,,liberty ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,by ,frederic ,may ,holland #ahii ,,by ,,preface ,,this book is a result of having studied the development of political and religious liberty for forty years4 ,how well ,i have selected my authorities the reader can judge4 ,i will merely say that ,i have mentioned no writer whom ,i have not studied carefully4 ,the sun-dial has been so far my model that victories in the cause of freedom are more prominent than defeats in the pages that follow4 ,it did not seem necessary to give much space to familiar authors1 though ,i should have liked to do justice to ,buckle1 ,george ,eliot1 and ,swinburne4 ,i regret that ,i have been unable to tell at any adequate length how the ,republic which was proclaimed at ,paris in #ahgj has survived longer than any other government set up in ,france during the century4 ,its enemies have been voted down repeatedly everywhere2 the schools have been made free from ecclesiastical control2 and the hostility of the clergy has been suppressed by the ,pope4 ,the ,french are still too fond of military glory1 and too ignorant of the value of personal liberty and local self-government2 but rapid advance in freedom is already possible under the ,constitution of #ahhd4 ,not only ,france1 but also ,great ,britain1 ,canada1 and ,australia1 give proof that the time has gone by when ,americans had any right to claim1 as they did in my boyhood1 to be the only people able to govern themselves4 ,if any nation can maintain a free press1 just laws1 and elections of local magistrates1 it ought to enjoy these rights1 however slight may be its fitness for becoming a real republic2 and the suppression of such rights by ,cromwell and ,napoleon cannot be pardoned consistently by any friend to liberty4 ,napoleon's chief guilt1 as ,i must here mention1 was in ordering the expulsion from office by soldiers1 in #agig1 of representatives of the people who were striving to maintain liberty at home and establish peace abroad4 ,if there were any necessity for his usurpation two years later1 it was largely of his own making4 ,despotism had already been made tolerable1 however1 even during the first ,republic1 by the national fondness for war4 ,this is according to a principle which is taught by ,herbert ,spencer1 and which is illustrated in the following pages by many instances from the history of ,france and other nations4 ,the horrors of the ,reign of ,terror may be explained1 though not excused1 by the greatness of the danger from invaders as well as rebels4 ,and there were very few cases of punishing differences merely about religion by the guillotine4 ,i have also tried to show how the centralising tendencies of a government are strengthened by the wish of its citizens to gain private advantages by state aid4 ,john ,stuart ,mill and ,herbert ,spencer have published timely warnings against the danger of checking the development of individual energy and ability by meddlesome laws4 ,whether the power of the government ought to be reduced to the narrow limits proposed by these great thinkers1 is a question which has been discussed at some length in my last chapter4 ,it is there suggested that such a reduction would be much more practicable in the case of national than of local governments4 ,it is not likely to be made anywhere at present2 but it might be well for reformers to try to restrict the operations of governments according to the following rule3 nothing to be undertaken by a national government which can be done as well by municipalities2 and nothing to be attempted by either a local or central government which can be done as well by private citizens1 acting singly or in voluntary associations4 ,this rule would justify towns and cities in taking such care of roads1 streets1 and schools as is not sanctioned by ,spencer2 but it would leave municipalities free to decide the question whether they ought to carry on gas- and water-works1 electric roads1 and other enterprises according to the merits of each special case4 ,here in ,america internal improvements seem to be the proper charge of the ,state1 rather than of the nation2 but whether the former has any right to enforce ,sunday laws1 and the latter to impose protective tariffs1 are questions which ,i have taken the liberty of discussing thoroughly4 ,herbert ,spencer should not be held responsible for any opinions not printed plainly as his4 ,most of the instances of the working of ,sunday statutes were taken from a religious newspaper entitled ,the ,american ,sentinel4 ,among very recent cases are these4 ,a ,georgian was sentenced on ,may #af1 #ahii1 to pay a fine of twenty dollars or spend six months in the chain-gang for working on his farm4 ,that same month a clergyman was arrested in ,mississippi1 merely for taking a little exercise with a hoe in his garden4 ,in #ahih1 a farmer in the ,state of ,new ,york was arrested for picking a few apples from one of his own trees4 ,the total number of ,sabbath-breakers arrested that year in ,new ,york ,city is estimated at a thousand2 and there were nearly four thousand arrests for ,sunday trading in ,england and ,wales in #ahig4 ,the principle of giving each citizen every opportunity of development compatible with the general welfare1 is so plainly irreconcilable with ,socialism1 that ,i have thought it well to give several instances of the fact that a man seldom does his best work except for his own benefit and that of his family4 ,even the exceptionally energetic and conscientious founders of ,new ,england did not raise food enough until it was agreed that ,they should set corne1 every man for his own particular4 ,another difficulty in the way of state ,socialism is that the requisite number of competent managers could not be found after the abolition of the competitive system4 ,it is that which brings forward men of unusual ability and energy1 though scarcely in sufficient numbers4 ,socialism would increase the demand1 but lessen the supply4 ,spencer calls it the coming slavery4 ,it might better be called a slavery which is becoming obsolete4 ,our existing system of industry certainly needs improvement2 but this will have to be made by following the laws of social science4 ,their action has done much during the present century to improve the condition of the poor2 and we may trust that it will do more hereafter4 ,the nineteenth might be called the philanthropic century1 if that title did not belong also to the eighteenth4 ,the latter has the peculiar merit of doing so much to abolish persecution that there have been comparatively few instances during the period covered by this book4 ,much more has been done during the last hundred years to extend political than religious liberty2 but ,i have not neglected to mention the most active champions of the great principle1 that human rights ought not to be affected by individual differences about theology4 ,if there is too little agitation at present for this principle in the ,united ,states1 it is largely on account of an unfortunate occurrence of which ,i have written at some length in the last chapter but one4 ,here ,i had the valuable assistance of ,francis ,e4 ,abbot1 ,ph4,d41 author of ,scientific ,theism1 and ,benjamin ,f4 ,underwood4 ,if the words1 militant liberals1 had been used in this chapter1 they would express my meaning more plainly than the term aggressive4 ,the least pleasant part of my work has been the pointing out defects in a system of philosophy1 ethics1 and theology which ,i once delighted to honour4 ,as valuable results may have been reached by the metaphysical method as by the scientific2 but if the latter is right the former is certainly wrong4 ,when we find so consistent and warmhearted a ,transcendentalist as ,miss ,cobbe placing pantheism and scepticism among the greatest of sins 7see her ,religious ,duty1 pp4 #ai1 #fe1 and #ajj71 we may suspect that this philosophy aggravated ,carlyle's natural bitterness against opponents4 ,there has been comparatively little intolerance among ,american intuitionalists1 thanks to the genial influence of ,emerson4 ,f4 ,m4 ,h4 ,august1 #ahii4 ,,liberty ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,i4 ,,napoleon ,,and ,,his ,,work ,i4 ,france had been freed by the ,revolution from many ghosts of kingly1 feudal1 and priestly privileges2 but she was still the prey of the most deadly of vampires1--military glory4 ,the followers of this fatal guide had driven the party of peace and liberty from power by force and fraud1 and found a ruler after their own hearts in the conqueror who1 in #ahjd1 became the ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,thus was established what some metaphysicians suppose to be the best form of government1--an enlightened despotism4 ,the autocrat knew that he had risen to power as the most popular champion of political equality2 and he gave this democratic principle such additional authority that it has continued supreme in ,france4 ,her sons are still equals before the law1 owners of the land they till1 exempt from taxes levied for the benefit of any privileged class1 and free to choose their own career and mode of worship4 ,this is due in great part to the usurper who reduced representative government to an empty shell1 and who centralised the administration of schools1 police1 streets1 roads1 and bridges1 and all other local concerns even more completely than had ever been done before the ,revolution4 ,he knew the real needs of ,france well enough to give her peace with all her enemies2 but scarcely had he signed the last treaty when he took possession of ,switzerland1 and continued to annex territory1 in defiance of the protests of the ,british ministers that he was making peace impossible4 ,war was declared by them in #ahjc and kept up against him for eleven years continuously1 with occasional assistance from ,russia1 ,austria1 ,prussia1 ,spain1 and other countries4 ,this was a period of great glory for ,france1 but also of great suffering4 ,her boundaries were enlarged2 but her most patriotic citizens were slaughtered in foreign lands2 her shipping was swept away by ,british cruisers2 her people were hindered in obtaining ,american grain1 ,british cloth1 and other necessaries of life1 in exchange for wine1 silk1 lace1 and other luxuries2 the ,emperor could not supervise the prefects who managed1 or mismanaged1 all internal interests1 and who were responsible to him alone2 freedom of the press was prohibited2 and all the arts of peace decayed4 ,this was the price which ,france paid for ,auster-litz1 ,jena1 and other famous victories over ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,prussia1 which in #ahjg brought peace with every enemy but ,england1 and made ,napoleon master1 either directly through his prefects1 or indirectly through tributary kings1 not only of ,france but of the ,netherlands1 ,denmark1 ,switzerland1 ,spain1 ,venice with the rest of ,italy1 and about three-fourths of ,germany1 including one-half of what had formerly been ,prussian territory4 ,eight years from the usurpation in #agii brought him to his zenith3 eight years later1 he was at ,saint ,helena4 ,his ,german1 ,swiss1 and ,italian subjects gained political equality1 and also the permanent advantage of the code which bears his name4 ,it had really been made by his lawyers1 on foundations laid by the ,convention4 ,throughout his dominions1 ,jew1 ,catholic1 and ,protestant became equals before the law4 ,the fact that these reforms survived his authority proves that they could have been established without it4 ,they were unavoidable results of the eighteenth century4 ,how little he was influenced by philanthropy is shown by his driving into exile a statesman named ,stein1 who had abolished serfdom in ,prussia1 and made it equally possible for the members of all classes to buy land and choose occupations4 ,the establishment of the ,empire had been preceded by the revival of slavery in several colonies where it had been abolished by the ,convention4 ,it was for helping the ,haytians preserve their independence by heroic resistance1 that ,toussaint was sent by ,napoleon to die in prison4 ,the conquered nations in ,europe were handed over from one master to another1 without being even invited to consent2 but what was still more oppressive was inability to exchange their own products for cloth and hardware from ,england1 grain from the ,united ,states1 coffee and sugar from the ,west ,indies1 and many other articles whose lack was keenly felt4 ,this trouble was largely due to the blockade kept up by ,british ,ships2 but ,napoleon was so ignorant of the advantage of commerce to both parties engaged in it as to suppose he could conquer ,england by a plan which really injured only himself and his subjects4 ,he forbade all importation from ,great ,britain and her colonies wherever he had power or even influence2 and many of the prohibited goods were taken from merchants and destroyed without compensation4 ,germany suffered also from having her manufactures forbidden to compete with the ,french4 ,the latter asked in vain for freer trade1 and were told by ,napoleon that he understood their business better than they did4 ,countless outrages on prominent individuals helped the growth of disaffection4 ,,ii4 ,the ,british ministry retaliated against ,napoleon's attack on the right to trade freely1 with a success which led to a great outrage on individual liberty in the ,united ,states4 ,the war with ,europe gave much of the world's commerce to ,american ships2 but they were forbidden by ,great ,britain1 in #ahjf1 to trade with some of their best customers unless they stopped to pay tribute in her ports4 ,the seizures for disobedience increased the anger which had been long felt against the ,british for impressing sailors on board of ,american ships4 ,three thousand citizens of the ,united ,states had been forced into a hostile navy before the refusal of our frigate1 ,chesapeake1 in #ahjg1 to submit to a search brought on a bloody contest4 ,napoleon was then at the height of his power2 and ,great ,britain was fighting against him single-handed4 ,it was an unusually good time for declaring a war which soon proved inevitable in defence of merchants' and sailors' rights4 ,jefferson preferred to violate those rights himself1 as had been done by the ,federalists in #agid1 and ,congress aided him in forbidding ,american ships to sail for foreign ports4 ,this embargo was so plainly unnecessary that every captain who was able to get out of ,new ,york harbour did so at once without caring what crew1 cargo1 or papers he had on board4 ,fifty million dollars' worth of shipping was kept idle for more than a year2 a hundred thousand sailors and mechanics were thrown out of work2 farms and plantations ceased to be profitable2 clothing and tools became ruinously dear2 thirteen hundred ,new ,yorkers1 who had been ruined by the embargo1 were imprisoned for debt2 and laws for protection against creditors were passed by the ,southern and ,western ,states4 ,no one gained by the embargo except the smugglers2 and attempts to suppress them called out dangerous manifestations of popular discontent4 ,no one suffered less than the ,british merchants4 ,,iii4 ,meantime1 ,napoleon took the first step towards ruin in placing his brother on the throne of ,spain4 ,the ,spaniards had borne patiently the loss of ships1 commerce1 and colonies2 but this fresh wrong stirred up insurrection4 ,the new ,king was brought to ,madrid by ,french troops2 but not a single ,spaniard would enter his service2 and he was soon obliged to leave the city4 ,he said to his brother1 ,your glory will be wrecked in ,spain2 but ,napoleon kept on sending in armies1 whose victories made him hated1 but not obeyed4 ,he offered to abolish feudal privileges1 the inquisition1 and the tariffs which separated province from province4 ,the only result was to make reform odious to a people which cared much more for nationality than progress4 ,the clergy encouraged the peasants to keep up a guerilla war1 in which his veterans perished ignominiously2 and ,british auxiliaries won victories which made ,wellington famous4 ,austria took advantage of the situation to try to reconquer the lost provinces4 ,the ,tyrolese had been made subjects of the ,king of ,bavaria2 but they rose at the call of ,hofer1 and gained glorious victories over ,french and ,bavarian soldiers4 ,other defeats were suffered by ,napoleon2 but he soon succeeded in forcing ,austria to grant him1 not only much more of her territory1 but the hand of a young princess1 who had never thought of him but with abhorrence4 ,this involved his divorce from the loving ,josephine4 ,he pleaded desire for a son who might succeed him2 but he was not likely to live until any child who might be born after this would be old enough to keep together an empire whose basis was conquest4 ,the ,austrian princess had been demanded before ,napoleon's application for a ,russian one had been answered decisively2 his plans for restoring ,poland had given additional offence to the ,czar2 and the welfare of ,russia demanded freedom to use the products of her forests1 fields1 and mines in buying ,british goods4 ,this right was insisted upon by the ,czar2 and ,napoleon had only abuse for the friends who warned him that defeat in ,russia would call all ,germany to arms against him4 ,he was already so unpopular at ,paris1 that he had to remove with his ,court4 ,the enormous army with which he invaded ,russia might easily have taken possession of her ,polish provinces1 where the people were friendly4 ,he preferred to march a thousand miles1 through a hostile and barren country1 to ,moscow4 ,the city was set on fire at his arrival2 but he wasted so much time there1 that winter helped the ,russians turn his retreat into a rout4 ,hundreds of thousands of soldiers perished miserably4 ,the ,prussians flew to arms2 and ,austria demanded restoration of her provinces4 ,he replied that he should not yield an inch1 and cared nothing for the loss of a million lives4 ,he was driven out of ,germany by the ,battle of the ,nations1 which was won at ,leipsic1 in ,october1 #ahac1 by zealous cooperation of the ,russians with ,prussians1 ,austrians1 ,bavarians1 and other ,germans4 ,one result was described by saying that ,the ,dutch have taken ,holland4 ,need of a strong government in time of war had given a power almost monarchical to the successors of that ,prince of ,orange who had saved his republic from ,philip ,,ii4 ,one of these princes was driven out by a democratic rebellion in #aghg1 but restored by a ,prussian army4 ,the ,french ,revolution enabled ,holland to return to republicanism2 but alliance with the ,directory meant continual spoliation2 and there were grievous conscriptions under ,napoleon1 whose rule was extremely unpopular in a nation which lived by commerce4 ,when the ,dutch heard of his defeat at ,leipsic1 they rose against him without waiting for auxiliaries2 and the ,french garrisons were soon driven out by the help of soldiers from ,russia1 ,prussia1 and ,england4 ,the rulers of these countries sanctioned the desire of the ,orange faction to make the prince a king4 ,the people were not consulted1 but were reconciled by a constitution1 under which there was a legislature with some power1 local self-government1 freedom of worship1 political equality1 and liberty in commerce4 ,napoleon might have remained emperor2 but he refused to make any concessions1 and kept on fighting until his generals abandoned him1 and his deposition was voted by the ,senate4 ,the people would not rise for him1 as they had done for the ,republic2 and the ,parisians refused to cry ,vive l',empereur as he returned from ,elba1 to be overthrown at ,waterloo4 ,three million ,frenchmen perished in his wars2 and he left ,france smaller than he found her4 ,his restrictions on commerce were removed so suddenly as to destroy the industries which he had tried to foster2 and the proportion of paupers to the population was three times as great as in #ahhj4 ,france was still desirous that the press should be free1 and that taxation should be controlled by representatives of the people4 ,louis ,,xviii4 had to promise that he would respect these rights which his predecessors had violated4 ,toleration continued2 and the peasants kept the property and equality which the ,revolution had given them1 and which no sovereign could take away4 ,napoleon is the most famous of generals2 but his greatness as a statesman would have been plainer if he had not undertaken so many showy enterprises which had little chance of success4 ,he failed signally in founding a dynasty1 in making ,france the greatest of manufacturers1 and in giving her an invincible navy1 though he might have gained the first of these objects by peace1 and the last by free trade4 ,he could not even leave to his successor the territory which had been conquered by the ,revolution4 ,yet these were his dearest purposes1 except the wild dream of humbling ,england4 ,was he the greatest of architects1 every one of whose colossal structures fell under their own weight before they could be used8 ,greater is he who builds what lasts for ages4 ,napoleon made the twenty years ending with #ahae more glorious than any later period1 and much more wretched4 ,western ,europe was afflicted by bloody wars1 and impoverished by restrictions on commerce4 ,if his reign had been peaceable1 he might have deprived ,france much more completely of what liberty she had enjoyed under the ,directory4 ,every despot1 however enlightened and benevolent1 must necessarily interfere so much with the liberty of his subjects as to hinder their making themselves happy4 ,france and ,germany lost nothing in freedom and gained much in prosperity by his defeat2 for it gave the world many years of peace4 ,what he brought of political and religious equality to ,prussia1 ,western ,germany1 and ,switzerland survived him2 for it was part of his inheritance from the ,revolution which he closed treacherously4 ,france had received her legacy without his help2 and she retained much of it in spite of his interference4 ,his victories over hereditary monarchs were so suggestive that books about him are still prohibited in ,russia2 but no people lost much by his overthrow except the ,italians4 ,,iv4 ,waterloo might have been called a of the ,nations as well as ,leipsic2 but the best fighting was under the ,british flag4 ,the ,english had suffered much from ,napoleon1 in spite of his never succeeding in making an invasion4 ,the worst injury he did was in forcing them to remain in that absorption in war which had checked the growth of toleration1 democracy1 and prosperity in #agic4 ,george ,,iii4 was personally popular2 but his weak1 unprincipled successor was merely a figurehead4 ,two-thirds of the members of the ,house of ,commons in #ahae had been appointed by the ,ministry1 or by some nobleman1 and most of the others owned or rented some pocket-borough almost destitute of inhabitants4 ,the ,house of ,lords was overwhelmingly opposed to government by the people2 and no ,tories were more consistent than those sons or proteges of noblemen1 the bishops4 ,the successors of the apostles had no sympathy with the struggle of the ,cross against the ,crescent in lands where ,paul had preached4 ,they helped to vote down propagation of the ,gospel in ,india1 as well as enfranchisement of ,roman ,catholics1 and mitigation of laws which punished pilfering with death4 ,they tried in vain to save the slave-trade from prohibition2 and most of the clerical and lay members of both ,houses were in league to keep the tax on importation of wheat heavy enough to give them large incomes from their real estate4 ,this tariff and the depreciation of currency made food excessively dear4 ,the country labourer was often unable to earn more than the price of a loaf a day4 ,employers agreed on wages so low that the peasants had to ask continually for parochial relief1 and could not afford to go out of the parish to seek higher pay4 ,their degradation was increased by their almost universal illiteracy2 and their misdemeanours1 especially poaching1 were punished cruelly2 for the rural magistrate was either the squire or his ally1 the parson4 ,there was little chance of justice for the poor against the rich2 the rural labourer could seldom improve his position2 and the bad harvests of #ahaf1 #ahag1 and #ahah helped to make him worse off than ever before or since4 ,the operatives had higher wages1 but suffered under the friction of an industrial revolution1 which has done more than any political convulsion for human happiness4 ,the factory had been enabled by the invention of the steam-engine and other machines1 shortly before #ahjj1 to take the place of the cottages in making cloth4 ,british goods were in great demand abroad during the war1 and had to be carried in ,british ships4 ,improved roads and canals led merchants and manufacturers to opulence4 ,the rich grew richer1 as has usually been the case2 but there were some exceptional years during which the poor really grew poorer4 ,one man could make as much cotton cloth in a day as two hundred could have done before2 but what was to become of the one hundred and ninety-nine8 ,demand for factory labour kept increasing until #ahae2 but population grew faster still4 ,wages were already falling2 the return of peace lessened the demand abroad2 and hundreds of thousands of discharged soldiers and sailors were added to the multitude of unemployed4 ,labourers were forbidden either to emigrate or to combine in order to keep up wages2 and their earnings were lowest at the time when bread was the highest4 ,meat1 sugar1 foreign fruit1 and many other articles now in common use were almost unattainable by the poor until late in the century4 ,there was much more intelligence in the towns than in the country2 but there were no opportunities of education in #ahah in ,england for one-half of the children4 ,boys and girls entered the factory at the age of six1 and often from the poor-house1 where they had been sold into slavery4 ,the regular time was fourteen hours a day2 sitting down was seldom permitted2 food was scanty and bad2 punishment was constant and cruel2 deformity and disease were frequent2 and the death-rate was unusually high4 ,terrible cases occurred of pauper children1 kept sixteen hours at a stretch without rest or food1 driven by hunger to rob the troughs in the pig-sty1 tortured merely for amusement by the overseer1 and even advertised for sale with the mill4 ,the middle class differed much more widely than at present1 both from the masses on one hand and from the aristocracy on the other1 as regards food1 dress1 culture1 amusements1 and political liberty4 ,taxation was heavy and vexatious2 representation in ,parliament was notoriously inadequate2 and honest men and women were still liable to imprisonment for debt4 ,no one but an ,episcopalian had a right to study at a university1 enter ,parliament1 or hold any civil1 naval1 or military office in ,england2 and neither ,dissenters nor ,catholics could marry without going through ceremonies which conscience forbade4 ,the press was fettered by laws which kept ,leigh ,hunt imprisoned for two years1 on account of an article acknowledging the unpopularity of the ,prince ,regent4 ,cobbett underwent an equally long imprisonment in ,newgate for blaming the cruelty of sentencing insubordinate militiamen to be flogged five hundred lashes4 ,no plays could be performed in ,london in #ahad until they had been read and licensed by the ,lord ,chamberlain's deputy4 ,as soon as a strong government ceased to be needed for protection against ,napoleon1 there broke out much agitation for relief of the disfranchised as well as of the destitute4 ,there was an unprecedented circulation of the cheap pamphlets in which ,cobbett advised the discontented to abstain from lawless violence1 which could only give them another ,robespierre1 and devote themselves to striving peaceably for their political rights4 ,among these he asserted that of every man who paid taxes to vote for members of ,parliament4 ,the serious riots which took place in many parts of ,great ,britain1 even ,london1 made the aristocracy consider all opportunities of addressing the people dangerous4 ,the ministry were empowered in #ahag to arrest speakers and authors without any warrant1 and keep them in prison without a trial4 ,prohibition of public meetings was made possible by an act which extended to reading-rooms1 debating societies1 even among students at ,cambridge1 and scientific lectures4 ,the mounted militia was sent to disperse a meeting of fifty thousand unarmed men and women at ,manchester1 on ,august #af1 #ahai1 in behalf of parliamentary reform4 ,the people were packed together so closely that they were unable to separate quickly4 ,fear that some of the young gentlemen who had ridden into the throng might get hurt led the magistrates to order several hundred hussars to charge1 without notice1 into the dense crowd4 ,the meeting was soon reduced to heaps of fallen men and women1 who had been overthrown in the general struggle to escape or cut down by the soldiers2 and the field was covered with bloody hats1 shawls1 and bonnets4 ,six people were killed1 and more than thirty others wounded severely4 ,there was indignation everywhere against this wanton cruelty2 and the ,common ,council of ,london voted their censure2 but ,parliament passed laws that same year which made public meetings almost impossible1 and put cheap pamphlets under a prohibitory tax1 by requiring that they must have such an expensive stamp as kept newspapers beyond the reach of people generally4 ,arrests for printing and selling unstamped publications were thenceforward frequent4 ,there were many bloody riots2 and a conspiracy for assassinating the ,ministry was organised in #ahbj4 ,a dangerous revolution might then have broken out1 if food had not been made plenty by abundant harvests4 ,roman ,catholics were still forbidden to hold any office under the ,british ,government4 ,they could not sit in either ,house of ,parliament1 or be married legally in ,ireland1 where they formed four-fifths of the population1 and almost all the offices on that island were filled by ,protestants who had been sent over from ,england1 or else elected by close corporations containing scarcely any ,catholics4 ,the disfranchised nation was all the more indignant on account of such facts as that two-thirds of the soil of ,ireland had been taken away without compensation by ,english invaders before #agjj1 and that the share of the ,irish in #ahjj was only one-tenth4 ,this was held mostly in great estates1 as was the rest of the island4 ,rents were everywhere high and wages low1 for population was superabundant2 manufactures had been crushed by laws to protect ,british interests2 the people were left ignorant1 even of agriculture2 and there were frequent famines4 ,both the land and the government were mismanaged by an anti-,irish minority which took little pains to keep its own partisans from lawless violence1 but did its utmost to extort money for a legion of priests1 who were merely servants of oppression to nine-tenths of the people4 ,how little they cared about their professed duty may be judged from the case mentioned by a traveller named ,inglis 7vol4 i41 p4 #cdi71 of a bishop who drew four or five hundred pounds a year for calling himself rector of a parish where there was no pretence of any public worship but the ,catholic4 ,indignation of ,irish ,presbyterians had been one main cause of the bloody rebellion of #agih2 and all patriotic ,irishmen were exasperated at the oppression of the poor by the rich4 ,removal of religious disabilities was urgently demanded1 and most of the men were members in #ahbe of an independent association1 which could easily have turned the island into one vast camp4 ,v4 ,germany had been devastated by twenty years of battles2 and many thousand ,germans had perished1 either in defending their homes against ,napoleon1 or in serving under him in ,russia4 ,his overthrow left them in deeper subjection than ever to a league of despots1 who differed in pomp of title and extent of territory1 but agreed in obstinately denying any political liberty to the people4 ,the servitude of ,germany was confirmed by the agreement of clergymen and philosophers1 that absolute monarchy was ordained of ,god4 ,the ban of church and university was on the revolutionary rationalism which had inspired the eighteenth century4 ,the predominant philosophy during the first half of the nineteenth century insisted on the infallibility of what was called intuition1 but was often merely tradition4 ,this was already the case in ,germany1 where moribund ideas of politics and theology were worshipped as the loftiest revelations of pure reason4 ,devout disciples still hold that all established institutions are justified and all knowledge revealed by ,hegel's method of deduction from his own peculiar definition of the ,infinite4 ,that definition seems self-contradictory2 but this is only a trifle1 compared with the method's permitting the master to prefer absolute monarchy1 and forcing him to deny that any nation1 not extremely limited in area1 can long remain a democracy4 ,hegel's indifference to the existence of the ,united ,states was like his asserting1 after the discovery of ,ceres1 that the place where it had been found1 and where hundreds of other planets are now known to exist1 must be empty4 ,among other results of his system were a denial that lightning is electricity1 and an assertion that rain is merely a change of air into water4 ,neither liberty nor knowledge gains by disregard of experience in favour of deductions from imaginary intuitions4 ,unfortunately1 the experience of ,europe under ,napoleon1 as well as during the ,revolution1 seemed to justify restoration of old institutions as well as of former boundaries4 ,the latter purpose was ostensibly that for which the conquerors of ,napoleon met at ,vienna1 soon after he had retired to ,elba2 but their real object was to divide the spoils among themselves4 ,the ,emperors of ,russia and ,austria had the assistance1 or opposition1 of five kings1 and of so many princes and nobles that three hundred carriages of state were kept in constant readiness4 ,lovely ladies of high rank came from many lands2 and it seemed to the uninitiated as if nothing was going on but masked balls1 private theatricals1 hunting parties1 stately dinners1 and concerts4 ,beethoven was among the musicians4 ,there was no general meeting of the monarchs and ambassadors2 but there were frequent conferences of those most interested in one point or another2 and the name of ,congress of ,vienna was amply justified by the number of bargains and compromises4 ,the only persons never consulted were the thirty millions whose masters were thus selected4 ,belgium1 for instance1 was forced into a union with ,holland1 which led to civil war2 and the ,norwegians were put under subjection to the ,swedes1 against whom they had just been fighting4 ,ten millions more of ,poles were made subjects of the ,czar2 and his original wish to rule mildly was frustrated by their rebellion4 ,the ,italians had been brought by ,napoleon into such unity and sense of nationality as they had not felt for many centuries4 ,offers of greater liberty made ,lombardy and ,venice take sides against him2 they were rewarded by being put under the most hated of rulers1 the ,austrians2 and the latter were made virtually masters of all ,italy4 ,when all the plunder had been divided1 the royal robbers united in a declaration1 acknowledging ,jesus as the only sovereign and recommending the daily and universal practice of religion4 ,the only sovereign who kept his promise1 that he would give his subjects a new constitution if they would help him conquer ,napoleon1 was ,goethe's patron at ,weimar4 ,he presided over the ,university of ,jena1 which ,schiller1 ,fichte1 and other professors had made the centre of democratic influence in ,germany4 ,a secret political society was formed by students who had fought at ,waterloo2 and all the universities were invited to help celebrate1 on ,october #ah1 #ahag1 the anniversary1 not only of the victory at ,leipsic1 but of the opening of the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,five hundred students from various parts of ,germany met in the ,wartburg1 the castle where ,luther found refuge after bidding defiance at ,worms to both ,pope and ,emperor4 ,it was agreed that the new society should extend through all the universities1 and should have banners of black1 red1 and yellow4 ,these henceforth were the colours of liberty in ,germany4 ,napoleon had reduced ,prussia's army to a minimum2 among the preparations for breaking his yoke had been the practice of such gymnastics as are still kept up by the ,turners2 and a public exhibition was given that evening near the castle1 before an immense bonfire4 ,reference was made there to kings who broke their word2 and as the audience broke up1 some of the students fed the blaze with various emblems of despotism1 such as the canes with which soldiers were flogged by corporals4 ,then they burned a number of blank books1 with titles copied from those of pamphlets recently published in opposition to progress4 ,the ,king of ,prussia had taken some steps towards constitutional liberty1 but these boyish freaks brought him completely under the influence of ,prince ,metternich4 ,this crafty but kind-hearted ,austrian worked steadily1 from #ahad to #ahdh1 at much sacrifice of ease and pleasure1 in hope of preserving civilisation and religion from being destroyed by any new revolution4 ,he was now the real ,emperor of ,germany2 the ,british ,ministry was in sympathy2 and the ,czar1 who had at first been an admirer of parliamentary government1 was converted by an outrage in the name of liberty on the right of free speech4 ,one of the literary champions of ,russian autocracy1 ,kotzebue1 was assassinated1 early in #ahai1 by a divinity student who had been at the ,wartburg4 ,that same year the representatives of the leading ,german states met at ,carlsbad1 and agreed1 with the ,czar's approval1 that all ,german journals and universities should be under strict supervision1 that political offenders should be tried by a special central tribunal1 and that the new colours should be prohibited4 ,,vi4 ,louis ,,xviii4 cared as little as ,charles ,,ii4 of ,england about promises1 but was quite as unwilling to have to travel abroad4 ,he dissolved a legislature which was too reactionary2 subsequent elections returned liberal candidates1 though only one man in a hundred could vote2 the ,national ,guard was revived2 and progressive ideas were expressed freely4 ,france was moving forwards until ,february #ac1 #ahbj1 when a ,bonapartist murdered the ,king's nephew1 in hope of cutting off the succession4 ,the legislature was obliged1 two days later1 to let the press be muzzled2 sanctions of individual liberty were thrown aside2 and a law was passed to give rich men two votes apiece4 ,the ,liberal ,ministry was dismissed2 and its successor put all education under control of the priests1 forbade ,cousin and ,guizot to lecture1 and sent ,beranger to prison for publishing incendiary songs4 ,louis ,,xviii41 like ,charles ,,ii41 left the crown to a bigoted brother1 who had been taught by the ,jesuits to care much more for religion than human rights1 or the duty of chastity2 and ,charles ,x4 did his utmost to make himself an absolute monarch4 ,still worse results of assassination in the name of liberty had already been suffered in ,spain and ,italy4 ,no people had really lost much by the overthrow of ,napoleon except the ,italians4 ,they were learning how to love each other as fellow-citizens of one common country1 and how to care more for the welfare of the people than for that of the priests4 ,the ,congress of ,vienna restored the supremacy of the clergy1 and cut up ,italy once more into little principalities1 whose stupid and cruel despots were guided by ,metternich4 ,the people were already conscious of the tie of nationality1 desirous to be governed with some regard to their own welfare1 and destitute of faith in the divine right of kings4 ,few of them have been so plainly not ordained of ,god as ,ferdinand of ,naples and ,sicily4 ,he had run away basely from the invaders1 and been brought back to promise amnesty1 and to massacre men1 women1 and children by thousands4 ,no criminals but patriots were watched closely2 and brigands defied the government4 ,there was no pretence of liberty1 even on the stage2 and the ,jesuits kept literature and education down to merely nominal existence4 ,the only refuge of freedom was among the ,carbonari1 or members of a secret society1 half a million strong4 ,their flags of black1 red1 and blue were hoisted in many towns and villages on ,july #b1 #ahbj1 when the army led the revolt4 ,the ,king swore on the ,bible1 and after hearing mass1 that he would establish a constitution like the ,french one of #agia1 and then asked help from ,metternich4 ,the latter brought the ,austrian1 ,russian1 and ,prussian monarchs together at ,troppau1 ,silesia1 where they agreed1 on ,december #h1 #ahbj1 to put down all rebels1 especially in ,italy4 ,an ,austrian army won a decisive victory next ,march over the ,neapolitans1 whose best troops were fighting against an attempt at secession in ,sicily4 ,austria took part1 a month later1 in suppressing a revolt which had just broken out against the petty despot nicknamed ,king of ,sardines4 ,his first step on his restoration1 in #ahad1 had been to reappoint every man who had been in office in #agih2 and ,napoleon's code gave way to ancient statutes which1 for instance1 forbade the ,piedmontese to send wheat they could not use themselves to the ,savoyards1 who were starving4 ,he was forced to abdicate by a revolt of citizens who wanted a constitution and of soldiers who wished to free ,lombardy from ,austria4 ,her help enabled his successor to keep the monarchy absolute2 and her influence became paramount in ,sardinia1 as elsewhere in ,italy4 ,,vii4 ,the month of ,april1 #ahba1 brought an end of rebellion in ,italy1 and the outbreak of a ferocious revolution in ,greece4 ,the ,turkish rule was intolerant1 and intentionally oppressive4 ,exportation of food and clothing1 for instance1 was forbidden in hope of keeping down prices2 and the result was to check production4 ,the country was full of brigands2 and the worst of wrongs were inflicted on unbelievers by the officials4 ,priests and rulers in other lands refused to help their fellow-,christians against ,moslem tyrants2 and the famous victory won by ,bozzaris was over ,roman ,catholics4 ,the new republic had only nominal authority4 ,independent bands of patriots fought desperately2 and the ,crescent soon gave place to the ,cross in the ,archipelago as well as in the ,morea1 once famous as the ,peloponnesus2 but the cause was continually disgraced by pillage1 perfidy1 massacre1 and civil war4 ,several millions of contributions1 mainly ,english1 were squandered by the captains4 ,byron sacrificed his life in a vain attempt to create military discipline2 and lack of any permitted the ,morea to be conquered in #ahbe by the regular army sent over by the ,pasha of ,egypt4 ,all resistance1 north of the ,isthmus of ,corinth1 was soon suppressed by the co-operation of ,egyptians and ,turks2 and the islanders could do nothing better than ask help from foreigners4 ,the only government which had thus far aided ,greece was the ,american2 and ,congress had done much less than the people to relieve distress4 ,an alliance between ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,russia1 for preventing extermination of the ,greeks1 was brought about by ,canning4 ,the sovereigns of ,turkey and ,egypt were so obstinate that their ships were destroyed by the allied fleet at ,navarino1 ,messenia1 on ,october #bj1 #ahbg4 ,the ,egyptians were driven out of the ,morea by ,french soldiers2 and ,northern ,greece rose against the ,turks with a success which secured the present boundary4 ,the ,greeks were not permitted to establish a republic2 but the monarchy finally became constitutional under the pressure of insurrection4 ,,viii4 ,no nation had been less capable than the ,spanish of appreciating the advantage1 either of a vigorous government1 or of toleration1 freedom of the press1 political equality1 and personal liberty4 ,all the time-honoured abuses abolished by ,napoleon had been at once restored with the help of the populace2 but nothing effective was done to suppress the insurrections which had broken out1 during the war1 in ,mexico and ,south ,america4 ,up to that time1 the ,indians were serfs and the negroes were slaves4 ,all political power was monopolised by officials sent over from ,spain4 ,spanish interests were protected so thoroughly that all domestic industries were crippled1 and goods often cost six times as much as in ,europe4 ,schools and newspapers were almost unknown2 no books but religious ones could be bought2 and heresy was punished pitilessly4 ,the invasion of ,spain by ,napoleon gave opportunity for several simultaneous insurrections4 ,that in ,venezuela was crushed by a great earthquake1 which was accepted as a sign of divine wrath4 ,among the leaders was ,bolivar1 who retreated to ,colombia4 ,a ,spanish version of ,paine's ,rights of ,man had been circulated there1 and the patriots were fighting gallantly4 ,there were many bloody battles in ,venezuela and ,colombia2 but both countries were finally made free by the battle of ,carabolo1 won on ,june #bd1 #ahba1 by ,bolivar4 ,on ,july #bhth1 in that same year1 the independence of ,peru was proclaimed by ,general ,san ,martin1 who had liberated ,chili1 three years previously1 with an army which he led from the ,argentine ,republic across the ,andes by paths never used thus before4 ,his decisive victories were won by the help of emancipated slaves4 ,chili would have made him her ruler2 but he asked only her help against the ,spaniards1 who were concentrated in ,peru4 ,there he found such disorder as led him to declare himself ,protector2 but this made him so unpopular that he resigned his power and left the continent which he had done more than anyone else to liberate4 ,the war went on until the hold of ,spain on ,america was broken forever by a battle fought1 #ab1jjj feet above the sea1 on ,december #i1 #ahbf1 at ,ayacucho1 a name given long before by ,indians who had fought there among themselves1 and meaning the ,corner of ,death4 ,constitutions like that of the ,united ,states had already been proclaimed2 too much power was held by ,bolivar and other despots2 but they did not keep the people in such poverty1 ignorance1 and apathy as had been inflicted by ,spain4 ,paraguay1 however1 had a tyrant who dressed himself after a caricature of ,napoleon1 and tried to imitate his despotism1 but had nothing of his genius4 ,francia was one of ,carlyle's model rulers1 perhaps because he allowed no elections1 juries1 public meetings1 or newspapers1 and sent everyone who talked politics to prison4 ,men who would not take off their hats to him were cut down by his guards2 and timid boys were seen running through the streets with no other article of dress4 ,there were no imports or exports1 except by special permission2 and goods cost ten times as much as at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,equality of races was sought by degrading the whites2 but ,francia's reign had the one merit of peace4 ,,ix4 ,intelligent ,spaniards were provoked at their king's failure to suppress the rebellion2 and the soldiers who were called together for this purpose in #ahai had been so badly paid that they plotted with the friends of progress4 ,a revolt broke out in the camp on the first day of #ahbj2 and it was soon followed by one at ,madrid1 where the dungeon of the ,inquisition was broken open4 ,the ,king was forced to restore the ,constitution which had been framed by the patriots in #ahab1 after the model of the ,french instrument of #agia4 ,the prospect of freedom in religion made the clergy and peasantry mutinous4 ,the reactionists in ,france and ,spain found favour with the sovereigns of ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,prussia4 ,the ,liberal ,government was overthrown in ,april1 #ahbc1 by a ,french army4 ,the peasants took sides with the invaders1 and many patriots were massacred by the populace4 ,absolute monarchy and other ancient iniquities were restored1 but not the ,inquisition4 ,france would have gone on to subdue the rebels in ,south ,america for her own benefit2 but this was prevented by the ,british ,ministry1 which was now showing the liberalising influence of peace4 ,napoleon's despotism had the awful and baneful grandeur of an eruption of ,vesuvius2 but his despicable enemies merely kept up the oppression of his empire without its glory4 ,their work completed his1 as the last of the petty emperors at ,rome and ,constantinople showed the legitimate tendency of the political system of the mighty founder4 ,caesar and ,napoleon had much in common as conquerors2 but it showed far more greatness to found an empire which endured for fifteen centuries1 than one which held together for scarcely as many years4 ,even that length of despotism was sadly too long for the welfare of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,fruits ,,of ,,peace ,,exigencies of war had given the ,british nobles a despotic power1 which they retained long after it ceased to be needed for the nation's safety4 ,the ,king was their puppet and ,parliament their property4 ,the laws were framed and administered for their protection and emolument4 ,clergy1 army1 militia1 and police were all organised for keeping the people down2 and education could do nothing to raise the lowly4 ,pensions and salaries1 even in the ,church1 were reserved for members and servants of the aristocracy1 with little care for the public good4 ,wages were low1 food dear1 illiteracy common1 and paupers numerous4 ,even the middle class was in great part disfranchised2 taxation was needlessly severe2 the press was restricted