff]5t comp\nds1 !re is a 

con/ant relation betwe5 ! am\nts ( !    
sev]al comp\nds decompos$4 ,9 mod]n     
language1 ,f>aday's laws may be ?us     
express$3--  ,if ! same curr5t be made  
to pass ?r\gh sev]al diff]5t            
electrolytes1 ! quantity ( ea* ion      
produc$ w be proportional to its comb9+ 
weight divid$ by its val5cy1 & if !     
curr5t v>y1 ! quantity ( ea* ion lib]at$
 p] second w be proportional to !       
curr5t4  ,?is is ! great law (          
electro-*emical equival5ts4 ,! am\nt (  
hydrog5 lib]at$ p] second by a curr5t ( 
"o amp]e is ab\t 4#jjjjajch gramme1 or  
ne>ly "o six-?\s&? ( a gra94 ,?is is !  
electro-*emical equival5t ( hydrog54 ,t 
( any o!r sub/ance may be f\nd by       
,f>aday's law4  ,f ,f>aday's results x  
appe>s t ! passage ( ! same am\nt (     
electricity is requir$ 9 ord] to        
decompose "o molecule ( any comp\nd ( ! 
same *emical type1 b x does n foll[ t ! 
same am\nt ( en]gy is employ$ 9 !       
decomposition4 ,= example1 ! comb9+     
weights ( copp] & z9c are ne>ly equal4  

,h5ce x w require ! passage ( ab\t !    
same am\nt ( electricity to lib]ate a   
p\nd ( copp] f1 say1 ! copp] sulphate z 
to lib]ate a p\nd ( z9c f z9c sulphate2 
b ! "w to be done is mu* less 9 ! case (
 ! copp]4 ,?is is made manife/ 9 !      
foll[+ way3--,a batt]y1 :i* w j         
decompose ! copp] salt sl[ly1 lib]at+   
copp]1 oxyg51 & sulphuric acid1 w n     
decompose ! z9c salt at all s z to      
lib]ate metallic z9c1 b imm$iately on   
s5d+ ! curr5t ?r\gh ! electrolyte1      
pol>ization w set 91 & ! oppos+         
electro-motive =ce ?us introduc$ w      
become equal to t ( ! batt]y1 & /op !   
curr5t be=e metallic z9c makes its      
appe>ance4 ,9 ! case ( ! copp]1         
pol>ization also sets 91 b nev] atta9s  
to equality ) ! electro-motive =ce ( !  
prim>y batt]y4 ,9 fact1 9 all cases (   
electrolysis1 pol>ization produces an   
oppos+ electro-motive =ce /rictly       
proportional to ! "w done 9 ! cell by ! 
passage ( ea* unit ( electricity4 ,if ! 
/r5g? ( ! batt]y be increas$1 s t x is  

able to decompose ! z9c sulphate1 & if  
?is batt]y be appli$ to ! copp] sulphate
 solution1 ! latt] w be rapidly         
decompos$1 & ! excess ( en]gy develop$  
by ! batt]y w be conv]t$ into heat 9 !  
circuit4  ,"o important po9t 9          
connection ) electrolysis :i* ,f>aday   
demon/rat$ is t ! decomposition is !    
result ( ! passage ( ! curr5t1 & is n   
simply due to ! attraction ( !          
electrodes4 ,?us he %[$ t potassium     
iodide c\ld be decompos$ by a /ream (   
electricity com+ f a metallic po9t on ! 
prime conductor ( 8 electric ma*9e1 ?\gh
 ! po9t did n t\* ! te/-pap] on :i* !   
iodide 0 plac$4  ,x 0 9 #ahcd t ,mr4    
,wm4 ,j5k91 aft] "o ( ! ,friday ev5+    
lectures at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 call$ 
! att5tion ( ,f>aday to a %ock :i* he _h
 exp]i5c$ 9 break+ ! circuit ( an       
electro-magnet1 ?\gh ! batt]y employ$   
consi/$ ( only "o pair ( plates4 ,f>aday
 repeat$ ! exp]im5t1 & f\nd t1 ) a l>ge 
magnet 9 circuit1 a /rong sp>k c\ld ?us 
be obta9$4 ,on ,novemb] #ad1 #ahcd1 he  

writes1 ,! ph5om5on ( increas$ sp>k is  
m]ely a case ( ! induction ( electric   
curr5ts4 ,if a curr5t be e/abli%$ 9 a   
wire1 & ano!r wire =m+ a complete       
circuit be plac$ p>allel to x1 at !     
mom5t ! curr5t 9 ! fir/ is /opp$ x      
induces a curr5t 9 ! same direction 9 ! 
second1 itself !n %[+ b a feeble sp>k4  
,b if ! second be away1 x induces a     
curr5t 9 its own wire 9 ! same          
direction1 produc+ a /rong sp>k4 ,!     
/rong sp>k 9 ! curr5t :5 alone is !re=e 
! equival5t ( ! curr5t x c produce 9 a  
neighb\r+ wire :5 9 company4 ,! /rong   
sp>k does1 9 fact1 repres5t ! en]gy ( ! 
curr5t due to ! self-induction ( its    
circuit1 :i* en]gy w\ld1 9 "p at lea/1  
be exp5d$ 9 induc+ a curr5t 9 a         
neighb\r+ wire if su* exi/$4  ,8 "t f   
#ahce till #ahch 0 l>gely tak5 up ) 8 "w
 on electro-/atic induction4 ,f>aday    
c\ld nev] be cont5t ) any explanation   
bas$ on direct action at a di/ance2 he  
always s\ght = ! ma*9]y ?r\gh :i* !     
action 0 communicat$4 ,9 ?is se>* ! l9es

 ( magnetic =ce1 :i* he _h s (t5        
del9eat$ 9 iron fil+s1 came to 8 aid4   
,f>aday made _m pictures 9 iron fil+s ( 
magnetic fields due to v>i\s comb9ations
 ( magnets4 ,he employ$ gumm$ pap]1 & :5
 ! fil+s 7 arrang$ on ! h>d gumm$       
surface1 he project$ a feeble jet ( /eam
 on ! pap]1 :i* melt$ ! gum & fix$ !    
fil+s4 ,sev]al ( 8 diagrams 7 exhibit$  
at ! ,loan ,collection at ,s\? ,k5s+ton4
 ,he conceiv$ electrical action to be   
transmitt$ along su* l9es z ^!1 & to him
 ! :ole electric field 0 fill$ ) l9es   
pass+ always f positive to negative     
electrification1 & 9 "s respects        
resembl+ ela/ic /r+s4 ,! action at any  
place c\ld !n be express$ 9 t]ms ( !    
l9es ( =ce t exi/$ !re1 !               
electrifications by :i* ^! l9es 7       
produc$ be+ left out ( consid]ation4 ,! 
act+ bodies 7 ?us replac$ by ! field (  
=ce !y produc$4 ,he %[$ t x 0 impossible
 to call into exi/5ce a *>ge ( positive 
electricity )\t at ! same "t produc+ an 
equal negative *>ge4 ,f e unit (        

positive electricity he conceiv$ a l9e (
 =ce to />t1 & ?us1 ) ! orig9 ( ! l9e1  
!re 0 creat$ simultane\sly a *>ge (     
negative electricity on :i* ! l9e might 
t]m9ate4 ,by ! fam\s ice-pail exp]im5t  
he %[$ t1 :5 a *>g$ body is ins]t$ 9 a  
clos$ or ne>ly clos$ holl[ conductor1 an
 equal am\nt ( ! same k9d ( electricity 
appe>$ on ! outside ( ! holl[ conductor1
 :ile an equal am\nt ( ! opposite k9d   
appe>$ on ! int]ior surface ( !         
conductor4 ,) ! ice-pail & !            
butt]fly-net he %[$ t !re c\ld be no    
free electricity on ! int]ior ( a       
conductor4 ,l9es ( =ce _c pass ?r\gh !  
mat]ial ( a conductor )\t produc+       
electric displacem5t4 ,e elem5t (       
electricity mu/ be jo9$ to an equal     
am\nt ( ! opposite k9d by a l9e ( =ce4  
,su* l9es _c pass ?r\gh ! conductor     
itself2 h5ce ! *>ge mu/ be entirely on !
 outside ( ! conductor1 s t e elem5t ( !
 *>ge may be associat$ ) an equal am\nt 
( ! opposite electricity ^u ! surfaces (
 surr\nd+ objects4 ,?us to ,f>aday e    

electrical action 0 an exhibition (     
electric induction4 ,all ?is "w _h be5  
done be=e by ,h5ry ,cav5di%1 b nei!r    
,f>aday nor any "o else knew ab\t x at !
 "t4 ,f ! fact t !re c\ld be no         
electricity 9 ! int]ior ( a holl[       
conductor1 ,cav5di% d$uc$1 9 ! be/ way  
possible1 ! tru? ( ! law ( inv]se squ>es
 z appli$ to electrical attraction &    
repulsion1 & ?us laid ! f\ndation ( !   
ma!matical !ory ( electricity4 ,to      
,cav5di% e electrical action 0 a        
displacem5t ( an incompressible fluid   
:i* fill$ ! :ole ( space1 produc+ no    
effect 9 conductors on acc\nt ( ! fre$om
 ( its motion1 b produc+ /ra9s 9        
insulators by displac+ ! mat]ial ( !    
body4 ,f>aday1 9 8 l9es ( =ce1 saw1 z x 
71 ! l9es along :i* ! displacem5ts (    
,cav5di%'s fluid took place4  ,f>aday   
?\ght t1 if he c\ld %[ t electric       
induction c\ld take place along curv$   
l9es1 x w\ld prove t ! action took place
 ?r\gh a m$ium1 & n directly at a       
di/ance4 ,he succe$$ 9 exp]im5tally     

demon/rat+ ! curvature ( ^! l9es2 b 8   
conclusions 7 n w>rant$1 = if we        
conceive ( two or m c5tres ( =ce act+   
directly at a di/ance accord+ to ! law (
 inv]se squ>es1 ! resultant l9es ( =ce w
 g5]ally be curv$4 ,( c\rse1 ?is does n 
prove ! possibility ( direct action at a
 di/ance1 b only %[s t ! curvature ( !  
l9es is z mu* a consequ5ce ( ! "o       
hypo!sis z ( ! o!r4  ,x soon appe>$ to  
,f>aday t ! nature ( ! dielectric _h v  
mu* to d ) electric induction4 ,!       
capacity ( a cond5s]1 = in/ance1 dep5ds 
on ! nature ( ! dielectric z well z on !
 configuration ( ! conductors4 ,to      
express ?is prop]ty1 ,f>aday employ$ !  
t]m specific inductive capacity4 ,he    
comp>$ ! electric capacity ( cond5s]s1  
equal 9 all o!r respects1 b "o possess+ 
air = its dielectric1 & ! o!r hav+ o!r  
m$ia1 & ?us r\ghly det]m9$ ! specific   
inductive capacities ( sev]al           
insulators4 ,^! results turn$ out       
aft]w>ds to be ( great value 9          
connection ) ! insulation ( subm>9e     

cables4 ,ev5 n[ ! /ud5t ( electricity is
 sometimes puzzl$ by ! mann] 9 :i*      
specific inductive capacity is introduc$
 to 8 notice z modify+ ! capacity (     
cond5s]s1 aft] le>n+ t ! capacity ( any 
sy/em ( conductors c be calculat$ f its 
geometrical configuration2 b ! fact is t
 ! int5sity ( all electrical actions    
dep5ds on ! nature ( ! m$ium ?r\gh :i*  
!y take place1 & x w require m          
electricity to ex]t ^u an equal *>ge a  
unit =ce at unit di/ance :5 ! int]v5+   
m$ium has a high ?an :5 x possesses a l[
 specific inductive capacity4  ,9 #ahce 
,f>aday receiv$ a p5sion f ! civil li/2 
9 #ahcf he 0 appo9t$ sci5tific advis] to
 ! ,eld] ,bre?r5 ( ! ,tr9ity ,h\se4 ,9 !
 same ye> he 0 made a memb] ( ! ,s5ate (
 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 & 9 t capacity 
he has ex]t$ no small influ5ce on !     
sci5tific education ( ! c\ntry1 = he 0  
"o ( ^? :o drew up ! s*$ules ( ! v>i\s  
exam9ations4  ,9 8 e>ly ye>s1 ,f>aday   
?\ght t all k9ds ( matt] might          
ultimately consi/ ( ?ree mat]ials only1 

& t z gases & vap\rs appe>$ m ne>ly to  
resemble "o ano!r ?an ! liquids or      
solids to :i* !y correspond$1 s ea*     
might be subject to a /ill high] *ange 9
 ! same direction1 & ! gas or vap\r     
become radiant matt]--ei!r heat1 light1 
or electricity4 ,lat] on1 ,f>aday cle>ly
 recogniz$ ! dynamical nature ( heat &  
light2 b 8 "w 0 always guid$ by 8       
!oretical conceptions ( ! correlation ( 
! physical =ces4 ,= a long "t he _h tri$
 to discov] relations betwe5 electricity
 & light2 at l5g?1 on ,septemb] #ac1    
#ahde1 aft] exp]im5t+ on a numb] ( o!r  
sub/ances1 he plac$ a piece (           
silico-borate ( lead1 or heavy-glass1 9 
! field ( ! magnet1 & f\nd t1 :5 a beam 
( pol>iz$ light 0 transmitt$ ?r\gh !    
glass 9 ! direction ( ! l9es ( magnetic 
=ce1 !re 0 a rotation ( ! plane (       
pol>ization4 ,aft]w>ds x appe>$ t all ! 
transp>5t solids & liquids exp]im5t$ on 
7 capable ( produc+ ?is rotation 9 a    
great] or less degree1 & 9 ! case ( all 
non-magnetic sub/ances ! rotation 0 9 ! 

direction ( ! electric curr5t1 :i*1     
pass+ r\nd ! sub/ance1 w\ld produce !   
magnetic field employ$4 ,ab&on+ !       
magnet1 & us+ only a coil ( wire ) !    
transp>5t sub/ance )9 x1 simil> effects 
7 obta9$4 ,?us at l5g? a relation 0 f\nd
 betwe5 light & electricity4  ,on       
,novemb] #d1 employ+ a piece (          
heavy-glass & a new horse%oe magnet1    
,f>aday notic$ t ! magnet appe>$ to h a 
directive action ^u ! glass4 ,fur!r     
exam9ation %[$ t ! glass 0 repell$ by ! 
magnetic poles4 ,?ree days aft]w>ds he  
f\nd t all sorts ( sub/ances1 includ+   
mo/ metals1 7 act$ ^u l ! heavy-glass4  
,small portions ( !m 7 repell$1 :ile    
elongat$ cyl9d]s t5d$ to set ) _! l5g?s 
p]p5dicul> to ! l9es ( magnetic =ce4    
,su* actions c\ld be imitat$ by susp5d+ 
a feebly magnetic body 9 a m$ium m      
magnetic ?an itself4 ,f>aday1 !re=e1    
s\ght = "s m$ium :i* w\ld be absolutely 
neutral to magnetic action4 ,fill+ a    
glass tube ) compress$ oxyg51 & susp5d+ 
x 9 an atmosph]e ( oxyg5 at ord9>y      

pressure1 ! compress$ gas behav$ l iron 
or o!r magnetic sub/ances4 ,f>aday      
comp>$ ! int5sity ( its action ) t (    
f]r\s sulphate1 & ?is l$ to an          
explanation ( ! diurnal v>iations ( !   
compass-ne$le bas$ on ! sun's heat      
dim9i%+ ! magnetic p]meability ( ! oxyg5
 ( ! air4 ,repeat+ ! exp]im5t ) nitrog51
 he f\nd t ! compress$ gas behav$ 9 a   
p]fectly neutral mann] :5 surr\nd$ by ! 
gas at ord9>y pressure4 ,h5ce he inf]r$ 
t 9 nitrog5 he _h f\nd ! neutral m$ium  
requir$4 ,repeat+ 8 exp]im5ts 9 an      
atmosph]e ( nitrog51 x /ill appe>$ t mo/
 bodies 7 repell$ by ! magnetic poles1 &
 set equatorially1 or at "r angles to ! 
l9es ( =ce :5 elongat$ portions 7 te/$4 
,to ?is action ,f>aday gave ! "n (      
diamagnetism4  ,ab\t a mon? aft] 8      
m>riage1 ,f>aday jo9$ ! ,s&emanian      
,*ur*1 to :i* 8 family _h = sev]al      
g5]ations belong$1 by confession ( s9 & 
pr(ession ( fai?4 ,n unfrequ5tly he us$ 
to speak at ! meet+s ( 8 ,*ur*1 b 9     
#ahdj he 0 elect$ an eld]1 & !n he took 

8 turn regul>ly 9 conduct+ ! s]vices4 ,!
 notes ( 8 addresses he g5]ally made on 
small pieces ( c>d4 ,he _h a curi\s     
habit ( sep>at+ 8 religi\s belief f 8   
sci5tific "w1 al?\gh ! _s ( 8 religion  
p]petually p]vad$ 8 life4 ,a lecture on 
m5tal education1 giv5 9 #ahed1 at !     
,royal ,in/itution1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! late
 ,pr9ce ,consort1 he comm5c$ z foll[s3--
  ,be=e ent]+ on ?is subject1 ,i mu/    
make "o di/9ction1 :i*1 h[ev] x may     
appe> to o!rs1 is to me ( ! utmo/       
importance4 ,high z man is plac$ above !
 creatures ar\nd him1 !re is a high] &  
f> m exalt$ position )9 8 view2 & ! ways
 are inf9ite 9 :i* he occupies 8 ?\ghts 
ab\t ! fe>s1 or hopes1 or expectations (
 a future life4 ,i believe t ! tru? ( t 
future _c be br\ght to 8 k by any       
ex]tion ( 8 m5tal p[]s1 h[ev] exalt$ !y 
may be2 t x is made kn[n to him by o!r  
tea*+ ?an 8 own1 & is receiv$ ?r\gh     
simple belief ( ! te/imony giv54 ,let no
 "o suppose = a mom5t t ! self-education
 ,i am ab\t to comm5d1 9 respect ( ! ?+s

 ( ?is life1 ext5ds to any consid]ations
 ( ! hope set be=e u1 z if man by       
reason+ c\ld f9d out ,god4 ,x w\ld be   
improp] "h to ent] ^u ?is subject fur!r 
?an to claim an absolute di/9ction      
betwe5 religi\s & ord9>y belief4 ,i %all
 be reproa*$ ) ! weakness ( refus+ to   
apply ^? m5tal op]ations :i* ,i ?9k good
 9 respect ( high ?+s to ! v highe/4 ,i 
am cont5t to be> ! reproa*4 ,yet ev5 9  
e>?ly matt]s ,i believe t '! invisible  
?+s ( ,him f ! creation ( ! _w are      
cle>ly se51 be+ und]/ood by ! ?+s t are 
made1 ev5 ,8 et]nal p[] & ,godhead2' &  
,i h nev] se5 any?+ incompatible betwe5 
^? ?+s ( man :i* c be kn[n by ! _s ( man
 :i* is )9 him1 & ^? high] ?+s conc]n+ 8
 future :i* he _c "k by t _s4  ,on m ?an
 "o occasion ! late ,pr9ce ,consort _h  
discuss$ physical que/ions ) ,f>aday1 & 
9 #aheh ! ,que5 (f]$ him a h\se on      
,hampton ,c\rt ,gre54 ,?is 0 8 home     
until ,augu/ #be1 #ahfg4 ,he saw n only 
! magnetic sp>k1 :i* he _h fir/ produc$1
 employ$ 9 ! ligh?\ses at ! ,s\? ,=el& &

