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,,the ,,energy ,,system ,,of ,,matter   
,,the ,,energy ,,system ,,of ,,matter   
,a ,,deduction ,,from ,,terrestrial     
,,energy ,,phenomena    ,,by   ,,james  
,,weir    ,,with #ab ,,diagrams         
,,longmans1 ,,green ,,and ,,co4   #ci   
,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london   ,,new   
,,york ,,bombay1 ,,and ,,calcutta       
#aiab    ,all rights reserved           
,,preface   ,an intimate study of       
natural phenomena and a lengthened      
experience in physical research have    
resulted in the formation of certain    
generalisations and deductions which ,i 
now present in this volume4 ,i have     
reached the conclusion that every       
physical phenomenon is due to the       
operation of energy transformations or  
energy transmissions embodied in        
material1 and takes place under the     
action or influence of incepting energy 
fields4 ,in any instance the precise    
nature of the phenomena is dependent on 

the peculiar form of energy actively    
engaged1 on the nature of the material  
to which this energy is applied1 and on 
the nature of the incepting field which 
influences the process4 ,in the course  
of the work several concrete cases are  
discussed1 in which these features of   
energy are illustrated and explained by 
the use of simple experimental          
apparatus4 ,it is hoped that1 by this   
means1 the distinctive differences which
 exist in the manifestations of energy1 
in its transformation1 in its           
transmission1 and in its incepting forms
 will be rendered clear to the reader4  
,i have to express my indebtedness to   
,mr4 ,james ,affleck1 ,b4,sc41 for his  
assistance in the preparation of this   
work for publication4  ,,james ,,weir4  
,,over ,,courance1 ,,lockerbie1         
,,scotland4     ,,contents              
,,page    ,,introduction                
#a     ,,part ,i    ,,general           
,,statement     #a4 ,,advantages ,,of   
,,general ,,view ,,of ,,natural         

,,operations         #g     #b4         
,,separate ,,mass ,,in ,,space          
#h     #c4 ,,advent ,,of                
,,energy--,,distortional ,,effects      
#i     #d4 ,,the ,,gravitation ,,field  
#aa     #e4 ,,limits ,,of ,,rotational  
,,energy--,,disruptional                
,,phenomena                             
#ac     #f4 ,,passive ,,function ,,and  
,,general ,,nature ,,of ,,gravitation   
,,field                                 
#ag     #g4 ,,limit ,,of ,,gravitation  
,,transformation                     #ah
     #h4 ,,interactions ,,of ,,two      
,,planetary ,,bodies--,,equilibrium     
,,phenomena                             
#ai     #i4 ,,axial                     
,,energy--,,secondary ,,processes       
#bb    #aj4 ,,mechanism ,,of ,,energy   
,,return                                
#bg    #aa4 ,,review ,,of ,,cosmical    
,,system--,,general ,,function ,,of     
,,energy                                
#bi    #ab4 ,,review ,,of ,,cosmical    
,,system--,,natural ,,conditions        

#ca     ,,part ,,ii    ,,principles ,,of
 ,,inception    #ac4 ,,illustrative     
,,secondary ,,processes                 
#cd    #ad4 ,,incepting ,,energy        
,,influences                            
#dj    #ae4 ,,cohesion ,,as ,,an        
,,incepting ,,influence                 
#de    #af4 ,,terrestrial ,,gravitation 
,,as ,,an ,,incepting ,,influence       
#dh    #ag4 ,,the ,,gravitation ,,field 
#ea    #ah4 ,,the ,,thermal ,,field     
#ed    #ai4 ,,the ,,luminous ,,field    
#eh    #bj4 ,,transformations--,,upward 
,,movement ,,of ,a ,,mass               
,,against ,,gravity                     
#fb    #ba4 ,,transformations--,,the    
,,simple ,,pendulum                     
#fg    #bb4 ,,statical ,,energy         
,,conditions                            
#fh    #bc4 ,,transformations ,,of ,,the
 ,,moving ,,pendulum--,,energy          
,,of ,,motion ,,to ,,energy ,,of        
,,position ,,and ,,vice ,,versa         
#gb    #bd4 ,,transformations ,,of ,,the
 ,,moving ,,pendulum--,,frictional      

,,transformation ,,at ,,the ,,bearing   
,,surfaces                  #gg    #be4 
,,stability ,,of ,,energy ,,systems     
#gi    #bf4 ,,the ,,pendulum ,,as ,a    
,,conservative ,,system                 
#ha    #bg4 ,,some ,,phenomena ,,of     
,,transmission                          
,,processes--,,transmission       ,,of  
,,heat ,,energy ,,by ,,solid ,,material 
#hd    #bh4 ,,some ,,phenomena ,,of     
,,transmission                          
,,processes--,,transmission       ,,by  
,,flexible ,,band ,,or ,,cord           
#hi    #bi4 ,,some ,,phenomena ,,of     
,,transmission                          
,,processes--,,transmission       ,,of  
,,energy ,,to ,,air ,,masses            
#ib    #cj4 ,,energy ,,machines ,,and   
,,energy ,,transmission                 
#ie    #ca4 ,,identification ,,of       
,,forms ,,of ,,energy                   
#ajg    #cb4 ,,complete ,,secondary     
,,cyclical ,,operation                  
#aad     ,,part ,,iii    ,,terrestrial  
,,conditions    #cc4 ,,gaseous          

,,expansion                             
#aah    #cd4 ,,gravitational            
,,equilibrium ,,of ,,gases              
#abd    #ce4 ,,total ,,energy ,,of      
,,gaseous ,,substances                  
#aca    #cf4 ,,comparative ,,altitudes  
,,of ,,planetary ,,atmospheres          
#ace    #cg4 ,,reactions ,,of           
,,composite ,,atmosphere                
#aci    #ch4 ,,description ,,of         
,,terrestrial ,,case                    
#adc    #ci4 ,,relative ,,physical      
,,conditions ,,of ,,atmospheric         
,,constituents                          
#aej    #dj4 ,,transmission ,,of        
,,energy ,,from ,,aqueous ,,vapour ,,to 
,,air ,,masses                          
#aec    #da4 ,,terrestrial ,,energy     
,,return                                
#afj    #db4 ,,experimental ,,analogy   
,,and ,,demonstration ,,of ,,the        
,,general ,,mechanism ,,of ,,energy     
,,transformation       ,,and ,,return   
,,in ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,cycle        
#agj    #dc4 ,,application ,,of         

,,pendulum ,,principles                 
#aha    #dd4 ,,extension ,,of ,,pendulum
 ,,principles ,,to ,,terrestrial        
,,phenomena                             
#ahh    #de4 ,,concluding ,,review ,,of 
,,terrestrial ,,conditions--,,effects   
,,of ,,influx ,,of ,,energy             
#aib     ,,the ,,energy ,,system ,,of   
,,matter     ,,introduction   ,the main 
principles on which the present work is 
founded were broadly outlined in the    
author's ,terrestrial ,energy in #ahhc1 
and also in a later paper in #ahib4     
,the views then expressed have since    
been amply verified by the course of    
events4 ,in the march of progress1 the  
forward strides of science have been of 
gigantic proportions4 ,its triumphs1    
however1 have been in the realm1 not of 
speculation or faith1 but of experiment 
and fact4 ,while1 on the one hand1 the  
careful and systematic examination and  
co-ordination of experimental facts has 
ever been leading to results of real    
practical value1 on the other1 the task 

of the theorists1 in their efforts to   
explain phenomena on speculative        
grounds1 has become increasingly severe1
 and the results obtained have been     
decreasingly satisfactory4 ,day by day  
it becomes more evident that not one of 
the many existing theories is adequate  
to the explanation of the known         
phenomena3 but1 in spite of this obvious
 fact1 attempts are still constantly    
being made1 even by most eminent men1 to
 rule the results of experimental       
science into line with this or that     
accepted theory4 ,the contradictions are
 many and glaring1 but speculative      
methods are still rampant4 ,they have   
become the fashion1 or rather the       
fetish1 of modern science4 ,it would    
seem that no experimental result can be 
of any value until it is deductively    
accommodated to some preconceived       
hypothesis1 until it is embodied and    
under the sway of what is practically   
scientific dogma4 ,these methods have   
permeated all branches of science more  

or less1 but in no sphere has the       
tendency to indulge in speculation been 
more pronounced than in that which deals
 with energetics4 ,in no sphere1 also1  
have the consequences of such indulgence
 been more disastrous4 ,for the most    
part1 the current conceptions of energy 
processes are crude1 fanciful1 and      
inconsistent with ,nature4 ,they require
 for their support--in fact1 for their  
very existence--the acceptance of       
equally fantastic conceptions of        
mythical substances or ethereal media of
 whose real existence there is          
absolutely no experimental evidence4 ,on
 the assumed properties or motions of   
such media are based the many           
inconsistent and useless attempts to    
explain phenomena4 ,but1 as already     
pointed out1 ,nature has unmistakably   
indicated the true path of progress to  
be that of experimental investigation4  
,in the use of this method only         
phenomena can be employed1 and any      
hypothesis which may be formulated as   

the result of research on these lines is
 of scientific value only in so far as  
it is the correct expression of the     
actual facts observed4 ,by this method  
of holding close to ,nature reliable    
working hypotheses can1 if necessary1 be
 formed1 and real progress made4 ,it is 
undeniably the method of true science4  
,in recent years much attention has been
 devoted to certain speculative theories
 with respect to the origin and ultimate
 nature of matter and energy4 ,such     
hypotheses1 emanating as they do from   
prominent workers1 and fostered by the  
inherent imaginative tendency of the    
human mind1 have gained considerable    
standing4 ,but it is surely unnecessary 
to point out that all questions relating
 to origins are essentially outside the 
pale of true science4 ,any hypotheses   
which may be thus formulated have not   
the support of experimental facts in    
their conclusions2 they belong rather to
 the realm of speculative philosophy    
than to that of science4 ,in the total  

absence of confirmatory phenomena1 such 
theories can1 at best1 only be regarded 
as plausible speculations1 to be        
accepted1 it may be1 without argument1  
and ranking in interest in the order of 
their plausibility4  ,of modern research
 into the ultimate constitution of      
matter little requires to be said4 ,it  
is largely founded on certain           
radio-active and electrical phenomena   
which1 in themselves1 contribute little 
information4 ,but aided by speculative  
methods and the use of preconceived     
ethereal hypotheses1 various elaborate  
theories have been formulated1          
explaining matter and its properties    
entirely in terms of ethereal motions4  
,such conceptions in their proper       
sphere--namely1 that of                 
metaphysics--would be no doubt of       
interest1 but when advanced as a        
scientific proposition or solution they 
border on the ridiculous4 ,in the       
absence of phenomena bearing on the     
subject1 it would seem that the last    

resort of the modern scientist lies in  
terminology4 ,to the average seeker     
after truth1 however1 the term matter1  
as applied to the material world1 will  
still convey as much meaning as the more
 elaborate scientific definitions4  ,it 
is not the purpose of this work to add  
another thread to the already tangled   
skein of scientific theory4 ,it is      
written1 rather1 with the conviction1   
that it is impossible ever to get really
 behind or beyond phenomena2 in the     
belief that the complete description of 
any natural process is simply the       
complete description of the associated  
phenomena1 which may always be observed 
and co-ordinated but never ultimately   
explained4 ,phenomena must ever be      
accepted simply as phenomena--as the    
inscrutable manifestations of ,nature4  
,by induction from phenomena it is      
indeed possible to rise to working      
hypotheses1 and thence1 it may be1 to   
general conceptions of ,nature's order1 
and as already pointed out1 it is to    

this method1 of accepting phenomena1 and
 of reasoning only from experimental    
facts1 that all the advances of modern  
science are due4 ,on the other hand1 it 
is the neglect of this method--the      
departure1 as it were1 from             
,nature--which has led to the           
introduction into the scientific thought
 of the day of the various ethereal     
media with their extreme and            
contradictory properties4 ,the use of   
such devices really amounts to an       
admission of direct ignorance of        
phenomena4 ,they are1 in reality1 an    
attempt to explain natural operations by
 a highly artificial method1 and1 having
 no basis in fact1 their whole tendency 
is to proceed1 in ever-increasing       
degree1 from one absurdity to another4  
,it is quite possible to gain a         
perfectly true and an absolutely        
reliable knowledge of the properties of 
matter and energy1 and the part which   
each plays1 without resorting to        
speculative aids4 ,all that is required 

is simply accurate and complete         
observation at first hand4 ,the field of
 research is wide2 all ,nature forms the
 laboratory4 ,by this method every      
result achieved may be tested and       
verified1 not by its concurrence with   
any approved theory1 however plausible1 
but by direct reference to phenomena4   
,the verdict of ,nature will be the     
final judgment on every scheme4  ,it is 
on these principles1 allied with the    
great generalisations with respect to   
the conservation of matter and energy1  
that this work is founded4 ,as the      
result of a long1 varied1 and intimate  
acquaintance with ,nature1 and much     
experimental research in many spheres1  
the author has reached the conclusion1  
already foreshadowed in ,terrestrial    
,energy1 that the great principle of    
energy conservation is true1 not only in
 the universal and generally accepted   
sense1 but also in a particular sense   
with respect to all really separate     
bodies1 such as planetary masses in     

space4 ,each of these bodies1 therefore1
 forms within itself a completely       
conservative energy system4 ,this       
conclusion obviously involves the       
complete denial of the transmission of  
energy in any form across interplanetary
 space1 and the author1 in this volume1 
now seeks to verify the conclusion by   
the direct experimental evidence of     
terrestrial phenomena4  ,under          
present-day conditions in science1 the  
acceptance of the ordinary doctrine of  
transmission across space involves      
likewise the acceptance of the existence
 of an ethereal substance which pervades
 all space and forms the medium by which
 such transmission is carried out4 ,the 
properties of this medium are1 of       
course1 precisely adapted to its assumed
 function of transmission4 ,these       
properties it is not necessary to       
discuss1 for when the existence of the  
transmission itself has been finally    
disproved1 the necessity for the        
transmitting medium clearly vanishes4   

,,part ,i  ,,general ,,statement   #a4  
,advantages of ,general ,view of        
,natural ,operations  ,the object of    
this statement is to outline and        
illustrate1 in simple fashion1 a broad  
and general conception of the operation 
and interaction of matter and energy in 
natural phenomena4  ,such a conception  
may be of value to the student of       
,nature1 in several ways4 ,in modern    
times the general tendency of scientific
 work is ever towards specialisation1   
with its corresponding narrowness of    
view4 ,a broad outlook on ,nature is    
thus eminently desirable4 ,it enables   
the observer to perceive to some extent 
the links uniting the apparently most   
insignificant of natural processes to   
those of seemingly greater magnitude and
 importance4 ,in this way a valuable    
idea of the natural world as a whole may
 be gained1 which will1 in turn1 tend   
generally to clarify the aspect of      
particular operations4 ,a broad general 
view of ,nature also leads to the       

appreciation of the full significance of
 the great doctrines of the conservation
 of matter and energy4 ,by its means the
 complete verification of these         
doctrines1 which appears to be beyond   
human experiment1 may be traced on the  
face of ,nature throughout the endless  
chain of natural processes4 ,such a view
 also leads to a firm grasp of the      
essential nature and qualities of energy
 itself so far as they are revealed by  
its general function in phenomena4   #b4
 ,separate ,mass in ,space  ,in the     
scheme now to be outlined1 matter and   
energy are postulated at the            
commencement without reference to their 
ultimate origin or inherent nature4     
,they are accepted1 in their diverse    
forms1 precisely as they are familiar   
from ordinary terrestrial experience and
 phenomena4  ,for the purpose of general
 illustration the reader is asked to    
conceive a mass of heterogeneous matter1
 concentrated round a given point in    
space1 forming a single body4 ,this mass

 is assumed to be assembled and to      
obtain its coherent form in virtue of   
that universal and inherent property of 
matter1 namely1 gravitative or central  
attraction4 ,this property is           
independent of precise energy           
conditions1 its outward manifestation   
being found simply in the persistent    
tendency of matter on all occasions to  
press or force itself into the least    
possible space4 ,in the absence of all  
disturbing influences1 therefore1 the   
configuration of this mass of matter1   
assumed assembled round the given point1
 would naturally1 under the influence of
 this gravitative tendency1 resolve     
itself into that of a perfect sphere4   
,the precise magnitude or dimensions of 
the spherical body thus constituted are 
of little moment in the discussion1 but1
 for illustrative purposes1 it may1 in  
the meantime1 be assumed that in mass it
 is equivalent to our known solar       
system4 ,it is also assumed to be       
completely devoid of energy1 and as a   

mass to be under the influence of no    
external constraint4 ,under these       
conditions1 the spherical body may      
obviously be assumed as stationary in   
space1 or otherwise as moving with      
perfectly uniform velocity along a      
precisely linear path4 ,either          
conception is justifiable4 ,the body has
 no relative motion1 and since it is    
absolutely unconstrained no force could 
be applied to it and no energy          
expenditure would be required for its   
linear movement4   #c4 ,advent of       
,energy--,distortional ,effects         
,nature1 however1 does not furnish us   
with any celestial or other body        
fulfilling such conditions4 ,absolutely 
linear motion is unknown1 and matter is 
never found divorced from energy4 ,to   
complete the system1 therefore1 the     
latter factor is required1 and1 with the
 advent of energy to the mass1 its      
prototype may be found in the natural   
world4  ,this energy is assumed to be   
communicated in that form which we shall

 term work energy 7,secs4 #ac1 #ca7 and 
which1 as a form of energy1 will be     
fully dealt with later4 ,this work      
energy is assumed to be manifested1 in  
the first place1 as energy of motion4   
,as already pointed out1 no expenditure 
of energy can be associated with a      
linear motion of the mass1 since that   
motion is under no restraint1 but in    
virtue of the initial central attraction
 or gravitative strain1 the form of     
energy first communicated may be that of
 kinetic energy of rotation4 ,its       
transmission to the mass will cause the 
latter to revolve about some axis of    
symmetry within itself4 ,each particle  
of the mass thus pursues a circular path
 with reference to that axis1 and has a 
velocity directly proportional to its   
radial displacement from it4  ,this     
energised rotating spherical mass is    
thus the primal conception of the energy
 scheme now to be outlined4 ,it will be 
readily seen that1 as a primal          
conception1 it is essentially and       

entirely natural2 so much so1 indeed1   
that any one familiar with rotatory     
motion might readily predict from       
ordinary experience the resulting       
phenomena on which the scheme is1 more  
or less1 based4  ,when energy is applied
 to the mass1 the first phenomenon of   
note will be that1 as the mass rotates1 
it departs from its originally spherical
 shape4 ,by the action of what is       
usually termed centrifugal force1 the   
rotating body will be distorted2 it will
 be flattened at the polar or regions of
 lowest velocity situated at the        
extremities of the axis of rotation1 and
 it will be correspondingly distended at
 the equatorial or regions of highest   
velocity4 ,the spherical body will1 in  
fact1 assume a more or less discoidal   
form according to the amount of energy  
applied to it2 there will be a          
redistribution of the original spherical
 matter2 certain portions of the mass   
will be forced into new positions more  
remote from the central axis of         

rotation4   #d4 ,the ,gravitation ,field
  ,these phenomena of motion are the    
outward evidence of certain energy      
processes4 ,the distortional movement of
 the material is carried out against the
 action and within the field of certain 
forces which exist in the mass of       
material in virtue of its gravitative or
 cohesive qualities4 ,it is carried out 
also in virtue of the application of    
energy to the sphere1 which energy has  
been1 as it were1 transformed or worked 
down1 in the distortional movement1     
against the restraining action of this  
gravitation field or influence4 ,the    
outward displacement of the material    
from the central axis is thus coincident
 with a gain of energy to the mass1 this
 gain of energy being1 of course1 at the
 expense of1 and by the direct          
transformation of1 the originally       
applied energy4 ,it is stored in the    
distorted material as energy of         
position1 potential energy1 or energy of
 displacement relative to the central   

axis4 ,but1 in the distortive movement1 
the mass will also gain energy in other 
forms4 ,the movement of one portion of  
its material relative to another will   
give rise 7since it is carried out under
 the gravitational influence7 to a      
fractional process in which1 as we know 
from terrestrial experience1 heat and   
electrical energy will make their       
appearance4 ,these forms of energy will 
give rise1 in their turn1 to all the    
phenomena usually attendant on their    
application to material4 ,as already    
pointed out also1 the whole mass gains1 
in varying degree1 energy of motion or  
kinetic energy4 ,it would appear1 then1 
that although energy was nominally      
applied to the mass in one form only1   
yet by its characteristic property of   
transformation it has in reality        
manifested itself in several entirely   
different forms4 ,it is important to    
note the part played in these           
transformation processes by the         
gravitation field or influence4 ,its    

action really reveals one of the vital  
working principles of energetics4 ,this 
principle may be generally stated       
thus3--       ,,every ,,transformation  
,,of ,,energy ,,is ,,carried ,,out ,,by 
,,the ,,action ,,of      ,,energised    
,,matter ,,in ,,the ,,lines ,,or ,,field
 ,,of ,,an ,,incepting ,,energy         
,,influence4  ,in the particular case we
 have just considered1 the incepting    
field is simply the inherent gravitative
 property of the energised mass4 ,this  
property is manifested as an attractive 
force between portions of matter4 ,this1
 however1 is not of necessity the only  
aspect of an incepting influence4 ,in   
the course of this work various         
instances of transformation will be     
presented in which the incepting        
influence functions in a guise entirely 
different4 ,it is important to note that
 the incepting influence itself is in no
 way changed1 altered1 or transformed   
during the process of transformation    
which it influences4   #e4 ,limits of   

,rotational ,energy4 ,disruptional      
,phenomena  ,it is clear that the       
material at different parts of the      
rotating spheroid will be energised to  
varying degrees4 ,since the linear      
velocity of the material in the         
equatorial regions of the spheroid is   
greater than that of the material about 
the poles1 the energy of motion of the  
former will exceed that of the latter1  
the difference becoming greater as the  
mass is increasingly energised and      
assumes more and more the discoidal     
form4  ,the question now arises as to   
how far this process of energising the  
material mass may be carried4 ,what are 
its limits8 ,the capacity of the        
rotating body for energy clearly depends
 on the amount of work which may be     
spent on its material in distorting it  
against the influence of the gravitative
 attraction4 ,the amount is again       
dependent on the strength of this       
attraction4 ,but the value of the       
gravitative attraction or gravitation   

field is1 by the law of gravitation1 in 
direct proportion to the quantity of    
material or matter present1 and hence   
the capacity of the body for energy     
depends on its mass or on the quantity  
of matter which composes it4  ,now if   
energy be impressed on this mass beyond 
its capacity a new order of phenomena   
appears4 ,distortion will be followed by
 disruption and disintegration4 ,by the 
action of the disruptive forces a       
portion of the primary material will be 
projected into space as a planetary     
body4 ,the manner of formation of such a
 secondary body is perhaps best         
illustrated by reference to the         
commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive
 phenomenon of the separation of a drop 
of water or other viscous fluid under   
the action of gravitation4 ,in this     
process1 during the first downward      
movement of the drop1 it is united to   
its source by a portion of attenuated   
material which is finally ruptured1 one 
part moving downwards and being embodied

 in the drop whilst the remainder       
springs upwards towards the source4 ,in 
the process of formation of the         
planetary body we are confronted with an
 order of phenomena of somewhat the same
 nature4 ,the planetary orb which is    
hurled into space is formed in a manner 
similar to the drop of viscous fluid1   
and under the action of forces of the   
same general nature4 ,one of these      
forces is the bond of gravitative       
attraction between planet and primary   
which is never severed1 and when        
complete separation of the two masses   
finally occurs1 the incessant           
combination of this force with the      
tangential force of disruption acting on
 the planet will compel it into a fixed 
orbit1 which it will pursue around the  
central axis4 ,when all material links  
have thus been severed1 the two bodies  
will then be absolutely separate masses 
in space4 ,the term separate is here    
used in its most rigid and absolute     
sense4 ,no material connection of any   

kind whatever exists1 either directly or
 indirectly1 between the two masses4    
,each one is completely isolated from   
the other by interplanetary space1 and  
in reality1 so far as material          
connection is concerned1 each one might 
be the sole occupant of that space4     
,this conception of separate masses in  
space is of great importance to the     
author's scheme1 but1 at the same time1 
the condition is one which cannot be    
illustrated by any terrestrial          
experimental contrivance4 ,it will be   
obvious that such a device1 as might    
naturally be conceived1 of isolating two
 bodies by placing them in an exhausted 
vessel or vacuous space1 by no means    
complies with the full conditions of    
true separation portrayed above1 because
 some material connection must always   
exist between the enclosed bodies and   
the containing vessel4 ,this aspect is  
more fully treated later 7,sec4 #cj74   
,the condition of truly separate masses 
is1 in fact1 purely a celestial one4 ,no

 means whatever are existent whereby    
such a condition may be faithfully      
reproduced in a terrestrial environment4
  ,in their separate condition the      
primary and planetary mass will each    
possess a definite and unvarying amount 
of energy4 ,it is to be noted also1 that
 since the original mass of the primary 
body has been diminished by the mass of 
the planet cast off1 the capacity for   
energy of the primary will now be       
diminished in a corresponding degree4   
,any further increment of energy to the 
primary in any form has now1 however1 no
 direct influence on the energy of the  
planet1 which must maintain its position
 of complete isolation in its orbit4    
,but although thus separate and distinct
 from the primal mass in every material 
respect1 the planet is ever linked to it
 by the invisible bond of gravitation1  
and every movement made by the planet in
 approaching or receding from the       
primary is made in the field or         
influence of this attraction4 ,in       

accordance1 therefore1 with the general 
principle already enunciated 7,sec4 #d71
 these actions or movements of the      
energised planetary mass1 being made in 
the field of the incepting gravitative  
influence1 will be accompanied by       
transformations1 and thus the energy of 
the planet1 although unvarying in its   
totality1 may vary in its form or       
distribution with the inward or outward 
movement of the planet in its orbital   
path4 ,as the planet recedes from the   
primary it gains energy of position1 but
 this gain is obtained solely at the    
expense1 and by the direct              
transformation of its own orbital energy
 of motion4 ,its velocity in its orbit  
must1 therefore1 decrease as it recedes 
from the central axis of the system1 and
 increase as it approaches that axis4   
,thus from energy considerations alone  
it is clear that1 if the planetary orbit
 is not precisely circular1 the velocity
 of the planet must vary at different   
points of its path4   #f4 ,passive      

,function and ,general ,nature of       
,gravitation ,field  ,from the phenomena
 described above1 it will be observed   
that1 in the energy processes of        
transformation occurring in both primary
 and planet1 the function of the        
gravitation field or influence is       
entirely passive in nature4 ,the field  
is1 in truth1 the persistent moving or  
directing power behind the energy       
processes1 the incepting energy         
influence or agency which determines the
 nature of the transformation in each   
case without being1 in any way1 actively
 engaged in it4 ,in accelerating or     
retarding the transformation process it 
has thus absolutely no effect4 ,these   
features are controlled by other        
factors4 ,neither does this incepting   
agency affect1 in any way1 the limits of
 the transformation process1 these      
limits being prescribed by the physical 
or energy qualities of the acting       
materials4 ,in general nature the       
gravitation field appears to be simply  

an energy influence--a peculiar         
manifestation of certain passive        
qualities of energy4 ,this aspect will1 
however1 become clearer to the reader   
when the properties of gravitation are  
studied in conjunction with those of    
other incepting energy influences       
7,secs4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai74   #g4 ,limit of 
,gravitation ,transformation  ,in the   
case of a planetary body1 there is a    
real limit to the extent of the         
transformation of its orbital energy of 
motion under the influence of the       
gravitation field4 ,as the orbit of the 
planet widens1 and its mean distance    
from the primary becomes greater1 its   
velocity in its orbital path must       
correspondingly decrease4 ,as already   
pointed out 7,sec4 #e71 this decrease is
 simply the result of the orbital energy
 of motion being transformed or worked  
down into energy of position4 ,but since
 this orbital energy is strictly limited
 in amount1 a point must ultimately be  
reached where it would be transformed in

 its entirety into energy of position4  
,when this limiting condition is        
attained1 the planet clearly could have 
no orbital motion2 it would be          
instantaneously at rest in somewhat the 
same way as a projectile from the       
earth's surface is at rest at the summit
 of its flight in virtue of the complete
 transformation of its energy of motion 
into energy of position4 ,in this       
limiting condition1 also1 the energy of 
position of the planet would be the     
maximum possible1 and its orbital energy
 zero4 ,the scope of the planetary      
orbital path is thus rigidly determined 
by the planetary energy properties4     
,assuming the reduction of gravity with 
distance to follow the usual law of     
inverse squares1 the value of the       
displacement of the planet from the     
central axis when in this stationary or 
limiting position may be readily        
calculated if the various constants are 
known4 ,in any given case it is obvious 
that this limiting displacement must be 

a finite quantity1 since the planetary  
orbital energy which is being worked    
down is itself finite in amount4   #h4  
,interactions of ,two ,planetary        
,bodies--,equilibrium ,phenomena  ,up to
 the present point1 the cosmical system 
has been assumed to be composed of one  
planetary body only in addition to the  
primary mass4 ,it is clear1 however1    
that by repetition of the process       
already described1 the system could     
readily evolve more than one planet2 it 
might1 in fact1 have several planetary  
masses originating in the same primary1 
each endowed with a definite modicum of 
energy1 and each pursuing a persistent  
orbit round the central axis of the     
system4 ,since the mass of the primary  
decreases as each successive planet is  
cast off1 its gravitative attractive    
powers will also decrease1 and with     
every such decline in the central       
restraining force the orbits of the     
previously constituted planets will     
naturally widen4 ,by the formation in   

this way of a series of planetary       
masses1 the material of the original    
primary body would be as it were        
distributed over a larger area or space1
 and this separation would be           
accompanied by a corresponding decrease 
in the gravitative attraction between   
the several masses4 ,if the distributive
 or disruptive process were carried to  
its limit by the continuous application 
of rotatory energy to each separate unit
 of the system1 this limit would be     
dependent on the capacity of the system 
for energy4 ,as is shown later 7,sec4   
#bj71 this capacity would be determined 
by the mass of the system4  ,for        
simplicity1 let us consider the case in 
which there are two planetary bodies    
only in the system in addition to the   
primary4 ,in virtue of the gravitative  
attraction or gravitation field between 
the two1 they will mutually attract one 
another in their motion1 and each will1 
in consequence1 be deflected more or    
less out of that orbital path which it  

would normally pursue in the absence of 
the other4 ,this attraction will        
naturally be greatest when the planets  
are in the closest proximity2 the planet
 having the widest orbit will then be   
drawn inwards towards the central axis1 
the other will be drawn outwards4 ,the  
distance moved in this way by each will 
depend on its mass1 and on the forces   
brought to bear on it by the combined   
action of the two remaining masses of   
the system4 ,moving thus in different   
directions1 the motion of each planet is
 carried out in the lines of the        
gravitation field between the two4 ,one 
planet1 therefore1 gains and the other  
loses energy of position with respect to
 the central axis of the system4 ,the   
one planet can thus influence1 to some  
extent1 the energy properties of the    
other1 although there is absolutely no  
direct energy communication between the 
two2 as shown hereafter1 the whole      
action and the energy change will be due
 simply to the motion carried out in the

 field of the incepting gravitation     
influence4  ,it is clear1 however1 that 
this influence is exerted on the        
distribution of the energy1 on the form 
in which it is manifested1 and in no way
 affects the energy totality of either  
planet4 ,each1 as before1 remains a     
separate system with conservative energy
 properties4 ,that planet which loses   
energy of position gains energy of      
motion1 and is correspondingly          
accelerated in its orbital path2 the    
other1 in gaining energy of position1   
does so at the expense of its own energy
 of motion1 and is retarded accordingly4
 ,the action is really very simple in   
nature when viewed from a purely energy 
standpoint4 ,it has been dealt with in  
some detail in order to emphasise the   
fact that there is absolutely nothing in
 the nature of a transmission of energy 
between one planet and the other4       
,taking a superficial view of the       
operation1 it might be inferred that1 as
 the planets approach one another1      