grievously2 and ,ireland was shamefully oppressed4 ,i4 ,as public attention ceased to be absorbed by victorious generals1 it turned to the miseries of the poor2 and there was much discussion of plans for their relief4 ,early in the century it became generally known that ,robert ,owen's factories were unusually profitable1 on account of what he did for the intelligence1 health1 and happiness of the operatives4 ,his pamphlet1 published in #ahac1 and often reprinted as a ,new ,view of ,society argued strongly for universal education as the remedy for poverty and crime2 public opinion was much enlightened on the ,continent1 as well as in ,england2 but a sagacious member of the ,british aristocracy said to him3 ,oh1 ,i see it all6 ,nothing could be more complete for the working-classes2 but what will become of us8 ,owen complained in this pamphlet that ,sabbatarianism denied innocent and cheerful recreation to the labouring man2 and he spoke in public of the influence of religion on progress1 with a hostility which sadly injured his popularity4 ,his life was examined with a jealousy which brought to light only its elevation4 ,the opposition of people who thought themselves respectable drove him into agitation for what he was the first to call ,socialism4 ,he published on ,may #a1 #ahbj1 his plan for forming villages1 where the people were to work under the supervision of the eldest1 and be freely permitted to receive from the general store of the community whatever they might require4 ,these last words contain the characteristic principle of ,socialism1 that every labourer is to be paid according to his needs1 whatever the value of the work4 ,a dozen such experiments were made in the ,united ,states1 about #ahbe2 but it was found impossible to unlearn the experience of the race4 ,progress has consisted in bringing each man's welfare into more exact proportion to the value of his work4 ,this tendency has never safely been suspended1 except under such coercion as has kept up industry and economy among monks1 ,rappites1 ,shakers1 and other docile enthusiasts4 ,the cooperative stores which ,owen was among the first to open seem to have failed because the salaries were not high enough to secure skilful managers4 ,,ii4 ,the proof that a reformer was before his age is the fact that later years caught up with him2 and this is by no means so true of ,owen as of ,bentham1 who declared ,socialism impracticable4 ,he was one of the first to advocate woman suffrage 7,works1 vol4 iii41 p4 #dfc71 savings banks1 cheap postage1 collection of statistics1 direction of punishment towards reformation1 and repeal of usury laws4 ,his bulky volumes are in great part occupied with suggestions for making the courts of justice less dilatory and uncertain1 less expensive to the poor1 and less partial to the rich4 ,his ,principles of ,morals and ,legislation declared1 in #aghg1 that the sole end of a ruler ought to be the happiness of all the people1 and that this rule should be the basis of ethics as well as politics4 ,one of his publications in #ahag claimed the suffrage for every man and woman who could read1 but insisted that this would be worse than nothing without that shield to freedom1 the secret ballot4 ,an opponent who feared that this would destroy private property was answered thus3 ,has he ever heard of ,pennsylvania8 ,the complaint that freedom of the press to expose corrupt officials might weaken the government was met by showing that there can be no good government without it4 ,to think our ancestors wiser than us1 he says1 is to take it for granted that it is not experience but inexperience that is the mother of wisdom4 ,bentham's best work was in sowing seed that his friends might reap the harvest4 ,other authors were generously assisted by his manuscripts1 purse1 and library2 and there has been no stronger advocate of reform than the ,westminster ,review1 which he founded in #ahbd4 ,the first number showed that the ,whigs were too much like the ,tories4 ,their leaders were noblemen or millionaires2 their favourite measure1 abolition of rotten boroughs1 was mainly in the interest of the middle class2 and their policy towards the masses was a seesaw between promising elevation and permitting oppression4 ,this article was by ,james ,mill1 who showed in a later number that any church which was established must1 on that account1 be bigoted4 ,his essay ,on ,government urges that the masses cannot be protected unless fully represented4 ,they had not yet found out all they needed2 but education would teach it2 and occasional mistakes would not be so bad as systematic oppression4 ,among his ablest books is a defence of the rationalism1 bequeathed by the eighteenth century1 against ,transcendentalism1 which eclipsed it during the first half of the nineteenth4 ,the inspiration of the new philosophy was added to that of many new reforms2 and a glorious literature blossomed in the long summer of peace4 ,wordsworth's fear of too much liberty did not prevent his encouraging intellectual independence most impressively4 ,scott tried to revive the declining spirit of loyalty2 but the result was universal admiration of rebels and sympathy with peasants4 ,many authors who adapted themselves much more closely and intentionally to the needs of the age ceased long ago1 for this very reason1 to find readers4 ,this1 for instance1 was the fate of the indefatigable ,cobbett4 ,landor1 on the other hand1 was unpopular from the first1 because devotion to ,greek and ,latin literature made his style as well as some of his favourite topics uninteresting1 except for scholarly people who were soon offended by such remarks as ,law in ,england and in most other countries is the crown of injustice4 ,according to her laws and usages1 ,brutus would have been hanged at ,newgate2 ,cato buried with a stake through his body in the highroad2 ,cicero transported to ,botany ,bay4 ,certain ,i am1 that several of the bishops would not have patted ,cain upon the back while he was about to kill ,abel4 ,a peerage ,i consider as the park-paling of despotism4 ,in his ,imaginary ,conversations1 ,hofer and ,metternich1 the emperors of ,russia and ,china1 the kings of ,spain and ,portugal1 the ,spanish priest1 ,merino1 and many other extraordinary personages tell how badly ,england was governed by the hereditarily wise1 and what a misfortune it was for all ,europe1 to have her rulers enjoy such an intimate and universal friendship as was never known among their predecessors4 ,no writer has spoken more mightily than ,byron against the blasphemy of ascribing divine authority to these royal vampires4 ,he knew that ,napoleon had been the scourge of the world2 but he was indignant to see the men who had struck down the lion kneeling before wolves2 and yet he looked forward to the reign everywhere of equal rights and laws4 ,he spoke freely of the sacerdotal gain but general loss in superstition2 and his own highest faith was that they who die in a great cause would ,augment the deep and sweeping thoughts ,which overpower all others and conduct ,the world at last to freedom4 ,his poems revealed the grandeur of scenery1 as well as history1 and made delight in mountains and thunderstorms felt as an ennobling influence4 ,his speeches in the ,house of ,lords were pleas for parliamentary reform1 ,catholic emancipation1 and mercy to rioters infuriated by famine4 ,in #ahbj1 he was one of the leading ,carbonari in ,italy2 he gave his life to help the ,greeks become free2 and his name is still a watchword of revolution4 ,his friend1 ,shelley1 went so far in the same direction as to call himself a republican1 as well as an atheist4 ,his life was pure in his own eyes2 but his opinions about divorce were punished by a decision in ,chancery that he was unfit to be trusted with his own children4 ,he had consecrated himself in boyhood to war against all oppressors2 and his position to the last was that of his own ,prometheus1 suffering continually with the enslaved1 but consoled by faith that his sympathy will hasten the glorious day when every man shall be king over himself1 when women1 free from custom's evil taint1 shall make earth like heaven1 when thrones1 altars1 judgment-seats1 and prisons shall seem as antiquated as the pyramids1 and when human nature shall be its own divine control4 ,he took the side of the poor against the rich in a drama which was suppressed on account of its severity against ,george ,,iv41 and which ends with a portentous scene1 where ,freedom calls ,famine1 her eternal foe1 ,to brief alliance4 ,he spoke as well as wrote for the independence of ,ireland2 and he would have done much for that of ,greece1 if he had not died soon after publishing a magnificent tragedy1 in which he showed what cruel massacres were perpetrated while the rulers of ,christendom refused to help ,christian patriots against the ,turks4 ,byron is called the poet of revolution2 but ,shelley was the poet of liberty4 ,one was like a painter who captivated the multitude1 sometimes by his brilliancy of colour1 sometimes by his tragic pathos1 and sometimes by his amorous warmth4 ,the other was like a sculptor who left a few statues and tablets1 fanciful in design and majestic in execution1 for the delight of connoisseurs4 ,fortunately the marble is likely to outlast the canvas4 ,,iii4 ,these poets and philanthropists helped the people of ,england contrast the wrongs they were suffering with the rights they ought to have4 ,that love of liberty which drove out the ,stuarts revived1 as despotism was seen to increase pauperism and excite more crime than it suppressed4 ,the conflict between republicanism and monarchy in ,europe had changed to one between despotism and constitutionalism2 and peace made ,england free to resume the advanced position she had held in the eighteenth century4 ,the declaration of ,president ,monroe1 in ,december1 #ahbc1 that the ,united ,states would not permit the ,south ,american republics to be overthrown by any despot in ,europe1 gained much authority from the concurrence of the ,british ,ministry2 and the latter was induced by ,canning to form that alliance with ,france and ,russia which gave independence to ,greece4 ,the attack on the slave-trade1 which began while ,england was at peace with her neighbours1 had slackened in the shadow of the long war4 ,the wicked traffic was prohibited in #ahjg2 but little more could be done before #ahbc4 ,then an appeal for emancipation in the ,west ,indies was made to ,parliament by ,wilberforce and other organised abolitionists2 and the agitation went on until victory was made possible by the rescue of the ,house of ,commons from the aristocrats4 ,the acts forbidding workingmen to combine for higher wages1 or to emigrate were repealed in #ahbd4 ,the criminal laws had already been mitigated1 and some protection given to children in factories2 and the duties on wool and raw silk were now reduced1 to the common benefit of consumer1 manufacturer1 and operative4 ,the ,whigs were strong enough in #ahbh to repeal the ,test ,act1 which had been passed in #afgc1 for the purpose of enabling the ,episcopalians to hold all the offices1 but had become a dead letter so far as regarded ,protestants4 ,the ,house of ,lords gave way unwillingly2 and one of the bishops secured such a compromise as kept ,jews out of ,parliament for the next thirty years4 ,conscientious scruples against taking oaths were treated at this time with due respect2 and all ,british ,protestants became equals before the law4 ,canning had already made the ,house of ,commons willing to emancipate ,catholics2 but neither this reform nor that of abolishing rotten boroughs could pass the bench of bishops2 and the ,church stood in the way of a plan for free public schools4 ,it was the organised resistance of all ,ireland to disfranchisement of ,catholics which won toleration from a ,tory ,ministry4 ,its leader1 ,wellington1 cared nothing for public opinion or the people's rights2 but he was too good a general to risk a war with a united nation4 ,even the minister whose sympathy with ,orangemen had won the nickname of ,orange ,peel declared that it was time to yield4 ,popular prejudice against ,romanism had been much diminished by gratitude for the aid given by ,catholic allies against ,napoleon4 ,the bishops rallied around the ,king1 who had never before been influenced by what he called religion2 but he was forced to sign1 on ,april #ac1 #ahbi1 the bill which ended a strife that had cursed ,europe for three hundred years4 ,two-thirds of the bishops resisted to the last2 and the ,tory party was so badly divided as to be unable to prevent ,england from following the example set next year by ,france4 ,,iv4 ,by the ,constitution of #ahad1 the power belonged mainly to the ,parisian bankers1 merchants1 and manufacturers4 ,these men preferred constitutional monarchy to either democracy or military despotism2 but they meant to maintain their own rights2 and they were much offended at the attempts of ,charles ,x4 to check mental progress and revive superstition4 ,his plans for fettering the press were voted down in the ,chamber of ,nobles2 journalists prosecuted by his orders were acquitted by the courts2 and he could not enforce a law under which burglars who robbed a ,catholic church would have mounted the guillotine4 ,early in #ahcj1 he dissolved the ,legislature for declaring that he was not governing according to the wish of the people4 ,the candidates next elected were two to one against him4 ,on ,monday1 ,july #bf1 appeared his ordinances forbidding publication of newspapers without his permission1 unseating all the deputies just chosen1 and threatening that subsequent elections would be empty formalities4 ,the plan was like that of #agig2 but this time the soldiers in ,paris were few in number and ill-supplied with provisions1 while their general was not even notified of his appointment4 ,the police allowed the journalists to spread the news throughout ,paris and publish a protest declaring that they would not obey the ordinances and appealing to the people for support4 ,the leader1 ,thiers1 had already called for a king who would reign but not govern4 ,lawyers and magistrates pronounced the ordinances illegal4 ,printers and other employers told their men that the next day would be a holiday4 ,on ,tuesday1 the crowds of operatives1 clerks1 students1 ragged men and boys could not be dispersed by the police4 ,marmont took command of the troops that afternoon1 and shot a few insurgents4 ,that night all the street-lamps were put out2 thousands of barricades went up1 after plans but recently invented2 and gun-shops1 powder-magazines1 arsenals1 and even museums were broken open4 ,on ,wednesday1 there was a new city government in the ,hotel de ,ville2 everywhere hung the tri-coloured banner of ,napoleon and the ,republic2 and the tocsin called out a hundred thousand rebels in arms4 ,the weapons of ,crusaders were seen side by side with the bayonets and uniforms of the ,national ,guard1 which had been revived by ,napoleon but disbanded by ,charles ,x4 ,marmont's orders were to clear the streets that afternoon2 but the soldiers were met everywhere by a heavy fire and a shower of paving stones and furniture4 ,one patriotic girl was said to have sacrificed her piano4 ,all the detachments were finally hemmed in between barricades and crowds of rebels with pikes1 muskets1 and bayonets4 ,during the night they were concentrated around the ,tuileries1 where they suffered greatly from hunger and thirst1 as they had done during the day4 ,their ammunition was almost exhausted2 and new barricades were put up around them4 ,marmont ordered that there should be no more firing1 except in self-defence1 and tried in vain to make truce with the rebels4 ,the latter were joined on ,thursday by the regiments in the ,place ,vendome4 ,this position was entrusted to part of the ,swiss who had defended the ,louvre2 but the others were soon driven out by men and boys who swarmed in at unguarded doors and windows4 ,all the soldiers took flight that noon from ,paris4 ,all this time the ,king was amusing himself at ,st4 ,cloud1 and boasting that there would be no concessions4 ,he now offered to dismiss his ,ministry and revoke the ordinances2 but more than a thousand lives had been lost4 ,the ,parisians marched against him3 he abdicated and fled3 the ,bourbons had ceased to reign4 ,the men who had fought against him called for a republic with universal suffrage and no ,state church2 but the wealthier citizens were afraid of war with ,russia and ,austria4 ,a descendant of ,louis ,,xiii4 and a friend of ,thiers was made ,king by the ,legislature4 ,he called himself ,louis ,philippe1 and promised cordially to carry out the ,constitution1 which now meant freedom of the press1 and equal privileges for all ,christian churches4 ,the supremacy of ,rome in ,france was at an end4 ,seats in the ,upper ,house could no longer be inherited2 and the right to vote for deputies was given to twice as many ,frenchmen as before4 ,patriots in all nations were encouraged2 and the ,swiss cantons became more democratic2 but ,hegel was frightened to death4 ,among other results were unsuccessful revolts in ,rome and ,warsaw1 with successful ones in ,brussels1 ,cassell1 and ,dresden4 ,the subjection to ,holland1 which had been imposed by the ,congress of ,vienna1 was hated by the ,belgians1 partly because it made education secular1 and partly because it gave them only half the ,legislature1 and very few offices elsewhere1 although they formed three-fifths of the population4 ,priests were active in stirring up the revolt which began at ,brussels on ,august #be1 #ahcj1 after the performance of an opera telling how ,masaniello had set ,naples free4 ,the ,dutch were driven out2 ,belgium was made a separate constitutional monarchy by the vote of a convention of deputies2 ,france and ,england helped her maintain political independence2 but it was to the loss of intellectual liberty4 ,v4 ,the success of rebellion with the pressure of hard times enabled the ,whigs to carry ,england for parliamentary reform4 ,peel and ,wellington hastened their fall by boasting that there could be no improvement of a ,legislature which accepted members for places without any inhabitants1 but not for ,birmingham1 ,leeds1 ,manchester1 or some parts of ,london1 and which actually enabled one ,scotchman to elect himself as sole representative of fourteen thousand people1 in a district where he was the only voter4 ,the people were so discontented with the whole system of ,church and ,state1 that thousands of sympathisers gathered around ,cobbett in ,july1 #ahca1 when he was tried for printing a statement that riots of farm hands were doing good in forcing the clergy to reduce their tithes4 ,lord ,brougham1 who had been made ,chancellor1 was among the witnesses to the generally pacific tendency of ,cobbett's writings4 ,the jury did not agree2 and the ,government gave up the case4 ,there was but little more political persecution of ,british authors4 ,reform triumphed that autumn in the ,house of ,commons4 ,the ,house of ,lords would then have been conquered1 if the bishops had acted like successors of the apostles2 but twenty-one out of twenty-three voted for prolonging their own dominion4 ,their conduct made it unsafe for them to wear their peculiar costume in the streets4 ,bells tolled1 and newspapers put on mourning4 ,there were riots in all the cathedral towns4 ,a duke's castle was burned1 because he insisted that the votes of his tenants were his private property1 and attempts to punish the incendiaries brought ,bristol1 one ,sunday1 into the hands of a mob which burned the bishop's palace1 the custom-house1 and many other buildings4 ,it was agreed by a meeting of a hundred thousand people at ,birmingham1 that no more taxes should be paid until ,parliament was reformed2 and on very many houses1 especially in ,london1 there was the following notice3 ,to save the ,collector unnecessary trouble1 he is informed that ,no ,taxes on this house will be paid1 until the ,reform ,bill pass into a ,law4 ,it was at a meeting to encourage this course that ,sydney ,smith1 who had done good service for ,catholic emancipation1 told how vainly ,mrs4 ,partington tried to sweep back the ,atlantic1 during a great storm1 and added3 ,be quiet and steady4 ,you will beat ,mrs4 ,partington4 ,the episcopal ,partingtons continued to be even more hostile than the lay members of the ,house of ,lords2 but all finally yielded to the threat that there would be new peers enough created to vote them down4 ,a popular song made the ,reform ,bill boast that1 ,twenty peers shall carry me1 ,if twenty won't1 then forty will2 ,for ,i 'm his ,majesty's bouncing ,bill4 ,the throne was then filled by ,william ,,iv41 who reigned from #ahcj to #ahcg1 and who gave his consent1 though sometimes unwillingly1 to several of the greatest reforms ever passed in ,england4 ,the bill which he signed on ,june #g1 #ahcb1 enabled #ada members of ,parliament to be elected by populous districts hitherto unrepresented1 instead of by little boroughs where the voters were so few as to be bought up easily1 or else intimidated constantly2 and the franchise was also much extended1 though not outside of the middle class4 ,thus ,great ,britain ceased to be governed by a league of irresponsible nobles1 bishops1 and other lords of vast estates4 ,,vi4 ,they had kept the lower classes ignorant1 in order to secure obedience2 and their methods were not given up at once4 ,newspapers had already become the chief teachers of politics2 and therefore they were under a triple tax4 ,a duty on paper added one-fourth to the cost of publication4 ,there was also a tax of three-and-sixpence on each advertisement2 and more of this lucrative business was done by the publishers in ,new ,york ,city than by all those in ,great ,britain4 ,a third exaction was that of fourpence for a stamp on every copy2 and prices were thus prevented from falling below seven-pence1 except in case of violation of the laws4 ,these threatened fine or imprisonment to whoever should publish or sell any periodical costing less than sixpence1 and containing news1 intelligence1 occurrences1 and remarks and observations thereon1 tending to excite hatred and contempt of the government and constitution of this country as by law established1 and also to vilify religion4 ,this purpose was avowed explicitly1 in so many words1 by ,the ,poor ,man's ,guardian1 which announced that it was published contrary to law and would be sold for one penny4 ,the circulation was twice that of ,the ,times1 and the language often violent4 ,the publisher1 ,hetherington1 was sent twice to prison for six months2 and could not go about except disguised as a ,quaker4 ,his papers were packed in chests of tea1 by an agent who was afterwards mayor of ,manchester4 ,another publisher1 who devoted himself to reports of criminal trials1 used to send them out in coffins4 ,many unstamped periodicals were in circulation4 ,some dealers carried them about in their hats and pockets4 ,others hawked them in the streets1 and declared1 when sentenced to prison1 that they should resume the business on the same spot as soon as they were released4 ,paid informers and spies helped the ,whig ,government carry on more than two hundred prosecutions in #ahce1 and more than five hundred previously4 ,subscription boxes for the relief of the martyrs could be seen everywhere4 ,remonstrances were signed and indignation meetings held in ,london and ,manchester4 ,the ,society for the ,repeal of ,all ,taxes on ,knowledge kept up a vigorous agitation1 which was aided by ,bulwer in ,parliament4 ,at last the publishers who bought stamps found they could not compete with men who bought none4 ,this duty1 and also that on advertisements1 were reduced in #ahcf2 and the result was so gratifying1 even to publishers of the best periodicals1 that all these taxes have been abolished4 ,protestant bigotry had not prevented unsectarian public schools from being opened in ,ireland in #ahcc2 and that year is also memorable for the abolition of slavery in the ,west ,indies1 the extension of universal suffrage in ,scotland1 the beginning of free trade with ,india and ,china1 the removal of disability for office from ,hindoo subjects of ,great ,britain1 the protection of children from being overworked in factories1 and the suppression of supernumerary bishops and rectors in ,ireland4 ,during the next three years1 the local government of most ,english towns and cities1 though not yet of ,london1 was taken from corrupt oligarchies and given to all inhabitants who paid even a moderate rent2 seamen ceased to be impressed2 ,irish ,catholics and ,english dissenters were enabled to marry without apostasy2 vexatious methods of collecting tithes were abolished in ,england2 the poor-laws were made less favourable to the increase of pauperism2 and the growth of prosperity and independence among the poor was assisted by the introduction of a system of unsectarian education1 in #ahci1 though the bishops would have preferred that one-third of the people of ,england should remain illiterate4 ,penny postage was established in #ahdj1 the last year when ,great ,britain was governed by the ,whigs4 ,parliament was so philanthropic and tolerant as to reject repeatedly a proposal to impose heavy fines for attending secular meetings1 visiting eating-houses1 travelling1 fishing1 or hiring horses on ,sunday4 ,labour1 too1 was to be forbidden1 but not that of menial servants4 ,this bill would have prevented the poor from enjoying their only holiday2 but there was to be no interference with the pleasures of the rich2 and the fact was pointed out by a young man1 whose ,pickwick ,papers had just begun to appear in monthly parts4 ,his illustrated pamphlet is entitled3 ,sunday as it ,is2 as ,sabbath ,bills would ,make it2 as it might be ,made4 ,it has been reprinted with his plays and poems4 ,he tells how much was done for the health and happiness of ,london by those privileges which the ,sabbatarians were trying to abolish2 and he shows what gain there would be in knowledge and virtue from opening all the museums and galleries ,sunday afternoons4 ,the pamphlet shows that delight in the bright side of life1 and that sympathy with the pleasures of the poor1 which won popularity for ,the ,pickwick ,papers in #ahcf1 and afterwards for ,the ,old ,curiosity ,shop and the ,christmas ,carol4 ,the novels most like ,sunday as it ,is1 however1 are such protests against bigotry and cruelty as ,oliver ,twist1 ,nicholas ,nickleby1 and ,barnaby ,rudge4 ,powerful pictures of the gloom of that ,british ,sabbath which locked up everything that could by any possibility afford relief to an overworked people1 may be found in ,little ,dorrit2 and the plot turns on the ,sabbatarianism of a cruel fanatic who had made felony part of her religion4 ,much was done by this novel1 as well as by ,pickwick and ,nicholas ,nickleby towards the abolition of imprisonment for debt in #ahfi4 ,his tone was very mild1 compared with that of the popular orators4 ,resistance to bad laws was urged by ,richard ,carlile2 and a clergyman named ,taylor1 who held the ,gospel to be a solar myth1 was imprisoned on ,october #bd1 #ahbg1 for saying that the first martyrs for ,jesus ,christ were the ,gadarene pigs4 ,another ,london lecturer declared on ,sunday evening1 ,december #b1 #ahcb1 that ,the elective franchise should belong to women1 as a part of the people1 and again that ,women are qualified to elect and to be elected to all public offices4 ,any argument for exclusion is of that kind which has justified every tyranny1 says this discourse1 which was printed for the first time1 on ,may #aa1 #ahcc1 in an ,american newspaper1 ,the ,free ,enquirer4 ,its columns show that a young lady had already presented very advanced ideas as a lecturer at the ,rotunda in ,london2 but the general opinion of the sex was expressed by the wife of the ,rev4 ,john ,sandford1 whose popular book declared that ,there is something unfeminine in independence4 ,a really sensible woman444 is conscious of inferiority4 ,the ,irish have supported themselves so successfully in ,america1 and obeyed the laws so generally1 as to prove that failure to do either in ,ireland should not be attributed to their race or their religion1 but wholly to their oppression4 ,memory of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was all the more bitter in the nineteenth1 because the destitution of the peasantry was increasing hopelessly4 ,removal of religious disabilities and reform of ,parliament did not prevent bands of armed peasants from fighting against attempts to take away their cattle in payment of the tithes exacted by well-paid dignitaries of the hated ,church4 ,it sometimes happened that a dozen of the combatants were killed4 ,sydney ,smith estimated that this way of keeping up a state church cost a million lives1 from first to last1 and ,ireland had to be as heavily garrisoned as ,india1 until a less vexatious system was established in #ahch4 ,municipal government was wholly in the hands of little corporations1 which had the sole power of electing new members and seldom admitted a ,catholic4 ,the ruling oligarchy was to the population as one to two hundred in ,limerick1 and only as one to twenty-five hundred in ,protestant ,belfast4 ,the right of local self-government was given to the people of these cities and a few others in #ahdj2 but even this small and tardy justice provoked an ,english bishop to threaten that it would call down vengeance from ,god4 ,full municipal suffrage throughout the island and a domestic ,parliament were demanded by all ,ireland1 under the guidance of the mighty orator ,o',connell2 but the prejudice against his cause in ,great ,britain was made invincible by his denouncing the ,saxons1 as he called the ,english1 for the crimes of their ancestors4 ,,vii4 ,all reforms stopped in #ahda1 when the ,whigs lost the supremacy4 ,it was not their fault that excess in speculation on both sides of the ,atlantic had brought on a panic which threw thousands of people out of work in the factory towns1 and reduced other thousands to earning only twopence a day4 ,a succession of bad harvests1 just before #ahda1 made wages very low on the farms1 and food too dear everywhere4 ,bread was sold in halfpenny slices2 labourers robbed pigs of swill2 children fought with dogs for bones in the streets2 one person in every eleven was a pauper2 and ,england seemed to ,dickens like one vast poorhouse4 ,the old ways of giving charity had been so lavish and indiscriminate as to encourage pauperism2 the new system of relief proved really kinder2 but at first it was administered too slowly and cautiously for the emergency2 and there was some ground for the complaints in ,oliver ,twist4 ,knowledge that paupers were neglected strengthened the belief of the working-men1 that all they needed to make them as well off as their brethren in ,america was the ballot4 ,paine1 ,cobbett1 and ,hetherington were widely read2 manhood suffrage and a secret ballot were called the ,people's ,charter2 and there were more than a million signatures to the ,chartist petition in #ahci4 ,these demands were just2 but about one ,englishman in three was unable to write his name at this time2 and many who had acquired this accomplishment knew dangerously little about politics4 ,when we think how much mischief has recently been done in the ,united ,states by illiterate and venal votes1 we cannot blame ,englishmen of the upper and middle classes for delaying to grant universal suffrage4 ,they ought to have made rapid preparation for it1 by liberal encouragement of popular education through free schools and a cheap press2 but even the ,whigs were too indignant at the violence of the ,chartists1 who made bloody riots in #ahda4 ,how ignorant these men were was shown by their doing their worst that year to help carry the elections against the ,whigs1 who were much less hostile to ,chartism than the ,conservatives1 as those ,tories were called who still condescended to politics4 ,the most culpable blunder of the ,whigs had been that of allowing the revenue to fall below the expenses2 and the policy they had proposed for making up the deficit was too much like that halfhearted way of dealing with slavery which brought ruin upon the party of the same name in ,america4 ,the ,british tariff was raised by the war against ,napoleon1 as the ,american was under similar pressure afterwards1 so high as in some cases to prohibit imports and actually check revenue4 ,either tariff could have been used as an almost complete list of the world's products2 and both were framed on the principle of protecting everybody1 except consumers1 against competition4 ,great ,britain unfortunately could produce only part of the food needed by the people2 and the tariff was so much in the interest of owners of land as to make bread and meat dearer than if the island had been barren4 ,importation of cattle was prohibited2 and that of wheat and other grain was not permitted until prices were high enough to cause famine4 ,then importation would begin slowly1 and keep increasing until the supply of both foreign- and home-grown wheat would become large enough to glut the market and make farmers bankrupt4 ,these duties on grain1 which were known as the corn laws1 acted with similar taxes on all other necessaries of life in impoverishing factory hands and other members of the working class4 ,they were told that the laws which kept living dear kept wages high2 but we shall see that this turned out not to be the fact4 ,the only real gainers by the corn laws were those wealthy owners of great estates of whom ,parliament was composed entirely1 with the exception of a few members of the ,house of ,commons4 ,that body allowed ,manchester and other factory towns to send representatives who had found out the tendency of protectionism from their own business experience1 as well as from study of political economy4 ,among these men was ,cobden1 who had already planted himself in the road to wealth1 but who preferred to remain poor that he might make ,england rich4 ,he and his associates knew that imports are paid for by exporting what can be produced most profitably2 that nothing is imported which could be produced as cheaply at home2 that large imports make large exports2 that the average ,englishman knows how to carry on his own business2 and that the ,government could not encourage any otherwise unprofitable industry without checking the really profitable ones4 ,on these facts were based the following predictions4 ,in the first place1 free trade in grain and cattle would lower the average price of food in ,england1 and make the supply so regular that there would be no more famines4 ,second1 those countries which were allowed to send grain and cattle1 cotton and other raw materials1 etc41 to ,england would buy ,british manufactures in return4 ,third1 removal of duties from raw materials would enable factories to produce goods more cheaply1 and sell larger quantities at home as well as abroad4 ,then1 fourth1 this increased activity in manufacturing would raise wages1 while remission of duties would make all the necessaries of life cheaper1 so that pauperism would diminish and prosperity become more general in the working class4 ,and finally1 the commerce of ,england with other countries would grow rapidly to their mutual benefit2 and thus international relations would be kept friendly by free trade4 ,in this faith the reformers at ,manchester and ,birmingham asserted the right of all men to buy and sell freely1 and demanded the removal of all duties except those best adapted to bring in necessary revenue4 ,they were wise enough to attack the monstrous tariff at its weakest point1 the tax on bread4 ,the ,anti-,corn-,law ,league was organised in #ahci2 the spot where the ,peterloo massacre had been perpetrated1 twenty years before1 was soon used for a free trade banquet in which five thousand working-men took part2 and appeals to the people were made in all parts of ,england4 ,the ,conservatives were all protectionists2 and so many ,whigs were on that side that those leaders who were opposed to the bread tax did not dare to come out against it4 ,they did propose in #ahda to meet the deficit in the revenue by reducing some duties which were so high as to prevent importation1 for instance1 the tax on all sugar not grown in ,british colonies4 ,the protectionist ,whigs voted with the ,conservatives against the ,ministry2 and it had to go out of office without having done enough against the corn laws to secure the support of the ,league4 ,protectionists1 ,chartists1 and opponents of the new poor-law helped to give the ,conservatives control of the next ,parliament1 where the free-traders were one to four4 ,such was the state of things in ,october1 #ahda1 when the ,league went to work more vigorously than before in educating the people1 and especially voters of the poorer class4 ,during the next twelve months1 half a million dollars was spent in this work4 ,in #ahdc1 there were fourteen regular lecturers in the field1 besides countless volunteers1 and five hundred distributors of tracts4 ,the annual number of publications was about ten million copies2 and the annual weight exceeded a hundred tons4 ,the dissenting ministers did good work for reform2 but the ,episcopalian clergy were too friendly to a tax which kept up the value of tithes4 ,the ,league soon had the support of ,john ,bright1 who was one of the greatest of ,british orators4 ,prominent among opponents was the ,chartist leader1 ,feargus ,o',connor2 and those ,chartists who were not protectionists held that their cause ought to take the lead4 ,public opinion was so strongly for free trade in #ahde that ,parliament took off the duties from cotton and other raw materials1 in hope of conciliating the manufacturers2 but these latter redoubled their efforts to abolish the tax on food4 ,subscriptions were larger than ever2 and much land was bought by free-traders who wished to qualify themselves as voters for members of the next ,parliament1 which would have to be elected in or before #ahdh4 ,reform seemed still distant1 when ,shelley's prophecy was fulfilled4 ,freedom's eternal foe1 ,famine1 came suddenly to her help4 ,dearness of wheat and meat had obliged half of the ,irish and many of the ,english to live entirely on potatoes4 ,wages were often paid in ,ireland by loan of land for raising this crop4 ,the rot which began in ,august1 #ahde1 soon became so destructive that ,peel1 who was then ,prime ,minister1 proposed in ,october that grain should be made free of duty4 ,wellington and other members of the ,cabinet demurred2 and the question had to be submitted to ,parliament4 ,disraeli insisted to the last on keeping up the tariff2 but famine was increasing2 and both ,houses finally agreed1 after long debate1 to accept ,peel's proposal1 that not only the duties on food and raw materials1 but most of the others1 should be either reduced or abolished4 ,his conservatism did not keep him from seeing that the whole system of protecting home industries must stand or fall together4 ,prominent among obstructionists were the bishops4 ,the ,house of ,lords did not agree before ,june #be1 #ahdf1 to the reform which had been accepted on ,may #aeth by the ,house of ,commons1 and which was publicly acknowledged by ,wellington to be inevitable4 ,such was the exasperation of the protectionists that they helped the opponents1 of coercion in ,ireland to drive ,peel out of office1 by a vote which was taken in the ,house of ,commons on the very day when his plan of tariff reform gained that victory in the ,house of ,lords which made free trade for ever the system of ,great ,britain4 ,about one-half of the import duties are now levied on tobacco1 one-fourth more on wine and strong drink2 and most of the rest on tea and other groceries4 ,duties on articles which could be produced in ,great ,britain are offset by internal-revenue taxes4 ,no monopoly is given to farm or factory2 no necessary article is made too dear for the poor2 and there are no needless violations of the right of the labourer to spend his wages in the best market4 ,this reform made the relief of ,ireland possible1 though the loss of life was terrible4 ,never again has ,england been so near to a famine as in #ahda4 ,food is now so plenty that five times as much sugar is used in proportion to population as in #ahdb1 and more than twice as much butter and eggs4 ,this does not mean that the millionaire eats five times as much sugar1 or twice as many eggs1 as before1 but that poor people can now buy freely what formerly were almost unattainable luxuries4 ,the proportion of money in savings banks in ,england and ,wales has doubled2 and that of paupers sank from #a in #aa in #ahdb to #a in #cg in #ahie4 ,wages have risen fifty per cent41 while other prices have fallen2 and ,british workmen are better off than any others in ,europe4 ,the annual value of ,english exports declined steadily from #ahae to #ahdb2 but it is now four times as great as in the latter year2 and it is more than twice as large in proportion to population as in those highly protected countries1 the ,united ,states and ,france4 ,low tariffs also enable ,belgium to export nearly three times as much for each inhabitant as ,france1 and ,new ,south ,wales to export five times as much as the ,united ,states4 ,large exports do not depend on density of population but on ability to import freely4 ,readiness of any country to buy freely of her neighbours keeps them able and willing to buy whatever she has to sell4 ,free trade has given ,great ,britain1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,belgium their choice of the world's markets4 ,great ,britain has also been enabled to keep up much more friendly relations with the rest of ,europe than would otherwise have been the case4 ,liberty of commerce has helped her enjoy peace2 and peace has preserved free institutions4 ,the reforms which culminated in free trade showed ,englishmen that they could right any wrong without resort to violence4 ,the attempt of the ,chartists to overawe ,parliament in #ahdh was seen to be inexcusable2 and it failed ridiculously4 ,never since then has insurrection in ,england been even possible4 ,the atmosphere of thought has been so quiet that suffrage was greatly extended in #ahfg1 and made practically universal in #ahid4 ,voters gained the protection of a secret ballot in #ahgb2 and municipal self-government was given in #ahid to every part of ,england where it had not already been established4 ,no wonder that there is little of the revolutionary ardor of ,shelley and ,byron in ,tennyson1 ,browning1 and other recent poets4 ,they have delighted in progress2 but they have seen that it must come through such peaceable changes in public opinion1 and then in legislation1 as are caused by free discussion4 ,the benign influence of peace has enabled them to display such brilliancy as had not been seen in ,england for more than two hundred years4 ,no other writers ever paid so much attention to public health and the general happiness4 ,the ablest thought of the century has been devoted to enriching human life1 and not to destroying it4 ,this has enabled science to make unprecedented progress4 ,a new period of intellectual history has been opened by ,spencer and ,darwin4 ,,viii4 ,prominent among reformers who had no wish for revolution1 and no respect for science1 were ,dickens and ,carlyle4 ,the latter's 7former's ,ed47 aversion to political economy as the dismal science was echoed in the pages of ,hard ,times2 and the absence of any reference in ,dombey and ,son to the great movement against the corn laws is characteristic of a novelist whose ,pickwick ,papers made fun of scientific investigation4 ,what was there called the tittlebat is really that nest-building fish1 the stickleback4 ,passages ridiculing the use of statistics might be quoted at great length from both authors4 ,dickens had too much sympathy with paupers1 especially those who suffered under the poor-law of #ahcd2 and ,carlyle had much too little4 ,they agreed in opposition to model prisons and other new forms of philanthropy4 ,perhaps it was mainly the habit of indiscriminate ridicule which suggested such caricatures as ,mrs4 ,jellaby and ,mrs4 ,pardiggle4 ,carlyle's belief that abolitionism was an alarming ,devil's ,gospel and his denunciation of the sugary1 disastrous jargon of philanthropy were legitimate results of idolatry of what he called early1 earnest times1 namely the ,dark ,ages4 ,his sympathy with mediaeval methods was so narrow that he spoke of a poet of weak health and high culture1 whom he saw suffering under a sentence of two years in a pestilential prison1 forbidden books or writing materials1 kept most of the time alone and on bread and water1 but guilty of nothing worse than a ,chartist speech1 as master of his own time and spiritual resources to1 as ,i supposed1 a really enviable extent4 ,dickens shows much more appreciation of the real superiority of modern times1 though personal disappointments1 during his visit to ,america1 prevented him from acknowledging the merits of democracy4 ,carlyle's reverence for the early ,hebrews and other primitive barbarians made him present hero-worship as the only secure corner-stone of politics4 ,his receipt for a perfect government is this3 ,find in any country the ablest man that exists there2 raise him to the supreme place2 and loyally reverence him4 ,such a government is not to be improved by voting or debating4 ,neither except in obedience to the ,heaven-chosen is freedom so much as conceivable4 ,this theory showed its own absurdity in prompting eulogies on ,francia and other despots2 but ,carlyle's apologies for ,cromwell were of some service to the cause of liberty fifty years ago1 when ,england had forgotten to honour the champions of the ,long ,parliament4 ,dickens thought more about the asceticism than the independence of the ,puritans4 ,he and ,carlyle have dispelled some of the prejudices against the heroes of the ,first ,republic2 but they perpetuated others4 ,carlyle's best work was in encouraging the readers of his first books to think for themselves4 ,the power of ,dickens to call out sympathy with the unfortunate will never cease to bless mankind4 ,as much pity for the outcast has been shown by his great rival1 ,victor ,hugo1 and even more fellow-feeling with the oppressed4 ,the spirit which has made ,france free animates all his writings1 especially those grand poems which were called out by the usurpation of ,louis ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,his early dramas dealt so vigorously with royal weakness and vice that ,marion de ,lorme was suppressed by ,charles ,x4 and ,le ,roi s'amuse by ,louis ,philippe4 ,the work which has made him best known1 and which appeared in #ahfb in nine languages1 is a plea for mercy to criminals1 or in his own words1 to the miserable4 ,the chief aim is to show the oppression of laws1 and the mistake of aiding the tyranny of the police by thinking too severely of the fallen4 ,he finds an opportunity to introduce an enthusiastic panegyric on the victories of ,napoleon1 closing with the question3 ,what could be more grand8 ,to be free1 is the reply4 ,full justice to the ,french ,revolution is done by that most dramatic of novels1 ,ninety-,three4 ,here he says3 ,the agony of the nations ended with the fall of the ,bastile4 ,perhaps the ,convention is the culmination of history4 ,it declared poverty and disability sacred4 ,it branded the slave-trade1 and freed the blacks4 ,it decreed gratuitous education4 ,the object of two-thirds of its decrees was philanthropic4 ,such facts are all the more worthy of mention1 because they were omitted by ,carlyle4 ,,supplement ,,to ,,chapter ,,ii ,i4 ,thomas ,carlyle's prejudice against democracy was strengthened by the failure of the revolutions of #ahdh4 ,constitutional monarchy was as hostile to reform in ,france as it was friendly in ,england4 ,only one ,frenchman in thirty could vote2 and the legislature cared nothing for public opinion4 ,louis ,philippe was hated for habitual dishonesty4 ,there had been several attempts at regicide and some bloody revolts4 ,one of the latter gave a basis from history for ,victor ,hugo's ,miserables4 ,restrictions on the press and on public meetings increased the unwillingness of the working-men at ,paris to be governed by the rich4 ,socialism was popular1 and employment insufficient4 ,the prohibition of a reform banquet caused barricades to be thrown up on ,february #bb;d in ,paris4 ,the militia took sides with the populace2 the ,king fled to ,england2 and all ,france accepted the ,republic1 which was proclaimed on ,february #bdth4 ,slavery had been reestablished in the colonies by ,napoleon2 but it was now abolished2 and so was capital punishment for political offences4 ,the example of ,paris was followed in ,march by successful insurrections at ,berlin1 ,vienna1 and other ,german cities1 as well as in ,lombardy and ,venice4 ,home rule was demanded by ,hungary and ,bohemia1 and constitutional governments were soon established there as well as in ,austria1 ,prussia1 and other ,german states1 and in every part of ,italy4 ,the ,king of ,sardinia took the lead in a war for driving back the ,austrians across the ,alps4 ,co-operation of ,french1 ,german1 ,hungarian1 and ,italian patriots might have made all these countries permanently free4 ,such a union would have been difficult on account of international jealousies2 and it was made impossible by the ,socialists at ,paris4 ,scarcely had a provisional government been set up1 when recognition of the right of employment was demanded by a workman1 who came musket in hand1 and was supported by a multitude of armed artisans4 ,they extorted a decree which promised every citizen work enough for his support4 ,a ten-hour law was passed4 ,co-operative factories were started with aid from the city authorities1 and had some success4 ,opening national workshops was not advised by leading ,socialists2 but it was considered necessary by some of the ,ministry in order to keep the unemployed