 ,dung5ess1 b he saw also 8 views       
respect+ l9es ( electric induction      
exam9$ & confirm$ by ! inve/igations (  
,?omson & ,cl]k ,maxwell4  ,( !         
n9ety-five di/9ctions conf]r$ ^u him1 we
 ne$ only m5tion t ( ,comm&ant ( !      
,legion ( ,hon\r1 :i* he receiv$ 9      
,janu>y1 #ahef4     ,,james ,,cl]k      
,,maxwell4   ,! /ory ( ! life ( ,james  
,cl]k ,maxwell has be5 told s rec5tly by
 ! able p5 ( 8 lifelong fri5d1 ,pr(essor
 ,lewis ,campbell1 t x is unnecess>y1 9 
! few pages :i* n[ rema9 to u1 to       
attempt to give a repetition ( ! tale   
:i* w\ld n only fail to d ju/ice to its 
subject1 b mu/ ( necessity fall f> %ort 
( ! m]its ( ! 7confess$ly imp]fect7     
sket* :i* has rec5tly be5 plac$ )9 !    
rea* ( all4 ,look+ back on ! life (     
,cl]k ,maxwell1 he seems to h come      
among/ u z a light f ano!r _w--to h b   
p>tly reveal$ 8 message to m9ds too (t5 
incapable ( grasp+ its full mean+1 & all
 too soon to h return$ to ! s\rce f :5ce
 he came4 ,!re 0 sc>cely any bran* (    

natural philosophy t he did n grapple )1
 & ^u :i* 8 vivid imag9ation & f>-see+  
intellig5ce did n ?r[ light4 ,he 0 born 
a philosoph]1 & at e /ep ,nature p>tly  
drew aside ! veil & reveal$ t :i* 0     
hidd5 f a gaze less prophetic4 ,a v     
brief sket* ( ! pr9cipal incid5ts 9 8   
life may1 h[ev]1 n be out ( place4      
,james ,cl]k ,maxwell 0 born 9          
,ed9burgh1 on ,june #ac1 #ahca4 ,8 fa!r1
 ,john ,cl]k ,maxwell1 0 ! second son ( 
,james ,cl]k1 ( ,p5icuik1 & took ! "n ( 
,maxwell on inh]it+ ! e/ate at          
,middlesbie4 ,8 "m 0 ! daught] ( ,r4 ,h4
 ,cay1 ,esq41 ( ,nor? ,*>lton1          
,nor?umb]l&4 ,james 0 ! only *ild :o    
surviv$ infancy4  ,"s ye>s be=e 8 bir? 8
 p>5ts _h built a h\se at ,gl5lair1 :i* 
_h be5 add$ to _! ,middlesbie e/ate1 &  
resid$ !re dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye>1    
?\gh !y reta9$ _! h\se 9 ,ed9burgh4     
,h5ce x 0 t ,james's boyi% days 7 sp5t  
almo/ entirely 9 ! c\ntry1 until he     
ent]$ ! ,ed9burgh ,academy 9 #ahda4 ,z a
 *ild1 he 0 nev] cont5t until he _h     

completely inve/igat$ ev]y?+ :i*        
attract$ 8 att5tion1 su* z ! hidd5      
c\rses ( bell-wires1 wat]-/reams1 & ! l4
 ,8 con/ant "q 0 ,:at's ! g o' t8 &1 if 
answ]$ 9 t]ms too g5]al = 8             
satisfaction1 he w\ld cont9ue1 ,b :at's 
! p>ticul> g ( x8 ,?is desire = ! ?or\gh
 inve/igation ( e ph5om5on 0 a          
*>act]i/ic ( 8 m9d ?r\gh life4 ,f a *ild
 8 k ( ,scripture 0 ext5sive & accurate1
 & :5 eight ye>s old he c\ld repeat !   
:ole ( ! hundr$ & n9ete5? psalm4 ,ab\t  
?is "t 8 "m di$1 & !nce=w>d he & 8 fa!r 
became con/ant companions4 ,toge!r !y   
w\ld devise all sorts ( +5i\s me*anical 
contrivances4 ,"y ,james 0 ess5tially a 
*ild ( nature1 & free f all             
conv5tionality4 ,he lov$ e liv+ ?+1 &   
took delight 9 pett+ "y frogs1 & putt+  
!m into 8 m\? to see !m jump out4 ,"o ( 
8 atta9m5ts 0 to paddle on ! duck-pond 9
 a wa%-tub1 & to make ! vessel g )\t    
sp9n+--a recreation :i* _h to be        
rel9qui%$ on wa%+-days4 ,he 0 nev] )\t !
 companion%ip ( "o or two t]ri]s1 to :om

 he taught _m tricks1 & ) :om he seem$  
to h complete sympa?y4  ,z a boy1       
,maxwell 0 n "o to pr(it mu* by ! ord9>y
 tea*+ ( ! s*ools1 & exp]i5ce ) a       
private tutor at home did n lead to v   
satisfactory results4 ,at ! age ( t51   
!re=e1 he 0 s5t to ! ,ed9burgh ,academy1
 "u ! c>e ( ,ar*deacon ,williams1 :o 0  
!n rector4 ,on 8 fir/ appe>ance 9 ?is   
fa%ionable s*ool1 he 0 naturally a s\rce
 ( amusem5t to 8 companions2 b he held 8
 gr\nd1 & soon ga9$ m respect ?an he _h 
previ\sly provok$ ridicule4 ,:ile at    
s*ool 9 ,ed9burgh1 he resid$ ) 8 fa!r's 
si/]1 ,mrs4 ,w$d]burn1 & devot$ a v     
consid]able %>e ( 8 "t & att5tion to    
reliev+ ! solitude ( ! old man at       
,gl5lair1 by lett]s writt5 9 qua9t      
/yles1 sometimes backw>ds1 sometimes 9  
cyph]1 sometimes 9 diff]5t col\rs1 s    
arrang$ t ! *>act]s writt5 9 a p>ticul> 
col\r1 :5 plac$ consecutively1 =m$ ano!r
 s5t5ce4 ,all ! details ( 8 s*ool & home
 life1 & ! special peculi>ities ( !     
ma/]s at ! academy1 7 ?us fai?fully     

transmitt$ to 8 fa!r1 by :om ! lett]s 7 
religi\sly pres]v$4 ,at ?irte5 he _h    
evid5tly made progress 9 solid geometry1
 ?\gh he _h n comm5c$ ,euclid1 = he     
writes to 8 fa!r1 ,i h made a           
tetrah$ron1 a dodecah$ron1 & two o!r    
h$rons ^: names ,i don't "k4 ,9 ^!      
lett]s to ,gl5lair he g5]ally sign$     
himself1 ,y\r mo/ ob$i5t s]vant4        
,sometimes 8 fun f\nd v5t ev5 ^u !      
envelope2 = example3--      ,mr4 ,john  
,cl]k ,maxwell1     ,po/ykn[sw]e1       
,kirkpatrick ,durham1     ,dumfries4    
,sometimes he w\ld seal 8 lett]s )      
electrotypes ( natural objects 7beetles1
 etc471 ( 8 own mak+4 ,9 ,july1 #ahde1  
he writes3--      ,i h got ! elev5?     
prize = s*ol>%ip1 ! fir/ =     ,engli%1 
! prize = ,engli% v]ses1 & ! ma!matical 
m$al4  ,:5 only fifte5 a pap] on oval   
curves 0 contribut$ by him to !         
,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society (         
,ed9burgh4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #ahdg he         
accompani$ 8 uncle on a visit to ,mr4   
,nicol1 ! inv5tor ( ! ,nicol prism1 & on

 8 return he made a pol>iscope ) glass &
 a lucif]-mat* box1 & sket*$ 9          
wat]-col\rs ! *romatic appe>ances       
pres5t$ by pieces ( unanneal$ glass :i* 
he himself prep>$4 ,^! sket*es he s5t to
 ,mr4 ,nicol1 :o pres5t$ him 9 return ) 
a pair ( prisms ( 8 own con/ruction4 ,! 
prisms are n[ 9 ! ,cav5di% ,laboratory  
at ,cambridge4 ,maxwell f\nd t1 =       
unanneal$ glass1 pieces ( w9d[-glass    
plac$ 9 bundles ( eight or n9e1 "o on ! 
o!r1 answ]$ ! purpose v well4 ,he cut ! 
figures1 triangles1 squ>es1 etc41 ) a   
diamond1 heat$ ! pieces ( glass on an   
iron plate to r$ness 9 ! kit*5 fire1 &  
!n dropp$ !m into a plate ( iron sp>ks  
7scales f ! smi?y7 to cool4  ,9 #ahdg   
,maxwell ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1
 & dur+ 8 c\rse ( /udy !re he contribut$
 to ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh pap]s 
^u roll+ curves & on ! equilibrium (    
ela/ic solids4 ,8 att5tion 0 mo/ly      
devot$ to ma!matics1 physics1 *emi/ry1 &
 m5tal & moral philosophy4 ,9 #ahej he  
w5t to ,cambridge1 ent]+ ,pet]h\se1 b at

 ! end ( a ye> he migrat$ to ,tr9ity2 "h
 he 0 soon surr\nd$ ) a circle ( fri5ds 
:o help$ to r5d] 8 ,cambridge life a v  
happy "o4 ,8 love ( exp]im5t sometimes  
ext5d$ to 8 own mode ( life1 & once he  
tri$ sleep+ 9 ! ev5+ & work+ aft]       
midnight1 b ?is 0 soon giv5 up at !     
reque/ ( 8 fa!r4 ,"o ( 8 fri5ds writes1 
,f #b to #b4cj a4m4 he took ex]cise by  
runn+ along ! upp] corridor1 d[n !      
/airs1 along ! l[] corridor1 !n up !    
/airs1 & s on until ! inhabitants ( !   
rooms along 8 track got up & laid p]dus 
beh9d _! sport+-doors1 to h %ots at him 
) boots1 hair-bru%es1 etc41 z he pass$4 
,8 love ( fun1 8 %>p wit1 8 ext5sive k1 
& above all1 8 complete unselfi%ness1   
r5d]$ him a univ]sal fav\rite 9 spite ( 
! tempor>y inconv5i5ces :i* 8 exp]im5ts 
may h occasionally caus$ to 8           
fell[-/ud5ts4  ,an und]graduate fri5d   
writes1 ,e "o :o knew him at ,tr9ity c  
recall "s k9dness or "s act ( 8 :i* has 
left an ineffaceable impression ( 8     
goodness on ! memory--= 'good' ,maxwell 

0 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! same fri5d    
wrote 9 8 di>y 9 #ahed1 aft] meet+      
,maxwell at a social ga!r+1 ,maxwell1 z 
usual1 %[+ himself acqua9t$ ) e subject 
on :i* ! conv]sation turn$4 ,i nev] met 
a man l him4 ,i d believe !re is n a    
s+le subject on :i* he _c talk1 & talk  
well too1 display+ always ! mo/ curi\s &
 out-(-!-way in=mation4 ,8 private      
tutor1 ! late well-kn[n ,mr4 ,hopk9s1   
said ( him1 ,x is n possible = t man to 
?9k incorrectly on physical subjects4   
,9 #ahed ,maxwell took 8 degree at      
,cambridge z second wrangl]1 & 0        
bracket$ ) ! s5ior wrangl] 7,mr4 ,e4 ,j4
 ,r\?7 = ! ,smi?'s prize4 ,dur+ 8       
und]graduate c\rse1 he appe>s to h done 
mu* ( ! "w :i* =m$ ! basis ( 8 subsequ5t
 pap]s on electricity1 p>ticul>ly t on  
,f>aday's l9es ( =ce4 ,! col\r-top &    
col\r-box appe> also to h be5 gradually 
develop+ dur+ ?is "t1 :ile ! pr9ciple ( 
! /]eoscope & ! art ( squ9t+ receiv$ _! 
due %>e ( att5tion4 ,%ortly aft] 8      
degree1 he devot$ a consid]able am\nt ( 

"t to ! prep>ation ( a manuscript on    
geometrical optics1 :i* 0 int5d$ to =m a
 univ]sity text-book1 b 0 nev] complet$4
 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahee he 0 elect$ ,fell[ 
( ,tr9ity4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! col\r-top 0 9 
full sw+1 & he also con/ruct$ an        
oph?almoscope4 ,9 ,may1 #ahee1 he       
writes3--      ,! col\r trick came (f on
 ,monday1 #g?4 ,i _h ! pro(-%eets     ( 
my pap]1 & 0 go+ to read2 b ,i *ang$ my 
m9d &     talk$ in/ead1 :i* 0 m to !    
purpose4 ,!re 7 sundry     m5 :o ?\ght t
 blue & yell[ make gre51 s ,i _h to     
undeceive !m4 ,i h got ,hay's book (    
col\rs out ( !     ,univ]sity ,libr>y1 &
 am work+ ?r\gh ! specim5s1     mat*+ !m
 ) ! top4  ,! col\r trick came (f be=e !
 ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society4    
,:ile a ,ba*elor ,fell[1 ,maxwell gave  
lectures to work+ m5 9 ,b>nwell1 besides
 lectur+ 9 college4 ,8 fa!r di$ 9       
,april1 #ahef1 & %ortly aft]w>ds he 0   
appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy
 9 ,m>is*al ,college1 ,ab]de54 ,?is     
appo9tm5t he held until ! fusion ( !    

college ) ,k+'s ,college 9 #ahfj4 ,^!   
f\r ye>s 7 v productive ( valuable "w4  
,dur+ !m ! dynamical top 0 con/ruct$1   
:i* illu/rates ! motion ( a rigid body  
ab\t its axis ( greate/1 lea/1 or mean  
mom5t ( in]tia2 =1 by ! movem5t ( c]ta9 
screws1 ! axis ( ! top may be made to   
co9cide ) any "o at w4 ,! ,adams ,prize 
,essay on ! /ability ( ,saturn's r+s    
belongs also to ?is p]iod4 ,9 ?is essay 
,maxwell %[$ t ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by     
,saturn's r+s c only be expla9$ on !    
supposition t !y consi/ ( innum]able    
small bodies--a flight ( brickbats--ea* 
indep5d5t ( all ! o!rs1 & revolv+ r\nd  
,saturn z a satellite4 ,he comp>$ !m to 
a siege ( ,seba/opol f a batt]y ( guns  
measur+ ?irty ?\s& miles 9 "o direction1
 & a hundr$ miles 9 ! o!r1 ! %ots nev]  
/opp+1 b revolv+ r\nd a circle ( a      
hundr$ & sev5ty ?\s& miles radius4 ,a   
solid r+ ( su* dim5sions w\ld be        
completely cru%$ by its own weight1 ?\gh
 made ( ! /ronge/ mat]ial ( :i* we h any
 k4 ,if revolv+ at su* a rate z to      

balance ! attraction ( ! planet at "o   
"p1 ! /ress 9 o!r p>ts w\ld be m ?an    
suffici5t to cru% or te> ! r+4 ,laplace 
_h %[n t a n>r[ r+ might revolve ab\t ! 
planet & be /able if s load$ t its c5tre
 ( gravity 0 at a consid]able di/ance f 
its c5tre1 & ?\ght t ,saturn's r+s might
 consi/ ( a numb] ( su* unsymmetrical   
r+s--a !ory to :i* "s support 0 giv5 by 
! _m small divisions obs]vable 9 !      
bright r+s4 ,maxwell %[$ t1 = /ability1 
! mass requir$ to load ea* ( ,laplace's 
r+s mu/ be f\r & a half times t ( ! re/ 
( ! r+2 & ! sy/em w\ld !n be f> too     
artificially balanc$ to be pro( aga9/ ! 
action ( "o r+ on ano!r4 ,he fur!r %[$  
t1 9 liquid r+s1 waves w\ld be produc$  
by ! mutual action ( ! r+s1 & t be=e    
long "s ( ^! waves w\ld be sure to      
acquire su* an amplitude z w\ld cause ! 
r+s to break up into small portions4    
,f9ally1 he conclud$ t ! only admissible
 !ory is t ( ! indep5d5t satellites1 & t
 ! av]age d5sity ( ! r+s s f\nd _c be   
mu* great] ?an t ( air at ord9>y        

pressure & temp]ature4  ,:ile he rema9$ 
at ,ab]de51 ,maxwell lectur$ to work+ m5
 9 ! ev5+s1 on ! pr9ciples ( me*anics4  
,on ! :ole1 x is d\btful :e!r ,ab]de5   
society 0 z cong5ial to him z t (       
,cambridge or ,ed9burgh4 ,he seems n to 
h be5 und]/ood ev5 by 8 colleagues4 ,on 
"o occasion he wrote3--      ,gaiety is 
j beg9n+ "h aga94444 ,no jokes ( any k9d
 are     und]/ood "h4 ,i h n made "o =  
two mon?s1 & if ,i     feel "o com+ ,i  
%all bite my tongue4  ,b e cl\d has its 
bright side1 &1 h[ev] ,maxwell may h be5
 reg>d$ by 8 colleagues1 he 0 n long )\t
 cong5ial companion%ips4 ,an hon\r$ gue/
 at ! home ( ! ,pr9cipal1 9 ,febru>y1   
#aheh1 he ann\nc$ 8 betro?al to ,ka!r9e 
,m>y ,dew>1 & !y 7 m>ri$ e>ly 9 ! foll[+
 ,june4 ,pr(essor ,campbell speaks ( 8  
m>ri$ life z "o ( unexampl$ devotion1 & 
^? :o enjoy$ ! great privilege ( see+   
him at home c\ld m ?an endorse !        
description4  ,9 #ahfj ,maxwell accept$ 
! *air ( ,natural ,philosophy at ,k+'s  
,college1 ,london4 ,"h he cont9u$ 8     

lectures to work+ m51 & ev5 kept !m up =
 "o session aft] resign+ ! *air 9 #ahfe4
 ,on ,may #ag1 #ahfa1 he gave 8 fir/    
lecture at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 on ,!  
,!ory ( ! ,?ree ,prim>y ,col\rs4 ,?is   
lecture embodies _m ( ! results ( 8 "w )
 ! col\r-top & col\r-box1 to be aga9    
ref]r$ to pres5tly4 ,:ile at ,k+'s      
,college1 he 0 plac$ on ! ,electrical   
,/&>ds ,committee ( ! ,briti%           
,association1 & mo/ ( ! "w ( ! committee
 0 c>ri$ out 9 8 laboratory4 ,"h1 too1  
he comp>$ ! electro-/atic repulsion     
betwe5 two discs ( brass ) !            
electro-magnetic attraction ( two coils 
( wire surr\nd+ !m1 ?r\gh :i* a curr5t (
 electricity 0 all[$ to fl[1 & obta9$ a 
result :i* he aft]w>ds appli$ to !      
electro-magnetic !ory ( light4 ,!       
col\r-box 0 p]fect$1 & 8 exp]im5ts on ! 
viscosity ( gases 7 conclud$ dur+ 8     
resid5ce 9 ,london4 ,^! la/ 7 describ$  
by him 9 ! ,bak]ian ,lecture = #ahff4   
,aft] resign+ ! pr(essor%ip at ,k+'s    
,college1 ,maxwell sp5t mo/ ( 8 "t at   