energy of motion 7or energy of position7
 is transmitted from one to the other1  
causing one to retard and the other to  
accelerate its movement1 but a real     
knowledge of the energy conditions shows
 that the phenomenon is rather one of a 
simple restoration of equilibrium1 a    
redistribution or transformation of the 
intrinsic energy of each to suit these  
altering conditions4 ,each planet is1 in
 the truest sense1 a separate mass in   
space4   #i4 ,axial ,energy--,secondary 
,processes  ,passing now to another     
aspect of the energy condition of a     
planetary body1 let the planet be       
assumed to be endowed with axial energy 
or energy of rotation1 so that1 while   
pursuing its orbital path in space1 it  
also rotates with uniform angular       
velocity about an axis within itself4   
,what will be the effect of the primary 
mass on the planet under these new      
energy conditions8 ,we conceive that the
 effect is again purely one of          
transformation4 ,in this process the    

primary mass functions once more as an  
entirely passive or incepting agent1    
which1 while exerting a continuous      
transforming influence on the planet1   
does not affect in any way the inherent 
energy properties of the latter4 ,up to 
the present point we have only dealt    
with one incepting influence in         
transformation processes1 namely1 that  
of gravitation1 which has always been   
manifested as an attractive force4 ,it  
is not to be supposed1 however1 that    
this is the only aspect in which        
incepting influences may be presented4  
,although attractive force is certainly 
an aspect of some incepting influences1 
it is not a distinctive feature of      
incepting influences generally4 ,in many
 cases1 the aspect of force1 in the     
sense of attraction or repulsion1 is    
entirely awanting4 ,in the new order of 
transformations which come into play in 
virtue of the rotatory motion of a      
planetary mass in the field of its      
primary1 we shall find other incepting  

influences in action entirely different 
in nature from the gravitation          
influence1 but1 nevertheless1 arising   
from the same primary mass in a similar 
way4 ,now the application of energy to  
the planet1 causing it to rotate in the 
lines or under the influence of these   
incepting fields of the primary1 brings 
into existence on the planet an entirely
 new order of phenomena4 ,so long as the
 planet had no axial motion of rotation1
 some of the incepting influences of the
 primary were compelled1 as it were1 to 
inaction2 but with the advent of axial  
energy the conditions are at once       
favourable to their action1 and to the  
detection of their transforming effects4
 ,in accordance with the general        
principle already enunciated 7,sec4 #d71
 the action of the planetary energised  
material in the lines of the various    
incepting fields of the primary is      
productive of energy transformations4   
,the active energy of these             
transformations is the axial or rotatory

 energy of the planet itself1 and1 in   
virtue of these transformations1 certain
 other forms of energy will be          
manifested on the planet and associated 
with the various forms of planetary     
material4 ,these manifestations of      
energy1 in fact1 constitute planetary   
phenomena4 ,since the action or movement
 of the rotating material of the planet 
through the incepting fields of the     
primary is most pronounced in the       
equatorial or regions of highest linear 
velocity1 and least in the regions of   
low velocity adjoining the poles of     
rotation1 the transforming effect may   
naturally be expected to decrease in    
intensity from equator to poles4        
,planetary energy phenomena will thus   
vary according to the location of the   
acting material4 ,it will be clear1     
also1 that each incepting agency or     
influence associated with the primary   
mass will give rise to its own peculiar 
transformations of axial energy on the  
planetary surface4 ,these leading or    

primary transformations of axial energy1
 in which the incepting influence is    
associated with the primary mass only1  
we term primary processes4 ,but it is   
evident that the various forms of energy
 thus set free on the planet as a result
 of the primary processes will be       
communicated to1 and will operate on1   
the different forms of planetary        
material1 and will give rise to further 
or secondary transformations of energy1 
in which the incepting agency is        
embodied in or associated with planetary
 material only4 ,the exact nature of    
these secondary transformations will    
vary according to the circumstances in  
which they take place4 ,each of them1   
however1 as indicated above1 will be1 in
 itself1 carried out in virtue of some  
action of the energised planetary       
material in the lines or field of what  
we might term a secondary incepting     
influence4 ,the latter1 however1 must   
not be confused with the influences of  
the primary4 ,it is essentially a       

planetary phenomenon1 an aspect of      
planetary energy2 it is associated with 
the physical or material machine by     
means of which the secondary process of 
transformation is carried out4 ,the     
nature of this secondary influence will 
determine the nature of the secondary   
transformation in each case4 ,its       
precise extent may be limited by other  
considerations 7,sec4 #ae74  ,as an     
example1 assume a portion of the axial  
energy to be primarily transformed into 
heat in virtue of the planet's rotation 
in the field of an independent thermal  
incepting influence exerted by the      
primary4 ,to the action of this agency1 
which we might term the thermal field1  
we assume are due all primary heating   
phenomena of planetary material4 ,now   
the secondary transformations will take 
place when the heat energy thus         
manifested is applied to some form of   
matter4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that   
this application might be carried out in
 various ways4 ,heat may be devoted to  

the expansion of a solid against its    
cohesive forces4 ,it may be expended    
against the elastic forces of a gas1 or 
it may be worked down against chemical  
or electrical forces4 ,in every case a  
transformation of energy will result1   
varying in nature according to the      
peculiar conditions under which it is   
carried out4 ,in this or a similar      
fashion each primary incepting influence
 may give rise to a series of secondary 
actions more or less complex in nature4 
,these secondary transformation         
processes1 allied with other processes  
of transmission1 will1 in fact1         
constitute the visible phenomena of the 
planet1 and in their variety will       
exactly correspond to these phenomena4  
,with regard to the gravitation field1  
its general influence on the rotating   
mass may be readily predicted4 ,the     
material on that part of the planetary  
surface which is nearest to or happens  
to face the primary in rotation is1     
during the short time it occupies that  

position1 subjected to a greater        
attractive influence than the remainder 
which is more remote from the primary4  
,it will1 in consequence1 tend to be    
more or less distorted or elevated above
 its normal position on the planetary   
surface4 ,this distorting effect will   
vary in degree according to the nature  
of the material1 whether solid1 liquid1 
or gaseous1 but the general effect of   
the distortional movement1 combined with
 the rotatory motion of the planet1 will
 be to produce a tidal action or a      
periodical rise and fall of the more    
fluid material distributed over the     
planetary surface4 ,the distortion will1
 of course1 be accompanied by energy    
processes in which axial energy will be 
transformed into heat and other forms1  
which will finally operate in the       
secondary processes exactly as in       
previous cases4   #aj4 ,mechanism of    
,energy ,return  ,but the question now  
arises1 as to how this continuous       
transformation of the axial energy can  

be consistent with that condition of    
uniformity of rotation of the planet    
which was originally assumed4 ,if the   
total energy of the planetary mass is   
limited1 and if it can receive no       
increment of energy from any external   
source1 it is clear that the axial      
energy transformed must1 by some        
process1 be continuously returned to its
 original form4 ,some process or        
mechanism is evidently necessary to     
carry out this operation4 ,this         
mechanism we conceive to be provided by 
certain portions of the material of the 
planet1 principally the gaseous matter  
which resides on its surface1 completely
 enveloping it1 and extending outwards  
into space 7,sec4 #ch74 ,in other words1
 the atmosphere of the planet forms the 
machine or material agency by which this
 return of the transformed axial energy 
is carried out4 ,it has already been    
pointed out 7,sec4 #i7 how the working  
energy of every secondary transformation
 is derived from the original axial     

energy of the planet itself4 ,each of   
these secondary transformations1        
however1 forms but one link of one      
cyclical chain of secondary             
transformations1 in which a definite    
quantity of energy1 initially in the    
axial form1 passes1 in these secondary  
operations1 through various other forms1
 by different processes and through the 
medium of different material machines1  
until it is eventually absorbed into the
 atmosphere of the planet4 ,these       
complete series of cyclical operations1 
by which the various portions of axial  
energy are carried to the atmosphere1   
may in some cases be of a very simple   
nature1 and may be continuously repeated
 over very short intervals of time2 in  
other cases1 the cycle may seem obscure 
and complicated1 and its complete       
operation spread over very long periods1
 but in all cases the final result is   
the same4 ,the axial energy abstracted1 
sooner or later1 recurs to the          
atmospheric machine4 ,by its action in  

this machine1 great masses of gaseous   
material are elevated from the surface  
of the planet against the attractive    
force of gravitation2 the energy will   
thus now appear in the form of potential
 energy or energy of position4 ,by a    
subsequent movement of these gaseous    
masses over the surface of the planet   
from the regions of high velocity       
towards the poles1 combined with a      
movement of descent to lower levels1 the
 energy of position with which they were
 endowed is returned once more in the   
original axial form4  ,this1 roughly1   
constitutes the working of the planetary
 atmospheric machine1 which1 while in   
itself completely reversible and        
self-contained1 forms also at the same  
time the source and the sink of all the 
energy working in the secondary         
transformations4 ,in the ceaseless      
rounds of these transformations which   
form planetary phenomena it links       
together the initial and concluding     
stages of each series by a reversible   

process4 ,energy is thus stored and     
restored continuously4 ,the planet thus 
neither gains nor loses energy of axial 
motion2 so far as its energy properties 
are concerned1 it is entirely           
independent of every external influence4
 ,its uniformity of rotation is         
absolutely maintained4 ,each planet of  
the system will1 in the same way1 be an 
independent and conservative unit4      
#aa4 ,review of ,cosmical               
,system--,general ,function of ,energy  
,reviewing the system as a whole1 the   
important part played by energy in its  
constitution is readily perceived4 ,the 
source of the energy which operates in  
all parts of the system is found in that
 energy originally applied 7,sec4 #c74  
,when the system is finally constituted1
 this energy is found distributed       
amongst the planets1 each of which has  
received its share1 and each of which is
 thereby linked to the primary by its   
influence4 ,it is part of this same     
energy which undergoes transformation in

 virtue of the orbital movements of the 
planets in the field of the gravitative 
influence4 ,again1 it is found in the   
form of planetary axial energy1 and     
thence1 under the influence of various  
incepting agencies1 it passes in various
 forms through the whole gamut of       
planetary phenomena1 and finally        
functions in the atmospheric machine4   
,every phenomenon of the system1 great  
or small1 is1 in fact1 but the external 
evidence either of the transformation or
 of the transmission of this energy--the
 outward manifestation of its changed or
 changing forms4 ,its presence1 which   
always implies its transformation 7,sec4
 #d71 is the simple primary condition   
attached to every operation4 ,the primal
 mass originally responded to the       
application of energy by the            
presentation of phenomena4 ,every       
material portion of the system will     
similarly respond according to          
circumstances4 ,energy is1 in fact1 the 
working spirit of the whole cosmical    

scheme4 ,it is the influence linking    
every operation of the system to the    
original transformations at the central 
axis1 so that all may be combined into  
one complete and consistent whole4 ,it  
is to be noted1 however1 that although  
they have a common origin the orbital   
energy of each planetary mass is        
entirely distinct from its energy of    
axial rotation1 and is not              
interchangeable therewith4 ,the         
transformation of the one form of energy
 in no way affects the totality of the  
other4  ,the disruption of the primary  
mass furnishes a view of what is        
virtually the birth of gravitation as it
 is conceived to exist between separate 
bodies4 ,it may now be pointed out that 
the attractive influence of gravitation 
is1 in reality1 but one of the many     
manifestations of energy of the system4 
,it is not1 however1 an active          
manifestation of the working energy1 but
 rather an aspect of energy as it is    
related to the properties of matter4 ,we

 have absolutely no experimental        
experience of matter devoid of energy4  
,gravitation might readily be termed an 
energy property of matter1 entirely     
passive in nature1 and requiring the    
advent of some other form in order that 
it may exercise its function as an      
incepting agency4  ,from a general      
consideration of the features of this   
system1 in which every phenomenon is an 
energy phenomenon1 it seems feasible to 
conclude also that every property of    
matter is likewise an energy property4  
,it is certain1 indeed1 that no         
reasonable or natural concept of either 
matter or energy is possible if the two 
be dissociated4 ,the system also        
presents a direct and clear illustration
 of the principles of conservation in   
the working of the whole1 and also in   
each planetary unit4   #ab4 ,natural    
,conditions  ,it will be noted that1 up 
to the present point1 the cosmical      
system has been discussed from a purely 
abstract point of view4 ,this method has

 been adopted for a definite reason4    
,although able1 at all points1 to bring 
more or less direct evidence from       
,nature1 the author has no desire that  
his scheme should be regarded in any way
 as an attempt to originate or describe 
a system of creation4 ,the object has   
been1 by general reasoning from already 
accepted properties of matter and       
energy1 to arrive at a true conception  
of a possible natural order of          
phenomena4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that
 the solar system forms the prototype of
 the system described above4 ,the motion
 of the earth and other planets is      
continuously occurring under the        
influence of gravitation1 thermal1      
luminous1 and other incepting fields    
which link them to the central mass1 the
 sun4 ,as a result of the action of such
 fields1 energy transformations arise   
which form the visible phenomena of the 
system in all its parts1 each           
transformation1 whether associated with 
animate or inanimate matter1 being      

carried out through the medium of some  
arrangement of matter hereafter referred
 to as a material machine4 ,the         
conditions are precisely as laid down   
above4 ,the system is dominated1 in its 
separate units1 and as a whole1 by the  
great principle of the conservation of  
energy4 ,each planetary mass1 as it     
revolves in space1 is1 so far as its    
energy properties are concerned1 an     
absolutely conservative unit of that    
system4 ,at the same time1 however1 each
 planetary mass remains absolutely      
dependent on the primary for those great
 controlling or incepting influences    
which determine the transformation of   
its inherent energy4  ,in the special   
case of the earth1 which will be dealt  
with in some detail1 it is the object of
 this work to show that its property of 
complete energy conservation is amply   
verified by terrestrial phenomena4 ,the 
extension of the principle from the     
earth to the whole planetary system has 
been made on precisely the same grounds 

as ,newton extended the observed        
phenomena to his famous generalisation  
with respect to gravitation4     ,,part 
,,ii  ,,principles ,,of ,,inception     
#ac4 ,illustrative ,secondary ,processes
  ,in this part of the work1 an attempt 
will be made to place before the reader 
some of the purely terrestrial and other
 evidential phenomena on which the      
conclusions of the preceding ,general   
,statement are founded4 ,the complete   
and absolute verification of that       
,statement is obviously beyond          
experimental device4 ,bound1 as we are1 
within the confines of one planet1 and  
unable to communicate with the others1  
we can have no direct experimental      
acquaintance with really separate bodies
 7,sec4 #e7 in space4 ,but1 if from     
purely terrestrial experience we can    
have no direct proofs on such matters1  
we have strong evidential conclusions   
which cannot be gainsayed4 ,if the same 
kind of energy operates throughout the  
solar system1 the experimental knowledge

 of its properties gained in one field  
of research is valuable1 and may be     
readily utilised in another4 ,the       
phenomena which are available to us for 
study are1 of course1 simply the        
ordinary energy processes of the        
earth--those operations which in the    
foregoing ,statement have been described
 as secondary energy processes4 ,their  
variety is infinite1 and the author has 
accordingly selected merely a few       
typical examples to illustrate the      
salient points of the scheme4 ,the      
energy acting in these secondary        
processes is1 in every case1 derived1   
either directly or indirectly1 from the 
energy of rotation or axial energy of   
the earth4 ,in themselves1 the processes
 may be either energy transformations or
 energy transmissions or a combination  
of both these operations4 ,when the     
action involves the bodily movement of  
material mass in space1 the dynamical   
energy thus manifested1 and which may be
 transmitted by the movement of this    

material1 is termed mechanical or work  
energy 7,sec4 #ca72 when the energy     
active in the process is manifested as  
heat1 chemical1 or electrical energy1 we
 apply to it the term molecular energy4 
,the significance of these terms is     
readily seen4 ,the operation of         
mechanical or work energy on a mass of  
material may readily proceed without any
 permanent alteration in the internal   
arrangement or general structure of that
 mass4 ,mechanical or work energy is    
dissociated from any molecular action4  
,on the other hand1 the application of  
such forms of energy as heat or         
electrical energy to material leads to  
distinctly molecular or internal        
effects1 in which some alteration in the
 constitution of the body affected may  
ensue4 ,hence the use of the terms1     
which of course is completely arbitrary4
  ,the principal object of this part of 
the work is to illustrate clearly the   
general nature1 the working1 and the    
limits of secondary processes4 ,for this

 purpose1 the author has found it best  
to refer to certain more or less        
mechanical contrivances4 ,the apparatus 
made use of is merely that utilised in  
everyday work for experimental or other 
useful purposes4 ,it is essentially of a
 very simple nature2 no originality is  
claimed for it1 and no apology is       
offered for the apparent simplicity of  
the particular energy operations chosen 
for discussion4 ,in fact1 this feature  
has rather led to their selection4 ,in  
scientific circles to-day1 familiarity  
with the more common instances of energy
 operations is apt to engender the      
belief that these processes are         
completely understood4 ,there is no     
greater fallacy4 ,in many cases1 no     
doubt1 the superficial phenomena are    
well known1 but in even the simplest    
instances the mechanism or ultimate     
nature of the process remains unknown4  
,a free and somewhat loose method of    
applying scientific terms is frequently 
the cloak which hides the ignorance of  

the observer4 ,no attempt will here be  
made to go beyond the simple phenomena4 
,the object in view is simply to        
describe such phenomena1 to emphasise   
and explain certain aspects of already  
well-known facts1 which1 up to the      
present1 have been neglected4  ,in some 
of the operations now to be described1  
mechanical or work energy is the active 
agent1 and material masses are thereby  
caused to execute various movements in  
the lines or field of restraining       
influences4 ,for ordinary experimental  
convenience1 the material thus moved    
must of necessity be matter in the solid
 form4 ,the illustrative value of our   
experimental devices1 however1 will be  
very distinctly improved if it be borne 
in mind that the operations of          
mechanical energy are not restricted to 
solids only1 but that the various       
processes of transformation and         
transmission here illustrated by the    
motions of solid bodies may1 in other   
circumstances1 be carried out in a      

precisely similar fashion by the        
movements of liquids or even of gases4  
,the restrictions imposed in the method 
of illustration are simply those due to 
the limitations of human experimental   
contrivance4 ,natural operations exhibit
 apparatus of a different type4 ,by the 
movements of solid materials a          
convenient means of illustration is     
provided1 but it is to be emphasised    
that1 so far as the operations of       
mechanical energy are concerned1 the    
precise form or nature of the material  
moved1 whether it be solid1 liquid1 or  
gaseous1 is of no consequence4 ,to raise
 one pound of lead through a given      
distance against the gravitative        
attraction of the earth requires no     
greater expenditure of energy than to   
raise one pound of hydrogen gas through 
the same distance4 ,the same principle  
holds in all operations involving       
mechanical energy4  ,another point of   
some importance which will be revealed  
by the study of secondary operations is 

that every energy process has in some   
manner definite energy limits imposed   
upon it4 ,in the workings of mechanical 
or work energy it is the mass value of  
the moving material which1 in this      
respect1 is important4 ,the mass1 in    
fact1 is the real governing factor of   
the whole process 7,sec4 #bj74 ,it      
determines the maximum amount of energy 
which can be applied to the material1   
and thus controls the extent of the     
energy operation4  ,but in actions      
involving the molecular energies1 the   
operation may be limited by other       
considerations altogether4 ,for example1
 the application of heat to a solid body
 gives rise to certain energy processes 
7,sec4 #bg74 ,these processes may       
proceed to a certain degree with        
increase of temperature1 but a point    
will finally be attained where change of
 state of the heated material takes     
place4 ,this is the limiting point of   
this particular operation4 ,when change 
of state occurs1 the phenomena will     

assume an entirely different aspect4    
,the first set of energy processes will 
now be replaced by a set of operations  
absolutely different in nature1         
themselves limited in extent1 but by    
entirely different causes4 ,the first   
operation must thus terminate when the  
new order appears4 ,in this manner each 
process in which the applied energy is  
worked will be confined within certain  
limiting boundaries4 ,in any chain of   
energy operations each link will thus   
have1 as it were1 a definite length4 ,in
 chemical reactions1 the limits may be  
imposed in various ways according to the
 precise nature of the action4 ,chemical
 combination1 and chemical disruption1  
must be looked on as operations which   
involve not only the transformation of  
energy but also the transformation of   
matter4 ,in most cases1 chemical        
reactions result in the appearance of   
matter in an entirely new form--in the  
appearance1 in fact1 of actually        
different material1 with physical and   

energy properties absolutely distinct   
from those of the reacting constituents4
 ,this appearance of matter in the new  
form is usually the evidence of the     
termination1 not only of the particular 
chemical process1 but also of the energy
 process associated with it4            
,transformation of energy may thus be   
limited by transformation of matter4    
,examples of the limiting features of   
energy operations could readily be      
multiplied4 ,even a cursory examination 
of most natural operations will reveal  
the existence of such limits4 ,in no    
case do we find in ,nature any body1 or 
any energy system1 to which energy may  
be applied in unlimited amount1 but in  
every case1 rigid energy limits are     
imposed1 and1 if these limits are       
exceeded1 the whole energy character of 
the body or system is completely        
changed4   #ad4 ,incepting ,energy      
,influences  ,in experimental and in    
physical work generally1 it has been    
customary1 in describing any simple     

process of energy transformation1 to    
take account only of those energies or  
those forms of energy which play an     
active part in the process--the energy  
in its initial or applied form and the  
energy in its transformed or final form4
 ,this method1 however1 requires        
enlarging so as to include another      
feature of energy transformation1 a     
feature hitherto completely overlooked1 
namely1 that of incepting energy4 ,now1 
this conception of incepting energy1 or 
of energy as an incepting influence1 is 
of such vital importance to the author's
 scheme1 that it is necessary here1 at  
the very outset1 to deal with it in some
 detail4 ,to obtain some idea of the    
general nature of these influences1 it  
will be necessary to describe and review
 a few simple instances of energy       
transformation4 ,one of the most        
illuminating for this purpose is perhaps
 the familiar process of dynamo-electric
 transformation4  ,a spherical mass ,a  
7,fig4 #a7 of copper is caused to rotate

 about its central axis in the magnetic 
field in the neighbourhood of a long and
 powerful electro-magnet4 ,in such      
circumstances1 certain well-known       
transformations of energy will take     
place4 ,the energy transformed is that  
dynamical or work energy which is being 
applied to the spherical mass by the    
external prime mover causing it to      
rotate4 ,as a result of this motion in  
the magnetic field1 an electrical action
 takes place2 eddy currents are         
generated in the spherical mass1 and the
 energy originally applied is1 through  
the medium of the electrical process1   
finally converted into heat and other   
energy forms4 ,the external evidence of 
the process will be the rise in         
temperature and corresponding expansion 
of the rotating mass4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #a  ,such is the energy          
transformation4 ,let us now review the  
conditions under which it takes place4  
,passing over the features of the work  
energy applied and the energy produced  

in the transformation1 it is evident    
that the primary and essential condition
 of the whole process is the presence of
 the magnetic field4 ,in the absence of 
this influence1 every other condition of
 this particular energy operation might 
have been fulfilled without result4 ,the
 magnetic field is1 in reality1 the     
determining agency of the process4 ,but 
this field of magnetic force is itself  
an energy influence4 ,its existence     
implies the presence of energy2 it is   
the external manifestation of that      
energy 7usually described as stored in  
the field7 which is returned1 as shown  
by the spark1 when the exciting circuit 
of the electro-magnet is broken4 ,the   
transformation of the dynamical or work 
energy 7,sec4 #ca7 applied to the       
rotating sphere is thus carried out by  
the direct agency1 under the power1 or  
within the field of this magnetic energy
 influence1 to which1 accordingly1 we   
apply the expression1 incepting energy  
influence1 or incepting energy4  ,there 

are several points to be noted with     
regard to these phenomena of inception4 
,in the first place1 it is clear that   
the energy which thus constitutes the   
magnetic field plays no active part in  
the main process of transformation3     
during the operation it neither varies  
in value nor in nature3 it is entirely a
 passive agent4 ,neither is any         
continuous expenditure of energy        
required for the maintenance of this    
incepting influence4 ,it is true that   
the magnetic field is primarily due to a
 circulatory current in the coils or    
winding of the electro-magnet1 but after
 the initial expenditure of energy in   
establishing that field is incurred1 the
 continuous expenditure of energy during
 the flow of the current is devoted to  
simply heating the coils4 ,a continuous 
heat transformation is thus in progress4
 ,the magnetic energy influence1        
although closely associated with this   
heat transformation1 yet represents in  
itself a distinct and separate energy   

feature4 ,this last point is1 perhaps1  
made more clear if it be assumed that1  
without altering the system in any way1 
the electro-magnet is replaced by a     
permanent magnet of precisely the same  
dimensions and magnetic power4 ,there   
would then be no energy expenditure     
whatever for excitation1 but            
nevertheless1 the main transformation   
would take place in precisely the same  
manner and to exactly the same degree as
 before4 ,the incepting energy influence
 is found in the residual magnetism4    
,if an iron ball or sphere were         
substituted1 in the experiment1 for the 
copper one1 the phenomena observed on   
its rotation would be of an exactly     
similar nature to those described above4
 ,there is1 however1 one point of       
difference4 ,since the iron is magnetic1
 the magnet pole will now exert an      
attractive force on the iron mass1 and  
if the latter were in close proximity to
 the pole 7,fig4 #a71 a considerable    
expenditure of energy might be required 

to separate the two4 ,it is evident1    
then1 that in the case of iron and the  
magnetic metals1 this magnetic influence
 is such that an expenditure of energy  
is required1 not only to cause these    
materials to move in rotation so as to  
cut the lines of the field of the       
magnetic influence1 but also to cause   
them to move outwards from the seat of  
the influence along the lines of the    
field4 ,the movements1 indeed1 involve  
transformations of energy totally       
different in nature4 ,assuming the      
energy to be obtained1 in both cases1   
from the same external source1 it is1 in
 the first instance1 converted by       
rotatory motion in the field into       
electrical and heat energy1 whereas1 in 
the second case1 by the outward motion  
of displacement from the pole1 it is    
transformed and associated with the mass
 in the form of energy of position or   
energy of displacement relative to the  
pole4 ,since the attractive force       
between the iron mass and the pole may  

be assumed to diminish according to a   
well-known law1 the energy              
transformation per unit displacement    
will also diminish at the same rate4    
,the precise nature and extent of the   
influence of the incepting agent thus   
depend on the essential qualities of the
 energised material under its power4 ,in
 this case1 the magnetic metals1 such as
 iron1 provide phenomena of attraction  
which are notably absent in the case of 
the dia-magnetic metals such as copper4 
,other substances1 such as wood1 appear 
to be absolutely unaffected by any      
movement in the magnetic field4 ,the    
precise energy condition of the         
materials in the field of the incepting 
influence is also an important point4   
,the incepting energy might be regarded 
as acting1 not on the material itself1  
but rather on the energy associated with
 that material4 ,from the phenomena     
already considered1 it is clear that    
before the incepting influence of       
magnetism can act on the copper ball1   

the latter must be endowed with energy  
of rotation4 ,it is on this energy1     
then1 that the incepting influence      
exerts its transforming power4 ,it would
 be useless to energise the copper ball1
 say by raising it to a high            
temperature1 and then place it at rest  
in the magnetic field2 the magnetic     
energy influence would not operate on   
the heat energy1 and consequently1 no   
transformation would ensue4  ,it is easy
 to conceive1 also1 that in the course  
of an energy transformation1 the        
material may attain an energy condition 
in which the incepting influence no     
longer affects it4 ,take once more the  
case of the iron ball4 ,it is well known
 that1 at a high temperature1 iron      
becomes non-magnetic4 ,it would follow1 
then1 that if the rotational            
transformation in the magnetic field    
could be carried out to the requisite   
degree1 so that1 by the continuous      
application of that heat energy which is
 the final product of the process1 the  

ball had attained this temperature1 then
 the other transformation consequent on 
the displacement of the ball from the   
attracting pole could not take place4   
,no change has really occurred in the   
incepting energy conditions4 ,they are  
still continuous and persistent1 but the
 energy changes in the material itself  
have carried it1 to a certain degree1   
beyond the influence of these           
conditions4   #ae4 ,cohesion as an      
,incepting ,influence  ,other aspects of
 incepting energy may be derived from   
the examples cited above4 ,returning to 
the case of the rotating copper sphere1 
let it be assumed that in consequence of
 its rotation in the magnetic field it  
is raised from a low to a high          
temperature4 ,due to the heating effect 
alone1 the mass will expand or increase 
in volume4 ,this increase is the        
evidence of a definite energy process by
 which certain particles or portions of 
the mass have in distortion gained      
energy of position--energy of           

separation--or potential energy relative
 to the centre of the sphere4 ,in fact1 
if the mass were allowed to cool back to
 its normal condition1 this energy might
 by a suitable arrangement be made      
available for some form of external     
work4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that this
 new energy of position or separation   
which has accrued to the mass in its    
heated condition has in reality been    
obtained by the transformation of the   
work energy originally applied4 ,the    
abnormal displacement of certain        
particles or portions of the mass from  
the centre of the sphere is simply the  
external evidence of their increased    
energy4 ,now this displacement1 or      
strain1 due to the heat expansion1 is   
carried out against the action of       
certain cohesive forces or stresses     
existing between the particles          
throughout the mass4 ,these cohesive    
forces are1 in fact1 the agency which   
determines this transformation of heat  
into energy of position4 ,their         

existence is essential to the process4  
,but these cohesive forces are simply   
the external manifestation of that      
energy by virtue of which the mass tends
 to maintain its coherent form4 ,they   
are the symbol of that energy which     
might be termed the cohesion energy of  
the mass--they are1 in fact1 the symbol 
of the incepting energy influence of the
 transformation4 ,this incepting energy 
influence of cohesion is one which holds
 sway throughout all solid material4 ,it
 is1 therefore1 found in action in every
 movement involving the internal        
displacement or distortion of matter4   
,it is a property of matter1 and        
accordingly it is found to vary not only
 with the material1 but also with the   
precise physical condition or the energy
 state of the material with which it is 
associated4 ,in this respect1 it differs
 entirely from the preceding magnetic   
influence4 ,the latter1 we have seen1   
has no direct association with the      
copper ball1 or with the material which 

is the actual venue of the              
transformation4 ,as an energy influence1
 it is itself persistent1 and unaffected
 by the energy state of that material4  
,on the other hand1 the cohesion energy1
 being purely a property of the material
 which is the habitat of the energy     
process1 is directly affected by its    
energy state4 ,this point will be       
clearer by reference to the actual      
phenomena of the heat transformation4   
,as the process proceeds1 the           
temperature of the mass as the expansion
 increases will rise higher and higher1 
until1 at a certain point1 the solid    
material is so energised that change of 
state ensues4 ,at this1 the             
melting-point of the material1          
liquefaction takes place1 and its       
cohesive properties almost vanish4 ,in  
this fashion1 then1 a limit is clearly  
imposed on the process of heat          
transformation in the solid body--a     
limit defined by the cohesive or        
physical properties of the particular   

material4 ,in this limiting power lies  
the difference between cohesion and     
magnetism as incepting influences4      
,looking at the whole dynamo-electric   
transformation in a general way1 it will
 be clear that the magnetic influence in
 no way limits or affects the amount of 
dynamical or work energy which may be   
applied to the rotating sphere4 ,this   
amount is limited simply by the cohesive
 properties of the material mass in     
rotation4 ,the magnetic influence might1
 in fact1 be regarded as the primary or 
inducing factor in the system1 and the  
cohesion influence as the secondary or  
limiting factor4   #af4 ,terrestrial    
,gravitation as an ,incepting ,influence
  ,the attractive influence of          
gravitation appears as an incepting     
agency in terrestrial as well as in     
celestial phenomena4 ,in fact1 of all   
the agencies which incept energy        
transformations on the earth1           
gravitation1 in one form or another1 is 
the most universal and the most         

important4 ,gravitation being a property
 of all matter1 no mundane body1 animate
 or inanimate1 is exempt from its       
all-pervading influence1 and every      
movement of energised matter within the 
field of that influence leads inevitably
 to energy transformation4  ,let us take
 a concrete illustration4 ,a block of   
solid material is supported on a        
horizontal table4 ,by means of a cord   
attached1 energy is applied to the block
 from an external source1 so that it    
slides over the surface of the table4   
,as a result of this motion and the     
associated frictional process1 heat     
energy will make its appearance at the  
sliding surfaces of contact4 ,this heat 
energy is obviously obtained by the     
transformation of that energy originally
 applied to the block from the external 
source4 ,what is the incepting influence
 in this process of transformation8 ,the
 incepting influence is clearly the     
gravitative attraction of the earth     
operating between the moving block and  

the table4 ,the frictional process1 it  
is well known1 is dependent in extent or
 degree on the pressure between the     
surfaces in contact4 ,this pressure is1 
of course1 due to the gravitative       
attraction of the earth on the mass of  
the block4 ,if it be removed1 say by    
supporting the block from above1 the    
heat-transformation process at the      
surfaces at once terminates4 ,gravity1  
then1 is the primary incepting influence
 of the process4 ,the effect of         
gravitation in transformation has       
apparently been eliminated by supporting
 the block from above and removing the  
pressure between block and table4 ,it is
 not really so1 however1 because the    
pressure due to the gravitative         
attraction of the earth on the block has
 in reality only been transferred to    
this new point of support1 and if a     
movement of the block is carried out it 
will be found that the heat             
transformation has been also transferred
 to that point4 ,but there are also     

other influences at work in the process4
 ,the extent of the heat transformation 
depends1 not only on the pressure1 but  
also on the nature of the surfaces in   
contact4 ,it is evident1 that in the    
sliding movement the materials in the   
neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact
 will be more or less strained or       
distorted4 ,this distortion is carried  
out in the lines of the cohesive forces 
of the materials1 and is the real       
mechanism of the transformation of the  
applied work energy into heat4 ,it is   
obvious that the nature of the surfaces 
in contact must influence the degree of 
distortion1 that is1 whether they are   
rough or smooth2 the cohesive qualities 
of the materials in contact will depend 
also on the nature of these materials1  
and the extent of the heat              
transformation will be limited by these 
cohesive properties in precisely the    
same way as described for other examples
 7,sec4 #ae74 ,the function of          
gravitation in this transformation is1  

obviously1 again quite passive in       
nature1 and is in no way influenced by  
the extent of the process4 ,gravitation 
is1 as it were1 only the agency whereby 
the acting energy is brought into       
communication with the cohesive forces  
of the sliding materials4  ,a little    
reflection will convey to the reader the
 vast extent of this influence of       
gravitation in frictional phenomena1 and
 the important place occupied by such   
phenomena in the economy of ,nature4    
,from the leaf which falls from the tree
 to the mighty tidal motions of air1    
earth1 and sea due to the gravitative   
effects of the sun and moon1 all        
movements of terrestrial material are   
alike subject to the influence of       
terrestrial gravitation1 and will give  
rise to corresponding heat processes4   
,these heat processes are continually in
 evidence in natural phenomena2 the     
effect of their action is seen alike on 
the earth's surface and in its interior 
7internal heating74 ,of the energy      

operating in them we do not propose to  
say anything further at this stage1     
except that it is largely communicated  
to the atmospheric air masses4   #ag4   
,the ,gravitation ,field  ,the foregoing
 examples of transformation serve to    
place before the reader some idea of the
 general nature and function of an      
incepting energy influence4 ,but for the
 broadest aspects of the latter agencies
 it is necessary to revert once more to 
celestial phenomena4 ,as already        
indicated in the ,general ,statement1   
the primary transformations of planetary
 axial energy are stimulated by certain 
agencies inherent to1 and arising from1 
the central mass of the system4 ,these  
energy agencies or effects operate      
through space1 and are entirely passive 
in nature4 ,they are in no way          
associated with energy transmission2    
they are merely the determining causes  
of the energy-transforming processes    
which they induce1 and do not in the    
least affect the conservative energy    

properties of the planetary masses over 
which their influence is cast4 ,of the  
precise number and nature of such       
influences thus exerted by the primary  
mass we can say nothing4 ,the energy    
transformations which are the direct    
result of their action are so extensive 
and so varied in character that we would
 hesitate to place any limit on the     
number of the influences at work4 ,some 
of these influences1 however1 being     
associated with the phenomena of        
everyday experience1 are more readily   
detected in action than others and more 
accessible to study4 ,it is to these    
that we naturally turn in order to gain 
general ideas for application to more   
obscure cases4  ,of the many incepting  
influences1 therefore1 which may emanate
 from the primary mass there are three  
only which will be dealt with here4     
,each exerts a profound action on the   
planetary system1 and each may be       
readily studied and its working verified
 by the observation of common phenomena4