from revolt4 ,every applicant drew money constantly1 even if not at work4 ,what little labour was actually performed was done so lazily1 and paid so highly1 that the number of men soon rose to #abj1jjj4 ,the expenses became enormous2 and the tax-payers insisted that they too had rights4 ,in order to be able to employ all the labourers a government would have to own all the property2 and it would also have to be strong enough to enforce industry4 ,even ,victor ,hugo admitted that the experiment had failed4 ,the ,national ,assembly1 of which he was a member1 notified the men in the shops that they must enlist in the army1 or go to work at a safe distance from ,paris on state pay1 or look out for themselves4 ,they rose in arms against the ,republic1 and took possession of nearly one-half of the city on ,june #bc1 #ahdh4 ,bread or ,lead was the motto on their red flags2 and two of their terrible barricades are described at the beginning of the last ,part of ,les ,miserables4 ,they held out against regular troops and cannon during four days of such fighting as had never been seen before in ,paris4 ,more ,frenchmen are supposed to have fallen than in any of ,napoleon's battles4 ,two thousand of the soldiers were slain2 but no one knows how many times that number of insurgents perished in the fight or in penal colonies4 ,thenceforth the ,french ,government was much more desirous to repress insurrection at home than to sustain it abroad4 ,louis ,napoleon ,bonaparte was elected ,president that same year1 partly on account of his name1 and partly on account of his promise that he would defend the right of private property against ,socialism4 ,austrian generals of the rough and reckless type which ,carlyle loved forced ,lombardy and ,bohemia back into the ,empire1 and restored absolute monarchy at ,vienna1 while the ,king of ,sardinia was obliged to abdicate after such a defeat in ,march1 #ahdi1 as almost extinguished liberty in ,italy4 ,venice alone held out against them under that purest of patriots1 ,manin1 and suffered terribly during a siege of twenty-one weeks4 ,hungary was subdued that summer with the aid of ,russia4 ,france did nothing except to revive the papal despotism at ,rome4 ,mazzini's republic was crushed by that which had a ,bonaparte for ,president4 ,his power had been increased by the disfranchisement of several million ,french voters of the poorer class4 ,his promise to restore universal suffrage joined with memory of the massacres of ,june1 #ahdh1 in preventing much resistance to his usurpation of absolute power on ,december #b1 #ahea4 ,there was a monstrous vote1 next ,november1 for an empire1 where the centralisation of administration was complete1 and the legislature merely ornamental4 ,thus the liberation of ,europe was prevented1 partly by race prejudices1 but mainly by attempts to benefit the poor by overtaxing the rich4 ,france and ,hungary were left with less political liberty than before2 and ,italy gained very little2 but some of the constitutional freedom acquired in #ahdh was retained in ,prussia and other parts of ,western ,germany4 ,,ii4 ,it was contrary to the general tendency of wars1 that those of the latter half of the century aided the growth of free institutions in ,italy4 ,an honoured place among nations was given by the ,crimean war to ,sardinia4 ,then her patriotic statesman1 ,cavour1 persuaded ,napoleon ,,iii4 to help him rescue ,lombardy from ,austria4 ,garibaldi took the opportunity to liberate ,naples2 and ,victor ,emanuel made himself ,king over all ,italy except ,rome and ,venice4 ,the latter city also was brought under a constitutional and friendly government by a third great war1 which made the ,king of ,prussia and his successors ,emperors of ,germany1 while ,austria was compelled to grant home rule to ,hungary4 ,the liberation and secularisation of ,italy were completed in #ahgj by the expulsion from ,rome of the ,french garrison4 ,the ,emperor had lost his throne by waging war wantonly against a united ,germany4 ,,iii4 ,the ,third ,republic was soon obliged to fight for her life against the same enemy which had wounded her sister mortally4 ,socialism was still the religion of the working-men of ,paris1 who now formed the majority of the ,national ,guard4 ,indignation at the failure of the new ,government to repulse the ,prussians led1 on ,march #ah1 #ahga1 to the capture of all ,paris by what was avowedly the revolution of the workmen against the shopkeepers1 in the name of the rights of labour1 for the suppression of all monopolies1 the reign of labour instead of capital1 and the emancipation of the worker by himself4 ,this was in harmony with the teaching of the ,international ,working-men's ,association1 which endorsed the insurrection fully and formally1 and which held with ,karl ,marx that wealth is produced entirely by labour and belongs only to the working class4 ,socialists were active in the rebellion2 but property-holders in ,paris took no part2 and all the rest of ,france took sides with the ,government4 ,what professed to be the rising of the many against the few turned out to be that of the few against the many4 ,impressment was necessary for manning the barricades1 and pillage for raising money4 ,the general closing of stores1 factories1 and offices showed that capital had been frightened away by the red flag4 ,one of the last decrees of its defenders was1 ,destroy all factories employing more than fifteen workers4 ,this monopoly crushes the artisan4 ,this spirit would have caused the confiscation of the funds of the ,national ,bank1 if the managers had not said3 ,if you do that1 you will turn the money your own comrades have in their pockets to waste paper4 ,the priceless pictures and statues in the ,louvre were condemned to destruction because they represented gods1 kings1 and priests4 ,millions of dollars worth of works of art perished in company with docks1 libraries1 and public buildings2 but this vandalism1 like the massacre of prisoners1 was largely the work of professional criminals4 ,the capture of ,paris1 late in ,may1 was accompanied with pitiless slaughter of the rebels1 though many lives were saved by ,victor ,hugo4 ,since then the ,french ,republic has been able to keep down not only the ,socialists but the ,bonapartists and ,royalists4 ,it has also succeeded1 with the help of writers like ,renan1 in checking the ambition of the clergy4 ,continuance of peace in ,europe has assisted the growth of local self-government in ,france1 and also in ,germany4 ,the famous ,prussian victories seem1 however1 to have increased the power of the ,german ,emperor2 and there is still danger that the growth of standing armies may check that of free institutions4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,democrats ,,and ,,garrisonians ,i4 ,the fall of the ,english aristocracy was hastened by the success of democracy in ,america4 ,nowhere were the masses more willing to obey the law2 and nowhere else were they so intelligent and prosperous4 ,the gains of the many made the country rich2 territory and population increased rapidly2 and ,britannia found a dangerous competitor on every sea4 ,political liberty and equality were secured by the almost uninterrupted supremacy of the ,democratic party from #ahjj to #ahfj4 ,twelve presidential elections out of fifteen were carried by ,jefferson and his successors2 and the ,congress whose term began in #ahda was the only one out of the thirty in which both ,houses were anti-,democratic4 ,political equality was increased in ,state after ,state by dispensing with property qualifications for voting or holding office4 ,jefferson and his successor1 ,madison1 refused to appoint days for fasting and giving thanks1 or grant any other special privileges to those citizens who held favoured views about religion4 ,congress after ,congress refused to appoint chaplains2 so did some of the ,states2 and a national law1 still in force1 for opening the post-offices on every day of the week1 was passed in #ahaj4 ,many attempts were made by ,sabbatarians to stop the mails2 but the ,senate voted in #ahbi1 that ,our government is a civil1 and not a religious institution2 and the lower ,house denied next year that the majority has any authority over the minority except in matters which regard the conduct of man to his fellow-man4 ,the opposition made by the ,federalists to the establishment of religious equality in ,connecticut1 in #ahaf1 increased the odium which they had incurred by not supporting the war against ,great ,britain4 ,four years later1 the party was practically extinct2 and the disestablishment of ,congregationalism as the state church of ,massachusetts1 in #ahcc1 was accomplished easily4 ,the ,northern ,states were already so strong in ,congress that they might have prevented ,missouri from entering the ,union that year without any pledge to emancipate her slaves4 ,the sin of extending the area of bondage so far northwards was scarcely palliated by the other conditions of the compromise4 ,the admission of ,maine gave her citizens no privileges beyond what they had previously as citizens of ,massachusetts2 and the pledge that slavery should not again be extended north of latitude thirty-six1 thirty1 proved worthless4 ,the ,north was so far from being united in #ahbj that it was not even able to raise the tariff4 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,ohio wished to exclude foreign competition in manufacturing2 but the embargo was too recent for ,new ,england to forget the evils of restricting commerce4 ,the ,salem merchants petitioned for free trade as the sure foundation of national prosperity2 and the solid men of ,boston declared with ,webster that ,a system of bounties and protection would have a tendency to diminish the industry1 impede the prosperity1 and corrupt the morals of the people4 ,,ii4 ,the dark age of ,american literature had ended in #agfj4 ,before that date there were few able books except about theology2 and there were not many during the next sixty years except about politics4 ,the works of ,franklin1 ,jefferson1 and other statesmen were more useful than brilliant4 ,sydney ,smith was not far wrong in #ahbj1 when he complained in the ,edinburgh ,review that the ,americans have done absolutely nothing for the sciences1 for art1 for literature4 ,he went on to ask1 ,in the four quarters of the globe1 who reads an ,american book8 ,his question was answered that same year by the publication in ,london of ,irving's ,rip ,van ,winkle and ,legend of ,sleepy ,hoi-low4 ,bryant's first volume of poems appeared next year1 as did ,cooper's popular novel1 ,the ,spy2 and the ,north ,american ,review had begun half a dozen years before4 ,but even in #ahbc1 ,channing could not claim that there really was any national literature1 or much devotion of intellectual labour to great subjects4 ,shall ,america1 he asked1 be only an echo of what is thought and written in the aristocracies beyond the ocean8 ,this was published during the very year in which ,president ,monroe declared that the people of the ,united ,states would look upon attempts of ,european monarchs to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and liberty4 ,channing was much interested in the study of ,german philosophy2 but he rested his chief hopes of an improved literature1 on an improved religion4 ,he maintained that no man could unfold his highest powers until he had risen above the prevalent theology1 which has come down to us from the ,dark ,ages1 and which was then arrayed against intellect1 leagued with oppression1 fettering inquiry1 and incapable of being blended with the sacred dictates of reason and conscience4 ,unitarianism claimed for every individual1 what ,protestantism had at most asked for the congregation1--the right to think for one's self4 ,this right was won earlier in ,europe than in ,america1 for here the clergy kept much of their original authority and popularity4 ,their influence over politics collapsed with ,federalism4 ,on all other subjects they were still listened to as stewards of the mysteries of ,god1 who had been taught all things by the ,holy ,spirit1 and were under a divine call to preach the truth necessary for salvation4 ,the clergyman was supposed to have acquired by his ordination a peculiar knowledge of all the rights and duties of human life4 ,no one else1 however wise and philanthropic1 could speak with such authority about what books might be read and what amusements should be shunned4 ,scientific habits of thought1 free inquiry about religion1 and scholarly study of the ,bible were put under the same ban with dancing1 card-playing1 reading novels1 and travelling on ,sunday4 ,the pulpit blocked the path of intellectual progress4 ,its influence on literature was wholly changed by the ,unitarian controversy1 which was at its height in #ahbj4 ,still more beneficial controversies followed4 ,the trinitarian clergymen tried to retain their imperilled supremacy by getting up revivals4 ,one of these1 in the summer of #ahbh1 was carried so far at ,cincinnati that many a woman lost her reason or her life4 ,these excesses confirmed the anti-clerical suspicions of ,frances ,wright1 who had come over from ,england to study the negro character1 and had failed1 after much labour and expense1 to find the slaves she bought for the purpose capable of working out their freedom4 ,she had made up her mind that slavery is only one of many evils caused by ignorance of the duties of man to man1 that these duties needed to be studied scientifically1 and that scientific study1 especially among women1 was dangerously impeded by the pulpit4 ,that autumn she delivered the first course of public lectures ever given by a woman in ,america4 ,anne ,hutchinson and other women had preached2 but she was the first lecturer4 ,the men and women of ,cincinnati crowded to hear the tall1 majestic woman1 who stood in the court-house1 plainly dressed in white4 ,her style was ladylike throughout2 but she complained of the many millions wasted on mere teachers of opinions1 whose occupation was to set people by the ears1 and whose influence was stifling the breath of science4 ,listen1 she said1 to the denunciations of fanaticism against pleasures the most innocent1 recreations the most necessary to bodily health4 ,see it make of the people's day of leisure a day of penance4 ,her main theme was the necessity of establishing schools to teach children trades1 and also halls of science with museums and public libraries4 ,this course was repeated in ,baltimore1 ,philadelphia1 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and other cities4 ,her audiences were always large1 but she charged no admission fee4 ,what were called ,fanny ,wright societies were formed in many places4 ,a ,baptist church in ,new ,york ,city was turned into a ,hall of ,science1 which remained open for three years1 beginning with the last ,sunday of ,april1 #ahbi4 ,it contained a hall for scientific lectures and theological discussions1 a free dispensary1 a gymnasium1 and a bookstore4 ,here was published ,the ,free ,enquirer1 the only paper in ,america which permitted the infallibility of ,christianity to be called in question4 ,the principal editor1 ,robert ,dale ,owen1 son of the famous ,socialist1 claimed to have twenty thousand adherents in that city1 and a controlling influence in ,buffalo4 ,celebrations of ,paine's birthday were now frequent4 ,it was fortunate for the clergy that controversies about religion soon lost their interest in the fierce struggle about politics4 ,,iii4 ,the fame won by ,jackson as a conqueror of ,british invaders in #ahae1 blinded ,americans to a fact which had been made manifest by both ,napoleon and ,wellington1 as it is said to have been still more recently by ,grant4 ,the habit of commanding an army has a tendency to create scorn of public opinion1 and also of those restrictions on arbitrary authority which are necessary for popular government1 as well as for individual liberty4 ,jackson had the additional defect of holding slaves2 and it is probable that if he had never done so1 nor even had soldiers under his orders1 he would have been sadly indifferent to the rights of his fellow-citizens and to the principles of free government4 ,he was elected in #ahbh1 and proved enough of a ,democrat to renounce the policy1 which had recently become popular1 of making local improvements at the national expense2 but he was the first ,president who dismissed experienced officials1 in order to appoint his own partisans without inquiry as to their capacity to serve the nation4 ,he was especially arbitrary about a problem not yet fully solved1 namely1 what the ,government should do with the banks4 ,the public money was then deposited in a ,national ,bank whose constitutionality was admitted by the ,supreme ,court4 ,its stock was at a premium and its notes at par in #ahbi2 and it had five hundred officials in various ,states4 ,jackson thought it had opposed his election2 and he suggested that the public money should be removed to the custody of a branch of the ,treasury1 to be established for that purpose4 ,the plan has since been adopted2 but his friends were too much interested in rival banks1 and his opponents thought only of preventing his re-election in #ahcb4 ,they could not1 however1 prevent his obtaining a great majority as the poor man's champion4 ,the ,bank had spent vast sums in publishing campaign documents1 and even in bribery2 and ,jackson suspected that it would try to buy a new charter4 ,he decided1 with no sanction from ,congress1 and against the advice of his own ,cabinet1 that the public money already in the ,bank should be drawn out as fast as it could be spent1 and that no more should be deposited there4 ,he removed the ,secretary of the ,treasury for refusing to carry out this plan2 and obliged his successor to set about it before he was confirmed by the ,senate4 ,to all remonstrances he replied1 ,i take the responsibility2 and he met the vote of the ,senators1 that he was assuming an authority not conferred by the ,constitution1 by boasting that he was the direct representative of the ,american people4 ,webster replied that this would reduce the government to an elective monarchy2 and the opponents to what they called ,jackson's ,toryism agreed to call themselves ,whigs4 ,their leader was ,henry ,clay2 and they believed1 like the ,federalists1 in centralisation1 internal improvements1 and protective tariffs4 ,jackson was sustained by the ,democrats2 but their quarrel with the ,whigs prevented ,congress from providing any safe place for the public money4 ,it was loaned to some of the ,state banks2 and all these institutions were encouraged to increase their liabilities enormously4 ,speculation was active and prices high4 ,that of wheat in particular rose so much after the bad harvest of #ahcf that there was a bread riot in ,new ,york ,city4 ,scarcely had ,jackson closed his eight years of service1 in #ahcg1 when the failure of a business firm in ,new ,orleans brought on so many others that all the banks suspended payment4 ,prices of merchandise fell so suddenly as to make the dealers bankrupt2 many thousand men were thrown out of employment2 and so much public money was lost that there was a deficit in the ,treasury1 where there had been a surplus4 ,,iv4 ,these bad results of ,jackson's administration strengthened the ,whigs4 ,they had not ventured to make protectionism the main issue in #ahcb2 and ,clay had acknowledged that all the leading newspapers and magazines were against it in #ahbd4 ,its adoption that year was by close votes1 and in spite of ,webster's insisting that ,american manufactures were growing rapidly without any unnatural restrictions on commerce4 ,the duties were raised in #ahbh to nearly five times their average height in #aghi2 and there was so much discontent at the ,south1 that some slight reductions had to be made in the summer of #ahcb2 but the protectionist purpose was still predominant4 ,if the opponents of all taxation except for revenue had done nothing more than appeal to the people that autumn1 they would have had ,congress with them2 ,jackson was already on their side2 and the question might have been decided on its merits after full discussion4 ,the threat of ,south ,carolina to secede caused the reduction1 which was actually made in #ahcc1 to appear too much like a concession made merely to avoid civil war2 and this second attempt to preserve the ,union by a compromise was a premium upon disloyalty4 ,this bargain1 like that of #ahbj1 was arranged by ,henry ,clay2 and one condition was that the rates should fall gradually to a maximum of twenty per cent4 ,before that process was completed1 the ,treasury was exhausted by bad management2 and additional revenue had to be obtained by raising the tariff in #ahdb4 ,the ,whigs were then in power2 but they were defeated in the presidential election of #ahdd1 when the main issue was protectionism4 ,the tariff was reduced in #ahdf by a much larger majority than that of #ahdb in the ,house of ,representatives2 and the results were so satisfactory that a further reduction to an average of twenty per cent1 was made in #aheg1 with the general approval of members of both parties4 ,the revenue needed for war had to be procured by increase of taxation in #ahfa2 but the country had then had for twenty-eight years an almost uninterrupted succession of low tariffs4 ,the universal prosperity in ,america between #ahcc and #ahdb is mentioned by a ,french traveller1 ,chevalier1 by a ,german philanthropist1 ,dr4 ,julius1 by ,miss ,martineau1 ,lyell1 and ,dickens4 ,the novelist was especially struck by the healthy faces and neat dresses of the factory girls at ,lowell1 where they began to publish a magazine in #ahdj4 ,lyell said that the operatives in that city looked like a set of ladies and gentlemen playing at factory for their own amusement4 ,our country had seven times as many miles of railroads in #ahdb as in #ahcc2 our factories made more than nine times as many dollars' worth of goods in #ahfj as in #ahcj2 and they sold more than three times as many abroad as in #ahdf4 ,twice as much capital was invested in manufacturing in #ahfj as in #ahej2 the average wages of the operatives increased sixteen per cent1 during these ten years2 ,america became famous for inventions2 her farms doubled in value1 as did both her imports and her exports2 and the tonnage of her vessels increased greatly4 ,such are the blessings of liberty in commerce4 ,especially gratifying is the growth of respect for the right of free speech4 ,the complaints by ,dickens1 ,chevalier1 and ,miss ,martineau of the despotism of the majority were corroborated by ,tocqueville1 who travelled here in #ahca and published in #ahce a very valuable statement of the results and tendencies of democracy4 ,the destruction that year of a ,catholic convent near ,boston by a mob is especially significant1 because the anniversary was celebrated next year as a public holiday4 ,the worst sufferers under persecution at that time were the philanthropists4 ,v4 ,in order to do justice to all parties in this controversy we should take especial notice of the amount of opposition to slavery about #ahbe in what were afterwards called the ,border ,states4 ,here all manual labour could have been done by whites2 and much of it was actually1 especially in ,kentucky4 ,there slaves never formed a quarter of the population2 and in ,maryland they sank steadily from one-fourth in #ahbj to one-eighth in #ahfj4 ,of masters over twenty or more bondmen in #ahef1 there were only #bef in ,kentucky and #gce in ,maryland4 ,it was these large holders who monopolised the profits1 as they did the public offices4 ,white men with few or no slaves had scarcely any political power2 and their chance to make money1 live comfortably1 and educate their children1 was much less than if all labour had become free4 ,such a change would have made manufacturing prosper in both ,kentucky and ,maryland2 but all industries languished except that of breeding slaves for the ,south4 ,the few were rich at the expense of the many4 ,only time was needed in these and other ,states to make the majority intelligent enough to vote the guilty aristocrats down4 ,two thousand citizens of ,baltimore petitioned against admitting ,missouri as a slave ,state in #ahbj2 and several avowed abolitionists ran for the ,legislature shortly before #ahcj4 ,at this time there were annual anti-slavery conventions in ,baltimore1 with prominent ,whigs among the officers1 and nearly two hundred affiliated societies in the ,border ,states4 ,there were fifty in ,north ,carolina1 where two thousand slaves had been freed in #ahbe1 and three-fifths of the whites were reported as favourable to emancipation4 ,henry ,clay was openly so in #ahbg2 and the ,kentucky ,colonisation ,society voted in #ahcj that the disposition towards voluntary emancipation was strong enough to make legislation unnecessary4 ,the abolition of slavery as the greatest curse that ,god in his wrath ever inflicted upon a people was demanded by a dozen members of the ,virginia ,legislature1 as well as by the ,richmond ,inquirer1 in #ahcb2 and similar efforts were made shortly before #ahej in ,kentucky1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,western ,virginia1 ,western ,north ,carolina1 ,eastern ,tennessee1 and ,missouri4 ,from #ahab to #ahde the ,senate was equally divided between free and slave ,states2 and any transfer1 even of ,delaware1 from one side to the other would have enabled the ,north to control the upper ,house as well as the lower4 ,the plain duty of a ,northern philanthropist was to co-operate with the ,southern emancipationists and accept patiently their opinion that abolition had better take place gradually1 as it had done in ,new ,york1 and1 what was much more important1 that the owner should have compensation4 ,this had been urged by ,wilberforce in #ahbc1 as justice to the planters in the ,west ,indies2 the legislatures of ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new4 ,jersey recommended1 shortly before #ahcj1 that the nation should buy and free the slaves2 and compensation was actually given by ,congress to loyal owners of the three thousand slaves in the ,district of ,columbia emancipated in #ahfb4 ,who can tell the evils which we should have escaped1 if slavery could have continued after #ahcj to be abolished gradually by ,state after ,state1 with pecuniary aid from ,congress or the ,north8 ,this was the hope of ,benjamin ,lundy1 who passed much of his life in the ,south1 though he was born in ,new ,jersey4 ,he had advocated gradual emancipation in nearly every ,state1 visiting even ,texas and ,missouri1 organising anti-slavery societies1 and taking subscriptions to his ,genius of ,universal ,emancipation1 which was founded in ,tennessee in #ahba1 but afterwards was issued weekly at ,baltimore4 ,he published the names of nine postmasters among his agents1 and copied friendly articles from more than forty newspapers4 ,one of his chief objects was to prevent that great extension of slavery1 the annexation of ,texas4 ,,vi4 ,the election of the first pro-slavery ,president1 ,jackson1 in #ahbh1 discouraged the abolitionists2 and ,lundy was obliged to suspend his paper for lack of subscribers early next year4 ,when he resumed it in ,september1 he took an assistant editor1 who had declared on the previous ,fourth of ,july1 in a fashionable ,boston church3 ,i acknowledge that immediate and complete emancipation is not desirable4 ,no rational man cherishes so wild a vision4 ,before ,garrison set foot on slave soil1 it occurred to him that every slave had a right to instant freedom1 and also that no master had any right to compensation4 ,these two ideas he advocated at once1 and ever after1 as obstinately as ,george the ,third insisted on the right to tax ,america4 ,garrison1 of course1 was a zealous philanthropist2 and he was as conscientious as ,paul was in persecuting the ,christians4 ,but he seems to have been more anxious to free his own conscience than to free the slaves4 ,immediate emancipation had been advocated in ,lundy's paper at much length1 and even as early as #ahbe1 but so mildly as to call out little opposition4 ,insisting on no compensation was much more irritating2 and ,garrison's writings show that his mind was apt to free itself in bitter words1 even against such men as ,whittier1 ,channing1 ,longfellow1 ,douglass1 and ,sumner4 ,he had been but three months in ,baltimore when he published a censure by name of the owner and captain of one of the many vessels which were permitted by law to carry slaves ,south1 as highway robbers and murderers1 who should be sentenced to solitary confinement for life1 and who deserved to occupy the lowest depths of perdition4 ,he was found guilty of libel1 and imprisoned for seven weeks because he could not pay a moderate fine4 ,the money was given by a generous ,new ,yorker2 but ,garrison's work in the ,south was over1 and ,lundy's was of little value thenceforth4 ,the man who brought the libel suit was an influential citizen of ,massachusetts2 and ,boston pulpits were shut against ,garrison on his return4 ,he could not pay for a hall2 but one was given him without cost by the anti-clerical society1 whose leader1 ,abner ,knee-land1 was imprisoned thirty days in #ahcd for a brief expression of atheism which would not now be considered blasphemous4 ,two weeklies1 which were unpopular from the first1 began to be published at ,boston early in #ahca4 ,kneeland's ,investigator was pledged to contend for the abolition of slavery and advocate the rights of women4 ,it was friendly to labour reform as well as to scientific education1 and opposed capital punishment1 imprisonment for debt1 and legislation about religion2 but its predominant tone has been skeptical to the present day4 ,garrison was too orthodox in #ahca to favour the emancipation of women2 he was in sympathy with other reforms2 but his chief theme was the pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition4 ,the next mistake of his ,liberator was the prominence given to negro insurrection and other crimes against whites4 ,the ,southerners were naturally afraid to have such subjects mentioned1 even in condemnation2 and guilty consciences made slave-holders think the danger much greater than it was4 ,the first number of the ,liberator contained ,garrison's verses about the horrors of the revolt which might bring emancipation4 ,he announced at the same time that he was going to review a recent pamphlet which he described thus3 ,a better promoter of insurrection was never sent forth to an oppressed people4 ,his contributors spoke often of the right of slaves to resist1 and asked1 ,in ,god's name1 why should they not cut their masters' throats8 ,many women and children were massacred by rebel slaves in ,virginia that autumn2 and ,garrison promptly declared that the assassins deserve no more blame than our fathers did for slaughtering the ,british1 and that ,when the contest shall have again begun1 it must again be a war of extermination4 ,similar language was often used in the ,liberator afterwards4 ,garrison was too firm a non-resistant to go further than this2 but the majority of ,northerners would have agreed with the ,reverend ,doctor ,wayland1 ,president of ,brown ,university1 who declared slavery very wicked1 but declined to have the ,liberator sent him1 and wrote to ,mr4 ,garrison that its tendency was to incite the slaves to rebellion4 ,of course this was not the editor's intention2 but history deals mainly with causes and results4 ,the consequences were especially bad at the ,south4 ,calhoun and other ,democrats were striving to unite all her people in resistance to emancipation1 as well as to protectionism4 ,they appealed to the insurrection in #ahca1 and to the treatment of this subject in the ,liberator1 as proofs that abolitionism was incendiary2 and the feeling was so intense in ,georgia1 that the ,governor was authorised by the ,legislature1 before the end of #ahca1 to offer five thousand dollars for the head of the editor or of any of his agents in that ,state4 ,southerners were generally provoked at such comparisons of slave-holders to thieves as were often made in the ,liberator and were incorporated into the formal declaration made by ,garrison and the other founders of the ,new ,england ,anti-,slavery ,society at ,boston early in #ahcb4 ,planters friendly to emancipation were discouraged by ,garrison's insisting that they ought not to have compensation1 an opinion which was adopted by the ,american ,anti-,slavery ,society at its organisation at ,philadelphia in #ahcc4 ,such protests on moral grounds were of great use to politicians who opposed any grant of money for emancipation1 because they wished to preserve slavery4 ,the national ,constitution provided that emancipation should not take place in any ,state which did not give its consent2 and this was much less attainable in #ahce than it had been ten years earlier4 ,so fierce was the hatred of anti-slavery periodicals1 that many pounds of them were taken from the ,charleston post-office and burned by the leading citizens in ,july1 #ahce2 and this action was praised by a public meeting1 which was attended by all the clergy4 ,the papers were printed in ,new ,york1 and do not seem to have been destroyed on account of their own mistakes1 but of those made by the ,liberator4 ,southern postmasters refused after this to deliver any anti-slavery matter2 and their conduct was approved by the ,postmaster-,general1 as well as by the ,president4 ,the legislatures of ,north ,carolina and ,virginia demanded1 in the session of #ahce and #ahcf1 that all such publications be suppressed legally by the ,northern ,states4 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,alabama took the same course2 and it was agreed everywhere that abolitionists were to be lynched4 ,loyalty to slavery was required of all preachers and editors2 no other qualification for every office1 in the service either of the nation or of the ,state1 was exacted so strictly2 other controversies lost interest2 and men who would have gained greatly from the introduction of free labour helped the slave-holders silence those intelligent ,southerners who knew what urgent need there was in their section of emancipation for the general welfare4 ,garrison1 meantime1 made both friends and enemies at the ,north4 ,he had the support of nearly four hundred anti-slavery societies in #ahce2 but some of these had been founded in ,ohio by ,lundy on the principle of gradual emancipation1 and others in ,new ,york by ,jay1 whose main objects were repeal of the ,fugitive ,slave ,act and emancipation in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,agitation for immediate abolition without compensation was nowhere active at that time1 except in ,new ,england4 ,the highest estimate of its partisans in #ahdj was only two hundred thousand2 most of them had already renounced the leadership of ,garrison2 and there is no reason to believe that the number of his thorough going followers ever reached one hundred thousand4 ,most of the original abolitionists were church members2 and the agitation was never opposed1 even at first1 by so large a proportion of the clergy at the ,north as of the people generally4 ,several ministers joined ,garrison at once2 #abe enrolled their names for publication as abolitionists in #ahcc2 and two years later he had the open support of the ,new ,england ,methodist ,conference1 the ,maine ,baptist ,convention1 and the ,detroit ,presbytery1 as well as of many ,congregationalists1 and of most of the ,quakers1 ,unitarians1 and ,free-,will ,baptists4 ,preaching against slavery was not common in denominations where the pastor was more liable to be gagged by ecclesiastical superiors4 ,one reason that this authority1 as well as that of public opinion in the ,northern cities1 was directed against agitation1 was the pressure of business interests4 ,the ,south sent most of her products1 especially cotton1 to manufacturers or merchants in ,philadelphia1 ,new ,york1 and ,new ,england4 ,this region in return supplied her with clothes1 tools1 and furniture4 ,much of her food came from the ,western farmers2 and these latter were so unable to send grain or cattle eastward until after #ahej1 that the best road for most of them to market was the ,mississippi4 ,the slave-holders were such good customers1 that people along the ,ohio ,river1 as well as in ,eastern seaports and factory towns1 were slow to see how badly the slaves were oppressed4 ,enlightenment on this subject1 as well as about capacity for free labour1 was also delayed by prejudices of race and colour1 while there was much honest ignorance throughout the ,north4 ,what was best understood about slavery was that it was merely a ,state institution1 not to be abolished or even much ameliorated by the national ,government4 ,the main responsibility rested accordingly upon the ,southern ,states2 and the danger that these might be provoked to secede could not be overlooked4 ,these considerations prevented the majority of the ,northerners1 and especially the leading members of every sect1 from opposing slavery as actively as they would otherwise have been glad to do4 ,the most active partisan of the slave-holders was the politician who knew they had votes in ,congress and in the electoral college for all the whites in the ,south and also for three-fifths of the coloured people4 ,the views of the ,democratic party about the tariff1 the bank1 and ,state rights had made it in #ahcb victorious everywhere south of ,maryland and ,kentucky2 and its preponderance in the cotton ,states1 as well as in ,virginia1 enabled it long to resist the growing disaffection at the ,north4 ,the ,whigs went far enough in the same course for their own destruction2 and the principle of individual liberty found few champions4 ,,vii4 ,politicians and merchants worked together in getting up the series of mobs against abolitionists1 which began in #ahcc1 under the lead of a ,methodist bishop in ,new ,york1 and kept breaking out in that city1 ,philadelphia1 ,cincinnati1 ,boston1 and less important places1 until they culminated in the burning of ,pennsylvania ,hall in #ahch4 ,after that year1 they were neither frequent nor violent4 ,the worst crime of the rioters was murdering a clergyman named ,lovejoy in #ahcg for trying to save his printing-press4 ,most of the ,baptist1 ,methodist1 and ,presbyterian preachers and editors were now doing what they could to suppress the agitation2 but the riots called out no indignation like that which had poured forth from all the churches in #ahbh against ,sunday mails4 ,there was little freedom of speech for unpopular opinions in ,america in #ahce1 when ,channing declared that the mob against ,garrison had made abolitionism the cause of ,freedom4 ,there were many readers1 even in the ,south1 for the little book in which he insisted that ,slavery ought to be discussed4 ,he protested against depriving the slave of his right to improve and respect himself1 and vindicated the sacredness of individual man4 ,he was the first to appeal from the ,fugitive ,slave ,law to that everlasting and immutable rule of right revealed in conscience4 ,and few other clergymen gave such help to ,john ,quincy ,adams1 who was then asserting the right of petition and of discussion in ,congress4 ,memorials with a hundred and fifty thousand signatures had been presented against the annexation of ,texas1 and in favour of emancipation in the ,district of ,columbia1 when it was voted by all the ,southern ,representatives1 as well as by the ,northern ,democrats1 in ,january1 #ahcg1 that all petitions relating to slavery shall be laid on the table and no action taken thereon4 ,the ex-,president1 who was then a ,representative from ,massachusetts1 protested indignantly1 as did other ,whigs1 and they continued to plead for the constitutional rights of the ,north until #ahdd1 when the gag-rule was abolished4 ,on ,july #d1 #ahcg1 ,adams told the people that ,freedom of speech is the only safety-valve which1 under the high pressure of slavery1 can preserve your political boiler from a fearful explosion4 ,the number of names1 including many repetitions1 signed in the next two years to anti-slavery petitions was two millions4 ,emancipation in the ,district of ,columbia was out of the question1 if only because the ,south chose half the ,senate4 ,the ,north was strong enough in the ,house of ,representatives to prevent any pro-slavery legislation2 and the annexation of ,texas was actually postponed until #ahde1 in consequence partly of the petitions and partly of remonstrances from the legislatures of ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and other ,states4 ,these bodies also protested against the neglect of petitions in ,congress4 ,the subsidence of mobs after #ahch was due to a general feeling at the ,north1 not only that the rioters were too violent1 but also that the ,south was too dictatorial in gagging ,congress1 in tampering with the mails1 in asking ,northern legislatures to suppress public meetings1 and in trying to annex ,texas4 ,,viii4 ,on all these points the ,whigs were so far in advance of the ,democrats in #ahdj1 as to receive much support from abolitionists4 ,these last1 however1 were widely and unfortunately divided among themselves4 ,many of the men still called themselves ,democrats2 for the old party which had been founded by ,jefferson had liberal members1 who had formerly been called ,fanny ,wright men1 and were now known as ,loco ,focos4 ,a few abolitionists took the ,gospel aphorisms about non-resistance so blindly as to say it would be a sin for them to vote4 ,garrison renounced the franchise for conscience sake and the slave's2 but it is hard to see precisely what any slave gained by his friends' refusing to vote for ,adams1 ,sumner1 or ,lincoln4 ,the most consistent abolitionists voted regularly1 and selected a candidate for his work in the cause1 without regard to his party record4 ,the ,democrats took decided ground in the national convention of #ahdj and afterwards against abolitionism4 ,their nominee1 ,van ,buren1 was then at the head of a corrupt administration4 ,the ,whig candidate1 ,harrison1 was in favour of free speech and honest government4 ,he had been chosen in preference to ,clay1 because of the latter's attacking the abolitionists4 ,another slave-holder who wanted to lynch them1 had1 however1 been nominated by acclamation for ,vice-,president at the ,whig convention2 and the party had no platform4 ,it is hard to see what ought to have been done under these circumstances by abolitionists4 ,some who were afterwards known as ,liberty men set up an independent ticket1 headed by a martyr to the cause4 ,they had quite as much right to do this as ,garrison had to refuse to vote4 ,he had hitherto taken little responsibility for the proceedings of the national society2 but when the annual meeting was held at ,new ,york in ,may1 #ahdj1 he brought on more than five hundred of his own adherents from ,new ,england1 in order to pack the convention4 ,thus he secured the passage of a declaration that the independent nominations were injurious to the cause and ought not to be supported4 ,garrison has justly been compared to ,luther1 and this was like ,luther at his worst4 ,most of the officers and members seceded and organised a rival society which did good work in sympathy not only with the ,liberty men but with the ,free ,soilers2 and these parties gained most of the new converts to abolitionism4 ,in #ahdg the ,liberator published without comment an estimate that it did not represent the views of one active abolitionist in ten2 and a coloured clergyman of high ability1 ,dr4 ,garnett1 declared in #ahea that the proportion was less than one per cent4 ,most of the clergymen who were friendly to ,garrison before #ahdj were thenceforth against him4 ,so many pulpits were suddenly closed against the agitators1 that one of them1 named ,foster1 kept insisting on speaking in meeting without leave in various parts of ,new ,england4 ,he was usually dragged out summarily1 and often to the injury of his coat-tails1 though never of his temper4 ,boston was one of the most strongly anti-slavery cities2 but twenty pastors out of forty-four refused to asked the people to pray for a fugitive slave who was imprisoned illegally in #ahdb4 ,those who complied had comparatively little influence4 ,the rural clergy in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 ,michigan1 and ,northern ,ohio1 had much more sympathy with reform than their brethren to the southward1 especially in large cities4 ,garrison's personal unpopularity in the churches had been much increased by his violent language against them1 and also by his asserting the injustice of ,sunday laws1 as well as the right of women to speak for the slave4 ,his position on these points will be considered later4 ,,ix4 ,his worst mistake was the demand1 which he published in the ,liberator1 in ,may1 #ahdb1 for a repeal of the ,union between ,northern ,liberty and ,southern ,slavery4 ,this he called essential for emancipation4 ,in ,january1 #ahdc1 the ,massachusetts ,anti-,slavery ,society passed the resolution which was afterwards published regularly in the ,liberator as the ,garrisonist creed4 ,it declared the ,union a covenant with death and an agreement with hell which should be immediately annulled4 ,this position was held by ,garrison1 ,phillips1 and their adherents until #ahfa4 ,it was largely due1 like their refusal to vote1 to indignation at the support given to slavery by the national ,constitution1 the ,fugitive ,slave ,act1 and some recent legislation at ,washington4 ,garrison was also confident1 as he said at a ,disunion convention in #aheg1 that if the ,south were to secede1 she would not be able to hold a single slave one hour after the deed is done4 ,phillips1 too1 declared that ,all the slave asks of us is to stand out of his way4 ,let no cement of the ,union bind the slave1 and he will right himself4 ,it is true that secession brought on emancipation2 but it would not have done so if ,phillips and ,garrison had succeeded in quenching love of the ,union in the ,north4 ,that patriotic feeling burst out in a fierce flame2 and it was the restoration of the ,union which abolished slavery4 ,another important fact is that the chief guilt of slavery rested on the ,south4 ,the national ,government was only an accessory at worst4 ,no ,northerner was responsible for any clause in the ,constitution which he had not sanctioned1 or for any action of ,congress which he had done his best to prevent4 ,the best work against slavery which could be done in #ahdc and #ahdd was to defeat a new attempt to annex ,texas4 ,this scheme was avowedly for the extension of slavery over a great region where it had been prohibited by ,mexico4 ,there would probably be war with that country2 and success would increase the power of the slave-holders in the ,senate4 ,one half of its members were from the slave ,states in #ahdd2 but annexation was rejected in ,june by a vote of two to one2 and the ,house of ,representatives was plainly on the same side1 though otherwise controlled by the ,democrats4 ,public warning of the danger to liberty had been given by ,adams and other ,whigs in ,congress early in #ahdc2 but little heed was taken either by the clergy or by the ,garrisonists4 ,both were too busy with their own plans4 ,channing died in #ahdb2 and ,parker went to ,europe in ,september1 #ahdc4 ,it was not until two months later that the ,liberator found room for ,texas4 ,garrison never spoke against annexation until too late2 and it was scarcely mentioned in the ,may meetings of #ahdc at ,new ,york and ,boston1 in the one hundred anti-slavery conventions which were held that summer in ,western ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana1 with the powerful aid of ,frederick ,douglass1 or in the one hundred conventions in ,massachusetts early in #ahdd4 ,at the ,may meeting in ,new ,york1 ,foster said he should rejoice to see ,texas annexed2 and ,phillips exulted in the prospect that this would provoke the ,north to trample on the ,constitution4 ,annexation had been opposed by three candidates for the presidency3 ,birney1 who had already been selected by the ,liberty men2 ,van ,buren1 who was rejected soon after on this account by the ,democrats2 and ,clay1 who had already been accepted by the ,whigs4 ,all three were formally censured1 under various pretexts1 in company with ,john ,quincy ,adams1 at this and other gatherings of the ,garrisonians4 ,their convention soon after in ,boston voted ten to one for disunion1 and closed on ,june #ast with the presentation to ,garrison of a red flag bearing on one side the motto1 ,no ,union with ,slave-holders1 and on the other an eagle wrapped in the ,american flag and trampling on a prostrate slave4 ,two months later1 and three before the election1 this banner was carried through gaily decorated streets in ,hingham1 amid ringing of church bells1 to a meeting attended by several thousand disunionists4 ,the ,garrisonians thought so much about getting out of the ,union1 that they had nothing to say in favour of keeping out ,texas4 ,among the few abolitionists who saw the duty of the hour were ,whittier and ,lowell4 ,the full force of their poetry was not much felt before #ahej2 but among the stirring publications early in #ahdb was a ,rallying-,cry for ,new ,england against the ,annexation of ,texas1 which ,lowell sent forth anonymously4 ,it was reprinted in ,harper's ,weekly for ,april #bc1 #ahib1 but not in the earlier editions of the poems4 ,among the most striking lines are these3 ,rise up ,new ,england1 buckle on your mail of proof sublime1 ,your stern old hate of tyranny1 your deep contempt of crime4 ,one flourish of a pen1 ,and fetters shall be riveted on millions more of men4 ,one drop of ink to sign a name1 and ,slavery shall find ,for all her surplus flesh and blood a market to her mind4 ,awake ,new ,england6 ,while you sleep1 the foe advance their lines1 ,already on your stronghold's wall their bloody banner shines4 ,awake and hurl them back again in terror