,gl5lair1 hav+ enl>g$ ! h\se1 9         
accordance ) 8 fa!r's orig9al plans4 ,"h
 he complet$ 8 great "w on ,electricity 
& ,magnetism1 z well z 8 ,!ory ( ,heat1 
an elem5t>y text-book :i* may be said to
 be )\t a p>allel4  ,on ,m>* #h1 #ahga1 
he accept$ ! *air ( ,exp]im5tal ,physics
 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 ,?is *air 
0 f\nd$ 9 consequ5ce ( an (f] made by ! 
,duke ( ,devon%ire1 ! ,*ancellor ( !    
,univ]sity1 to build & equip a physical 
laboratory = ! use ( ! univ]sity4 ,9 ?is
 capacity ,maxwell's fir/ duty 0 to     
prep>e plans = ! laboratory4 ,) ?is     
view1 he inspect$ ! laboratories ( ,sir 
,william ,?omson at ,glasg[1 & (        
,pr(essor ,clifton at ,ox=d1 & endeav\r$
 to embody ! be/ po9ts ( bo? 9 ! new    
build+4 ,! result 0 t1 9 conjunction )  
,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,fawcett1 ! ar*itect1 he   
secur$ = ! univ]sity a laboratory noble 
9 its ext]ior1 & admirably adapt$ to !  
purposes = :i* x is requir$4 ,!         
gr\nd-floor comprises a l>ge            
batt]y-room1 :i* is also us$ z a /or]oom

 = *emicals2 a work%op2 a room = receiv+
 goods1 communicat+ by a lift ) !       
app>atus-room2 a room = exp]im5ts on    
heat2 balance-rooms2 a room = p5dulum   
exp]im5ts1 & o!r inve/igations requir+  
great /ability2 & a magnetic obs]vatory4
 ,! la/ two rooms are furni%$ ) /one    
supports = in/rum5ts1 erect$ on         
f\ndations indep5d5t ( ^? ( ! build+1 & 
pres]v$ f contact ) ! floor4 ,on ! fir/ 
floor is a h&some lecture-!atre1 capable
 ( accommodat+ ne>ly two hundr$ /ud5ts4 
,! lecture-table is c>ri$ on a wall1 :i*
 passes up ?r\gh ! floor )\t t\*+ x1 !  
joi/s be+ borne by sep>ate brick pi]s4  
,! lecture-!atre occupies ! height ( !  
fir/ & second floors2 its ceil+ is (    
wood1 ! panels ( :i* c be remov$1 ?us   
af=d+ access to ! ro(-pr9cipals1 f :i* a
 load ( half a ton or m may be safely   
susp5d$ ov] ! lecture-table4 ,! panels (
 ! ceil+1 adjo9+ ! wall :i* is beh9d !  
lectur]1 c also be readily remov$1 & a  
w9d[ 9 ?is wall communicates ) ! l>ge   
electrical-room on ! second floor4      

,access to ! space above ! ceil+ ( !    
lecture-!atre is readily obta9$ f ! t[]4
 ,adjo9+ ! lecture-room is !            
prep>ation-room1 & communicat+ ) ! latt]
 is ! app>atus-room4 ,?is room is fitt$ 
) mahogany & plate-glass wall & c5tral  
cases1 & at pres5t conta9s1 besides ! m 
valuable portions ( ! app>atus belong+  
to ! laboratory1 ! m>ble bu/ ( ,james   
,cl]k ,maxwell1 & _m ( ! home-made      
pieces ( app>atus & o!r relics ( 8 e>ly 
"w4 ,! re/ ( ! fir/ floor is occupi$ by 
! pr(essor's private room & ! g5]al     
/ud5ts' laboratory4 ,?r\gh\t ! build+ ! 
brick walls h be5 left b>e = conv5i5ce 9
 atta*+ slats or %elves = ! support (   
in/rum5ts4 ,! second floor conta9s a    
l>ge room = electrical exp]im5ts1 a d>k 
room = photography1 & a numb] ( private 
rooms = orig9al "w4 ,wat] is laid on to 
e room1 includ+ a small room 9 ! top ( !
 t[]1 & all ! w9d[s are provid$ ) broad 
/one l$ges )\t & )9 ! w9d[1 ! two       
portions be+ 9 ! same horizontal plane1 
= ! support ( helio/ats or o!r          

in/rum5ts4 ,! build+ is heat$ ) hot     
wat]1 b 9 ! magnetic obs]vatory ! pipes 
are all ( copp] & ! fitt+s ( gun-metal4 
,op5 fireplaces = basket fires are also 
provid$4 ,ov] ! pr9cipal entrance ( !   
laboratory is plac$ a /one /atue ( !    
pres5t ,duke ( ,devon%ire1 toge!r ) !   
arms ( ! univ]sity & ( ! ,cav5di%       
family1 & ! ,cav5di% motto1 ,cav5do     
,tutus4 ,maxwell pres5t$ to !           
laboratory1 9 #ahgd1 all ! app>atus 9 8 
possession4 ,he usually gave a c\rse (  
lectures on heat & ! con/itution (      
bodies 9 ! ,mi*aelmas t]m2 on           
electricity 9 ! ,l5t t]m2 & on          
electro-magnetism 9 ! ,ea/] t]m4 ,!     
foll[+ extract f 8 inaugural lecture1   
deliv]$ 9 ,octob]1 #ahga1 is wor?y ( !  
att5tion ( all /ud5ts ( sci5ce3--       
,sci5ce appe>s to u ) a v diff]5t aspect
 aft] we     h f\nd out t x is n 9      
lecture-rooms only1 & by     means ( !  
electric light project$ on a scre51 t we
 may     witness physical ph5om5a1 b t  
we may f9d illu/rations     ( ! highe/  

doctr9es ( sci5ce 9 games & gymna/ics1 9
     travell+ by l& & by wat]1 9 /orms (
 ! air & ( !     sea1 & :]ev] !re is    
matt] 9 motion4      ,! habit (         
recogniz+ pr9ciples amid ! endless      
v>iety (     _! action c nev] degrade   
our s5se ( ! sublimity (     nature1 or 
m> our enjoym5t ( its beauty4 ,on !     
contr>y1 x     t5ds to rescue our       
sci5tific ideas f t vague condition     
9 :i* we too (t5 leave !m1 buri$ among !
 o!r     products ( a lazy cr$ulity1 &  
to raise !m into _!     prop] position  
among ! doctr9es 9 :i* our fai? is s    
assur$ t we are ready at all times to   
act on !m4     ,exp]im5ts ( illu/ration 
may be ( v diff]5t k9ds4 ,"s     may be 
adaptations ( ! commone/ op]ations (    
ord9>y life2     o!rs may be c>efully   
arrang$ exhibitions ( "s ph5om5on       
:i* occurs only "u peculi> conditions4  
,!y all1 h[ev]1     agree 9 ?is1 t _!   
aim is to pres5t "s ph5om5on to     !   
s5ses ( ! /ud5t 9 su* a way t he may    
associate     ) x "s appropriate        

sci5tific idea4 ,:5 he has grasp$       
?is idea1 ! exp]im5t :i* illu/rates x   
has s]v$ its     purpose4      ,9 an    
exp]im5t ( rese>*1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is is n
 !     pr9cipal aim4444 ,exp]im5ts ( ?is
 class--^? 9 :i*     measurem5t ( "s k9d
 is involv$--are ! prop] "w ( a         
physical laboratory4 ,9 e exp]im5t we h 
fir/ to make     our s5ses famili> ) !  
ph5om5on2 b we mu/ n /op     "h--we mu/ 
f9d out :i* ( its features are capable (
     measurem5t1 & :at measurem5ts are  
requir$ 9 ord] to make     a complete   
specification ( ! ph5om5on4 ,we mu/ !n  
make     ^! measurem5ts1 & d$uce f !m ! 
result :i* we     require to f9d4       
,?is *>act]i/ic ( mod]n exp]im5ts--t !y 
consi/     pr9cipally ( measurem5ts--is 
s prom95t t ! op9ion     seems to h got 
abroad t1 9 a few ye>s1 all ! great     
physical con/ants w h be5 approximately 
e/imat$1 &     t ! only occupation :i* w
 !n be left to m5 (     sci5ce w be to  
c>ry ^! measurem5ts to ano!r place (    
decimals4      ,if ?is is really ! /ate 

( ?+s to :i* we are     approa*+1 our   
laboratory may1 p]haps1 become celebrat$
 z a     place ( consci5ti\s lab\r &    
consummate skill2 b x w     be out (    
place 9 ! univ]sity1 & ought r to be    
class$ ) ! o!r great work%ops ( our     
c\ntry1 :]e     equal ability is direct$
 to m useful ends4      ,b we h no "r to
 ?9k ?us ( ! unse>*able ri*es (         
creation1 or ( ! untri$ f]tility ( ^?   
fre% m9ds into     :i* ^! ri*es w       
cont9ually be p\r$4444 ,! hi/ory     (  
,sci5ce %[s t1 ev5 dur+ t phase ( h]    
progress     9 :i* %e devotes h]self to 
improv+ ! accuracy ( !     num]ical     
measurem5t ( quantities ) :i* %e has    
long be5     famili>1 %e is prep>+ !    
mat]ials = ! subjugation (     new      
regions1 :i* w\ld h rema9$ unkn[n if %e 
_h be5     cont5t$ ) ! r\gh me?ods ( h] 
e>ly pione]s4  ,maxwell's ,electricity &
 ,magnetism 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgc4 ,%ortly  
aft]w>ds !re 7 plac$ 9 8 h&s1 by ! ,duke
 ( ,devon%ire1 ! ,cav5di% ,manuscripts  
on ,electricity1 already allud$ to4 ,to 

^! he devot$ mu* ( 8 sp>e "t = sev]al   
ye>s1 & _m ( ,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts 7     
repeat$ 9 ! laboratory by ,maxwell      
himself1 or "u 8 direction by 8 /ud5ts4 
,! introductory matt] & notes embodi$ 9 
,! ,electrical ,rese>*es ( ! ,hon\rable 
,h5ry ,cav5di%1 ,f4,r4,s41 af=d         
suffici5t evid5ce ( ! am\nt ( lab\r he  
exp5d$ ov] ?is "w4 ,! volume 0 publi%$  
only a few weeks be=e 8 dea?4 ,ano!r (  
,maxwell's publications1 :i*1 z a       
text-book1 is unique & beyond praise1 is
 ! little book on ,matt] & ,motion1     
publi%$ by ! ,s4,p4,c4,k4  ,9 #ahgh     
,maxwell1 at ! reque/ ( !               
,vice-,*ancellor1 deliv]$ ! ,r$e        
,lecture 9 ! ,s5ate-,h\se4 ,8 subject 0 
! telephone1 :i* 0 j !n absorb+ a       
consid]able am\nt ( public att5tion4    
,?is 0 ! la/ lecture :i* he ev] gave to 
a l>ge public audi5ce4  ,x 0 dur+ 8     
t5ure ( ! ,cambridge *air t "o ( !      
cottages on ! ,gl5lair e/ate 0 /ruck by 
lightn+4 ,! dis*>ge pass$ d[n ! damp    
soot & blew out sev]al /ones f ! base ( 

! *imney1 app>5tly mak+ its way to "s   
wat] 9 a dit* a few y>ds di/ant4 ,!     
cottage 0 built on a granite rock1 & ?is
 ev5t set ,maxwell ?9k+ ab\t ! be/ way  
to protect1 f lightn+1 build+s :i* are  
erect$ on granite or o!r non-conduct+   
f\ndations4 ,he decid$ t ! prop] c\rse 0
 to place a /rip ( metal ^u ! gr\nd all 
r\nd ! build+1 to c>ry ano!r /rip along 
! ridge-/ay1 f :i* "o or m po9t$ rods   
%\ld project upw>ds1 & to unite ?is /rip
 ) t ^u ! gr\nd by copp] /rips pass+ d[n
 ea* corn] ( ! build+1 :i* is ?us1 z x  
71 enclos$ 9 a metal cage4  ,aft] a     
brief illness1 ,maxwell pass$ away on   
,novemb] #e1 #ahgi4 ,8 intellect &      
memory rema9$ p]fect to ! la/1 & 8 love 
( fun sc>cely dim9i%$4 ,dur+ 8 illness  
he w\ld frequ5tly repeat hymns1         
especially "s ( ,george ,h]b]t's1 &     
,ri*>d ,baxt]'s hymn beg9n+      ,"l1 x 
belongs n to my c>e4  ,no man ev] met 8 
dea? m consci\sly or m calmly4  ,x has  
be5 /at$ t ,?omas ,"y prop\nd$ a !ory ( 
col\r-vision :i* assumes t !re exi/ ?ree

 sep>ate col\r-s5sations1 correspond+ to
 r$1 gre51 & violet1 ea* hav+ its own   
special organs1 ! excitem5t ( :i* causes
 ! p]ception ( ! correspond+ col\r1 o!r 
col\rs be+ due to ! excitem5t ( two or m
 ( ^! simple s5sations 9 diff]5t        
proportions4 ,maxwell adopt$ blue in/ead
 ( violet = ! ?ird s5sation1 & %[$ t if 
a p>ticul> r$1 gre51 & blue 7 select$ & 
plac$ at ! angul> po9ts ( an equilat]al 
triangle1 ! col\rs =m$ by mix+ !m be+   
arrang$ z 9 ,"y's diagram1 all ! %ades (
 ! spectrum w\ld be rang$ along ! sides 
( ?is triangle1 ! c5tre be+ neutral     
grey4 ,= ! mix+ ( col\r$ lights1 he at  
fir/ employ$ ! col\r-top1 b1 in/ead (   
pa9t+ circles ) col\r$ sectors1 ! angles
 ( :i* c\ld n be *ang$1 he us$ circul>  
discs ( col\r$ pap] slit along "o       
radius4 ,any numb] ( su* discs c be     
comb9$ s t ea* %[s a sector at ! top1 & 
! angle ( ea* sector c be v>i$ at w by  
slid+ ! correspond+ disc betwe5 ! o!rs4 
,maxwell us$ discs ( two diff]5t sizes1 
! small discs be+ plac$ above ! l>g] on 

! same pivot1 s t "o set =m$ a c5tral   
circle1 & ! o!r set a r+ surr\nd+ x4 ,he
 f\nd t1 ) discs ( five diff]5t col\rs1 
( :i* "o might be :ite & ano!r black1 x 
0 always possible to comb9e !m s t !    
inn] circle & ! out] r+ exactly mat*$4  
,f ?is he %[$ t !re c\ld be only ?ree   
conditions to be satisfi$ 9 ! eye1 = two
 conditions 7 necessitat$ by ! nature ( 
! top1 s9ce ! small] sectors mu/ exactly
 fill ! circle & s mu/ ! l>g]4          
,maxwell's exp]im5ts1 !re=e1 confirm$1 9
 g5]al1 ,"y's !ory4 ,!y %[$1 h[ev]1 t ! 
relative delicacy ( ! sev]al            
col\r-s5sations is diff]5t 9 diff]5t    
eyes1 = ! arrangem5t :i* produc$ an     
exact mat* 9 ! case ( "o obs]v]1 _h to  
be modifi$ = ano!r2 b ?is diff]5ce (    
delicacy prov$ to be v conspicu\s 9     
col\r-bl9d p]sons1 = 9 mo/ ( ! cases (  
col\r-bl9dness exam9$ by ,maxwell ! r$  
s5sation 0 completely abs5t1 s t only   
two conditions 7 requir$ by col\r-bl9d  
eyes1 & a mat* c\ld !re=e always be made
 9 su* cases ) f\r discs only4 ,holmgr5 

has s9ce discov]$ cases ( col\r-bl9dness
 9 :i* ! violet s5sation is abs5t4 ,he  
agrees ) ,"y 9 mak+ ! ?ird s5sation     
correspond to violet r ?an blue4        
,maxwell expla9$ ! fact t p]sons        
col\r-bl9d to ! r$ divide col\rs into   
blues & yell[s by ! consid]ation t1     
al?\gh yell[ is a complex s5sation      
correspond+ to a mixture ( r$ & gre51   
yet 9 nature yell[ t9ts are s mu*       
bright] ?an gre5s t !y excite ! gre5    
s5sation m ?an gre5 objects !mselves c  
d1 & h5ce gre5s & yell[s are call$ yell[
 by su* col\r-bl9d p]sons1 ?\gh _!      
p]ception ( yell[ is really ! same z    
p]ception ( gre5 by normal eyes4 ,lat]  
on1 by a comb9ation ( adju/able slits1  
prisms1 & l5ses arrang$ 9 a col\r-box1  
,maxwell succe$$ 9 mix+1 9 any desir$   
proportions1 ! light f any ?ree portions
 ( ! spectrum1 s t he c\ld deal ) pure  
spectral col\rs in/ead ( ! complex      
comb9ations ( diff]5tly col\r$ lights   
af=d$ by col\r$ pap]s4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts x
 appe>s t no ray ( ! sol> spectrum c    

affect "o col\r-s5sation alone1 s t !re 
are no col\rs 9 nature s pure z to      
correspond to ! pure simple s5sations1 &
 ! col\rs occupy+ ! angul> po9ts (      
,maxwell's diagram affect all ?ree      
col\r-s5sations1 ?\gh !y influ5ce two ( 
!m to a mu* small] ext5t ?an ! ?ird4 ,a 
p>ticul> col\r 9 ! spectrum corresponds 
to light :i*1 accord+ to ! undulatory   
!ory1 physically consi/s ( waves all ( !
 same p]iod1 b x may affect all ?ree ( !
 col\r-s5sations ( a normal eye1 ?\gh 9 
diff]5t proportions4 ,?us1 yell[ light (
 a giv5 wave-l5g? affects ! r$ & gre5   
s5sations consid]ably & ! blue 7or      
violet7 slightly1 & ! same effect may be
 produc$ by v>i\s mixtures ( r$ or      
orange & gre54 ,= 8 rese>*es on !       
p]ception ( col\r1 ! ,royal ,society    
aw>d$ to ,cl]k ,maxwell ! ,rum=d ,m$al 9
 #ahfj4  ,ano!r optical contrivance (   
,maxwell's 0 a :eel ( life1 9 :i* !     
usual slits 7 replac$ by concave l5ses (
 su* focal l5g? t ! picture on !        
opposite side ( ! cyl9d] appe>$1 :5 se5 