 ,these influences are respectively the 
gravitation1 the thermal1 and the       
luminous fields4  ,the general nature   
and properties of the gravitation field 
have to some extent been already        
foreshadowed 7,secs4 #d1 #f1 #af74      
,other examples will be dealt with      
later1 and it is unnecessary to go into 
further detail here4 ,the different     
aspects1 however1 in which the influence
 has been presented may be pointed out4 
,firstly1 in the separate body in space1
 as an inherent property of matter      
7,sec4 #b72 secondly1 as an attractive  
influence exerted across space between  
primary and planet1 both absolutely     
separate bodies 7,sec4 #e72 and thirdly1
 as a purely planetary or secondary     
incepting influence 7,sec4 #af74 ,in    
every case alike we find its function to
 be of an entirely passive nature4 ,its 
most powerful effect on planetary       
material is perhaps manifested in the   
tidal actions 7,sec4 #i74 ,with respect 
to these movements1 it may be pointed   

out that the planetary material         
periodically raised from the surface is 
itself elevated against the inherent    
planetary gravitative forces1 and also1 
to a certain extent1 against the        
cohesive forces of planetary material4  
,each of these resisting influences     
functions as an incepting agency1 and   
thus the elevation of the mass involves 
a transformation of energy 7,sec4 #d74  
,the source of the energy thus          
transformed is the axial energy of the  
planet1 and the new forms in which it is
 manifested are energy of position or   
potential energy relative to the        
planetary surface1 and heat energy4 ,on 
the return of the material to its normal
 position1 its energy of position1 due  
to its elevation1 will be returned in   
its original form of axial energy4 ,in  
the case of the heat transformation1    
however1 it is to be noted that this    
process will take place both as the     
material is elevated and also as it     
sinks once more to its normal position4 

,the heat transformation thus operates  
continuously throughout the entire      
movement4 ,the upraising of the material
 in the tidal action is brought about   
entirely at the expense of inherent     
planetary axial energy4 ,the gravitative
 and cohesive properties of the         
planetary material make such a          
transformation process possible4 ,it is 
in virtue of these properties that      
energy may be applied to or expended on 
the material in this way4 ,the tidal    
action on the planetary surface is1 in  
fact1 simply a huge secondary process in
 which axial energy is converted into   
heat4 ,the primary incepting power is   
clearly gravitation4  ,of the aspect of 
gravitation as a purely planetary       
influence 7,sec4 #af7 little requires to
 be said4 ,the phenomena are so         
prominent and familiar that the reader  
may be left to multiply instances for   
himself4   #ah4 ,the ,thermal ,field    
,the thermal field which is induced by  
and emanates from the primary mass      

differs from the gravitation field in   
that1 so far as we know1 it is          
unaccompanied by any manifestation of   
force1 attractive or otherwise4 ,its    
action on the rotating planetary mass   
may be compared to that of the          
electro-magnet on the rotating copper   
sphere 7,sec4 #ad72 the electro-magnet  
exerts no force on the sphere1 but an   
energy expenditure is1 nevertheless1    
required to rotate the latter through   
the field of the magnetic influence4    
,to this thermal field1 then1 in which  
the planets rotate1 we ascribe all      
primary planetary heating phenomena4    
,the mode of action of the thermal field
 appears to be similar to that of other 
incepting influences4 ,by its agency the
 energy of axial rotation of planetary  
material is directly converted into the 
heat form4 ,as already shown 7,sec4     
#ag71 heat energy may be developed in   
planetary material as a result of the   
action of other incepting agencies1 such
 as gravitation4 ,these processes are1  

however1 more or less indirect in       
nature4 ,but the operation due to the   
thermal field is a direct one4 ,the heat
 energy is derived from the direct      
transformation of planetary axial energy
 of rotation without passing through any
 intermediate forms4 ,in common         
parlance1 the thermal field is the      
agency whereby the primary mass heats   
the planetary system4 ,no idea of       
transmission1 however1 is here implied  
in such phraseology2 the heating effect 
produced on any planetary mass is       
entirely the result of the              
transformation of its own energy2 the   
thermal field is purely and simply the  
incepting influence of the process4     
,now1 in virtue of the configuration of 
the rotating planetary masses1 their    
material in equatorial regions is much  
more highly energised than the material 
in the neighbourhood of the poles1 and  
will1 accordingly1 move with much       
greater linear velocity through the     
thermal field4 ,the heat transformation 

will vary accordingly4 ,it will be much 
more pronounced at the equator than at  
the poles1 and a wide difference in     
temperature will be maintained between  
the two regions4 ,the thermal field1    
also1 does not necessarily produce the  
same heating effect on all planetary    
material alike4 ,some materials appear  
to be peculiarly susceptible--others    
much less so4 ,this we may verify from  
terrestrial experience4 ,investigation  
shows the opaque substances to be       
generally most susceptible1 and the     
transparent materials1 such as glass1   
rock-salt1 tourmaline1 c4 almost        
insusceptible1 to the heating effect of 
the sun4 ,the influence of the thermal  
field can1 in fact1 operate through the 
latter materials4 ,a still more striking
 and important phenomenon may be        
observed in the varying action of the   
thermal field on matter in its different
 forms4 ,it has been already pointed out
 that1 in the course of transformation  
in the field of an incepting influence1 

a material may attain a certain energy  
state in which it is no longer          
susceptible to that influence4 ,this has
 been exemplified in the case of the    
iron ball 7,sec4 #ad7 and a phenomenon  
of the same general nature is revealed  
in the celestial transformation4 ,a     
piece of solid material of low          
melting-point is brought from the polar 
regions of the earth to the equator4    
,due to the more rapid movement across  
the sun's thermal field1 and the        
consequent increased action of that     
field1 a transformation of the axial    
energy of rotation of the body takes    
place1 whereby it is heated and finally 
liquefied4 ,in the liquid state the     
material is still susceptible to the    
thermal field1 and the transformation   
process accordingly proceeds until the  
material finally assumes the gaseous    
form4 ,at this point1 however1 it is    
found that the operation is suspended2  
the material1 in assuming the gaseous   
state1 has now attained a condition     

7,sec4 #ae7 in which the thermal field  
has no further incepting or transforming
 influence upon it4 ,no transformation  
of its axial energy into the heat form  
is now possible by this means2 indeed1  
so far as the direct heating effect of  
the sun is concerned1 the free gaseous  
material on the planetary surface is    
entirely unaffected4 ,all the evidence  
of ,nature points to the conclusion that
 all gaseous material is absolutely     
transparent to the direct thermal       
influence of the sun4 ,matter in the    
gaseous form reaches1 as it were1 an    
ultimate or limiting condition in this  
respect4 ,this fact1 that energised     
material in the gaseous form is not     
susceptible to the thermal field1 is of 
very great importance in the general    
economy of ,nature4 ,it is1 in reality1 
the means whereby the great primary     
process of the transformation of the    
axial energy of the earth into the heat 
form is limited in extent4 ,as will be  
explained later1 it is the device       

whereby the planetary energy stability  
is conserved4 ,it will be apparent1 of  
course1 that heat energy may be readily 
applied to gaseous masses by other      
means1 such as conduction or radiation  
from purely terrestrial sources4 ,the   
point which we wish here to emphasise   
is1 simply1 that gaseous material       
endowed with axial energy on the        
planetary surface cannot have this axial
 energy directly transformed into heat  
through the instrumentality of the      
thermal field of the primary4   #ai4    
,the ,luminous ,field  ,the planetary   
bodies are indebted to the primary mass 
not only for heat phenomena1 but also   
for the phenomena of light4 ,these light
 phenomena are due to a separate and    
distinct energy influence 7or           
influences7 which we term the luminous  
field4  ,the mode of action of the      
luminous field is similar to that of    
other incepting influences4 ,it operates
 from the primary1 and is entirely      
passive in nature4 ,like the thermal    

field1 it does not appear to be         
accompanied by any manifestation of     
physical stress or force1 except1       
indeed1 the experimental demonstrations 
of the pressure of light can be regarded
 as such4 ,in any case1 this in no way  
affects the general action of light as  
an incepting agency4 ,its action on     
energised planetary material gives rise 
to certain transformations of energy1   
transformations exclusive and peculiar  
to its own influence4 ,we will refer to 
terrestrial phenomena for illustrations 
of its working4  ,perhaps the commonest 
example of transformation in which the  
luminous field appears as the incepting 
agency is seen in the growth of plant   
life on the surface of the earth4 ,the  
growth and development of vegetation and
 plants generally is the outward        
evidence of certain energy              
transformations4 ,the processes of      
growth1 however1 are of such a complex  
nature that it is impossible to state   
the governing energy conditions in their

 entirety1 but1 considering them merely 
in general fashion1 it may be said that 
energy in various forms 7potential1     
chemical1 c47 is stored in the tissues  
of the growing material4 ,now the source
 of this energy is the axial energy of  
the earth1 and1 as stated above1 the    
luminous field is an incepting factor   
7there may be others7 in the process of 
transformation1 a factor whereby this   
axial energy is converted into certain  
new forms4 ,it is well known that1      
amongst the factors which influence the 
growth of vegetation1 one of the most   
potent is that of light4 ,the presence  
of sunlight is one of the essential     
conditions for the successful working of
 certain transformations of plant life1 
and these transformations vary not only 
in degree but in nature1 according to   
the variation of the imposed light in   
intensity and quality4 ,some of the     
processes of growth are no doubt        
chemical in nature4 ,here1 again1 light 
may be readily conceived to have a      

direct determining influence upon them1 
exactly as in the cases of its          
well-known action in chemical           
phenomena--for instance1 as in          
photography4 ,other examples will       
readily occur to the reader4 ,one of the
 most interesting is the action of light
 on the eye itself4 ,it may be pointed  
out indeed that light is1 first and     
foremost1 a phenomenon of vision4       
,whatever may be its intrinsic nature1  
it is primarily an influence affecting  
the eye4 ,but the action of seeing1 like
 all other forms of human activity1     
involves a certain expenditure of bodily
 energy4 ,this energy is1 of course1    
primarily derived from the axial energy 
of the earth through the medium of plant
 and animal life and the                
physico-chemical processes of the body  
itself4 ,its presence in one form or    
another is1 in fact1 essential to all   
the phenomena of life4 ,the action of   
seeing accordingly involves the         
transformation of a certain modicum of  

this energy1 and the influence which    
incepts this transformation is the      
luminous field which originates in and  
emanates from the central mass of the   
system1 the sun4 ,in a similar way1     
planetary material under certain        
conditions may become the source of an  
incepting luminous field4 ,it is this   
light influence or luminous field which1
 in common parlance1 is said to enter   
the eye4 ,in that organ1 then1 is found 
the mechanism or machine 7,sec4 #cj71 a 
complicated one1 no doubt1 whereby this 
process of transformation is carried out
 which makes the light influence        
perceptible to the senses4 ,of the      
precise nature of the action little can 
be said4 ,the theme is rather one for a 
treatise on physiology4 ,it may be      
pointed out1 however1 with regard to the
 process of transformation1 that ,dewar 
has already demonstrated the fact that  
when light falls on the retina of the   
eye1 an electric current is set up in   
the optic nerve4 ,the energy associated 

with this current is1 of course1        
obtained at the expense of the bodily   
energy of the observer1 and this energy1
 after passing1 it may be1 through a    
large number of transformation          
processes1 will finally be returned to  
the source from which it was originally 
derived1 namely1 the axial energy of the
 earth4 ,the luminous field1 also1 like 
the thermal field1 has no transforming  
effect whatever on the energy of certain
 substances4 ,it may pass completely    
through some and be reflected by others 
without any sign of energy              
transformation4 ,its properties are1 in 
fact1 simply the properties of light1   
and must be accepted simply as          
phenomena4 ,now1 it is very important1  
in studying matters of this kind1 to    
realise that it is impossible ever to   
get beyond or behind phenomena4 ,it may 
be pointed out that in no sphere of     
physics has the influence of so-called  
explanatory mechanical hypotheses been  
stronger than in that dealing with the  

properties of light4 ,new theories are  
being expounded almost daily in attempts
 to explain or dissect simple phenomena4
 ,but it may be asked1 ,in what does our
 really useful knowledge of light       
consist8 ,simply in our knowledge of    
phenomena4 ,beyond this1 one cannot go4 
,we may attempt to explain phenomena1   
but to create for this purpose elastic  
ethereal media or substances without    
direct evidential phenomena in support  
is not to advance real knowledge4 ,there
 are certain properties peculiar to the 
luminous as to all other incepting      
fields1 certain conditions under which  
each respectively will act1 and the true
 method of gaining real insight into    
these agencies is by the study of these 
actual properties 7or phenomena7 and    
conditions1 and not by attempts to      
ultimately explain them4 ,it will be    
evident that in most cases of natural   
energy operations there is more than one
 energy influence in action4 ,as a rule 
there are several4 ,in a growing plant1 

for example1 we have the thermal1       
luminous1 gravitation1 and cohesive     
influences all in operation at the same 
time1 each performing its peculiar      
function in transformation1 each        
contributing its own peculiar energy    
phenomena to the whole4 ,this feature   
adds somewhat to the complexity of      
natural operations and to the           
difficulties in the precise description 
of the various phenomena with which they
 are associated4   #bj4                 
,transformations--,upward ,movement of a
 ,mass against ,gravity  ,when the      
significance of energy inception and the
 characteristic properties of the       
various agencies have been grasped1 it  
becomes much easier to deal with certain
 other aspects of energy processes4 ,to 
illustrate these aspects it is1         
therefore1 now proposed to discuss a few
 simple secondary operations embodied in
 experimental apparatus4 ,a few examples
 of the operations of transformation and
 transmission of energy will be         

considered4 ,the object in view is to   
show the general nature of these        
processes1 and more especially the      
limits imposed upon them by the various 
factors or properties of the material   
machines in which they are of necessity 
embodied4 ,the reader is asked to bear  
in mind also the observations already   
made 7,sec4 #ac7 with respect to        
experimental apparatus generally4  ,the 
first operation for discussion is that  
of the upward movement of a mass of     
material against the gravitative        
attraction of the earth4 ,this movement 
involves one of the most simple and at  
the same time one of the most important 
of secondary energy processes4 ,as a    
concrete illustration1 consider the case
 of a body projected vertically upwards 
with great velocity from the surface of 
the earth4 ,the phenomena of its motion 
will be somewhat as follows3--,as the   
body recedes from the earth's surface in
 its upward flight1 its velocity suffers
 a continuous decrease1 and an altitude 

is finally attained where this velocity 
becomes zero4 ,the projectile1 at this  
point1 is instantaneously at rest4 ,its 
motion then changes2 it commences to    
fall1 and to proceed once more towards  
the starting-point with continuously    
increasing velocity4 ,neglecting the    
effect of the air 7,sec4 #bi7 and the   
rotational movement of the earth1 it may
 be assumed that the retardation of the 
projectile in its upward flight is      
numerically equal to its acceleration in
 its downward flight1 and that it       
finally returns to the starting-point   
with velocity numerically equal to the  
initial velocity of projection4 ,the    
process then obviously involves a       
complete transformation and return of   
energy4 ,at the earth's surface1 where  
its flight commences and terminates1 the
 body is possessed of energy of motion  
to a very high degree4 ,at the highest  
point of flight1 this form of energy has
 entirely vanished2 the body is at rest4
 ,its energy properties are then        

represented by its position of          
displacement from the earth's surface2  
its energy of motion in disappearing has
 assumed this form of energy of         
position1 energy of separation1 or      
potential energy4 ,the moving body has  
thus been the mechanism of an energy    
transformation4 ,at each stage of its   
upward progress1 a definite modicum of  
its original energy of motion is        
converted into energy of position4      
,between the extreme points of its      
flight1 the energy of the body is       
compounded of these two forms1 one of   
which is increasing at the expense of   
the other4 ,when the summit of flight is
 reached the conversion into energy of  
position is complete4 ,in the downward  
motion1 the action is completely        
reversed1 and when the body reaches the 
starting-point its energy of position   
has again been completely transformed   
into energy of motion4 ,it might be well
 to draw attention here to the fact1    
often overlooked1 that this energy of   

position gained by the rising mass is1  
in reality1 a form of energy1 separate  
and distinct1 brought into existence by 
the transformation and disappearance of 
the energy of the moving mass4 ,energy  
of position is as truly a form of energy
 as heat or kinetic energy4  ,the       
transformation here depicted is clearly 
a simple process1 yet we know absolutely
 nothing of its ultimate nature1 of the 
why or wherefore of the operation4 ,our 
knowledge is confined to the            
circumstances and conditions under which
 it takes place4 ,let us now1 therefore1
 deal with these conditions4 ,the       
transformation is clearly carried out in
 virtue of the movement of the body in  
the lines or field of an incepting      
influence4 ,this influence is that of   
gravitation1 which links the body       
continually to the earth4 ,now the      
function of gravitation in this process1
 as in others already described1 is that
 of a completely passive incepting      
agent4 ,the active energy which suffers 

change in the process is clearly the    
original work energy 7,sec4 #ca7        
communicated to the projected body4 ,the
 whole process is1 in fact1 a purely    
mechanical operation1 and as in the case
 of other processes involving mechanical
 energy1 it is limited by the mass value
 of the moving material4 ,it is clear   
that the greater the amount of energy   
communicated to the projectile at the   
starting-point1 the greater will be the 
altitude it will attain in its flight4  
,the amount of energy1 however1 which   
can thus be communicated is dependent on
 the maximum force which can be applied 
to the projectile4 ,but the maximum     
force which can be applied to any body  
depends entirely on the resistance      
offered by that body1 and in this case  
the resisting force is the gravitative  
attraction of the earth on the          
projectile1 which attraction is again a 
direct function of its mass4 ,the       
greater the mass1 the greater the       
gravitative force1 and the greater the  

possibility of transformation4 ,the     
ultimate limit of the process would be  
reached if the projected mass were so   
great as to equal half the mass of the  
earth4 ,in such circumstances1 the earth
 being assumed to be divided into two   
equal masses1 the maximum limiting value
 of the gravitative attraction would    
clearly be attained4 ,any increase of   
the one mass over the other would again 
lead1 however1 to a diminution in the   
attractive force and a corresponding    
decrease in the energy limit for        
transformation4 ,the precise manner in  
which the operations of mechanical      
energy are limited by the mass will now 
be clear4 ,the principle is quite       
general1 and applicable to all moving   
bodies4 ,mass is ever a direct measure  
of energy capacity4 ,a graphical method 
of representing energy transformations  
of this kind1 by a system of            
co-ordinates1 would enable the reader to
 appreciate more fully the quantitative 
relations of the forms of energy        

involved and also their various limits4 
#ba4 ,the ,simple ,pendulum  ,the       
remaining operations of transformation  
for discussion are embodied in the      
following simple apparatus4 ,a spherical
 metallic mass ,m 7,fig4 #b7 is         
supported by a rod ,p which is rigidly  
connected to a horizontal spindle ,,hs  
as shown4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b     
,the spindle is supported and free to   
revolve in the bearings ,b#a and ,b#b   
which form part of the supporting       
framework ,v resting on the ground2 the 
bearing surfaces at ,b#a and ,b#b are   
lubricated1 and the mass ,m is free to  
perform1 in a vertical plane1 complete  
revolutions about the axis through the  
centre of the spindle4 ,in carrying out 
this motion its path will be circular1  
as shown at ,,dcfe2 the whole           
arrangement is merely an adaptation of  
the simple pendulum4 ,as constituted1   
the apparatus may form the seat of      
certain energy operations4 ,some of     
these will only take place with the     

application of energy of motion to the  
pendulum from an external source1       
thereby causing it to vibrate or to     
rotate3 others1 again1 might be said to 
be inherent to the apparatus1 since they
 arise naturally from its construction  
and configuration4 ,we shall deal with  
the latter first4   #bb4 ,statical      
,energy ,conditions  ,the pendulum with 
its spindle has a definite mass value1  
and1 assuming it to be at rest in the   
bearings ,b#a and ,b#b1 it is acted upon
 by gravitation1 or in other words1 it  
is under the influence or within the    
field of the gravitative attraction of  
the earth's mass upon it4 ,the effect of
 this field is directly proportional to 
the mass of the pendulum and spindle1   
and to its action is due that bearing   
pressure which is transmitted through   
the lubricant to the bearing surfaces   
and thence to the supporting arms ,n#a  
and ,n#b of the framework4 ,bearings and
 columns alike are thus subjected to a  
downward thrust or pressure4 ,being of  

elastic material1 they will be more or  
less distorted4 ,this distortion will   
proceed until the downward forces are   
balanced by the upward or reactive      
forces called into play in virtue of the
 cohesive properties of the strained    
material4 ,corresponding to a slight    
downward movement of the pendulum and   
spindle in thus straining or compressing
 them1 the supporting columns will be   
decreased in length4 ,this downward     
movement is the external evidence of    
certain energy operations4 ,in virtue of
 their elevation above the earth's      
surface1 the pendulum and spindle       
possess1 to a certain degree1 energy of 
position1 and any free downward movement
 would lead to the transformation of    
this energy into energy of motion 7,sec4
 #bj74 ,but the downward motion of      
pendulum and spindle is not free4 ,it is
 made against the resistance of the     
material of the supporting columns1 and 
the energy of position1 instead of      
assuming the form of energy of motion1  

is simply worked down or transformed    
against the opposing cohesive forces of 
the supporting materials4 ,this energy1 
therefore1 now resides in these         
materials in the form of energy of      
strain or distortion4 ,in general       
nature1 this strain energy is akin to   
energy of position 7,sec4 #bj74 ,certain
 portions of the material of the columns
 have been forced into new positions    
against the internal forces of cohesion 
which are ever tending to preserve the  
original configuration of the columns4  
,this movement of material in the field 
of the cohesive influence involves the  
transformation of energy 7,sec4 #d71 and
 the external evidence of the energy    
process is simply the strained or       
distorted condition of the material4 ,if
 the latter be released1 and allowed to 
resume its natural form once more1 this 
stored energy of strain would be        
entirely given up4 ,in reality1 the     
material can be said to play the part of
 a machine or mechanism for the energy  

process of storage and restoration4 ,no 
energy process1 in fact1 ever takes     
place unless associated with matter in  
some form4 ,the supporting arms1 in this
 case1 form the material factor or      
agency in the energy operation4 ,all    
such energy machines1 also1 are limited 
in the extent of their operation1 by the
 qualities of the material factors4 ,in 
this particular case1 the energy compass
 of the machine is restricted by certain
 physical properties of the material1 by
 the maximum value of these cohesive or 
elastic forces called into play in      
distortion4 ,these forces are themselves
 the evidence of energy1 of that energy 
by virtue of which the material         
possesses and maintains its coherent    
form4 ,in this case this energy is also 
the factor controlling the              
transformation1 and appears as a        
separate and distinct incepting agency4 
,if the process is to be a reversible   
one1 so that the energy originally      
stored in the material as strain energy 

or energy of distortion may be          
completely returned1 the material must  
not be stressed beyond a certain point4 
,only a limited amount of work can be   
applied to it1 only a limited amount of 
energy can be stored in it4 ,too much   
energy applied--too great a weight on   
the supporting columns--gives rise to   
permanent distortion or crushing1 and an
 entirely new order of phenomena4 ,this 
energy limit for reversibility is then  
imposed by the cohesive properties of   
the material or by its elastic limits4  
,up to this point energy stored in the  
material may be returned--the process is
 reversible in nature--but above this   
elastic limit any energy applied must   
operate in an entirely different manner4
  ,a little consideration will show     
also1 that the state of distortion1 or  
energy strain1 is not confined to the   
material of the supporting columns      
alone4 ,action and reaction are equal4  
,the same stresses are applied to the   
spindle through the medium of bearings  

and lubricant4 ,in fact1 every material 
substance of which the pendulum machine 
is built up is thus1 more or less1      
strained against internal forces2 all   
possess1 more or less1 cohesion or      
strain energy4 ,it will be evident1     
also1 that this condition is not        
peculiar to this or any other form of   
apparatus4 ,it is the energy state or   
condition of every structure1 either    
natural or artificial1 which is built up
 of ordinary material1 and which1 on the
 earth's surface1 is subjected to the   
influence of the gravitation field4     
,this cohesion or strain energy is one  
of the forms in which energy is most    
widely distributed throughout material4 
,in reviewing the statical condition of 
the above apparatus1 the pendulum itself
 has been assumed to be hanging         
vertically at rest under the influence  
of gravitation4 ,if energy be now       
applied to the system from some external
 source so that the pendulum is caused  
to vibrate1 or to rotate about the axis 

of suspension1 a new set of energy      
processes make their appearance4 ,the   
movement of the pendulum mass1 in its   
circular path around the central axis1  
is productive of certain energy         
reactions1 as follows3--       a4 ,a    
transformation of energy of motion into 
energy of position      and vice versa4 
b4 ,a frictional transformation at the  
bearing surfaces4  ,these processes will
 each be in continuous operation so long
 as the motion of the pendulum is       
maintained4 ,their general nature is    
quite independent of the extent of that 
motion1 whether it be merely vibratory  
through a small arc1 or completely      
rotatory about the central axis4 ,in the
 articles which immediately follow1 the 
processes will be treated separately4   
#bc4 ,transformations of the ,moving    
,pendulum--a4 ,energy of ,motion to     
,energy of ,position and ,vice ,versa   
,in this simple transformation the      
motion of the pendulum about the axis of
 suspension may be either vibratory or  

circular1 according to the amount of    
energy externally applied4 ,in each     
case1 every periodic movement of the    
apparatus illustrates the whole energy  
operation4 ,the general conditions of   
the process are almost identical with   
those in the case of the upward movement
 of a mass against gravity 7,sec4 #bj74 
,gravitation is the incepting energy    
influence of the operation4 ,if the     
pendulum simply vibrates through a small
 arc1 then1 at the highest points of its
 flight1 it is instantaneously at rest4 
,its energy of motion is here1          
therefore1 zero2 its energy of position 
is a maximum4 ,at the lowest point of   
its flight1 the conditions are exactly  
reversed4 ,here its energy of motion is 
a maximum1 while its energy of position 
passes through a minimum value4 ,the    
same general conditions hold when the   
pendulum performs complete revolutions  
about the central axis4 ,if the energy  
of motion applied is just sufficient to 
raise it to the highest point ,e 7,fig4 