and despair6 ,the time has come for earnest deeds3 we 've not a man to spare4 ,if the ,whigs had nominated ,webster that ,may1 on a platform opposing both annexation and disunion1 they would have gained more votes at the ,north than they would have lost at the ,south4 ,they might possibly have carried that election2 and their strength in the ,border ,states would have enabled them1 sooner or later1 to check the extension of slavery without bringing on civil war4 ,their platform was silent about ,texas1 as well as about the ,union2 their chief candidate1 ,clay1 had already made compromises in the interest of the ,south in #ahbj and #ahcc2 he did so again in #ahej2 and he admitted1 soon after the convention1 that he should be glad to see ,texas annexed1 if it could be done without war4 ,this failure of the ,whigs to oppose the extension of slavery1 together with their having made the tariff highly protective in #ahdb1 cost them so many votes in ,new ,york and ,michigan that they lost the election4 ,negligence and dissension at the ,north had enabled the ,south to set aside ,van ,buren in favour of ,polk at the ,democratic convention4 ,the party was pledged to annex ,texas2 and ,northern members were appeased by a crafty promise that all which was worth having in ,british ,america1 west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 should be acquired also4 ,the declaration in the platform of #ahdj1 that the government ought not to foster one branch of industry to the detriment of others1 was repeated in #ahdd1 as often afterwards1 but it was so cunningly explained away in ,pennsylvania that this ,state voted for the ,president who signed the low-tariff bill of #ahdf4 ,the election of #ahdd strengthened the influence of the ,south4 ,texas was soon annexed by the same ,congress which had refused to do so previously1 and was admitted like ,florida1 as a slave ,state1 in spite of remonstrances made by the legislatures of ,massachusetts and ,vermont1 as well as by two-thirds of the ,unitarian ministers4 ,in ,march1 #ahdf1 ,polk's army invaded ,mexico2 her soldiers resisted2 the ,democrats in ,congress voted that she had begun the war1 which lasted for the next eighteen months2 and the ,whigs assented reluctantly4 ,most of the volunteers were ,southerners1 and there was much opposition at the ,north to warfare for the extension of slavery4 ,the indignation was increased by the publication of ,whittier's pathetic poem1 ,the ,angels of ,buena ,vista1 as well as of that series of powerful satires1 ,lowell's ,biglow ,papers1 ,the greatest achievement of literary genius thus far in ,america was the creation of ,birdofre-dom ,sawin2 and no book except ,mrs4 ,stowe's famous novel did so much for emancipation4 ,a foremost place among abolitionists was taken by ,parker in #ahde1 when he began to preach in ,boston4 ,his first sermon against the war with ,mexico was delivered the same month as the publication of the first of the ,biglow ,papers1 ,june1 #ahdf4 ,early in #ahdg he spoke with such severity1 at an indignation meeting in ,faneuil ,hall1 that his life was threatened by drunken volunteers4 ,other preachers that year in ,massachusetts followed his example so generally as to win praise from the ,garrisonians1 as well as from the most patriotic abolitionists2 and great effect was produced by his ,letter to the ,people1 which showed1 early in #ahdh1 that slavery was ruining the prosperity1 as well as the morals1 of the ,south4 ,more about his work may be found in ,chapter ,v4 ,there we shall see how active the ,transcendentalists were in carrying on the revolt begun by ,channing4 ,the most important victory for liberty recorded in this chapter was that of #ahdd over the protectionists4 ,the defeat of the ,garrisonians was due largely to their mistakes2 and there was urgent need of a new anti-slavery movement on broader ground4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,emancipation ,,the revolutionary movements of #ahdh did much to encourage love of liberty in ,america1 where the anti-slavery agitation was now becoming prominent in politics4 ,the indignation against the ,mexican war increased as it was found that nothing would be done to keep the promise of #ahdd1 that ,great ,britain should be excluded from the ,pacific4 ,the purpose of the ,south1 to enlarge the area of slavery but not that of freedom1 was so plain that the northern ,democrats proposed the ,wilmot ,proviso1 by which slavery would have been forbidden in all territory acquired from ,mexico2 and they actually carried it through the ,house of ,representatives1 with the help of the ,whigs1 in #ahdf4 ,similar action was taken by the legislatures of ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 and seven other ,states4 ,the ,senate was so unwilling to have slavery prohibited anywhere as to oppose1 merely on this account1 a bill for giving a territorial government to ,oregon4 ,i4 ,many of the ,new ,york delegates to the national ,democratic convention in #ahdh came pledged to uncompromising hostility to the extension of slavery1 and were so badly treated that they withdrew4 ,cass was nominated as a friend to the ,south2 the ,mexican war was declared just and necessary2 and abolitionism was denounced1 as it had been in #ahdj and #ahdd4 ,van ,buren was nominated soon after by the anti-slavery ,democrats4 ,a similar movement had already been made by ,sumner1 ,wilson1 and other men who were known as conscience ,whigs1 and who had some support from ,clay and ,webster4 ,both these candidates for the presidency were set aside in favour of a slave-holder1 who had been very successful in conquering ,mexico1 but never cast a vote4 ,in fact1 ,general ,taylor had taken so little interest in politics1 that he was supported in the ,north as a friend1 and in the ,south as an enemy1 to the ,wilmot ,proviso4 ,no opinion on this or any other question could be extorted from the majority2 ,wilson declared in the convention that he should do all he could to defeat its nominee2 the conscience ,whigs made an alliance with the ,van ,buren ,democrats2 and the new movement was joined by the ,liberty men1 whose vote of sixty thousand had decided the election of #ahdd4 ,thus was formed the ,free ,soil party1 whose fundamental idea1 like that afterwards held by the ,republicans1 was preservation of the ,union by checking the extension of slavery4 ,douglass and other ,garrisonists were present at the ,free ,soil convention1 where he was invited to speak4 ,the new party pledged itself to ,free ,soil1 ,free ,speech1 ,free ,labour1 and ,free ,men4 ,the national ,government was to relieve itself of all responsibility for slavery1 and begin by prohibiting its extension4 ,there should be no more slave ,states1 no more slave territory1 and no more compromises with slavery4 ,the convention also demanded that ,oregon should be organised as a territory with free labour only2 and this was granted at once by ,president ,polk and both ,houses of ,congress4 ,most of the members of the convention were ,transcendental enough to think that wisdom must be spontaneous2 and their scorn of political machinery left it to be used for making ,van ,buren the candidate4 ,lowell1 who was then at his height of productiveness1 complained that1 ,he aint half anti-slav'ry 'nough2 but ,whittier exclaimed1 that ,september3 ,now joy and thanks forever more6 ,the dreary night has well-nigh passed3 ,the slumbers of the ,north are o'er3 ,the giant stands erect at last6 ,the anti-slavery vote was nearly five times as large as in #ahdd4 ,cass would have been elected if the ,free ,soilers had supported him in ,new ,york4 ,their hostility gave that ,state1 as well as ,vermont and ,massachusetts1 to ,taylor1 who thus became ,president4 ,he also carried ,georgia and seven other ,southern ,states2 but the ,west was solidly ,democratic4 ,it was not an anti-slavery victory1 but a pro-slavery defeat4 ,,ii4 ,the first question before the new ,president and ,congress was about ,california4 ,the discovery of gold1 before the country was ceded by ,mexico1 had brought in crowds of settlers1 but scarcely any slaves4 ,unwillingness to have another free ,state prevented ,polk and his ,senate from allowing ,california to have any better government than a military one2 and this was deprived of all authority by the desertion of the soldiers to the diggings4 ,the settlers knew the value of a free government1 and made one independently4 ,the constitution which they completed in ,october1 #ahdh1 was so anti-slavery that it was not sanctioned for nearly two years by ,congress4 ,meantime there was no legal authority in ,california to levy taxes1 or organise fire departments1 or arrest criminals4 ,robberies and conflagrations were numerous2 the mushroom cities were not graded1 paved1 or lighted2 the uncertainty of titles to land caused fights in which lives were lost2 and criminals became so desperate that several were lynched by a ,vigilance ,committee4 ,the duty of admitting ,california as a free ,state was urged upon the new ,congress in ,december1 #ahdi1 by ,taylor1 who promised to make an unexpectedly good ,president4 ,this plan had become so popular at the ,north that it was recommended by the ,democratic ,state conventions of ,massachusetts and ,wisconsin1 as well as by the legislature of every ,northern ,state1 except ,iowa4 ,the ,house of ,representatives could easily have been carried2 for the ,whigs and ,free ,soilers constituted a majority1 and would have had some help from ,northern ,democrats4 ,the ,senate would probably not have consented until after another appeal to the people2 but this might have been made with success at the elections of #ahej4 ,taylor had carried ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,louisiana1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,maryland1 and ,delaware4 ,the last two ,states had permitted some ,free ,soil votes to be cast2 this was also the case in ,virginia2 and anti-slavery meetings had been held publicly in ,st4 ,louis4 ,the pro-slavery defeat in #ahdh encouraged ,southerners who knew the advantage of free labour to agitate for emancipation4 ,the convention held for this purpose in ,kentucky1 in #ahdi1 was attended by delegates from twenty-four counties2 and its declaration that slavery was injurious to the prosperity of the ,commonwealth1 was endorsed by ,southern newspapers4 ,clay himself proposed a plan of gradual emancipation2 and such a measure was called for1 according to the ,richmond ,southerner 7quoted in ,hoist's ,constitutional ,history1 vol4 iii41 p4 #dcc71 by two-thirds of the people of ,virginia4 ,admissions that ,kentucky must be free1 that ,delaware and ,maryland are now in a transition1 preparatory to becoming free ,states1 and that ,emancipation is inevitable in all the farming ,states1 where free labour can be advantageously used1 were published in #ahec1 at ,new ,orleans1 in ,de ,bow's ,industrial ,resources of the ,southern and ,western ,states 7vols4 i41 p4 #djg2 ii41 p4 #caj2 ,hi41 p4 #fj74 ,a book which was written soon after by a ,north ,carolinian named ,helper1 and denounced violently in ,congress1 shows how much those ,southerners who did not hold slaves would have gained by emancipation2 and what was so plainly for the interest of the majority of the voters would have been established by them1 sooner or later1 if it had not been for the breaking out of civil war4 ,how much danger there was1 even in #ahdi1 to slave-holders is shown by their threats to secede4 ,they wished to increase the hostility between ,north and ,south in order to check the spread southwards of ,northern views4 ,it was in this spirit that ,senators and ,representatives from the cotton ,states demanded a more efficient law for returning fugitives4 ,most of the thirty thousand then at the ,north had come from ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri2 and these ,states were invited to act with their southern neighbours against abolitionism4 ,there were very few secessionists at this time1 except in ,south ,carolina1 ,mississippi1 and ,texas4 ,president ,taylor was so popular at the ,south1 and so avowedly ready to take command himself against rebels1 that no army could have been raised to resist him4 ,webster declared1 in ,february1 #ahej1 that there was no danger of secession2 and the same opinion was held by ,benton of ,missouri1 ,seward1 and other ,senators4 ,there was not enough alarm at the ,north to affect the stock-market4 ,all that the ,whigs needed to do for the ,union was to sustain it with all the strength which they could use for that purpose at the ,south4 ,if they had also insisted that ,california should be admitted unconditionally1 they would soon have had support enough from ,northern ,democrats in ,congress4 ,the demand for a national party of freedom was urgent4 ,the ,free ,soilers were too sectional2 but the ,whigs had so much influence at the ,south that they could have checked the extension of slavery without bloodshed2 and this would have ensured the progress of emancipation4 ,,iii4 ,all this might have been done if ,clay's hatred of the abolitionists1 who had refused to make him ,president1 had not made him try to cripple them by another compromise4 ,he proposed that ,california should be admitted at once and without slavery2 that it should be left to the settlers in ,utah and ,new ,mexico to decide whether these territories should ultimately become free or slave ,states2 that ,texas should receive a large sum of money1 as well as a great tract of land which she had threatened to take from ,new ,mexico by force2 and1 worst of all1 that a new fugitive-slave bill should be passed4 ,the law then on the statute books left the question whether the defendant should be enslaved to be decided by a magistrate elected by the people or appointed by the governor2 and the court was so apt to be restricted by local legislation or public opinion1 that recovery of fugitives was practically impossible in ,new ,england4 ,the new law retained the worst provision of the old one2 namely1 that no jury could be asked to decide whether the defendant had ever been a slave4 ,the principal change was that the judge was to come into such close relations with the national administration as to be independent of the people of the ,state4 ,in short1 fugitive slaves were to be punished1 and disloyal ,texans rewarded1 in order that ,california might get her rights4 ,this plan was approved by ,webster1 who hoped that the grateful ,south would make him ,president1 and then help him restore those protective duties which had been removed in #ahdf4 ,other ,northerners called the compromise one-sided2 and so did men from those cotton ,states which were to gain scarcely anything4 ,president ,taylor would yield nothing to threats of rebellion4 ,it was not until after his death that ,clay's proposals could be carried through ,congress2 and it was necessary to present them one by one4 ,the bill by which ,california was admitted1 in ,september1 #ahej1 was sandwiched in between those about ,texas and the fugitives4 ,the latter were put under a law by which their friends were liable to be fined or imprisoned2 but the new ,fugitive ,slave ,act had only three votes from the northern ,whigs in the ,house of ,representatives2 and there were only four ,senators who actually consented to all ,clay's propositions4 ,the compromise seemed at first to have silenced both secessionists and abolitionists4 ,the latter were assailed by worse mobs in ,boston and ,new ,york than had been the case in these cities for many years4 ,the rioters were sustained by public opinion2 enthusiastic ,union meetings were held in the large cities2 and ,webster's course was praised by leading ministers of all denominations1 even the ,unitarian4 ,abolitionism had apparently been reduced to such a position that it could lead to nothing but civil war4 ,parker complained1 in ,may1 #ahej1 that the clergy were deserting the cause4 ,phillips spoke at this time as if there were no anti-slavery ministers left4 ,i once heard friendly hearers interrupt him by shouting out names like ,parker's and ,beecher's4 ,he smiled1 and began counting up name after name on the fingers of his left hand2 but he soon tossed it up1 and said with a laugh1 ,i have not got one hand full yet4 ,webster's friends boasted that ,satan was trodden underfoot2 but the compromise was taken as an admission by the ,whigs that their party had cared too little about slavery4 ,many of its adherents went over1 sooner or later1 to the ,democratic party1 which had at least the merit of consistency4 ,about half of the ,free ,soilers deserted what seemed to be a lost cause2 but few if any went back to help the ,whigs4 ,the latter did not elect even three-fourths as many members of ,congress in ,november1 #ahej1 as they did in #ahdh2 and they fared still worse in #aheb4 ,democratic aid enabled the ,free ,soilers in #ahea to send ,sumner to represent them in the ,senate1 in company with ,hale and ,chase4 ,seward had already been sent there by the anti-slavery ,whigs1 and had met ,webster's plea for the constitutionality of the new ,fugitive ,slave ,law by declaring that ,there is a higher law than the ,constitution4 ,sumner maintained in ,washington1 as he had done in ,boston1 that the ,constitution as well as the moral law forbade helping kidnappers4 ,he was never a disunionist2 but he insisted that ,unjust laws are not binding2 and he was supported by the mighty influence of ,emerson4 ,the effects of ,transcendentalism will be so fully considered in the next chapter but one1 that ,i need speak here merely of what it did to encourage resistance to the new law which made philanthropy a crime4 ,the penalties on charity to fugitives were so severe as to call out much indignation from the rural clergy at the ,north4 ,in ,november1 #ahej1 the ,methodist ministers of ,new ,york ,city agreed to demand the repeal of the law2 and ,parker wrote to ,fillmore1 who had been made ,president by ,taylor's death1 that among eighty ,protestant pastors in ,boston there were not five who would refuse hospitality to a slave4 ,the first hunters of men who came there met such a resistance that they did not try to capture the fugitives4 ,a negro who was arrested was taken by coloured friends from the court-house2 and a second rescue was prevented only by filling the building with armed hirelings1 surrounding it with heavy chains under which the judges were obliged to stoop1 and finally calling out the militia to guard the victim through the streets of ,boston4 ,a slaveholder who was supposed to be trying to drag his own son back to bondage1 was shot dead by coloured men in ,pennsylvania4 ,other fugitives were rescued in ,milwaukee and ,syracuse4 ,the new law lost much of its power in twelve months of such conflicts2 and it was reduced almost to a dead letter by ,personal ,liberty bills1 which were enacted in nearly every ,northern ,state4 ,the compromise was not making the ,north and ,south friends1 but enemies4 ,the hostility was increased by the publication of the most influential book of the century4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin had attracted much attention as a serial2 and three thousand copies were sold on the day it appeared in book form1 ,march #bj1 #aheb4 ,there was a sale that year of two hundred thousand copies1 which were equally welcome in parlour1 nursery1 and kitchen4 ,dramatic versions had a great run2 and one actress played ,little ,eva at more than three hundred consecutive performances4 ,some of the most effective scenes were intended to excite sympathy with fugitive slaves4 ,the total number of votes for all parties did not increase one-third as fast between #ahdh and #aheb as between #aheb and #ahef1 when many of ,uncle ,tom's admirers went to the polls for the first time4 ,the ,whigs were so much ashamed of their party1 that they permitted every ,state1 except ,massachusetts1 ,vermont1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee to be carried by the ,democrats4 ,the latter had the advantage1 not only of unity and consistency as regards slavery1 but of having made their low tariff so much of a success that there was another reduction in #aheg4 ,the two parties had been made nearly equal in ,congress by the election of #ahdh2 but the proportion was changed four years later1 to two to one1 and the beaten party soon went to pieces4 ,the ,free ,soil candidates and platform were singularly good in #aheb2 yet the vote was but little more than one-half as large as in #ahdh4 ,there was no election between #ahce and #ahfe when anti-slavery votes seemed so little likely to do any immediate good4 ,the compromise looked like an irreparable error2 and many reformers thought they could do nothing better than vote with the ,democrats for free trade4 ,,iv4 ,the victors in #aheb might have had many years of supremacy1 if they had kept true to the ,jeffersonian principle of ,state rights4 ,they were consistent in holding that the position of coloured people in each ,state ought to be determined by the local majority4 ,the rights of ,northerners had been invaded by the new law1 which forbade hospitality to fugitives and demanded participation in kidnapping2 but this wrong might have been endured if the ,south had not denied the right of ,kansas to become a free ,state4 ,this was guaranteed by the compromise of #ahbj1 which had been kept by the ,north4 ,early in #ahed1 ,senator ,douglas of ,illinois proposed that the compact should be repudiated1 and that it should be left for future settlers to decide whether there should be freedom or slavery in a region ten times as large as ,massachusetts1 with a fertile soil and a climate warm enough for negro labour4 ,there was such prompt and intense indignation throughout the ,north at this breach of faith1 that ,douglas said he could find his way from ,chicago to ,boston by the light of the bonfires in which he was burned in effigy4 ,the difference of opinion between city and country clergy ceased at once4 ,an ,episcopalian bishop headed the remonstrance which was signed by nearly every minister in ,new ,york ,city4 ,two other bishops signed the ,new ,england protest in company with the presidents of ,yale1 ,brown1 ,williams1 and ,amherst1 with the leaders of every ,protestant sect1 and with so many other clergymen that the sum total rose above three thousand1 which was four-fifths of the whole number4 ,five hundred ministers in the ,north-west signed a remonstrance which ,douglas was obliged to present2 and so many such memorials came in from all the free ,states1 as to show that there was very little pro-slavery feeling left among the clergy1 except in the black belt north of the ,ohio4 ,one-half of the ,northern ,democrats in the ,house of ,representatives refused to follow ,douglas4 ,leading men from all parties united to form the new one1 which took the name of ,republican on ,july #f1 #ahed1 and gained control of the next ,house of ,representatives4 ,it was all the more popular because it began on the sole basis of the non-extension of slavery4 ,victory over the ,south could be gained only by uniting the ,north2 but ,garrison still kept on saying1 ,if we would see the slave-power overthrown1 the ,union must be dissolved4 ,on ,july #d1 #ahed1 two days before the ,republican party adopted its name1 he burned the ,constitution of the ,united ,states amid several thousand spectators4 ,then it was that ,thoreau publicly denied his allegiance to ,massachusetts1 which was already doing its best to save ,kansas4 ,emigrants from ,new ,england were sent into that territory so rapidly that the ,douglas plan seemed likely to hasten the time when it would be a free ,state4 ,the ,south had insisted on the rights of the settlers2 but they were outvoted1 in ,november1 #ahed1 and afterwards1 by bands of armed ,missourians1 who marched off when they had carried the election4 ,the ,free ,state men were then supplied with rifles2 and an anti-slavery constitution was adopted by the majority of actual residents4 ,the minority were supported by the ,president1 as well as by the border-ruffians2 two rival governments were set up2 and civil war began early in #ahee4 ,lawrence1 the principal town in ,kansas1 was sacked by command of the ,united ,states ,marshal1 the most important buildings burned1 and much private property stolen4 ,five settlers1 whose threats of violence had offended ,john ,brown1 were slain in cold blood by him and his men1 in retaliation for the ,lawrence outrage1 in ,may1 #ahef4 ,anarchy continued2 but the new ,state was not admitted until #ahfa4 ,prominent among the ,northerners who insisted on the right of ,kansas to govern herself1 was ,sumner4 ,his speech in the ,senate in ,may1 #ahef1 was so powerful that half a million copies were printed as campaign literature1 and ,whittier said1 ,it has saved the country4 ,the orator had attacked some of his colleagues with needless severity2 and on the day after the sack of ,lawrence1 he was assaulted by a ,representative from ,south ,carolina in the ,senate ,chamber with such ferocity that he could not return to his seat before #ahfj4 ,this cruel outrage against freedom of speech was universally applauded throughout the ,south4 ,there was indignation enough at the ,north in #ahef to have given the election to the ,republicans1 if the field had been clear2 but ,protestant bigotry enabled the ,south to choose the ,president who failed to oppose rebellion4 ,the ,catholics had objected as early as #ahdj to the ,protestantism which was taught1 in part at their expense1 to their children in the public schools4 ,some ways in which this was done then have since been abandoned2 but the principal controversy has been about using a book which is universally acknowledged to be a bulwark of ,protestantism4 ,there would not be so much zeal at present for having it read daily in the schools1 if it has no religious influence2 and our ,catholic citizens have a right to prefer that their children should be taught religion in ways not forbidden by their ,church4 ,pupils have not had much moral or even religious benefit from school-books against which their conscience rebelled1 however unreasonably4 ,the ,catholic position in #ahda1 according to ,bishop ,hughes1 afterwards ,archbishop1 was this3 ,we do not ask money from the school fund2--all our desire is that it should be administered in such a way as to promote the education of all and leave the various denominations each in the full possession of its religious rights over the minds of its own children4 ,if the children are to be educated promiscuously1 as at present1 let religion in every shape and form be excluded4 ,the ,catholics soon changed their ground1 and demanded that their parochial schools should be supported by public money4 ,this called out the opposition of a secret society1 which insisted on keeping the ,bible in the schools and excluding ,catholics from office4 ,the ,know ,nothings had the aid of so many ,whigs in #ahed as to elect a large number of candidates1 most of whom were friendly to the ,republicans4 ,the leaders wished to remain neutral between ,north and ,south2 but it is hard to say whether the pledge of loyalty to the ,union did not facilitate the capture of the organisation by the insatiable ,south early in #ahef4 ,beecher had already declared that the ,know ,nothing lodges were catacombs of freedom in which indignation against slavery was stifled4 ,the presidential election showed that the outburst of bigotry had done more harm to friends than enemies of liberty4 ,the ,democrats lost ,maryland1 but gained ,pennsylvania and four other ,northern ,states4 ,this enabled them to retain the ,presidency and the ,senate1 as well as to recover the ,house of ,representatives1 where they had become weaker than the ,republicans4 ,the party of freedom polled eight times as many votes as in #aheb1 and made its first appearance in the electoral colleges4 ,it carried eleven ,states4 ,the ,whigs had accepted the ,know ,nothing nominee2 and both these neutral parties soon dissolved4 ,anarchy in ,kansas had been suppressed by ,united ,states dragoons2 but they did not prevent the adoption of a pro-slavery constitution by bogus elections4 ,buchanan promptly advised ,congress to admit ,kansas as a slave ,state1 and declared she was already as much one as ,georgia or ,south ,carolina4 ,this opinion he based on the ,dred ,scott decision by the ,supreme ,court1 that ,congress had no power to prohibit slavery in any territory4 ,douglas insisted on the right of the people of ,kansas to vote slavery up or down4 ,they were enabled by the joint efforts of ,republicans and ,northern ,democrats to have a fair chance to say whether they wished to become a slave ,state or remain a territory2 and the latter was preferred by four-fifths of the voters4 ,v4 ,the ,south called ,douglas a traitor2 but leading ,republicans helped the ,illinois ,democrats1 in #aheh1 to elect the ,legislature which gave him another term in the ,senate4 ,he might have become the next ,president if his opponent in the senatorial contest1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 had not led the ,republican party into the road towards emancipation4 ,on ,june #af1 #aheh1 he said1 in the ,state convention3 ,a house divided against itself cannot stand4 ,i believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free4 ,i do not expect the ,union to be dissolved--,i do not expect the house to fall--but ,i do expect it will cease to be divided4 ,it will become all one thing or all the other4 ,seward took the same position1 four months later1 in his speech about the irrepressible conflict4 ,lincoln held that summer and autumn a series of joint debates with his opponent1 before audiences one of which was estimated at twenty thousand4 ,the speeches were circulated by the ,republicans as campaign documents2 and ,lincoln's were remarkable1 not only for his giving no needless provocation to the ,south1 but for his proving that slavery ought not to be introduced into any new territory or ,state by local elections4 ,he represented ,douglas as really holding that if one man chooses to enslave another no third man has any business to interfere2 and he repudiated the decision in the ,dred ,scott case1 that coloured people had no rights which the white man was bound to respect4 ,he had more votes that fall than ,douglas2 but the latter's friends were enabled by the district system to control the ,legislature4 ,douglas was sent back to the ,senate4 ,lincoln gained the national reputation which made him ,president4 ,the congressional elections were more favourable to the ,republicans than in #ahef1 for ,northern indignation was growing under the stimulus1 not only of the new wrong to ,kansas1 but of attempts to annex ,cuba and revive the slave trade4 ,plans for emancipation were still discussed in the ,south2 and the agitation had reached even ,texas4 ,helper's ,impending ,crisis had gained circulation enough in his own ,state1 ,north ,carolina1 to alarm the slaveholders4 ,they knew that they constituted only three-tenths of the ,southern voters1 and that the proportion was less than one-sixth in ,maryland4 ,helper proved that emancipation would be greatly to the advantage of many men who held slaves1 as well as of all who did not4 ,when this was found out by the majority in any ,southern ,state1 slavery would begin to fall by its own weight4 ,it had been kept up by popular ignorance2 but the prop was crumbling away4 ,this way of emancipation might have been long2 but it would have led to friendly relations between whites and blacks1 as well as between ,north and ,south4 ,what was most needed in #ahei was that all friends of freedom should work together1 and that no needless pretext should be given for secession4 ,garrison still insisted on disunion1 and predicted that the ,south would not be able to hold a single slave one hour after the deed is done1 but he also maintained1 as most abolitionists did1 that nothing would be more foolish than trying to excite a slave insurrection4 ,precisely this greatest of blunders was committed at ,harper's ,ferry4 ,if the attempt had been made six months later1 or had had even a few weeks of success1 it might have enabled the slaveholders to elect at least one more ,president4 ,the bad effect1 in dividing the ,north1 was much diminished by ,john ,brown's heroism at his trial and execution2 but great provocation was given to the ,south1 and especially to ,virginia1 which soon turned out to be the most dangerous of the rebel ,states4 ,business men were driven ,north by the dozen from cities which were preparing for war4 ,the quarrel between ,northern and ,southern ,democrats kept growing fiercer2 and the party broke up at the convention for #ahfj into two sectional factions with antagonistic platforms and candidates4 ,douglas still led the opposition to those ,southerners who maintained that the nation ought to protect slavery in the territories4 ,a third ticket was adopted by neutrals who had been ,whigs or ,know ,nothings1 and who now professed no principle but a vague patriotism4 ,the ,republicans remained pledged to exclude slavery from the territories2 but they condemned ,john ,brown1 and said nothing against the ,fugitive ,slave ,law or in favour of emancipation in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,their leaders had favoured free trade in #aheg2 but the platform was now made protectionist1 in order to prevent ,pennsylvania from being carried again by the ,democrats4 ,illinois and ,indiana were secured by the nomination of ,lincoln4 ,he was supported enthusiastically by the young men throughout the ,north3 public meetings were large and frequent2 torchlight processions were a prominent feature of the campaign4 ,the wealth and intellect of the nation1 as well as its conscience1 were now arrayed against slavery2 but the clergy are said to have been less active than in #ahef4 ,lincoln had the majority in every ,northern ,state1 except ,new ,jersey1 ,california1 and ,oregon4 ,he also had #ag1jbh votes in ,missouri1 and #hjdb in other slave ,states which had sent delegates to the ,republican convention4 ,not one of the ,southern electors was for ,lincoln2 but he would have become ,president if all his opponents had combined against him4 ,,vi4 ,the ,south had nothing to fear from ,congress before #ahfc1 but she had lost control of the ,north4 ,kansas would certainly be admitted sooner or later2 and there would never be another slave ,state1 for the ,republican plan for the territories was confirmed by their geographical position4 ,the free ,states might soon become so numerous and populous as to prohibit the return of fugitives1 abolish slavery in the ,district of ,columbia1 repeal the clause of the ,constitution which allowed representation for slaves1 and forbid their transportation from ,state to ,state4 ,it was also probable1 in the opinion of ,salmon ,p4 ,chase1 afterwards ,secretary of the ,treasury1 and of many leading ,southerners1 that under ,federal patronage there might soon be a majority for emancipation in ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and other ,states 7see ,life of ,theodore ,parker1 by ,weiss1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bbi1 #eai74 ,the vote of thanks given to ,parker in #ahee by the hearers of his anti-slavery lecture in ,delaware1 showed that abolitionism would eventually become predominant in the ,senate1 as it was already in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,this prospect was especially alarming to the comparatively few men who owned so many slaves that they could not afford emancipation on any terms4 ,their wealth and leisure gave them complete control of politics1 business1 public opinion1 and social life in the cotton ,states2 where both press and pulpit were in bondage4 ,their influence was much less in the farming ,states than in #ahej2 but they had since come into such perfect union among themselves1 as to constitute the most powerful aristocracy then extant4 ,their number may be judged from the fact that there were in #ahej about six thousand people in the cotton ,states who owned fifty slaves or more each4 ,it was in the interest of these barons of slavery that ,south ,carolina seceded soon after the election1 and that her example was followed by ,georgia and all the ,gulf ,states before ,lincoln was inaugurated4 ,the ,garrisonists wished to have them depart in peace2 but there was a strong and general preference for another compromise4 ,lincoln and other ,republicans insisted that the territories should be kept sacred to freedom1 and that ,the ,union must be preserved4 ,the question was settled by those aggressions on national property which culminated in the bombardment of ,fort ,sumter4 ,lincoln's call to arms was answered by a great uprising of the united ,north4 ,loyalty to the nation burst forth in so fierce a flame that abolitionists who had been trying for many years to extinguish it now welcomed it as the destined destroyer of slavery4 ,war had been declared for the sole purpose of suppressing rebellion2 and nothing more could at first have been attempted without violating the ,constitution4 ,fugitives were sent back promptly by ,federal generals1 and anti-slavery songs forbidden in the camps4 ,this policy seemed necessary to keep the ,north united1 and prevent secession of doubtful ,states4 ,some of those already in revolt might thus1 it was hoped1 be induced to return voluntarily1 or be conquered easily4 ,these expectations were soon disappointed4 ,a few of the slave ,states were kept in subjection by military force2 but the people of the others united in a desperate resistance1 with the aid of the slaves1 who supplied the armies with food and laboured without complaint in camps and forts4 ,but little was accomplished by the immense armies raised at the ,north2 for the discipline was at first lax1 and the generals were inefficient4 ,many defeats of ,union armies by inferior forces showed how difficult it is for a nation that has enjoyed many years of peace to turn conqueror4 ,,vii4 ,the innate incompatibility of war and liberty was disclosed by the unfortunate fact that even ,lincoln was obliged to consent unwillingly to war measures of a very questionable sort2 for instance1 the conscription and that ,legal ,tender ,act which was really a forced loan1 and which has done much to encourage subsequent violations of the right of property by both ,republicans and ,democrats in ,congress4 ,more harm than good was done to the ,union cause by arbitrary arrests for talking and writing against the war4 ,phillips declared1 in ,december1 #ahfa1 that ,the right of free meetings and a free press is suspended in every square mile of the republic4 ,at this moment one thousand men are bastilled4 ,hale and other ,republican ,senators remonstrated2 and so patriotic an author as ,holmes said that teapots might be dangerous1 if the lids were shut4 ,all political prisoners but spies were released by the ,president early in #ahfb2 and there were no more arbitrary arrests except under plea of military necessity4 ,failures of ,union generals encouraged opposition to the war from men who still preferred compromise2 and their disaffection was increased by the passage1 in ,march1 #ahfc1 of a bill establishing a conscription and putting all the people under martial law4 ,the commander of the military district that included ,ohio issued orders which forbade declaring sympathy for the enemy1 and threatened with death all persons within our lines who harbour1 protect1 feed1 clothe1 or in any way aid the enemies4 ,these orders were denounced as unconstitutional at a public meeting before more than ten thousand citizens4 ,many wore badges cut from the large copper coins then in use and bearing the sacred image and superscription of ,liberty4 ,this practice brought the nickname ,copperheads upon people who longed to have the ,south invited back on her own terms4 ,such a policy was recommended at the meeting by ,vallandigham1 who had recently represented ,ohio in ,congress4 ,he called upon the people to vote against the wicked war1 and said he would never obey orders aimed against public discussion4 ,for this speech he was arrested at night1 by soldiers who broke into his house1 tried by court-martial1 and sentenced on ,may #g1 #ahfc1 to imprisonment during the remainder of the war4 ,a writ of habeas corpus was refused by the ,united ,states ,court1 which admitted itself powerless to enforce obedience4 ,at the clang of war1 laws are silent4 ,indignation meetings in great cities voted that ,the ,union cannot be restored without freedom of speech4 ,loyal newspapers regretted that ,vallandigham was under a penalty which will make him a martyr4 ,a petition for his release was sent to ,lincoln1 who had not ordered the arrest and admitted that it was not justified by the speech4 ,he concluded that the culprit's behaviour towards the army had been so dangerous that he had better be sent ,south1 beyond the lines4 ,this was done at once2 but the agitator was allowed to return through ,canada in the last summer of the war4 ,even ,lincoln found it difficult to respect individual liberty under the pressure of military necessity4 ,a strong government was needed2 and that fact has opened the way for ,congress to interfere with private business1 for instance in changing the tariff1 during the latter part of the century much more frequently and extensively than had been done before4 ,another significant fact is that the old controversy about internal improvements has died away since our government was centralised by war2 and much money is wasted under that pretext by ,congress4 ,,viii4 ,the impossibility of putting down the rebellion without interfering with slavery gradually became plain1 even to men who had formerly hated abolitionism4 ,the only question was how to turn what was the strength of the ,confederacy into its weakness4 ,in ,march1 #ahfb1 ,congress forbade the army to return fugitives2 and many thousand fled into the ,union camps1 where they did good service1 not only as teamsters and labourers1 but even as soldiers4 ,the number under arms amounted finally to more than a hundred thousand2 and they did some of the best fighting that took place during the war4 ,the colour prejudice at the ,north yielded slowly2 but the leading ,republicans saw not only the need of more soldiers1 but the justice of setting free the wives and children of men who were risking death for the nation4 ,an ,emancipation ,league was formed during the first gloomy winter of the war2 and ,frederick ,douglass said on the ,fourth of ,july amid great applause3 ,you must abolish slavery1 or abandon the ,union2 for slavery is the life of the rebellion4 ,lincoln was already thinking of setting free the slaves in all the ,states which should continue in rebellion after the close of the year2 and his draft of a proclamation1 announcing this purpose1 was read to the ,cabinet on ,july #bb1 #ahfb4 ,the army in ,virginia had been so unfortunate that summer as to cause a postponement2 but the victory of ,antietam was followed by the publication1 on ,september #bb;d1 of the formal notice that emancipation might be proclaimed on the #ast of ,january4 ,how welcome the new policy was to loyal citizens may be judged from the approbation expressed by the clergy of all denominations1 even the ,new ,school ,presbyterian1 ,episcopalian1 and ,roman ,catholic4 ,when ,new ,year's ,day dawned there was much doubt whether the promise would be fulfilled4 ,abolitionists and coloured people met in ,boston and other cities1 and waited hour after hour1 hoping patiently4 ,it was evening before the proclamation began to pass over the wires4 ,it promised freedom to all slaves in ,arkansas1 ,texas1 ,mississippi1 ,alabama1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,north ,carolina1 besides most of those in ,louisiana and ,virginia4 ,tennessee and some other ,states were not mentioned1 because held to have been brought back into the ,union4 ,there was to be freedom thenceforth wherever the ,stars and ,stripes waved4 ,no wonder that the news caused great audiences to shout or weep with joy1 and many to spend the night in praise and prayer4 ,the ,north was now inspired by motives amply sufficient to justify even a war of conquest2 and her men and money were given freely1 until superiority in resources enabled ,general ,grant to close the war in ,april1 #ahfe4 ,the revolted ,states came back1 one by one1 and left slavery behind4 ,even where it had not been formally abolished1 it was practically extinct4 ,douglass was right in saying ,it was not the destruction1 but the salvation of the ,union1 that saved the slave4 ,an amendment to the ,constitution1 which swept away the last vestiges of slavery1 and made it for ever impossible in the ,united ,states1 was adopted on ,december #ah1 #ahfe4 ,it had been proposed two years before2 but the assent of several ,states then actually in revolt would have been necessary to secure the majority of three-fourths necessary for adoption of an amendment4 ,it was by no means certain that even the nominally loyal ,states would all vote unanimously for emancipation4 ,in order to increase the majority for the ,thirteenth ,amendment1 the admission of ,nevada and ,colorado as ,states was voted by ,congress1 despite some opposition by the ,democrats1 in ,march1 #ahfd4 ,nevada had a population of less than #dc1jjj in #ahgj4 ,there were not #df1jjj people there in #ahij1 and there had been a decline since #ahhj4 ,it is not likely that her inhabitants will ever be numerous enough to justify her having as much power in the ,senate as ,new ,york or ,pennsylvania4 ,senators who represent millions of constituents have actually been prevented from passing necessary laws by ,senators who did not represent even twenty-five thousand people each4 ,nevada is still the worst instance of such injustice2 but it is by no means the only one2 and these wrongs can never be righted1 for the ,constitution provides that4 ,no ,state1 without its consent1 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the ,senate4 ,the ,thirteenth ,amendment did not1 ,i think1 come into force a day earlier than it would have done if ,nevada had never been admitted1 for the bona-fide ,states came forward with unexpected willingness4 ,colorado was not fully admitted before #ahgf4 ,lincoln's favouring the bills for admitting these ,states was a serious error1 though the motive was patriotic4 ,his beauty and grandeur of character make the brightest feature of those dark1 sad years4 ,no name stands higher among martyrs for freedom4 ,,ix4 ,there is no grander event in all history than the emancipation of four million slaves4 ,this was all the more picturesque because done by a conquering army2 but it was all the more hateful to the former owners4 ,they refused to educate or enfranchise the freedmen1 and tried to reduce them to serfdom by heavy taxes and cruel punishments for petty crimes4 ,the ,states which had seceded were kept under military dictators after the war was over2 and their people were forced to accept the ,fourteenth ,amendment1 which gave protection to coloured people as citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahfg there were twenty-one ,northern ,states2 but only ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont gave the ballot freely to illiterate negroes without property4 ,massachusetts had an educational test for all voters2 there were other restrictions elsewhere2 and no coloured men could vote in ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 or the ,north-west4 ,in fact1 very few had ever voted anywhere when ,congress gave the suffrage to all the freed men for their own protection1 with no discrimination against illiteracy4 ,the result of this measure in the ,district of ,columbia was that unscrupulous politicians gained strong support from needy and ignorant voters of all colours4 ,public money was spent recklessly2 taxation became oppressive2 and the public debt grew to alarming size4 ,on ,june #ag1 #ahgd1 when ,grant was ,president and each branch of ,congress was more than two-thirds ,republican1 the ,house of ,representatives voted1 ten to one1 in favour of taking away the suffrage1 not only from the blacks who had received it seven years before1 but even from the whites who had exercised it since the beginning of the century4 ,all local government was entrusted to three commissioners appointed by the ,president and confirmed by the ,senate4 ,there was no opposition2 for the arrangement seemed only temporary4 ,it proved permanent4 ,even taxation without representation has been thought better than negro suffrage2 and the citizens of the national capital remain in #ahii without any voice in their own municipal government4 ,the problem has been still more difficult in those eleven ,states which had to accept negro suffrage1 in or after #ahfg1 as a condition of restoration to the ,union4 ,the extension of franchise made in all the ,states by the ,fifteenth ,amendment1 in #ahgj1 seemed such a blessing to the ,republicans that ,frederick ,douglass was much censured for holding that it might possibly have been attained without special supernatural assistance4 ,it soon became plain1 however1 that ,congress ought to have given the spelling-book earlier than the ballot4 ,the suffrage proved no protection to the freedman2 for his white neighbours found that he could be more easily intimidated than educated4 ,congress tried to prevent murder of coloured voters by having the polls guarded by ,federal troops and the elections supervised by ,united ,states marshals4 ,the ,habeas ,corpus ,act was suspended by ,president ,grant in districts where the blacks outnumbered the whites4 ,it was hard to see what liberty had gained4 ,the negro's worst enemies were his own candidates4 ,they had enormous majorities in ,south ,carolina2 and there1 as ,blaine admits1 they brought shame upon the ,republican party1 and thus wrought for the cause of free government and equal suffrage in the ,south incalculable harm4 ,between #ahfh and #ahgb they added ten millions by wanton extravagance to the ,state debt4 ,large sums