?r\gh a l5s1 at ! c5tre1 & ?us rema9$   
app>5tly fix$ 9 position :ile ! cyl9d]  
revolv$4 ,! same result has s9ce be5    
secur$ by a diff]5t contrivance 9 !     
prax9oscope4  ,ano!r +5i\s optical      
app>atus 0 a real-image /]eoscope1 9 :i*
 two l5ses 7 plac$ side by side at a    
di/ance ap>t equal to half ! di/ance    
betwe5 ! pictures on ! /]eoscopic slide4
 ,^! l5ses 7 plac$ 9 front ( ! pictures 
at a di/ance equal to twice _! focal    
l5g?4 ,! real images ( ! two pictures 7 
!n sup]pos$ 9 front ( ! l5ses at ! same 
di/ance f !m z ! pictures1 & ^! comb9$  
images 7 look$ at ?r\gh a l>ge convex   
l5s4  ,! great diff]5ce 9 ! s5sibility  
to diff]5t col\rs ( ! eyes ( d>k & fair 
p]sons :5 ! light fell ^u ! fovea       
c5tralis1 l$ ,maxwell to ! discov]y ( ! 
extreme want ( s5sibility ( ?is portion 
( ! ret9a to blue light4 ,?is he made   
manife/ by look+ ?r\gh a bottle conta9+ 
solution ( *rome alum1 :5 ! c5tral      
portion ( ! field ( view appe>s ( a     
light r$ col\r = ! fir/ second or two4  

,a m important discov]y 0 t ( d\ble     
refraction tempor>ily produc$ 9 visc\s  
liquids4 ,maxwell f\nd t a quantity (   
,canada balsam1 if /irr$1 acquir$       
d\ble-refract+ p[]s1 :i* x reta9$ = a   
%ort p]iod1 until ! /ress tempor>ily    
induc$ _h disappe>$4  ,b ,maxwell's     
inve/igations 9 optics mu/ be reg>d$ z 8
 play2 8 real "w lay 9 ! doma9s (       
electricity & ( molecul> physics4  ,9   
#agch ,daniel ,b]n\illi publi%$ an      
explanation ( atmosph]ic pressure on !  
hypo!sis t air consi/s ( a numb] ( m9ute
 p>ticles mov+ 9 all directions1 & imp++
 on any surface expos$ to _! action4 ,9 
#ahdg ,h]apa? expla9$ ! diffusion (     
gases on ! hypo!sis t !y consi/$ (      
p]fectly h>d molecules imp++ on "o ano!r
 & on surfaces expos$ to !m1 & po9t$ out
 ! relation betwe5 _! motion & !        
temp]ature & pressure ( a gas4 ,! pres5t
 condition ( ! molecul> !ory ( gases1 & 
( molecul> sci5ce g5]ally1 is due almo/ 
entirely to ! "w ( ,j\le1 ,clausius1    
,boltzmann1 & ,maxwell4 ,to ,maxwell is 

due ! g5]al me?od ( solv+ all problems  
connect$ ) va/ numb]s ( individuals--a  
me?od :i* he call$ ! /ati/ical me?od1 & 
:i* consi/s1 9 ! fir/ place1 9 sep>at+ !
 individuals into gr\ps1 ea* fulfill+ a 
p>ticul> condition1 b pay+ no att5tion  
to ! hi/ory ( any individual1 :i* may   
pass f "o gr\p to ano!r 9 any way & z   
(t5 z x pleases )\t attract+ att5tion4  
,maxwell 0 ! fir/ to e/imate ! av]age   
di/ance ?r\gh :i* a p>ticle ( gas passes
 )\t com+ into collision ) ano!r        
p>ticle4 ,he f\nd t1 9 ! case ( hydrog51
 at /&>d pressure & temp]ature1 x is    
ab\t #a_/bejjjj ( an in*2 = air1 ab\t   
#a_/chijjj ( an in*4 ,^! results he     
d$uc$ f 8 exp]im5ts on viscosity1 & he  
gave a complete explanation ( !         
viscosity ( gases1 %[+ x to be due to ! 
diffusion ( mom5tum accompany+ !        
diffusion ( mat]ial p>ticles betwe5 !   
pass+ /reams ( gas4  ,"o portion ( !    
!ory ( electricity _h be5 consid]ably   
develop$ by ,cav5di%2 ! application (   
ma!matics to ! !ory ( attractions1 &    

h5ce to t ( electricity1 _h be5 c>ri$ to
 a great degree ( p]fection by ,laplace1
 ,lagrange1 ,poisson1 ,gre51 & o!rs4    
,f>aday1 h[ev]1 c\ld n satisfy himself )
 a ma!matical !ory bas$ ^u direct action
 at a di/ance1 & he fill$ space1 z we h 
se51 ) tubes ( =ce pass+ f "o body to   
ano!r :5ev] !re exi/$ any electrical    
action betwe5 !m4 ,^! conceptions (     
,f>aday 7 reg>d$ ) suspicion by         
ma!maticians4 ,sir ,william ,?omson 0 ! 
fir/ to look ^u !m ) fav\r2 & 9 #ahdf he
 %[$ t electro-/atic =ce might be treat$
 ma!matically 9 ! same way z ! fl[ (    
heat2 s t !re are1 at any rate1 two     
me?ods by :i* ! fundam5tal =mulae (     
electro-/atics c be d$uc$4 ,b x is to   
,maxwell t ma!maticians are indebt$ = a 
complete exposition ( ,f>aday's views 9 
_! own language1 & ?is 0 giv5 9 a pap]  
:]e9 ! ph5om5a ( electro-/atics 7 d$uc$ 
z results ( a /ress 9 a m$ium :i*1 z    
sugge/$ by ,newton & believ$ by ,f>aday1
 might well be t same m$ium :i* s]ves = 
! propagation ( light2 & ! l9es ( =ce 7 

%[n to correspond to an actual condition
 ( ! m$ium :5 "u electrical /ress4      
,maxwell1 9 fact1 %[$1 n only t         
,f>aday's l9es =m$ a consi/5t sy/em :i* 
w\ld be> ! mo/ /r+5t ma!matical         
analysis1 b 7 m ?an a conv5tional sy/em1
 & might correspond to a /ate ( /ress   
actually exi/+ 9 ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* !y   
pass$1 & t a t5sion along ^! l9es1      
accompani$ by an equal pressure 9 e     
direction at "r angles to !m1 w\ld be   
consi/5t ) ! equilibrium ( ! m$ium1 &   
expla91 on me*anical pr9ciples1 ! obs]v$
 ph5om5a4 ,! great] "p ( ?is "w he      
accompli%$ :ile an und]graduate at      
,cambridge4 ,he %[$1 too1 t ,f>aday's   
conceptions 7 equally applicable to !   
case ( electro-magnetism1 & t all ! laws
 ( ! induction ( curr5ts might be       
concisely express$ 9 ,f>aday's language4
 ,def9+ ! positive direction ?r\gh a    
circuit 9 :i* a curr5t fl[s z !         
direction 9 :i* a "r-h&$ screw w\ld     
advance if rotat+ ) ! curr5t1 & !       
positive direction ar\nd a wire convey+ 

a curr5t z ! direction 9 :i* a "r-h&$   
screw w\ld rotate if advanc+ ) ! curr5t1
 ,maxwell po9t$ out t ! l9es ( magnetic 
=ce due to an electric curr5t always    
pass r\nd x1 or ?r\gh its circuit1 9 !  
positive direction1 & t1 :5ev] ! numb] (
 l9es ( magnetic =ce pass+ ?r\gh a clos$
 circuit is *ang$1 !re is an            
electro-motive =ce r\nd ! circuit       
repres5t$ by ! rate ( dim9ution ( !     
numb] ( l9es ( =ce :i* pass ?r\gh !     
circuit 9 ! positive direction4  ,!     
words 9 italics =m a complete /atem5t ( 
! laws regulat+ ! production ( curr5ts  
by ! motion ( magnets or ( o!r curr5ts1 
or by ! v>iation ( o!r curr5ts 9 !      
neighb\rhood4 ,maxwell %[$1 too1 t      
,f>aday's electro-tonic /ate1 on !      
v>iation ( :i* induc$ curr5ts dep5d1    
corresponds completely ) ! numb] ( l9es 
( magnetic =ce pass+ ?r\gh ! circuit4   
,he also %[$ t1 :5 a conductor convey+ a
 curr5t is free to move 9 a magnetic    
field1 or magnets are free to move 9 !  
neighb\rhood ( su* a conductor1 ! sy/em 

w assume t condition 9 :i* ! greate/    
possible numb] ( l9es ( magnetic =ce    
pass ?r\gh ! circuit 9 ! positive       
direction4  ,b ,maxwell 0 n cont5t ) %[+
 t ,f>aday's conceptions 7 consi/5t1 &  
_h _! ma!matical equival5ts1--he proce$$
 to po9t out h[ a m$ium c\ld be imag9$ s
 con/itut$ z to be able to p]=m all !   
v>i\s duties :i* 7 ?us ?r[n ^u x4       
,assum+ a m$ium to be made up (         
sph]ical1 or ne>ly sph]ical1 cells1 & t1
 :5 magnetic =ce is transmitt$1 ^! cells
 are made to rotate ab\t diamet]s       
co9cid+ 9 direction ) ! l9es ( =ce1 !   
t5sion along ^? l9es1 & ! pressure at "r
 angles to !m1 are acc\nt$ = by ! t5d5cy
 ( a rotat+ ela/ic sph]e to contract    
along its pol> axis & exp& equatorially 
s z to =m an oblate sph]oid4 ,by suppos+
 m9ute sph]ical p>ticles to exi/ betwe5 
! rotat+ cells1 ! motion ( "o may be    
transmitt$ 9 ! same direction to ! next1
 & ^! p>ticles may be suppos$ to        
con/itute electricity1 & roll z p]fectly
 r\gh bodies on ! cells 9 contact ) !m4 

,maxwell fur!r imag9$ ! rotat+ cells1 & 
!re=e1 a =tiori1 ! electrical p>ticles1 
to be extremely small comp>$ ) molecules
 ( matt]2 & t1 9 conductors1 !          
electrical p>ticles c\ld pass f molecule
 to molecule1 ?\gh oppos$ by friction1 b
 t 9 insulators no su* transf]5ce 0     
possible4 ,! ma*9]y 0 !n complete4 ,if !
 electric p>ticles 7 made to fl[ 9 a    
conductor 9 "o direction1 pass+ betwe5 !
 cells1 or molecul> vortices1 !y        
compell$ !m to rotate1 & ! rotation 0   
communicat$ f cell to cell 9 exp&+      
circles by ! electric p>ticles1 act+ z  
idle :eels1 betwe5 !m4 ,?us r+s (       
magnetic =ce 7 made to surr\nd ! curr5t1
 & to cont9ue z long z ! curr5t la/$4   
,if an attempt 7 made to displace !     
electric p>ticles 9 a dielectric1 !y    
w\ld move only )9 ! sub/ance ( ea*      
molecule1 & n f molecule to molecule1 & 
?us ! cells w\ld be de=m$1 ?\gh no      
cont9u\s motion w\ld result4 ,!         
de=mation ( ! cells w\ld involve ela/ic 
/ress 9 ! m$ium4 ,aga91 if a /ream (    

electric p>ticles 7 />t$ into motion1 & 
if !re 7 ano!r /ream ( p>ticles 9 !     
neighb\rhood free to fl[1 ?\gh resi/$ by
 friction1 ^! p>ticles1 in/ead ( at once
 transmitt+ ! rot>y motion ( ! cells on 
"o side ( !m to ! cells on ! o!r side1  
w\ld at fir/1 on acc\nt ( ! in]tia ( !  
cells1 beg9 to move !mselves ) a motion 
( translation opposite to t ( ! prim>y  
curr5t1 & ! motion w\ld only gradually  
be de/roy$ by ! frictional resi/ance & !
 molecul> vortices on ! o!r side made to
 revolve ) _! full velocity4 ,a simil>  
effect1 b 9 ! opposite direction1 w\ld  
take place if ! prim>y curr5t ceas$1 !  
vortices n /opp+ all at once if !re 7   
any possibility ( _! cont9u+ 9 motion4  
,! imag9>y m$ium ?us s]ves = !          
production ( induc$ curr5ts4  ,!        
me*anical =ces betwe5 curr5ts & magnets 
& betwe5 curr5ts & curr5ts1 z well z    
betwe5 magnets & curr5ts1 7 acc\nt$ = by
 ! t5sion & pressure produc$ by !       
molecul> vortices4 ,:5 curr5ts are fl[+ 
9 ! same direction 9 neighb\r+          

conductors1 ! vortices 9 ! space betwe5 
!m are urg$ 9 opposite directions by !  
two curr5ts1 & rema9 almo/ at re/2 !    
lat]al pressure ex]t$ by ^? on ! outside
 ( ! conductors is ?us unbalanc$1 & !   
conductors are pu%$ toge!r z ?\gh !y    
attract$ ea* o!r4 ,:5 ! curr5ts fl[ 9   
opposite directions 9 p>allel           
conductors1 !y conspire to give a great]
 velocity to ! vortices 9 ! space betwe5
 !m1 ?an to ^? outside !m1 & are ?us    
pu%$ ap>t by ! pressure due to !        
rotation ( ! vortices1 z ?\gh !y repell$
 ea* o!r4 ,9 a simil> way1 ! actions (  
magnets on conductors convey+ curr5ts   
may be expla9$4 ,! motion ( a conductor 
across a s]ies ( l9es ( magnetic =ce may
 squeeze toge!r & l5g!n ! ?reads (      
vortices 9 front1 & ?us increase _! spe$
 ( rotation1 :ile ! vortices beh9d w    
move m sl[ly because all[$ to contract  
axially & exp& transv]sely4 ,! velocity 
( ! vortices ?us be+ great] on "o side (
 ! wire ?an ! o!r1 a curr5t mu/ be      
induc$ 9 ! wire4 ,?us ! curr5t induc$ by

 ! motion ( a conductor 9 a magnetic    
field may be acc\nt$ =4  ,?is conception
 ( a m$ium 0 giv5 by ,maxwell1 n z a    
!ory1 b to %[ t x 0 possible to devise a
 me*anism capable1 9 imag9ation at lea/1
 ( produc+ all ! ph5om5a ( electricity &
 magnetism4 ,accord+ to our !ory1 !     
p>ticles :i* =m ! p>titions betwe5 !    
cells con/itute ! matt] ( electricity4  
,! motion ( ^! p>ticles con/itutes an   
electric curr5t2 ! tang5tial =ce ) :i* !
 p>ticles are press$ by ! matt] ( !     
cells is electro-motive =ce2 & !        
pressure ( ! p>ticles on ea* o!r        
corresponds to ! t5sion or pot5tial ( ! 
electricity4  ,:5 a curr5t is ma9ta9$ 9 
a wire1 ! molecul> vortices 9 ! surr\nd+
 space are kept 9 uni=m motion2 b if an 
attempt be made to /op ! curr5t1 s9ce   
?is w\ld necessitate ! /oppage ( !      
vortices1 x is cle> t x _c take place   
sudd5ly1 b ! en]gy ( ! vortices mu/ be 9
 "s way us$ up4 ,= ! same reason x is   
impossible = a curr5t to be sudd5ly />t$
 by a f9ite =ce4 ,?us ! ph5om5a (       

self-induction are acc\nt$ = by !       
suppos$ m$ium4  ,! magnetic p]meability 
( a m$ium ,maxwell id5tifi$ ) ! d5sity (
 ! sub/ance compos+ ! rotat+ cells1 & ! 
specific inductive capacity he %[$ to be
 inv]sely proportional to its ela/icity4
 ,he !n prov$ t ! ratio ( !             
electro-magnetic unit to ! electro-/atic
 unit mu/ be equal to ! velocity (      
transmission ( a transv]se vibration 9 !
 m$ium1 & consequ5tly proportional to ! 
squ>e root ( ! ela/icity1 & inv]sely    
proportional to ! squ>e root ( ! d5sity4
 ,if ! m$ium is ! same z t engag$ 9 !   
propagation ( light1 !n ?is ratio ought 
to be equal to ! velocity ( light1 &1   
moreov]1 9 non-magnetic m$ia1 !         
refractive index %\ld be proportional to
 ! squ>e root ( ! specific inductive    
capacity4 ,! diff]5t measurem5ts :i* _h 
be5 made ( ! ratio ( ! electrical units 
gave a mean v ne>ly co9cid+ ) ! be/     
det]m9ations ( ! velocity ( light1 & ?us
 ! tru? und]ly+ ,maxwell's speculation 0
 /rik+ly confirm$1 = ! velocity ( light 

0 det]m9$ by purely electrical          
measurem5ts4 ,9 ! case also ( bodies ^: 
*emical /ructure 0 n v complicat$1 !    
refractive index 0 f\nd to agree fairly 
well ) ! squ>e root ( ! specific        
inductive capacity2 b ! ph5om5on (      
residual *>ge r5d]$ ! accurate          
measurem5t ( ! latt] quantity a matt] ( 
great difficulty4 ,x !re=e appe>$ highly
 probable t light is an electro-magnetic
 di/urbance due to a motion ( ! electric
 p>ticles 9 an insulat+ m$ium produc+ a 
/ra9 9 ! m$ium1 :i* becomes propagat$ f 
p>ticle to p>ticle to an indef9ite      
di/ance4 ,9 ! case ( a conductor1 !     
electric p>ticles s displac$ w\ld pass f
 molecule to molecule aga9/ a frictional
 resi/ance1 & ?us dissipate ! en]gy ( ! 
di/urbance1 s t true 7i4e4 metallic7    
conductors mu/ be ne>ly imp]vi\s to     
light2 & ?is also agrees ) exp]i5ce4    
,maxwell ?us furni%$ a complete !ory (  
electrical & electro-magnetic action 9  
:i* all ! effects are due to actions    
propagat$ 9 a m$ium1 & direct action at 

a di/ance is disp5s$ )1 & expos$ 8 !ory 
successfully to mo/ sev]e te/s4 ,9 8    
great "w on electricity & magnetism1 he 
gives ! ma!matical !ory ( all ! above   
actions1 )\t1 h[ev]1 committ+ himself to
 any p>ticul> =m ( me*anism to repres5t 
! con/itution ( ! m$ium4 ,?is "p ( t    
book1 ,pr(essor ,tait says1 is "o ( !   
mo/ spl5did monum5ts ev] rais$ by !     
g5ius ( a s+le individual4444 ,!re seems
 to be no long] any possibility ( d\bt t
 ,maxwell has tak5 ! fir/ gr& /ep t[>ds 
! discov]y ( ! true nature ( electrical 
ph5om5a4 ,_h he done no?+ b ?is1 8 fame 
w\ld h be5 secur$ = all "t4 ,b1 /rik+ z 
x is1 ?is =ms only "o small "p ( !      
cont5ts ( ?is m>vell\s "w4              
,,conclusion4  ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,results   
,,( ,,f>aday',s ,,discov]ies1 ,,& ,,!   
,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,en]gy4   ,9 e>ly days1 
! _s ( ! amb]1 :5 ar\s$ by rubb+1 came  
=? & took to itself su* light objects z 
x c\ld easily lift4 ,lat] on1 & ! _s    
gave place to ! electric effluvium1 :i* 
proce$$ f ! excit$1 or *>g$1 body into !