#b71 the mass will there again be       
instantaneously at rest with maximum    
energy of position4 ,as the mass falls  
downwards in completing the circular    
movement1 its energy of position once   
more assumes the kinetic form1 and      
reaches its maximum value at ,c 7,fig4  
#b71 the lowest position4 ,the moving   
pendulum mass1 so far as its energy     
properties are concerned1 behaves in    
precisely the same manner as a body     
vertically projected in the field of the
 gravitative attraction 7,sec4 #bj74    
,this simple energy operation of the    
pendulum is perhaps one of the most     
familiar of energy processes4 ,by its   
means1 however1 it is possible to       
illustrate certain general features of  
energy reactions of great importance to 
the author's scheme4  ,the energy       
processes of the pendulum system are    
carried out through the medium of the   
material pendulum machine1 and are      
limited1 both in nature and degree1 by  
the properties of that machine4 ,as the 

pendulum vibrates1 the transformation of
 energy of motion to energy of position 
or vice versa is an example of a        
reversible energy operation4 ,the energy
 active in this operation continually   
alternates between two forms of energy3 
transformation is continually followed  
by a corresponding return4 ,neglecting  
in the meantime all frictional and other
 effects1 we will assume complete       
reversibility1 or that the energy of    
motion of the pendulum1 after passing   
completely into the form of energy of   
position at the highest point1 is again 
completely returned1 in its original    
form1 in the descent4 ,now1 for any     
given pendulum1 the amount of energy    
which can thus operate in the system    
depends on two factors1 namely1 the mass
 of the pendulum and the vertical height
 through which it rises in vibration4   
,if the mass is fixed1 then the maximum 
amount of energy will be operating in   
the reversible cycle when the pendulum  
is performing complete revolutions round

 its axis of suspension4 ,the maximum   
height through which the pendulum can   
rise1 or the maximum amount of energy of
 position which the system can acquire1 
is thus dependent on the length of the  
pendulum arm4 ,these two factors1 then1 
the mass and the length of the pendulum 
arm1 are simply properties of this      
pendulum machine1 properties by which   
its energy compass is restricted4 ,let  
us now examine these limiting factors   
more minutely4  ,it is obvious that     
energy could readily be applied to the  
pendulum system in such a degree as to  
cause it to rotate with considerable    
angular velocity about the axis of      
suspension4 ,now the motion of the      
pendulum mass in the lines of the       
gravitation field1 although productive  
of the same transformation process1     
differs from that of a body moving      
vertically upward in that1 while the    
latter has a linear movement1 the former
 is constrained into a circular path4   
,this restraint is imposed in virtue of 

the cohesive properties of the material 
of the pendulum arm1 and it is the      
presence of this restraining influence  
that really distinguishes the pendulum  
machine from the machine in which the   
moving mass is constrained by gravity   
alone 7,sec4 #bj74 ,it has been shown   
that the energy capacity of a body      
projected vertically against gravity is 
limited by its mass only2 the energy    
capacity of the pendulum machine may be 
likewise limited by its mass1 but the   
additional restraining factor of        
cohesion also imposes another limit4 ,in
 the course of rotation1 energy is      
stored in the material of the pendulum  
against the internal forces of cohesion4
 ,the action is simply that of what is  
usually termed centrifugal force4 ,as   
the velocity increases1 the pendulum arm
 lengthens correspondingly until the    
elastic limit of the material in tension
 is reached4 ,at this point1 the        
pendulum may be said to have reached the
 maximum length at which it can operate 

in that reversible process of           
transformation in which energy of motion
 is converted into energy of position4  
,the amount of energy which would now be
 working in that process may be termed  
the limiting energy for reversibility4  
,this limiting energy is the absolute   
maximum amount of energy which can      
operate in the reversible cycle4 ,it is 
coincident with the maximum length of   
the pendulum arm in distortion4 ,when   
the stress in the material of that arm  
reaches the elastic limit1 it is clear  
that the transformation against cohesion
 will also have attained its limiting   
value for reversibility4 ,this          
transformation1 if the velocity of the  
pendulum is constant1 is of the nature  
of a storage of energy4 ,so long as the 
velocity is constant the energy stored  
is constant4 ,if the elastic limiting   
stress of the material has not been     
exceeded1 this energy--neglecting       
certain minor processes 7,secs4 #ae1    
#bi7--will be returned in its original  

form as the velocity decreases4 ,if1    
however1 the material be stressed beyond
 its elastic powers1 the excess energy  
applied will simply lead to permanent   
distortion or disruption of the pendulum
 arm1 and to a complete breakdown and   
change in the character of the machine  
and the associated energy processes     
7,sec4 #e74 ,the physical properties of 
the material thus limit the energy      
capacity of the machine4 ,this limiting 
feature1 as already indicated1 is not   
peculiar to the pendulum machine alone4 
,every energy process embodied in a     
material machine is limited in a similar
 fashion by the peculiar properties of  
the acting materials4 ,every reversible 
process is carried out within limits    
thus clearly defined4 ,nature presents  
no exception to this rule1 no example of
 a reversible energy system on which    
energy may be impressed in unlimited    
amount4 ,on the contrary1 all the       
evidence points to limitation of the    
strictest order in such processes4      

#bd4 ,transformations of the ,moving    
,pendulum--b4 ,frictional               
,transformation at the ,bearing         
,surfaces  ,the motion of the pendulum1 
whether it be completely rotatory or    
merely vibratory in nature1 invariably  
gives rise to heating at the bearings or
 supporting points4 ,since the heating  
effect is only evident when motion is   
taking place1 and since the heat can    
only make its appearance as the result  
of some energy process1 it would appear 
that this persistent heat phenomenon is 
the result of a transformation of the   
original energy of motion of the        
pendulum4  ,the general energy          
conditions of the apparatus already     
adverted to 7,sec4 #ba7 still hold1 and 
the lubricating oil employed in the     
apparatus being assumed to have         
sufficient capillarity or adhesive power
 to separate the metallic surfaces of   
bearings and journals at all velocities1
 then every action of the spindle on the
 bearings must be transmitted through   

the lubricant4 ,the latter is1          
therefore1 strained or distorted against
 the internal cohesive or viscous forces
 of its material4 ,the general effect of
 the rotatory motion of the spindle will
 be to produce a motion of the material 
of the lubricant in the field of these  
incepting forces4 ,to this motion the   
heat transformation is primarily due4   
,other conditions being the same1 the   
extent of the transformation taking     
place1 in any given case1 is dependent  
on the physical properties of the       
lubricant1 such as its viscosity1 its   
cohesive or capillary power1 always     
provided that the metallic surfaces are 
separated1 so that the action is really 
carried out in the lines or field of the
 internal cohesive forces of the        
lubricant4 ,in itself1 this             
transformation is not a reversible      
process2 no mechanism appears by which  
this heat energy evolved at the bearing 
surfaces could be returned once more to 
its original form of energy of motion4  

,it may be1 in fact1 communicated by    
conduction to the metallic masses of the
 bearings1 and thence1 by conduction and
 radiation1 to the air masses           
surrounding the apparatus4 ,its action  
in these masses is dealt with below     
7,sec4 #bi74 ,the operation of bearing  
friction1 though in itself not a        
reversible process1 really forms one    
link of a complete chain 7,sec4 #i7 of  
secondary operations 7transmissions and 
transformations7 which together form a  
comprehensive and complete cyclical     
energy process 7,sec4 #cb74  ,when no   
lubricant is used in the apparatus1 so  
that the metallic surfaces of bearings  
and journals are in contact1 the heat   
process is of a precisely similar nature
 to that described above 7see also ,sec4
 #af74 ,distortion of the metals in     
contact takes place in the surface      
regions1 so that the material is        
strained against its internal cohesive  
forces4 ,the transformation will thus   
depend on the physical properties of    

these metals1 and will be limited by    
these properties4 ,different metallic or
 other combinations will consequently   
give rise to quite different results    
with respect to the amounts of heat     
energy evolved4   #be4 ,stability of    
,energy ,systems  ,the ratio of the     
maximum or limiting energy for          
reversibility to the total energy of the
 system may vary in value4 ,if the      
pendulum vibrates only through a very   
small arc1 then1 neglecting the minor   
processes 7,secs4 #bd1 #bi71 practically
 the whole energy of the system operates
 in the reversible transformation4 ,this
 condition is maintained as the length  
of the arc of vibration increases1 until
 the pendulum is just performing        
complete revolutions about the central  
axis4 ,after this1 the ratio will alter 
in value1 because the greater part of   
any further increment of energy does not
 enter into the reversible cyclical     
process1 but merely goes to increase the
 velocity of rotation and the total     

energy of the system4 ,the small amount 
of energy which thus enters the         
reversible cycle as the velocity        
increases1 does so in virtue of the     
increasing length of the pendulum arm in
 distortion4 ,to produce even a slight  
distortion of the arm1 a large amount of
 energy will require to be applied to   
and stored in the system1 and thus1 at  
high velocities of rotation1 the energy 
which operates in the reversible cycle1 
even at its limiting value1 may form    
only a very small proportion of the     
total energy of the system4 ,at low     
velocities or low values of the total   
energy1 say when the pendulum is not    
performing complete rotations1          
practically the whole energy of the     
system is working in the reversible     
cycle2 but1 in these circumstances1 it  
is clear that the total energy of the   
system1 which1 in this case1 is all     
working in the reversible process1 is   
much less than the maximum or limiting  
amount of energy which might so work in 

that process4 ,under these conditions1  
when the total energy of the system is  
less than the limiting value for        
reversibility1 so that this total energy
 in its entirety is free to take part in
 the reversible process1 then the energy
 system may be termed stable with       
respect to that process4 ,stability1 in 
an energy system1 thus implies that the 
operation considered is not being1 as it
 were1 carried out at full energy       
capacity1 but within certain reversible 
energy limits4  ,we have emphasised this
 point in order to draw attention to the
 fact that the great reversible         
processes which are presented to our    
notice in natural phenomena are all     
eminently stable in character4 ,perhaps 
the most striking example of a natural  
reversible process is found in the      
working of the terrestrial atmospheric  
machine 7,secs4 #aj1 #ch74 ,the energy  
in this case is limited by the mass1 but
 in actual operation its amount is well 
within the maximum limiting value4 ,the 

machine1 in fact1 is stable in nature4  
,other natural operations1 such as the  
orbital movements of planetary masses1  
7,sec4 #h7 illustrate the same          
conditions4 ,nature1 although apparently
 prodigal of energy in its totality1 yet
 rigidly defines the bounding limits of 
her active operations4   #bf4 ,the      
,pendulum as a ,conservative ,system    
,under certain conditions the reversible
 energy cycle produces an important     
effect on the rotatory motion of the    
pendulum4 ,for the purpose of           
illustration1 let it be assumed that the
 pendulum is an isolated and            
conservative system endowed with a      
definite amount of rotatory energy4 ,in 
its circular movement1 the upward motion
 of the pendulum mass is accompanied by 
a gain in its energy of position4 ,this 
gain is1 in the given circumstances1    
obtained solely at the expense of its   
inherent rotatory energy1 which1        
accordingly1 suffers a corresponding    
decrease4 ,the manifestation of this    

decrease will be simply a retardation of
 the pendulum's rotatory motion4 ,its   
angular velocity will1 therefore1       
decrease until the highest altitude ,e  
7,fig4 #b7 is attained4 ,after this1 on 
the downward path1 the process will be  
reversed4 ,acceleration will take place 
from the highest to the lowest point of 
flight1 and the energy stored as energy 
of position will be completely returned 
in its original form of energy of       
motion4 ,the effect of the working of   
the reversible cycle1 then1 on the      
rotatory system1 under the given        
conditions1 is simply to produce        
alternately a retardation and a         
corresponding acceleration4 ,now1 it is 
to be particularly noted that these     
changes in the velocity of the system   
are produced1 not by any abstraction    
from or return of energy to the system1 
which is itself conservative1 but simply
 in consequence of the transformation   
and re-transformation of a certain      
portion of its inherent rotatory energy 

in the working of a reversible process  
embodied in the system4 ,the same       
features may be observed in other       
systems where the conditions are        
somewhat similar4  ,in the natural      
world1 we find processes of the same    
general nature in constant operation4   
,when any mass of material is elevated  
from the surface of a rotating planetary
 body against the gravitative           
attraction1 it thereby gains energy of  
position 7,sec4 #bj74 ,this energy1 on  
the body's return to the surface in the 
course of its cycle1 reappears in the   
form of energy of motion4 ,now the      
material mass1 in rising from the       
planetary surface1 is not1 in reality1  
separated from the planet4 ,the         
atmosphere of the planet forms an       
integral portion of its material1       
partakes of its rotatory motion1 and is 
bound to the solid core by the mutual   
gravitative forces4 ,any mass1 then1 on 
the solid surface of a planet is1 in    
reality1 in the planetary interior1 and 

the rising of such a mass from that     
surface does not imply any actual       
separative process1 but simply the      
radial movement1 or displacement of a   
portion of the planetary material from  
the central axis4 ,if the energy        
expended in the upraisal of the mass is 
derived at the expense of the inherent  
rotatory energy of the planet1 as it    
would be if the latter were a strictly  
conservative energy system1 then the    
raising of this portion of planetary    
material from the surface would have a  
retarding effect on the planetary motion
 of rotation4 ,but if1 on the other     
hand1 the energy of such a mass as it   
fell towards the planetary surface were 
converted once more into its original   
form of energy of axial motion1 exactly 
equivalent in amount to its energy of   
position1 it is evident that the process
 would be productive of an accelerating 
effect on the planetary motion of       
rotation1 which would in magnitude      
exactly balance the previous            

retardation4 ,in such a process it is   
evident that energy neither enters nor  
leaves the planet4 ,it simply works in  
an energy machine embodied in planetary 
material4 ,this point will be more fully
 illustrated later4 ,the reader will    
readily see the resemblance of a system 
of this nature to that which has already
 been illustrated by the rotating       
pendulum4  ,in the meantime1 it may be  
pointed out that matter displaced from  
the planetary surface need not          
necessarily be matter in the solid form4
 ,all the operations mentioned above    
could be quite readily--in fact1 more   
readily--carried out by the movements of
 gaseous material1 which is admirably   
adapted for every kind of rising1       
falling1 or flowing motion relative to  
the planetary surface 7,sec4 #ac74      
#bg4 ,some ,phenomena of ,transmission  
,processes--,transmission of ,heat      
,energy by ,solid ,material  ,the       
pendulum machine described above        
furnishes certain outstanding examples  

of the operation of energy              
transformation4 ,it will be noted1      
however1 that it also portrays certain  
processes of energy transmission4 ,in   
this respect it is not peculiar4 ,most  
of the material machines in which energy
 operates will furnish examples of both 
energy transmissions and energy         
transformations4 ,in some instances1 the
 predominant operation seems to be      
transformation1 in others1 transmission2
 and the machines may be classified     
accordingly4 ,it is1 however1 largely a 
matter of terminology1 since both       
operations are usually found closely    
associated in one and the same machine4 
,the apparatus now to be considered is  
designed primarily to illustrate the    
operative features of certain energy    
transmissions1 but the description of   
the machines with their allied phenomena
 will show that energy transformations  
also play a very important part in their
 constitution and working4  ,a          
cylindrical metallic bar about twelve   

inches long1 say1 and one inch in       
diameter1 is placed with its ends       
immersed in water in two separate       
vessels1 ,a and ,b1 somewhat as shown4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c  ,by the       
application of heat energy1 the         
temperature of the water in the vessel  
,a is raised to a point say #ajj deg4   
,f4 above that of ,b1 and steadily      
maintained at that point4 ,it is assumed
 that ,b is also kept at the constant   
lower temperature4 ,in these            
circumstances1 a transmission of heat   
energy takes place from ,a to ,b through
 the metallic bar4 ,when the steady     
temperature condition is reached1 the   
transmission will be continuous and     
uniform2 the rate at which it is carried
 out will be determined by the length of
 the bar1 by the material of which it is
 composed1 and by the temperature       
difference maintained between its ends4 
,now what has really happened is that by
 a combination of phenomena the bar has 
been converted into a machine for the   

transmission of heat energy4 ,a full    
description of these phenomena is1 in   
reality1 the description of this        
machine1 and vice versa4 ,let us1       
therefore1 now try to outline some of   
these phenomena4  ,the first feature of 
note is the gradient of temperature     
which exists between the ends of the    
bar4 ,further research is necessary     
regarding the real nature of this       
gradient--it appears to differ greatly  
in different materials--but the         
existence of such a gradient is one of  
the main features of the energy machine1
 one of the essential conditions of the 
transmission process4  ,another feature 
is that of the expansive motion of the  
bar itself4 ,the expansion of the bar   
due to the heating varies in value along
 its length1 from a maximum at the hot  
end to a minimum at the cool end4 ,the  
expansion1 also1 is the evidence of a   
transformation of energy4 ,the bar has  
been constrained into its new form      
against the action of the internal      

molecular or cohesive forces of its     
material 7,sec4 #af74 ,the energy       
employed and transformed in producing   
the expansion is a part of the original 
heat energy applied to the bar1 and     
before any transmission of this heat    
energy takes place between its extreme  
ends1 a definite modicum of the applied 
energy has to be completely transformed 
for the sole purpose of producing this  
distortive movement or expansion against
 cohesion4 ,this preliminary straining  
of the bar is1 in fact1 a part of the   
process of building up or constituting  
the energy transmission machine1 and    
must be completely carried out before   
any transmission can take place4 ,it is 
clear1 then1 that concurrent with the   
gradient of temperature1 there also     
exists1 along the bar1 what might be    
termed a gradient of energy stored      
against cohesion1 and that both are     
characteristic and essential features of
 this particular energy machine4 ,a     
point of some importance to note is the 

permanency of these features4 ,once the 
machine has been constituted with a     
constant temperature difference1 the    
transmission of energy will take place  
continuously and at a uniform rate4 ,but
 no further transformation against      
cohesion takes place2 no further        
expenditure of energy against the       
internal forces of the material is      
necessary4 ,neglecting certain losses   
due to possible external conditions1 the
 whole energy applied to the machine at 
the one end is transmitted in its       
entirety to the other1 without          
influencing in any way either the       
temperature or the energy gradient4     
,such is the general constitution of    
this machine for energy transmission4   
,its material foundation is1 indeed1 the
 metallic bar1 but the temperature and  
energy gradients may be termed the true 
determining factors of its operation4   
,as already indicated1 the magnitude of 
the transformation is dependent on the  
temperature difference between the ends 

of the bar4 ,but this applies only      
within certain limits4 ,with respect to 
the cool end1 the temperature may be as 
low as we please--so far as we know1 the
 limit is absolute zero of temperature2 
but with the hot end1 the case is       
entirely different1 because here the    
limit is very strictly imposed by the   
melting-point of the material of the    
bar4 ,when this melting temperature is  
attained1 the melting of the bar        
indicates1 simply1 that the heat energy 
stored or transformed against the       
cohesive forces of the material has     
reached its limiting value2 change of   
state of the material is taking place1  
and the machine is thereby being        
destroyed4  ,it is evident1 then1 that  
the energy which is actually being      
transmitted has itself no effect        
whatever in restricting the action or   
scope of the transmission machine4 ,it  
is1 in reality1 the residual energy     
stored against the cohesive forces which
 imposes the limits on the working4 ,it 

is the maximum energy which can be      
transformed in the field of the cohesive
 forces of the material which determines
 the power of that material as a        
transmitting agent4 ,this maximum will1 
of course1 be different for different   
materials according to their physical   
constitution4 ,it is attained in this   
machine in each case when melting of the
 bar takes place4   #bh4 ,some          
,phenomena of ,transmission             
,processes--,transmission by ,flexible  
,band or ,cord  ,this method is often   
adopted when energy of motion1 or       
mechanical energy1 is required to be    
transmitted from one point to another4  
,for illustration1 consider the case of 
two parallel spindles or shafts1 ,a and 
,b 7,fig4 #d71 each having a pulley     
securely keyed upon it4 ,spindle ,a is  
connected to a source of of mechanical  
energy1 and it is desired to transmit   
this energy across the intervening space
 to spindle ,b4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#d  ,this1 of course1 might be          

accomplished in various ways1 but one of
 the most simple1 and1 at the same time1
 one of the most efficient1 is the      
direct drive by means of a flexible band
 or cord4 ,the band is placed tightly   
round1 and adheres closely to both      
pulleys2 the coefficient of friction    
between band and pulleys may1 in the    
first instance1 be assumed to be        
sufficiently great to prevent slipping  
of the band up to the highest stress    
which it is capable of sustaining in    
normal working4 ,connected in this      
fashion1 the spindles will rotate in    
unison1 and mechanical energy1 if       
applied at ,a1 may be directly          
transmitted to ,b4 ,the material        
operator in the transmission is the     
connecting flexible band1 and associated
 with this material are certain energy  
processes which are also essential      
features of the energy machine4 ,when   
transmission of energy is taking place1 
a definite tension or stress exists in  
the connecting band1 and neglecting     

certain inevitable losses due to bearing
 friction 7,sec4 #bd7 and windage 7,sec4
 #bi71 practically the whole of the     
mechanical or work energy communicated  
to the one spindle is transmitted to the
 other4 ,now the true method of studying
 this or any energy process is simply to
 describe the constitution and principal
 features of the machine by which it is 
carried out4 ,these are found in the    
phenomena of transmission4 ,one of the  
most important is the peculiar state of 
strain or tension existing in the       
connecting band4 ,this1 as already      
indicated1 is an absolutely essential   
condition of the whole operation4 ,no   
transmission is possible without some   
stress or pull in the band4 ,this pull  
is exerted against the cohesive forces  
of the material of the band1 so that    
before transmission takes place it is   
distorted and a definite amount of the  
originally applied work energy is       
expended in straining it against these  
forces4 ,this energy is accordingly     

stored in the form of strain energy or  
energy of separation 7,sec4 #bb71 and1  
if the velocity is uniform1 the         
magnitude of the transmission is        
proportional to this pull in the band1  
or to the quantity of energy thus stored
 against the internal forces of its     
material4 ,but1 in every case1 a limit  
to this amount of energy is clearly     
imposed by the strength of the band4    
,the latter must not be strained beyond 
its limiting elastic stress4 ,so long as
 energy is being transmitted1 a certain 
transformation and return of energy of  
strain or separation is taking place in 
virtue of the differing values of the   
tensions in the two sides of the band2  
and if the latter were stressed beyond  
the elastic limit1 permanent distortion 
or disruption of the material would take
 place4 ,under such conditions1 the     
reversible energy process1 involving    
storage and restoration of strain energy
 as the band passes round the pulleys1  
would be impossible1 and the energy     

transmission machine would be completely
 disorganised4 ,the magnitude of the    
energy operation is thus limited by the 
physical properties of the connecting   
band4  ,another important feature of    
this energy transmission machine is the 
velocity1 or rather the kinetic energy1 
of the band4 ,the magnitude of the      
transmission process is directly        
proportional to this velocity1 and is1  
therefore1 also a function of the       
kinetic energy4 ,at any given rate of   
transmission1 this kinetic energy1 like 
the energy stored against the cohesive  
influence1 will be constant in amount1  
and like that energy also1 will have    
been obtained at the expense of the     
originally applied energy4 ,this kinetic
 energy is an important feature in the  
constitution of the transmission        
machine4 ,as in the case of the strain  
energy1 its maximum value is strictly   
limited1 and thus imposes a limit on the
 general operation of the machine4 ,for1
 at very high velocities1 owing to the  

action of centrifugal force1 it is not  
possible to keep the band in close      
contact with the surface of the pulleys4
 ,when the speed rises above a certain  
limit1 although the energy actually     
being transmitted may not have attained 
the maximum value possible at lower     
speeds with greater tension in the band1
 the latter will1 in virtue of the      
strain imposed by centrifugal action1 be
 forced radially outwards from the      
pulley4 ,the coefficient of friction    
will be thereby reduced2 slipping will  
ensue1 and the transmission may cease   
either in whole or in part4 ,in this way
 the velocity or kinetic energy limit is
 imposed4 ,the machine for energy       
transmission may thus be limited in its 
operation by two different factors4 ,the
 precise way in which the limit will be 
applied in any given case will1 of      
course1 depend on the circumstances of  
working4   #bi4 ,some ,phenomena of     
,transmission ,processes--,transmission 
of ,energy to       ,air ,masses  ,the  

movement of the pendulum 7,sec4 #bc7 is 
accompanied by a certain transmission of
 energy to the surrounding medium4 ,when
 this medium is a gaseous one such as   
air1 the amount of energy thus          
transmitted is relatively small4 ,the   
process1 however1 has a real existence4 
,to illustrate its general nature1 let  
it be assumed that the motion of the    
pendulum is carried out1 not in air1 but
 in a highly viscous fluid1 say a heavy 
oil4 ,obviously1 a pendulum falling from
 its highest position to its lowest1 in 
such a medium would transmit its energy 
almost in its entirety to the medium1   
and would reach its lowest position     
almost devoid of energy of motion4 ,the 
energy of position with which it was    
originally endowed would thus be        
transformed and transmitted to the      
surrounding medium4 ,the agent by which 
the transmission is carried out is the  
moving material of the pendulum1 which1 
as it passes through the fluid1 distorts
 that fluid in the lines or field of its

 internal cohesive or viscous forces    
which offer a continuous resistance to  
the motion4 ,as the pendulum passes down
 through the liquid1 the succeeding     
layers of the latter are thus           
alternately distorted and released4 ,the
 distortive movement takes place in     
virtue of the communication of energy   
from the moving pendulum to the liquid1 
and during the movement energy is stored
 in the fluid as energy of strain and as
 kinetic energy4 ,at the same time1 a   
transformation of the applied energy    
into heat takes place in the distorted  
material4 ,the release of this material 
from strain1 and its movement back      
towards its original state1 is also     
accompanied by a similar transformation1
 in which the stored strain energy is1  
in turn1 converted into the heat form4  
,the whole operation is similar in      
nature to that frictional process       
already described 7,sec4 #af7 in the    
case of a body moving on a rough        
horizontal table4 ,the final action of  

the heat energy thus communicated to the
 fluid is to expand the latter against  
the internal cohesive or viscous forces 
of its material1 and also against the   
gravitative attraction of the earth4    
,now when the pendulum moves in air1 the
 action taking place is of the same     
nature1 and the final result is the same
 as in oil4 ,it differs merely in       
degree4 ,compared with the oil1 the air 
masses offer only a slight resistance to
 the motion1 and thus only an           
exceedingly small part of the pendulum's
 energy is transmitted to them4 ,the    
pendulum1 however1 does set the         
surrounding air masses in motion1 and by
 a process similar in nature to that in 
the oil1 a modicum of the energy of the 
falling pendulum is converted into heat1
 and thence by the expansion of the air 
into energy of position4 ,in the        
downward motion from rest1 the first    
stage of the process is a transformation
 peculiar to the pendulum itself1       
namely1 energy of position into energy  

of motion4 ,the transmission to the     
fluid is a necessary secondary result4  
,it is important to note that this      
transmission is carried out in virtue of
 the actual movement of the material of 
the pendulum1 and that the energy       
transmitted is in reality mechanical or 
work energy 7,sec4 #ca74 ,this          
mechanical or work energy1 then actually
 leaves or is transmitted from the      
pendulum system1 and is finally absorbed
 by the surrounding air masses in the   
form of energy of position4  ,considered
 as a whole1 there is evidently no      
aspect of reversibility about the       
operation1 but it will be shown later   
7,sec4 #cb7 that with the introduction  
of other factors1 it really forms part  
of a comprehensive cyclical process4 ,it
 is itself a process of direct          
transmission4 ,it is carried out by     
means of a definite material machine    
which embodies certain energy           
transformations1 and which is strictly  
limited in the extent of its operations 

by certain physical factors4 ,these     
factors are the cohesive properties of  
the moving pendulum mass and the fluid  
with which it is in contact 7,sec4 #af74
 ,it is clear1 also1 that in an         
apparatus in which the motion is carried
 out in oil1 any heat energy            
communicated to the oil would inevitably
 find its way to the surrounding air    
masses by conduction and radiation4 ,the
 final result of the pendulum's motion  
would therefore be the same in this case
 as in air2 the heat energy would1 when 
communicated to the surrounding air     
masses1 cause an expansive movement     
against gravity4   #cj4 ,energy         
,machines and ,energy ,transmission     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e  ,the various  
examples of energy transformation and   
transmission which have been discussed  
above 7,secs4 #ac-bg7 will suffice to   
show the essential differences which    
exist in the general nature of these    
operations4 ,but they will also serve   
another purpose in portraying one       

striking and important aspect in which  
these processes are alike4 ,from the    
descriptions given above1 it will be    
amply evident that each of these        
processes1 whether transformation or    
transmission1 requires as an essential  
condition of its existence1 the presence
 of a certain arrangement of matter2    
each process is of necessity associated 
with and embodied in a definite physical
 and material machine4 ,this material   
machine is simply the contrivance       
provided by ,nature to carry out the    
energy operation4 ,it differs in        
construction and in character for       
different processes1 but in every case  
there must be in its constitution some  
material substance1 perceptible to the  
senses1 with which the acting energy is 
intimately associated4 ,this fact is but
 another aspect of the principle that   
energy is never found dissociated from  
matter 7,sec4 #aa74 ,in every energy    
machine1 the material substance or      
operator forms the real foundation or   

basis of the energy operation1 but      
besides this there are also always other
 phenomena of a secondary nature1       
totally different1 it may be1 from the  
main energy operation1 which combine    
with that operation to constitute the   
whole4 ,these subsidiary energy         
phenomena are the incepting factors1 and
 are most important characteristics4    
,their presence is just as essential in 
energy transmission as it is in energy  
transformation4 ,as demonstrated above1 
they are usually associated with the    
physical peculiarities of the basis or  
acting material of the energy machine1  
and their peculiar function is to       
conserve or limit the extent of its     
action4 ,a complete description of these
 phenomena1 in any given case1 would not
 only be equivalent to a complete       
description of the machine1 but would   
also serve as a complete description of 
the main energy operation embodied in   
that machine4 ,sometimes1 however1 the  
description of the machine is a matter  

of extreme difficulty1 and may be1 in   
fact1 impossible owing to the lack of a 
full knowledge of the intimate phenomena
 concerned4 ,an illustrative example of 
this is provided by the familiar        
phenomenon of heat radiation4 ,take the 
case of two isolated solid bodies ,a and
 ,b 7,fig4 #e7 in close proximity on the
 earth's surface4 ,if the body ,a at a  
high temperature be sufficiently near to
 ,b at a lower temperature1 a           
transmission of energy takes place from 
,a to ,b4 ,this transmission is usually 
attributed to radiation1 but1 after all1
 the use of the term radiation is merely
 a descriptive device which hides our   
ignorance of the operation4 ,it is known
 that a transmission takes place1 but   
the intimate phenomena are not known1   
and1 accordingly1 it is impossible to   
describe the machine or mechanism by    
which it is carried out4 ,from general  
considerations1 however1 it appears that
 the material basis of this machine is  
to be found in the air medium which     

surrounds the two bodies4 ,experiment   
shows1 indeed1 that if this intervening 
material medium of air be even partially
 withdrawn or removed1 the transmission 
is immensely reduced in amount4 ,in     
fact1 this latter phenomenon is largely 
taken advantage of in the so-called     
vacuum flasks or other devices to       
maintain bodies at a temperature either 
above or below that of the external     
surrounding bodies4 ,the device adopted 
is1 simply1 as far as practicable to    
withdraw all material connection between
 the body which it is desired to isolate
 thermally and its surroundings4 ,but it
 is clearly impossible to isolate       
completely any terrestrial body in this 
way4 ,there must be some material       
connection remaining4 ,as already       
pointed out 7,sec4 #e71 we have no      
experimental experience of really       
separate bodies or of an absolute       
vacuum4 ,it is to be noted that any     
vacuous space which we can              
experimentally arrange does not even    

approximately reproduce the conditions  
of true separation prevailing in        
interplanetary space4 ,any arrangement  
of separate bodies which might thus be  
contrived is necessarily entirely       
surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial   
material which1 in virtue of its        
stressed condition1 constitutes an      
energy machine of the same nature as    
those already described 7,sec4 #ba74    
,even although the air could be         
absolutely exhausted from a vessel1 it  
is still quite impossible to enclose any
 body permanently within that vessel    
without some material connection between
 the body and the enclosing walls4 ,if  
for example1 as shown in ,fig4 #f1 ,,cc 
represents a spherical vessel1          
completely exhausted1 and having two    
bodies1 ,a and ,b at different          
temperatures1 in its interior1 it is    
obvious that if these bodies are to     
maintain continuously their relative    
positions of separation1 each must be   
united by some material connection to   

the containing vessel4 ,but when such a 
connection is made1 say as shown at ,d  
and ,e 7,fig4 #g71 it is clear that ,a  
and ,b are no longer separate bodies in 
the fullest sense of the word1 but are  
now in direct communication with one    
another through the supports at ,d and  
,e and the enclosing sides of the vessel
 ,,cc4 ,the practicable conditions are  
thus far from those of separate bodies  
in a complete vacuum4 ,it would seem1   
indeed1 to be beyond human experimental 
contrivance to reproduce such conditions
 in their entirety4 ,so far as these    
conditions can be achieved1 however1 and
 judging solely by the experimental     
results already attained with respect to
 the effect of exhaustion on radiation1 
it may be quite justly averred that1 if 
the conditions portrayed in ,fig4 #f    
could be realised1 no transmission of   
energy would take place between two     
bodies1 such as ,a and ,b1 completely   
isolated from one another in a vacuous  
space4 ,it appears1 in fact1 to be a    