were stolen2 taxes rose to six per cent42 and land was assessed far above its value1 with the avowed purpose of taking it away from the whites4 ,such management was agreed at a public meeting of coloured voters under ,federal protection1 in ,charleston1 in #ahgd1 to have ruined our people and disgraced our ,state4 ,negro suffrage was declared by the ,new ,york ,evening ,post to have resulted in organising the ignorance and poverty of the ,state against its property and intelligence4 ,this took place all over the ,south1 and also in ,philadelphia1 ,new ,york1 and other northern cities4 ,here the illiterate vote was largely ,european2 and the corruption of politics was facilitated by the absorption of property-holders in business4 ,there was great need that intelligent citizens of all races1 parties1 and sections should work together to reform political methods sufficiently to secure honest government4 ,some progress has already been made1 but by no means so much as might have been gained if the plundered taxpayers at the ,south had made common cause with those at the ,north in establishing constitutional bulwarks against all swindlers whose strength was in the illiterate and venal vote4 ,unfortunately1 prejudice against negroes encouraged intimidation2 and fraud was used freely by both parties4 ,when elections were doubted1 ,republican candidates were seated by ,federal officials and ,united ,states soldiers4 ,these latter were not resisted2 but the ,southern ,democrats made bloody attacks on the negro militia4 ,one such fight at ,new ,orleans1 on ,september #ad1 #ahgd1 cost nearly thirty lives4 ,what was called a ,republican administration collapsed that day throughout ,louisiana2 but it was soon set up again by the army which had brought it into power4 ,at last the negroes found out that1 whoever might conquer in this civil war1 they would certainly lose4 ,they grew tired of having hostile parties fighting over them1 and dropped out of politics4 ,the ,republicans held full possession of the presidency1 both branches of ,congress1 the ,federal courts1 the army1 the offices in the nation's service1 and most of the ,state governments2 but they could not prevent the ,south from becoming solidly ,democratic4 ,the new governments proved more economical1 and the lives of the coloured people more secure4 ,the last important result of negro suffrage in ,south ,carolina and ,louisiana was an alarming dispute as to who was elected ,president in #ahgf4 ,the ballot has not been so great a blessing to the freedmen as it might have been if it had been preceded by national schools1 and given voluntarily by ,state after ,state4 ,these considerations justify deep regret that emancipation was not gained peaceably and gradually4 ,facts have been given to show that it might have been if there had been more philanthropy among the clergy1 more principle among the ,whigs1 and more wisdom among the abolitionists4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,emerson ,,and ,,other ,,transcendentalists ,i4 ,the best work for liberty has been done by men who loved her too wisely to vituperate anyone for differing from them1 or to forestall the final verdict of public opinion by appealing to an ordeal by battle4 ,such were the men who took the lead in establishing freedom of thought in ,america4 ,very little individual independence of opinion was found there by ,tocqueville in #ahca2 and the flood of new ideas which had already burst forth in ,england was not as yet feeding the growth of originality in ,american literature4 ,this sterility was largely due to preoccupation with business and politics2 but even the best educated men in the ,united ,states were repressed by the dead weight of the popular theology2 and ,channing complained that the orthodox churches were arrayed against intellect4 ,the silence of the pulpit about slavery is only one instance of the general indifference of the clergy to new ideas4 ,we shall see that at least one other reform was opposed much more zealously4 ,the circulation of new books and magazines from ,europe was retarded by warnings against infidelity2 and colleges were carefully guarded against the invasion of new truth4 ,intercourse with ,europe was fortunately close enough for the brightness of her literature and art to attract many longing eyes from ,new ,england4 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,fichte1 ,jean ,paul1 ,mme4 de ,stael1 and ,rousseau won readers in the original1 as well as in translations2 and the influence of ,shelley1 ,wordsworth1 ,coleridge1 and ,carlyle increased rapidly4 ,plato and ,kant found many worshippers1 and a few students4 ,the plain incapacity of orthodoxy to solve the pressing moral and intellectual problems of the day permitted young people who knew nothing about science to welcome the idea that the highest truth is revealed by intuitions which transcend experience and should supersede logic4 ,this system is peculiarly that of ,schelling1 who was then expounding it in ,germany2 but the credit for it in ,america was given to his disciples1 and especially to ,coleridge4 ,a few admirers of these authors formed the ,transcendental ,club in ,boston1 in ,september1 #ahcf2 and the new philosophy made converts rapidly4 ,severity of climate and lack of social amusements favoured introspection4 ,thinkers welcomed release from the tyranny of books4 ,lovers of art were glad of the prospect of a broader culture than was possible in the shadow of ,puritanism4 ,reformers seized the opportunity of appealing from pro-slavery texts and constitutions to a higher law4 ,friends of religion hoped that the gloom of the popular theology would be dispelled by a new revelation coming direct from ,god into their souls4 ,,ii4 ,a mighty declaration of religious independence was made on ,july #ae1 #ahch1 when ,emerson said to the ,unitarian ministers3 ,the need was never greater of new revelation than now4 ,it cannot be received at second hand4 ,there has been noxious exaggeration about the person of ,jesus4 ,cast aside all conformity1 and acquaint men at first hand with ,deity4 ,the old is for slaves4 ,much controversy was called out by the publication of this address4 ,it was preceded by another in which educated men were told that they must believe themselves inspired by the ,divine ,soul which inspires all men4 ,there can be no scholar without the heroic mind4 ,each age must write its own books4 ,emerson had also sent out in #ahcf a pamphlet entitled ,nature2 and one of its first readers has called it an 'open sesame' to all thought1 and the first we had ever had4 ,still more important were the essays on ,heroism and ,self-,reliance1 which were part of a volume published in #ahda4 ,then ,emerson's readers were awakened from the torpor of submission to popular clergymen and politicians by the stern words3 ,whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist4 ,insist on yourself3 never imitate4 ,the soul looketh steadily forwards4 ,it is no follower3 it never appeals from itself4 ,the ,russian ,government was so well aware of the value of these essays as to imprison a student for borrowing them4 ,a ,lord ,mayor in ,england acknowledged that their influence had raised him out of poverty and obscurity4 ,bradlaugh's first impulse to do battle for freedom in religion came from ,emerson's exhortation to self-reliance4 ,the author's influence was all the greater1 because he was already an impressive lecturer4 ,there was much more demand1 both in ,england and in ,america1 between #ahcj and #ahfj1 for literary culture and useful knowledge than was supplied by the magazines and public libraries4 ,the ,americans were peculiarly destitute of public amusements4 ,dancing1 playing cards1 and going to the theatre were still under the ban2 and there was not yet culture enough for concerts to be popular4 ,there was at the same time much more interest1 especially in ,new ,england1 in the anti-slavery movement than has been called out for later reforms2 for these have been much less picturesque4 ,the power with which ,phillips and ,parker pleaded for the slave was enough to make lectures popular2 but ,i have known courses attended1 even in #ahee1 by young people who went merely because there was nowhere else to go1 and who came away in blissful ignorance of the subjects4 ,deeper than all other needs lay that of a live religion4 ,emerson was among the first to satisfy this demand4 ,his earliest lecture1 in #ahcc1 took a scientific subject1 as was then customary2 but he soon found that he had the best possible opportunity for declaring that ,from within1 or from behind1 a light shines through upon things and makes us aware that we are nothing1 but the light is all4 ,invitations were frequent as early as #ahdd1 though the audience was usually small2 and his genius became generally recognised after his return1 in #ahdh1 from a visit to ,england4 ,there scholarship was high enough to give him1 as early as #ahdd1 thousands of readers for that little book on ,nature1 of which only a few hundred copies had been sold in ,america4 ,invitations to lecture came from all parts of ,great ,britain1 and in such numbers that many had to be declined4 ,the aristocracy of rank as well as of intellect helped to crowd the halls in ,manchester1 ,edinburgh1 and ,london4 ,once at least1 he had more than two thousand hearers4 ,the newspapers reported his lectures at such length that much of his time was spent in writing new ones4 ,he had not intended to be anyone's guest2 but invitations were so numerous and cordial1 that he could seldom escape into solitude4 ,he wrote to his wife1 ,my reception here is really a premium on authorship4 ,success in ,england increased his opportunities1 as well as his courage1 to speak in ,america4 ,invitations grew more and more frequent1 and compensation more liberal4 ,his thrilling voice was often heard1 thenceforth1 in the towns and cities of ,new ,england4 ,in #ahej1 he went to lecture at ,st4 ,louis1 and met audience after audience on the way4 ,during the next twenty years he spent at least two months of discomfort1 every winter1 lecturing in city after city throughout the free ,states4 ,everywhere he gave his best thought1 and as much as possible of it1 in every lecture4 ,logical order seemed less important2 and he spent much more time in condensing than in arranging the sentences selected from his note-books4 ,strikingly original ideas1 which had flashed upon him at various times1 were presented one after another as if each were complete in itself4 ,the intermixture of quotations and anecdotes did not save the general character from becoming often chaotic2 but the chaos was always full of power and light4 ,star after star rose rapidly upon his astonished and delighted hearers4 ,they sometimes could not understand him2 but they always felt lifted up4 ,parker described him in #ahci as pouring forth a stream of golden atoms of thought2 and ,lowell called him some twenty years later the most steadily attractive lecturer in ,america4 ,these young men and others of like aspirations walked long distances to visit him or hear him speak in public4 ,the influence of his lectures increased that of the books into which they finally crystallised4 ,in #ahfj1 he had made his way of thinking so common that his ,conduct of ,life had a sale of #bejj copies in two days4 ,his readers were nowhere numerous1 outside of ,boston2 but they were1 and are1 to be found everywhere4 ,lovers of liberty on both sides of the ,atlantic were brought into closer fellowship by books singularly free from anti-,british prejudice2 but he was so thoroughly ,american that he declared1 even in ,london1 that the true aristocracy must be founded on merit1 for ,birth has been tried and failed4 ,this lecture was often repeated1 and was finally given in #ahha as his last word in public4 ,introspective and retiring habits kept him for some time from engaging actively in the reforms which were in full blast about #ahdj2 but ,lowell said he was the sleeping partner who has supplied a great part of their capital4 ,his words about slavery were few and cold before the ,fugitive ,slave ,bill was passed in #ahej4 ,indignation at this command to kidnap made him publicly advise his neighbours to break the wicked law4 ,he spoke in support of a ,free ,soil candidate in #aheb1 and for the ,republican party in #ahed2 but ,john ,brown called out much more of his praise than any other abolitionist4 ,the attempt of the ,garrisonians to persuade the ,north to suffer the seceders to depart in peace won his active aid2 but the speech which he tried to deliver on their platform1 early in #ahfa1 was made inaudible by a mob of enthusiasts for maintaining the ,union by war4 ,he rejoiced in emancipation2 but it was not achieved until he had lost much of his mental vigour4 ,this1 in fact1 was at its height between #ahdj and #ahej4 ,his last volumes were in great part made up of his earliest writings4 ,there was no change in his opinions2 and his address in #ahch was fully approved by him when he re-read it shortly before his death4 ,his most useful contribution to the cause of reform was the characteristic theory which underlies all he wrote4 ,in the essays published in #ahda1 he states it thus3 ,every man knows that to his involuntary perceptions a perfect faith is due4444 ,we know truth when we see it4 ,from first to last he held that ,books are for the scholar's idle hours4444 ,a sound mind will derive its principles from insight4444 ,truth is always present2 it only needs to lift the iron lids of the mind's eye to read its oracles4 ,this was a doctrine much more revolutionary than ,luther's4 ,emerson proclaimed independence of the ,bible as well as of the ,church4 ,his innate reverence was expressed in such sayings as ,the relations of the soul to the divine spirit are so pure1 that it is profane to interpose helps4 ,love of spontaneity made him declare that ,creeds are a disease of the intellect4 ,it was in his indignation at the ,fugitive-,slave ,law that he said1 ,we should not forgive the clergy for taking on every issue the immoral side4 ,his treatment of religious institutions was not perfectly consistent2 but the aim of all his writings was to encourage heroic thought4 ,he wrote the ,gospel of ,nonconformity4 ,personal knowledge of his influence justified ,bishop ,huntington in saying that he has done more to unsettle the faith of the educated young men of our age and country in the ,christianity of the ,bible than any other twenty men combined4 ,how desirous ,emerson was to have the inner light obeyed promptly and fully may be judged from his describing his own habit of writing as follows3 ,i would not degrade myself by casting about for a thought1 nor by waiting for it4444 ,if it come not spontaneously1 it comes not rightly at all4 ,much of the peculiar charm of his books is due to his having composed them thus4 ,again and again he says3 ,it is really of little importance what blunders in statement we make1 so only that we make no wilful departure from the truth4444 ,why should ,i give up my thought1 because ,i cannot answer an objection to it8444 ,with consistency1 a great soul has simply nothing to do4444 ,speak what you think now in hard words1 and to-morrow speak what to-morrow thinks in hard words again1 though it contradict everything you said to-day4444 ,i hope in these days we have heard the last of conformity and consistency4 ,let the words be444 ridiculous henceforward4 ,this is not meant for mere theory4 ,we are told often that ,virtue is the spontaneity of the will4444 ,our spontaneous action is always the best4444 ,the only right is what is after my own constitution1 the only wrong what is against it4 ,,iii4 ,the passages quoted in the last paragraph are of great importance2 for they did more than any others to abolish slavery4 ,its defenders appealed to the ,bible as confidently as to the national ,constitution2 but the ,garrisonians declared with ,emerson1 that ,the highest virtue is always against the law4 ,they were confident that they knew the truth as soon as they saw it1 and had no need to answer objections4 ,the same faith in spontaneous impressions inspired the suffragists1 of whom the next chapter will give some account4 ,agitations against established institutions sprang up thickly under the first step of ,transcendentalism4 ,church1 ,state1 family ties1 and business relations seemed all likely to be broken up4 ,lowell says that ,everybody had a mission 7with a capital ,m7 to attend to everybody else's business4444 ,conventions were held for every hitherto inconceivable purpose4 ,communities were established where everything was to be in common but common sense4 ,the popular authors about #ahdj were mostly ,transcendentalists2 and nearly every ,transcendentalist was a ,socialist4 ,some forty communities were started almost simultaneously2 but not one-half lasted through the second year4 ,one of the first failures was led by a man who had been working actively against slavery1 but who had come to think that the only way to attack it was to try to do away with all private property whatever4 ,brook ,farm lasted half a dozen years1 with a success due partly to the high culture of the inmates1 and partly to some recognition of the right of private ownership4 ,the general experience1 however1 was that a ,transcendentalist was much more willing to make plans for other people1 than to conform in his own daily life to regulations proposed by anyone else4 ,the very multiplicity of the reforms1 started in the light of the new philosophy1 did much to prevent most of them from attaining success4 ,we have seen how slavery was abolished2 but no one should regret the failure of most of the ,transcendentalist schemes4 ,the subsidence of ,socialism was especially fortunate on account of the frankness with which matrimony was repudiated by the system most in vogue1 that of ,fourier4 ,he had followed the spontaneous and instinctive impulses of man with the utmost consistency4 ,other ,socialists have been more cautious2 but the problem of reconciling family ties with communal life has not been solved4 ,some of the ,english ,transcendentalists published a pamphlet recommending systematic encouragement of licentiousness2 and an ,american philosopher1 who turned ,roman ,catholic in #ahdd1 declared that free love was ,transcendentalism in full bloom4 ,the term higher law was used to support the pretence of some obligation more binding than marriage4 ,a free-love convention was held in ,new ,york about #aheg2 and very lax ideas had been already announced by active apostles of spontaneity known as ,spiritualists4 ,no writer has done more to encourage purity of thought than ,emerson4 ,his life was stainless2 but perhaps the best proof of this is his saying1 ,our moral nature is vitiated by any interference of our will2 and again1 ,if the single man plant himself indomitably on his instincts1 and there abide1 the huge world will come round to him4 ,no man ever wrote thus who was not either notoriously corrupt or singularly innocent4 ,policemen and jailers exist largely for the purpose of preventing people from planting themselves on their instincts--for instance1 those which lead to theft1 drunkenness1 and murder4 ,socialism would perhaps be practicable if industry were as natural as laziness4 ,almost all moralists have thought it necessary to insist on constant interference with the instincts4 ,so earnest and able a ,transcendentalist as ,miss ,cobbe gives these definitions in her elaborate treatise on ,intuitive ,morals3 ,happiness is the gratification of all the desires of our nature4 ,virtue is the renunciation of such of them as are forbidden by the moral law4 ,theodore ,parker insisted on the duty of subordinating the low qualities to the higher1 but ,emerson held1 as already mentioned1 that ,virtue is the spontaneity of the will4 ,such language was largely due to his perception that all activity1 however innocent1 of thought and feeling had been too much repressed by the ,puritanical churches1 in whose shadow he was brought up4 ,the same mistake was made in the ,dark ,ages2 and the reaction from that asceticism was notorious during the ,renaissance4 ,the early ,unitarians overrated human nature in their hostility to the ,trinitarians1 who underrated it2 and ,emerson went beyond his original associates in the ,unitarian ministry because he was more ,transcendental4 ,the elevation of his own character encouraged him to hope that our higher qualities are so strong as to need only freedom to be enabled to keep all impure desire in subjection4 ,it was a marked change of tone when in #ahgf he allowed these words to be printed in one of his books3 ,self-control is the rule4 ,you have in you there a noisy1 sensual savage which you are to keep down1 and turn all his strength to beauty4 ,similar passages1 especially a censure of the pruriency of ,fourierism1 occur in essays which were probably written some years earlier1 but were not published until after his death4 ,most of the ,transcendentalists have fortunately acknowledged the duty of self-control much more plainly and readily4 ,it is a fair question whether they were more consistent4 ,how does anyone know which of his instincts and impulses to control and which to cultivate8 ,what better light has he than is given either by his own experience or by that of his parents and other teachers8 ,i acknowledge the power of conscience2 but its dictates differ so much in different individuals as to be plainly due to early education4 ,thus even a ,transcendentalist has to submit himself to experience2 as he would not do if it were really transcended by his philosophy4 ,emerson himself was singularly fortunate in his involuntary perceptions4 ,those of most men are dark with superstition and prejudice4 ,it is what we have heard earliest and oftenest that recurs most spontaneously4 ,if all mankind had continued satisfied to trust the instinct to the end though it can render no reason1 we should still believe in the divine right of kings1 and the supremacy of evil spirits4 ,there would have been very little persecution if men could have known truth when they saw it4 ,parker believed devoutly in the intuitions1 but he said that ,emerson exaggerated their accuracy to such an extent that he discourages hard and continuous thought4 ,some of his followers will be more faithful than he to the false principles which he lays down1 and will think themselves wise because they do not study1 and inspired because they say what outrages common sense4 ,the danger of following instinctive impressions in regard to the currency has been shown in recent ,american politics4 ,anyone who is familiar with scientific methods will see where ,emerson's failed4 ,it is true that he prized highly many of the results of science1 especially the theory of evolution as it was taught by ,lamarck and other forerunners of ,darwin4 ,his inability to see the value of investigation and verification is disclosed plainly2 and he preferred to have people try to build science on ideas4 ,he acknowledged that too much time was given to ,latin and ,greek in college2 but his wishes in regard to study of the sciences were so old-fashioned as to call out a remonstrance from ,agassiz4 ,,iv4 ,how little scientific culture there was before #ahfj may be judged from the rapid growth of ,spiritualism4 ,transcendentalism had shown tremendous strength in helping people escape from the old churches2 but it was of little use in building new ones4 ,churches exist for the express purpose of enabling believers in a common faith to unite in public worship4 ,no society could be so holy as solitude to a sincere ,transcendentalist2 and the beliefs of his neighbours seemed much less sacred than his own peculiar intuitions4 ,exceptional eloquence might make him pastor of a large society2 but it began to decline when he ceased to speak4 ,transcendentalism was excellent material for weathercocks1 but it had to be toughened by adulteration with baser metal before it supplied any solid foundation for a new temple4 ,most of the people who had lost faith in the old churches were longing after some better way of receiving knowledge about the heavenly world4 ,millions of ,americans and ,europeans rejoiced to hear that spirits had begun to communicate by mysterious raps at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 on the last day of ,march1 #ahdh4 ,messages from the departed were soon received in many places2 but the one thing needful was that the room be filled with believers2 and a crowded hall was peculiarly likely to be favoured with strange sounds and sights4 ,here was the social element necessary for founding a new religion4 ,it appealed as confidently as its rivals to miracles and prophecies1 while it had the peculiar attraction of being preached mainly by young women4 ,instinctive impulses were regarded as revelations from the spirit-land1 but not considered infallible except by the very superstitious4 ,the highest authority of an intelligent ,spiritualist has usually been his own individual intuition4 ,some of the earliest lectures on that platform had little faith in anything but science1 and put their main strength into announcing those revelations of geology which have dethroned ,genesis4 ,one of the first teachers of evolution in ,america was a ,spiritualist named ,denton1 who held a public debate in ,ohio1 in #aheh1 when he defended the theory of man's gradual development from lower animals against a preacher named ,garfield1 who became ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,some eminent scientists have become converts to ,spiritualism2 but its general literature has shown little influence from scientific methods of thought4 ,the advocates of the new religion have owed much of their success to impassioned eloquence4 ,opposition to ,christianity has been expressed boldly and frequently4 ,girls of seventeen have declared1 before large audiences1 that all the creeds and ceremonies of the churches are mere idolatry4 ,among the earliest communications which were published as dictated by angels in the new dispensation were denials of the miracles of ,jesus1 and denunciations of the clergy as the deadliest foes of progress4 ,an eminent ,unitarian divine declared in #ahef1 that the doctrines professedly revealed by a majority of the spirits1 whose words we have seen quoted1 are at open war with the ,new ,testament4 ,some moderate ,spiritualists have kept in friendly relations with liberal churches2 but many others have been in active co-operation with the most aggressive of unbelievers in religion4 ,the speakers at the ,spiritualist anniversary in #ahig said to one another1 ,you and ,i are ,christs1 just as ,jesus was1 and claimed plainly that our religion was distinct from every ,christian denomination4 ,spiritualists have all1 ,i think1 been in favour of woman suffrage2 and the majority were abolitionists4 ,some of ,garrison's companions1 however1 deserted in the heat of the battle1 saying that there was nothing more to do1 for the spirits would free the slaves4 ,anti-slavery lecturers in the ,north-west found themselves crowded out of halls and school-houses by trance-speakers and mediums4 ,one of the most eminent of converts made by the latter1 ,judge ,edmonds1 was prominent among the defenders of slavery in the free ,states4 ,freedom from any definite creed or rigid code of morality joined with the constant supply of ever-varying miracles in attracting converts4 ,those in the ,united ,states were soon estimated in millions4 ,spiritualism swept over ,great ,britain so rapidly that it was declared by the ,westminster ,review to give quite as much promise as ,christianity had done1 at the same age1 of becoming a universal religion4 ,no impartial observer expects that now4 ,believers are still to be found in all parts of ,europe and ,south ,america1 and they are especially numerous in the ,united ,states4 ,proselytes do not seem to be coming in anywhere very thickly2 and the number of intelligent men and women who have renounced ,spiritualism1 after a brief trial1 is known to be large4 ,the new religion has followed the old ones into the policy of standing on the defensive4 ,one instance of this is the opposition to investigation4 ,a ,mediums' ,national ,defence ,association was in open operation before #ahij4 ,a leading ,spiritualist paper suggested in #ahgf1 that the would-be inquirer should be tied securely hand and foot1 and placed in a strong iron cage1 with a rope or small chain put tightly about his neck1 and fastened to an iron ring in the wall4 ,early in #ahig1 some young men who claimed to have exposed an impostor1 before a large audience in the ,spiritualist ,temple in ,boston1 were prosecuted by his admirers on the charge of having disturbed public worship4 ,v4 ,during the last quarter of the century1 free love has been much less prominent than before in ,spiritualistic teachings2 but the only ,americans who were able to proclaim liberty without encouraging self-indulgence1 prior to #ahgj1 were the logical and scholarly ,transcendentalists4 ,theodore ,parker1 for instance1 is to be reckoned among the followers of ,hegel rather than of ,schelling2 for he tried by hard study and deep thought to build up a consistent system of religion and morality by making deductions from a few central principles which he revered as great primary intuitions1 held always and everywhere sacred4 ,his faith in his ideas of ,god1 duty1 and immortality was very firm2 and he did his best to live and think accordingly4 ,he began to preach in #ahcf1 the year of the publication of ,emerson's first book1 but soon found his work hindered by an idolatry of the ,bible1 then prevalent even among ,unitarians4 ,familiarity with ,german scholarship enabled him to teach his people to think rationally4 ,his brethren in the ,unitarian ministry were alarmed2 and a sermon which he preached in ,boston against the mediatorship of ,jesus made it impossible for him to occupy an influential pulpit4 ,the lectures which he delivered that year in a hall in the city1 and published in #ahdb1 won the support of many seekers for a new religion4 ,they voted that he should have a chance to be heard in ,boston2 and on ,february #af1 #ahde1 he preached in a large hall to what soon became a permanent and famous congregation4 ,thither1 as ,parker said1 he came to build up piety and morality2 to pull down only what cumbered the ground4 ,his main purpose to the last was to teach the naturalness of religion1 the adequacy of man for his functions without priestly aid1 and1 most important of all1 that superiority of the real ,deity to the pictures drawn in the orthodox creeds1 which ,parker called the infinite perfection of ,god4 ,he was singularly successful in awakening the spirit of religion in men who were living without it1 but the plainness with which he stated his faith1 in sermons which had a large circulation1 called out many attacks4 ,prayers were publicly offered up in ,boston1 asking that the ,lord would put a hook in this man's jaws1 so that he may not be able to preach1 or else remove him out of the way and let his influence die with him4 ,no controversy hindered his labouring systematically for the moral improvement of his hearers1 who sometimes amounted to three thousand4 ,his sermons are full of definite appeals for self-control and self-culture2 and his personal interest in every individual who could be helped was so active that he soon had seven thousand names on his pastoral visiting list4 ,appeals for advice came from strangers at a distance1 and were never neglected4 ,not one of the great national sins1 however popular1 escaped his severe rebuke2 and he became prominent as early as #ahde among the preachers against slavery4 ,he was active in many ways as an abolitionist1 but was not a disunionist4 ,he seldom quitted his pulpit without speaking for the slave2 and every phase of the anti-slavery movement is illustrated in his published works4 ,pro-slavery politicians were as bitter as orthodox clergymen against him2 and he describes himself as continually fired upon for many years from the barroom and pulpit4 ,his resistance to the ,fugitive ,slave ,law caused him to be arrested and prosecuted1 in company with ,wendell ,phillips1 by the officials of the national ,government4 ,desire to awaken the people to the danger that lay in the growth of the national sin made him begin to lecture in #ahdd4 ,invitations flowed in freely2 and he said1 after he had broken down under the joint burden of overwork and of exposure in travelling3 ,since #ahdh1 ,i have lectured eighty or a hundred times each year1 in every ,northern ,state east of the ,mississippi1--once also in a slave ,state and on slavery itself4 ,this was his favourite subject1 but he never missed an opportunity of encouraging intellectual independence2 and he found he could say what he pleased4 ,the total number of hearers exceeded half a million2 among them were the most influential men in the ,north2 and he never failed to make himself understood4 ,no one else did so much to develop that love of the people for ,union and ,liberty which secured emancipation4 ,his works have no such brilliancy as ,emerson's2 but they burned at the time of need with a much more warm and steady light4 ,no words did more to melt the chains of millions of slaves4 ,no excess of individualism made him shrink back1 like ,emerson1 from joining the abolitionists2 or discredit them1 as ,thoreau did1 by publicly renouncing his allegiance to ,massachusetts in #ahed1 when that ,state stood foremost on the side of freedom4 ,the account of a solitary life in the woods1 which ,thoreau published that year1 has done much to encourage independence of public opinion2 and ,americans of that generation needed sadly to be told that they took too little amusement1 especially out of doors1 and made too great haste to get rich4 ,their history1 however1 like that of the ,swiss1 ,scotch1 and ancient ,athenians1 proves that it is the industrious1 enterprising1 money-making nations that are best fitted for maintaining free institutions4 ,as for individual independence of thought and action1 the average man will enjoy much more of it1 while he keeps himself in comfortable circumstances by regular but not excessive work1 than he could if he were to follow the advice of an author who prided himself on not working more than about six weeks in a year1 and on enduring privations which apparently shortened his days4 ,thoreau's self-denial was heroic2 but he sometimes failed to see the right of his neighbours to indulge more expensive tastes than his own4 ,the necessary conditions of health and comfort for different individuals vary much more than he realised4 ,many a would-be reformer still complains of the luxury of people who find physical rest or mental culture in innocent ways1 not particularly to his own fancy4 ,such censures are really intolerant4 ,they are survivals of that meddlesome disposition which has sadly restricted freedom of trade1 amusement1 and worship4 ,we have had only one ,emerson2 but many scholarly ,transcendentalists have laboured to construct the new morality needed in the nineteenth century4 ,parker's work has peculiar interest1 because done in a terrible emergency2 but others have toiled as profitably though less famously4 ,the search after fundamental intuitions has led to a curious variety of statements which agree only in the assumption of infallibility2 but the result has been the general agreement of liberal preachers in teaching a system of ethics at once free from superstition1 bigotry1 or asceticism1 and at the same time vigorous enough to repress impure desire and encourage active philanthropy4 ,theology has improved in liberality1 as well as in claiming less prominence4 ,thus the clergy have come into much more friendly relations with the philosophers than in the middle of the century4 ,our popular preachers quote ,emerson2 but really they follow1 though often unconsciously1 the methods of ,hegel and ,kant4 ,this increases their sympathy with ,parker1 who has the advantage over ,emerson of having believed strongly in personal immortality4 ,his works are circulated by the very denomination which cast him out4 ,the most popular preachers in many sects openly accept him and ,emerson among their highest authorities4 ,transcendentalism has become the foundation of liberal ,christianity4 ,this agreement is not1 however1 necessary and may not be permanent4 ,hegel's great success was in bringing forward the old dogmas with new claims to infallibility4 ,when some of his disciples showed that his methods were equally well adapted for the destruction of orthodoxy1 ,schelling gave his last lectures in its defence4 ,the singular fitness of traditions for acceptance as intuitions has been proved1 late in the century1 by the ,rev4 ,joseph ,cook in ,boston as well as by many speakers at the ,concord ,school of ,philosophy4 ,the reactionary tendency is already so strong that it may yet become predominant4 ,we must not forget that ,shelley called himself an atheist1 or that among ,hegel's most famous followers were ,strauss and ,renan4 ,who can say whether unbelief1 orthodoxy1 or liberal ,christianity is the legitimate outcome of this ubiquitous philosophy8 ,transcendentalism has been the inspiration of the century4 ,its influence has been mighty in behalf of political liberty and social progress4 ,but there was no inconsistency in ,hegel's opposing the education of women1 and denying the possibility of a great republic1 or in ,carlyle's defending absolute monarchy and chattel slavery1 or in ,parker's successor in ,boston trying to justify the ,russian despotism4 ,transcendentalism is a swivel-gun1 which can be fired easily in any direction4 ,perhaps it can be used most easily against science4 ,the difference in methods1 of course1 is irreconcilable1 as is seen in ,emerson2 and the brilliant results attained by ,herbert ,spencer have been sadly disparaged by leading ,transcendentalists in the conventions of the ,free ,religious ,association1 as well as in sessions of the ,concord ,school of ,philosophy4 ,,vi4 ,the necessary tendency of ,transcendentalism may be seen in the agitation against vivisection1 which was begun in #ahfc by ,miss ,cobbe4 ,she was aided by ,carlyle1 ,browning1 ,ruskin1 ,lecky1 ,mar-tineau1 and other ,transcendentalists1 one of whom1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,channing1 had been prominent in ,america about #ahej4 ,most of the active anti-vivisectionists1 however1 belong to the sex which has been peculiarly ready to adopt unscientific methods of thought4 ,it is largely due to women with a taste for metaphysics or theology that the agitation still goes on in ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states4 ,attempts ought certainly to be made to prevent torture of animals by inexperienced students1 or by teachers who merely wish to illustrate the working of well-known laws4 ,there ought to be little difficulty in securing the universal adoption of such statutes as were passed by ,parliament in #ahgf4 ,vivisection was then forbidden1 except when carried out for the purpose of important discoveries1 by competent investigators duly licensed1 and in regular laboratories4 ,it was further required that complete protection against suffering pain be given by anaesthetics1 though these last could be dispensed with in exceptional cases covered by a special license4 ,the animal must at all events be killed as soon as the experiment was over4 ,this law actually put a stop to attempts to find some antidote to the poison of the cobra1 which slays thousands of ,hindoos annually4 ,professor ,ferrier1 who was discovering the real functions of various parts of the brain1 was prosecuted in #ahha by the ,anti-,vivisection ,society for operating without a license upon monkeys2 but the charge turned out to be false4 ,the real question since #ahgf has been as to whether vivisection should be tolerated as an aid to scientific and medical discovery4 ,darwin's opinion on this point is all the more valuable1 because he hated all cruelty to animals4 ,in ,april1 #ahha1 he wrote to ,the ,times as follows3 ,i know that physiology cannot possibly progress except by means of experiments on living animals2 and ,i feel the deepest conviction that he who retards the progress of physiology commits a crime against mankind4444 ,no one1 unless he is grossly ignorant of what science has done for mankind1 can entertain any doubt of the incalculable benefits which will hereafter be derived from physiology1 not only by man but by the lower animals4 ,look1 for instance1 at ,pasteur's results in modifying the germs of the most malignant diseases1 from which1 as it so happens1 animals will in the first place receive more relief than man4 ,let it be remembered how many lives1 and what a fearful amount of suffering1 have been saved by the knowledge gained of parasitic worms1 through the experiments of ,virchow and others upon living animals4 ,another high authority1 ,carpenter1 says that vivisection has greatly aided physicians in curing heart disease1 as well as in preventing blood-poisoning by taking antiseptic precautions4 ,much has been learned as to the value of hypodermic injections1 and also of bromide of potassium1 chloral1 salicylic acid1 cocaine1 amyl1 digitalis1 and strychnia4 ,some of these drugs are so poisonous that they would never have been administered to human beings if they could not have been tried previously on the lower animals4 ,the experiments in question have recently assisted in curing yellow fever1 sunstroke1 diabetes1 epilepsy1 erysipelas1 cholera1 consumption1 and trichinosis4 ,the ,german professors of medicine testified in a body that vivisection has regenerated the healing art4 ,similar testimony was given in #ahha by the three thousand members of the ,international ,medical ,congress2 and the ,british ,medical ,association has taken the same position4 ,the facts are so plain that an ,english judge1 who was a vice-president of ,miss ,cobbe's society1 admitted that vivisection enlarges knowledge2 but he condemned it as ''displeasing to ,almighty ,god4'' ,it was said to go hand in hand with atheism2 and several of the ,episcopalian bishops1 together with ,cardinal ,manning1 opposed it as irreligious4 ,transcendentalists are compelled by their philosophy to decide on the morality of all actions solely by the inner light1 and not permitted to pay any attention to consequences4 ,many of them in ,england and ,america agreed to demand the total suppression of vivisection1 even should it chance to prove useful4 ,this ground was taken in #ahgg by ,miss ,cobbe's society2 and she declared1 five years later1 in ,the ,fortnightly1 that she was determined to stop the torture of animals1 a grave moral offence1 with the consequences of which--be they fortunate or the reverse--we are no more concerned than with those of any other evil deed4 ,later she said3 ,into controversies concerning the utility of vivisection1 ,i for one refuse to enter2 and she published a leaflet advising her sisters to follow her example4 ,ruskin took the same ground4 ,these hasty enthusiasts were equally indifferent to another fact1 which ought not to have been overlooked1 namely1 that suffering was usually prevented by the use of anaesthetics1 which are indispensable for the success of many experiments4 ,the bill for prohibiting any vivisection was brought into the ,house of ,lords in #ahgi2 ,but was opposed by a nobleman who presided over the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals2 and it was lost by #af votes against #ig4 ,the ,house of ,commons refused even to take action on the subject1 despite four years of agitation4 ,thus the right of scientific research was finally secured4 ,miss ,cobbe was one of the noblest of women2 but even she was made blind by her philosophy to the right of people who prefer scientific methods to act up to their convictions4 ,garrison1 too1 was notoriously unable to do justice to anyone1 even an abolitionist1 who did not agree with him4 ,there is nothing in ,transcendentalism to prevent intolerance4 ,this philosophy has done immense service to the philanthropy as well as the poetry of the nineteenth century2 but human liberty will gain by the discovery that no such system of metaphysics can be anything better than a temporary bridge for passing out of the swamps of superstition1 across the deep and furious torrent of scepticism1 into a land of healthy happiness and clear1 steady light4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,platform ,,versus ,,pulpit ,,during the nineteenth century the authority of preachers and pastors has diminished plainly2 and this is largely due to a fact of which ,emerson spoke thus3 ,we should not forgive the clergy for taking on every issue the immoral side4 ,this was true in ,england1 where the great reforms were achieved for the benefit of the masses1 and against the interest of the class to which most clergymen belonged4 ,the ,american pastor seldom differed from his parishioners1 unless he was more philanthropic4 ,he was usually in favour of the agitation against drunkenness2 and he had a right to say that the disunionism of ,phillips and ,garrison1 together with their systematically repelling sympathy in the ,south1 went far to offset their claim for his support4 ,it was difficult1 during many years1 to see what ought to be done in the ,north4 ,when a practical issue was made by the attack on ,kansas1 the clergy took the side of freedom almost unanimously in ,new ,england1 and quite generally in rural districts throughout the free ,states4 ,the indifference of the ministers to abolitionism1 before #ahed1 was partly due1 however1 to their almost universal opposition to a kindred reform1 which they might easily have helped4 ,i4 ,it was before ,garrison began his agitation that ,frances ,wright denounced the clergy for hindering the intellectual emancipation of her sex2 and her first ally was not ,the ,liberator1 but ,the ,investigatory though both began almost simultaneously4 ,she pleaded powerfully for the rights of slaves1 as well as of married women1 before large audiences in the middle ,states as early as #ahcf1 when these reforms were also advocated by ,mrs4 ,ernestine ,l4 ,rose1 a liberal ,jewess4 ,these ladies spoke to men as well as women2 and so next summer did ,miss ,angelina ,grimke1 whose zeal against slavery had lost her her home in ,south ,carolina4 ,her first public lecture was in ,massachusetts2 and the ,congregationalist ministers of that ,state promptly issued a declaration that they had a right to say who should speak to their parishioners1 and that the ,new ,testament forbade any woman to become a public reformer4 ,their action called out the spirited poem in which ,whittier said3 ,what marvel if the people learn ,to claim the right of free opinion8 ,what marvel if at times they spurn ,the ancient yoke of your dominion8 ,garrison now came out in favour of the rights of women1 and thus lost much of the support which he was receiving from the country clergy generally in ,new ,england4 ,the final breach was in ,may1 #ahdj1 at the meeting of the ,national ,association of ,abolitionists in ,new ,york ,city4 ,there came ,garrison with more than five hundred followers from ,new ,england4 ,they gained by a close vote a place on the business committee for that noble woman1 ,abby ,kelley4 ,ministers and church members seceded and started a new anti-slavery society1 which carried away most of the members and even the officers of the old one4 ,the quarrel was embittered by the vote of censure1 passed at this meeting upon those abolitionists who had dared to nominate a candidate of their own for the presidency without leave from ,mr4 ,garrison2 but the chief trouble came from the prejudice which1 that same summer1 caused most of the members of the ,world's ,anti-,slavery ,convention in ,london1 to refuse places to ,harriet ,martineau and other ladies as delegates4 ,this exclusion was favoured by all the eight clergymen who spoke1 and by no other speakers so earnestly4 ,among the rejected delegates were ,mrs4 ,lucretia ,mott and ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,cady ,stanton2 and they resolved1 that night1 to hold a convention for the benefit of their sex in ,america4 ,the volume of essays which ,emerson published in #ahdd praised the new chivalry in behalf of woman's rights2 and the other ,transcendentalists in ,america came1 one after another1 to the same position4 ,mrs4 ,stanton and ,mrs4 ,mott called their convention in that year of revolutions1 #ahdh1 on ,july #aith4 ,the place was the ,methodist church at ,seneca ,falls1 in central ,new ,york4 ,the reformers found the door locked against them2 and a little boy had to climb in at the window4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence1 adopted on ,july #d1 #aggf1 furnished a model for a protest against the exclusion of girls from high schools and colleges1 the closing of almost every remunerative employment against the sex1 and the laws forbidding a married woman to own any property1 whether earned or inherited by her1 even her own clothing4 ,this declaration was adopted unanimously2 but a demand for the suffrage had only a small majority4 ,not a single minister is known to have been present2 but there were two at a second convention1 that ,august1 in ,rochester1 where the ,unitarian church was full of men and women4 ,there were more than twenty-five thousand ministers in the ,united ,states2 but only three are mentioned among the members of the national convention1 held at ,worcester1 ,massachusetts1 in ,october1 #ahej1 by delegates from eleven ,states4 ,as ,phillips was returning from this meeting1 ,theodore ,parker said to him1 ,wendell1 why do you make a fool of yourself8 ,the great preacher came out a few years later in behalf of the rights of women2 but it was long before a single religious newspaper caught up with ,the ,investigator4 ,how the clergy generally felt was shown in #ahea1 at ,akron1 in northern ,ohio4 ,there ,episcopalian1 ,presbyterian1 ,baptist1 ,methodist1 and ,universalist