 surr\nd+ space4 ,/ill lat]1 & a fluid1 
or two fluids1 act+ directly ^u itself1 
or ^u matt]1 or on "o ano!r1 ?r\gh      
int]v5+ space )\t ! aid ( int]m$iate    
me*anism1 took ! place ( ! electric     
effluvium--a /ep :i* 9 itself 01 p]haps1
 h>dly an advance4 ,!n came ! "t =      
accurate measurem5t4 ,! simple          
obs]vation ( ph5om5a & ( ! results (    
exp]im5t mu/ be ! fir/ /ep 9 sci5ce1 &  
its importance _c be ov]-e/imat$2 b be=e
 any quantity c be said to be kn[n1 we  
mu/ h le>n$ h[ to measure x & to        
reproduce x 9 def9ite am\nts4 ,! great  
law ( electrical action1 ! same z t (   
gravitation--! law ( ! inv]se           
squ>e--soon foll[$1 z well z ! associat$
 fact t ! electrification ( a conductor 
resides :olly on its surface1 & !re only
 9 a lay] ^: ?ickness is too small to be
 discov]$4 ,! fundam5tal laws (         
electricity hav+ ?us be5 e/abli%$1 !re 0
 no limit to ! application ( ma!matical 
me?ods to ! problems ( ! sci5ce1 &1 9 ! 
h&s ( ! ,fr5* ma!maticians1 ! !ory made 

rapid advances4 ,george ,gre51 (        
,sne9ton1 ,nott+ham1 introduc$ ! t]m    
pot5tial 9 an essay publi%$ by          
subscription1 9 ,nott+ham1 9 #ahbh1 & to
 him we are indebt$ = "s ( our mo/      
p[]ful analytical me?ods ( deal+ ) !    
subject2 b 8 "w rema9$ unappreciat$ &   
almo/ unkn[n until _m ( 8 !orems _h be5 
r$iscov]$4 ,b ! idea ( a body act+ :]e x
 is n1 & )\t any conceivable me*anism to
 connect x ) t ^u :i* x op]ates1 is     
repulsive to ! m9ds ( mo/2 &1 h[ev] well
 su* a !ory may l5d itself to ma!matical
 treatm5t & its consequ5ces be borne out
 by exp]im5t1 we /ill feel t we h n     
solv$ ! problem until we h trac$ out !  
hidd5 me*anism4 ,! pull ( ! bell-rope is
 foll[$ by ! t9kl+ ( ! di/ant bell1 b ! 
"y philosoph] is n satisfi$ ) su* k1 b  
mu/ le>n :at is ! p>ticul> g ( t4 ,?is  
univ]sal desire f\nd its expon5t 9      
,f>aday1 ^: imag9ation beheld l9es or   
tubes ( =ce connect+ e body ) e o!r body
 on :i* x act$4 ,to 8 m9d ^! l9es or    
tubes _h j z real an exi/5ce z !        

bell-wire1 & 7 f> bett] adapt$ to _!    
special purposes4 ,maxwell1 z we h se51 
n only %[$ t ,f>aday's sy/em admitt$ ( !
 same rigor\s ma!matical treatm5t z !   
old] !ory1 & /ood ! te/ z well1 b he    
gave reality to ,f>aday's views by      
pictur+ a me*anism capable ( do+ all t  
,f>aday requir$ ( x1 & ( transmitt+     
light z well4 ,?us ! problem ( electric1
 magnetic1 & electro-magnetic actions 0 
r$uc$ to t ( /ra9s & /resses 9 a m$ium !
 con/itution ( :i* 0 pictur$ to !       
imag9ation4 ,7 ?is !ory v]ifi$1 we might
 say t we "k at lea/ z mu* ab\t ^!      
actions z we "k ab\t ! transmission (   
pressure or t5sion ?r\gh a solid4  ,)   
reg>d to ! nature ( electricity1 x mu/  
be admitt$ t our k is *iefly negative2  
b1 be=e deplor+ ?is1 x is wor? :ile to  
inquire :at we mean by say+ t we "k :at 
a ?+ is4 ,a def9ition describes a ?+ 9  
t]ms ( o!r ?+s simpl]1 or m famili> to  
u1 ?an itself4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we say t 
heat is a =m ( en]gy1 we "k at once its 
relation%ip to matt] & to motion1 & are 

cont5t2 we h describ$ ! con/itution (   
heat 9 t]ms ( simpl] ?+s1 :i* are m     
famili> to u1 & ( :i* we ?9k we "k !    
nature4 ,b if we ask :at matt] is1 we   
are unable to def9e x 9 t]ms ( any?+    
simpl] ?an itself1 & c only tru/ to     
daily exp]i5ce to tea* u m & m ( its    
prop]ties2 unless1 inde$1 we accept !   
!ory ( ! vortex atoms ( ,?omson &       
,helmholtz4 ,?is !ory1 :i* has rec5tly  
be5 consid]ably ext5d$ by ,pr(essor ,j4 
,j4 ,?omson1 ! pres5t occupi] ( ,cl]k   
,maxwell's *air 9 ! ,univ]sity (        
,cambridge1 supposes ! exi/5ce ( a      
p]fect fluid1 fill+ all space1 9 :i*    
m9ute :irlpools1 or vortices1 :i* 9 a   
p]fect fluid c be creat$ or de/roy$ only
 by sup]human ag5cy1 =m mat]ial atoms4  
,^! are atoms1 t is to say1 !y defy any 
attempts to sev] !m1 n because !y are   
inf9itely h>d1 b because !y h an inf9ite
 capacity = wriggl+1 & ?us avoid direct 
contact ) any o!r atoms t come 9 _! way4
 ,p]haps a !ory ( electricity consi/5t )
 ?is !ory ( matt] may be develop$ 9 !   

future2 b1 sett+ aside ^! !ories1 we may
 possibly say t we "k z mu* ab\t        
electricity z we "k ab\t matt]2 = :ile  
we are conv]sant ) _m ( ! prop]ties (   
ea*1 we "k no?+ ( ! ultimate nature (   
ei!r4  ,b :ile ! !ory ( electricity has 
sc>cely advanc$ beyond ! po9t at :i* x 0
 left by ,cl]k ,maxwell1 ! practical    
applications ( ! sci5ce h exp]i5c$ great
 developm5ts ( late ye>s4 ,less ?an a   
c5tury ago ! lightn+-rod 0 ! only       
practical outcome ( electrical          
inve/igations :i* c\ld be said to h any 
real value4 ,,oer/$'s discov]y1 9 #ahbj1
 ( ! action ( a curr5t on a magnet1 l$1 
9 ! h&s ( ,:eat/one1 ,cooke1 & o!rs1 to 
! developm5t ( ! electric telegraph4    
,sir ,william ,?omson's employm5t ( a   
beam ( light reflect$ f a t9y mirror    
atta*$ to ! magnet ( ! galvanomet]      
enabl$ signals to be read :5 only       
extremely feeble curr5ts 7 available1 & 
?us r5d]$ subm>9e telegraphy possible   
?r\gh v great di/ances4 ,! discov]y by  
,arago & ,davy1 t a curr5t ( electricity

 fl[+ 9 a coil surr\nd+ an iron b> w\ld 
conv]t ! b> into a magnet1 at once r5d]$
 possible a v>iety ( contrivances :]eby 
a curr5t ( electricity c\ld be employ$  
to produce small reciprocat+ movem5ts1  
or ev5 cont9u\s rotation1 :]e n mu* p[] 
0 requir$1 at a di/ance f ! batt]y4 ,an 
illu/ration ( ! =m] is f\nd 9 ! common  
electric bell2 x is only necess>y t !   
vibrat+ armature %\ld =m "p ( ! circuit 
( ! electro-magnet1 & be s arrang$ t1   
:ile x is held away f ! magnet by a     
spr+1 x completes ! batt]y circuit1 b   
breaks ! connection z soon z x moves    
t[>ds ! magnet "u ! magnetic attraction4
 ,to produce cont9u\s rotation1 a numb] 
( iron b>s may be atta*$ to a fly-:eel1 
& pass v close to ! poles ( ! magnet )\t
 t\*+ !m2 :5 a b> is ne> ! magnet1 &    
approa*+ x1 contact %\ld be made 9 !    
circuit1 b %\ld be brok51 s t ! magnet  
may lose its p[]1 z soon z ! b> has     
pass$ ! poles2 or ! cont9u\s rotation   
may be produc$ f an oscillat+ armature  
by any ( ! me*anical contrivances       

usually adopt$ = ! conv]sion (          
reciprocat+ into cont9u\s circul>       
motion4 ,b all su* motors are extremely 
wa/eful 9 _! employm5t ( en]gy4         
,f>aday's discov]y ( ! rotation ( a wire
 ar\nd a magnetic pole laid ! f\ndation 
= a great v>iety ( electro-motors1 9 "s 
( :i* ! effici5cy has atta9$ a v high   
/&>d4 ,ab\t t5 ye>s ago1 ,cl]k ,maxwell 
said t ! greate/ discov]y ( rec5t times 
0 ! rev]sibility ( ! ,gramme ma*9e1 t   
is1 ! possibility ( caus+ ! armature to 
rotate betwe5 ! field-magnets by s5d+ a 
curr5t ?r\gh ! coils4 ,! electro-motors 
( to-day diff] b little f dynamos 9 !   
pr9ciples ( _! con/ruction4 ,! copp]    
disc sp9n+ betwe5 ! poles ( a magnet    
:ile an electric curr5t 0 s5t f ! c5tre 
to ! circumf]5ce1 or vice v]sa1 =m$ !   
simple/ electro-motor4 ,all ! lat]      
motors are simply modifications ( ?is1  
design$ to increase ! effici5cy or p[] (
 ! ma*9e4 ,simil>ly1 ! e>lie/ ma*9e = ! 
production ( an electric curr5t at !    
exp5se ( me*anical p[] only1 b ?r\gh !  

int]v5tion ( a p]man5t magnet1 0 !      
rotat+ disc ( ,f>aday1 describ$ on page 
#bfb4 ,?is contrivance1 h[ev]1 caus$ a  
wa/e ( ne>ly all ! en]gy employ$1 = :ile
 !re 0 an electro-motive =ce f ! c5tre  
to ! circumf]5ce1 or 9 ! rev]se         
direction1 9 t "p ( ! disc :i* 0 pass+  
betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnet1 ! curr5t s   
g5]at$ f\nd its readie/ return pa? ?r\gh
 ! o!r portions ( ! disc1 & v little    
trav]s$ ! galvanomet] or o!r ext]nal    
circuit4 ,?is s\rce ( wa/e c\ld be1 = ! 
mo/ "p1 got rid ( by cutt+ ! disc into a
 numb] ( sep>ate rays1 or spokes1 &     
fill+ up ! spaces betwe5 !m ) insulat+  
mat]ial4 ,! curr5t !n g5]at$ 9 ! disc   
w\ld be oblig$ to complete its circuit  
?r\gh ! ext]nal conductor4 ,if we c s   
arrange matt]s z to employ at once      
sev]al turns ( a cont9u\s wire 9 place (
 "o arm1 or ray1 ( ! copp] disc1 we may 
multiply 9 a correspond+ mann] !        
electro-motive =ce induc$ by a giv5 spe$
 ( rotation4 ,all magneto-electric      
g5]ators are simply contrivances ) ?is  

object4 ,! iron cores frequ5tly employ$ 
)9 ! coils ( ! armature t5d to          
conc5trate ! l9es ( =ce ( ! magnet1     
caus+ a great] numb] to pass ?r\gh !    
coils 9 c]ta9 positions ?an w\ld pass   
?r\gh !m 7 no iron pres5t4 ,!           
electro-motive =ce ( su* a g5]ator      
dep5ds on ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field1 ! 
l5g? ( wire employ$ 9 cutt+ ! l9es (    
=ce1 & ! spe$ ) :i* ! wire moves across 
^! l9es4 ,! po9t to aim at 9 con/ruct+  
an armature is to make ! resi/ance z    
small z possible consi/5t ) !           
electro-motive =ce requir$4 ,z !re is a 
limit to ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field1 x  
foll[s t = /rong curr5ts1 :]e ?ick wire 
mu/ be employ$1 ! g5]ator mu/ be made ( 
l>ge dim5sions1 or ! armature mu/ be    
driv5 at v high spe$ to enable a %ort]  
l5g? ( wire to be us$4  ,! s-call$      
comp\nd-int]e/ pr9ciple1 by :i* a v     
small *>ge ( electricity might be       
employ$ to develop a v l>ge "o by ! help
 ( me*anical p[]1 0 fir/ appli$ ab\t a  
c5tury ago 9 ! revolv+ d\bl]4 ,long     

aft]w>ds1 ,sir ,william ,?omson avail$  
himself ( ! same pr9ciple 9 !           
con/ruction ( ! m\se-mill1 or repl5i%]4 
,! ,holtz ma*9e1 ! ,voss & ,wim%ur/     
ma*9es1 & ! o!r induction-ma*9es ( !    
same class1 all "w on ?is pr9ciple4 ,x  
may be illu/rat$ z foll[s3 ,take two    
cani/]s1 call !m ,a & ,b1 & place !m on 
glass supports4 ,let a v small positive 
*>ge be giv5 to ,a1 ,b rema9+ un*>g$4   
,n[ take a brass ball1 support$ by a    
silk /r+4 ,place x inside ,a1 & let x   
t\* its int]ior surface4 ,! ball w1 z   
%[n by ,frankl91 ,cav5di%1 & ,f>aday1   
rema9 un*>g$4 ,n[ raise x ne> ! top ( ! 
cani/]1 &1 :ile !re1 t\* x4 ,! ball w   
become negatively electrifi$1 because ! 
small positive *>ge 9 ,a w attract      
negative electricity f ! e>? into !     
ball4 ,take ! ball1 ) its negative *>ge1
 /ill hang+ by ! silk ?read1 & l[] x    
into ,b till x t\*es ! bottom4 ,x w give
 all its *>ge to ,b1 :i* w ?us acquire a
 slight negative *>ge4 ,raise ! ball    
till x is ne> ! top ( ,b1 & !n t\* x ) !

 f+] or a metal rod4 ,x w receive a     
positive *>ge f ! e>? because ( !       
attraction ( ! negative *>ge on ,b4 ,n[ 
remove ! ball & let x aga9 t\* ! int]ior
 ( ,a4 ,x w give up all its *>ge to ,a2 
& !n1 repeat+ ! :ole cycle ( op]ations1 
! *>ge c>ri$ on ! ball w be great] ?an  
be=e1 & increase 9 ea* successive       
op]ation1 ! electrification increas+ 9  
geometrical progression l comp\nd       
int]e/4 ,a ,leyd5 j> hav+ "o coat+      
connect$ to ,a & ! o!r to ,b1 may ?us be
 highly *>g$ 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,a pair (    
c>ri] balls or plates1 or a numb] (     
pairs1 may be us$ in/ead ( "o4 ,!       
c>ri]s1 j be=e leav+ ,a & ,b1 may be put
 9 contact ) "o ano!r in/ead ( be+ put  
to e>?2 !y may be m\nt$ on a revolv+    
%aft1 & ! =ms ( ,a & ,b modifi$ to admit
 ( ! revolution ( ! c>ri]s1 & all !     
necess>y contacts may be made           
automatically4 ,we ?us get v>i\s =ms ( !
 cont9u\s electrophorus1 & if ! c>ri]s  
are m\nt$ on glass plates1 & r[s ( po9ts
 plac$ alongside ! spr+s or bru%es us$ =

 mak+ ! contacts1 :5 ! *>ges on ! c>ri]s
 become v /rong1 electricity w be       
radiat$ f ! po9ts on to ! revolv+ glass 
plates1 :i* w ?us !mselves take ! place 
( ! metal c>ri]s4 ,su* is ! action 9 !  
,voss & o!r simil> ma*9es4  ,b aft]     
,f>aday _h %[n h[ to con/ruct a         
magneto-electric ma*9e1 ! idea ( apply+ 
! comp\nd-int]e/ pr9ciple1 & ?us conv]t+
 ! magneto-electric ma*9e into ! dynamo1
 occurr$ app>5tly simultane\sly &       
indep5d5tly to ,siem5s1 ,v>ley1 &       
,:eat/one4 ,! fir/ dynamo con/ruct$ by  
,:eat/one is /ill 9 ! museum ( ,k+'s    
,college1 ,london4 ,wilde employ$ a     
magneto-electric ma*9e to g5]ate a      
curr5t :i* 0 us$ to excite !            
electro-magnet ( a simil> b l>g] ma*9e1 
hav+ an electro-magnet in/ead ( a       
p]man5t /eel magnet4 ,! electro-magnet  
c\ld be made mu* l>g] & /rong] ?an !    
/eel magnet1 & f its armature1 :5 made  
to revolve by /eam p[]1 a correspond+ly 
/rong] curr5t c\ld be ma9ta9$4 ,! idea  
:i* occurr$ to ,siem5s1 ,v>ley1 &       

,:eat/one 0 to use ! :ole1 or a "p1 ( ! 
curr5t produc$ by ! armature to excite  
its own electro-magnet1 & ?us to disp5se
 ) ! magneto-electric ma*9e :i* s]v$ z !
 sep>ate excit]4 ,:5 a "p only ( !      
curr5t is ?us employ$1 & is set ap>t    
entirely = ?is duty1 ! ma*9e is a %unt  
dynamo2 :5 ! :ole ( ! curr5t trav]ses ! 
field-magnet coils z well z ! ext]nal   
circuit1 x is a s]ies dynamo4 ,! app>5t 
difficulty lies 9 />t+ ! curr5t1 b a    
mass ( iron once magnetiz$ always reta9s
 a c]ta9 am\nt ( residual magnetism1    
unless special means are tak5 to get rid
 ( x1 & ev5 !n ! e>?'s magnetism w\ld   
g5]ally induce suffici5t 9 ! iron to />t
 ! action4 ,comm5c+1 !n1 ) a slight     
trace ( residual magnetism1 ! revolution
 ( ! armature g5]ates a feeble curr5t1  
:i* pass+ r\nd ! magnet coils1 /r5g!ns !
 magnetism1 :]eupon a /rong] curr5t is  
g5]at$1 :i* 9 turn makes ! magnet /ill  
/rong]1 & s on until ! magnet becomes   
saturat$ or ! limit ( p[] ( ! eng9e is  
rea*$1 & ! spe$ beg9s to dim9i%1 or a   

condition ( affairs is rea*$ at :i* an  
increas$ curr5t 9 ! armature injures !  
magnetic field z mu* z ! correspond+    
increase 9 ! field-magnet coils /r5g!ns 
x1 & !n no fur!r increase ( curr5t w    
take place )\t increas+ ! spe$ (        
rotation4 ,9 a true dynamo ! :ole ( !   
en]gy1 bo? ( ! curr5t & ( !             
electro-magnets1 is obta9$ f ! s\rce (  
p[] employ$ 9 driv+ ! ma*9e4  ,b        
,f>aday's discov]y ( electro-magnetic   
induction l$ to practical developm5ts 9 
o!r directions4 ,graham ,bell plac$ a ?9
 iron disc 9 front ( ! pole ( a b>      
magnet1 & w\nd a coil ( f9e wire r\nd ! 
b> v ne> ! pole4 ,! ends ( ! coils ( two
 su* in/rum5ts he connect$ toge!r4 ,:5 !
 iron disc ( "o in/rum5t approa*$ ! pole
 ( ! magnet1 ! l9es ( =ce 7 di/urb$1    
few] escap$ radially f ! b>1 & m left x 
at ! end1 s z to g /raight to ! iron    
disc2 ?us ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce pass+    
?r\gh ! coil 0 alt]$1 & a curr5t 0      
induc$ :i*1 pass+ r\nd ! coil ( ! o!r   
in/rum5t1 /r5g!n$ or weak5$ its magnet1 