quite reasonable and logical deduction  
from the experimental evidence that the 
energy operation of transmission of heat
 from one body to another by radiation  
is dependent on the existence between   
these bodies of a real and material     
substance which forms in some way 7at   
present unknown7 the transmitting medium
 or machine4 ,the difficulty which      
arises in the description of this       
machine is due1 as already explained    
above1 simply to lack of knowledge of   
the intimate phenomena of its working4  
,many other energy processes will1 no   
doubt1 occur to the reader in which the 
same difficulty presents itself1 due to 
the same cause4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#f  ,in dealing with terrestrial        
operations generally1 and particularly  
when transmission processes are under   
consideration1 it is important to       
recognise clearly the precise nature of 
these operations and the peculiar       
conditions under which they work4 ,it   
must ever be borne in mind that the     

terrestrial atmosphere is a real and    
material portion of the earth's mass1   
extending from the surface for a limited
 distance into space 7,sec4 #cd71 and   
whatever its condition of gaseous       
tenuity1 completely occupying that space
 in the manner peculiar to a gaseous    
substance4 ,when the whole mass of the  
planet1 including the atmosphere1 is    
taken into consideration1 it is readily 
seen that all energy operations embodied
 in or associated with material on what 
is usually termed the surface of the    
earth take place at the bottom of this  
atmospheric ocean1 or1 in reality1 in   
the interior of the earth4 ,the         
operations themselves are the           
manifestations of purely terrestrial    
energy1 which1 by its working in various
 devices or arrangements of material is 
being transformed and transmitted from  
one form of matter to another4 ,as will 
be fully demonstrated later 7,part      
,,iii471 the nature of the terrestrial  
energy system makes it impossible for   

this energy ever to escape beyond the   
confines of the planetary atmospheric   
envelope4 ,these are briefly the general
 conditions under which the study of    
terrestrial or secondary energy         
operations is of necessity conducted1   
and it is specially important to notice 
these conditions when it is sought to   
apply the results of experimental work  
to the discussion of celestial          
phenomena4 ,it must ever be borne in    
mind that even the direct observation of
 the latter must always be carried out  
through the encircling planetary        
atmospheric material4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #g  ,in this portion of the work 
it is proposed to investigate in the    
light of known phenomena the possibility
 of energy transmission between separate
 masses4 ,as explained above1 the term  
separate is here meant to convey the    
idea of perfect isolation1 and the only 
masses in ,nature which truly satisfy   
this condition are the celestial and    
planetary bodies1 separated as they are 

from one another by interplanetary space
 and in virtue of their energised       
condition 7,sec4 #e74 ,since this state 
of separation cannot be experimentally  
realised under terrestrial conditions1  
it is obvious1 therefore1 that no purely
 terrestrial energy process can be      
advanced either as direct verification  
or direct disproof of a transmission of 
energy between such truly separate      
masses as the celestial bodies4 ,but as 
we are unable to experiment directly on 
these bodies themselves or across       
interplanetary space1 we are forced of  
necessity to rely1 for experimental     
facts and conclusions1 on the           
terrestrial energy phenomena to which   
access is possible4 ,as already         
indicated in the ,general ,statement    
7,sec4 #aa71 the same energy is bestowed
 on all parts of the cosmical system1   
and by the close observation of the     
phenomena of its action in familiar     
operations the truest guidance may be   
obtained as to its general nature and   

working4 ,in such investigations1       
however1 only the actual phenomena of   
the operation are of scientific or      
informative value4 ,there is no gain to 
real knowledge in assuming1 say in the  
examination of the phenomena of magnetic
 attraction between two bodies1 that the
 one is urged towards the other by      
stresses in an intervening ethereal     
medium1 when absolutely no phenomenal   
evidence of the existence of such a     
medium is available4 ,it may be urged   
that the conception of an ethereal      
medium is adapted to the explanation of 
phenomena1 and appears in many instances
 to fulfil this function4 ,but as       
already pointed out 7see ,introduction71
 it is absolutely impossible to explain 
phenomena4 ,so-called explanations must 
ever resolve themselves simply into     
revelations of further phenomena4 ,while
 the value of true working hypotheses   
cannot be denied1 it is surely evident  
that such hypotheses1 unless they embody
 and are under the limitation of        

controlling facts1 are not only useless1
 but1 from the misleading ideas they are
 apt to convey1 may even be dangerous   
factors in the search for truth4 ,now1  
if all speculative ideas or hypotheses  
are banished from the mind1 and reliance
 is placed solely on the evidential     
phenomena of ,nature1 the study of      
terrestrial energy operations leads     
inevitably to certain conclusions on the
 question of energy transmission4 ,in   
the first place1 it must lead to the    
denial of what has been virtually the   
great primary assumption of modern      
science1 namely1 that a mass of material
 at a high temperature isolated in      
interplanetary space would radiate heat 
in all directions through that space4   
,such a conception is unsupported by our
 experimental or real knowledge of      
radiation4 ,the fact that heat radiation
 takes place from a hot to a cold body  
in whatever direction the latter is     
placed relatively to the former1 does   
not justify the assumption that such    

radiation takes place in all directions 
in the absence of a cold body4 ,and     
since there is absolutely no            
manifestation of any real material      
medium occupying interplanetary space1  
no sign of the material agency or       
machine which the results of direct     
experiment have led us to conclude is a 
necessity for the transmission process  
of heat radiation1 the whole conception 
must be regarded as at least doubtful4  
,even with our limited knowledge of     
radiation1 the doctrine of heat         
radiation through space stands          
controverted by ordinary experimental   
experience4 ,with this doctrine must    
fall also the allied conception of the  
transmission of heat energy by radiation
 from the sun to the earth4 ,it is to be
 noted1 however1 that only the actual   
transmission of heat energy from the sun
 to the earth is inadmissible2 the      
heating effect of the sun on the earth1 
which leads to the manifestation of     
terrestrial energy in the heat form1 is 

a continuous operation readily explained
 in the light of the general principle  
of energy transformation already        
enunciated 7,sec4 #d74 ,with respect to 
other possible processes of energy      
transmission between the sun and the    
earth or across interplanetary space1   
the same general methods of experimental
 investigation must be adopted4 ,the    
transmission of energy under terrestrial
 conditions is carried out in many      
different forms and by the working of a 
large variety of machines4 ,in every    
case1 no matter in what form the energy 
is transmitted1 that energy must be     
associated with a definite arrangement  
of terrestrial material constituting the
 transmission machine4 ,each energy     
process of transmission has its own     
peculiar conditions of operation which  
must be completely satisfied4 ,by the   
study of these conditions and the allied
 phenomena it is possible to gain a real
 knowledge of the precise circumstances 
in which the process can be carried out4

 ,now let us apply the knowledge of     
transmission processes thus gained to   
the general celestial case1 to the      
question of energy transmission between 
truly separate bodies1 and particularly 
to the case of the sun and the earth4   
,do we find in this case any evidence of
 the presence of a machine for energy   
transmission8 ,it is impossible1 within 
the limits of this work1 to deal with   
all the forms in which energy may be    
transmitted1 but let the reader review  
any instance of the transmission of     
energy under terrestrial conditions1 or 
any energy-transmission machine with    
which he is familiar1 noting            
particularly the essential phenomena and
 material arrangements1 and let him ask 
himself if there is any evidence of the 
existence of a machine of this kind in  
operation between the sun and the earth 
or across interplanetary space4 ,we     
venture to assert that the answer must  
be in the negative4 ,the real knowledge 
of terrestrial processes of energy      

transmission at command1 on which all   
our deductions must be based1 does not  
warrant in the slightest degree the     
assumption of transmission between the  
sun and the earth4 ,the most plausible  
of such assumptions is undoubtedly that 
which attributes transmission to heat   
radiation1 but this has already been    
shown to be at variance with well-known 
facts4 ,the question of light           
transmission will offer no difficulty if
 it be borne in mind that light is not  
in itself a form of energy1 but merely a
 manifestation of energy as an incepting
 influence1 which like other incepting  
influences of a similar nature1 can     
readily operate across either vacuous or
 interplanetary space 7,sec4 #ai74  ,on 
these general considerations1 deduced   
from the observation of terrestrial     
phenomena1 allied with the conception of
 energy machines and separate masses in 
space1 the author bases one aspect of   
the denial of energy transmission       
between celestial masses4 ,the doctrine 

of transmission cannot be sustained in  
the face of legitimate scientific       
deduction from natural phenomena4 ,in   
the later parts of this work1 and from a
 more positive point of view1 the denial
 is completely justified4   #ca4        
,identification of ,forms of ,energy    
,before leaving the question of energy  
transmission1 there are still one or two
 interesting features to be considered4 
,although energy1 as already pointed    
out1 is ever found associated with      
matter1 this association does not1 in   
itself1 always furnish phenomena        
sufficient to distinguish the precise   
phase in which the energy may be        
manifested4 ,some means must1 as a rule1
 be adopted to isolate and identify the 
various forms4  ,now one of the most    
interesting and important features of   
the process of energy transmission is   
that it usually provides the direct     
means for the identification of the     
acting energy4 ,energy1 as it were1 in  
movement1 in the process of             

transmission1 is capable of being       
detected in its different phases and    
recognised in each4 ,the phenomena of   
transmission usually serve1 either      
directly or indirectly1 to portray the  
precise nature of the energy taking part
 in the operation4 ,one of the most     
direct instances of this is provided by 
the transmission of heat energy4 ,for   
illustrative purposes1 let it be assumed
 that a body ,a1 possessed of heat      
energy to an exceedingly high degree1 is
 isolated within a spherical glass      
vessel ,,cc1 somewhat as already shown  
7,fig4 #f74 ,if it be assumed that the  
space within ,,cc is a perfect vacuum1  
and that no material connection exists  
between the walls of the vessel and the 
body ,a1 the latter is completely       
isolated1 and no means whatever are     
available for the detection of its heat 
qualities 7,sec4 #cj74 ,it may seem     
that1 if the temperature of the body ,a 
were sufficiently high1 its energy state
 might be detected1 and in a manner     

estimated1 by its effect on the eye or  
by its luminous properties1 but we take 
this opportunity of pointing out that   
luminosity is not invariably associated 
with high temperature4 ,on the contrary1
 many bodies are found in ,nature1 both 
animate and inanimate1 which are        
luminous and affect the eye at          
comparatively low temperatures4 ,how    
then is the energy condition of the body
 to be definitely ascertained8 ,the only
 means whereby it is possible to        
identify the energy of the body is by   
transmitting a portion of that energy to
 some other body and observing the      
resultant phenomena4 ,suppose1 then1    
another body1 such as ,b 7,fig4 #f71 at 
a lower temperature than ,a1 is brought 
into contact with ,a1 so that a         
transmission of heat energy ensues      
between the two4 ,the phenomena which   
would result in such circumstances will 
be exactly as already described in the  
case of the transmission of energy      
through a solid 7,sec4 #bg74 ,amongst   

other manifestations it would be        
noticeable that the material of ,b was  
expanded against its inherent cohesive  
forces4 ,now if1 instead of a spherical 
body such as ,b1 a mercurial thermometer
 were utilised1 the phenomena would be  
of precisely the same nature4 ,a        
definite portion of the heat energy     
would be transmitted to the thermometer1
 and would produce expansion of the     
contained fluid4 ,by the amount of this 
expansion it becomes possible to        
estimate the energy condition and       
properties of the body ,a1 relative to  
its surroundings or to certain generally
 accepted standard conditions4          
,thermometric measurement is1 in fact1  
merely the employment of a process of   
energy transmission for the purpose of  
identifying and estimating the          
heat-energy properties of material      
substances4  ,in everyday life1 rough   
ideas of heat energy are constantly     
being obtained by the aid of the senses4
 ,this method is1 however1 only another 

aspect of transmission1 for it will be  
clear that the sensations of heat and   
cold are1 in themselves1 but the        
evidence of the transformation of heat  
energy to or from the body4  ,the       
process of energy transmission by a     
flexible band or cord 7,sec4 #bh7 also  
provides evidence leading to the        
identification of the peculiar form of  
energy which is being transmitted4 ,at  
first sight1 it would appear as if this 
energy were simply energy of motion or  
kinetic energy4 ,a little reflection1   
however1 on the general conditions of   
the process must dispel this idea1 for  
it is clear that the precise nature of  
the energy transmitted has no real      
connection with the kinetic properties  
of the system4 ,the latter1 truly1      
influence the rate of transmission and  
impose certain limits1 but evidently1 if
 the pull in the band increases without 
any increase in its velocity1 the actual
 amount of energy transmitted by the    
system would increase without altering  

in any respect the kinetic properties4  
,it becomes necessary1 then1 to         
distinguish clearly the energy inherent 
to1 or as it were1 latent in the system1
 from the energy actually transmitted by
 the system1 to recognise the difference
 between the energy transmitted by      
moving material and the energy of that  
material4 ,in this special instance1 to 
identify the form of energy transmitted 
it must of necessity be associated with 
the peculiar phenomena of transmission4 
,now the energy is evidently transmitted
 by the movement of the connecting belt 
or band4 ,before any transmission can   
take place1 however1 a certain amount of
 energy must be stored in the moving    
system1 partly as cohesion or strain    
energy and partly as energy of motion or
 kinetic energy4 ,it is this preliminary
 storage of energy which1 in reality1   
constitutes the transmission machine1   
and for a given rate of transmission1   
the energy thus stored will be constant 
in value4 ,it is obtained at the expense

 of the applied energy1 and1 neglecting 
certain minor processes1 will be        
returned 7or transmitted7 in its        
entirety when the moving system once    
more comes to rest4 ,this stored energy1
 in fact1 works in a reversible process4
 ,but when the transmission machine is  
once constituted1 the energy transmitted
 is then that energy which is being     
continually applied at the spindle ,a   
7,fig4 #d7 and as continually withdrawn 
at the spindle ,b4 ,it must be          
emphasised that the energy thus         
transmitted is absolutely different from
 the kinetic or other energy associated 
with the moving material of the system4 
,it is the function of this energised   
material of the band to transmit the    
energy from ,a to ,b1 but this is the   
only relationship which the transmitted 
energy bears to the material4 ,the      
energy thus transmitted by the moving   
material we term mechanical or work     
energy4 ,we may thus define mechanical  
or work energy as that form of energy   

transmitted by matter in motion4  ,the  
idea of work is usually associated with 
that of a force acting through a certain
 distance4 ,the form of energy referred 
to above as work energy is1 in the same 
way1 always associated with the idea of 
a thrust or of a pressure of some kind  
acting on moving material4 ,work energy 
thus bears two aspects1 which really    
correspond to the familiar product of   
pressure and volume4 ,both aspects are  
manifested in transmission4 ,since work 
energy is invariably transmitted by     
matter in motion1 every machine for its 
transmission must possess energy of     
motion as one of its essential features4
 ,as shown above 7see also ,sec4 #bh71  
this energy of motion is really obtained
 at the expense of the originally       
applied work energy1 and as it remains  
unaltered in value during the progress  
of a uniform transmission1 it may be    
regarded as simply transformed work     
energy1 stored or latent in the system1 
which will be returned in its entirety  

and in its original form at the         
termination of the operation4 ,the      
energy stored against cohesion or other 
forces may be regarded in the same way4 
,it is really the manifestation of the  
pressure or thrust aspect of the work   
energy1 just as the kinetic energy is   
the manifestation of the translational  
or velocity aspect4  ,our definition of 
work energy given above enables us to   
recognise its operation in many familiar
 processes4 ,take the case of a gas at  
high pressure confined in a cylinder    
behind a movable piston4 ,we can at once
 say that the energy of the gas is work 
energy because this energy may quite    
clearly be transmitted from the gas by  
the movement of the piston4 ,if the     
latter form part of a steam-engine      
mechanism of rods and crank1 the energy 
may1 by the motion of this mechanism1 be
 transmitted to the crank shaft1 and    
there utilised4 ,this is eminently a    
case in which energy is transmitted by  
matter in motion4 ,the moving material  

comprises the piston1 piston-rod1 and   
connecting-rod1 which are1 one and all1 
endowed with both cohesive and kinetic  
energy qualities1 and form together the 
transmission machine4 ,so long as the   
piston is at rest only one aspect of the
 work energy of the gas is apparent1    
namely1 the pressure aspect1 but        
immediately motion and transmission take
 place1 both aspects are presented4 ,the
 work energy of the gas1 obtained in the
 boiler by a transformation of heat     
energy is thus1 by matter in motion1    
transmitted and made available at the   
crank shaft4 ,the shaft itself is also  
commonly utilised for the further       
transmission of the work energy applied4
 ,by the application of the energy at   
the crank1 it is thrown into a state of 
strain1 and at the same time is endowed 
with kinetic energy of rotation4 ,it    
thus forms a machine for transmission1  
and the work energy applied at one point
 of the shaft may be withdrawn at       
another point more remote4 ,the         

transmission is1 in reality1 effected by
 the movement of the material of the    
shaft4 ,so long as the shaft is         
stationary1 it is clear that no actual  
transmission can be carried out1 no     
matter how great may be the strain      
imposed4 ,if our engine mechanism were1 
by a change in design1 adapted to the   
use of a liquid substance as the working
 material instead of a gas1 it is clear 
that no change would be effected in the 
general conditions4 ,the energy of a    
liquid under pressure is again simply   
work energy1 and it would be transmitted
 by the moving mechanism in precisely   
the same manner4  ,from the foregoing1  
it will now be evident to the reader    
that the energy originally applied to   
the primary mass 7,sec4 #c7 of our      
cosmical system must be work energy4 ,it
 is this form of energy also which is   
inherent to each unit of the planetary  
system associated with the primary4 ,in 
this system it is of course presented   
outwardly in the two phases of kinetic  

energy and energy of strain or          
distortion4 ,it is apparent1 also1 that 
work energy could be transmitted from   
the primary mass to the separate planets
 on one condition only1 that is1 by the 
movement of some material substance     
connecting each planet to the primary4  
,since no such material connection is   
admitted1 the transmission of work      
energy is clearly impossible4   #cb4    
,complete ,secondary ,cyclical          
,operation  ,a general outline of the   
conditions of working and the           
relationships of secondary processes has
 already been given in the ,general     
,statement 7,sec4 #i71 but it still     
remains to indicate1 in a broad way1 the
 general methods whereby these          
operations are linked to the atmospheric
 machine4 ,in the example of the simple 
pendulum1 it has been pointed out that  
the energy processes giving rise to     
heating at the bearing surfaces and     
transmission of energy to the air masses
 are not directly reversible processes1 

but really form part of a more extensive
 cyclical operation1 in itself1 however1
 complete and self-contained4 ,this     
cyclical operation may be regarded as a 
typical illustration of the manner in   
which separate processes of energy      
transmission or transformation1 such as 
already described1 are combined or      
united in a continuous chain forming a  
complete whole4  ,it has been assumed1  
in all the experiments with the         
pendulum1 that the operating energy is  
initially communicated from an outside  
source1 say the hand of the observer4   
,this energy is1 therefore1 the acting  
energy which must be traced through all 
its various phases from its origin to   
its final destination4 ,at the outset1  
it may be pointed out that this energy1 
applied by hand1 is obtained from the   
original rotational energy of the earth 
by certain definite energy processes4   
,due to the influences of various       
incepting fields which emanate from the 
sun 7,secs4 #ag-ai71 a portion of the   

earth's rotational energy is transformed
 into that form of plant energy which is
 stored in plant tissue1 and which1 by  
the physico-chemical processes of       
digestion1 is in turn converted into    
heat and the various other forms of     
energy associated with the human frame4 
,this1 then1 is the origin of the energy
 communicated to the pendulum4 ,its     
progress through that machine has       
already been described in detail 7,secs4
 #ba-bf74 ,the transformation of energy 
of motion to energy of position which   
takes place is in itself a reversible   
process and may in the meantime be      
neglected4 ,but the final result of the 
operations1 at the bearing surfaces and 
in the air masses surrounding the moving
 pendulum1 was shown to be1 in each     
case1 that heat energy was communicated 
to these air masses4 ,the effect of the 
heat energy thus impressed1 is to cause 
the expansion of the air and its        
elevation from the surface of the earth 
in the lines or field of the gravitative

 attraction1 so that this heat energy is
 transformed1 and resides in the air    
masses as energy of position4 ,the      
energy then1 originally drawn from the  
rotational energy of the earth1 has thus
 worked through the pendulum machine1   
and is now stored in the air masses in  
this form of energy of position4 ,to    
make the process complete and cyclical  
this energy must now1 therefore1 be     
returned once more to the earth in its  
original rotational form4 ,this final   
step is carried out in the atmospheric  
machine 7,sec4 #da74 ,in this machine1  
therefore1 the energy of position       
possessed by the air masses is1 in their
 descent to their original positions at 
lower levels1 transformed once more into
 axial or rotational energy4 ,in this   
fashion this series of secondary        
processes1 involving both               
transformations and transmissions1 is   
linked to the great atmospheric process4
 ,the amount of energy which operates   
through the particular chain of         

processes we have described is1 of      
course1 exceedingly small1 but in this  
or a similar manner all secondary       
operations1 great or small1 are         
associated with the atmospheric machine4
 ,instances could readily be multiplied1
 but a little reflection will show how  
almost every energy operation1 no matter
 what may be its nature1 whether        
physical1 chemical1 or electrical1 leads
 inevitably to the communication of     
energy to the atmospheric air masses and
 to their consequent upraisal4  ,it is  
interesting to note the infallible      
tendency of energy to revert to its     
original form of axial energy1 or energy
 of rotation1 by means of the air       
machine4 ,all ,nature bears witness to  
this tendency1 and although the path of 
energy through the maze of terrestrial  
transformation often appears tortuous   
and uncertain1 its final destination is 
always sure4 ,the secondary operations  
are thus interlinked into one great     
whole by their association in the       

terrestrial energy cycle4 ,many of these
 secondary operations are of short      
duration2 others extend over long       
periods of time4 ,energy1 in some cases1
 appears to slumber1 as in the coal     
seams of the earth1 until an appropriate
 stimulus is applied1 when it enters    
into active operation once more4 ,the   
cyclical operations are thus long or    
short according to the duration of their
 constituent secondary energy processes4
 ,but the balance of ,nature is ever    
preserved4 ,axial energy1 transformed by
 the working of one cyclical process1 is
 being as continuously returned by the  
simultaneous operation of others4       
,,part ,,iii     ,,terrestrial          
,,conditions   #cc4 ,gaseous ,expansion 
,before proceeding to the general       
description of the atmospheric machine  
7,sec4 #aj71 it is desirable to consider
 one or two features of gaseous reaction
 which have a somewhat important bearing
 on its working4 ,let it be assumed that
 a mass of gaseous material is confined 

within the lower portion of a narrow    
tube ,,abcd 7,fig4 #h7 assumed to be    
thermally non-conducting2 the upper     
portion of the tube is in free          
communication with the atmosphere4 ,the 
gas within the tube is assumed to be    
isolated from the atmosphere by a       
movable piston ,,ef1 free to move       
vertically in the tube1 and for the     
purpose of illustration1 assumed also   
frictionless and weightless4 ,with these
 assumptions1 the pressure on the       
confined gas will simply be that due to 
the atmosphere4 ,if heat energy be now  
applied to the gas1 its temperature will
 rise and expansion will ensue4 ,this   
expansion will be carried out at        
constant atmospheric pressure2 the      
gaseous material1 as it expands1 must   
lift with it the whole of the           
superimposed atmospheric column against 
the downward attractive force of the    
earth's gravitation on that column4     
,work is thus done by the expanding gas1
 and in consequence of this work done1 a

 definite quantity of atmospheric       
material gains energy of position or    
potential energy relative to the earth's
 surface4 ,at the same time1 the rise of
 temperature of the gas will indicate an
 accession of heat energy to its mass4  
,these familiar phenomena of expansion  
under constant pressure serve to        
illustrate the important fact that1 when
 heat energy is applied to a gaseous    
mass1 it really manifests itself therein
 in two aspects1 namely1 heat energy and
 work energy4 ,the increment of heat    
energy is indicated by the increase in  
temperature1 the increment of work      
energy by the increase in pressure4 ,in 
the example just quoted1 however1 there 
is no increase in pressure1 because the 
work energy1 as rapidly as it is applied
 to the gas1 is transformed or worked   
down in displacing the atmospheric      
column resting on the upper side of the 
moving piston4 ,the energy applied1 in  
the form of heat from the outside       
source1 has in reality been introduced  

into a definite energy machine1 a       
machine in this case adapted for the    
complete transformation of work energy  
into energy of position4 ,as already    
indicated1 when the expansive movement  
is completed1 the volume and temperature
 of the gaseous mass are both increased 
but the pressure remains unaltered4     
,while the increase in temperature is   
the measure and index of a definite     
increase in the heat energy of the gas1 
it is important to note that1 so far as 
its work energy is concerned1 the gas is
 finally in precisely the same condition
 as at the commencement of the          
operation4 ,work energy has been1 by the
 working of this energy machine1 as it  
were passed through the gaseous mass    
into the surrounding atmosphere4 ,the   
pressure of the gas is the true index of
 its work energy properties4 ,so long as
 the pressure remains unaltered1 the    
inherent work energy of the material    
remains absolutely unaffected4 ,a brief 
consideration of the nature of work     

energy as already portrayed 7,sec4 #ca7 
will make this clear4 ,work energy has  
been defined as that form of energy     
transmitted by matter in motion1 and it 
is clear that pressure is the essential 
factor in any transmission of this      
nature4 ,temperature has no direct      
bearing on it whatever4 ,it is common   
knowledge1 however1 that in the         
application of heat energy to a gaseous 
substance1 the two aspects of pressure  
and temperature cannot be really        
dissociated4 ,they are mutually         
dependent4 ,any increment of heat energy
 to the gas is accompanied by an        
increment of work energy1 and vice      
versa4 ,the precise mode of action of   
the work energy will1 of course1 depend 
on the general circumstances of the     
energy machine in which it operates4 ,in
 the case just considered the work      
energy does not finally reside in the   
gaseous mass itself1 but1 by the working
 of the machine1 is communicated to the 
atmosphere4 ,if1 on the other hand1 heat

 energy were applied in the same fashion
 to a mass of gas in a completely       
enclosed vessel1 that is to say at      
constant volume instead of at constant  
pressure1 the general phenomena are     
merely altered in degree according to   
the change in the precise nature of the 
energy machine4 ,in the former case1 the
 nature of the energy machine was such  
that the work energy communicated was   
expended in its entirety against        
gravitation4 ,under what is usually     
termed constant volume conditions1 only 
a portion of the total work energy      
communicated is transformed1 and the    
transformation of this portion is       
carried out1 not against gravitation1   
but against the cohesive forces of the  
material of the enclosing vessel which  
restrains the expansion4 ,no matter how 
great may be the elastic properties of  
this material1 it will be distorted1    
more or less1 by the application of work
 energy4 ,this distortional movement is 
the external evidence of the energy     

process of transformation4 ,energy is   
stored in the material against the      
forces of cohesion 7,sec4 #ae74 ,but the
 energy thus stored is only a small     
proportion of the total work energy     
which accrues to the gas in the heating 
process4 ,the remainder is stored in the
 gas itself1 and the evidence of such   
storage is found simply in the increase 
of pressure4 ,different energy machines 
thus offer different facilities for the 
transformation or the storage of the    
applied energy4 ,in every case where the
 work energy applied has no opportunity 
of expending itself1 its presence will  
be indicated by an increase in the      
pressure or work function of the gas4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h  ,the          
principles which underlie the above     
phenomena can readily be applied to     
other cases of gaseous expansion4 ,it is
 a matter of common experience that if a
 given mass of gaseous material be      
introduced into a vessel which has been 
exhausted by an air-pump or other device

 for the production of a vacuum1 the    
whole space within the vessel is        
instantly permeated by the gas1 which   
will expand until its volume is         
precisely that of the containing vessel4
 ,further phenomena of the operation are
 that the expanding gas suffers a       
decrease in temperature and pressure    
corresponding to the degree or ratio of 
the expansion4 ,before the expansive    
process took place the gaseous mass1 as 
indicated by its initial temperature and
 pressure1 is endowed with a definite   
quantity of energy in the form of heat  
and work energy4 ,after expansion1 these
 quantities are diminished1 as indicated
 by its final and lower temperature and 
pressure4 ,the operation of expansion   
has thus involved an expenditure of     
energy4 ,this expenditure takes place in
 virtue of the movement of the gaseous  
material 7,sec4 #d74 ,it is obvious that
 if the volume of the whole is to be    
increased1 each portion of the expanding
 gas requires to move relatively to the 

remainder4 ,this movement is carried out
 in the lines of the earth's gravitative
 attraction1 and to a certain extent    
over the surface of the containing      
vessel4 ,in some respects1 it thus      
corresponds simply to the movement of a 
body over the earth's surface 7,sec4    
#af74 ,it is also carried out against   
the viscous or frictional forces        
existing throughout the gaseous material
 itself 7,sec4 #bi74 ,assuming no influx
 of energy from without1 the energy     
expended in the movement of the gaseous 
material must be obtained at the expense
 of the inherent heat and work energy of
 the gas1 and these two functions will  
decrease simultaneously4 ,the heat and  
work energy of the gas or its inherent  
energy is thus taken to provide the     
energy necessary for the expansive      
movement4 ,this energy1 however1 does   
not leave the gas1 but still resides    
therein in a form akin to that of energy
 of position or separation4 ,it will be 
clear also1 that the reverse operation  

cannot1 in this case1 be carried out2   
the gas cannot move back to its original
 volume in the same fashion as it       
expanded into the vacuum1 so that the   
energy utilised in this way for         
separation cannot be directly returned4 
,the expansion of the gas has been      
assumed above to take place into a      
vacuous space1 but a little             
consideration will show that this       
condition cannot be properly or even    
approximately fulfilled under ordinary  
experimental conditions4 ,the smallest  
quantity of gas introduced into the     
exhausted vessel will at once completely
 fill the vacuous space1 and1 on this   
account1 the whole expansion of the gas 
does not in reality take place in vacuo 
at all4 ,to study the action of the gas 
under the latter conditions1 it is      
necessary to look on the operation of   
expansion in a more general way1 which  
might be presented as follows4   #cd4   
,gravitational ,equilibrium of ,gases   
,consider a planetary body1 in general  

nature similar to the earth1 but1 unlike
 the earth1 possessing no atmosphere    
whatever4 ,the space surrounding such a 
celestial mass may then be considered as
 a perfect vacuum4 ,now let it be       
further assumed that in virtue of some  
change in the conditions1 a portion of  
the material of the planetary mass is   
volatilised and a mass of gas thereby   
liberated over its surface4 ,the gas is 
assumed to correspond in temperature to 
that portion of the planet's surface    
with which it is in contact4 ,it is     
clear that1 in the circumstances1 the   
gas1 in virtue of its elastic and       
energetic properties1 will expand in all
 directions4 ,it will completely envelop
 the planet1 and it will also move      
radially outwards into space4 ,in these 
respects1 its expansion will correspond 
to that of a gas introduced into a      
vacuous space of unlimited extent4  ,the
 question now arises as to the nature of
 the action of the gaseous substance in 
these circumstances4 ,it is clear that  

the radial or outward movement of the   
gas from the planetary surface is made  
directly against the gravitative        
attraction of the planet on the gaseous 
mass4 ,in other words1 matter or        
material is being moved in the lines or 
field of this gravitative force4 ,this  
movement1 accordingly1 will be          
productive of an energy transformation  
7,sec4 #d74 ,in its initial or surface  
condition each portion of the gaseous   
mass is possessed of a perfectly        
definite amount of energy indicated by  
and dependent on that condition4 ,as it 
moves upwards from the surface1 it does 
work against gravity in the raising of  
its own mass4 ,but as the mass is thus  
raised1 it is gaining energy of position
 7,sec4 #bj71 and as it has absolutely  
no communication with any external      
source of energy in its ascent1 the     
energy of position thus gained can only 
be obtained at the expense of its       
initial inherent heat and work energy4  
,the operation is1 in fact1 a simple    