ministers appealed to the ,bible in justification of the subjugation of women4 ,there was no reply until they began to boast of the intellectual superiority of their own sex4 ,then an illiterate old woman who had been a slave arose and said3 ,what 's dat got to do with women's rights1 or niggers' rights either8 ,if my cup won't hold but a pint1 and yourn holds a quart1 would n't ye be mean not to let me have my little half-measure full8 ,the convention was with her2 but the ,bible argument was not to be disposed of easily4 ,the general tone of both ,testaments is in harmony with the familiar texts attributed to ,paul and ,peter4 ,these latter passages were written1 in all probability1 when the position of women was changing for the better throughout the ,roman ,empire3 and the original words1 asserting the authority of husbands1 are the same as are used in regard to the power of masters over slaves4 ,such language had all the more weight1 because the ministers had been brought up as members of the ruling sex4 ,they may have also been biassed by the fact that their profession depends1 more than any other1 for success upon the unpaid services in many ways of devoted women4 ,emancipation was by no means likely to promote work for the ,church4 ,there was an audience of two thousand at ,syracuse1 in #aheb1 when what was called the ,bloomer ,convention1 on account of the short dresses worn by some members1 took up a resolution1 declaring that the ,bible recognises the rights of women4 ,mrs4 ,rose said that the reform had merits enough of its own1 and needed no justification by any book4 ,a letter was read from ,mrs4 ,stanton1 saying that among the clergy we find our most violent enemies1 those most opposed to any change in woman's position4 ,the accuracy of this statement was readily admitted1 after a reverend gentleman had denounced the infidelity of the movement1 in a speech described as indecent and coarsely offensive in the ,new ,york ,herald2 and the resolution was lost4 ,the lady who offered it was ordained soon after for the ,congregationalist ministry2 but she was obliged to confess1 at the ,woman's ,rights' ,convention1 in #ahec1 that the ,church has so far cast me off1 that to a great extent ,i have been obliged to go to just such infidels as those around me for aid to preach my ,christian views4 ,it was at this meeting that a doctor of divinity1 and pastor of a prominent society1 denounced the reform so violently that ,mr4 ,garrison called him a blackguard and a rowdy1 with the result of having his nose pulled by the champion of the ,church militant4 ,there were many such unseemly manifestations of clerical wrath4 ,the ,history of ,woman ,suffrage1 which was edited by ,mrs4 ,stanton and other leading reformers1 said1 in #ahha3 ,the deadliest opponents to the recognition of the equal rights of women have ever been among the orthodox clergy4 ,the ,unitarians were more friendly2 but ,i do not think that the reform was openly favoured1 even as late as #ahfj1 by one clergyman in a thousand out of the whole number in the ,united ,states4 ,the proportion was even smaller in ,europe4 ,even as late as #ahgh1 it was resolved by the ,woman ,suffrage ,convention at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 that as the first duty of every individual is self-development1 the lessons of self-sacrifice and obedience taught woman by the ,christian ,church have been fatal1 not only to her own vital interests but through her to those of the race4 ,influences were already at work1 however1 which have made the relations of platform and pulpit comparatively friendly in this respect4 ,the women of the ,north showed their patriotism1 during the great war1 by establishing and managing the ,sanitary ,commission1 the ,freedman's ,bureau1 and the ,woman's ,loyal ,national ,league4 ,important elections were carried in #ahfb by the eloquence of ,anna ,e4 ,dickinson1 for the ,republican party2 and it has often since had similar help4 ,the success of the ,women's ,christian ,temperance ,union and other partly philanthropic and partly religious organisations1 has proved the ability of women to think and act independently4 ,many of their demands have been granted1 one by one2 and public opinion has changed so much in their favour1 that they ceased long ago to encounter any general hostility from the clergy in the ,northern ,states4 ,even there1 however1 women still find it much too difficult for them to enter a peculiarly easy1 honourable1 and lucrative profession4 ,their elocutionary powers are shown on the stage as well as the platform4 ,their capacity for writing sermons is plain to every one familiar with recent literature4 ,their ability to preach is recognised cordially in the ,salvation ,army1 as well as by ,spiritualists1 ,quakers1 ,unitarians1 and ,universalists4 ,much of the pastoral work is done by women1 in actual fact2 and more ought to be4 ,the ,sunday-school1 choir1 social gathering1 and other important auxiliaries to the pulpit are almost entirely in female hands4 ,women enjoy practically the monopoly of those kinds of church work for which there is no pay2 and their exclusion from the kind which is paid highly1 in the largest and wealthiest denominations1 looks too much like a preference of clergymen to look after the interest of their own sex4 ,the most orthodox churches are the most exclusive2 and the same forces which are driving bigotry out of the pulpits are bringing women in4 ,this reform is one of many in which a much more advanced position has been taken by ,new ,england and the far ,west than by the ,south2 and the ,american ,transcendentalists led public opinion in the section where most of them lived4 ,in ,great ,britain the struggle has been carried on in the interest of the middle and lower classes1 and under much opposition from the class to which most admirers of philosophy belonged4 ,no wonder that one of the keenest critics of ,transcendentalism was prominent among the champions in ,england of the oppressed sex4 ,john ,stuart ,mill declared1 in his widely circulated book on ,the ,subjection of ,women1 that nobody ever arrived at a general rule of duty by intuition4 ,he held that the legal subjection of wives to husbands bore more resemblance1 as far as the laws were concerned1 to slavery1 than did any other relationship existing in ,great ,britain in #ahfi4 ,he did not argue from any theory of natural rights1 but pointed out the advantage to society of women's developing their capacities freely4 ,he also insisted on the duty of government not to restrict the liberty of any woman1 except when necessary to prevent her diminishing that of her neighbours4 ,this last proposition will be examined in the next chapter4 ,the fact that ,mill's great work for freedom was done through the press1 and not on the platform1 makes it unnecessary to say more about him in this place4 ,,ii4 ,clergymen1 like ,transcendentalists1 in ,england were generally conservative1 or reactionary2 and the friends of reform were much more irreligious than in ,america4 ,their appeal against the authority of ,church and ,bible was not to intuition but to science2 and they were aided by ,lyell's demonstration1 in #ahcj1 that geology had superseded ,genesis4 ,working-men were warned in lectures1 tracts1 and newspapers against immorality in the ,old ,testament2 and even the ,new was said to discourage resistance to oppression and efforts to promote health1 comfort1 and knowledge4 ,the most popular of these champions against superstition and tyranny was ,bradlaugh4 ,he began to lecture in #ahej1 when only seventeen1 and continued for forty years to speak and write diligently4 ,his atheism obliged him to undergo poverty for many years1 and much hardship4 ,he charged no fee for lecturing1 went willingly to the smallest and poorest places1 and was satisfied with whatever was brought in by selling tickets1 often for only twopence each4 ,he once travelled six hundred miles in forty-eight hours1 to deliver four lectures which did not repay his expenses4 ,many a hall which he had engaged was closed against him2 and he was thus obliged to speak in the open air one rainy ,sunday1 when he had two thousand hearers4 ,at such times his voice pealed out like a trumpet2 his information was always accurate2 opposition quickened the flow of ideas2 and he had perfect command of the people's ,english4 ,his great physical strength was often needed to defend him against violence1 sometimes instigated by the clergy4 ,he had much to say against the ,old ,testament2 but no struggle for political liberty1 whether at home or abroad1 failed to receive his support2 and he was especially active for that great extension of suffrage which took place in #ahfg4 ,his knowledge that women would vote against him did not prevent his advocating their right to the ballot2 but it was in the name of the great mass of the ,english people that he was an early supporter of the cause of ,union and ,liberty against the slave-holders who seceded4 ,in #ahff he became president of the ,national ,society of ,secularists1 who believe only in the religion of the present life4 ,most of the members were agnostics2 and one of ,bradlaugh's many debates was with ,holyoake1 the founder of secularism1 on the question whether that term ought to be used instead of atheism4 ,the society was so well organised that only a telegram from the managers was needed to call out a public meeting anywhere in ,england4 ,among ,bradlaugh's hearers in ,america in #ahgc were ,emerson1 ,sumner1 ,garrison1 ,phillips1 and ,o4 ,b4 ,frothingham4 ,he won soon after a powerful ally in a clergyman's wife1 who had been driven from her home by her husband because she would not partake of the communion4 ,mrs4 ,besant began to lecture in #ahgd1 and with views like ,bradlaugh's2 but her chief interest was in woman suffrage4 ,both held strict views about the obligation of marriage2 and their relations were blameless4 ,bradlaugh's place in history is mainly as a champion of the right of atheists to sit in ,parliament4 ,he was elected by the shoemakers of ,northampton in #ahhj1 when oaths of allegiance were exacted in the ,house of ,commons4 ,quakers1 however1 could affirm2 and he asked the same privilege4 ,as this was refused1 he offered to take the oath1 and declared that the essential part would be binding upon my honour and conscience4 ,this1 too1 was forbidden2 but there was much discussion1 not only in ,parliament but throughout ,england1 as to his right to affirm4 ,his friends held two hundred public meetings in a single week1 and sent in petitions with two hundred thousand signatures during twelve months4 ,the liberal newspapers were on his side2 but the ,methodist and ,episcopalian pulpits resounded with denials of the right of atheists to enter ,parliament on any terms4 ,among the expounders of this view in leading periodicals were ,cardinal ,manning and other prominent ecclesiastics4 ,they had the support of the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 as well as of many petitions from ,sunday-schools4 ,public opinion showed itself so plainly that ,brad-laugh was finally allowed by a close vote to make affirmation and take his seat4 ,he was soon forced to leave it by an adverse decision of the judges1 but was promptly re-elected4 ,again he offered in vain to take the oath4 ,after several months of litigation1 and many appeals to audiences which he made almost unanimous1 he gave notice that he should try to take his seat on ,august #c1 #ahha1 unless prevented by force4 ,it took fourteen men to keep him out2 and he was dragged down-stairs with such violence that he fainted away4 ,his clothes were badly torn2 and the struggle brought on an alarming attack of erysipelas4 ,a great multitude had followed him to ,westminster ,hall1 and there would have been a dangerous riot1 if it had not been for the entreaties of ,mrs4 ,besant1 who spoke at ,bradlaugh's request4 ,his next move was to take the oath without having it properly administered4 ,he was expelled in consequence1 but re-elected at once4 ,thus the contest went on1 until the ,speaker decided that every member had a right to take the oath which could not be set aside4 ,bradlaugh was admitted accordingly1 on ,january #ac1 #ahhf2 and two years later he brought about the passage of a bill by which unbelievers were enabled to enter ,parliament by making affirmation4 ,the ,irish members had tried to keep him out2 but this did not prevent his advocating home rule for ,ireland1 and also for ,india4 ,from first to last he fought fearlessly and steadily for freedom of speech and of the press4 ,his beauty of character increased his influence4 ,mrs4 ,besant is right in saying3 ,that men and women are now able to speak as openly as they do1 that a broader spirit is visible in the churches1 that heresy is no longer regarded as morally disgraceful--these things are very largely due to the active and militant propaganda carried on under the leadership of ,charles ,bradlaugh4 ,,iii4 ,similar ideas to his have been presented ever since #ahgj to immense audiences1 composed mostly of young men1 in ,chicago1 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and other ,american cities1 by ,robert ,g4 ,ingersoll4 ,burning hatred of all tyranny and cruelty often makes him denounce the ,bible with a pathos like ,rousseau's or a brilliancy like ,voltaire's4 ,he was decidedly original when he asked why ,jesus1 if he knew how ,christianity would develop1 did not say that his followers ought not to persecute one another4 ,in protesting against subordinating reason to faith1 ,ingersoll says3 ,ought the sailor to throw away his compass and depend entirely on the fog8 ,among other characteristic passages are these3 ,banish me from ,eden when you will1 but first let me eat of the tree of knowledge6444 ,religion has not civilised man3 man has civilised religion4444 ,miracles are told simply to be believed1 not to be understood4 ,ingersoll is not merely a destroyer but an earnest pleader for what he calls the gospel of cheerfulness and good health1 the gospel of water and soap1 the gospels of education1 liberty1 justice1 and humanity4 ,he regards marriage as the holiest institution among men2 but holds that the woman is the equal of the man4 ,she has all the rights ,i have and one more2 and that is the right to be protected4 ,he believes fully in the democracy of the family1 and in allowing the children to think for themselves4 ,he is not so much interested as ,bradlaugh was in political reform and social progress1 but has often taken the conservative side2 and his speaking in public has been more like an occasional recreation than a life-work4 ,some of his lectures have had an immense circulation as pamphlets2 and his ,biblical articles in the ,north ,american ,review attracted much notice4 ,he is never at his best1 however1 without an audience before him2 and he sometimes writes too rapidly to be strictly accurate4 ,,iv4 ,a better parallel to ,bradlaugh is furnished by ,mr4 ,b4 ,f4 ,underwood1 who was only eighteen when he began to lecture in ,rhode ,island4 ,the great revival of #aheg was in full blast2 and he showed its evils with an energy which called down much denunciation from the pulpit4 ,he spoke from the first as an evolutionist1 though ,darwin had not yet demonstrated the fact4 ,to and fro through the ,connecticut valley went the young iconoclast1 speaking wherever he could find hearers1 asking only for repayment of expenses1 and sometimes failing to receive even that4 ,his work was interrupted by the war1 in which he took an active and honourable part4 ,when peace was restored1 he studied thoroughly the ,origin of ,species and the ,descent of ,man2 and he began in #ahfh to give course after course of lectures on ,darwinism in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and ,pennsylvania4 ,the new view had been nine years before the public1 but had received little or no support from any clergyman in the ,united ,states1 or any journal except ,the ,investigator4 ,for thirty years ,mr4 ,underwood has been busily propagating evolutionism on the platform1 as well as in print4 ,no other ,american has done so much to make the system popular1 or has reproduced ,herbert ,spencer's statements with such fidelity4 ,he has taken especial pains to prove that evolution disposes of the theory that the idea of ,god is innate1 as well as of the once mighty argument from design4 ,he has said a great deal about the ,bible and ,christianity1 but in a more constructive spirit than either ,bradlaugh or ,ingersoll4 ,he has discredited old books by unfolding new truth4 ,among his favourite subjects have been3 ,what ,free ,thought ,gives us in ,place of the ,creeds1 ,the ,positive ,side of ,modern ,liberal ,thought1 ,if you ,take away ,religion1 what will you ,give in its ,place8 ,the ,influence of ,civilisation on ,christianity4 ,he has always shown himself in favour of the interests of working-men1 and also of women's rights and other branches of political reform4 ,during the twelve years ending in #ahha1 he lectured five or six times a week for at least nine months out of twelve1 often travelling from ,canada to ,arkansas and ,oregon4 ,occasionally he spoke every night for a month2 but he has seldom lectured in summer1 except when on the ,pacific coast4 ,his lectures in ,oregon in #ahga on evolution awoke much opposition in the pulpits4 ,two years afterwards he held a debate in that ,state against a clergyman who was president of a college1 and who denounced evolution as in conflict with the ,word of ,god4 ,such views were then prevalent in that city2 but in #ahhh it was found by ,mr4 ,underwood to have become the seat of the ,state ,university1 where the new system was taught regularly4 ,underwood1 like ,bradlaugh1 has always challenged discussion1 and he has held over a hundred public debates4 ,the first was in #ahfg2 and some have occupied twenty evenings4 ,most of his opponents have been clergymen2 and a hundred and fifty of the profession were in the audience at one contest in ,illinois in #ahgj4 ,how much public opinion differs in various ,states of the ,union is shown by the fact that nine years later the doors of a hall which had been engaged for him in ,pennsylvania were closed against him1 merely because he was an infidel4 ,his friends broke in without his consent2 and he was fined #gj4 ,the first lecture which he tried to give in ,canada was prevented by similar dishonesty4 ,another hall was hired for the next night at great expense2 but much interruption was made by clergymen2 and when suit was brought for damages through breach of contract1 the courts decided that bargains with unbelievers were not binding in ,canada4 ,both ,bradlaugh and ,underwood have usually spoken extempore1 but both have been busy journalists4 ,the ,american agitator wrote as early as #ahef for both ,the ,liberator and ,the ,investigator4 ,his connection with the latter paper lasted until the time when a serious difference of opinion arose between those aggressive unbelievers who called themselves freethinkers1 or even infidels1 and those moderate liberals who belong to the ,free ,religious ,association1 and formerly supported ,the ,index4 ,this journal came in #ahha under the management of ,mr4 ,underwood4 ,his colleague1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,j4 ,potter1 was nominally his equal in authority2 but ,i know1 from personal acquaintance with both gentlemen1 that the real editor from first to last was ,mr4 ,underwood4 ,it was mainly due to him that much attention was given1 both in the columns of the journal and in the meetings of the association1 to efforts for secularising the ,state4 ,he was in charge of ,the ,index until it stopped at the end of #ahhf4 ,in #ahhb he held a discussion in ,boston with the president of ,williams ,college1 and ,professor ,gray1 the great botanist1 on the relations between evolution and evangelical religion4 ,about four hundred orthodox clergymen were present4 ,in #ahig ,mr4 ,underwood was still in his original occupation4 ,early that year he lectured in ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,ohio1 ,new ,york1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 ,massachusetts1 and ,canada4 ,he now believes1 like ,emerson1 in a higher origin for events than the will ,i call mine4 ,v4 ,the difference of opinion among liberals1 just referred to1 grew out of the agitation for a free ,sunday1 which had been begun by ,frances ,wright in #ahbh4 ,a call for an anti-,sabbath convention in ,boston was issued by some ,transcendentalists in #ahdh1 when men had recently been imprisoned in ,massachusetts for getting in hay1 and in ,pennsylvania for selling anti-slavery books4 ,churches were closed on ,sunday against lecturers for any reform1 however popular2 and even the most innocent amusement was prohibited by public opinion4 ,only a moderate protest had any chance of a hearing2 but ,garrison and the other managers insisted in the call that the first day of the week is no holier than any other1 and refused to allow anyone who did not believe this to speak4 ,very little was said about what the ,sunday laws really were2 but most of the time was occupied with arguments that the ,sabbath was only for the ,jews1 and that keeping ,sunday is not a religious duty4 ,this last assertion called out an earnest remonstrance from ,theodore ,parker2 but his resolutions were voted down4 ,the ,garrisonians insisted1 as usual1 that the big end of the wedge ought to go in first2 and their convention was a failure4 ,twenty-eight years went by without any protest of importance against ,sunday laws in ,america4 ,meantime the ,free ,religious ,association was organised in ,boston by ,unitarian clergymen who were indignant at the recent introduction into their denomination of a doctrinal condition of fellowship4 ,the first public meeting1 on ,may #cj1 #ahfg1 called out an immense audience4 ,emerson was one of the speakers2 and he held his place among the vice-presidents as long as he lived4 ,a similar position was offered to ,lucretia ,mott1 but she declined on the platform4 ,her reason was that practical work was subordinated to theological speculation by the announcement in the constitution that the association was organised to promote the interests of pure religion1 to encourage the scientific study of theology1 and to increase fellowship in the ,spirit4 ,these phrases were altered afterwards2 but the association has always been1 in the words of one of its leading members a voice without a hand4 ,free religious conventions have regularly increased the confusion of tongues in that yearly ,boston ,babel called ,anniversary ,week2 and there have been many similar gatherings in various cities2 but not one in four of these meetings has given much attention to any practical subject1 like the use of the ,bible in the public schools4 ,a vigorous discussion of the ,sunday laws of ,massachusetts took place in #ahgf1 under peculiar circumstances to be described in the next section2 but there was no other until #ahhg4 ,the ,index started in #ahgj2 but it was largely occupied with vague speculations about theology2 and its discontinuance in #ahhf left the association without any organ of frequent communication among its members1 or even an office for business4 ,dr4 ,adler1 who became president in #ahgh1 tried to awaken an interest in unsectarian education1 and especially in ethical culture2 but he resigned on account of lack of support2 and the ,ethical ,culture societies were started outside of the association4 ,comparatively few of its members took any interest in the petitions presented by its direction to the ,massachusetts ,legislature in #ahhd and #ahhe1 asking for taxation of churches1 protection of witnesses from molestation on account of unbelief1 and rescue of the ,sunday law from giving sanctuary to fraud4 ,the president acknowledged in #ahib that there had been a general debility for practical work4 ,there seems to have been a lack of energy among the managers2 and some of the members were too anxious to preserve their individuality1 while others had too much regard for ecclesiastical interests4 ,the ,parliament of ,religions next year1 however1 showed what good the association had done by insisting continually on fellowship in religion1 and keeping its platform open to ,jews1 ,hindoos1 and unbelievers1 as well as to ,christians of every sect4 ,,vi4 ,prominent among the founders of the ,free ,religious ,association was ,francis ,e4 ,abbot1 who lost his place soon after as pastor of an independent society1 because the ,supreme ,court of ,new ,hampshire decided1 on the request of some ,unitarians for an injunction against him1 that his opinions were subversive of the fundamental principles of ,christianity4 ,he was the first editor of ,the ,index2 and there appeared in ,april1 #ahgb1 his statement of what are generally recognised as ,,the ,,demands ,,of ,,liberalism #a4 ,we demand that churches and other ecclesiastical property shall no longer be exempt from just taxation4 #b4 ,we demand that the employment of chaplains in ,congress1 in ,state legislatures1 in the navy and militia1 and in prisons1 asylums1 and all other institutions supported by public money1 shall be discontinued4 #c4 ,we demand that all public appropriations for educational and charitable institutions of a sectarian character shall cease4 #d4 ,we demand that all religious services now sustained by the ,government shall be abolished2 and especially that the use of the ,bible in the public schools1 whether ostensibly as a text-book or avowedly as a book of religious worship1 shall be prohibited4 #e4 ,we demand that the appointment1 by the ,president of the ,united ,states1 or by the ,governors of the various ,states1 of all religious festivals and fasts shall wholly cease4 #f4 ,we demand that the judicial oath in the courts and in all other departments of the ,government shall be abolished1 and that simple affirmation under the pains and penalties of perjury shall be established in its stead4 #g4 ,we demand that all laws directly or indirectly enforcing the observance of ,sunday as the ,sabbath shall be repealed4 #h4 ,we demand that all laws looking to the enforcement of ,christian morality shall be abrogated1 and that all laws shall be conformed to the requirements of natural morality1 equal rights1 and impartial liberty4 #i4 ,we demand that not only in the ,constitutions of the ,united ,states1 and of the several ,states1 but also in the practical administration of the same1 no privilege or advantage shall be conceded to ,christianity or any other special religion2 that our entire political system shall be founded and administered on a purely secular basis2 and that whatever changes shall prove necessary to this end shall be consistently1 unflinchingly1 and promptly made4 ,he knew how unlikely it was that the ,association would agitate for anything2 and in ,january1 #ahgc1 he published a call for organisation of liberal leagues1 in order to obtain the freedom already asked4 ,such leagues were soon formed in most of the ,states1 as well as in ,germany and ,canada4 ,among the members were ,phillips1 ,garrison1 ,lucretia ,mott1 ,higginson1 and other famous abolitionists1 ,karl ,heinzen and other radical ,germans1 several ,rabbis and editors of ,jewish papers1 ,inger-soll1 ,underwood1 the editor of ,the ,investigatory and other active agitators1 several wealthy men of business1 ,collyer1 ,savage1 and other ,unitarian clergymen4 ,hundreds of newspapers supported the movement2 and eight hundred members had been enrolled before a convention of the ,national ,liberal ,league met in ,philadelphia1 on the first four days of ,july1 #ahgf4 ,the managers of the ,international ,exhibition in that city had already decided that it should be closed on ,sunday1 in violation of the rights1 and against the wishes1 of the ,jews1 unbelievers1 and many other citizens4 ,the ,free ,religious ,association had been requested in vain1 at a recent meeting1 to remonstrate against this iniquity4 ,the ,league passed a strong vote of censure without opposition1 and appointed a committee to present a protest which had been circulated during the convention4 ,resolutions were also passed asserting the right of all ,americans to enjoy on ,sunday the public libraries1 museums1 parks1 and similar institutions for the support of which they are taxed1 and demanding that all religious exercises should be prohibited in the public schools4 ,it was under the influence of this example that the ,free ,religious ,association held a special convention on ,november #ae1 #ahgf1 to protest against the ,sunday laws of ,massachusetts4 ,a ,jewish ,rabbi complained that more than two thousand ,hebrew children in ,boston were prevented from keeping holy the day set apart for rest and worship in ,exodus and ,deuteronomy1 and many of them actually obliged by their teachers to break the ,sabbath4 ,this was the effect of the law commanding them to go to school on ,saturday1 which is that seventh day whose observance is required by the fourth commandment4 ,other speakers declared that no legislation was needed to ensure ,sunday's remaining a day of rest4 ,mention was made of the fact that any game1 sport1 play1 or public diversion1 not specially licensed1 on ,saturday evening1 made all persons present liable to be fined4 ,this was already a dead letter2 and the theatres had announced with perfect safety twenty years before1 in their playbills1 ,we defy the law4 ,a few months after this convention1 its influence was shown in the opening of the ,art ,museum free of charge to the people of ,boston1 ,sunday afternoons4 ,thus the ,association began to co-operate with the ,national ,league2 and the latter soon had the support of more than sixty local organisations4 ,the movement for establishing ,equal ,rights in ,religion was uniting ,liberal ,christians1 ,jews1 independent theists1 ,spiritualists1 materialists1 evolutionists1 agnostics1 and atheists4 ,all were willing to call themselves ,freethinkers and work together as they have never done since #ahgg4 ,then the ,league felt itself strong enough to call for taxation of church property1 secularisation of public schools1 abrogation of ,sabbatarian laws1 and also for woman suffrage1 as well as compulsory education throughout the ,united ,states4 ,steps were taken towards nominating ,ingersoll on this platform for ,president of the ,republic4 ,these plans had to be abandoned2 the agitation subsided2 and the harmony between lovers of liberty from various standpoints was lost4 ,a fatal difference of opinion was manifest in #ahgh1 in regard to those ,acts of ,congress called the ,comstock laws4 ,these statutes forbade sending obscene literature through the mails2 and there had been more than a hundred recent convictions4 ,some of the prosecutions were said to have been prompted by religious bigotry2 and there seems to have been unjustifiable examination of mail matter4 ,the most important question was whether the laws ought to be enforced against newspapers and pamphlets about free love and marital tyranny1 which were not meant to be indecent but really were so occasionally4 ,a publisher in ,massachusetts was sentenced in ,june1 #ahgh1 to two years of imprisonment for trying to mail such a pamphlet2 but he was soon released4 ,more severe punishment has been inflicted recently for similar offences4 ,the majority of people in ,america and ,england favoured the exclusion by law of indecent literature from circulation2 and this course has been considered necessary on account of the known frailty of human nature4 ,the members of the ,free ,religious ,association were willing to have the ,comstock laws changed1 but not repealed2 and they voted1 early in #ahgh1 to take no part in what threatened to be an unfortunate controversy4 ,the ,league1 however1 was divided on the question whether these laws ought to be amended or repealed4 ,abbot1 ,underwood1 and other prominent members declared that literature ought to be excluded from the mails or admitted according as it was intentionally and essentially indecent1 or only accidentally so4 ,thus ,ingersoll said3 ,we want all nastiness suppressed for ever2 but we also want the mails open to all decent people4 ,other members held that the ,comstock laws ought to be repealed entirely1 and no restriction put on the circulation of any literature except by public opinion4 ,this must be admitted to agree with the principle that each one ought to have all the liberty consistent with the equal liberty of everyone else2 but this application of the theory cannot be considered politic in agitating for religious freedom4 ,the ,investigator1 ,truthseeker1 and other aggressive papers1 however1 called for complete repeal2 and a petition with this object received seventy thousand signatures4 ,the ,national ,league had voted1 in #ahgf1 that legislation against obscene publications was absolutely necessary1 but that the existing laws needed amendment4 ,the question whether this position should be maintained1 was announced as the principal business to be settled in the convention which met at ,syracuse on ,october #bf1 #ahgh4 ,mr4 ,abbot1 the president1 and other prominent officers declared that they should not be candidates for re-election if the position assumed two years before was not kept4 ,scarcely had the convention met1 when its management passed into the hands of the friends of repeal4 ,they allowed ,judge ,hurlbut1 formerly on the bench in the ,supreme ,court of the ,state1 to argue in favour of closing the mails against publications manifestly designed or mainly tending to corrupt the morals of the young4 ,much respect was due to the author of a book which declared1 in #ahej1 that married women had a right to vote and hold property1 as well as that the ,state cannot rightfully compel any man to keep ,sunday as a religious institution2 nor can it compel him to cease from labour or recreation on that day2 since it cannot be shown that the ordinary exercise of the human faculties on that day is in any way an infringement upon the rights of mankind4 ,on ,sunday morning1 ,october #bgth1 it was agreed that the question of repeal or reform should be postponed until the next annual convention2 but the decision was made a foregone conclusion that afternoon1 when three-fifths of the members voted not to re-elect ,mr4 ,abbot and other champions of reform4 ,the defeated candidates left the convention at once1 as did ,mr4 ,underwood and many other members1 ,judge ,hurlbut taking the lead4 ,a new league was organised by the seceders2 but it was not a success4 ,the movement for amending1 but not repealing1 the ,comstock laws was given up2 and most of those who had favoured it took sides with those who had refused to agitate4 ,there was little interest in ,the ,demands of ,liberalism thenceforth among the ,liberal ,christians1 ,reformed ,jews1 ,transcendentalists1 and evolutionists4 ,these and other moderate liberals refuse to call themselves ,freethinkers2 and they make little attempt at collective and distinctive action4 ,the ,free ,religious ,association did nothing towards secularising the laws of ,massachusetts between #ahgf and #ahhd4 ,the agitation which began in the latter year ended on ,may #bg1 #ahhg1 when the ,sunday laws were discussed at ,boston in a large and enthusiastic convention4 ,the ,legislature had just passed a bill to legalise ,saturday evening amusements1 as well as boating1 sailing1 driving1 use of telegraph1 and sale of milk1 bread1 newspapers1 and medicines on ,sunday2 the signature of the ,governor had not yet been given2 but it was agreed that these changes must be made1 and for the reason that the old restrictions could not be enforced4 ,judge ,putnam1 of the ,state ,district ,court1 told the convention that the ,sunday law1 so called1 has not in a long1 long time been enforced1 except by a prosecution here and there2 and that if it were to be enforced strictly1 the prosecutions would occupy nearly all the week4 ,he opposed any restraint on entertainments not of an immoral tendency4 ,mr4 ,garrison1 son of the famous abolitionist1 declared that ,sunday ought to be the holiday of the week4 ,captain ,adams1 of ,montreal1 said3 ,this is not a mere question how much men may do or enjoy on ,sunday3 it is a question of human liberty1 a question whether ecclesiastical tyranny shall still put its yoke on our necks4 ,the tone was bold1 but thoroughly practical from first to last4 ,an earnest protest against closing the ,chicago ,exposition on the people's day of leisure was made by the ,f4 ,r4 ,a41 in ,may1 #ahic2 and an important victory in behalf of religious liberty was won in #ahih in ,massachusetts4 ,the ,sunday laws of this ,state have been so improved as to permit what are called charity concerts1 and are not made up entirely of ecclesiastical music1 to be given for the pecuniary benefit of charitable and religious societies on ,sunday evenings4 ,the ,legislature which met early in #ahih was asked by representatives of the ,monday ,conference of ,unitarian ,ministers1 the ,women's ,christian ,temperance ,union1 and several other religious organisations to alter the law so as to prevent any but sacred music from being heard on the only evening when many people in ,boston can go to concerts4 ,the officers of the ,f4 ,r4 ,a4 made a formal request to be heard by a committee of the ,legislature through counsel1 who proved that the charity concerts were really unobjectionable1 and that the opposition to them was due entirely to zeal for an ancient text forbidding ,hebrews to labour on ,saturday in ,palestine4 ,the injustice of stretching this prohibition so far as to try to stop concerts on ,sunday evenings in ,america was pointed out by representatives1 not only of the ,f4 ,r4 ,a41 but also of the ,international ,religious ,liberty ,association1 which has been formed to protect ,christians who have kept the ,sabbath on the original day set apart in ,exodus and ,deuteronomy1 from being punished for not prolonging their rest from honest labour over an additional day1 first selected by an emperor whose decrees are not worthy of reverence4 ,this association has offices in ,chicago1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,toronto1 ,london1 ,basel1 and other cities2 and its principles are ably advocated in a weekly paper entitled the ,american ,sentinel4 ,representatives of this organisation assisted those of the ,f4 ,r4 ,a4 in forcing the charity concerts question to be decided on its own merits1 independent of ancient texts4 ,the members of the legislative committee made a unanimous report against suppressing these harmless amusements2 and their opinion was sustained by their colleagues4 ,this victory was duly celebrated at the annual convention of the ,f4 ,r4 ,a41 in ,boston1 on ,may #bg1 #ahih4 ,among the speakers that afternoon was the secretary of the ,i4,r4,l4 ,a41 who said3 ,if any nation under heaven has the right to confiscate one-seventh of my time1 and tell how ,i shall and how ,i shall not use that1 then the whole principle of inherent rights is denied1 and it now is simply a matter of policy whether it shall not confiscate two-sevenths1 three-sevenths1 or seven-sevenths1 and take away all my liberty4 ,since #ahgh1 the agitation for religious equality has been carried on mainly by materialistic atheists and agnostics1 with some assistance from ,spiritualists4 ,these aggressive liberals continue to call themselves to ,liberty in the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,freethinkers1 and to support the ,investigatory ,truthseeker1 and other papers which have much to say against ,sunday laws1 religious use of the ,bible in public schools1 and exemption of churches from taxation4 ,they often reprint ,the ,demands of ,liberalism2 and one of these requests has been so amended in ,canada as to ask for the repeal of all laws directly or indirectly enforcing the observance of ,sunday or the ,sabbath4 ,the attack on the ,comstock laws has subsided2 and no reference was made to them in #ahig in the call for a convention of the organisation which took the place of the whole system of national and local leagues in #ahhe4 ,the name then chosen was ,the ,american ,secular ,union4 ,the words1 and ,freethought ,federation were added in #ahie1 when two kindred associations were consolidated4 ,it was under strong and constant pressure from these aggressive liberals that the great museums of art and natural history in ,new ,york were thrown open on ,sundays to longing crowds4 ,one of the petitions was signed by representatives of a hundred and twelve labour organisations4 ,the trustees of the ,art ,museum were induced to open it in the summer of #ahia by the contribution of #cjjj1 which had been collected by some young ladies for meeting extra expenses4 ,thirty-eight thousand people took advantage1 in ,august1 #ahib1 of their first opportunity to visit the ,museum of ,natural ,history on their one day of leisure2 and these visitors were remarkable for good behaviour4 ,there has been a similar experience in the ,boston ,art ,museum ever since the ,sunday opening in #ahgg4 ,,vii4 ,an exciting contest took place at ,chicago in #ahic4 ,more than fifty nations were co-operating with the people of every one of the ,united ,states in commemorating the discovery of ,america4 ,disreputable politicians had persuaded ,congress to pass a bill1 by which closing the ,exposition on ,sundays was made a condition of receiving aid from the ,national ,treasury4 ,the people of ,chicago had given three times as much1 however1 as ,congress2 and there was much dissatisfaction among those citizens who had bought stock in the enterprise4 ,the grounds had been kept open to visitors for some months1 ,sunday after ,sunday1 until the buildings were formally thrown open on ,may #ast2 and the receipts had been liberal enough to prove that continuance of this course would be greatly to the advantage of these shareholders1 while ,sunday closing might result in heavy loss4 ,during the first three ,sundays of ,may the gates were kept shut by order of the ,board of ,national ,commissioners1 made up of members from every ,state4 ,their action and that of ,congress had been sanctioned by petitions bearing millions of signatures2 but it is a significant fact that the alleged signers in ,pennsylvania were three times as many as the entire population of the ,state4 ,many people had been counted again and again as members of different organisations2 and this fraud was committed in other parts of the country4 ,no attempt to find out what the people really wished was made except in ,texas2 and there the majority was in favour of opening the gates4 ,sabbatarians acknowledged publicly that they got little support from the secular press2 and much opposition was made to them by some of the great dailies1 as well as by the organs of aggressive liberalism4 ,sunday after ,sunday in ,may the gates were surrounded by immense crowds who waited there vainly1 hour after hour4 ,many of them could evidently not come on other days2 and the number was so large that the local directors1 who had been elected by the shareholders1 voted on ,may #afth for opening both gates and doors4 ,this action was warmly approved by the leading citizens of ,chicago at a public meeting2 but ,sabbatarians demanded that visitors be kept out by ,federal bayonets4 ,the ,national ,commissioners1 however1 permitted the entrance of a hundred and fifty thousand people on the last ,sunday of ,may4 ,on ,monday1 the #bith1 a judge of ,hebrew race1 in a ,state court1 pronounced the contract with ,congress null and void1 because the money had not been fully paid4 ,he decided1 accordingly1 that there was no excuse for violating the ,illinois law1 which guaranteed the right of the citizens to visit on ,sunday the park where the ,exposition was held4 ,this ensured the admission of visitors on ,june #dth1 and for twenty of the remaining twenty-one ,sundays4 ,the ,government buildings and many others1 however1 were closed2 numerous exhibits1 for instance1 one of ,bibles1 were shrouded in white2 machinery was not allowed to run2 there were no cheap conveyances about the ground2 and there was little opportunity to get food or drink4 ,no wonder that the ,sunday attendance was comparatively small2 but there were one hundred and forty thousand paying visitors on ,october #bb;d and #bith4 ,this was a victory of the press rather than the platform4 ,there has been no successor to the original ,liberty ,league1 and no rival to the ,sunday ,society4 ,the latter was organised in #ahge in ,england1 where there has been constant agitation since #ahec for opening the ,british ,museum1 ,crystal ,palace1 and other public institutions to their owners on ,sunday4 ,dean ,stanley was president of this society2 and among its members have been ,herbert ,spencer1 ,huxley1 ,tyndall1 ,charles ,reade1 ,lecky1 ,miss ,cobbe1 ,mrs4 ,craik1 and many prominent clergymen4 ,the real issue was stated clearly at one of the public meetings by ,tyndall as follows3 ,we only ask a part of the ,sunday for intellectual improvement4 ,the justice of this request has been so far admitted that on ,may #bd1 #ahif1 all the national museums and galleries in ,london were opened for the first time on ,sunday4 ,among these educational institutions from which the owners are no longer shut out are the ,national ,gallery and the ,south ,kensington1 ,british1 and ,natural ,history ,museums4 ,many libraries and museums in other parts of ,england were opened some years earlier4 ,,viii4 ,nowhere has the platform done so much to regenerate the pulpit as in ,chicago4 ,religious history has been largely a record of strife4 ,there was little brotherly feeling between clergymen of different sects in ,america before #ahfj2 but they were often brought into co-operation by the great war4 ,even ,unitarians were shocked to hear ,emerson speak with reverence of ,zoroaster in #ahch2 but he won only applause in #ahfi when he spoke of the charm of finding identities in all the religions of men4 ,this was at a convention of the ,free ,religious ,association1 which has pleaded from the first for fellowship in religion1 and often made this real upon its platform4 ,the secretary1 ,mr4 ,potter1 said in #ahgb1 that some of his hearers would live to see a peace convention of representatives from all the great religions of the globe4 ,chicago was so peculiarly cosmopolitan that the local managers of the ,columbian ,exposition were glad to have products of the various intellectual activities of mankind exhibited freely4 ,ample provision was made for conventions in behalf of education and reform2 but what was to be done for religion8 ,an orthodox citizen of ,chicago1 ,mr4 ,charles ,carroll ,bonney1 took counsel in #ahia with ,rev4 ,j4 ,,li4 ,jones1 a ,unitarian1 who has been preaching for twenty years the essential oneness of all religions4 ,rabbis1 bishops1 and doctors of divinity were consulted also2 and thus was formed the committee which invited the leading representatives of the great historic religions of the world for the first time in history1 to meet in friendly conference and show what they hold and teach in common1 as well as the important distinctive truths claimed for each religion4 ,thus the ,columbian ,exposition offered an opportunity to promote and deepen the spirit of human brotherhood among religious men of diverse faiths1 to inquire what light each religion has afforded or may afford to the other religions of the world1 and1 finally1 to bring the nations of the earth into a more friendly fellowship in the hope of securing a permanent international peace4 ,thus was announced the ,parliament of ,religions4 ,all the members were to meet as equals2 and there was to be neither controversy nor domination4 ,the ,archbishop of ,canterbury and some leading ,protestants in ,america protested against abandoning the exclusive claims made for ,christianity2 and similar objections were offered by the ,sultan of ,turkey4 ,the ,jews1 ,buddhists1 and other believers in the ancient religions welcomed the invitation1 as did the dignitaries of the ,greek ,church1 and also the ,protestants on the continent of ,europe1 and many members of every ,christian sect in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,catholic archbishops of ,america appointed a delegate2 and many ,methodist and ,episcopalian bishops agreed to attend the ,parliament4 ,the sessions were held in the permanent building erected in the centre of ,chicago to accommodate the intellectual portion of the ,exposition4 ,four thousand people assembled on ,monday1 ,september #aa1 #ahic1 to see a ,roman ,catholic cardinal mount the platform at #aj ,a4,m41 in company with the ,shinto high-priest1 an archbishop of the ,greek ,church1 a ,hindoo monk1 a ,confucian mandarin1 and a long array of ,buddhists and ,taoists from the far ,east4 ,all these dignitaries wore gorgeous robes of various colours4 ,with them were a ,parsee girl1 a ,theosophist1 a ,moslem magistrate from ,india1 a ,catholic archbishop from ,new ,zealand1 a ,russian and an ,african prince1 a negro bishop1 several ,episcopalian prelates1 ,rabbis1 and ,jewesses1 missionaries returned from many lands1 doctors of divinity of various ,protestant sects1 and the lady managers of the great ,fair4 ,a prominent ,presbyterian pastor took the chair1 and cordial declarations of the brotherhood of religions were made by ,catholic archbishops1 the ,shinto high-priest1 a ,buddhist delegate1 and the ,confucian sent by the ,emperor of ,china4 ,full hearing was given in subsequent sessions to advocates of the ,jain religion1 which is perhaps the oldest1 as well as of the ,parsee1 ,jewish1 ,moslem1 ,taoist1 and ,vedic faiths1 besides a score of the leading ,christian denominations4 ,the ,parliament lasted seventeen days2 and the audiences were so large that most of the essays were repeated in overflow meetings4 ,there were also some forty congresses held in smaller halls for speakers who could not find room on the great platforms4 ,one of these meetings was held by ,jewesses1 of whom nineteen spoke4 ,some of them were also heard from the platform of the ,parliament2 