& caus$ ! iron disc to approa* x or     
rec$e f x1 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* !     
coils 7 c\pl$4 ,?us ! movem5ts ( ! fir/ 
disc 7 fai?fully repeat$ by ! second1 & 
! m9ute vibrations set up 9 ! disc by   
s\nd-waves 7 all fai?fully repeat$ by ! 
second in/rum5t4 ,?is 0 ,graham ,bell's 
telephone1 9 :i* ! transmitt] & receiv] 
7 conv]tible4  ,b ano!r & an e>li]      
application ( ,f>aday's discov]ies is   
f\nd 9 ! induction coil4 ,a %ort l5g? ( 
?ick wire & a v great l5g? ( ?9 wire are
 w\nd ^u an iron b>4 ,! ends ( ! long ?9
 wire1 or second>y coil1 =m ! t]m9als ( 
! ma*9e2 ! %ort ?ick wire1 or prim>y    
coil1 is connect$ ) a batt]y1 b 9 !     
circuit is plac$ an int]rupt]4 ,?is is  
g5]ally a small piece ( iron1 or hamm]1 
m\nt$ on a /eel spr+ opposite "o end ( !
 iron core1 ! spr+ press+ ! hamm] back  
aga9/ a screw ! end ( :i*1 l ! back ( ! 
hamm]1 is tipp$ ) plat9um2 & ?is contact
 completes ! batt]y circuit4 ,:5 !      
curr5t />ts1 ! iron core becomes a      
magnet1 attracts ! hamm]1 breaks !      

contact1 /ops ! curr5t1 ! magnetism dies
 away1 ! hamm] is =c$ back by ! spr+1 & 
!n ! cycle ( ev5ts is repeat$4 ,b ! />t+
 ( ! curr5t 9 ! prim>y causes a great _m
 l9es ( magnetic =ce to pass ?r\gh ea* (
 ! _m ?\s& turns ( wire 9 ! second>y1   
especially z ! iron core conducts mo/ ( 
! l9es ( =ce ( ea* turn ( ! prim>y almo/
 f end to end ( ! coil1 & ?us ?r\gh     
ne>ly all ! turns ( ! second>y4 ,?is    
action might be fur!r increas$ by       
connect+ ! ends ( ! iron core ) an iron 
tube or s]ies ( longitud9al b>s plac$   
outside ! :ole coil4 ,:5 ! prim>y curr5t
 ceases1 all ^! l9es ( =ce vani%4 ,?us  
dur+ ! />t+ ( ! prim>y curr5t1 :i*1 on  
acc\nt ( self-induction1 occupies a     
consid]able "t1 !re w be an inv]se      
curr5t 9 ! second>y proportional to !   
rate ( increase ( ! prim>y2 & :ile !    
prim>y is dy+ away1 !re w be a direct   
curr5t 9 ! second>y proportional to its 
rate ( decrease4 ,! prim>y curr5t _c be 
increas$ at a fa/] rate ?an corresponds 
to ! p[] ( ! batt]y1 b by mak+ a v %>p  

break x may be /opp$ v rapidly4 ,/ill1  
h[ev] rapidly ! circuit is brok51       
self-induction causes a sp>k to fly     
across ! gap until ! en]gy ( ! curr5t is
 us$ up4 ,! introduction ( ! cond5s]1   
consi/+ ( a numb] ( %eets ( t9foil      
insulat$ by pap] /eep$ 9 p>aff9 wax1 &  
connect$ alt]nately ) "o end or ! o!r ( 
! prim>y coil1 s]ves to increase !      
rapidity ) :i* ! prim>y curr5t di$ away1
 by rapidly us+ up its en]gy 9 *>g+ !   
cond5s]1 & produces a correspond+       
dim9ution 9 ! sp>k at ! contact-break]4 
,?is rapid de/ruction ( ! prim>y curr5t 
causes a correspond+ly great            
electro-motive =ce 9 ! second>y coil1 & 
?us v long sp>ks are produc$ betwe5 !   
t]m9als ( ! second>y coil :5 ! prim>y   
curr5t is brok51 ?\gh no su* sp>ks are  
produc$ :5 ! prim>y curr5t />ts4 ,if !  
second>y coil be connect$ up ) a        
galvanomet]1 s t !re is a metallic      
circuit ?r\gh\t1 x w be f\nd t j z mu*  
electricity fl[s 9 "o direction ?r\gh ! 
circuit at ! break ( ! prim>y z fl[s 9 !

 o!r direction at ! make1 ! diff]5ce be+
 t ! fir/ is a v /rong curr5t ( great   
electro-motive =ce b la/+ a v %ort "t1 !
 second a feebl] curr5t la/+ a          
correspond+ly long] "t4         99      
99       99       99       99  ,b ?\gh !
 rec5t advances 9 electrical sci5ce h   
be5 v great1 ! gr&e/ triumph ( ?is      
c5tury is ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pr9ciple ( ! 
cons]vation ( en]gy1 :i* has settl$ =   
ev] ! problem ( ! p]petual motion1 by   
%[+ t x has no solution4 ,?is problem 0 
n simply to f9d a me*anism :i* %\ld =   
ev] move1 b "o f :i* en]gy might be     
cont9u\sly d]iv$ = ! p]=mance ( ext]nal 
"w--9 fact1 an eng9e :i* %\ld require no
 fuel4 ,b 9 spite ( all t has be5 prov$1
 numb]s ( pat5ts are annually tak5 out =
 contrivances to effect ?is object4  ,we
 h se5 h[ ,rum=d %[$ t heat 0 motion1 & 
h[ he approximately det]m9$ its         
me*anical equival5t4 ,segu91 a nephew ( 
,montgolfi]1 endeav\r$ to %[ t1 :5 a    
/eam-eng9e 0 work+1 less heat ent]$ !   
cond5s] ?an :5 ! same am\nt ( /eam 0    

bl[n idly ?r\gh ! eng9e4 ,?is ,hirn     
succe$$ 9 %[+1 ?us prov+ t heat 0       
actually us$ up 9 do+ "w4 ,may]1 (      
,heilbronn1 measur$ ! "w done 9         
compress+ air1 & ! heat g5]at$ by !     
compression1 & assum$ t ! :ole ( ! "w   
done 9 ! compression1 & no m1 0 conv]t$ 
into ! heat develop$1 :i* 0 ! same ?+ z 
assum+ t no "w 0 done 9 alt]+ !         
positions ( ! p>ticles ( gas4 ,f ^!     
measurem5ts he d$uc$ a value ( !        
me*anical equival5t ( heat4 ,!          
assumption :i* ,may] made 0 %[n         
exp]im5tally by ,j\le to be ne>ly       
correct4 ,j\le prov$ t1 :5 air exp&s f a
 high pressure into a vacuum1 no heat is
 g5]at$ or absorb$ on ! :ole4 ,?is he   
did by compress+ air 9 an iron bottle1  
:i* 0 connect$ ) ano!r bottle f :i* !   
air _h be5 exhau/$1 ! connect+ tube be+ 
clos$ by a /op-cock4 ,! :ole app>atus 0 
imm]s$ 9 a ba? ( wat]1 & on all[+ ! air 
to ru% f "o vessel into ! o!r1 & !n     
/irr+ ! wat]1 ! temp]ature 0 f\nd to be 
! same z be=e4 ,:5 ! iron bottles 7 9   

sep>ate ba?s ( wat]1 t f :i* ! air ru%$ 
0 cool$1 & t into :i* x ru%$ 0 heat$ to 
! same ext5t4 ,j\le & ,?omson aft]w>ds  
%[$ t a v small am\nt ( heat is absorb$ 
9 ?is exp]im5t4 ,j\le also %[$ t ! heat 
g5]at$ 9 a batt]y circuit is            
proportional to ! product ( !           
electro-motive =ce & ! curr5t1 or to !  
product ( ! resi/ance & ! squ>e ( !     
curr5t1 :i*1 9 virtue ( ,ohm's law1 is !
 same ?+4 ,?is relation is (t5 kn[n z   
,j\le's law4 ,he also prov$ t1 = ! same 
am\nt ( *emical action 9 ! batt]y1 !    
heat g5]at$ 0 ! same1 :e!r x 7 all      
g5]at$ )9 ! batt]y or "p 9 ! batt]y & "p
 9 an ext]nal wire2 & t 9 ! latt] case1 
if ! wire became s hot z to emit light1 
! heat measur$ 0 less ?an be=e1 on      
acc\nt ( ! en]gy radiat$ z light4 ,) a  
magneto-electric ma*9e he employ$       
me*anical p[] to produce a curr5t1 & !  
en]gy ( ! curr5t he conv]t$ into heat4  
,9 all cases he f\nd t1 :atev]          
trans=mations ! en]gy might und]go 9 its
 c\rse1 a def9ite am\nt ( me*anical     

en]gy1 if entirely conv]t$ into heat1   
always produc$ ! same am\nt ( heat2 & he
 !reby prov$1 n only t heat is          
ess5tially motion1 b t x corresponds    
precisely ) t p>ticul> dynamical        
quantity :i* is call$ en]gy2 & ?us      
ju/ifi$ ! attempt to f9d a relation     
betwe5 heat & en]gy1 or to express !    
me*anical equival5t ( heat z s _m       
foot-p\nds4  ,j\le !n set to "w to      
det]m9e1 9 ! mo/ accurate mann]         
possible1 ! numb] ( foot-p\nds ( "w :i*1
 if entirely conv]t$ into heat1 w\ld    
raise "o p\nd ( wat] ?r\gh #a deg4      
,fahr4 ,! be/ kn[n ( 8 exp]im5ts is t 9 
:i* he caus$ a paddle to revolve by     
means ( a fall+ weight1 & !reby to *urn 
a quantity ( wat] conta9$ 9 a cyl9drical
 vessel1 ! rotation ( ! wat] be+ prev5t$
 by fix$ vanes4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts he all[$
 = ! "w done outside ! vessel ( wat] or 
calorimet]1 = ! buoyancy ( ! air on !   
desc5d+ weight1 & = ! en]gy /ill reta9$ 
by ! weight :5 x /ruck ! floor4 ,f !    
results obta9$ he d$uc$ #ggb foot-p\nds 

z ! me*anical equival5t ( heat4         
,express$ 9 t]ms ( ! ,c5tigrade scale1  
,j\le's equival5t1 t is1 ! numb] (      
foot-p\nds ( "w 9 ! latitude ( ,man*e/]1
 :i*1 if entirely conv]t$ into heat1 w  
raise "o p\nd ( wat] #a deg4 ,c41 is    
#acij4  ,j\le's exp]im5ts %[ t ! same   
am\nt ( en]gy always corresponds to1 & c
 be conv]t$ into1 ! same am\nt ( heat1 &
 t no trans=mations1 electrical or o!r1 
c ev] increase or dim9i% ?is quantity4  
,maxwell express$ ?is pr9ciple z        
foll[s3--  ,! en]gy ( a sy/em is a      
quantity :i* c nei!r be increas$ nor    
dim9i%$ by any actions tak+ place betwe5
 ! p>ts ( ! sy/em1 ?\gh x may be        
trans=m$ into any ( ! =ms ( :i* en]gy is
 susceptible4  ,?is is ! great pr9ciple 
( ! cons]vation ( en]gy :i* is          
applicable equally to all bran*es (     
sci5ce4  ,ano!r pr9ciple1 almo/ equally 
g5]al 9 its applicability1 is t ( !     
dissipation ( en]gy1 = :i* we are       
indebt$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance to ,sir        
,william ,?omson4 ,all =ms ( en]gy may  

be conv]t$ into heat1 & heat t5ds s to  
diffuse itself ?r\gh\t all bodies z to  
br+ !m to "o uni=m temp]ature4 ,?is is  
its ultimate /ate ( degradation1 & f t  
/ate no me?ods ) :i* we are acqua9t$ c  
trans=m any portion ( x4 ,:5 en]gy is   
possess$ by a sy/em 9 consequ5ce ( !    
relative positions or motions ( bodies  
:i* we c h&le1 & ^: movem5ts we may     
control1 ! :ole ( ! en]gy may be employ$
 9 do+ any "w we please2 9 fact1 x is   
all available = our purpose1 or its     
availability may be said to be p]fect4  
,en]gy 9 any o!r =m is limit$ 9 its     
availability by ! conditions "u :i* we c
 place x4 ,= example1 ! en]gy ( *emical 
action 9 a batt]y may be us$ to produce 
a curr5t1 & ?is to drive a motor by :i* 
me*anical "w is effect$1 b "s ( ! en]gy 
mu/ inevitably be degrad$ into ! =m (   
heat by ! resi/ance ( ! batt]y & ( !    
conductor1 & ?is portion w be great] z !
 rate ( do+ "w is increas$4 ,! ratio ( !
 quantity ( en]gy :i* c be employ$ =    
me*anical purposes ) ! means at our     

disposal1 to ! :ole am\nt pres5t1 is    
call$ ! availability ( ! en]gy4 ,all =ms
 ( en]gy may be :olly conv]t$ into heat1
 b only a fraction ( any quantity ( heat
 c be trans=m$ into high] =ms ( en]gy1 &
 ?is dep5ds on ! temp]ature ( ! s\rce ( 
heat & ( ! colde/ body :i* c be employ$ 
z a cond5s]1 be+ great] ! great] !      
diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures ( ! s\rce 
& cond5s]1 & ! l[] ! temp]ature ( !     
latt]4 ,9 e op]ation :i* takes place 9  
nature !re is a degradation ( en]gy1 &  
?\gh "s portion ( ! en]gy may be rais$ 9
 availability1 ano!r portion is l[]$1 s 
t on ! :ole ! availability is dim9i%$4  
,?us1 9 ! case ( ! heat-eng9e1 "w c be  
obta9$ f heat only by all[+ ano!r       
portion ( ! heat to fall 9 temp]ature2  
&1 z orig9ally /at$ by ,sir ,william    
,?omson1 x is impossible1 by means (    
inanimate mat]ial ag5cy1 to obta9       
me*anical effect f any portion ( matt]  
by cool+ x bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! colde/ 
( ! surr\nd+ objects1 & to leave ! work+
 sub/ance 9 ! same condition 9 :i* x 0  

at ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ations4 ,accept+ 
?is pr9ciple1 ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson  
%[$ t increase ( pressure mu/ l[] !     
freez+ po9t ( wat]1 = o!rwise x w\ld be 
possible to con/ruct an eng9e :i*1 work+
 by ! expansion ( wat] 9 freez+1 w\ld   
cont9ue to d "w by cool+ a body bel[ !  
temp]ature ( any o!r body available1 &  
he calculat$ ! am\nt ( pressure necess>y
 to l[] ! freez+ po9t ?r\gh "o degree4  
,! conclusion 0 aft]w>ds exp]im5tally   
v]ifi$ by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 & s]v$ 
to expla9 all ! ph5om5a ( regelation4   
,?us1 l ! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation (    
en]gy1 ! pr9ciple ( ! dissipation (     
en]gy s]ves z a guide 9 ! se>* aft]     
tru?4 ,b !re is ?is diff]5ce betwe5 !   
two pr9ciples--no "o c conceive ( any   
me?od by :i* to circumv5t ! cons]vation 
( en]gy2 b ,cl]k ,maxwell %[$ t !       
pr9ciple ( dissipation ( en]gy might be 
ov]ridd5 by ! ex]cise ( intellig5ce on !
 "p ( any creature ^: faculties 7       
suffici5tly delicate to deal )          
individual molecules4 ,9 ! case ( gases1

 ! temp]ature dep5ds on ! av]age en]gy (
 motion ( ! individual p>ticles1 & heat 
consi/s simply ( ?is motion2 b 9 any    
mass ( gas1 :atev] ! av]age en]gy may   
be1 "s ( ! p>ticles w be mov+ ) v great1
 & "s ) v small1 velocities4 ,by imag9+ 
two portions ( gas1 orig9ally at ! same 
temp]ature1 sep>at$ by a p>tition       
conta9+ trap-doors :i* c\ld be op5$ or  
clos$ )\t exp5diture ( en]gy1 & suppos+ 
a demon plac$ 9 *>ge ( ea* door1 :o w\ld
 op5 ! door :5ev] a p>ticle 0 approa*+ v
 rapidly f "o side1 or v sl[ly f ! o!r1 
b keep x %ut "u o!r circum/ances1 he %[$
 t x w\ld be possible to sort !         
p>ticles1 s t ^? 9 ! "o comp>tm5t %\ld h
 a great velocity1 & ^? 9 ! o!r a small 
"o4 ,h5ce1 out ( a mass ( gas at uni=m  
temp]ature1 two portions might be       
obta9$1 "o at a high temp]ature & ! o!r 
at a l[1 &1 by means ( a heat-eng9e1 "w 
c\ld be obta9$ until ! two portions 7   
aga9 at equal temp]atures1 :5 ! s]vices 
( ! demons might be aga9 tak5 advantage 
(1 & ! op]ations repeat$ until all !    

heat 0 us$ up4  ,any !ory :i* is br\ght 
=w>d to expla9 a ph5om5on1 or any       
process :i* is propos$ to effect any    
op]ation1 mu/ 9 ! fir/ in/ance submit to
 ! te/ ( ! application ( ^! two         
pr9ciples ( cons]vation & dissipation ( 
en]gy2 & any proposal :i* fails to be>  
^! te/s may be at once reject$4 ,!      
ess5tial feature ( ! sci5ce ( to-day is 
its quantitative "*4 ,we mu/1 = in/ance1
 n only "k t radiant en]gy comes to u f 
! sun1 b we mu/ le>n h[ mu* en]gy is    
annually receiv$ by ! e>? 9 ?is way2 &1 
9 ! next place1 h[ mu* en]gy is radiat$ 
by ! sun 9 all directions 9 ! same "t4  
,:5 we h le>n$ ?is1 we want to "k :at is
 ! s\rce ( ?is en]gy2 & no !ory ( ! sun 
:i* does n enable u to expla9 h[ ?is    
con/ant exp5diture ( en]gy is ma9ta9$ c 
be accept$4 ,la/ c5tury x 0 possible to 
believe1 ) ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 t !   
great] "p ( ! sun's mass is comp>atively
 cool1 & t x is surr\nd$ by only a ?9   
%eet ( flame4 ,to-day su* a !ory w\ld be
 reject$ at once1 simply because ! ?9   