transformation of this inherent energy  
into energy of position1 a              
transformation in which gravity is the  
incepting agency4 ,the external evidence
 of transformation will be a fall in    
temperature of the material4 ,since the 
action is exactly similar for all       
ascending particles1 it is evident that 
as the altitude of the gaseous mass     
increases the temperature will          
correspondingly diminish4 ,this         
diminution will proceed so long as the  
gaseous particles continue to ascend1   
and until an elevation is finally       
attained at which their inherent energy 
is entirely converted into energy of    
position4 ,the expansion of the gas1 and
 the associated transformation of       
energy1 thus leads to the erection of a 
gaseous column in space1 the temperature
 of which steadily diminishes from the  
base to the summit4 ,at the latter      
elevation1 the inherent energy of the   
gaseous particles which attain to it is 
completely transformed or worked out    

against gravity in the ascent2 the      
energy possessed by the gas at this     
elevation is1 therefore1 entirely energy
 of position2 the energy properties of  
heat and work have entirely vanished1   
and the temperature will1 therefore1 at 
this elevation1 be absolute zero4 ,it is
 important to note also that in the     
building of such a column or gaseous    
spherical envelope round the planet1 the
 total energy of any gaseous particle of
 that column will remain unchanged      
throughout the process4 ,no matter where
 the particle may be situated in the    
column1 its total energy must always be 
expressed by its heat and work energy   
properties together with its energy of  
position4 ,this sum is always a constant
 quantity4 ,for if the particle descends
 from a higher to a lower altitude1 its 
total energy is still unchanged1 because
 a definite transformation of its energy
 of position takes place corresponding  
to its fall1 and this transformed energy
 duly appears in its original form of   

heat and work energy in accordance with 
the decreased altitude of the particle4 
,since the temperature of the column    
remains unchanged at the base surface   
and only decreases in the ascent1 it is 
clear that the entire heat and work     
energy of the originally liberated      
gaseous mass is not expended in the     
movement against gravity4 ,every gaseous
 particle--excepting those on the       
absolute outer surface of the gaseous   
envelope--has still the property of     
temperature4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 
that in the constitution of the column1 
only a portion of the total original    
heat and work energy of the gaseous     
substance is transformed into energy of 
position4  ,the space into which the gas
 expands has been referred to as        
unlimited in extent4 ,but although in   
one sense it may be correctly described 
thus1 yet in another1 and perhaps in a  
truer sense1 the space is very strictly 
limited4 ,it is true there is no        
enclosing vessel or bounding surface1   

but nevertheless the expansion of the   
gas is restrained in two ways or limited
 by two factors4 ,the position of the   
bounding surface of the spherical       
gaseous envelope depends1 in the first  
place1 on the original energy of the gas
 as deduced from its initial temperature
 and its other physical properties1 and 
secondly on the value of the gravitative
 attraction exerted on the gas by the   
planetary body4 ,looking at the first   
factor1 it is obvious that since the    
gaseous mass initially possesses only a 
limited amount of energy1 and since only
 a certain portion of this energy is    
really available for the transformation1
 the whole process is thereby limited in
 extent4 ,the complete transformation   
and disappearance of that available     
portion of the gaseous energy in the    
process of erection of the atmospheric  
column will correspond to a definite and
 limited increase of energy of position 
of gaseous material4 ,since the energy  
of position is thus restricted in its   

totality1 and the mass of material for  
elevation is constant1 the height of the
 column or the boundary of expansion of 
the gas is likewise rigidly defined4 ,in
 this fashion1 the energy properties of 
the gaseous material limit the expansive
 process4  ,looking at the operation    
from another standpoint1 it is clear    
that the maximum height of the spherical
 gaseous envelope must also be dependent
 on the resistance against which the    
upward movement of the gas is carried   
out1 that is1 on the value of the       
gravitative attraction4 ,the expenditure
 of energy in the ascent varies directly
 as the opposing force2 if this force be
 increased the ultimate height must     
decrease1 and vice versa4 ,each particle
 might be regarded as moving in the     
ascent against the action of an         
invisible spring1 stretching it so that 
with increase of altitude more and more 
of the energy of the particle is        
transformed or stored in the spring in  
the extension4 ,when the particle       

descends to its original position1 the  
operation is reversed2 the spring is now
 contracting1 and yielding up the stored
 energy to the particle in the          
contraction4 ,the action of the spring  
would here be merely that of an         
apparatus for the storage and return of 
energy4 ,in the case of the gaseous     
mass1 we conceive the action of         
gravitation to be exactly analogous to  
that of a spring offering an            
approximately constant resistance to    
extension4 7,the value of gravity is    
assumed approximately constant1 and     
independent of the particle's           
displacement47 ,the energy stored or    
transformed in the ascension against    
gravity is returned on the descent in a 
precisely similar fashion4 ,the         
operation is a completely reversible    
one4 ,the range of motion of the gaseous
 mass or the ultimate height of the     
gaseous column will thus depend on the  
value of the opposing attractive force  
controlling the motion or1 in other     

words1 on the value of gravity4 ,this   
value is of course defined by the       
relative mass of the planet 7,sec4 #bj74
  ,it is evident that the spherical     
envelope which would thus enwrap the    
planetary mass possesses certain        
peculiar properties which are not       
associated with gaseous masses under    
ordinary experimental conditions4 ,it by
 no means corresponds to any ordinary   
body of gaseous material1 having a      
homogeneous constitution and a precise  
and determinate pressure and temperature
 throughout4 ,on the contrary1 its      
properties are somewhat complex4        
,throughout the gaseous envelope the    
physical condition of the substance is  
continually changing with change of     
altitude4 ,the extremes are found at the
 inner and outer bounding surfaces4 ,at 
any given level1 the gaseous pressure is
 simply the result of the attractive    
action of gravitation on the mass of    
gaseous material above that level--or1  
more simply1 to the weight of material  

above that level4 ,there is1 of course1 
a certain decrease in the value of the  
gravitative attraction with increase of 
altitude1 but within the limits of      
atmospheric height obtained by ordinary 
gaseous substances 7,sec4 #cf7 this     
decrease may be neglected1 and the      
weight of unit mass of the material     
assumed constant at different levels4   
,increase of atmospheric altitude is    
thus accompanied by decrease in         
atmospheric pressure4 ,but decrease in  
pressure must be accompanied by a       
corresponding decrease in density of the
 gas1 so that1 if uniform temperature   
were for the time being assumed1 it     
would be necessary at the higher levels 
to rise through a greater distance to   
experience the same decrease in pressure
 than at the lower levels4 ,in fact1    
given uniform conditions of temperature1
 if different altitudes were taken in   
arithmetical progression the respective 
pressures and densities would diminish  
in geometrical progression4 ,but we have

 seen that the energy conditions        
absolutely preclude the condition of    
uniformity of temperature1 and          
accordingly1 the decreasing pressure and
 density must be counteracted to some   
extent at least by the decreasing       
temperature4 ,the conditions are        
somewhat complex2 but the general effect
 of the decreasing temperature factor   
would seem to be by increasing the      
density to cause the available gaseous  
energy to be completely worked down at a
 somewhat lower level than otherwise1   
and thus to lessen to some degree the   
height of the gaseous envelope4  ,it is 
to be noted that a gaseous column or    
atmosphere of this nature would be in a 
state of complete equilibrium under the 
action of the gravitative               
attraction--provided there were no      
external disturbing influences4 ,the    
peculiar feature of such a column is    
that the total energy of unit mass of   
its material1 wherever that mass may be 
situated1 is a constant quantity4 ,in   

virtue of this property1 the equilibrium
 of the column might be termed neutral  
or statical equilibrium4 ,the gas may   
then be described as in the neutral or  
statical condition4 ,this statical      
condition of equilibrium of a gas is of 
course a purely hypothetical one4 ,it   
has been described in order to introduce
 certain ideas which are essential to   
the discussion of energy changes and    
reactions of gases in the lines of      
gravitational forces4 ,these reactions  
will now be dealt with4   #ce4 ,total   
,energy of ,gaseous ,substances  ,since 
the maximum height of a planetary       
atmosphere is dependent on the total    
energy of the gaseous substance or      
substances of which it is composed1 it  
becomes necessary1 in determining this  
height1 to estimate this total energy4  
,this1 however1 is a matter of some     
difficulty4 ,by the total energy is here
 meant the entire energy possessed by   
the substance1 that energy which it     
would yield up in cooling from its given

 condition down to absolute zero of     
temperature4 ,on examination of the     
recorded properties of the various      
gaseous substances familiar to us1 it   
will be found that in no single instance
 are the particulars available for      
anything more than an exceedingly rough 
estimate of this total energy4 ,each    
substance1 in proceeding from the       
gaseous condition towards absolute zero1
 passes through many physical phases4   
,in most cases1 there is a lack of      
experimental phenomena or data of any   
kind relating to certain of these       
phases2 the necessary information on    
certain points1 such as the values and  
variations of latent and specific heats 
and other physical quantities1 is1 in   
the meantime1 not accessible4           
,experimental research in regions of low
 temperature may be said to be in its   
infancy1 and the properties of matter in
 these regions are accordingly more or  
less unknown4 ,the researches of        
,mendeleef and others tend to show1     

also1 that the comparatively simple laws
 successfully applied to gases under    
normal conditions are entirely departed 
from at very low temperatures4 ,in view 
of these facts1 it is necessary1 in     
attempting to estimate1 by ordinary     
methods1 the total energy of any        
substance1 to bear in mind that the     
quantity finally obtained may only be a 
rough approximation to the true value4  
,these approximations1 however1 although
 of little value as precise             
measurements1 may be of very great      
importance for certain general          
comparative purposes4  ,keeping in view 
these general considerations1 it is now 
proposed to estimate1 under ordinary    
terrestrial atmospheric conditions1 the 
total energy properties of the three    
gaseous substances1 oxygen1 nitrogen1   
and aqueous vapour4 ,the information    
relative to the energy calculation which
 is in the meantime available is shown  
below in tabular form4 ,as far as       
possible all the heat and other energy  

properties of each substance as it cools
 to absolute zero have been taken into  
account4  ,table of ,properties         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------      ,i      
,,ii       ,,iii       ,,iv          ,v 
,,vi      ,,vii                         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,specific      ,evaporation             
,heat at ,temperature of ,liquid        
,approximate  ,latent  ,vapour      ,gas
    ,constant    at ,atmospheric        
,latent ,heat ,heat of,pressure4        
,pressure4      ,pressure4      of ,gas 
#ej deg4 ,f4,liquid4  #ej deg4 ,f4      
deg4,f4   deg4,f4 7,abs47               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,oxygen    
#j4bage     -#bif       #afd        #ajj
       444     444                      
----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,nitrogen  
#j4bdch     -#cbj       #ada        #ajj
       444     444                      

----------------------------------------
--------------------------   ,aqueous   
,vapour   #j4d         #bab       #fgc  
#ajhj       #add    #j4agf              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------  ,since no   
reliable data can be obtained with      
regard to the values and variations of  
specific heats at extremely low         
temperatures1 they are assumed for the  
purpose of our calculation to be in each
 case that of the gas1 and to be        
constant under all conditions4 ,latent  
heats are utilised in every case when   
available4  ,with these reservations1   
the total energy1 referred to absolute  
zero1 of one pound of oxygen gas at     
normal temperature of #ej deg4 ,f4 or   
#eaa deg4 ,f4 7,abs47 will be           
approximately       7#eaa x #j4bage7    
#ajj  #baa ,thermal ,units ,fahrenheit4 
,this in work units is roughly          
equivalent to       #baa x #ggh         
#afd1jjj ft4 lbs4  ,adopting the same   
method with nitrogen gas1 its energy at 

the same initial temperature will be1   
per unit mass1       #agd1fjj ft4 lbs4  
,there is thus a somewhat close         
resemblance1 not only in the general    
temperature conditions but also in the  
energy conditions1 of the two gases     
oxygen and nitrogen4  ,it will be       
readily seen1 however1 that under the   
same conditions the energy state of     
aqueous vapour differs very considerably
 from either1 for by the same method as 
before the energy per pound of aqueous  
vapour is equal to       7#eaa x #j4d7  
#ajhj  #add x #ggh  #a1aaa1jjj ft4 lbs4 
,under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric 
conditions1 the energy of aqueous vapour
 per unit mass is thus nearly seven     
times as great as that of either oxygen 
or nitrogen gas4 ,it is to be observed1 
also1 that three-fourths of this energy 
of the vapour under the given conditions
 is present in the form of latent energy
 of the gas1 or what we have already    
termed work energy4  ,the values of the 
various temperatures and other physical 

features1 which we have included in the 
,table of ,properties above1 and which  
will be utilised throughout this        
discussion1 are merely those in everyday
 use in scientific work4 ,they form     
simply the accessible information on the
 respective materials4 ,they are the    
records of phenomena1 and on these      
phenomena are based our energy          
calculations4 ,further research may     
reveal the true values of other factors 
which up to the present we have been    
forced to assume1 and so lead to more   
accurate computation of the energy in   
each case4 ,such investigation1 however1
 is unlikely to affect in any way the   
general object of this part of the work1
 which is simply to portray in an       
approximate manner the relative energy  
properties of the three gaseous         
substances under certain assumed        
conditions4   #cf4 ,comparative         
,altitudes of ,planetary ,atmospheres   
,the total energy of equal masses of the
 gases oxygen1 nitrogen1 and aqueous    

vapour1 as estimated by the method      
above1 are respectively in the ratios   
#a 3 #a4jf 3 #f4h  ,referring back once 
more to the phenomena described with    
reference to the gravitational          
equilibrium of a gas1 let it be assumed 
that the gaseous substance liberated on 
the surface of the planetary body is    
oxygen1 and that the planetary body     
itself is of approximately the same     
constitution and dimensions as the      
earth4 ,the oxygen gas thus liberated   
will expand against gravity1 and envelop
 the planet in the manner already       
described 7,sec4 #cd74 ,now the total   
energy of a mass of one pound of oxygen 
has been estimated under certain        
assumptions 7,sec4 #ce7 to be #afd1jjj  
ft4 lbs4 ,the value of the gravitative  
attraction of the planet on this mass is
 the same as under ordinary terrestrial 
conditions1 so that if the entire energy
 of one pound of the gas were utilised  
in raising itself against gravity1 the  
height through which this mass would be 

raised1 and at which the material would 
attain the level of absolute zero of    
temperature1 assuming gravity constant  
with increasing altitude1 would be      
simply #afd1jjj ft4 or approximately #ca
 miles4 ,the whole energy would not1 of 
course1 be expended in the expansive    
movement2 only the outermost surface    
material of the planetary gaseous       
envelope attains to absolute zero of    
temperature4 ,in estimating the altitude
 of this surface1 however1 the precise  
mass of gaseous substance assumed for   
the purpose of calculation is of little 
or no importance4 ,whatever may be the  
value of the mass assumed1 its total    
energy and the gravitative attraction of
 the planetary body on it are both alike
 entirely and directly dependent on that
 mass value4 ,it is therefore clear that
 no matter how the mass under           
consideration be diminished1 the height 
at which its energy would be completely 
worked down1 and at which its           
temperature would be absolute zero1 is  

the same1 namely #ca miles4 ,at the     
planet's surface1 the total energy of an
 infinitesimally small portion of the   
gaseous mass is proportional to that    
mass4 ,this amount of energy is1        
however1 all that is available for      
transformation against gravitation in   
the ascent4 ,but at the same time1 the  
gravitative force on the particle1 that 
force which resists its upward movement1
 is proportionately small corresponding 
to the small mass1 so that the particle 
will in reality require to rise to the  
same altitude of #ca miles in order to  
completely transform its energy and     
attain absolute zero of temperature4    
,when the expansive process is          
completed1 the outer surface of the     
spherical gaseous envelope surrounding  
the planet is then formed of matter in  
this condition of absolute zero2 this   
height of #ca miles is then the altitude
 or depth of the statical atmospheric   
column at a point on the planetary      
surface where the temperature is #ej    

deg4 ,f4  ,it is to be particularly     
noted that this height is entirely      
dependent on the gravitation1           
temperature1 and energy conditions      
assumed4  ,with respect1 also1 to the   
assumption made above1 of constant      
gravitation with increasing altitude1   
the variation in the value of gravity   
within the height limits in which the   
gas operates is so slight1 that the     
energy of the expanding substance is    
completely worked down long before the  
variation appreciably affects the       
estimated altitude of absolute zero4 ,in
 any case1 bearing in mind the          
approximate nature of the estimate of   
the energy of the gases themselves1 the 
variation of gravity is evidently a     
factor of little moment in our scheme of
 comparison4  ,knowing the maximum      
height to be #ca miles1 a uniform       
temperature gradient from the planetary 
surface to the outermost surface of the 
atmospheric material may be readily     
calculated4 ,in the case of oxygen1 the 

decrease of temperature with altitude   
will be at the rate of #af deg4 ,f4 per 
mile1 or #a deg4 ,f4 per #ccj ft4  ,if  
the planetary atmosphere were composed  
of nitrogen instead of oxygen1 the      
height of the statical atmospheric      
column under the given conditions would 
then be approximately       #ca x #a4jf 
#cc miles1  and the gradient of         
temperature #ae4e deg4 ,f4 per mile4    
,in the case of aqueous vapour1 which is
 possessed of much more powerful energy 
properties than either oxygen or        
nitrogen1 the height of the statical    
column1 to correspond to the energy of  
the material1 is no less than #baj miles
 and the temperature gradient only #b4d 
deg4 ,f4 per mile4  ,each of the gases1 
then1 if separately associated with the 
planetary body1 would form an atmosphere
 around it depending in height on the   
peculiar energy properties of the gas4  
,a point to be observed is that the     
actual or total mass of any gas thus    
liberated at the planet's surface has no

 bearing on the ultimate height of the  
atmosphere which it would constitute4   
,when the expansive motion is completed1
 the density properties of the          
atmosphere would of course depend on the
 initial mass of gas liberated1 but for 
any given value of gravity it is the    
energy properties of the gas per unit   
mass1 or what might be termed its       
specific energy properties1 which really
 determine the height of its atmosphere4
   #cg4 ,reactions of ,composite        
,atmosphere  ,it is now possible to deal
 with the case in which not only one gas
 but several gases are initially        
liberated on the planetary surface4     
,since the gases are different1 then at 
the given surface temperature of the    
planet they possess different amounts of
 heat energy1 and for each gas          
considered statically1 the              
temperature-altitude gradient will be   
different from any of the others4 ,the  
limiting height of the gaseous column   
for each gas1 considered separately1    

will also depend on the total energy of 
that gas per unit mass1 at the surface  
temperature4 ,but it is evident that in 
a composite atmosphere1 the separate    
statical conditions of several gases    
could not be maintained4 ,in such a     
mixture1 separate temperature-altitude  
gradients would be impossible4 ,absolute
 zero of temperature could clearly not  
be attained at more than one altitude1  
and it is evident that the              
temperature-altitude gradient of the    
mixture must1 in some way1 settle down  
to a definite value1 and absolute zero  
of temperature must occur at some       
determinate height4 ,this can only be   
brought about by energy exchanges and   
reactions between the atmospheric       
constituents4 ,when these reactions have
 taken place1 the atmosphere as a whole 
will have attained a condition analogous
 to that of statical equilibrium 7,sec4 
#cd74 ,each of its constituents1        
however1 will have decidedly departed   
from this latter condition4 ,in the     

course of the mutual energy reactions1  
some will lose a portion of their       
energy4 ,others will gain at their      
expense4 ,all are in equilibrium as     
constituents of the composite           
atmosphere1 but none approach the       
condition of statical equilibrium       
peculiar to an atmosphere composed of   
one gas only 7,sec4 #ce74 ,the precise  
energy operations which would thus take 
place in any composite atmosphere would 
of course depend in nature and extent on
 the physical properties of the reacting
 constituents4 ,if the latter were      
closely alike in general properties1 the
 energy changes are likely to be small4 
,a strong divergence in energy          
properties will give rise to more       
powerful reactions4 ,a concrete instance
 will perhaps make this more clear4 ,let
 it be assumed in the first place that  
the planetary atmosphere is composed of 
the two gases oxygen and nitrogen4 ,from
 previous considerations1 it will be    
clear that the natural decrease of      

temperature of nitrogen gas with        
increase of altitude is1 in virtue of   
its slightly superior energy qualities1 
correspondingly slower than that of     
oxygen4 ,the approximate rates are #ae4e
 deg4 ,f4 and #af deg4 ,f4 per mile     
respectively4 ,the tendency of the      
nitrogen is therefore to transmit a     
portion of its energy to the oxygen4    
,such a transmission1 however1 would    
increase the height of the oxygen column
 and correspondingly decrease the height
 of the nitrogen4 ,when the balance is  
finally obtained1 the height of the     
atmospheric column does not correspond  
to the energy properties of either gas1 
but to those of the combination4 ,in the
 case of these two materials1 oxygen and
 nitrogen1 the energy reactions         
necessary to produce the condition of   
equilibrium are comparatively small in  
magnitude on account of the somewhat    
close resemblance in the energy         
properties of the two substances4 ,on   
this account1 therefore1 the two gases  

might readily be assumed to behave as   
one gas composing the planetary         
atmosphere4  ,but what1 then1 will be   
the effect of introducing a quantity of 
aqueous vapour into an atmosphere this  
nature8 ,the general phenomena will be  
of the same order as before1 but of much
 greater magnitude4 ,from the           
approximate figures obtained 7,secs4    
#ce1 #cf71 the inherent energy of       
aqueous vapour per unit mass is seen to 
be1 under the same conditions1          
enormously greater than that of the     
other two gases4 ,in statical           
equilibrium 7,sec4 #cd71 the altitude of
 the gaseous column formed by aqueous   
vapour is almost seven times as great as
 that of the oxygen or nitrogen with    
which1 in the composite atmosphere1 it  
would be intermixed4 ,in the given      
circumstances1 then1 aqueous vapour     
would be forced by these conditions to  
give up a very large portion of its     
energy to the other atmospheric         
constituents4 ,the latter would thus be 

still further expanded against gravity2 
the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a
 loss of energy equivalent to the work  
transmitted from it4 ,it is therefore   
clear that in a composite atmosphere    
formed in the manner described1 any gas 
possessed of energy properties superior 
to the other constituents is forced of  
necessity to transmit energy to these   
constituents4 ,this phenomenon is merely
 a consequence of the natural           
disposition of the atmospheric gaseous  
substances towards a condition of       
equilibrium with more or less uniform   
temperature gradation4 ,the greater the 
inherent energy qualities of any one    
constituent relative to the others1 the 
greater will be the quantity of energy  
transmitted from it in this way4   #ch4 
,description of ,terrestrial ,case      
,bearing in mind the general            
considerations which have been advanced 
above with respect to planetary         
atmospheres1 it is now possible to place
 before the reader a general descriptive

 outline of the circumstances and       
operation of an atmospheric machine in  
actual working4 ,the machine to be      
described is that associated with the   
earth4  ,in the earth is found an       
example of a planetary body of          
spheroidal form pursuing a clearly      
defined orbit in space and at the same  
time rotating with absolutely uniform   
velocity about a central axis within    
itself4 ,the structural details of its  
surface and the general distribution of 
material thereon will be more or less   
familiar to the reader1 and it is not1  
therefore1 proposed to dwell on these   
features here4 ,attention may be drawn1 
however1 to the fact that a very large  
proportion of the surface of the earth  
is a liquid surface4 ,of all the        
material familiar to us from terrestrial
 experience there is none which enters  
into the composition of the earth's     
crust in so large a proportion as water4
 ,in the free state1 or in combination  
with other material1 water is found     

everywhere4 ,in the liquid condition it 
is widely distributed4 ,although the    
liquid or sea surface of the planet     
extends over a large part of the whole1 
the real water surface1 that is1 the    
wetted surface1 if we except perhaps a  
few desert regions1 may be said to      
comprise practically the entire surface 
area of the planet4 ,and water is found 
not only on the earth's crust but       
throughout the gaseous atmospheric      
envelope4 ,the researches of modern     
chemistry have revealed the fact that   
the atmosphere by which the earth is    
surrounded is not only a mixture of     
gases1 but an exceedingly complex       
mixture4 ,the relative proportions of   
the rarer gases present are1 however1   
exceedingly small1 and their properties 
correspondingly obscure4 ,taken broadly1
 the atmosphere may be said to be       
composed of air and water 7in the form  
of aqueous vapour7 in varying           
proportion4 ,the former constituent     
exists as a mixture of oxygen and       

nitrogen gases of fairly constant       
proportion over the entire surface of   
the globe4 ,the latter is present in    
varying amount at different points      
according to local conditions4 ,this    
mixture of gaseous substances1 forming  
the terrestrial atmosphere1 resides on  
the surface of the planet and forms1 as 
already described 7,sec4 #cd71 a column 
or envelope completely surrounding it2  
the quantity of gaseous material thus   
heaped up on the planetary surface is   
such that it exerts almost uniformly    
over that surface the ordinary          
atmospheric pressure of approximately   
#ad4g lb4 per sq4 inch4 ,it is          
advisable1 also1 at this stage to point 
out and emphasise the fact that the     
planetary atmosphere must be regarded as
 essentially a material portion of the  
planet itself4 ,although the atmosphere 
forms a movable shell or envelope1 and  
is composed of purely gaseous material1 
it will still partake of the same       
complete orbital and rotatory axial     

motion as the solid core1 and will also 
be subjected to the same external and   
internal influences of gravitation4     
,such are the general planetary         
conditions4 ,let us now turn to the     
particular phenomena of axial           
revolution4  ,in virtue of the unvarying
 rotatory movement of the planetary mass
 in the lines of the various incepting  
fields of its primary the sun1          
transformations of the axial or         
mechanical energy of the planet will be 
in continuous operation 7,secs4 #ag-ai74
 ,although the gaseous atmospheric      
envelope of the planet partakes of this 
general rotatory motion under the       
influence of the incepting fields1 the  
latter have apparently no action upon   
it4 ,the sun's influence penetrates1 as 
it were1 the atmospheric veil1 and      
operating on the solid and liquid       
material below1 provokes the numerous   
and varied transformations of planetary 
energy which constitute planetary       
phenomena4 ,at the equatorial band1     

where the velocity or axial energy      
properties of the surface material is   
greatest1 these effects of              
transformation will naturally be most   
pronounced4 ,in the polar regions of low
 velocity they will be less evident4    
,one of the most important of these     
transforming effects may be termed the  
heating action of the primary on the    
planet--a process which takes place in  
greater or less degree over the entire  
planetary surface1 and which is the     
result of the direct transformation of  
axial energy into the form of heat      
7,sec4 #ah74 ,in virtue of this heat    
transformation1 or heating effect of the
 sun1 the temperature of material on the
 earth's surface is maintained in       
varying values from regions of high     
velocity to those of low--from equator  
to poles--according to latitude or      
according to the displacement of that   
material1 in rotation1 from the central 
axis4 ,owing to the irregular           
distribution of matter on the earth's   

surface1 and other causes to be referred
 to later1 this variation in temperature
 is not necessarily uniform with the    
latitude4 ,this heating effect of the   
sun on the earth will provoke on the    
terrestrial surface all the familiar    
secondary processes 7,sec4 #i7          
associated with the heating of material4
 ,most of these processes1 in           
combination with the operations of      
radiation and conduction1 will lead     
either directly or indirectly to the    
communication of energy to the          
atmospheric masses 7,sec4 #bg74         
,closely associated with the heat       
transformation1 there is also in        
operation another energy process of     
great importance4 ,this process is one  
of evaporative transformation4          
,reference has already been made to the 
vast extent of the liquid or wetted     
surface of the earth4 ,this surface     
forms the seat of evaporation1 and the  
action of the sun's incepting influence 
on the liquid of this surface is to     

induce a direct transformation of the   
earth's axial or mechanical energy into 
the elastic energy of a gas1 or in other
 words into the form of work energy4 ,by
 this process1 therefore1 water is      
converted into aqueous vapour4          
,immediately the substance attains the  
latter or gaseous state it becomes      
unaffected by1 or transparent to1 the   
incepting influence of the sun 7,sec4   
#ah74 ,and the action of evaporation is 
not restricted in locality to the       
earth's surface only4 ,it may proceed   
throughout the atmosphere4 ,wherever    
condensation of aqueous vapour takes    
place and water particles are thereby   
suspended in the atmosphere1 these      
particles are immediately susceptible to
 the sun's incepting field1 and if the  
conditions are otherwise favourable1    
re-evaporation will at once ensue4 ,like
 the ordinary heating action also1 that 
of transformation will take place with  
greater intensity in equatorial than in 
polar regions4 ,these two planetary     

secondary processes1 of heating and     
evaporation1 are of vital importance to 
the working of the atmospheric machine4 
,but1 as already pointed out elsewhere  
7,secs4 #aj1 #cb71 every secondary      
operation is in some fashion linked to  
that machine4 ,other incepting          
influences1 such as light1 are in action
 on the planet1 and produce             
transformations peculiar to themselves4 
,these1 in the meantime1 will not be    
considered except to point out that in  
every case the energy active in them is 
the axial energy of the earth itself    
operating under the direct incepting    
influence of the sun4 ,the general      
conditions of planetary revolution and  
transformation are thus intimately      
associated with the operation of the    
atmospheric machine4 ,in this machine is
 embodied a huge energy process1 in the 
working of which the axial energy of the
 earth passes through a series of energy
 changes which1 in combination1 form a  
complete cyclical operation4 ,in their  

perhaps most natural sequence these     
processes are as follows3--  #a4 ,the   
direct transformation of terrestrial    
axial energy into the work energy of    
aqueous vapour4  #b4 ,the direct        
transmission of the work energy of      
aqueous vapour to the general           
atmospheric masses1 and the consequent  
elevation of these masses from the      
earth's surface against gravity4  #c4   
,the descent of the atmospheric air     
masses in their movement towards regions
 of low velocity1 and the return in the 
descent of the initially transformed    
axial energy to its original form4  ,the
 first of these processes is carried out
 through the medium of the aqueous      
material of the earth4 ,it is simply the
 evaporative transformation referred to 
above4 ,by that evaporative process a   
portion of the energy of motion or axial
 energy of the earth is directly        
communicated or passed into the aqueous 
material4 ,its form1 in that material1  
is that of work energy1 or the elastic  

energy of aqueous vapour1 and1 as       
already pointed out1 this process of    
evaporative transformation reaches its  
greatest intensity in equatorial or     
regions of highest velocity4 ,in these  
regions also1 in virtue of the working  
of the heat process already referred to 
above1 the temperature conditions are   
eminently favourable to the presence of 
large quantities of aqueous vapour4 ,the
 tension or pressure of the vapour1     
which really depends on the quantity of 
gaseous material present1 is directly   
proportional to the temperature1 so that
 in equatorial regions not only is the  
general action of transformation in the 
aqueous material most intense1 but the  
surrounding temperature conditions in   
these regions are such as to favour the 
continuous presence of large quantities 
of the aqueous vapour which is the      
direct product of the action of         
transformation4 ,the equatorial regions 
of the earth1 or the regions of high    
velocity1 are thus eminently adapted1 by

 the natural conditions1 to be the seat 
of the most powerful transformations of 
axial energy4 ,as already pointed out1  
however1 these same transformations take
 place over the entire terrestrial      
surface in varying degree and intensity 
according to the locality and the       
temperature or other conditions which   
may prevail4 ,now this transformation of
 axial energy which takes place through 
the medium of the evaporative process is
 a continuous operation4 ,the energy    
involved1 which passes into the aqueous 
vapour1 augmented by the energy of other
 secondary processes 7,sec4 #cb71 is the
 energy which is applied to the         
atmospheric air masses in the second    
stage of the working of the atmospheric 
machine4 ,before proceeding to the      
description of this stage1 however1 it  
is absolutely necessary to point out    
certain very important facts with       
reference to the energy condition of the
 atmospheric constituents in the        
peculiar circumstances of their normal  