as were many clergy women4 ,mr4 ,underwood presided at the ,congress of ,evolutionists4 ,there was also a convention of the ,free ,religionists1 in connection with the ,parliament which they had made possible2 but ,the ,freethought ,federation could get no chance to meet in the great building1 or even to sell pamphlets4 ,mr4 ,bonney had proposed a union of all religions against irreligion2 and this would have been in harmony with the policy adopted by many ,states of the ,american ,union4 ,their ,sunday laws and similar statutes show a purpose of encouraging all the popular sects alike1 with little regard for the rights of citizens outside of these favoured associations4 ,most of the speakers in the ,parliament1 especially the ,buddhists1 were so zealous for the brotherhood of man1 that they protested against any discrimination on account of theology4 ,the great audiences gave most applause to the broadest declarations2 and the few utterances of ,protestant bigotry were plainly out of place4 ,the general tendency of the ,parliament was strongly in favour of recognising the equal rights of all mankind1 without regard to belief or unbelief4 ,all legislation inconsistent with this principle will be swept away1 sooner or later1 by that great wave of public opinion which broke forth during the ,parliament of ,religions4 ,there the golden age of religion began1 and war must give place to peace4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,evolutionists ,,we have seen how the ,transcendentalists tried to suppress vivisection1 in spite of all it has done for the health and happiness of mankind4 ,the sanguinary intolerance of ,robespierre and other disciples of ,rousseau was described earlier in this volume4 ,and the notorious inability of ,carlyle and ,garrison to argue calmly with those who differed with them further illustrates the tendency of confidence in one's own infallibility4 ,only he who knows that he may be wrong can admit consistently that those who reject his favourite beliefs may be right4 ,the ,parliament of ,religions showed that there has been a growing conviction of the equal rights of holders of all forms of belief and unbelief2 this conviction has been promoted by recognition of two great facts3 first1 that knowledge is based upon experience1 and1 second1 that no one's life is so complete that he has nothing to learn from other people4 ,if they do not believe as he does1 it may be merely because experience has taught them truth which he still needs to learn4 ,each one knows only in part2 and therefore no one can afford to take it for granted that anyone else is completely in error4 ,i4 ,this tolerant method of thought has gained greatly in popularity since ,darwin proved its capacity to solve the problem of the origin of man4 ,the possibility that all forms of life1 even the highest1 are results of a natural process of gradual development has often been suggested by poets and philosophers4 ,the probability was much discussed by men of science early in the nineteenth century2 but it was not until #aheh that sufficient evidence was presented to justify acceptance of evolution as anything better than merely a theory4 ,twenty-one years had then elapsed since ,darwin began a long series of investigations4 ,in the first place1 he collected an irresistible number of cases of the influence of environment in causing variations in structure1 and of the tendency of such variations to be inherited4 ,most men who accepted these propositions admitted their insufficiency to account for the multiplicity of species2 but the explanation became complete when ,darwin discovered that any plant or animal which is peculiarly fit for survival in the continual struggle for existence is likely to become largely represented in the next generation4 ,a spontaneous variation which prolongs the life of its possessor may thus become not only more common but more firmly fixed in successive generations1 until a new species is established4 ,to this tendency ,darwin gave the name natural selection2 but this term literally implies a deliberate choice by some superhuman power4 ,herbert ,spencer proposed the phrase1 survival of the fittest2 but it must be remembered that the fitness is not necessarily that of greater moral worth4 ,there may be merely such a superiority in strength and cunning as enables savages to devour a missionary4 ,spencer says that the expression1 'survival of the fittest1' merely means the leaving alive of those which are best able to utilise surrounding aids to life1 and best able to combat or avoid surrounding dangers4 ,weeds are fitter than flowers for natural growth2 and ,joan of ,arc proved unfit to survive in the contest against wicked men4 ,this discovery of ,darwin's made it his duty to avow a view which was so unpopular that he felt as if he were about confessing a murder4 ,he was making a big book out of the facts he had collected1 when a manuscript statement of conclusions like his own was sent him by ,wallace1 who had discovered independently the great fact of the survival of the fittest4 ,darwin wished at first to resign all claim to originality2 but his friends insisted on his taking a share of the honour of the discovery4 ,accordingly an essay1 which he had written in #ahdd1 was read in company with that sent him by ,wallace before the ,linnaean ,society1 in ,london1 on ,july #a1 #aheh4 ,the importance of the new view was so well understood that the entire first edition1 amounting to #abej copies1 of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 which book he wrote soon after1 was sold on the day of publication1 ,november #bd1 #ahei4 ,other editions followed rapidly1 with translations into many languages4 ,no book of the century has been more revolutionary4 ,,ii4 ,theologians still insisted on the supernatural creation of each species of plant or animal1 and especially of the human race1 in its final form4 ,the inference that man had been developed by natural processes out of some lower animal1 was easily drawn from the ,origin of ,species1 though not expressly stated therein2 and there was great alarm among the clergy4 ,an ,anglican bishop1 who was nicknamed ,soapy ,sam on account of his subserviency to public opinion1 declared in a leading quarterly that ,darwin held views absolutely incompatible with the ,bible1 and tending to banish ,god from nature4 ,other prominent ,episcopalians called the new book an attempt to dethrone ,god1 and propagate infidelity4 ,cardinal ,manning denounced the brutal philosophy which taught that ,there is no ,god1 and the ape is our ,adam4 ,both ,catholics and ,protestants started anti-,darwinian societies in ,london1 and1 in #ahfc1 ,huxley saw the whole artillery of the pulpit brought upon the doctrine of evolution and its supporters4 ,the example of ,england was followed promptly by ,france and ,germany4 ,america was distracted by civil war2 and her men of science were so few and timid that the denunciations of ,darwinism which were prompted by the theological and metaphysical prejudices of ,agassiz were generally accepted as final decisions4 ,the position of the ,unitarians and ,transcendentalists may be judged from the fact that1 during a period of nearly three years after the publication of the ,origin of ,species1 nothing was said about ,darwinism in the extremely liberal divinity school where ,i was then a student4 ,evolutionism had to look for advocates in ,america to ,spiritualists like ,denton or unbelievers like ,underwood at that period4 ,clerical opposition increased the general unwillingness of scientific men to snatch up new views4 ,as early as #ahfc1 however1 ,darwin received the support of the famous geologist1 ,lyell1 as well as of a younger naturalist destined to achieve even more brilliant success4 ,huxley has distinguished himself in arguments against the scientific value of the ,bible4 ,among his other exploits was a demonstration that a chain1 in which no link is missing1 connects the horse with a small1 extinct quadruped possessed of comparatively few equine peculiarities4 ,in this case1 transformation of species is an undeniable fact4 ,other young naturalists in ,england1 as well as in ,germany1 gradually became willing to push the new view to its last results2 and ,darwin was encouraged to publish1 in #ahga1 his elaborate account of the origin of our race1 entitled ,the ,descent of ,man4 ,the wrath of the churches blazed forth once more2 and ,gladstone entered the arena4 ,englishmen ventured no longer to say much about the differences between ,moses and ,darwin2 for the obvious retort would have been1 ,so much the worse for ,moses4 ,a ,german ,lutheran1 however1 bade his congregation choose between ,christ and ,darwin2 and the infallibility of ,moses was asserted so zealously by a ,parisian ,catholic as to win formal thanks from the ,pope4 ,america was now wide awake2 irreligious tendencies were assigned to evolutionism by the president of ,yale1 as well as by some ,princeton professors2 and one of these latter warned believers in the development of man that they would be punished as infidels after death4 ,the verdict of men of science has at last been pronounced so plainly as to be accepted by thoroughly educated people in the ,northern ,states2 but the ,southerners are more bigoted4 ,even so late as #ahid1 a professor of biology at the ,university of ,texas was dismissed1 in violation of contract1 for teaching evolutionism4 ,a similar offence had been found sufficient1 ten years before1 by the ,presbyterians of ,south ,carolina1 for driving a devout member of their own sect from his chair in a theological seminary4 ,that popular writer on geology1 ,winchell1 was requested in #ahgh by a ,methodist bishop to resign a professorship at ,nashville1 ,tennessee1 where he had expressed doubt of the descent of all men from ,adam4 ,the geologist refused to resign1 and the chair was suppressed4 ,voltaire's chief grievance was the intolerance of ,christianity4 ,paine and ,bradlaugh complained that there was much immorality in the ,old ,testament4 ,the most damaging of recent attacks have been made in the name of science4 ,genesis and geology had been found irreconcilable before the appearance of ,darwinism2 but the new system widened the breach4 ,the most serious offence to the theologian1 however1 was that he could not longer point without danger of contradiction to beneficial peculiarities in the structure of plants and animals1 as marks of the divine hand4 ,the old argument about design was met by a demonstration that such peculiarities were apt to arise spontaneously1 and become permanent under the pressure of the struggle for existence4 ,the theologian has had to retreat to the position that ,darwinism has not accounted for the soul1 the intellect1 and especially the intuitions4 ,,iii4 ,whether ,darwin succeeded or not in this part of his work is not so important as the fact that1 several years before he announced his great discovery1 an elaborate account of the process by which the powers of thought and feeling have been developed gradually out of the lowest forms of consciousness was given by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,the first edition of his ,principles of ,psychology1 published in #ahee1 carried the explanation so far as to show the real origin and value of the intuitions4 ,their importance had been almost ignored by thinkers who relied entirely on individual experience1 and greatly overrated by the ,transcendentalists2 but neither set of philosophers could explain these mysterious ideas4 ,the infallibility of conscience is not to be reconciled with such facts as that ,paul thought it his duty to persecute the ,christians1 or that ,garrison1 ,sumner1 ,john ,brown1 and ,stonewall ,jackson were among the most conscientious men of the century4 ,the ancient ,greeks agreed in recognising justice1 but not benevolence1 among the cardinal virtues2 precisely the opposite error was made by ,kant and ,miss ,cobbe2 and a tabular view of all the lists of fundamental intuitions which have been made out by noted metaphysicians might be mistaken for a relic from the ,tower of ,babel4 ,emerson's religious instincts were not so much impressed as ,parker's with the personality of ,god and immortality2 but the difference seems almost insignificant when we remember what ideas of theology arose spontaneously in ,new ,zealand4 ,how widely the intuition of beauty varies may be judged from the inability of aesthetic ,chinamen to admire the white teeth and rosy cheeks of an ,english belle4 ,intuition is plainly not an infallible oracle2 but is it merely a misleading prejudice8 ,the puzzle was solved when ,spencer showed that intuition is a result of the experience of the race4 ,courage1 for instance1 was so important for the survival of a primitive tribe in the struggle against its neighbours1 that every man found his comfort and reputation depend mainly on his prowess4 ,if he fought desperately he gained wealth1 honour1 and plenty of wives2 but cowards were maltreated by other men and scorned even by the women4 ,the bravest man left the largest number of offspring2 and every boy was told so early and earnestly to be courageous as to develop a pugnacious instinct1 which has come down to the present day in much greater strength than is needed for the ordinary demands of civilised life4 ,we love war too much1 because our ancestors were in danger of not loving it enough for their own safety4 ,as courage ceased to be the one all-important excellence1 industry1 fidelity1 and honesty were found so useful as to be encouraged with a care which has done much to mould conscience into its present shape4 ,other virtues were inculcated in the same way4 ,the welfare of the family was found to depend largely on the fidelity of wife to husband2 and the result was that chastity has held a much higher place in the feminine than in the masculine conscience4 ,so our religious instincts owe much of their strength to the zeal with which our ancestors sought to avert the divine wrath4 ,thus we have ideas which were originally only vague inferences from primitive experience1 but which have gradually gained such strength and definiteness1 that they have much more power than if we had thought them out unaided by the past4 ,spencer himself says1 ,there have been1 and still are1 developing in the race certain fundamental moral intuitions which are the results of accumulated experiences of utility1 gradually organised and inherited1 but have come to be quite independent of conscious experience4 ,they have no apparent basis in the individual experiences of utility2 and thus conscience has acquired its characteristic disinterestedness4 ,when we feel this inner prompting to a brave or honest action which must be done promptly or left undone1 it is our duty to act without hesitation or regard to our own interest4 ,we are serving our race in the way which its experience has taught4 ,suppose1 however1 that there is time enough for deliberation1 and that we see a possibility of harm to our neighbours1 our family1 or even to our own highest welfare4 ,in this case1 we ought to compare the good and evil results carefully4 ,we should also do well to consider what was the decision of the consciences of the best and wisest men under similar circumstances4 ,if we neglect these precautions1 we may be in danger of following not conscience but passion4 ,there is also a possibility that conscience may embody only such primitive ideas of duty as have since been found incorrect4 ,this has often been the case with persecutors and monarchists4 ,generosity is still too apt to take an impulsive and reckless form which perpetuates pauperism4 ,spencer has taught us that conscience is worthy not only of obedience1 but of education4 ,spencer's attempt to substitute a thoughtful for a thoughtless goodness of character has been much aided by his protest against such undiscriminating exhortations to self-sacrifice as are constantly heard from the pulpit4 ,good people1 and especially good women1 welcome the idea of giving up innocent pleasure and enduring needless pain4 ,the glory of martyrdom blinds them to the fact that1 as ,spencer says in his ,psychology1 ,pains are the correlatives of actions injurious to the organism1 while pleasures are the correlatives of actions conducive to its welfare4 ,in other words1 ,pleasures are the incentives to life-supporting acts1 and pains the deterrents from life-destroying acts4 ,abstinence from pleasure may involve loss of health4 ,self-sacrifice is scarcely possible without some injury to mind or body2 as is the case with people who make it a religious duty to read no interesting books and take scarcely any exercise on ,sunday4 ,it is further true that ,the continual acceptance of benefits at the expense of a fellow-being is morally injurious2 as ,the continual giving up of pleasures and continual submission to pains are physically injurious4 ,blind self-sacrifice curses giver and receiver--physically deteriorates the one and morally deteriorates the other1 the outcome of the policy being destruction of the worthy in making worse the unworthy4 ,no wonder that men are stronger1 and also more selfish1 than women4 ,almost all self-sacrifice involves loss of individual liberty4 ,the subjection of women has been deepened by their readiness to sacrifice themselves to those they love2 their fondness for martyrdom often leads them into the sin of marrying without love2 and generosity of heart facilitates ruin4 ,women would really be more virtuous if they felt less obligation to their lovers and more to their race4 ,,iv4 ,spencer's psychological discoveries were corollaries to that great principle of evolution of which he made the following announcement as early as #aheg in the ,westminster ,review4 ,after declaring his belief in that divergence of many races from one race which we inferred must have continually been occurring during geologic time1 he stated that ,the law of all progress is to be found in these varied evolutions of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous1 or in other words1 out of the simple into the complex4 ,the discoveries of ,darwin and ,wallace were not announced before #aheh1 but ,spencer avowed in #aheb his belief in the theory of evolution or development hypothesis1 according to which complex organic forms may have arisen by successive modifications out of simple ones4 ,it was without any aid or suggestion from ,darwin that ,spencer's statement of the law of evolution was brought into the final form published in #ahfb4 ,evolution was then described as change1 not only from the simple to the complex1 but also from the chaotic to the concentric and consolidated1 or1 in ,spencer's own words1 from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity4 ,progress1 he says1 consists in integration as well as differentiation4 ,there is an increase in permanence and definiteness as well as in variety4 ,higher forms are not only more complex and unlike than lower ones1 but also more stable and more strongly marked4 ,spencer has been represented by some ,transcendentalists as ,darwin's pupil2 but the whole system just described would1 in all probability1 have been built up in substantially its present form1 if both ,darwin and ,wallace had kept their discoveries to themselves4 ,the only difference would have been that ,spencer could not have been sustained by such a great mass of evidence4 ,all these facts were collected by ,darwin merely to prove the physical development of men and other animals from lower forms of life2 but ,spencer showed that all the phenomena of thought and feeling1 as well as of astronomy1 geology1 and chemistry1 are results of the great laws of integration and differentiation4 ,all human history and social relations can be accounted for in this way4 ,and if this extension had not been given to the principle of evolution1 ,darwin's discoveries might soon have ceased to have much interest1 except for students of natural history4 ,each of the two great evolutionists helped the other gain influence2 but their co-operation was almost as unintentional as that of two luminaries which form a double star4 ,v4 ,spencer has done much to diminish intolerance1 by teaching1 as early as #ahfb1 that all religions are necessary steps in the upward march of evolution4 ,he has also attempted to reconcile religion and science1 by teaching that the one all-essential belief is in a great unknowable reality1 which is not only inscrutable but inconceivable4 ,in writing about this supreme power1 he uses capitals with a constancy which would look like an assumption of knowledge1 if the same habit were not followed in regard to many other words of much less importance4 ,he admits that ,we cannot decide between the alternative suppositions1 that phenomena are due to the variously conditioned workings of a single force1 and that they are due to the conflict of two forces4 ,matter cannot be conceived1 he says1 except as manifesting forces of attraction and repulsion2 but he also says that these antagonistic and conflicting forces must not be taken as realities but as our symbols of the reality1 the forms under which the workings of the unknowable are cognisable4 ,this creed is accepted by many ,american evolutionists4 ,it is the doctrine of one of ,spencer's most elaborate and brilliant interpreters1 ,professor ,john ,fiske1 of such popular clergymen as ,doctors ,minot ,j4 ,savage and ,lyman ,abbott1 and of many of the members of that energetic organisation1 ,the ,brooklyn ,ethical ,association4 ,the ,open ,court of ,chicago and other periodicals are working avowedly for the ,religion of ,science2 but that is not to be established without much closer conformity to the old-fashioned creeds and ceremonies than has been made by ,spencer4 ,his later works seem more orthodox than his earlier ones2 but his final decision is that ,the very notions1 origin1 cause1 and purpose1 are relations belonging to human thought1 which are probably irrelevant to the ultimate reality4 ,he has also admitted that the proposition1 ,evolution is caused by mind1 cannot be rendered into thought4 ,and he is right in saying that he has nowhere suggested worship4 ,whether he has proposed a reconciliation1 or only a compromise1 whether evolutionism will ever be as popular in the pulpit as ,transcendentalism1 and whether there is not more reality in the forces of attraction and repulsion than in ,spencer's great unknowable1 are problems which ,i will not discuss4 ,darwin was an agnostic like ,huxley1 who held that ,we know nothing of what may be beyond phenomena1 and ,science commits suicide when she adopts a creed4 ,huxley pronounced the course of nature neither moral nor immoral1 but non-moral1 and declared that ,the ethical progress of society depends not on imitating the cosmic process but on combating it4 ,the severity of his criticism of the ,gospel narratives called out threats of prosecution for blasphemy4 ,he avowed entire concurrence with ,haeckel1 who holds that belief in a personal ,god and an immortal soul are incompatible with the fundamental principles of evolution4 ,the ,german scientist argues in his elaborate history of the development of animals1 that life is no manifestation of divine power1 working with benevolent purpose1 but merely the necessary result of unconscious forces1 inherent in the chemical constitution and physical properties of matter1 and acting mechanically according to immutable laws4 ,the position of ,haeckel and ,huxley is all the more significant because ,frederic ,harrison knows of no single thinker in ,europe who has come forward to support this religion of an unknown cause4 ,,vi4 ,a much more important controversy has been called out by ,spencer's theory of the limits of government4 ,as early as #ahdb he proposed the limitation of state action to the maintenance of equitable relations among citizens4 ,his ,social ,statics demanded1 in #ahej1 as a necessary condition of high development1 the liberty of each1 limited only by the like liberty of all4 ,his ideal would be a government where every man has freedom to do all he wills1 provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man4 ,these propositions are repeated in the revised edition of #ahib1 which differs from the earlier one in omitting a denial of the right of private property in land1 and also a demand for female suffrage4 ,how far ,spencer had changed his views may be seen in his volume on ,justice4 ,both editions of ,social ,statics deny the right of governments to support churches1 public schools1 boards of health1 poorhouses1 lighthouses1 or mints4 ,spencer would have titles to land guaranteed by the ,state1 and property-holders protected against unjust lawsuits2 but otherwise the government ought to confine itself1 he thinks1 to managing the army1 navy1 and police4 ,this position is defended by an appeal to the fact that the citizen is most energetic and intelligent where he is most free to act for himself4 ,no ,american is as helpless before pestilence or famine as a ,russian peasant1 or as afraid to go to a burning house until summoned by the police4 ,a despotism may begin with a strong army2 but it ends1 like the ,roman ,empire1 in the weakness which it has brought on by crushing the spirit of its soldiers4 ,strong governments make weak men4 ,never was there a mightier army than was given by the ,french ,republic to ,napoleon4 ,industrial prosperity depends even more closely than military glory on the energy of men who have been at liberty to think and act freely4 ,people develop most vigorously where they are least meddled with4 ,the average man knows much more than his rulers do about his own private business2 and he is active to promote it in ways which secure the general welfare4 ,great stress is laid not only in ,social ,statics but in ,spencer's book on ,the ,man versus the ,state1 and in several essays1 on the many times that the ,british ,government has increased an evil by trying to cure it4 ,what is said about its extravagance will not surprise any ,american who remembers what vast sums are squandered by ,congress4 ,the post-office is often spoken of as proof that our ,government could run our railroads2 but one of ,boston's best postmasters said1 ,no private business could be managed like this without going into bankruptcy4 ,the ,british ,government has a monopoly of the telegraph2 and introduction of the telephone was very difficult in consequence4 ,in ,victoria1 the ,postmaster-,general has abused his privileges so much as to appoint a sporting agent to telegraph the results of a horse-race2 and this same highly protectionist colony has had laws forbidding any shop to be open after #g ,p4,m41 except on ,saturday1 and any woman to work more than forty-eight hours a week in any factory4 ,how governments interfered in former centuries with people's right to feed1 clothe1 employ1 and amuse themselves1 seems almost inconceivable at present4 ,persecution was one among many forms of mischievous meddling4 ,locke1 in arguing for toleration in #afhi1 was obliged to take the ground that ,the whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only to securing unto all the people life1 liberty1 health1 and also outward things such as money1 lands1 houses1 furniture1 and the like4 ,government1 he said1 hath no end but preservation1 and therefore can never have a right to destroy1 enslave1 or designedly to impoverish the subject4 ,clearer language was used by those ,french patriots who declared in the ,constitution of #agia that liberty consists in ability to do everything which brings no harm to others2 and1 two years afterwards1 that the liberty of each citizen should extend to where that of some other citizen begins4 ,nearly fifty years later1 a theory very like ,spencer's was published by ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 brother of the great naturalist4 ,among the many writers who have held that government ought not to be merely limited but repudiated totally was ,thoreau4 ,it was in #ahed that this zealous abolitionist publicly renounced his allegiance to a great anti-slavery commonwealth1 and that he asserted1 in ,walden1 the necessity of preserving individual liberty by conforming as little as possible to any social usages1 even that of working regularly in order to support one's self and family in comfort4 ,that same year1 ,spencer showed in his essay on ,manners and ,fashion the difference between a regulation by which public opinion tries to prevent rude people from making themselves unnecessarily disagreeable to their neighbours1 and one which encourages dissipation by arbitrarily check-ing innocent amusement4 ,even in the latter case1 however1 there is1 as he says1 but little gain from any solitary nonconformity4 ,reform must be carried on in co-operation4 ,that powerful assailant of ,transcendentalism1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 was not an evolutionist2 but it was largely due to his liberal aid that the system of differentiation and integration was published4 ,this generosity was consistent with his own position1 that all opinions ought to have a hearing1 and especially those which are novel and unpopular1 for they are peculiarly likely to contain some exposure of ancient error or revelation of new truth4 ,this fact was set forth with such ability in his book1 ,on ,liberty1 in #ahei1 that several long passages were quoted in the public protest1 delivered in ,ohio five years later by ,vallandigham1 against the war then carried on for bringing back the seceded ,states4 ,mill holds that neither government nor public opinion ought to interfere with any individual1 except to prevent doing harm to others4 ,he says1 for instance1 that there would be no tyranny in forcing parents to let their children have education enough to become safe members of society4 ,such a law could scarcely be justified by the principle of giving all the liberty to each compatible with the like liberty of all4 ,among the restrictions which ,mill mentions as oppressive are those in ,england and ,america against selling liquor1 gambling1 and ,sunday amusements4 ,he admits the difficulty of deciding how far liberty may be legitimately invaded for the prevention of crime4 ,,vii4 ,it was in full conformity with the principles of ,mill1 ,spencer1 and ,locke that the ,constitution of ,louisiana1 as revised in #ahgi1 declared that the only legitimate object of government is to protect the citizen in the enjoyment of life1 liberty1 and property4 ,when it assumes other functions1 it is usurpation and oppression4 ,similar sentiments have been occasionally expressed in political platforms4 ,such narrow limits have not1 so far as ,i know1 ever been observed in the ,united ,states or in any other civilised land4 ,few people love liberty so much as not to be willing that the state should give them security against conflagration and contagious disease4 ,there is also a general demand for such safety as is given by roads1 streets1 bridges1 lighthouses1 and life-saving stations4 ,the necessity of hospitals1 asylums1 and poorhouses is manifest4 ,if all this expense had to be met by public-spirited individuals1 it is probable that their wealth would prove insufficient4 ,it is further necessary for the public safety that there should be compulsory vaccination during epidemics of smallpox1 confinement of dangerous lunatics and tramps1 rescue of children from vicious parents1 and maintenance of what ought not to be called compulsory but guaranteed education4 ,marriage has to be made binding for the protection of mothers as well as children4 ,the thirst for drink needs at least as much restraint as is kept up in ,scandinavia4 ,and the tendency of bad money to drive out good is strong enough to justify laws against circulation of depreciated currency4 ,public schools are particularly important in ,america1 where presidential and congressional elections are apt to turn on financial issues which can scarcely be understood by men not thoroughly educated4 ,spencer's objections apply more closely to the ,european system1 that of centralisation of management1 than to the ,american4 ,it is well to know also that he was misled by a hasty reference1 perhaps by some assistant1 to an ,english statistician named ,fletcher4 ,this high authority did admit1 in #ahdi1 that he found a superficial evidence against instruction4 ,he went on1 however1 to say much which is not mentioned in ,social ,statics1 and which proved the evidence to be only superficial4 ,by classifying crimes according to enormity1 he showed that the worst were most frequent in the least educated districts4 ,he also discovered that those counties in ,england where ability to sign the marriage register was most common were most free from paupers1 dangerous criminals1 and illegitimate children4 ,the conclusion is therefore irresistible1 says ,fletcher1 that education is essential to the security of modern society4 ,most of the other testimony brought forward in ,social ,statics is invalidated by ,fletcher's method2 and ,spencer added nothing in the second edition to the insufficient statements in the first4 ,british education has improved greatly in both quality and quantity since #ahgf2 but the prisons of ,england and ,wales had only two-thirds as many inmates in #ahij as in #ahgh1 and only one-half as large a part of the population4 ,the most dangerous prisoners were only one-third as numerous in #ahij and #ahia as forty-five years earlier2 and the percentage of forgers only one-tenth as great as in #aheg4 ,we ought further to remember the almost complete unanimity of opinion in favour of free education wherever it is universal4 ,public schools in ,america are all the more useful because they are superintended by town and city officials1 elected in great part by men who know them personally4 ,this is also the case with the boards of health1 and the managers of poorhouses1 cemeteries1 public libraries1 and parks4 ,among other subjects of local self-government are the roads1 bridges1 streets1 and sewers4 ,our large cities are notoriously misgoverned1 but it will be easier to raise the character of the officials than to contract their powers4 ,much is to be hoped from civil service reform1 proportional representation1 and nonpartisan elections4 ,town affairs are usually so carefully looked after by people not in office as to be managed for the public welfare4 ,both in towns and cities the tendency is to enlarge rather than contract the functions of the government4 ,a proposal that any city should let tenements or sell coal more cheaply than is done by individuals1 would seem to be for the advantage of everybody except a few payers of heavy taxes4 ,the majority of voters would care little about increase of taxation1 in comparison with the prospect of more demand for labour and greater activity in business4 ,it is easy to make extravagance popular where the majority rules4 ,our ,state constitutions would probably make it impossible for coal to be sold or tenements let by cities and towns2 but these latter often carry on gas-works1 water-works1 electric roads1 and other highly beneficial industries4 ,this may be necessary to check the rapacity of corporations2 but otherwise there is too much danger of extravagance1 discouragement of individual enterprise1 and delay in improving the processes monopolised by the municipality4 ,some evils would be lessened by a transfer of the control of lighthouses and life-saving stations from the national ,government to that of the nearest cities1 or else of single ,states4 ,our people are much better able to judge of the success of ,state than of ,federal legislation and management4 ,of course the chief duties of the ,state are to pass laws for the protection of life and property against crime1 and to manage such indispensable penal1 charitable1 and educational institutions as are not provided by the municipalities4 ,it is still necessary for the ,states of our ,union to keep up the militia2 but perhaps the best thing that could be done for the public safety would be to have tramps kept from crime1 and assisted to employment by a ,state police4 ,ownership of real estate would be more secure1 and sale easier1 if titles were guaranteed by the ,state2 and it would also do well1 as ,spencer suggests1 to help people of moderate means resist lawsuits brought to extort money4 ,it seems1 at all events1 well that our ,states keep up their boards of health1 and their supervision of banks1 railroads1 steamboats1 and factories4 ,there are a great many unnecessary laws1 as1 for instance1 was one in ,massachusetts for selling coal below market price4 ,this was fortunately decided to be unconstitutional2 but whether this commonwealth ought to continue to supply free text-books1 especially in high schools1 seems to me questionable4 ,many individualists object to laws against gambling1 selling liquor1 and other conduct which does no direct injury except to those who take part voluntarily4 ,there are vicious tendencies enough in human nature1 ,i think1 to justify attempts to keep temptation out of sight4 ,no advantage of this kind can be claimed for the ,sunday laws in our ,eastern and ,southern ,states4 ,it is certainly desirable to have one day a week of rest from labour and business2 but it is equally true that a man's ploughing his field or weeding his garden does not infringe on the liberty of his neighbours1 diminish their security of person and property1 or encourage their vicious propensities1 even on ,sunday4 ,it is setting a bad example to break any law2 but ,i do not think that any citizen of ,massachusetts was seriously corrupted by resisting the ,fugitive ,slave ,act2 and ,i doubt if any ,vermonter was morally the worse for breaking the law in that ,state against ,sunday visits from house to house1 except from motives of humanity or charity1 or for moral and religious edification4 ,it is better to have the laws obeyed intelligently than blindly2 and those really worthy of respect would have more authority if every prohibition which is never enforced1 except out of malice1 were repealed4 ,much aid is given to morality by such religious observances as are voluntary and conscientious2 but compulsory observance breeds both slaves and rebels4 ,how far our ,sunday laws are meant to encourage the peculiar usages of the popular sects is seen in the fact that1 since #ahgg1 about #aej professed ,christians1 who had kept the ,sabbath on the day set apart in the ,bible1 were arrested on the charge of having profaned ,sunday by such actions as ploughing a retired field1 weeding a garden1 cutting wood needed for immediate use1 or making a dress4 ,they refused to pay any fine2 most of them were imprisoned accordingly2 in one case the confinement lasted #abi days2 two deaths were hastened by incarceration2 and in the summer of #ahie eight of these ,saturdarians1 as they were nicknamed1 were working in a chain-gang on the roads in ,tennessee4 ,one of the eight was a clergyman4 ,among the commonwealths which prosecuted observers of the original ,sabbath as ,sabbath-breakers were ,georgia1 ,maryland1 ,missouri1 ,arkansas1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 ,massachusetts1 and seven other ,states4 ,such prosecutions were too much like persecutions2 for people who kept neither ,saturday nor ,sunday were not so much molested4 ,if the ,sunday laws were really meant for the public welfare1 every citizen would be allowed to choose his own ,sabbath1 and no one who kept ,saturday sacred would be required to rest on ,sunday also4 ,such liberal legislation has actually been passed by ,rhode ,island and many other ,states4 ,how strict the law is against doing business on ,sunday may be judged from the fact that in #ahif a decrepit old woman was sent to jail in ,new ,york ,city for selling a couple of bananas1 and a boy of fifteen was arrested for selling five cents' worth of coal in ,january4 ,three men were fined for selling umbrellas in the street on a rainy ,sunday in #ahie1 and others were arrested for selling five cents' worth of ice4 ,people who have no refrigerators suffer under the difficulty of buying ice1 fruit1 and meat on a hot ,sunday in our ,eastern cities4 ,sunday laws and customs differ so widely in our various ,states1 that they cannot all be wise and just4 ,rest from labour and business is secured in ,southern ,california1 without ,state legislation1 by the action of public opinion2 and were this to become too weak1 it would be reinforced by the trades-unions4 ,personal liberty is not necessarily violated by laws prohibiting disturbance of public worship2 but it would be if anyone were compelled to testify in court1 or sit on the jury1 or do any other business elsewhere1 on any day set apart for rest by his conscience and religion4 ,there seems to be little necessity for other legislation1 except under peculiar local circumstances to which town and city magistrates are better able than members of ,state and national legislatures to do justice4 ,the question1 what places of business that have no vicious tendencies ought to be allowed to open on ,sunday1 might settle itself1 as does the question how early they are to close on other days of the week4 ,there needs no law to prevent business being done at night4 ,stores which could offer nothing that many people need to buy on ,sunday1 would have so few customers that the proprietors could ill afford to open their doors4 ,where the demand is as great and innocent as it is for fresh meat and fruit in hot weather1 the interest of the proprietor is no more plain than is the duty of the legislator and magistrate4 ,people employed in hotels1 stables1 telegraph offices1 libraries1 museums1 and parks1 can1 of course1 protect themselves from overwork1 as domestic servants do1 by stipulating for holidays and half-holidays4 ,whatever may be the gain to public health from cessation of labour and business on ,sunday1 there is no such advantage1 but rather injury1 from the prohibition of healthy recreations and amusements1 which are acknowledged to be perfectly innocent on at least six days of the week4 ,sunday is by no means so strictly observed1 especially in this respect1 on the continent of ,europe as in the ,united ,states4 ,sabbatarianism is peculiarly an ,american and ,british institution2 and this fact justifies the position that it is by no means a necessary condition of the security1 or even the welfare1 of civilised nations4 ,if our ,sunday laws cannot be proved to be necessary1 they must be admitted to be oppressive4 ,over-taxation is but a slight grievance compared with the tyranny of sending men and women to jail for inability or unwillingness to pay the fines imposed in #ahie by the ,state of ,tennessee for working on their farms1 or in ,massachusetts soon after for playing cards in their own rooms4 ,further consideration of the question1 what amusements should be permitted on ,sunday1 will be found in an appendix4 ,such problems are peculiarly unfit for treatment by our central ,government4 ,its chief duty1 of course1 is protection of our people against invasion and rebellion2 and the authority of the ,president and ,congress ought not to be weakened by vain attempts to settle disputes which would be dealt with much more satisfactorily by the cities and towns4 ,a ,sunday law too lax for ,pennsylvania might be too strict for ,california4 ,the system of post-offices is too well adapted for the general welfare to be given up hastily2 but the ,government ought to surrender the monopoly which now makes it almost impossible for citizens to free themselves from dependence on disobliging or incompetent postmasters4 ,i have nothing to say against the ,census1 ,education1 ,health1 and ,patent ,bureaus1 nor against the ,smithsonian ,museum1 except that our citizens have a right to use their own property as freely on ,sunday as on any other day of the week4 ,i do not see why our ,government should have more than that of other nations to do with the issue of paper money2 but ,i leave the bank question to abler pens4 ,the tariff is a much plainer issue4 ,we are told in ,social ,statics that ,a government trenches upon men's liberties of action in obstructing commercial intercourse2 and by so doing directly reverses its function4 ,to secure for each man the fullest freedom to exercise his faculties1 compatible with the like freedom of all others1 we find to be the state's duty4 ,now trade-prohibitions and trade-restrictions not only do not secure this freedom1 but they take it away1 so that in enforcing them the state is transformed from a maintainer of rights into a violator of rights4 ,the obstacles to importation deliberately set up by ,american tariffs1 indirectly check exportation2 for unwillingness to buy from any other nation diminishes not only its willingness but its ability to buy our products in return4 ,the ,united ,states are actually exporting large amounts of cattle1 wheat1 and cotton1 as well as of boots and shoes1 agricultural implements1 steel rails1 hardware1 watches1 and cotton cloth4 ,these commodities are produced by ,americans who can defy foreign competition4 ,in some cases the tariff enables them to raise their prices at home1 to the loss of their fellow-citizens4 ,prices abroad cannot be raised by our ,government4 ,what it can and does do is to burden both farms and factories by duties on lumber1 glass1 coal1 wool1 woollen goods1 and many other imports4 ,the rates are arranged with a view to increase1 not individual liberty or public security1 but the profits of managers of enterprises which would not pay without such help4 ,men who are carrying on profitable industries have to make up part of what is lost in unprofitable ones4 ,in fact1 the cost of living is increased needlessly for all our citizens1 except the privileged few4 ,there would be less injustice in aiding new enterprises by bounties2 but the proper authorities to decide how much money should be voted for such purposes are the cities and towns4 ,some of the makers of our national ,constitution wished to make tariff legislation in ,congress impossible except by a majority of two-thirds2 and this might properly be required for all measures not planned in behalf of individual liberty or the public safety4 ,much of the business now done by the nation ought to be transferred to the ,states4 ,they took the lead between #ahcj and #ahgj in improving rivers and harbours1 building railroads1 and digging canals4 ,the result of transferring such work to ,congress was that in #ahij it voted #be1jjj1jjj to carry on #dce undertakings1 more than one-fourth of which had been judged unnecessary by engineers4 ,two years later1 four times as many new jobs were voted as had been recommended by the ,house committee4 ,among these plans was one1 in regard to the ,hudson ,river1 which was the proper business of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the extravagance of our pension system is notorious4 ,if the restriction proposed by ,spencer is applicable anywhere1 it is to central rather than local governments4 ,,viii4 ,great as are the evils of unnecessary laws1 ,spencer's remedy is too sweeping to be universally supported by evolutionists4 ,huxley protests against it as administrative ,nihilism1 and declares that if his next-door neighbour is allowed to bring up children untaught and untrained to earn their living1 he is doing his best to restrict my freedom1 by increasing the burden of taxation for the support of gaols and workhouses which ,i have to pay4 ,his conclusion is that ,no limit is or can be theoretically set to state interference4 ,the impossibility of drawing a hard and fast line is admitted even by so extreme an individualist as ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe1 who complains that ,crimes go unpunished in ,england1 while the ,great ,national ,pickpocket is busy reading through all the comedies and burlesques brought out in the theatres1 running after little boys who dare to play pitch-farthing1 or going on sledging expeditions to the ,north ,pole4 ,lecky agrees so far with ,spencer and ,mill as to say1 in ,democracy and ,liberty1 that punishment should be confined1 as a general rule1 to acts which are directly injurious to others1 and accordingly that ,with ,sunday amusements in private life1 the legislator should have no concern4 ,as a check to over-legislation1 he recommends biennial sessions1 instead of annual2 and he protests against the despotism of trades-unions4 ,his strongest point against ,spencer is that sanitary legislation has added several years to the average length of life in ,england and ,wales1 prevented more than eighty thousand deaths there in a single year1 and actually reduced the death-rate of the army in ,india by more than four-fifths4 ,,ix4 ,spencer has succeeded in increasing the number of individualists so much1 that ,donisthorpe says they can be counted by the thousand1 though there were scarcely enough in #ahge in ,england to fill an omnibus4 ,transcendentalism had made individualism comparatively common long before in ,america4 ,the principle of not interfering with other people1 except to prevent their wronging us1 is fully applicable1 as ,spencer says1 to the relation of husband with wife1 and also to that of parent and teacher with child4 ,it could also be followed with great advantage in the case of domestic servants4 ,there can be no doubt of the correctness of the position1 taken in the ,principles of ,sociology1 that delight in war has a tendency to stifle love of liberty4 ,sparta1 ,russia1 and the new ,german ,empire show that where the ideal of a nation is military glory1 ,the individual is owned by the ,state4 ,the citizens are so graded1 that ,all are masters of those below and subjects of those above4 ,the workers must live for the benefit of the fighters1 and both be controlled closely by the government4 ,armies flourish on the decay of individual rights4 ,how difficult it was to avoid this1 during some bloody years1 even in ,america1 has been shown in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,a nation of shopkeepers is better fitted than a nation of soldiers to develop free institutions4 ,one of ,spencer's objections to ,socialism is that it would end in military despotism4 ,nothing else could replace competition so far as to keep a nation industrious4 ,spencer is right in saying1 ,benefit and worth must vary together1 which means that wages and salaries should correspond to value of work4 ,otherwise1 ,the society decays from increase of its least worthy members and decrease of its most worthy members4 ,these facts are so generally known already1 that there is less danger than is thought by ,spencer1 of either the national establishment of ,socialism or of a ruinous extension of governmental interference4 ,the average ,american is altogether too willing to have his wealthy neighbours taxed for his own benefit2 but he knows that he can make himself and his family more comfortable by his own exertions than his poor neighbours are2 and he is not going to let any government forbid his doing so4 ,he does not object to public libraries1 and perhaps would not to free theatres2 but he would vote down any plan which would prevent his using his money and time to his own greatest advantage4 ,he is sometimes misled by plausible excuses for wasting public money1 and arresting innocent people2 but he insists on at least some better pretext than was made for the old-fashioned meddling with food1 clothing1 business1 and religion4 ,he may not call himself an individualist2 but he will never practise ,socialism4 ,this sort of man is already predominant in ,great ,britain1 as well as in ,america2 and multiplication of the type elsewhere is fostered by mighty tendencies4 ,the duty of treating every form of religion according to ethical and not theological standards is rapidly becoming the practice of all civilised governments2 and persecution is peculiar to ,turkey and ,russia4 ,these two despotisms form1 with ,germany1 the principal exceptions to the rule that political liberty is on the increase throughout ,europe1 especially in the form of local self-government4 ,the nineteenth century has made even the poorest people more secure than ever before from oppression and lawless violence1 as well as from pestilence and famine4 ,destitution is relieved more amply and wisely1 while industry and intelligence are encouraged by opportunity to enjoy comforts and luxuries once almost or altogether out of the reach of monarchs4 ,the fetters formerly laid on trade of cities with their own suburbs have been broken2 and the examples of ,great ,britain and ,new ,south ,wales are proving that nations profit more by helping than hindering one another in the broad paths of commerce4 ,industrial efficiency has certainly been much promoted by the tendency1 not only of scientific education but of manual training1 to substitute knowledge of realities for quarrels about abstractions4 ,all these changes favour the extension of free institutions and also of individual liberty1 wherever peace can be maintained4 ,industrial nations gain more than warlike ones by encouraging intellectual independence2 but the general advantage is great enough to ensure the final triumph of liberty4 ,,appendix3 ,,sunday ,,recreation ,,this is much more common in ,new ,england and ,great ,britain than it was in the eighteenth century4 ,the dinner has become the best1 instead of the worst in the week4 ,scarcely anyone rises early2 and nobody is shocked at reading novels4 ,there is an enormous circulation in both ,english and ,american cities of ,sunday papers whose aim is simply amusement4 ,there is plenty of lively music in the parlours1 as well as of merry talk in which clergymen are ready to lead4 ,people who have comfortable homes can easily make ,sunday the pleasant-est day of the week4 ,for people who cannot get much recreation at home1 there are increasing opportunities to go to concerts1 picture-galleries1 and museums4 ,among the reading-rooms thrown open on ,sunday in ,america about #ahgj was that of the ,boston ,public ,library2 and no difference is now made in this great institution among the seven days1 except that more children's books and magazines are accessible on ,sunday4 ,what important museums are now open in ,london1 ,boston1 and ,new ,york have been already mentioned in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,these opportunities are still limited2 but there is no obstacle1 except that of bad weather1 to excursions on foot or bicycle1 behind horse or locomotive1 in electric car or steamboat1 to beaches1 ponds1 and other places of amusement4 ,the public parks are crowded all day long in summer2 and people who go to church in the morning have no scruple about walking or riding for pleasure in the afternoon4 ,these practices were expressly sanctioned by ,massachusetts in #ahhg1 and by ,new ,jersey in #ahic2 and the old law against ,sunday visiting has been repealed since #ahhj in ,vermont4 ,the newer ,states have taken care not to pass such absurd statutes4 ,i believe that the majority of our people were willing1 as for instance was that prominent ,episcopalian1 ,bishop ,potter1 to have the ,chicago ,exposition open on ,sundays4 ,theatres and baseball grounds attract crowds of visitors in our cities1 especially those west of the ,alleghanies4 ,whatever changes are made in the ,east will probably be in the direction of greater liberty4 ,the only question is how fast the present opportunities of recreation ought to be increased4 ,no one would now agree with ,dr4 ,chalmers in calling the ,sabbath an expedient for pacifying the jealousies of a ,god of vengeance4 ,good people have ceased to think1 as the ,puritans did1 that ,pleasures are most carefully to be avoided on every day of the week1 or that ,amity to ourselves is enmity against ,god4 ,preachers no longer recommend abstaining not only from unlawful pleasures1 but also from lawful delights4 ,popular clergymen now say with ,dr4 ,bellows3 ,amusement is not only a privilege but a duty1 indispensable to health of body and mind1 and essential even to the best development of religion itself4 ,i put amusement among the necessaries and not the luxuries of life4 ,it is as good a friend to the church as to the theatre1 to sound morals and unsuperstitious piety as to health and happiness1444 an interest of society which the religious class instead of regarding with hostility and jealousy1 ought to encourage and direct4 ,there is hardly a more baleful error in the world than that which has produced the feud between morality and amusement1 piety and pleasure4 ,the fact is that pleasure means health4 ,as ,i have said in a newspaper entitled ,the ,index3 ,it is a violation of the laws of health for anyone1 not absolutely bed-ridden or crushed by fatigue1 to spend thirty-six hours without some active exercise in the open air4 ,trying to take enough on ,saturday to last until ,monday1 is dangerous1 and most people have little chance for healthy exercise except on ,sunday4 ,the poor1 ignorant girl who has had no fresh air for six days ought to be encouraged to take it freely on the seventh4 ,and we all need our daily exercise just as much as our regular food and sleep4 ,the two thousand delegates who asked1 in behalf of ninety thousand working men1 in #ahec1 to have the ,crystal ,palace open on ,sundays1 were right in declaring that ',physical recreation is as necessary to the working man as food and drink on the ,sabbath4' ,the fact is that pleasure is naturally healthy even when not involving active exercise4 ,dark thoughts breed disease like dark rooms4 ,the man who never laughs has something wrong about his digestion or his conscience4 ,herbert ,spencer has proved that our pleasant actions are beneficial1 while painful ones are injurious both to ourselves and to our race4 7,principles of ,psychology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bgh-bhf2 ,am4 ,ed474 ,thus ,sunday amusements are needed for the general health4 ,they are also necessary for the preservation of morality4 ,this consists in performing the actions which benefit ourselves and our neighbours1 in other words1 pleasant ones1 and abstaining from whatever is painful and injurious4 ,it is only in exceptional cases that we can make others happy by suffering pain ourselves4 ,now and then the paths of virtue and pleasure diverge2 but they always come together again4 ,as a rule1 they traverse precisely the same ground and in exactly the same direction4 ,this is very fortunate2 for if pleasure were always vicious1 virtue would be hateful and impossible4 ,the most blessed of all peacemakers is he who keeps virtue and pleasure from falling out4 ,there is no better text than that which the little girl said she had learned at ,sunday-school3 ',chain up a child and away she will go6' ,even so strict a man as ,dr4 ,johnson said3 ',i am a great friend to public amusements1 for they keep people from vice4' ,is there no need of them on the day when there is more drinking1 gambling1 and other gross vice than on any other8 ,need ,i say what day keeps our policemen and criminal courts most busy1 or crowds our hospitals with sufferers from riotous brawls8 ,has not the experience of two hundred and fifty years justified those ,english statesmen who showed themselves much wiser than their ,puritan contemporaries in recommending archery1 dancing1 and other diversions on ,sunday1 because forbidding them 'sets up filthy tippling and drunkenness8' ,to keep a man who does not care to go to church from getting any amusement1 is to push him towards the saloon4 ,and not only the laws against liquor selling1 but others even more necessary for our safety1 would be much better enforced if we did not encourage lawlessness by keeping up statutes which our best men and women violate without scruple and with impunity1 or which actually prevent good people from taking such recreation as they know they ought to have4 ,outgrown ordinances should not be suffered to drag just and necessary laws down into contempt4 ,nobody wants to revive those old laws of ,massachusetts ,bay which forbade people to wear lace1 or buy foreign fruit1 or charge more than a fixed price for a day's work4 ,no more ,quakers will ever swing from a ,boston gallows merely for preaching4 ,but our laws against ,sunday amusements are in the same spirit as that which hung ,mary ,dyer4 ,in old times1 government kept continually telling people what to do1 and took especial pains to make them go to church on ,sunday4 ,if they stayed away1 they were fined2 if they did not become members1 they were not allowed to vote2 if they got up rival services1 they were hung2 if they took any amusement on ,sunday1 they were whipped4 ,all four classes of laws for the same unjust end have passed away1 except that against ,sunday recreation4 ,this still survives in a modified form4 ,but even in this shape it is utterly irreconcilable with the fundamental principles of our government4 ,all ,american legislation1 from the ,declaration of ,independence1 rests on the great truth that our government is founded in order to secure us in our unalienable rights to life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,our ,state is a limited partnership for mutual protection4 ,we carry it on in order to make our freedom more complete2 and we tolerate no restrictions on ourselves except such as are necessary conditions of the greatest possible liberty4 ,these principles are already fully acknowledged on six days of the week1 but only partly on the seventh4 ,still1 there is a growing recognition of the likeness between laws against ,sunday amusements and such prohibitions of eating meat in ,lent as once caused people to be burned alive4 ,a weekly day of rest is a blessing2 but ,david ,swing is right in saying that ,absolute rest1 perfectly satisfactory to horse and dog1 is not adequate to the high nature of man4 ,complete torpor of mind and body is more characteristic of a ,hindoo fakir than of a ,christian saint4 ,should those who wish to rest as much as possible on ,sunday sleep in church8 ,there is nothing irreligious in fresh air4 ,the tendency of outdoor exercise to purify and elevate our thoughts is so strong that ,kingsley actually defended playing cricket on ,sunday as a carrying out of the divineness of the ,sabbath4 ,if there is no hostility between religion and amusement on six days of the week1 there cannot be much on the seventh4 ,no ,protestants are more religious than the ,swedes and ,norwegians4 ,everybody goes to church2 there is theological teaching in the public-schools2 and advocacy of liberal religious views was punished in #ahhh with imprisonment4 ,no ,scandinavian objects1 so far as ,i know1 to indoor games1 croquet1 dancing1 or going to the theatre on ,sunday2 and these amusements are acknowledged to be perfectly proper throughout continental ,europe4 ,no one who allows himself any exercise or recreation on ,sunday has a right to say that his neighbours do not need more than he does4 ,lyman ,beecher could not preach his best on any day when he did not work hard at sawing wood or shovelling sand in his cellar4 ,there would be less dyspepsia on ,monday if there were more exercise on ,sunday4 ,herbert ,spencer tells us that ,happiness is the most powerful of tonics4 ,by accelerating the circulation of the blood1 it facilitates the performance of every function2 and so tends alike to increase health where it exists1 and to restore it when it has been lost4 ,hence the essential superiority of play to gymnastics4 ,a ,bible ,dancing ,class is said to have been organised1 in deference to such facts1 in ,new ,jersey by an ,episcopalian pastor1 who perhaps wishes to accomplish ,jeremiah's prediction of the ,messianic kingdom1 ,then shall the virgin rejoice in the dance4 ,among other liberal clergymen is ,brooke ,herford1 who says3 ,we want ,sunday to be the happiest day in all the week4 ,keep it free from labour1 but free for all quiet1 innocent recreations4 ,rev4 ,charles ,voysey wrote me in #ahhg1 lamenting the immorality arising from the curse of having nothing to do or nowhere to go on ,sunday afternoons and evenings4 ,young persons especially1 he said1 would be better1 and morally more safe1 for greater opportunities of innocent pleasure and games at the hours of enforced idleness on the ,sunday4 ,the spirit of the legislators is changing like that of the clergy4 ,the first laws against ,sunday amusement were passed by men who thought all pleasure vicious on every day of the week4 ,our present statutes are kept in force by people who like amusement1 and get all they want of it2 but who make it almost impossible for their poor neighbours1 in order to conciliate ecclesiastical prejudice4 ,they bind heavy burdens and grievous to be borne and lay them on men's shoulders2 but they themselves do not feel the weight4 ,whatever may be the advantage of keeping ,sunday1 it cannot be kept religiously when it is kept compulsorily4 ,rest from unnecessary labour and business on one day every week may be for the public welfare2 but this rest is not made more secure by indiscriminate prohibitions of amusement4 ,the idlest man is the most easily tempted to disturb his neighbours4 ,no man's property is more safe or his personal liberty more secure because his neighbours are liable to be fined for playing golf4 ,laws against ,sunday recreation do not protect but violate individual liberty4 ,a free government has no business to interfere with the right of the citizens to take healthy exercise and innocent amusement whenever they choose4 ,these considerations would justify a protest1 not only against the ,sunday laws made by ,congress for the ,district of ,columbia1 but also against the statutes of every ,state in the ,union1 except ,arizona1 ,california1 ,idaho1 ,louisiana1 and ,wyoming4 ,whoever is present at any sport1 game1 play1 or public diversion1 except a concert of sacred music1 or an entertainment given by a religious or charitable society1 the proceeds of which1 if any1 are to be devoted exclusively to a religious or charitable purpose1 on what is called the ,lord's day in ,massachusetts is liable to a fine of five dollars2 the penalty for taking part may be fifty dollars2 and the proprietor or manager may be fined as much as five hundred dollars4 ,new ,jersey still keeps her old law against singing1 fiddling1 or other music for the sake of merriment2 and express prohibitions of any sport are still maintained by ,connecticut1 ,maine1 and ,rhode ,island4 ,prominent among other ,states which forbid amusements acknowledged innocent on six days of the week1 are ,new ,hampshire1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,vermont4 ,many of our ,states show particular hostility to card-playing1 dancing1 and theatre-going4 ,the fact that fishing was practised by some of the ,apostles on ,sunday has not saved this quiet recreation from being prohibited by more than twenty commonwealths4 ,if every ,sunday law were a dead letter1 it ought to be repealed1 because it tends to bring needed laws into contempt2 but among recent results of ,sunday legislation are the following4 ,in #ahgf some children were fined for playing ball in ,rhode ,island2 so1 about this time1 in ,massachusetts1 were a boy for skating1 a young man for playing lawn-tennis1 and a merchant for fishing with his little son4 ,in #ahid two men were fined #aj each for playing golf on a lonely hill1 in the commonwealth just mentioned2 five boys under fifteen arrested for playing marbles in ,new ,york ,city2 and every member of a baseball club in ,pennsylvania fined4 ,in #ahie a man and a boy of fifteen were fined #bj each for fishing in ,new ,york2 and the attempt of some clergymen1 aided by police1 to break up a show in ,missouri1 caused a tumult in which men's heads were broken by clubs1 while women and children were trampled underfoot4 ,on the first ,sunday that the ,london galleries and museums were thrown open to their owners1 ,may #bd1 #ahif1 two men were shot dead in ,attleboro1 ,mass41 by a policeman who had been ordered to break up a clambake4 ,in that same year and ,state1 a manager was fined #gj for allowing ,yankee ,doodle to be performed in the ,boston ,theatre2 three men were arrested for bowling2 half a dozen ,jews who had been playing cards in a private house were fined #aj or #bj each1 and those who could not pay were sent to jail4 ,among the ,sabbath-breakers arrested in #ahig were a number of newsboys at the national capital1 nine golfers in ,massachusetts1 a young man for holding one end of a rope over which some little girls were skipping in ,new ,york ,city1 and also the manager of a show in ,new ,jersey1 who spent ten days in jail4 ,fines were levied in #ahih for playing golf in ,connecticut1 and twenty-five fishermen were arrested on one ,sunday in ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,such are the risks which still accompany innocent and healthy amusements in the ,eastern ,states4 ,many such arrests are made in order to collect fees1 or gratify malice2 and neither motive ought to be encouraged by the friends of religion4 ,some magistrates in ,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 are believed1 while still holding that baseball breaks the ,sabbath1 to have discovered that golf does not4 ,it is further said that on ,july #i1 #ahii1 some baseball men who had been playing a ,sunday game to a large crowd saved themselves from arrest by using their bats and balls to imitate golfing as soon as a policeman appeared in their grounds4 ,none of the ,sunday laws is so mischievous as the decree of ,mrs4 ,grundy against all forms of recreation not practised by the wealthy and fashionable4 ,these people have so much time on six days of the week for active outdoor sport and indoor public entertainments1 that they make little attempt to indulge in such recreations on ,sunday4 ,people who have only this one chance of playing ball1 or dancing1 or going to stereopticon lectures1 concerts1 and operas1 suffer in health by having these recreations made unpopular as well as illegal4 ,the climate of ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 as well as of ,great ,britain and ,canada1 has unfortunately been so arranged that there are a great many cold and rainy ,sundays1 when much time cannot be spent pleasantly in walking or riding4 ,this matters little to people who get all the amusement they want in their parlours4 ,but what becomes of people who have no parlours8 ,for instance1 of servant-girls who have no place where they can sing or even laugh8 ,shop-girls and factory-girls find their little rooms1 ,sunday after ,sunday1 too much like prisons4 ,young men are perhaps even more unfortunate2 for they go to the saloon1 though this is often closed without any better place of amusement being opened4 ,why should every week in a democratic country begin with an aristocratic ,sunday1 a day whose pleasures are mainly for the rich8 ,libraries and museums are blessed places of refuge2 but ,what are they among so many8 ,the residents of the ,district of ,columbia are particularly unfortunate1 as the ,smithsonian ,museum1 ,national ,library1 and other buildings1 which are open during six days1 are kept shut on ,sunday4 ,congress seems to be of the opinion that working people need no knowledge of natural history1 except what they can get from sermons about ,jonah's whale and ,noah's ark4 ,washington is not the only city whose rich men ought to remember the warning of ,heber ,newton3 ,everything that tends to foster among our working people the notion of class privilege is making against the truest morality in our midst4 ,as they look upon the case1 it is the wealthy people1 whose homes are private libraries and galleries of art1 who protest against the opening of our libraries and museums to those who can afford no libraries and buy no pictures4 ,sabbatarianism is building very dangerous fires to-day4 ,we should all be glad to have more intellectual culture given on ,sunday4 ,one way of giving it would be for the churches to open public reading-rooms in the afternoon4 ,this would be decidedly for their own interest2 and so would be delivery of evening lectures on history1 biography1 and literature4 ,the ,sunday-schools in ,england found it necessary1 even as late as #ahej1 to give much time to teaching reading and writing as well as the higher branches4 ,sunday-school rooms in ,america1 which now are left useless after ,sunday noon1 might be employed in teaching ,english to ,german1 ,italian1 and ,scandinavian immigrants during the afternoon and evening4 ,classes might also be formed in vocal music1 light gymnastics1 ,american and ,english history and literature1 physiology1 sociology1 and political economy4 ,such changes would make our churches all the more worthy of the founder1 who went about doing good4 ,the observance of ,sunday as a day of rest from labour and business will be all the more popular as it is made precious to irreligious people4 ,they are numerous enough to have a right to ask that the public school-houses be opened for free classes in ,french1 ,german1 drawing1 and modelling2 botany1 chemistry1 and bird-lore2 cooking1 sewing1 and wood-work4 ,if teachers of these branches were employed on ,sunday by our cities1 less money would be needed for police4 ,our industrial interests would certainly gain by having this system carried out as far1 for instance1 as is done by ,lyons and ,milan1 which have special ,sunday-schools for teaching weaving4 ,goldsmiths are instructed by similar schools in ,austria1 and blacksmiths in ,saxony4 ,the full advantage of ,sunday classes of the various kinds here suggested might not perhaps be seen until a taste for them could be made general1 but doing this would go far to diminish the taste for saloons4 ,the first step1 however1 which ought to be taken by our legislatures is the repeal of all laws hindering the sale of tickets on ,sunday to exhibitions of pictures or curiosities1 concerts1 stereopticon lectures1 or other instructive entertainments which are acknowledged inoffensive during the rest of the week4 ,how far dramatic performances and other very attractive forms of public amusement should be permitted to take place on ,sunday is a question which ought to be settled by municipal authorities1 with due reference to each special case4 ,the people whose feelings ought to be considered are not those who wish to stay away from such places4 ,they can easily do that without help from the police4 ,the people who ought to be heard1 first and last1 are those who wish to get innocent amusement on their one day of leisure2 and the only thing which the police need do is to see that they do get it without being defrauded or tempted into vice4 ,only the actual existence of such temptation can justify interference with dancing or card-playing in a private house4 ,the ,sunday reforms most needed1 however1 are those which will promote out-door exercise and mental culture4 ,,list ,,of ,,dates #aggf4 ,declaration of ,american independence1 ,july #dth4 #aghj4 ,emancipation in ,massachusetts and ,pennsylvania4 #aghc4 ,peace between ,,il ,s4 ,a4 and ,great ,britain1 ,september #c;d4 #aghe4 ,great prosperity of ,british factories about this time4 #aghg4 ,slavery prohibited north of ,ohio ,river2 slave-trade opposed in ,england2 ,bentham's ,principles of ,morals and ,legislation published4 #aghh4 ,constitution of ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ratified by a sufficient number of ,states1 ,june #bast4 #aghi4 ,bastille taken1 ,july #adth4 #agia4 ,paine's ,rights of ,man1 ,part ,l1 published1 ,march #acth2 ,louis ,,xvi4 accepts the new constitution1 ,september #adth4 #agib4 ,france a republic1 ,september #bast4 #agic4 ,slavery abolished in ,french colonies1 ,february #dth4 #agie4 ,insurrection in ,paris crushed by ,bonaparte1 ,october #eth2 free public schools founded throughout ,france4 #agif4 ,bonaparte commander of army of ,italy1 ,march #dth4 #agig4 ,french ,directory makes itself absolute1 ,september #dth2 ,venice ceded by ,france to ,austria4 #agih4 ,irish rebellion1 ,may #bc;d4 #agii4 ,usurpation by ,bonaparte1 ,november #ajth4 #ahjj4 ,election of ,jefferson2 ,schelling's ,transcendental ,idealism published4 #ahja4 ,inauguration of ,jefferson1 ,march #dth4 #ahjb4 ,birth of ,victor ,hugo1 ,february #bfth2 ,lamarck's ,recherches published4 #ahjc4 ,hayti declares herself independent1 ,january #b;d2 death of ,toussaint in prison1 ,april #bgth2 birth of ,emerson1 ,may #beth2 ,emmet's insurrection in ,ireland1 ,july #bc;d4 #ahjd4 ,the ,code ,napoleon announced1 ,january2 ,napoleon pro-,liberty in the ,nineteenth ,century claimed ,emperor1 ,may #ahth2 crowned1 ,december #b;d2 ,schiller's ,william ,tell published4 #ahje4 ,battle of ,austerlitz1 ,december #b;d4 #ahjf4 ,death of ,schiller1 ,may #ith2 birth of ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,may #bjth2 battle of ,jena1 ,october #adth2 ,berlin decree of ,napoleon against commerce with ,great ,britain1 ,november #bast4 #ahjg4 ,slave-trade prohibited by ,great ,britain1 ,march #beth2 ,peace of ,tilsit1 ,july #gth1 raises ,napoleon to height of power2 embargo laid by ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,december #bb;d2 ,oken announces the vertebral analogy of the skull2 ,hegel's ,phaenomenologie des ,geistes published4 #ahjh4 ,rebellion of ,spaniards against ,french rule2 witchcraft mob in ,england2 ,goethe's ,faust1 ,part ,l1 published4 #ahji4 ,birth of ,darwin1 ,february #abth2 revolt of ,tyrolese under ,hofer1 ,april #hth2 states of the ,church annexed to ,france1 ,may #agth2 death of ,paine1 ,june #hth2 ,pope imprisoned1 ,july #fth2 divorce of ,josephine1 ,december #aeth2 ,lamarck's ,philosophie ,zoologique published4 #ahaj4 ,hofer shot1 ,february #bjth2 marriage of ,napoleon with ,austrian ,archduchess1 ,april #ast2 post-offices required to open every ,sunday in ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,april #cjth2 revolt against ,spanish rule of ,buenos ,ayres1 ,may #beth1 and of ,chili1 ,september #ahth4 #ahaa4 ,nottingham riots against machinery1 ,november4 #ahab4 ,birth of ,dickens1 ,february #gth2 war against ,great ,britain declared by ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,june #ahth2 ,wellington enters ,madrid1 ,august #abth2 ,moscow burned1 ,september #adth2 ,byron's ,childe ,harold1 ,coleridge's ,friend1 and ,hegel's ,logik published4 #ahac4 ,wellington invades ,france1 ,october #gth2 battle of ,leipsic1 ,october #afth1 #ahth1 and #aith2 ,francia ruler of ,paraguay2 ,unitarian disabilities removed in ,england2 ,shelley's ,queen ,mab and ,owen's ,new ,view of ,society published4 #ahad4 ,napoleon is deposed by ,senate1 ,april #ast1 and abdicates1 ,april #aath2 liberal constitution introduced by ,louis ,,xviii41 ,may2 ,washington taken and burned by ,british1 ,august #bdth2 ,peace of ,ghent between ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 and ,great ,britain1 ,december #bdth2 ,congress of ,vienna opens ,november #c;d2 graves of ,voltaire and ,rousseau violated4 #ahae4 ,battle of ,new ,orleans1 ,january #hth2 ,waterloo1 ,june #ahth2 controversy of ,unitarians and ,trinitarians in ,u4 ,s4 ,a42 last heretic burned in ,mexico2 ,lamarck publishes the first volume of his ,histoire ,naturelle4 #ahag4 ,shelley's children taken from him on account of his opinions1 ,march #bfth2 demonstration at the ,wartburg1 ,october #ahth2 unusual poverty in ,england2 her authors and orators made liable to imprisonment without a trial2 ,ben-tham demands suffrage for men and women not illiterate2 ,shelley's ,revolt of ,islam published4 #ahah4 ,chili liberated by battle of ,maipu1 won by ,san ,martin1 ,april #eth2 religious tests abolished in ,connecticut2 ,hannah ,m4 ,crocker's ,rights of ,women published4 #ahai4 ,assassination of ,kotzebue1 ,march #bc;d2 ,carlsbad ,conference1 ,august #ast2 ,peterloo massacre at ,manchester1 ,august #afth2 ,shelley's ,prometheus ,unbound published4 #ahbj4 ,revolution in ,spain1 ,january #ast2 and at ,naples1 ,july #b;d2 assassination of ,french princes1 ,february #acth1 causes reaction against liberalism2 birth of ,herbert ,spencer1 ,april #bgth2 ,owen's plan of ,socialism proposed1 ,may #ast2 conference of ,troppau1 ,december #hth2 ,missouri ,compromise2 ,sydney ,smith asks1 ,who reads an ,american book82 ,irving's ,rip ,van ,winkle and ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow published4 #ahba4 ,brazil begins a revolt1 ,january #ast1 as do ,greece and ,sardinia in ,april1 and ,peru in ,july2 death of ,napoleon1 ,may #eth2 ,venezuela and ,colombra made free by battle of ,carabolo1 won ,june #bdth1 by ,bolivar2 ,austria supreme in ,italy2 ,lundy begins his ,genius of ,universal ,emancipation4 #ahbb4 ,death of ,shelley1 ,july #hth2 independence of ,brazil proclaimed1 ,september #hth2 massacre at ,scio2 ,fourrier's book on ,association published4 #ahbc4 ,spanish patriots crushed by ,french army1 ,april2 ,monroe ,doctrine announced1 ,december #ast2 ,british ,anti-,slavery ,society formed2 ,victor ,hugo's ,odes and ,ballads published4 #ahbd4 ,mexico a republic1 ,january #cast2 ,bolivar1 dictator of ,feru1 ,february #ajth1 defeats ,spaniards at ,ayachuco1 ,december #ith2 death of ,byron1 ,april #aith2 accession of ,charles ,x41 ,september #afth2 repeal of statutes forbidding ,english labourers to combine or emigrate2 ,westminster ,review founded4 #ahbe4 ,much opposition to slavery in ,kentucky1 ,maryland1 and ,north ,carolina2 many socialist communities founded in ,u4 ,s4 ,a42 elective courses of study at ,harvard ,college1 and also at the ,university of ,virginia1 where attendance at religious exercises is made voluntary2 ,coleridge's ,aids to ,reflection published4 #ahbf4 ,citizens of ,new ,york petition for repeal of ,fugitive ,slave ,law1 and for emancipation in the ,district of ,columbia4 #ahbg4 ,battle of ,navarino1 ,october #bjth2 ,taylor sent to prison for blasphemy1 ,october #bdth4 #ahbh4 ,test ,act repealed2 ,frances ,wright lectures against clergy4 #ahbi4 ,jackson inaugurated ,march #dth2 ,catholic ,emancipation ,act signed1 ,april #acth2 ,miss ,wright opens a ,hall of ,science in ,new ,york ,city on ,sunday1 ,april #beth2 ,james ,mill's ,analysis and ,fourrier's ,industrial ,new ,world published4 #ahcj4 ,independence of ,greece acknowledged by ,turkey1 ,april #beth2 accession of ,william ,,iv41 ,july #bfth2 revolution at ,paris begins ,july #bgth2 ,king's troops driven out1 ,july #bith2 he is succeeded by ,louis ,philippe1 ,august #ith2 revolts in ,brussels1 ,warsaw1 and ,dresden2 independence of ,belgium acknowledged1 ,december #bfth2 ,hetherington sent to prison for six months for publishing ,the ,poor ,man's ,guardian2 ,victor ,hugo's ,hernani acted2 ,tennyson's ,poems and ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology published4 #ahca4 ,first number of ,the ,liberator ,january #ast1 and of ,the ,investigator1 ,april #b;d2 ,carlile sent to prison for his writings1 ,january #ajth2 ,cobbett tried and acquitted1 ,july #cast2 massacre of fifty-five white men1 women1 and children by slaves in ,virginia1 ,sunday1 ,august #bast2 ,warsaw surrenders to ,russians1 ,september #gth2 ,reform ,bill defeated by bishops1 ,october #gth2 ,jamaica insurrection1 ,december #bb;d2 free trade convention in ,philadelphia2 ,victor ,hugo's ,notre ,dame de ,paris published4 #ahcb4 ,new ,england ,anti-,slavery ,society founded in ,boston1 ,january #ast 7becomes ,mass4 ,a4 ,s4 in #ahcf72 death of ,goethe1 ,march #bb;d2 the insurrection at ,paris described in ,les ,miserables1 ,june #eth and #fth2 ,reform ,bill passed and signed1 ,june #gth2 ,jackson re-elected1 ,november #fth2 woman suffrage lecture in ,london1 ,december #b;d2 ,jackson's proclamation against attempt of ,south ,carolina to secede1 ,december #aath2 bloody resistance to tithes in ,ireland2 ,elliott's ,corn ,law ,rhymes published4 #ahcc4 ,gradual reduction of tariff voted by ,congress1 ,march #ast2 death of ,bentham1 ,june #fth2 ,act of ,parliament for emancipation in ,west ,indies passed ,august #bhth2 ,american ,anti-,slavery ,society founded at ,philadelphia1 ,december2 pro-slavery mobs there and in ,new ,york ,city2 municipal suffrage extended in ,scotland2 unsectarian public schools in ,ireland2 first free town library in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 founded at ,peterboro1 ,n4 ,h41 and opened ,sundays thenceforth2 ,emerson's first lecture2 ,carlyle's ,sartor ,resartus published4 #ahcd4 ,emancipation in ,west ,indies takes place1 ,august ist2 new poor law in ,england1 ,august #adth2 insurrection headed by ,mazzini in ,italy4 #ahce4 ,death of ,cobbett1 ,june #afth2 anti-slavery periodicals taken from post-office at ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c1 and burned by mob1 ,july2 convent at ,charlestown1 ,mass41 burned by a mob1 ,august2 ,garrison mobbed in ,boston1 and other abolitionists in ,new ,york and ,vermont1 ,october #bast2 extension of municipal suffrage in ,england2 ,tocqueville's ,democracy in ,america and ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus published4 #ahcf4 ,transcendental ,club founded in ,boston1 ,september2 ,parker begins to preach2 tithes commuted in ,england2 taxes on newspapers reduced2 dissenters permitted to marry without disobedience to conscience2 ,emerson's ,nature and ,dickens' ,pickwick ,papers published4 #ahcg4 ,discussion of slavery in ,house of ,representatives suppressed1 ,january2 ,miss ,grimke's anti-slavery lectures1 ,june2 ,emerson's address on ,the ,american ,scholar1 ,august #cast2 ,anti-,slavery ,convention of ,n4 ,e4 ,methodists1 ,october #beth2 ,carlyle's ,french ,revolution published4 #ahch4 ,emerson's ,divinity ,school ,address1 ,july #aeth2 ,kneeland imprisoned sixty days1 that same summer1 for blasphemy2 ,pennsylvania ,hall burned by a pro-slavery mob2 ,irish tithe system reformed2 daguerreotypes invented2 ,atlantic crossed by steam2 railroad from ,london to ,birmingham2 ,channing's ,self-,culture published4 #ahci4 ,anti-,corn-,law ,league organised1 ,march #bjth2 unsectarian common schools in ,england2 great ,chartist petition2 ,pope forbids attendance at the scientific congress at ,pisa4 #ahdj4 ,penny postage1 ,january #ajth2 nomination of candidate for ,president1 ,april ist1 by ,liberty party3 quarrels in ,may among abolitionists2 ,world's ,anti-,slavery ,convention at ,london1 in ,june1 refuses seats to female delegates2 local self-government in ,irish cities2 protest of ,american ,catholics against sectarianism of public schools2 ,the ,dial begins2 ,carlyle's ,heroes and ,hero ,worship published4 #ahda1 ,hetherington imprisoned in ,england for publishing ,letters to the ,clergy1 and the editor of the ,oracle of ,reason for attacking the ,bible2 ,emerson's first volume of ,essays published4 #ahdb4 ,garrison calls on free ,states to secede1 ,may2 death of ,channing1 ,october #b;d2 ,brook ,farm started1 as are many communties about this time2 ,spencer's theory of the limits of government published1 #ahdd4 ,morse proves value of telegraph by announcing nomination of ,frelinghuysen for ,vice-,president by ,whigs1 ,may #ast2 disunion banner publicly accepted by ,garrison1 ,june #ast2 annexation of ,texas and reduction of tariff decided by election on ,november #eth2 rule against discussing slavery repealed by ,house of ,representatives2 ,lowell's ,poems published4 #ahde4 ,parker begins to preach regularly in ,boston1 ,february #afth2 potato rot in ,ireland1 ,august2 ,vestiges of ,creation published4 #ahdf4 ,mexico invaded by ,u4 ,s4 troops1 ,march2 free trade established in ,england1 ,june #beth1 and bill to reduce ,american tariff signed1 ,june #bfth2 first volume of ,grote's ,greece and first number of ,lowell's ,biglow ,papers published4 #ahdg4 ,mexicans defeated at ,buena ,vista by ,general ,taylor1 ,february #bb;d and #bc;d2 death of ,o',connell1 ,may #aeth4 #ahdh4 ,revolution in ,paris1 ,february #bb;d2 ,king abdicates1 ,february #bdth2 insurrections in ,munich1 ,vienna1 ,berlin1 ,venice1 and ,milan in ,march1 afterwards in other cities2 spirit rappings at ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 begin ,march #cast2 ,chartist demonstration at ,london1 ,april #ajth2 ,emancipation decreed by ,french ,republic1 ,april #bgth2 socialist insurrection at ,paris1 ,june #bc;d1 #bdth1 #beth1 and #bfth2 ,woman's ,rights ,convention at ,seneca ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 ,july #aith2 revolt in ,ireland1 ,july #bith2 ,buffalo ,convention of ,free ,soilers1 ,august #ith2 ,kossuth dictator of ,hungary1 ,september #beth2 ,state constitution and town ordinances made in ,october by citizens of ,california without ,federal sanction2 pro-slavery defeat at election of ,taylor1 ,november #gth2 flight of ,pope from ,rome1 ,november #bdth2 ,louis ,napoleon president of ,france1 ,december #ajth2 ,lowell's ,vision of ,sir ,launfal1 ,fable for ,critics1 and ,biglow ,papers published1 #ahdi4 ,defeat of ,king of ,sardinia by ,austrians at ,novara1 ,march #bc;d1 prevents liberation of ,italy2 ,rome captured by ,french1 ,july #c;d2 ,hungarian army surrendered to ,russians by ,gorgei1 ,august #acth2 ,venice taken by ,austrians1 ,august #bhth2 ,emancipation ,convention in ,kentucky4 #ahej4 ,death of ,wordsworth1 ,april #bdth1 and of ,president ,taylor1 ,july #ith2 ,fugitive ,slave ,bill signed1 ,september #ahth2 first national ,woman's ,rights ,convention at ,worcester1 ,mass41 ,october #bc;d and #bdth2 ,bradlaugh's first lecture2 ,hawthorne's ,scarlet ,letter1 ,spencer's ,social ,statics1 and ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam published4 #ahea4 ,london ,great ,exhibition opens ,may ist2 a fugitive slave rescued at ,boston1 ,sunday1 ,february #afth1 another at ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 ,october ist2 usurpation of ,louis ,napoleon1 ,december #b;d1 #ahea4 #aheb4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin published1 ,march #bjth2 death of ,frances ,wright1 and accession of ,napoleon ,,iii41 ,december #b;d2 ,herbert ,spencer announces the principle of ,differentiation4 #ahed4 ,repeal of ,missouri ,compromise proposed by ,douglas1 ,january #bc;d2 return of ,burns1 a fugitive slave1 from ,boston1 ,june #b;d2 ,u4 ,s4 ,constitution publicly burned by ,garrison1 ,july #dth2 ,kansas election carried by border ruffians1 ,november #bith2 ,thoreau's ,walden published4 #ahee4 ,spencer's ,pyschology and ,walt ,whitman's ,leaves of ,grass published1 #ahef4 ,sumner assaulted1 ,may #bb;d44 #aheg4 ,disunion ,convention1 ,worcester1 ,mass41 ,january #aeth2 death of ,beranger1 ,july #afth1 and of ,comte1 ,september #eth2 tariff reduced twenty per cent1 in ,u4 ,s4 ,a42 ,buckle's ,history of ,civilisation1 vol4 i41 published4 #aheh4 ,essays by ,darwin and ,wallace read in public1 ,july ist2 ,jews admitted to ,parliament by act passed ,july #bc;d2 death of ,robert ,owen1 ,november #agth2 ,lincoln and ,douglas campaign in ,illinois4 #ahei4 ,austrians defeated at ,magenta1 ,june #dth1 and ,solferino4 ,june #bdth2 ,lombardy annexed to ,sardinia by treaty of ,villafranca1 ,july nth2 ,john ,brown takes possession of ,harper's ,ferry1 ,sunday1 ,october #afth1 and is tried ,november #b;d2 ,darwin's ,origin of ,species published1 ,november #bdth2 ,john ,brown hung1 ,december #b;d4 #ahfj4 ,split of ,democratic party1 ,april #cjth2 death of ,theodore ,parker1 ,may #ajth2 ,garibaldi enters ,naples1 ,september #gth2 election of ,lincoln1 ,november #fth2 secession of ,south ,carolina1 ,december #bjth2 annexation of two ,sicilies to ,sardinia1 ,december #bfth2 ,mill on ,liberty published4 #ahfa4 ,confederate ,states of ,america organised1 ,february #hth2 protective tariff passed1 ,march #b;d2 ,russian serfs emancipated1 ,march #c;d2 ,lincoln inaugurated1 ,march #dth2 ,victor ,emmanuel ,king of ,italy1 ,march #agth2 ,fort ,sumter bombarded1 ,april #abth1 surrendered1 ,april #acth2 ,lincoln's proclamation1 ,monday1 ,april #aeth1 calls all the ,north to arms2 death of ,cavour1 ,june #fth2 ,union defeat at ,bull ,run1 ,sunday1 ,july #bast4 #ahfb4 ,paper money made legal tender in ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,february #beth2 return of fugitives from slavery by army or navy forbidden1 ,march #acth2 negro soldiers1 ,april2 death of ,thoreau1 ,may #fth1 and of ,buckle1 ,may #bith2 disastrous campaign of ,mc,clellan in ,virginia ends by his retreat1 ,july #hth2 ,union victory at ,antietam1 ,september #aith2 emancipation announced as a possible war measure by ,lincoln1 ,september #bb;d2 ,union defeat at ,fredericksburg1 ,december #acth2 ,victor ,hugo's ,les ,miserables published1 also ,spencer's ,first ,principles containing his full theory of ,integration and ,differentiation4 #ahfc4 ,lincoln proclaims emancipation1 ,january #ast2 signs bills suspending ,habeas ,corpus ,act and establishing conscription1 ,march #c;d2 ,union defeat at ,chancellorsville1 ,may #c;d2 ,vallandigham sentenced1 ,may #gth2 battle of ,gettysburg1 ,july #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d1 ending in a ,union victory2 ,vicksburg surrendered to ,general ,grant1 ,july #dth2 ,mississippi opened by surrender of ,port ,hudson1 ,july #ith2 ,union victories at ,lookout ,mountain1 ,november #bdth1 and ,chattanooga1 ,november #beth2 ,fenian ,convention at ,chicago1 ,november #beth2 ,darwinism much opposed by ,european clergy about this time4 #ahfd4 ,general ,grant takes command of all the ,union armies1 ,march #abth2 undecisive battles in the ,wilderness and at ,spottsylvania1 ,may #eth-#ajth2 ,fugitive ,slave ,act repealed1 ,june #bc;d2 ,nevada admitted1 ,october #cast2 ,lincoln re-elected1 ,november #hth2 ,sherman marches from ,atlanta1 ,november #afth1 and enters ,savannah1 ,december #bb;d4 #ahfe4 ,death of ,cobden1 ,april #b;d2 ,richmond entered by coloured cavalry1 ,april #c;d2 ,lee surrenders1 ,april #ith2 ,lincoln shot1 ,good ,friday1 ,april #adth1 dies ,april #aeth2 slavery abolished by ,thirteenth ,amendment1 ,december #ahth2 ,lecky's ,rationalism published4 #ahff4 ,prussian victory over ,austria at ,koniggratz1 ,july #c;d2 ,venice part of ,kingdom of ,italy1 ,november #dth4 #ahfg4 ,first convention of the ,free ,religious ,association1 ,may #cjth2 suffrage extended in ,england1 ,august #aeth2 ,home ,rule in ,hungary4 #ahfh4 ,fourteenth ,amendment in force1 ,july #bhth2 ,cuban declaration of independence1 ,october #ajth4 #ahfi4 ,irish ,church disestablished1 ,july #bfth2 witnesses allowed to affirm in ,great ,britain4 #ahgj4 ,death of ,dickens1 ,june #ith2 ,napoleon ,,iii4 defeated at ,sedan1 ,september #ast2 ,france a republic1 ,september #dth2 ,rome part of the kingdom of ,italy1 ,october #ith2 ,inger-soll begins to lecture2 ,home ,rule agitation in ,ireland1 #ahga4 ,paris surrendered to ,prussians1 ,january #bhth2 ,communists supreme there1 ,march #ahth1 suppressed1 ,may #bhth2 emancipation in ,brazil2 ,darwin's ,descent of ,man published4 #ahgb4 ,death of ,mazzini1 ,march #ajth2 secret ballot in ,england2 ,abbot's ,demands of ,liberalism published in ,the ,index 7which began ,january #a1 #ahgj74 #ahgc4 ,spain a republic1 ,february #aath2 death of ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,may #hth2 ,american ,liberal ,league1 ,september #ast4 #ahgd4 ,military usurpation at ,madrid1 ,january #c;d2 death of ,sumner1 ,march #aath2 citizens of ,district of ,columbia disfranchised1 ,june #agth2 ,alphonso ,,xii4 king of ,spain1 ,december #cjth2 ,mrs4 ,besant begins to lecture2 ,victor ,hugo's ,ninety-,three published4 #ahge4 ,sunday ,society organised at ,london4 #ahgf4 ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia opens1 ,may #ajth1 and conventiom of ,liberal ,league1 ,july #ast2 disputed election for ,president1 ,november #gth2 ,sunday convention in ,boston1 ,november #aeth2 vivisection restricted in ,england2 ,cuban rebellion suppressed1 #bdb ,liberty in the ,nineteenth ,century4 #ahgg4 ,museum of ,fine ,arts in ,boston open in and after ,march on ,sundays4 #ahgh4 ,anti-clerical resolution passed by ,woman ,suffrage ,convention1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 ,july2 split of ,liberal ,league at ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 ,sunday1 ,october #bgth2 ,professor ,winchell obliged to leave ,nashville1 ,tenn41 for evolutionism4 #ahgi4 ,specie payment resumed in ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,january #ast2 death of ,garrison1 ,may #bdth2 ,henry ,george's ,progress and ,poverty published4 #ahhj4 ,bradlaugh refused his seat in ,parliament1 ,may #bast2 many patriots banished to ,siberia4 #ahha4 ,czar ,alexander ,,ii4 assassinated1 ,march #acth1 anti-,jewish mobs on and after ,april #bgth2 ,bradlaugh excluded by force1 ,august #ast4 #ahhb4 ,death of ,longfellow1 ,march #bdth1 of ,darwin1 ,april #ahth1 of ,emerson1 ,april #bgth1 and of ,garibaldi1 ,june #b;d4 #ahhc4 ,foote and ,ramsay1 ,english journalists1 sentenced respectively to twelve and nine months in prison for blasphemy4 #ahhd4 ,death of ,wendell ,phillips2 ,february #b;d2 ,cleveland elected ,president1 ,november #dth2 ,professor ,woodrow dismissed from ,presbyterian ,theological ,seminary at ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c1 for teaching evolution1 ,december #abth4 #ahhe4 ,death of ,victor ,hugo1 ,may #bjth1 and of ,general ,grant1 ,july #bc;d4 #ahhf4 ,bradlaugh takes his seat1 ,january #acth2 railroad strike in ,missouri suppressed by ,federal troops1 ,march2 bloody conflict of ,chicago anarchists with police1 ,may #dth2 statue of ,liberty unveiled in ,new ,york ,harbour1 ,october #bhth4 #ahhg4 ,chicago anarchists hung1 ,november #aath4 #ahhh4 ,u4 ,s4 tariff reduced by ,mills ,bill1 ,july #bast2 ,cleveland defeated1 ,november #fth2 imprisonment in ,sweden for blasphemy2 ,bellamy's ,looking ,backward published4 #ahhi4 ,brazil a republic1 ,november #aeth2 death of ,browning1 ,december #abth4 #ahij4 ,australian ballot tried in ,rhode ,island1 ,april #b;d2 ,u4 ,s4 tariff raised by ,mc,kinley ,bill1 passed by the #d ,billion ,dollars ,congress1 and signed ,october #ast4 #ahia4 ,death of ,bradlaugh1 ,january #cjth1 and of ,lowell1 ,august #abth2 ,jews expelled from ,moscow in ,april1 and much persecuted this year and in #ahib2 ,new ,york ,museum of ,art opened on ,sunday1 ,may #cast1 to #aj1jjj visitors4 #ahib4 ,death of ,walt ,whitman1 ,march #bfth1 of ,whittier1 ,september #gth1 and of ,tennyson1 ,october #fth2 bill excluding ,chinese from ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 signed1 ,may #eth2 ,congress votes for closing ,chicago ,exposition on ,sundays1 ,july #aith2 ,cleveland re-elected1 ,november #hth2 ,new ,york ,museum of ,natural ,history open ,sundays2 revised edition of ,spencer's ,social ,statics published4 #ahic4 ,chicago ,exposition formally opened ,may ist1 first open ,sunday1 ,may #bhth2 ,parliament of ,religions begins ,monday1 ,september nth1 #aj a4m4 #ahid4 ,death of ,kossuth1 ,march #bjth1 of ,holmes1 ,october #gth1 of ,lucy ,stone1 ,october #ahth1 and of ,tyndall1 ,december #dth2 ,debs1 leader of a riot in ,chicago1 enjoined by ,u4 ,s4 judges1 ,july #b;d1 and put down by ,federal troops2 reduction of ,u4 ,s4 tariff1 ,august #b;d2 ,home ,rule approved by ,house of ,commons1 ,september ist1 refused by ,house of ,lords1 ,september #hth2 universal suffrage and extension of local self-government in ,england2 a professor in ,university of ,texas dismissed for evolutionism4 #ahie4 ,death of ,frederick ,douglass1 ,february #bjth1 and of ,huxley1 ,june #bith2 rebellion in ,cuba2 men arrested in ,new ,york ,city for selling ice1 umbrellas1 etc41 on ,sunday2 eight men who had worked on that day1 after keeping ,saturday as the ,sabbath1 forced to labour in the chain-gang in ,tennessee4 #ahif4 ,british ,museum1 ,national ,gallery1 and other institutions opened to the public on ,sunday1 ,may #bdth1 and afterwards2 two ,sabbath-breakers shot dead that same day by a policeman in ,massachusetts2 death of ,william ,morris1 ,october #c;d2 ,democratic candidates defeated on a free-silver platform1 ,november #c;d4 #ahig4 ,dingley ,bill to increase tariff1 signed ,july #bdth2 death of ,henry ,george1 ,october #bgth4 #ahih4 ,war declared by ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 against ,spain1 ,april #bast2 death of ,gladstone1 ,ascension ,day1 ,may #aith2 independence of ,cuba secured by treaty1 ,august #abth4 #ahii4 ,death of ,ingersoll1 ,july #bast4