%ell ( flame c\ld n provide en]gy = !   
sol> radiation = any consid]able "t4 ,! 
contact !ory ( ! galvanic cell1 z       
orig9ally enunciat$1 fell to ! gr\nd = a
 simil> reason4 ,! simple contact (     
dissimil> metals c\ld af=d no cont9u\s  
supply ( en]gy to su/a9 ! curr5t4       
,appli$ to ! /eam-eng9e1 ! doctr9e (    
en]gy tea*es u1 n only t1 correspond+ to
 ! combu/ion ( a p\nd ( coal1 !re is a  
def9ite quantity ( "w :i* is ! me*anical
 equival5t ( ! heat g5]at$1 & is su* t  
no eng9e ( :i* we c conceive is capable 
( d]iv+ f ! combu/ion ( ! p\nd ( coal a 
great] am\nt ( "w1 b x tea*es u t !re is
 a fur!r limitation fix$ to ! am\nt ( "w
 obta9able4 ,?is limitation dep5ds ^u ! 
range ( temp]ature at our comm&2 &1 :5 !
 range is kn[n1 we c express ! am\nt (  
en]gy realizable by a p]fect eng9e work+
 ?r\gh t range z a def9ite fraction ( ! 
:ole en]gy correspond+ to ! heat (      
combu/ion ( ! fuel4 ,?us1 if we f9d t a 
p>ticul> eng9e realizes only #ae p] c5t4
 ( ! en]gy ( its fuel 9 "w done1 we mu/ 

n suppose t me*anical improvem5ts 9 !   
eng9e w\ld enable u to realize any      
consid]able portion ( ! o!r #he p] c5t42
 = x may be t a !oretically p]fect      
eng9e1 work+ ) its boil] & cond5s] at ! 
same temp]atures z ^? ( ! eng9e         
consid]$1 c\ld only realize #be p] c5t4 
( ! en]gy ( ! fuel1 r$uc+ ! m>g9 =      
improvem5t f #he to #aj p] c5t41 z long 
z ! range ( temp]ature is unalt]$4 ,to  
improve ! effici5cy beyond ?is limit1 ! 
range ( temp]ature mu/ be increas$1 t   
is1 g5]ally1 hott] /eam mu/ be us$4  ,! 
pr9ciples ( en]gy are ?us guides1 n only
 to ! sci5tific !ori/1 b to ! practical 
eng9e]1 & !y h be5 e/abli%$ only ?r\gh  
c>eful measurem5t4 ,! simple obs]vation 
( ph5om5a1 & ( ! conditions "u :i* !y   
occur1 c\ld nev] h l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( 
su* pr9ciples2 &1 ?\gh ! c>ry+ out (    
exp]im5ts :i* d n involve measurem5ts is
 ( great value1 x is ! c>eful           
measurem5t1 h[ev] simple1 :i* af=ds !   
highe/ tra9+ to ! m9d & h&1 & )\t :i*   
any c\rse ( in/ruction 9 exp]im5tal     

physics is ( little value4  ,! ,h9doos  
us$ to reg>d ! e>? z a va/ dome c>ri$ on
 ! backs ( elephants4 ,! elephants      
!mselves1 h[ev]1 requir$ support1 & 7   
repres5t$ z /&+ on ! back ( a gigantic  
tortoise4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe> t any 
support 0 provid$ = ! tortoise4 ,9 "s   
respects ?is figure repres5ts ! app>5tly
 p]petual condition ( sci5tific k4      
,ph5om5a are inve/igat$1 & are %[n to   
dep5d ^u o!r actions :i* appe> simpl] or
 m fundam5tal ?an ! ph5om5a at fir/     
obs]v$4 ,^!1 aga91 are f\nd to obey laws
 :i* are ( mu* wid] application1 or     
appe> to be /ill m fundam5tal2 b x may  
be t we are z f> (f z ev] f discov]+ !  
great secret ( ! univ]se1 ! ultimate    
nature ( all ?+s4     ,,index4       ,a4
      ,abbott1 ,f>aday's lett]s to1     
#bda1 #bdf4      ,ab]de5 ,univ]sity1    
,maxwell appo9t$ pr(essor 91 #bhd2      
,"y's report on1 #bjc4      ,absorption1
 ,rum=d's exp]im5ts on1 #ahe2       (   
sun's rays by clo? ( diff]5t col\rs1    
#ii4      ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,frankl9 

nom9at$ ,=eign ,associate (1 #aaa4      
,adju/m5t ( ! eye1 ,"y's pap] on !1     
#bjj4      ,a,epinus's completion (     
,frankl9's !ory1 #gg4      ,air1        
,boyle's conception ( ! con/itution (1  
#ai4      ,air-pump1 ,boyle's exp]im5ts 
)1 #ai2       con/ruct$ by ,boyle1 #bg4 
,am]ican ,indep5d5ce1 ,decl>ation (1    
#aac4      ,am]ican ,philosophical      
,society1 f\ndation (1 #fa4             
,amp]e's !ory1 ,f>aday's views on1 #beg4
      ,an*or-r+ exp]im5t1 ,f>aday's1    
#bfj4      ,arago's exp]im5t1 #bfd4     
,arg& lamp1 effici5cy (1 #ahh4          
,arm/rong gun1 pr9ciple ( !1 #ahj4      
,atmosph]ic electricity1 ,f>aday's      
exp]im5ts on1 #bed2       obta9$ by a   
po9t$ rod1 #hd4      ,autobiography (   
,frankl91 #ci4      ,availability (     
en]gy1 #cbf4       ,b4      ,baily1     
,francis1 repetition ( ! ,cav5di%       
exp]im5t by1 #adf4      ,beats 9 music1 
explanation (1 #bji4      ,begg>y 9     
,bav>ia bani%$ by ,rum=d1 #afd4         
,b]n\lli's1 ,daniel1 molecul> !ory (    

gases1 #bii4      ,bo/on1 blockade (1   
#aaj4      ,boyle1 ,hon4 ,rob]t1 bir?1  
#h2       conv]sion1 #aa2       fir/    
air-pump1 #ag2       conception ( !     
con/itution ( ! air1 #ai2               
exp]im5ts ) ! air-pump1 #ai1 et seq42   
argum5t on ! cause ( a vacuum1 #bc2     
exp]im5ts e/abli%+ 8 law1 #be2          
/atem5t ( 8 law1 #bi2       obs]vations 
on cold1 #cb1       & on ! expansion (  
wat] 9 freez+1 #cc2       exp]im5ts on  
induc$ magnetism1 #cd2       ! prov9ce (
 exp]im5tal sci5ce1 #cg4      ,boyle's  
law1 #bi4      ,brocklesby1 ,dr41 dea?  
(1 #bjh4      ,br\gham's criticisms (   
,?omas ,"y1 #bah4      ,bump]1          
electrical1 #hj4       ,c4      ,cam]a  
obscura1 inv5tion (1 #b4      ,canada   
balsam1 /resses 91 #bih4                
,c&le-flame1 effect (1 9 dis*>g+        
electricity1 #ge4      ,capacity1       
electrical1 #acg2       ,frankl9's      
exp]im5ts on1 #ha1 #hi2       ,cav5di%'s
 unit (1 #ach2       ,cav5di%'s measures
 (1 #acd1 #ach2       ( disc1 measur$ by

 ,cav5di%1 #acd4      ,capill>ity1 #bbh4
      ,cascade me?od ( *>g+ ,leyd5 j>s1 
#gg4      ,cav5di%1 ,hon4 ,h5ry1        
,f4,r4,s41 bir? & p>5tage1 #abf2        
social habits1 #abg2       appo9t$ memb]
 ( ! ,r4,s4 ,committee on               
,lightn+-,conductors1         #aca2     
elect$ ,=eign ,associate ( ! ,fr5*      
,in/itute1 #acb2       dea?1 #acc2      
pro( ( ! law ( inv]se squ>es1 #ace2     
exp]im5t ) ! sph]es repeat$ by          
,mac,alister1 #acg2       exp]im5ts on !
 torp$o1 #adj2       exp]im5ts on !     
resi/ance ( conductors1 #adb2           
discov]y ( ,ohm's law1 #adc2       view 
( lat5t heat1 #add2       app>atus =    
det]m9+ ! melt+ po9t ( m]cury1 #ade2    
! ,cav5di% exp]im5t1 #adf4      ,cav5di%
 exp]im5t1 #adf2       ,laboratory1     
#bhh2       ,manuscripts1 #acd2         
,maxwell's "w on ! ,manuscripts1 #bic4  
,city ,philosophical ,society1 jo9$ by  
,f>aday1 #bde2       ,f>aday's lectures 
to1 #bea4      ,cold1 ,boyle's          
obs]vations on1 #cb4      ,coll9son1    

,pet]1 pres5t (1 to ! ,libr>y ,company1 
#gb4      ,col\r-bl9dness1 ,maxwell's   
exp]im5ts on1 #bif4      ,col\r-box1    
,maxwell's1 #big4      ,col\rs1 effect  
(1 on absorption ( sun's rays1 #ii1     
#ahf4      ,col\rs ( ! spectrum mix$ by 
,boyle1 #ca4      ,col\r-top1           
,maxwell's1 #bhd1 #bie2       ,"y's1    
#bae4      ,col\r-vision1 ,maxwell's    
!ory (1 #bid2       ,"y's !ory (1 #bad4 
,commonplace-book1 ,f>aday's1 #bec4     
,comp\nd-int]e/ pr9ciple1 #caf4         
,cond5s]1 use (1 9 induction coils1     
#cba4      ,conduction ( heat1 ,rum=d's 
exp]im5ts on1 #ahf4      ,conductors1   
multiple1 fl[ ( electricity ?r\gh1 #ada4
      ,conductors necess>ily opaque1    
#cjg4      ,cons]vation ( en]gy1        
,maxwell's /atem5t ( ! pr9ciple (1      
#cbe4      ,copley ,m$al aw>d$ to       
,frankl91 #ff1 #gd4      ,cork1 ,e>l (1 
autobiography (1 #e4      ,creep+ (     
electricity on glass1 #aci4             
,cry/all9e l5s1 fibr\s /ructure (1 #bjj2
       mode ( adju/m5t (1 #bja4         

,cuneus's discov]y ( ! ,leyd5 j>1 #d4   
,d4      ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 appo9t$  
pr(essor at ! ,royal ,in/itution1       
#agd2       lett] (1 to ,f>aday1 #bdd4  
,decl>ation ( ,am]ican ,indep5d5ce      
sign$1 #aac4      ,def5ce ( ! ,am]ican  
,colonies aga9/ ,france & ,spa91 #fb4   
,degree ( electrification1 #acg4        
,de la ,rive's invitation to ,f>aday1   
#bdi4      ,d5sity ( ! e>?1 det]m9ations
 ( ! mean1 #adf4      ,desaguli]s on    
electrics & non-electrics1 #d4          
,diagram ( col\r1 ,"y's1 #bae2          
,maxwell's1 #bie4      ,diamagnetism    
discov]$ by ,f>aday1 #bgd4              
,diamonds burn$ by ,davy1 #bej4         
,di*roism ( ,lignum nephriticum1 #cj4   
,dis*>ge1 electrical1 diff]5ce betwe5   
positive & negative1 #hg4               
,dissipation ( en]gy1 pr9ciple (1 #cbf4 
,di/ill$ wat]1 resi/ance (1 #adb4       
,d\ble refraction expla9$ by ,huygh5s1  
#bai4      ,dufay %[$ t all bodies c\ld 
be electrifi$1 #d4      ,dynamical      
nature ( heat1 sugge/$ by ,bacon1 #b1   

#cb2       ma9ta9$ by ,boyle1 #cb2      
inve/igat$ by ,rum=d1 #ahi2             
e/abli%$ by ,j\le1 #aic1 #cbd4          
,dynamical top1 ,maxwell's1 #bhe4       
,dynamo1 con/ruct$ by ,:eat/one1 #cah2  
action (1 #cai2       ess5tial feature  
(1 #cai4       ,e4      ,effect ( po9ts 
9 dis*>g+ electricity1 #gd4             
,electrical picnic1 #hj4                
,electrical ,/&>ds ,committee1 #bhg4    
,electric int5sity1 #acg2               
pot5tial1 #acg4      ,electricity1 fir/ 
obta9$ f cl\ds1 #gd2       velocity (1  
#ic4      ,electrics & non-electrics1   
#c4      ,electrolysis1 ,f>aday's laws  
(1 #bff4      ,electro-magnetic         
induction1 discov]$ by ,f>aday1 #bei2   
,maxwell's /atem5t ( ! laws (1 #cja4    
,electro-magnetic !ory ( light1 #cjf4   
,electro-motors1 #cac4                  
,electro-tonic /ate1 conceiv$ by        
,f>aday1 #bfd2       expla9$ by         
,maxwell1 #cjb4      ,en]gy ( ,leyd5 j> 
resid5t 9 ! glass1 #gi4      ,eriomet]1 
,"y's1 #bbc4      ,e!r1 ,maxwell's      

illu/ration ( ! possible con/itution (1 
#cjb4      ,expansion ( wat] on freez+1 
#cc4      ,extra curr5t1 #bfh4       ,f4
      ,f>aday1 ,mi*ael1 bir?1 #bch2     
life 9 ,jacob's ,well ,mews1 #bch2      
becomes an err&-boy1 #bci2              
appr5tice%ip1 #bci2       att5ds        
lectures at ,tatum's1 #bdj2             
con/ructs a voltaic pile1 #bda2         
lett]s to ,abbott1 #bda1 #bdf2          
/>ts z a j\rneyman1 #bdc2               
application to ,davy1 #bdc2             
appo9t$ assi/ant at ! ,royal            
,in/itution1 #bde2       jo9s ! ,city   
,philosophical ,society1 #bde2          
op9ions respect+ lectures1 #bdf1 #bdg2  
j\rney ) ,davy1 #bdh2       acqua9tance 
) ,de la ,rive1 #bdi2       crosses !   
,alps1 #bdi2       at ! ,academia del   
,cim5to1 #bej2       returns f !        
,cont95t1 #bea2       lectures to !     
,city ,philosophical ,society1 #bea2    
commonplace-book1 #bec2       atmosph]ic
 electricity app>atus1 #bed2            
m>riage1 #bee2       discov]y (         

electro-magnetic rotation1 #bee2       (
 ! e>?'s action on a curr5t1 #bef2      
lett] to ,e4 de la ,rive1 #bef2         
views on ,amp]e's !ory1 #beg2           
elect$ ,f4,r4,s41 #beh2       appo9t$   
director ( ! laboratory at ! ,royal     
,in/itution1         #beh2       "w on  
optical glass1 #bei2       discov]y (   
induc$ curr5ts1 #bei2       in/itutes   
,friday ev5+ lectures1 #bei2            
an*or-r+ exp]im5t1 #bfj2                
magneto-electric ma*9e1 #bfb2           
obta9s induc$ curr5t by action ( ! e>?1 
#bfb2       obta9s magnetic sp>k1 #bfb2 
explanation ( ,arago's exp]im5t1 #bfd2  
laws ( electrolysis1 #bff2       proves 
! id5tity ( frictional & voltaic        
electricity1 #bff2       exp]im5ts on   
self-induction1 #bfh2       diagrams (  
l9es ( magnetic =ce1 #bfi2              
conception ( l9es ( electric =ce1 #bgj2 
ice-pail exp]im5t1 #bgj2                
butt]fly-net1 #bgj2       exp]im5ts on  
specific inductive capacity1 #bgb2      
appo9t$ sci5tific advis] to ,tr9ity     

,h\se1 #bgc2       appo9t$ memb] ( !    
,s5ate ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 #bgc2  
discov]y ( ! electro-magnetic rotation (
 ! plane (         pol>ization1 #bgc2   
inve/igations 9 diamagnetism1 #bgd2     
jo9s ! ,s&emanian ,*ur*1 #bge2          
lectures be=e ! ,pr9ce ,consort1 #bge2  
retirem5t to ,hampton ,c\rt1 #bgg2      
dea?1 #bgg2       l9es ( =ce inve/igat$ 
by ,?omson & ,maxwell1 #cjj4            
,=bes's1 ,pr9cipal1 op9ion ( ,"y1 #aid4 
,f\cault's measurem5t ( ! velocity (    
light1 #bbj4      ,fovea c5tralis1      
ins5sibility (1 to blue light1 #bih4    
,franciscus ,l9us1 funicul> hypo!sis (1 
#be4      ,frankl91 ,b5jam91            
autobiography (1 #ci2       bir?1 #dj2  
on ! disputati\s temp]1 #db2       me?od
 ( le>n+ prose composition1 #dc2        
tries veget>ianism1 #dd2       adopts ! 
,socratic me?od1 #dd2       fir/ voyage 
to ,engl&1 #dh2       exp]i5ce z a      
j\rneyman 9 ,london1 #di2       views on
 be] z a food1 #di2       m>riage1 #ed2 
endeav\rs to atta9 moral p]fection1 #ef2

       me?od ( reconcil+ an enemy1 #fj2 
elect$ ,f4,r4,s41 #ff2       second     
voyage to ,engl&1 #gj2       beg9s      
electrical exp]im5ts1 #gb2              
electrical pap]s ridicul$ by ! ,royal   
,society1 #gc2       discov]s ! effect (
 po9ts1 #gd2       "o-fluid !ory (      
electricity1 #gf2       !ory ( ! ,leyd5 
j>1 #gh2       inv5tion ( ! lightn+-rod1
 #hc2       gold5 fi%1 #he2       view (
 ! nature ( light1 #hf2       kite1 #hh2
       exp]im5ts on capacity1 #ha1 #hi2 
exp]im5ts on electrical induction1 #ij2 
pro( ( ! abs5ce ( electricity 9 a holl[ 
conductor1 #ia2       ?ird voyage to    
,engl&1 #ajb2       exam9ation be=e !   
,p>liam5t>y ,committee1 #aje2           
nom9at$ ,=eign ,associate ( ! ,academy (
 ,sci5ces1 #aaj2       signs !          
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 #aac2        
s5t to ,p>is1 #aac2       made ,m9i/]   
,pl5ipot5ti>y to ! ,c\rt ( ,france1     
#aaf2       signs ! ,treaty ( ,peace1   
#aai2       elect$ ,presid5t (          
,p5nsylvania1 #abj2       dea?1 #abb4   

,fresnel1 aw>d$ ! ,rum=d ,m$al1 #bcc4   
,fresnel's repetition ( ,"y's exp]im5ts1
 #bbe4      ,friction z a s\rce ( heat1 
,rum=d's exp]im5ts on1 #ahi4            
,friday ev5+ lectures in/itut$ by       
,f>aday1 #bei4       ,g4      ,galileo &
 ,torricelli on ! pressure ( ! air1 #af4
      ,g>nett1 ,dr4 ,?omas1 pr(essor at 
! ,royal ,in/itution1 #agc4             
,gilb]t1 ,dr41 f\nd] ( electrical       
sci5ce1 #c4      ,goett+51 ,"y's        
univ]sity c\rse at1 #bjf4      ,graham  
,bell's telephone1 #cai4      ,gray1    
,/eph51 discov]s electric conduction1   
#c4      ,grimaldi's fr+es expla9$ by   
,"y1 #bbb4      ,gunp[d]1 ,rum=d's      
exp]im5ts on1 #agi4       ,h4           
,halos1 col\r$1 ,"y's explanation (1    
#bbd4      ,hawksbee's obs]vations on   
capill>y attraction1 #bbh4      ,heat1 a
 =m ( en]gy1 #cb2       g5]at$ by       
friction 9 vacuum1 #cb2       g5]at$ by 
friction1 ,rum=d's exp]im5ts on1 #ahi4  
,h]apa?'s explanation ( gase\s          
diffusion1 #bii4      ,h]s*el's1 ,sir   