working4   #ci4 ,relative ,physical     
,conditions of ,atmospheric             
,constituents  ,it will be evident that 
no matter where the evaporation of the  
aqueous material takes place1 it must be
 carried out at the temperature         
corresponding to that location1 and     
since the aqueous vapour itself is not  
superheated in any way 7being           
transparent to the sun's influence71 the
 axial energy transformed and the work  
energy stored in the material per unit  
mass1 will be simply equivalent to the  
latent heat of aqueous vapour under the 
temperature conditions which prevail4   
,in virtue of the relatively high value 
of this latent heat under ordinary      
conditions1 the gas may be regarded as  
comparatively a very highly energised   
substance4 ,it is clear1 however1 that  
since the gas is working at its precise 
temperature of evaporation1 the maximum 
amount of energy which it can possibly  
yield up at that temperature is simply  
this latent heat of evaporation1 and if 

this energy be by any means withdrawn1  
either in whole or in part1 then        
condensation corresponding to the energy
 withdrawal will at once ensue4 ,the    
condition of the aqueous vapour is in   
fact that of a true vapour1 or of a     
gaseous substance operating exactly at  
its evaporation temperature1 and unable 
to sustain even the slightest           
abstraction of energy without an        
equivalent condensation4 ,no matter in  
what manner the abstraction is carried  
out1 whether by the direct transmission 
of heat from the substance or by the    
expansion of the gas against gravity1   
the result is the same2 part of the     
gaseous material returns to the liquid  
form4  ,in the case of the more stable  
or permanent constituents of the        
atmosphere1 namely oxygen and nitrogen1 
their physical conditions are entirely  
different from that of the aqueous      
vapour4 ,examination of the ,table of   
,properties 7p4 #acc7 shows that the    
evaporation temperatures of these two   

substances under ordinary conditions of 
atmospheric pressure are as low as -#bif
 deg4 ,f4 and -#cbj deg4 ,f4            
respectively4 ,at an ordinary           
atmospheric temperature of say #ej deg4 
,f4 these two gases are therefore so far
 above their evaporation temperature    
that they are in the condition of what  
might be termed true gaseous substances4
 ,although only at a temperature of #ej 
deg4 ,f41 they may be truly described as
 highly superheated gases1 and it is    
evident that they may be readily cooled 
from #ej deg4 ,f4 through wide ranges of
 temperature1 without any danger of     
their condensation or liquefaction4     
,oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present 
in their physical condition and         
qualities a strong contrast to aqueous  
vapour1 and it is this difference in    
properties1 particularly the difference 
in evaporation temperatures1 which is of
 vital importance in the working of the 
atmospheric machine4 ,the two gases     
oxygen and nitrogen are1 however1 so    

closely alike in their general energy   
properties that1 in the meantime1 the   
atmospheric mixture of the two can be   
conveniently assumed to act simply as   
one gas--atmospheric air4  ,from these  
considerations of the ordinary          
atmospheric physical properties of air  
and aqueous vapour it may be readily    
seen how each is eminently adapted to   
its function in the atmospheric process4
 ,the peculiar duty of the aqueous      
vapour is the absorption and            
transmission of energy4 ,its relatively 
enormous capacity for energy1 the high  
value of its latent heat at all ordinary
 atmospheric temperatures1 and the fact 
that it must always operate precisely at
 its evaporation temperature makes it   
admirably suited for both functions4    
,thus1 in virtue of its peculiar        
physical properties1 it forms an        
admirable agent for the storage of      
energy and for its transmission to the  
surrounding air masses4 ,the low        
temperature of evaporation of these air 

masses ensures their permanency in the  
gaseous state4 ,they are thus perfectly 
adapted for expansive and other         
movements1 for the conversion of their  
energy against gravity into energy of   
position1 or for any other reactions    
involving temperature change without    
condensation4   #dj4 ,transmission of   
,energy from ,aqueous ,vapour to ,air   
,masses  ,the working of the second or  
transmission stage of the atmospheric   
machine involves certain energy         
operations in which gravitation is the  
incepting factor or agency4 ,let it be  
assumed that a mass of aqueous vapour   
liberated at its surface of evaporation 
by the transformation of axial energy1  
expands upwards against the gravitative 
attraction of the earth 7,secs4 #cd1    
#ch74 ,as the gaseous particles ascend  
and thus gain energy of position1 they  
do work against gravity4 ,this work is  
done at the expense of their latent     
energy4 ,since the aqueous material is  
always working precisely at its         

evaporation temperature1 this gain in   
energy of position and consequent loss  
of latent energy will be accompanied by 
an equivalent condensation and          
conversion of the rising vapour into the
 liquid form4 ,this condensation will   
thus be the direct evidence and measure 
of work done by the aqueous material    
against the gravitational forces1 and   
the energy expended or worked down in   
this way may now1 accordingly1 be       
regarded as stored in the condensed     
material or liquid particles in virtue  
of their new and exalted position above 
the earth's surface4 ,it is this energy 
which is finally transmitted to the     
atmospheric air masses4 ,the            
transmission process is carried out in  
the downward movement of the liquid     
particles4 ,the latter1 in their exalted
 positions1 are at a low temperature    
corresponding to that position--that is1
 corresponding to the work done--and    
provided no energy were transmitted from
 them to the surrounding air masses1    

their temperature would gradually rise  
during the descent by the transformation
 of this energy of position4 ,in fact   
the phenomena of descent1 supposing no  
transmission of energy from the aqueous 
material1 would simply be the reverse of
 the phenomena of ascent4 ,since1       
however1 the energy of position which   
the liquid particles possess is         
transmitted from them to the atmospheric
 masses1 then it follows that this      
natural increase in their temperature   
would not occur in the descent4 ,a new  
order of phenomena would now appear4    
,since the evaporative process is a     
continuous one1 the liquid particles in 
their downward movement must be in      
intimate contact with rising gaseous    
material1 and these liquid particles    
will1 accordingly1 at each stage of the 
descent1 absorb from this rising        
material the whole energy necessary to  
raise their temperature to the values   
corresponding to their decreasing       
elevation4 ,in virtue of this absorption

 of energy then1 from the rising        
material1 these liquid particles are    
enabled to reach the level of           
evaporation at the precise temperature  
of that level4  ,now1 considering the   
process as a whole1 it will be readily  
seen that for any given mass of aqueous 
material thus elevated from and returned
 to a surface of evaporation1 there must
 be a definite expenditure of energy    
7axial energy7 at that surface4 ,since  
the material always regains the surface 
at the precise temperature of           
evaporation1 this expenditure is        
obviously1 in total1 equal to the latent
 heat of aqueous vapour at the surface  
temperature4 ,it may be divided into two
 parts4 ,one portion of the axial       
energy--the transmitted portion--is     
utilised in the elevation of the        
material against gravity2 the remainder 
is expended1 as explained above1 in the 
heating of the returning material4 ,the 
whole operation takes place between two 
precise temperatures1 a higher          

temperature1 which is that of the       
surface of evaporation1 and a lower     
temperature1 corresponding to the work  
done1 and so related to the higher that 
the whole of the energy expended by the 
working aqueous substance--in heating   
the returning material and in           
transmitted work--is exactly equivalent 
to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at 
the high or surface temperature4 ,but1  
as will be demonstrated later1 the whole
 energy transmitted from the aqueous    
material to the air masses is finally   
returned in its entirety as axial       
energy1 and is thus once more made      
available in the evaporative            
transformation process4 ,the energy     
expended in raising the temperature of  
the working material returning to the   
surface of evaporation is obviously     
returned with that material4 ,both      
portions of the original expenditure are
 thus returned to the source in         
different ways4 ,the whole operation is1
 in fact1 completely cyclical in nature2

 we are in reality describing ,nature's 
,perfect ,engine1 which is completely   
reversible and which has the highest    
possible efficiency4#a ,although the    
higher temperature at the evaporation   
surface may vary with different         
locations of that surface1 in every case
 the lower temperature is so related to 
it as to make the total expenditure     
precisely equal to the latent heat at   
that evaporation temperature4#b ,it must
 be borne in mind also1 that all the    
condensed material in the upper strata  
of the atmosphere must not of necessity 
return to the planetary liquid surface4 
,on the contrary1 immediately           
condensation of the aqueous vapour takes
 place and the material leaves the      
gaseous state1 no matter where that     
material is situated1 it is once more   
susceptible to the incepting influences 
of the sun4 ,re-evaporation may thus    
readily take place even at high         
altitudes1 and complete cyclical        
operations may be carried out there4    

,these operations will1 however1 be     
carried out in every case between       
precise temperature limits as explained 
above4      #a ,the conception of       
,nature's ,perfect ,engine was          
originally     arrived at by the author 
from consideration of the phenomena of  
the     steam-engine4 ,the following    
extract from the ,review of his work    
7#ahie7 illustrates the various stages  
which finally lead to that              
conclusion3--      ,my first steps in   
the right direction came about thus4 ,i 
had always     been working with a      
cylinder and piston1 and could make no  
progress1     till at length it struck  
me to make my cylinder high enough to do
     without a piston--that is1 to leave
 the steam to itself and observe     its
 behaviour when left to work against    
gravity4 ,the first thing ,i     had to 
settle was the height of my cylinder4   
,and ,i found1 by     calculation from  
,regnault's experiments that it would   
require to be     very high1 and that   

the exact height would depend on the    
temperature     of the water in the     
boiler which was the bottom of this     
ideal     cylinder4 ,now1 at any        
ordinary temperature the height was so  
great     that it was impossible to get 
known material to support its own       
weight1 and ,i did not wish to use a    
hypothetical substance in the           
construction of this engine4 ,finally1  
the only course left me was to          
abolish the cylinder as ,i had done the 
piston4 ,i then discovered     that the 
engine ,i had been trying to evolve--the
 perfect engine--was     not the ideal  
thing ,i had been groping after but an  
actual reality1     in full working     
order1 its operations taking place every
 day before     my eyes4      ,every    
natural phenomenon fitted in exactly2 it
 had its function to     perform1 and   
the performance of its function         
constituted the     phenomenon4 ,let me 
trace the analogy in a few of its       
details4 ,the     sea corresponds to the

 boiler2 its cylinder surrounds the     
earth2 it     has for its fuel the axial
 energy of the earth2 it has no         
condenser     because it has no exhaust2
 the work it performs is all expended in
     producing the fuel4 ,every         
operation in the cycle is but an energy 
transformation1 and these various       
transformations constitute the          
visible life of the world4      #b ,for 
definite numerical examples see the     
author's ,terrestrial     ,energy       
7,chap4 #a474  ,it will be evident1 from
 a general consideration of this process
 of transmission of energy from the     
aqueous vapour1 that relatively large   
quantities of that vapour are not       
required in the atmosphere for the      
working of the gaseous machine4 ,the    
peculiar property of ready condensation 
of the aqueous vapour makes the         
evaporative process a continuous one1   
and the highly energised aqueous        
material1 although only present in      
comparatively small amount1 contributes 

a continuous flow of energy1 and is thus
 able to steadily convey a very large   
quantity to the atmospheric masses4 ,for
 the same reason1 the greater part of   
the energy transmission from the aqueous
 vapour to the air will take place at   
comparatively low altitudes and between 
reasonably high temperatures4 ,the      
working of any evaporative cycle may    
also be spread over very large          
terrestrial areas by the free movement  
of the acting material4 ,aqueous vapour 
rising in equatorial regions may finally
 return to the earth in the form of     
ice-crystals at the poles4 ,in every    
complete cycle1 however1 the total      
expenditure per unit mass of material   
initially evaporated is always the      
latent heat at the higher or evaporation
 temperature2 in the final or return    
stages of the cycle1 any energy not     
transmitted to the air masses is devoted
 to the heating of returning aqueous    
material4  ,referring again to the      
transmitted energy1 and speaking in the 

broadest fashion1 the function of the   
aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be 
likened to that of the steam in the     
cylinder of a steam-engine4 ,in both    
cases the aqueous material works in a   
definite machine for energy             
transmission4 ,in the case of the       
steam-engine work energy is transmitted 
7,sec4 #ca7 from the steam through the  
medium of the moving piston and rotating
 shaft1 and thence may be further       
diverted to useful purposes4 ,in the    
planetary atmospheric machine the work  
energy of aqueous vapour is likewise    
transmitted by the agency of the moving 
air masses1 not to any external agent1  
but back once more to its original      
source1 which is the planetary axial    
energy4 ,in neither case are we able to 
explain the precise nature of the       
transmission process in its ultimate    
details4 ,we cannot say how the steam   
transmits its work energy by the moving 
piston1 nor yet by what agency the      
elevated particles of aqueous material  

transmit their energy to the air masses4
 ,our knowledge is confined entirely to 
the phenomena1 and1 fortunately1 these  
are in some degree accessible4 ,nature  
presents direct evidence that such      
transmissions actually take place4 ,this
 evidence is to be found1 in both cases1
 in the condensation of the aqueous     
material which sustains the loss of its 
work energy4 ,in the engine cylinder    
condensation takes place due to work    
being transmitted from the steam2 in the
 atmosphere the visible phenomena of    
condensation are likewise the ever      
present evidence of the transmission of 
work energy from the aqueous vapour to  
the air masses4 ,in virtue of this      
accession of energy these masses will1  
accordingly1 be expanded upwards against
 the gravitational attractive forces4   
,this upward movement1 being made       
entirely at the expense of energy       
communicated from the aqueous vapour1 is
 not accompanied by the normal fall of  
temperature due to the expansion of the 

air4 ,planetary axial energy1 originally
 absorbed by the aqueous vapour1 in the 
work form1 has been transferred to the  
air masses in the same form1 and is now1
 after the expansive movement1 resident 
in these masses in the form of energy of
 position4 ,it is the function of the   
atmospheric machine in its final stage  
to return this energy in the original   
axial form4   #da4 ,terrestrial ,energy 
,return  ,let it be assumed that an     
atmospheric mass has been raised1 by the
 transmission of work energy1 to a high 
altitude in the equatorial regions of   
the earth4 ,the assumption of locality  
is made merely for illustrative         
purposes2 it will be evident to the     
reader that the transmission of work    
energy to the atmospheric masses and    
their consequent elevation will be      
continuously proceeding1 more or less1  
over the whole planetary surface4 ,to   
replace the gaseous material thus       
raised1 a corresponding mass of air will
 move at a lower level1 towards the     

equator from the more temperate zones   
adjoining4 ,a circulatory motion will   
thus be set up in the atmosphere4 ,in   
the upper regions the elevated and      
energised air masses move towards the   
poles2 at lower levels the replacing    
masses move towards the equator1 and in 
their passage may be operated on by the 
aqueous vapour which they encounter1    
energised1 and raised to higher levels4 
,the movement will be continuous4 ,in   
their transference from equatorial      
towards polar regions1 the atmospheric  
masses are leaving the surfaces or      
regions of high linear velocity for     
those of low1 and must in consequence   
lose or return in the passage a portion 
of that natural energy of motion which  
they possess in virtue of their high    
linear velocity at the equator4 ,but on 
the other hand1 the replacing air       
masses1 which are travelling in the     
opposite direction from poles to        
equator1 must gain or absorb a          
corresponding amount of energy4 ,the one

 operation thus balances the other1 and 
the planetary equilibrium is in no way  
disturbed4 ,but the atmospheric masses  
which are moving from the equator in the
 polar direction will possess1 in       
addition1 that energy of position which 
has been communicated to them through   
the medium of the aqueous vapour and by 
the working of the second stage of the  
atmospheric machine4 ,these masses1 in  
the circulatory polar movements1 move   
downwards towards the planetary surface4
 ,in this downward motion 7as in the    
downward motion of a pendulum mass      
vibrating under the action of           
gravitation7 the energy of position of  
the air mass is converted once more into
 energy of motion--that is1 into its    
original form of axial energy of        
rotation4 ,in equatorial regions the    
really important energy property of the 
atmospheric mass was indicated by its   
elevation or its energy of position4 ,in
 the descent this energy is thus        
entirely transformed1 and reverts once  

more to its original form of energy of  
rotation4  ,the continual transformation
 of axial energy by the aqueous vapour1 
and the conversion of that energy by the
 upward movement of the air masses into 
energy of position1 naturally tends to  
produce a retardative effect on the     
motion of revolution of the earth4 ,but 
this retardative effect is in turn      
completely neutralised or balanced by   
the corresponding accelerative effect   
due to the equally continuous return as 
the energy of the air masses reverts in 
the continuous polar movement to its    
original axial form4 ,speaking          
generally1 the equatorial regions1 or   
the regions of high velocity1 are the   
location of the most powerful           
transformation or abstraction of axial  
energy by the aqueous vapour4           
,conversely1 the polar or regions of low
 velocity are the location of the       
greatest return of energy by the air4   
,as no energy return is possible unless 
by the transference of the atmospheric  

material from regions of high to regions
 of low velocity1 the configuration of  
the planet in rotation must conform to  
this condition4 ,the spheroidal form of 
the earth is thus exquisitely adapted to
 the working of the atmospheric machine4
 ,as already pointed out1 however1 the  
energising and raising of atmospheric   
masses is by no means confined to       
equatorial regions1 but takes place more
 or less over the whole planetary       
surface4 ,the same applies to the energy
 return4 ,the complete cycle may be     
carried out in temperate zones2 gaseous 
masses1 also1 leaving equatorial regions
 at high altitudes do not necessarily   
reach the polar regions1 but may attain 
their lowest levels at intermediate     
points4 ,neither do such masses         
necessarily proceed to the regions of   
low velocity by purely linear paths4 ,on
 the contrary1 they may and do move both
 towards the poles and downwards by     
circuitous and even vortical paths4 ,in 
fact1 as will be readily apparent1 their

 precise path is of absolutely no moment
 in the consideration of energy return4 
,it might naturally be expected that    
such movements of the atmospheric air   
masses as have been described above     
would give rise to great atmospheric    
disturbance over the earth's surface1   
and that the transfer of gaseous        
material from pole to equator and vice  
versa would be productive of violent    
storms of wind4 ,such storms1 however1  
are phenomena of somewhat rare          
occurrence2 the atmosphere1 on the      
whole1 appears to be in a state of      
comparative tranquillity4 ,this serenity
 of the atmosphere is1 however1 confined
 to the lower strata1 and may be        
ascribed to an inherent stability       
possessed by the air mass as a whole in 
virtue of the accession of energy to it 
at high levels4 ,as already explained1  
the transfer of energy from the vapour  
to the air masses is accomplished at    
comparatively low altitudes1 and when   
this reaction is taking place the whole 

tendency of the energised material is to
 move upwards4 ,in so moving it tends to
 leave behind it the condensed aqueous  
vapour1 and would1 therefore1 rise to   
the higher altitudes in a comparatively 
dry condition4 ,this dryness is         
accentuated by the further loss of      
aqueous vapour by condensation as the   
air moves toward regions of low         
velocity4 ,that air which actually      
attains to the poles will be practically
 dry1 and having also returned1 in its  
entirety1 the surplus energy obtained   
from the aqueous vapour1 it will be in  
this region practically in the condition
 of statical equilibrium of a gas       
against gravity 7,sec4 #cd74 ,but the   
general state of the atmosphere in other
 regions where a transference of energy 
from the aqueous vapour has taken or is 
taking place is very different from this
 condition of natural statical          
equilibrium which is approached at the  
poles4 ,in the lower strata of the      
atmosphere the condition in some cases  

may approximate to the latter1 but in   
the upper strata it is possessed of     
energy qualities quite abnormal to      
statical equilibrium4 ,its condition is 
rather one of the nature of stable      
equilibrium4 ,it is in a condition      
similar to that of a liquid heated in   
its upper layers2 there is absolutely no
 tendency to a direct or vertical       
downward circulation4 ,in statical      
equilibrium1 any downward movement of an
 air mass would simply be accompanied by
 the natural rise in temperature        
corresponding to the transformation of  
its energy of position1 but in this     
condition of stable equilibrium any     
motion downwards must involve1 not only 
this natural temperature rise1 but also 
a return1 either in whole or in part1 of
 the energy absorbed from the aqueous   
vapour4 ,the natural conditions are     
therefore against any direct vertical   
return4 ,these conditions1 however1     
favour in every respect the circulatory 
motion of the highly energised upper air

 masses towards regions of low velocity4
 ,all circumstances combine1 in fact1 to
 confine the more powerfully energised  
and highly mobile air masses to high    
altitudes4 ,in the lower atmosphere1    
owing to the continuous action of the   
aqueous vapour on the air masses moving 
from regions of low to those of high    
velocity1 the circulation tends largely 
to be a vertical one1 so that this      
locality is on the whole preserved in   
comparative tranquillity4 ,it may       
happen1 however1 that owing to changes  
in the distribution of aqueous vapour1  
or other causes1 this natural stability 
of the atmosphere may be disturbed over 
certain regions of the earth's surface4 
,the circumstances will then favour a   
direct or more or less vertical return  
of the energy of the air masses in the  
neighbourhood of these regions4 ,this   
return will then take the form of       
violent storms of wind1 usually of a    
cyclonic nature1 and affording direct   
evidence of the tendency of the air     

masses to pursue vortical paths in their
 movement towards lower levels4  ,under 
normal conditions1 however1 the         
operation of the atmospheric machine is 
smooth and continuous4 ,the earth's     
axial energy1 under the sun's incepting 
influence1 steadily flows at all parts  
of the earth's surface through the      
aqueous vapour into the atmospheric     
masses1 and the latter1 rising from the 
terrestrial surface1 with a motion      
somewhat like that of a column of smoke1
 spread out and speed towards regions of
 lower velocity1 and travelling by      
devious and lengthened paths towards the
 surface1 steadily return the abstracted
 energy in its original form4 ,every    
operation is exactly balanced2 energy   
expenditure and energy return are       
complementary2 the terrestrial          
atmospheric machine as a whole works    
without jar or discontinuity1 and the   
earth's motion of rotation is maintained
 with absolute uniformity4  ,like every 
other energy machine1 the atmospheric   

machine has clearly-defined energy      
limits4 ,the total quantity of energy in
 operation is strictly limited by the   
mass of the acting materials4 ,it is    
well1 also1 to note the purely          
mechanical nature of the machine4 ,every
 operation is in reality the operation  
of mechanical energy1 and involves the  
movement of matter in some way or other 
relative to the earth's surface and     
under the incepting action of the       
earth's gravitation 7,secs4 #af1 #bj74  
,the moving gaseous masses have as real 
an existence as masses of lead or other 
solid material1 and require as real an  
expenditure of energy to move them      
relative to the terrestrial surface     
7,sec4 #ah74 ,this aspect of the        
planetary machine will be more fully    
treated later4  ,throughout this        
description we have constantly assumed  
the atmospheric mixture of oxygen and   
nitrogen to act as one gas1 and at      
ordinary temperatures the respective    
energy properties of the two substances 

7,sec4 #ce7 make this assumption        
justifiable4 ,both gases are then       
working far above their respective      
evaporation temperatures4 ,but1 in the  
higher regions of the atmosphere1 where 
very low temperatures prevail1 a point  
or altitude will be reached where the   
temperature corresponds to the          
evaporation or condensation temperature 
of one of the gases4 ,since oxygen      
appears to have the highest temperature 
of evaporation 7see ,table of           
,properties1 p4 #acc71 it would         
naturally be the first to condense in   
the ascent4 ,but immediately            
condensation takes place1 the material  
will become susceptible to the incepting
 influence of the sun1 and working as it
 does at its temperature of evaporation 
it will convey its energy to the        
surrounding nitrogen in precisely the   
same fashion as the aqueous vapour      
conveys the energy to the aerial mixture
 in the lower atmosphere4 ,the whole    
action is made possible simply by the   

difference existing in the respective   
evaporation temperatures of the two     
gases4 ,it will give rise to another    
cyclical atmospheric energy process     
exactly as already described for lower  
altitudes4 ,axial energy of rotation    
will be communicated to the nitrogen by 
the working material1 which is now the  
oxygen1 and by the movement of the      
nitrogen masses towards regions of low  
velocity1 this transmitted energy will  
be finally returned to its original     
axial form4  ,it has been already       
explained 7,secs4 #aj1 #cb7 how all     
terrestrial energy processes1 also1     
great or small1 are sooner or later     
linked to the general atmospheric       
machine4 ,the latter1 therefore1        
presents in every phase of its working  
completely closed energy circuits4 ,in  
no aspect of its operation can we find  
any evidence of1 or indeed any necessity
 for1 an energy transmission either to  
or from any external body or agent such 
as the sun4 ,every phenomenon of ,nature

 is1 in fact1 a direct denial of such   
transmission4  ,the student of          
terrestrial phenomena will readily find 
continuous and ample evidence in ,nature
 of the working of the atmospheric      
machine4 ,in the rising vapour and the  
falling rain he will recognise the      
visible signs of the operation of that  
great secondary process of transmission 
by which the inherent axial energy of   
the earth is communicated to the air    
masses4 ,the movements of bodies1       
animate and inanimate1 on the earth's   
surface1 the phenomena of growth and    
decay1 and in fact almost every         
experience of everyday life1 will reveal
 to him the persistent tendency of the  
energy of secondary processes to revert 
to the atmospheric machine4 ,and in the 
winds that traverse the face of the     
globe he will also witness the mechanism
 of that energy return which completes  
the atmospheric cyclical process4 ,it   
may be pointed out here also that the   
terrestrial cyclical energy processes   

are not necessarily all embodied in the 
atmosphere4 ,the author has reason to   
believe1 and phenomenal evidence is not 
awanting to show1 that the circulatory  
motions of the atmosphere are in some   
degree reproduced in the sea4 ,the      
reader will readily perceive that as    
regards stability the water composing   
the sea is in precisely the same        
condition as the atmosphere1 namely1    
that of a liquid heated in its upper    
strata1 and any circulatory motion of   
the water must therefore be accompanied 
by corresponding transformations of     
energy4 ,that such a circulatory motion 
takes place is undoubted1 and in the    
moving mass of sea-water we have        
therefore a perfectly reversible energy 
machine of the same general nature as   
the atmospheric machine1 but working at 
a very much slower rate4 ,it is not     
beyond the limits of legitimate         
scientific deduction to trace also the  
working of a similar machine in the     
solid material of the earth4 ,the latter

 is1 after all1 but an agglomeration of 
loose material bound by the force of    
gravitation into coherent form4 ,by the 
action of various erosive agencies a    
movement of solid material is           
continually taking place over the       
earth's surface4 ,the material thus     
transported1 it may be1 from mountain   
chains1 and deposited on the sea-bed1   
causes a disturbance of that            
gravitational equilibrium which defines 
the exact form of the earth4 ,the forces
 tending to maintain this equilibrium   
are so enormous compared with the       
cohesive forces of the material forming 
the earth that readjustment continuously
 takes place1 as evidenced by the       
tremors observed in the earth's crust4  
,where the structure of the latter is of
 such a nature as to offer great        
resistance to the gravitational forces1 
the readjustment may take the form of an
 earthquake4 ,geological evidence1 as a 
whole1 strongly points to a continuous  
kneading and flow of terrestrial        

material4 ,the structure of igneous     
rocks1 also1 is exactly that which would
 be produced from alluvial deposits     
subjected during these cyclical         
movements to the enormous pressure and  
consequent heating caused by            
superimposed material4 ,the occurrence  
of coal in polar regions1 and of glacial
 residue in the tropics1 may be regarded
 as further corroborative evidence4     
,from this point of view also1 it       
becomes unnecessary to postulate a      
genesis for the earth1 as every known   
geological formation is shown to be     
capable of production under present     
conditions in ,nature1 and in fact to be
 in actual process of production at all 
times4   #db4 ,experimental ,analogy and
 ,demonstration of the ,general         
,mechanism of       ,energy             
,transformation and ,return in the      
,atmospheric ,cycle  ,in the preceding  
articles1 the atmospheric machine has   
been regarded more or less from the     
purely physical point of view4 ,the     

purpose of this demonstration is now to 
place before the reader what might be   
termed the mechanical aspects of the    
machine2 to give an outline1 using      
simple experimental analogies1 of its   
nature and operation when considered    
purely and simply as a mechanism for the
 transformation and return of mechanical
 energy4  ,familiar apparatus is used in
 illustration4 ,in all cases1 it is     
merely some adaptation of the simple    
pendulum 7,sec4 #ba74 ,its minute       
structural details are really of slight 
importance in the discussion1 and have  
accordingly been ignored1 but the       
apparatus generally1 and the energy     
operations embodied therein1 are so     
familiar to physicists and engineers    
that the experimental results           
illustrated can be readily verified by  
everyday experience4 ,it is of great    
importance1 also1 in considering these  
results1 to bear in mind the principles 
already enunciated 7,secs4 #ac1 #bj7    
with reference to the operation of      

mechanical energy on the various forms  
of matter4 ,the general working         
conditions of energy systems with       
respect to energy limits1 stability1 and
 reversibility 7,sec4 #bc7 should also  
be kept in view4  ,as an introductory   
step we shall review first a simple     
system of rotating pendulums4 ,two      
simple pendulums ,,cm and ,,dm#a 7,fig4 
#i7 are mounted by means of a circular  
collar ,,cd upon a vertical spindle     
,,ab1 which is supported at ,a and ,b   
and free to rotate4 ,when the central   
spindle ,,ab is at rest the pendulums   
hang vertically2 when energy is applied 
to the system1 and ,,ab is thereby      
caused to rotate1 the spherical masses  
,m and ,m#a will rise by circular paths 
about ,c and ,d4 ,this upward movement1 
considered apart from the centrifugal   
influence producing it1 corresponds in  
itself to the upward movement of the    
simple pendulum 7,sec4 #ba7 against     
gravity4 ,it is representative of a     
definite transformation1 namely1 the    

transformation of the work energy       
originally applied to the system and    
manifested in its rotary motion1 into   
energy of position4 ,the movements of   
the rotating pendulums will also be     
accompanied by other energy operations  
associated with bearing friction and    
windage 7,secs4 #bc1 #bi71 but these    
operations being part of a separate and 
complete cyclical energy process 7,sec4 
#cb71 they will in this case be         
neglected4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i    
,it will be readily seen1 however1 that 
the working of this rotating pendulum   
machine1 when considered as a whole1 is 
of a nature somewhat different from that
 of the simple pendulum machine in that 
the energy of position of the former 7as
 measured by the vertical displacement  
of ,m and ,m#a in rotation7 and its     
energy of rotation must increase        
concurrently1 and also in that the      
absolute maximum value of this energy of
 position will be attained when the     
pendulum masses reach merely the        

horizontal level ,,hl in rotation4 ,the 
machines are alike1 however1 in this    
respect1 that the transformation of     
energy of motion into energy of position
 is in each case a completely reversible
 process4 ,in the working of the        
rotating pendulums the limiting amount  
of energy which can operate in this     
reversible process is dependent on and  
rigidly defined by the maximum length of
 the pendulum arms2 the longer the arms1
 the greater is the possible height     
through which the masses at their       
extremities must rise to attain the     
horizontal position in rotation4 ,it    
will be clear also that it is not       
possible for the whole energy of the    
rotating system to work in the          
reversible process as in the case of the
 simple pendulum4 ,as the pendulum      
masses rise1 the ratio of the limiting  
energy for reversibility to the total   
energy of the system becomes in fact    
smaller and smaller1 until at the       
horizontal or position of maximum energy

 it reaches a minimum value4 ,this is   
merely an aspect of the experimental    
fact that1 as the pendulum masses       
approach the ultimate horizontal        
position1 a much greater increment of   
energy to the system is necessary for   
their elevation through a given vertical
 distance than at the lower levels4 ,a  
larger proportion of the applied energy 
is1 in fact1 stored in the material of  
the system in the form of energy of     
strain or distortion4  ,the two points  
which this system is designed to        
illustrate1 and which it is desirable to
 emphasise1 are thus as follows4        
,firstly1 as the whole system rotates1  
the movement of the pendulum masses ,m  
and ,m#a from the lower to the higher   
levels1 or from the regions of low to   
those of higher velocity1 is productive 
of a transformation of the rotatory     
energy of the system into energy of     
position--a transformation of the same  
nature as in the case of the simple     
pendulum system4 ,neglecting the minor  