,john1 comm5ts on ,"y's pr9ciple (      
int]f]5ce1         #bjh4      ,hicks's1 
,pr9cipal1 inve/igations on ! influ5ce (
 temp]ature         on gravitation1     
#ahd4      ,hi]oglyphics1 ,"y's "w on1  
#bcd4      ,hobbes1 opposition (1 to    
,boyle1 #be4      ,holl[ conductor1     
,frankl9's exp]im5ts on1 #ia2           
,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts on1 #ace2          
,f>aday's exp]im5ts on1 #bgj4           
,honor>y degrees conf]r$ on ,frankl91   
#ff1 #aja4      ,hooke's law1 #bbi4     
,hooke1 ,!odore1 f\nds ! ,royal         
,society1 #ad4      ,huygh5s's          
explanation ( d\ble refraction1 #bai2   
pr9ciple1 #bah4      ,hydrog51          
electro-*emical equival5t (1 #bfg4      
,i4      ,ice-pail exp]im5t ( ,f>aday1  
#bgj4      ,id5tity ( frictional &      
voltaic electricity1 #bff4      ,induc$ 
curr5ts1 discov]$ by ,f>aday1 #bei2     
expla9$ by /ructure ( e!r1 #cjd2       f
 e>?'s action1 #bfb4      ,induction    
coil1 #cbj4      ,induction1 ,frankl9's 
exp]im5ts on1 #ij2       self1 #adb1    

#cjf4      ,induction ma*9es1 pr9ciple  
(1 #caf4      ,insulators =             
lightn+-rods1 #if4      ,int]f]5ce1     
pr9ciple (1 discov]$ by ,"y1 #bjh2      
spectra (1 obta9$ by ,"y1 #bbe4         
,invisible college1 #ac4       ,j4      
,j5k91 ,william1 discov]y ( ! extra     
curr5t by1 #bfh4      ,j\le & ,?omson's 
det]m9ation ( ! heat absorb$ by air 9   
exp&+1 #cbd4      ,j\le1 ,dr41          
e/abli%m5t ( me*anical !ory ( heat by1  
#aic1 #cbd4      ,j\le's law1 #cbd2     
pro( t heat & en]gy are equival5t1 #cbd2
       det]m9ation ( ! me*anical        
equival5t ( heat1 #cbe4      ,junto     
,club1 =mation ( !1 #ea4       ,k4      
,kell&'s1 ,pr(essor1 edition ( ,"y's    
lectures1 #bab4      ,k9n]sley comm5ces 
lectur+1 #gc4      ,kite1 ,frankl9's1   
#hh4      ,knobs v]sus po9ts1 #ie4      
,l4      ,lab\laye's comm5ts on         
,frankl91 #ch4      ,laplace's !ory (   
,saturn's r+s1 #bhe4      ,lat5t heat1  
,black's !ory (1 #add2       ,cav5di%'s 
views on1 #add4      ,leon>do da ,v9ci's

 obs]vation ( capill>y attraction1 #bbh4
      ,leyd5 j>1 discov]y (1 #d2        
en]gy (1 resid5t 9 ! glass1 #gi4        
,leyd5 j>s *>g$ by cascade1 #gg4        
,light1 ,frankl9's view ( nature (1 #hf2
       ,maxwell's electro-magnetic !ory 
(1 #cjf2       rotation ( ! plane (     
pol>ization (1 #bgc4      ,lightn+1     
effects (1 on ,newbury /eeple1 #ib4     
,lightn+-protectors1 ,maxwell's1 #bid4  
,lightn+-rod1 illu/rations ( !1 #hc4    
,lignum nephriticum1 di*roism (1 #cj4   
,l9es ( =ce ma!matically inve/igat$ by  
,?omson & ,maxwell1         #cjj4       
,l9es ( magnetic =ce fix$ by ,f>aday1   
#bfi4      ,lum9if]\s e!r1 ! vehicle (  
electrical action1 #bbg2                
illu/ration ( ! possible con/itution (1 
#cjb4       ,m4      ,magdeburg         
hemisph]es1 exp]im5ts )1 by ,otto von   
,gu]icke1 #ag4      ,magic squ>es1      
,frankl9's pr(ici5cy 91 #ff4            
,magnetic sp>k obta9$ by ,f>aday1 #bfb4 
,magnetization by induction1 ,boyle's   
exp]im5ts on1 #cd4                      

,magneto-electric ma*9e1 ,f>aday's1     
#bfb1 #cad4      ,magneto-electric      
ma*9es1 ,wilde's1 #cah2       objects to
 be aim$ at 9 ! con/ruction (1 #cae4    
,maxwell1 ,james ,cl]k1 bir? & p>5tage1 
#bgi2       ent]s ,ed9burgh ,academy1   
#bhj2       lett]s to 8 fa!r1 #bhj2     
e>ly pap]s be=e ! ,royal ,society (     
,ed9burgh1 #bha2       visit to ,mr4    
,nicol1 #bha2       exp]im5ts )         
unanneal$ glass1 #bhb2       ent]s !    
,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 #bhb2           
ent]s ,pet]h\se1 #bhb2       migrates to
 ,tr9ity1 #bhb2       degree 9          
,cambridge1 #bhc2       elect$ ,fell[ ( 
,tr9ity1 #bhd2       appo9t$ ,pr(essor  
at ,m>is*al ,college1 #bhd2             
m>riage1 #bhg2       essay on ,saturn's 
r+s1 #bhe2       dynamical top1 #bhe2   
appo9t$ pr(essor at ,k+'s ,college1     
#bhg2       lecture on col\r at ! ,royal
 ,in/itution1 #bhg2       "w on !       
,electrical ,/&>ds ,committee1 #bhg2    
appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,physics
 at ,cambridge1 #bhh2       plans !     

,cav5di% ,laboratory1 #bhh2             
lectures at ,cambridge1 #bij2       "w  
on ! ,cav5di% ,manuscripts1 #acd1 #bic2 
deliv]s ! ,r$e ,lecture1 #bic2          
me?od ( protect+ build+s f lightn+1     
#bid2       dea?1 #bid2       col\r-top1
 #bie2       exp]im5ts on               
col\r-bl9dness1 #bif2       col\r-box1  
#big2       aw>d$ ! ,rum=d ,m$al1 #big2 
:eel ( life1 #big2       real-image     
spectroscope1 #bih2       discov]y (    
/resses 9 ,canada balsam1 #bih2       ( 
! ins5sibility ( ! fovea c5tralis to    
blue light1 #bih2       /ati/ical me?od1
 #bii2       explanation ( ! viscosity (
 gases1 #bii2       inve/igations (     
,f>aday's l9es ( =ce1 #cjj2             
/atem5t ( ! laws ( electro-magnetic     
induction1 #cja2       me*anical        
illu/ration ( ! e!r1 #cjb2              
explanation ( induc$ curr5ts1 #cjd2     
( ! me*anical action betwe5 curr5ts &   
curr5ts1 &         betwe5 magnets &     
curr5ts1 #cjd2       ( self-induction1  
#cjf2       electro-magnetic !ory (     

light1 #cjf2       contrivance = ov]com+
 ! pr9ciple ( ! dissipation (           
en]gy1 #cbh4      ,maxwell's exp]im5t = 
%[+ electro-magnetic rotation1 #beh4    
,may]'s det]m9ation ( ! me*anical       
equival5t ( heat1 #cbc4      ,me*anical 
equival5t ( heat1 def9ition (1 #aic2    
,rum=d's det]m9ation (1 #aib4           
,m]cury1 melt+ po9t (1 #ade4            
,mirabeau's declamation on ,frankl91    
#abc4      ,mix$ plates1 col\rs (1 #bbc4
      ,moral p]fection1 ,frankl9's      
endeav\r to atta91 #ef4      ,"m-(-pe>l1
 ,"y's explanation ( ! col\rs (1 #bbd4  
,n4      ,nautical ,almanack1 ,"y       
appo9t$ sup]9t5d5t ( !1 #bcb4           
,newton's analysis & syn!sis ( :ite     
light1 #bac2       r+s1 ,"y's           
explanation (1 #bbb2       !ory ( light1
 #bai4      ,nicol prisms giv5 to ,cl]k 
,maxwell1 #bhb4       ,o4      ,,oer/$'s
 discov]y1 #bee4      ,ohm's law1       
discov]$ by ,cav5di%1 #adc2       mean+ 
(1 #adc4      ,optical glass1 ,f>aday's 
"w on1 #bei4      ,otto von ,gu]icke1   

contributions (1 to electricity1 #c2    
exp]im5ts (1 ) ! ,magdeburg hemisph]es1 
#ag4       ,p4      ,p>is1 ,dr41        
,f>aday's lett] to1 #bdc4      ,pascal  
takes a b>omet] up ! ,puy de ,dome1 #ag4
      ,p5nsylvania fireplace inv5t$ by  
,frankl91 #fc2       ,gazette publi%$ by
 ,frankl91 #ec4      ,p]petual motion1  
,rum=d's contrivances =1 #aej2          
impossibility (1 #cbb4                  
,philadelphia1 ,frankl9's fir/ arrival  
91 #df2       ,libr>y1 f\ndation ( !1   
#ee4      ,photomet]1 ,rum=d's1 #ahg4   
,pigm5ts1 effects ( mix+1 #bag4         
,po9ts v]sus knobs1 #ie1 #aca4          
,pol>ization1 expla9$ by transv]se      
vibrations1 #bbf2       ( light discov]$
 by ,malus1 #bbf4      ,poor ,ri*>d's   
,almanack1 #fj4      ,pressure ( ! air !
 cause ( suction1 #bi4       ,r4        
,radiation1 ,rum=d's exp]im5ts on1 #ahd2
       ( cold1 ,rum=d's exp]im5ts on1   
#ahf4      ,r$e ,lecture1 deliv]$ by    
,cl]k ,maxwell1 #bic4      ,refraction (
 light1 laws (1 #a2       m5tion$ by    

,pl9y1 #a4      ,relative economy (     
diff]5t s\rces ( light1 #ahh4           
,resi/ance ( conductors1 ,cav5di%'s     
exp]im5ts on1 #adb4      ,roem]1        
measurem5t ( ! velocity ( light by1 #b4 
,rosetta ,/one1 discov]y ( !1 #bcd2     
inscription on1 #bcd4      ,royal       
,in/itution1 f\ndation ( !1 #afi2       
,"y's lectures at !1 #bab2              
,f>aday's appo9tm5t at !1 #bde2         
,maxwell's lecture on col\r at !1 #bhg4 
,royal ,society1 orig9 ( !1 #ac-ae4     
,rum=d1 ,c\nt1 bir? & p>5tage1 #adh2    
life z a m$ical /ud5t1 #aec2            
becomes a s*oolma/] at ,concord1 #aed2  
m>riage1 #aed2       summon$ be=e !     
,committee ( ,safety1 #aef2             
imprison$ at ,woburn1 #aef2       fir/  
j\rney to ,london1 #aeh2       receives 
an appo9tm5t 9 ! ,colonial ,(fice1 #aeh2
       exp]im5ts on ! explosion (       
gunp[d]1 #aeh1 #agi2       elect$       
,f4,r4,s41 #aeh2       made             
lieut5ant-colonel 9 ! ,briti% army1     
#aei2       promot$ to colonel1 #afj2   

visits ,elector ( ,bav>ia1 #afj2        
cur$ ( m>tial ambition1 #afj2           
ent]s ! s]vice ( ! ,elector ( ,bav>ia1  
#afa2       knight$ by ,george ,,iii41  
#afa2       re=ms 9 ! ,bav>ian army1    
#afb2       attack on ! begg>s1 #afc2   
made ,c\nt ( ! ,holy ,roman ,empire1    
#afe2       robb$ ( 8 manuscripts1 #aff2
       visit$ by 8 daught]1 #aff2       
8 roa/]1 #aff2       exp]im5ts on       
fire-places1 #aff2       f\nds ! ,rum=d 
,m$al1 #afg2       appo9t$ ,m9i/]       
,pl5ipot5ti>y to ! ,c\rt ( ,great       
,brita91         #afi2       f\nds !    
,royal in/itution1 #afi2       plans = !
 ,in/itution1 #afi2       resid5ce 9    
,p>is1 #age2       m>riage ) ,madame    
,lavoisi]1 #age2       dea?2 #agf2      
,cuvi]'s eloge on1 #agf2       /atue at 
,muni*1 #agh2       exp]im5ts on !      
conduction ( heat 9 fluids1 #aha2       
on ! convection ( heat 9 visc\s liquids1
 #ahd2       on ! weight ( heat1 #ahe2  
on radiation1 #ahe2       on !          
conduction ( heat1 #ahf2       on !     

app>5t radiation ( cold1 #ahg2          
%ad[-photomet]1 #ahh2       exp]im5ts on
 ! relative economy ( c&les & tap]s1    
#ahh2       on ! traction ( c>riages1   
#ahi2       on friction z a s\rce (     
heat1 #ahi2       det]m9ation ( !       
me*anical equival5t ( heat1 #aib4       
,rum=d ,m$al1 f\ndation ( !1 #afg2      
recipi5ts ( !1 #afg2       aw>d$ to     
,fresnel1 #bcc2       aw>d$ to ,cl]k    
,maxwell1 #big4      ,rum=d roa/]1 #aff4
       ,s4      ,s&=d & ,m]ton1 influ5ce
 (1 on ! negro traffic1 #aig4           
,saturn's r+s1 ,maxwell's essay on1     
#bhe4      ,sea-wat]1 resi/ance (1 #adb4
      ,segu9's attempt to measure loss (
 heat 9 ! /eam-eng9e1 #cbc4             
,self-induction1 effect (1 on sudd5     
dis*>ge1 #adb2       ( electro-magnet1  
#bfh2       effect (1 9 induction coil1 
#cba4      ,s5sation ( heat1 cause (1   
#cc4      ,s]aphic love1 ,boyle's essay 
on1 #ae4      ,%aw's1 ,dr41 comm5ts on  
,boyle1 #cg4      ,snellius's laws (    
refraction1 #a4      ,socratic me?od    

adopt$ by ,frankl91 #dd4      ,specific 
inductive capacity1 discov]$ by         
,cav5di%1 #aci2       r$iscov]$ by      
,f>aday1 #bgb4      ,spectral col\rs1   
mix$ by ,boyle1 #ca2       mix$ by      
,maxwell1 #big4      ,s4,p4,g41         
f\ndation ( !1 #cj4      ,sph]oidal     
waves 9 ,icel&-sp> expla9$ by ,"y1 #bbf4
      ,/amp ,act1 #aab4      ,/&>ds     
,commission1 report (1 #bcb4            
,/ati/ical me?od1 ,maxwell's1 #bii4     
,/eeple /ruck by lightn+ at ,newbury1   
#ib4      ,/]eoscope1 ,maxwell's        
real-image1 #bih4      ,/okes's1        
,pr(essor ,g4 ,g41 exhibition ( ! bright
 c5tre 9 !         %ad[ ( a disc1 #bbb4 
,suction caus$ by atmosph]ic pressure1  
#bi4      ,surface-t5sion1 #bbh2        
sugge/$ by ,segn]1 #bbi2       ,"y's    
inve/igations on1 #bbi4       ,t4       
,table ( results ( exp]im5ts on ,boyle's
 law1 #bg4      ,tatum's lectures on    
natural philosophy1 #bdj4               
,telephone1 ,graham ,bell's1 #cai4      
,temp]ature1 its nature1 #cc4           

,!rmomet]s fir/ h]metically seal$1 #b4  
,?omson's1 ,pr(essor ,james1 application
 ( ! pr9ciple (         dissipation (   
en]gy to ! freez+ ( wat] "u pressure1   
#cbg4      ,?omson's1 ,sir ,william1    
/atem5t ( ! pr9ciple ( dissipation (    
en]gy1 #cbg2       vortex !ory ( matt]1 
#cab2       mirror galvanomet]1 #cac2   
repl5i%]1 #caf4      ,?und]-/orms1      
,frankl9's !ory (1 #ha4      ,torp$o1   
,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts on !1 #adj2        
,davy's exp]im5ts on !1 #bea4           
,traction ( c>riages1 ,rum=d's exp]im5ts
 on1 #ahi4      ,trial plate us$ by     
,cav5di%1 #aci4      ,tyres1 relative   
advantages ( broad & n>r[1 #ahi4        
,u4      ,undulatory !ory f\nd$ by      
,hooke & ,huygh5s1 #bah4      ,union ( !
 ,am]ican ,/ates1 ,frankl9's plan =1    
#fh4      ,univ]sity ( ,philadelphia1   
f\ndation ( !1 #fd4       ,v4           
,vacuum1 ,boyle's argum5t on ! cause (  
a1 #bc4      ,velocity ( electricity1   
#ic2       ( light measur$ by ,roem]1   
#b2       ( light d$uc$ f               

electro-magnetic !ory1 #cjf4            
,viscosity ( gases expla9$ by ,maxwell1 
#bii4      ,voltaic pile con/ruct$ by   
,f>aday1 #bda4      ,vortex !ory (      
matt]1 #cab4      ,voss ma*9e1 #caf4    
,w4      ,wallis1 ,dr41 acc\nt ( !      
,royal ,society by1 #ad4      ,weal?1   
ways to acquire1 #ajj4      ,:eel (     
life1 ,cl]k ,maxwell's1 #big4           
,wilson1 ,dr41 acc\nt ( ,cav5di% by1    
#acb1 #adg4       ,y4      ,"y1 ,?omas1 
,pr9cipal ,=bes's op9ion (1 #aid2       
bir? & p>5tage1 #aid2       e>ly        
education1 #aie2       becomes a ,london
 m$ical /ud5t1 #aii2       pap] on ! p[]
 ( adju/m5t ( ! eye1 #aii2       elect$ 
,f4,r4,s41 #bjj2       visit to         
,cornwall1 #bja2       fir/ visit to !  
,duke ( ,ri*mond1 #bja2       ent]s !   
,m$ical ,s*ool at ,ed9burgh1 #bjb2      
decl9es secret>y%ip to ! ,duke (        
,ri*mond1 #bjb2       visits ,gordon    
,ca/le1 #bjd2       visits ,inv]>y      
,ca/le1 #bje2       ent]s ! ,univ]sity (
 ,goett+51 #bjf2       exam9ation 9     

m$ic9e at ,goett+51 #bjg2       ent]s   
,emmanuel ,college1 #bjg2       discov]s
 ! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce1 #bjh2          
appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy
 at ! ,royal         ,in/itution1 #agd1 
#baj2       lectures at ! ,royal        
,in/itution1 #bab2       !ory (         
col\r-vision1 #bad2       8 col\r-top1  
#bae2       col\r-diagram1 #bae2       8
 ,bak]ian lectures1 #bah2               
explanation ( ! rectil9e> propagation ( 
light1 #bba2       ( ,newton's r+s1     
#bbb2       eriomet]1 #bbc2             
explanation ( col\r$ halos1 #bbd2       
( ! col\rs exhibit$ by "m-(-pe>l1 #bbd2 
int]f]5ce spectra1 #bbe2                
explanation ( sph]oidal waves 9         
,icel&-sp>1 #bbf2       ( ! col\rs ( ?9 
plates1 #bbg2       hypo!sis  ( an      
electric e!r1 #bbg2       inve/igations 
on surface-t5sion1 #bbi2       modulus (
 ela/icity1 #bcj2       8 m>riage1 #bca2
       appo9t$ physician 9 ,/4 ,george's
 ,hospital1 #bca2       sup]9t5d5t ( !  
,nautical ,almanack1 #bcb2       dea?1  

#bcc4  ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es   
,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1  ,,london ,,&     
,,beccles4