transformations 7,secs4 #bd1 #bi71 this 
energy process is a reversible one1 and 
consequently1 the return of the masses  
from the higher to the lower positions  
will be accompanied by the complete     
return of the transformed energy in its 
original form of energy of rotation4    
,secondly1 the maximum amount of energy 
which can work in this reversible       
process is always less than the total   
energy of the system4 ,the latter1      
therefore1 conforms to the general      
condition of stability 7,sec4 #be74     
,but this arrangement of rotating       
pendulums may be extended so as to      
include other features4 ,to eliminate or
 in a manner replace the influence of   
gravitation1 and to preserve the energy 
of position of the system--relative to  
the earth's surface--at a constant      
value1 the pendulum arms may be assumed 
to be duplicated or extended to the     
points ,k and ,r 7,fig4 #aj7            
respectively1 where pendulum masses     
equal to ,m and ,m#a are attached4  ,the

 arms ,,mk and ,m#a,r are thus          
continuous4 ,each arm is assumed to be  
pivoted at its middle point about a     
horizontal axis through ,n1 and as the  
lower masses ,m and ,m#a rise in the    
course of the rotatory movement about   
,,ab the upper masses ,k and ,r will    
fall by corresponding amounts4 ,the     
total energy of position of the         
system--referred to the earth's         
surface--thus remains constant whatever 
may be the position of the masses in the
 system4 ,the restraining influence on  
the movement of the masses1 formerly    
exercised by gravitation1 is now        
furnished by means of a central spring  
,f4 ,a collar ,,cd1 connected as shown  
to the pendulum arms1 slides on the     
spindle ,,ab and compresses this spring 
as the masses move towards the          
horizontal level ,,hl4 ,as the masses   
return towards ,a and ,b the spring is  
released4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj    
,if energy be applied to the system1 so 
that it is caused to rotate about the   

central axis ,,ab1 the pendulum masses  
will tend to move outwards from that    
axis4 ,their movement may be said to be 
carried out over the surface of an      
imaginary sphere with centre on ,,ab at 
,n4 ,the motion of the masses1 as the   
velocity of rotation increases1 is from 
the region of lower peripheral velocity1
 in the vicinity of the axis ,,ab1 to   
the regions of higher velocity1 in the  
neighbourhood of ,h and ,l4 ,this       
outward movement from the central axis  
towards ,h and ,l is representative of a
 transformation of energy of an exactly 
similar nature to that described above  
in the simple case4 ,part of the        
original energy of rotation of the      
system is now stored in the pendulum    
masses in virtue of their new position  
of displacement4 ,but in this case1 the 
movement is made1 not against gravity1  
but against the central spring ,f4 ,the 
energy1 then1 which in the former case  
might be said to be stored against      
gravitation 7acting as an invisible     

spring7 is in this case stored in the   
form of energy of strain or cohesion    
7,sec4 #ae7 in the central spring1 which
 thus as it were takes the place of     
gravitation in the system4 ,as in the   
previous case also1 the operation is a  
reversible energy process4 ,if the      
pendulum masses move in the opposite    
direction from the regions of higher    
velocity to those of lower velocity1 the
 energy stored in the spring will be    
returned to the system in its original  
form of energy of motion4 ,a vibratory  
motion of the pendulums to and from the 
central axis would thus be productive of
 an alternate storage and return of     
energy4 ,it is obvious also1 that due to
 the action of centrifugal force1 the   
pendulum masses would tend to move      
radially outwards on the arms as they   
move towards the regions of highest     
velocity4 ,let this radial movement be  
carried out against the action of four  
radial springs ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 ,s#d1  
as shown 7,fig4 #aa74 ,in virtue of the 

radial movement of the masses1 these    
springs will be compressed and energy   
stored in them in the form of energy of 
strain or cohesion 7,sec4 #ae74 ,the    
radial movement implies also that the   
masses will be elevated from the surface
 of the imaginary sphere over which they
 are assumed to move4 ,the elevation    
from this surface will be greatest in   
the regions of high velocity in the     
neighbourhood of ,h and ,l1 and least at
 ,a and ,b4 ,as the masses move1        
therefore1 from ,h and ,l towards the   
axis ,,ab1 they will also move inwards  
on the pendulum arms1 relieving the     
springs1 so that the energy stored in   
them is free to be returned to the      
system in its original form of energy of
 rotation4 ,every movement of the masses
 from the central axis outwards against 
the springs is thus made at the expense 
of the original energy of motion1 and   
every movement inwards provokes a       
corresponding return of that energy to  
the system4 ,every movement also against

 the springs forms part of a reversible 
operation4 ,the sum total of the energy 
which works in these reversible         
operations is always less than the      
complete energy of the rotatory system1 
and the latter is always stable 7,sec4  
#be71 with respect to its energy        
properties4 ,let it now be assumed that 
the complete system as described is     
possessed of a precise and limited      
amount of energy of rotation1 and that  
with the pendulum masses in an          
intermediate position as shown 7,fig4   
#aa7 it is rotating with uniform angular
 velocity4 ,the condition of the        
rotatory system might now be described  
as that of equilibrium4 ,a definite     
amount of its original rotatory energy  
is now stored in the central spring and 
also in the radial springs4 ,if now1    
without alteration in the intrinsic     
rotatory energy of the system1 the      
pendulum masses were to execute a       
vibratory or pendulum motion about the  
position of equilibrium so that they    

move alternately to and from the central
 axis1 then as they move inwards towards
 that axis the energy stored in the     
springs would be returned to the system 
in the original form of energy of       
rotation4 ,this inward motion would1    
accordingly1 produce acceleration4 ,but1
 in the outward movement from the       
position of equilibrium1 retardation    
would ensue on account of energy of     
motion being withdrawn from the system  
and stored in the springs4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa  ,under the   
given conditions1 then1 any vibratory   
motion of the pendulum masses to and    
from the central axis would be          
accompanied by alternate retardation and
 acceleration of the moving system4 ,the
 storage of energy in the springs       
7central and radial7 produces           
retardation1 the restoration of this    
energy gives rise to a corresponding    
acceleration4 ,the angular velocity of  
the system would rise and fall          
accordingly4 ,these are the natural     

conditions of working of the system4 ,as
 already pointed out1 the motion of the 
pendulum masses may be regarded as      
executed over the surface of an         
imaginary sphere4 ,their motion against 
the radial springs would therefore      
correspond to a displacement outwards or
 upwards from the spherical surface4 ,a 
definite part of the effect of          
retardation is1 of course1 due to this  
outward or radial displacement of the   
masses4  ,assuming still the property of
 constancy of energy of rotation1 let it
 now be supposed that in such a         
vibratory movement of the pendulum      
masses as described above1 the energy   
required merely for the displacement of 
the masses against the radial springs is
 not withdrawn from and obtained at the 
expense of the original rotatory energy 
of the system1 but is obtained from some
 energy agency1 completely external to  
the system1 and to which energy cannot  
be returned4 ,the retardation1 normally 
due to the outward displacement of the  

masses against the radial springs1 would
 not then take place4 ,but the energy   
is1 nevertheless1 stored in the springs4
 ,it now1 therefore1 forms part of the  
energy of the system1 and consequently1 
on the returning or inward movement of  
vibration of the masses towards the     
central axis1 this energy1 received from
 the external source1 would pass        
directly from the springs to the        
rotational energy of the system4 ,it is 
clear1 then1 that while the introduction
 of energy in this fashion from an      
external source has in part eliminated  
the effect of retardation1 the          
accelerating effect must still operate  
as before4 ,each vibratory movement of  
the pendulum system1 under the given    
conditions1 will lead to a definite     
increase in its energy of rotation by   
the amount stored in the radial springs4
 ,if the vibratory movement is          
continuous1 the rotatory velocity of the
 system will steadily increase in value4
 ,energy once stored in the radial      

springs can only be released by the     
return movement of the masses and in the
 form of energy of rotation2 the nature 
of the mechanical machine is1 in fact1  
such that if any incremental energy is  
applied to the displacement of the      
masses against the radial springs1 it   
can only be returned in this form of    
energy of motion4  ,these features of   
this experimental system are of vital   
importance to the author's scheme4 ,they
 may be illustrated more completely1    
however1 and in a form more suitable for
 their most general application1 by the 
hypothetical system now to be described4
 ,this system is1 of course1 devised for
 purely illustrative purposes1 but the  
general principles of working of        
pendulum systems and of energy return1  
as demonstrated above1 will be assumed4 
#dc4 ,application of ,pendulum          
,principles  ,the movements of the      
pendulum masses described in the        
previous article have been regarded as  
carried out over the surface of an      

imaginary sphere4 ,let us now proceed to
 consider the phenomena of a similar    
movement of material over the surface of
 an actual spherical mass4 ,the precise 
dimensions of the sphere are of little  
moment in the discussion1 but for the   
purpose of illustration1 its mass and   
general outline may be assumed to       
correspond to that of the earth or other
 planetary body4 ,this spherical mass ,a
 7,fig4 #ab7 rotates with uniform       
angular velocity about an axis ,,ns     
through its centre4 ,associated with the
 rotating sphere are four auxiliary     
spherical masses1 ,m#a1 ,m#b1 ,m#c1     
,m#d1 also of solid material1 which are 
assumed to be placed symmetrically round
 its circumference as shown4 ,these     
masses form an inherent part of the     
spherical system2 they are assumed to be
 united to the main body of material by 
the attractive force of gravitation in  
precisely the same fashion as the       
atmosphere or other surface material of 
a planet is united to its inner core    

7,sec4 #cd72 they will therefore partake
 completely of the rotatory motion of   
the sphere about its axis ,,ns1 moving  
in paths similar to those of the        
rotating pendulum masses already        
described 7,sec4 #db74 ,the restraining 
action of the pendulum arms is1 however1
 replaced in this celestial case by the 
action of gravitation1 which is the     
central force or influence of the       
system4 ,opposite masses are thus only  
united through the attractive influence 
of the material of the sphere4 ,the     
place of the springs1 both central and  
radial1 in our pendulum system is now   
taken by this centripetal force of      
gravitative attraction1 which therefore 
forms the restraining influence or      
determining factor in all the associated
 energy processes4 ,while the auxiliary 
masses ,m#a ,m#b1 c41 partake of the    
general motion of revolution of the main
 spherical mass about ,,ns1 they may    
also be assumed to revolve              
simultaneously about the axis ,,we1     

perpendicular to ,,ns1 and also passing 
through the centre of the sphere4 ,each 
of these masses will thus have a        
peculiar motion1 a definite velocity    
over the surface of the sphere from pole
 to pole--about the axis ,,we--combined 
with a velocity of rotation about the   
central axis ,,ns4 ,the value of the    
latter velocity is1 at any instant1     
directly proportional to the radius of  
the circle of latitude of the point on  
the surface of the sphere where the mass
 happens to be situated at that instant 
in its rotatory motion from pole to     
pole2 this velocity accordingly         
diminishes as the mass withdraws from   
the equator1 and becomes zero when it   
actually reaches the poles of rotation  
at ,n and ,s2 and the energy of each    
mass in motion1 since its linear        
velocity is thus constantly varying1    
will be itself a continuously varying   
quantity1 increasing or diminishing     
accordingly as the mass is moving to or 
from the equatorial regions1 attaining  

its maximum value at the equator and its
 minimum value at the poles4 ,now1 since
 the masses thus moving are assumed to  
be a material and inherent portion of   
the spherical system1 the source of the 
energy which is thus alternately        
supplied to and returned by them is the 
original energy of motion of the system2
 this original energy being assumed     
strictly limited in amount1 the increase
 of the energy of each mass as it moves 
towards the equator will1 therefore1 be 
productive of a retardative effect on   
the revolution of the system as a whole4
 ,but1 in a precisely similar manner1   
the energy thus gained by the mass would
 be fully returned on its movement      
towards the pole1 and an accelerative   
effect would be produced corresponding  
to the original retardation4 ,in the    
arrangement shown 7,fig4 #ab71 the      
moving masses are assumed to be situated
 at the extremities of diameters at     
right angles4 ,with this symmetrical    
distribution1 the transformation and    

return of energy would take place       
concurrently4 ,retardation is           
continually balanced by acceleration1   
and the motion of the sphere would1     
therefore1 be approximately uniform     
about the central axis of rotation4 ,it 
will be clear that the movements thus   
described of the masses will be very    
similar in nature to those of the       
pendulum masses in the experimental     
system previously discussed4 ,the fact  
that the motion of the auxiliary masses 
over the surface of the sphere is       
assumed to be completely circular and   
not vibratory1 as in the pendulum case1 
has no bearing on the general energy    
phenomena4 ,these are readily seen to be
 identical in nature with those of the  
simpler system4 ,in each case every     
movement of the masses implies either an
 expenditure of energy or a return1     
accordingly as the direction of that    
movement is to or from the regions of   
high velocity4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#ab  ,the paths of the moving auxiliary 

masses have been considered1 so far1    
only as parallel to the surface of the  
sphere1 but the general energy          
conditions are in no way altered if they
 are assumed to have in addition some   
motion normal to that surface2 if1 for  
example1 they are repelled from the     
surface as they approach the equatorial 
regions1 and return towards it once more
 as they approach the poles4 ,such a    
movement of the masses normal to the    
spherical surface really corresponds to 
the movement against the radial springs 
in the pendulum system2 it would now be 
made against the attractive or          
restraining influence of gravitation1   
and a definite expenditure of energy    
would thus necessarily be required to   
produce the displacement4 ,energy1      
formerly stored in the springs1         
corresponds now to energy stored as     
energy of position 7,sec4 #bj7 against  
gravitation4 ,if this energy is obtained
 at the expense of the inherent rotatory
 energy of the sphere1 then its         

conversion in this fashion into energy  
of position will again be productive of 
a definite retardative effect on the    
revolution of the system4 ,it is clear1 
however1 that if each mass descends to  
the surface level once more in moving   
towards the poles1 then in this         
operation its energy of position1       
originally obtained at the expense of   
the rotatory energy of the sphere1 will 
be gradually but completely returned to 
that source4 ,in a balanced system1 such
 as we have assumed above1 the descent  
of one mass in rotation would be        
accompanied by the elevation of another 
at a different point2 the abstraction   
and return of the energy of rotation    
would then be equivalent1 and would not 
affect the primary condition of         
uniformity of rotation of the system4   
,in the circumstances assumed1 the whole
 energy process which takes place in the
 movement of the masses from poles to   
equator and normal to the spherical     
surface would obviously be of a cyclical

 nature and completely reversible4 ,it  
would be the working of mechanical      
energy in a definite material machine1  
and in accordance with the principles   
already outlined 7,sec4 #bj7 the maximum
 amount of energy which can operate in  
this machine is strictly limited by the 
mass of the material involved in the    
movement4 ,the energy machine has thus a
 definite capacity1 and as the maximum  
energy operating in the reversible cycle
 is assumed to be within this limit1 the
 machine would be completely stable in  
nature 7,sec4 #be74 ,the movements of   
the auxiliary masses have hitherto also 
been considered as taking place over    
somewhat restricted paths1 but this     
convention is one which can readily be  
dispensed with4 ,the general direction  
of motion of the masses must of course  
be from equator to pole or vice versa2  
but it is quite obvious that the exact  
paths pursued by the masses in this     
general motion is of no moment in the   
consideration of energy return1 nor yet 

the precise region in which they may    
happen to be restored once more to the  
surface level4 ,whatever may be its     
position at any instant1 each mass is   
possessed of a definite amount of energy
 corresponding to that position2 this   
amount will always be equal to the total
 energy abstracted by that mass1 less   
the energy returned4 ,the nature of the 
energy system is1 however1 such that the
 various energy phases of the different 
masses will be completely co-ordinated4 
,since the essential feature of the     
system is its property of uniformity of 
rotation1 any return of energy in the   
rotational form at any part of the      
system--due to the descent of           
material--produces a definite           
accelerating effect on the system1 which
 effect is1 however1 at once neutralised
 or absorbed by a corresponding         
retardative effect due to that energy   
which must be extracted from the system 
in equivalent amount and devoted to the 
upraising of material at a different    

point4 ,for simplicity in illustration  
only four masses have been considered in
 motion over the surface of the sphere1 
but it will be clear that the number    
which may so operate is really limited  
only by the dimensions of the system4   
,the spherical surface might be         
completely covered with moving material1
 not necessarily of spherical form1 not 
necessarily even material in the solid  
form 7,sec4 #ac71 which would rise and  
fall relative to the surface and flow to
 and from the poles exactly in the      
fashion already illustrated by the      
moving masses4 ,the capacity of the     
reversible energy machine--which depends
 on the mass--would be altered in this  
case1 but not the general nature of the 
machine itself4 ,if the system were     
energised to the requisite degree1 every
 energy operation could be carried out  
as before4  ,as already pointed out1 the
 dominating feature of a spherical      
system such as we have just described   
would be essentially its property of    

energy conservation manifested by its   
uniformity of rotation4 ,all its        
operations could be carried out         
independently of the direct action of   
any external energy influences4 ,for if 
it be assumed that the energy gained by 
the auxiliary moving surface material in
 virtue of its displacement normal to   
the spherical surface be derived1 not   
from the inherent rotational energy of  
the sphere itself1 but by an influx of  
energy from some source completely      
external to the system1 then since there
 has been no energy abstraction there   
will be no retardative effect on the    
revolution due to the upraising of this 
material4 ,but the influx of energy thus
 stored in the material must of         
necessity work through the energy       
machine4 ,in the movement towards the   
poles this energy would therefore be    
applied to the system in the form of    
energy of rotation1 and would produce a 
definite accelerative effect4 ,if the   
influx of energy were continuous1 and no

 means were existent for a corresponding
 efflux1 the rotatory velocity of the   
system would steadily increase4 ,the    
phenomena would be of precisely the same
 nature as those already alluded to in  
the case of the system of rotating      
pendulums 7,sec4 #db74 ,acceleration    
would take place without corresponding  
retardation4 ,a direct contribution     
would be continuously made to the       
rotatory energy of the system1 and would
 under the given conditions be          
manifested by an increase in its        
velocity of revolution4   #dd4          
,extension of ,pendulum ,principles to  
,terrestrial ,phenomena  ,the energy    
phenomena illustrated by the            
experimental devices above are to be    
observed1 in their aspects of greatest  
perfection1 in the natural world4 ,in   
the earth1 united to its encircling     
atmosphere by the invisible bond of     
gravitation1 we find the prototype of   
the hypothetical system just described4 
,its uniformity of rotation is an       

established fact of centuries1 and over 
its spheroidal surface we have1         
corresponding to the motion of our      
illustrative spherical masses1 the      
movement of enormous quantities of      
atmospheric air in the general          
directions from equatorial to polar     
regions and vice versa4 ,this           
circulatory movement1 and the internal  
energy reactions which it involves1 have
 been already fully dealt with 7,sec4   
#hh72 we have now to consider it in a   
somewhat more comprehensive fashion1 in 
the light of the pendulum systems       
described above4 ,as already explained  
7,sec4 #ac71 the operation of mechanical
 energy is not confined to solid and    
liquid masses only1 but may likewise be 
manifested by the movements of gaseous  
masses4 ,the terrestrial atmospheric    
machine provides an outstanding example4
 ,in its working conditions1 and in the 
general nature of the energy operations 
involved1 the terrestrial atmospheric   
machine is very clearly represented by  

the rotating pendulum system 7,sec4     
#db74 ,the analogy is still closer in   
the case of the hypothetical system just
 described4 ,the actual terrestrial     
energy machine differs from both only in
 that the energy processes1 which they  
illustrate by the movements of solid    
material1 are carried out in the course 
of its working by the motion of gaseous 
masses4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that   
this in no way affects the inherent     
nature of the energy processes          
themselves4 ,they are carried out quite 
as completely and efficiently--in fact1 
more completely and more efficiently--by
 the motions of gaseous as by the       
motions of solid material4  ,the        
atmospheric circulation1 then1 may be   
readily regarded as the movement1 over  
the terrestrial surface1 of gaseous     
masses which absorb and return energy in
 regions of high and low velocity       
exactly in the fashion explained above  
for solid material4 ,in their movement  
from polar towards equatorial regions   

these masses1 by the action of the      
aqueous vapour 7,sec4 #ch71 absorb      
energy 7axial energy7 and expand upwards
 against gravity4 ,here we have an      
energy operation identical in nature    
with that embodied in the movements of a
 pendulum mass simultaneously over a    
spherical surface and against radial    
springs as in the system of rotating    
pendulums1 or identical with the        
equatorial and radial movement of the   
auxiliary masses in the hypothetical    
system4 ,the return movement of the     
aerial masses over the terrestrial      
surface in the opposite direction from  
equatorial to polar regions provides    
also exactly the same phenomena of      
energy return as the return movement of 
the masses in our illustrative systems4 
,these systems1 in fact1 portray the    
general operation of mechanical energy  
precisely as it occurs in the           
terrestrial atmospheric machine4 ,but   
obviously they cannot illustrate the    
natural conditions in their entirety4   

,the passage or flow of the atmospheric 
air masses over the earth's surface is a
 movement of an exceedingly complex     
nature1 impossible to illustrate by     
experimental apparatus4 ,and indeed1    
such illustration is quite unnecessary4 
,as already pointed out 7,sec4 #ch71 no 
matter what may be the precise path of  
an aerial mass in its movement towards  
the planetary surface the final energy  
return is the same4 ,sooner or later its
 energy of position is restored in the  
original axial form4  ,the terrestrial  
atmospheric machine will be thus readily
 recognised as essentially a material   
mechanical machine corresponding in     
general nature to the illustrative      
examples described above4 ,the          
combination of its various energy       
processes is embodied in a complete     
cyclical and reversible operation4 ,its 
energy capacity1 as in the simpler      
cases1 is strictly limited by the total 
mass of the operating material4 ,the    
active or working energy is well within 

the limit for reversibility 7,sec4 #bc71
 and the machine is therefore           
essentially stable in nature4 ,the      
continuous abstraction of axial energy  
by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an 
equally continuous return from the air  
masses1 and the system1 so far as its   
energy properties are concerned1 is     
absolutely conservative4 ,energy        
transmission from or to any external    
source is neither admissible nor        
necessary for its working4   #de4       
,concluding ,review of ,terrestrial     
,conditions--,effects of ,influx of     
,energy  ,the aspect of the earth as a  
separate mass in space1 and its energy  
relationship to its primary the sun and 
to the associated planetary masses of   
the solar system have been broadly      
presented in the ,general ,statement    
7,secs4 #a-ab74 ,in that statement1     
based entirely on the universally       
accepted properties of matter and       
energy1 an order of phenomena is        
described which is in strict accordance 

with observed natural conditions1 and   
which portrays the earth and the other  
planetary bodies1 so far as their       
material or energy properties are       
concerned1 as absolutely isolated masses
 in space4 ,the scientific verification 
of this position must of necessity be   
founded on the terrestrial observation  
of phenomena4 ,so far as the orbital    
movements of the planet are concerned   
these are admittedly orderly2 each      
planetary mass wheels its flight through
 space with unvarying regularity2 the   
energy processes1 also1 associated with 
the variations of planetary orbital     
path1 and which attain limiting         
conditions at perihelion and aphelion1  
are readily acknowledged to be          
reversible and cyclical in nature4 ,in  
fact1 even a slight observation of the  
movements of celestial masses inevitably
 leads to the conviction that the great 
energy processes of the solar system are
 inherently cyclical in nature1 that    
every movement of its material and every

 manifestation of its energy is part of 
some complete operation4 ,the whole     
appears to be but the natural or        
material embodiment of the great        
principle of energy conservation4 ,it   
has been one of the objects of this work
 to show that the cyclical nature of the
 energy operations of the solar system  
is not confined only to the more        
prominent energy phenomena1 but that it 
penetrates and is exhibited in the      
working of even the most insignificant  
planetary processes4 ,each one of the   
latter in reality forms part of an      
unbroken series or chain of energy      
phenomena4 ,each planet forms in itself 
a complete1 perfect1 and self-contained 
energy system4 ,every manifestation of  
planetary energy1 great or small1       
whether associated with animate or      
inanimate matter1 is but one phase or   
aspect of that energy as it pursues its 
cyclical path4  ,it is a somewhat       
remarkable fact that in this age of     
scientific reason the observation of the

 strictly orderly arrangement of        
phenomena in the solar system as a whole
 should not have led to some idea in the
 minds of philosophical workers of a    
similar order of phenomena in its       
separate parts1 but the explanation lies
 generally in the continual attempts to 
bring natural phenomena into line with  
certain preconceived hypotheses1 and    
more particularly to the almost         
universal acceptance of the doctrine of 
the direct transmission of energy from  
the sun to the earth and the final      
rejection or radiation of this energy   
into space4 ,there is no denying the    
eminent plausibility of this doctrine4  
,the evidence of ,nature prima facie may
 even appear to completely substantiate 
it4 ,but we would submit that the       
general circumstances in which this     
doctrine is now so readily accepted are 
very similar to those which prevailed in
 more ancient times1 when the revolution
 of the sun and stars round the earth   
was the universal tenet of natural      

philosophy4 ,this conception1 allied to 
the belief that the sole function of the
 celestial bodies was to provide light  
and heat to the terrestrial mass1       
appeared to be in strict accordance with
 observed phenomena1 and held           
undisturbed possession of the minds of  
men for centuries1 until it was finally 
demolished by ,copernicus as the result 
of simple and accurate observation of   
and deduction from natural phenomena4   
,at the present time1 the somewhat      
venerable belief in the transmission of 
energy in various forms from the sun to 
the earth appears at first sight to be  
supported by actual facts4 ,but a more  
rigid scrutiny of the evidence and of   
the mental processes must inevitably    
lead the unbiassed mind to the          
conclusion that this belief has no real 
foundation on truly scientific          
observation1 but is entirely unsupported
 by natural phenomena4 ,every operation 
of ,nature1 in fact1 when considered in 
its true relationships is an absolute   

denial of the whole conception4 ,like   
its predecessor relating to the motion  
of the sun and stars round the earth1   
the doctrine of energy transmission     
between separate masses in space such as
 the sun and the earth cannot be        
sustained in the face of scientific     
observation4 ,this doctrine is found on 
investigation to be supported not by    
phenomena but by the conception of an   
elastic ethereal medium1 of whose       
existence there is absolutely no        
evidential proof1 and the necessity for 
which disappears along with the         
hypothesis it supports4 ,it is1 however1
 not proposed to discuss in any detail  
either the supposed transmission of     
energy from the sun to the planets or   
the arbitrary properties of the         
transmitting medium1 but rather to adopt
 a more positive method of criticism by 
summarising briefly the evidential      
phenomena which show the cyclical nature
 of the whole terrestrial energy        
process1 and which remove the basis of  

belief in such a transmission4  ,to     
recapitulate the more general           
conditions1 we find the earth1 alike    
with other planetary masses1 pursuing a 
defined orbital path1 and rotating with 
uniform angular velocity in the lines or
 under the influence of the gravitation1
 thermal1 luminous1 and other incepting 
fields 7,secs4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai7 which     
originate in the sun4 ,its axial        
rotation1 in these circumstances1 gives 
rise to all the secondary               
transformations 7,sec4 #i7 of           
terrestrial axial energy1 which in their
 operation provide the varied panorama  
of terrestrial phenomena4 ,terrestrial  
axial energy is thus diverted into      
terrestrial secondary processes4 ,each  
of these processes is found to be united
 to or embodied in a definite material  
machine 7,secs4 #bg-cj71 and is1        
accordingly1 limited in nature and      
extent by the physical properties and   
incepting factors associated with the   
materials of which the machine is       

composed4 ,by ordinary methods of       
transmission1 energy may pass from one  
material to another1 that is to say from
 one machine to another1 and by this    
means definite chains of energy         
processes are constituted1 through      
which1 therefore1 passes the axial      
energy originally transformed by the    
action of the sun4 ,these series or     
chains of energy processes are also     
found to be one and all linked at some  
stage of their progress to the general  
atmospheric machine 7,sec4 #bi74 ,the   
energy operating in them is1 in every   
case1 after many or few vicissitudes    
according to the nature of the          
intermediate operations1 communicated to
 the gaseous atmospheric material4 ,by  
the movement of this material in the    
working of the atmospheric machine      
7,sec4 #ch7 the energy is finally       
returned in its original form of axial  
energy of rotation4 ,the sun's action is
 thus in a manner to force the inherent 
rotatory energy of the planet into the  

cyclical secondary operations1 all of   
which converge alike towards the general
 atmospheric mechanism of return4 ,the  
passage of the energy through the       
complete secondary operations1 and its  
re-conversion into its original axial   
form1 may be rapid or slow according to 
circumstances4 ,in equatorial regions1  
where the influence of the sun's        
incepting fields is most intense1 we    
find that the inherent planetary axial  
energy is communicated with great       
rapidity through the medium of the      
aqueous vapour to the air masses4 ,by   
the movement of the latter it may be    
just as rapidly returned1 and the whole 
operation completed in a comparatively  
short interval of time4 ,in the same    
equatorial regions1 the transformations 
of axial energy which are manifested in 
plant life attain their greatest        
perfection and vigour4 ,but in this case
 the complete return of the operating   
energy may be very slow4 ,the stored    
energy of tropical vegetation may still 

in great part remain in the bosom of the
 earth1 awaiting an appropriate stimulus
 to be communicated to more active      
material for the concluding stages of   
that cyclical process which had its     
commencement in the absorption of axial 
energy into plant tissue4 ,the duration 
of the complete secondary operation has1
 however1 absolutely no bearing on the  
conservative energy properties of the   
planet4 ,in this respect1 the system is 
perfectly balanced4 ,every              
transformation or absorption of rotatory
 energy1 great or small1 for long or    
short periods of time1 is counteracted  
by a corresponding return4 ,absolute    
uniformity of planetary axial rotation  
is thus steadily maintained4  ,it is    
scarcely necessary at this stage to     
point out that the verification of this 
description of natural operations lies  
simply and entirely in the observation  
of ,nature's working at first hand4 ,the
 description is based on no theory and  
obscured by no preconceived ideas1 it is

 founded entirely on direct experimental
 evidence4 ,the field of study and of   
verification is not restricted1 but     
comprises the whole realm of natural    
phenomena4 ,in a lifetime of observation
 the author has failed to discern a     
single contradictory phenomenon2 every  
natural operation is in reality a direct
 confirmation4  ,the conception of      
energy1 working only through the medium 
of definite material machines with their
 incepting and limiting agencies1 is one
 which is of great value not only in    
natural philosophy but also in practical
 life4 ,by its means it is possible in  
many cases to co-ordinate phenomena1    
apparently antagonistic1 but in reality 
only different phases of energy         
machines4 ,it aids materially also in   
the obtaining of a true grasp of the    
inexorable principle of energy          
conservation and its application to     
natural conditions1 and it emphasises   
the indefensible nature of such ideas as
 the radiation of energy into space4    

,it will be evident that in a planetary 
system such as described above there is 
no room for any transmission of energy  
to the system from an external source4  
,the nature of the system is1 in fact1  
such that a transmission of this kind is
 entirely unnecessary4 ,as already      
demonstrated1 every phenomenon and every
 energy operation can be carried out    
independently of any such transmission4 
,for the purpose of illustration1       
however1 it may be assumed that such a  
communication of energy does take place2
 that according to the accepted         
doctrines of modern science the sun     
pours energy in a continuous stream into
 the terrestrial system4 ,now1 no matter
 in what form this energy is            
communicated1 it is clear that once it  
is associated with or attached to the   
various planetary materials it is1 as it
 were1 incorporated or embodied in the  
planetary energy machines1 and must of  
necessity work through the secondary    
energy operations4 ,but these operations

 have been shown to be naturally and    
irresistibly connected to the general   
atmospheric machine4 ,into this machine1
 then1 the incremental energy must be   
carried1 and it will be there directly  
converted into the form of axial energy 
of rotation4 ,once the incremental      
energy is actually in the planet1 once  
it is actually communicated to planetary
 material1 the nature of the system     
absolutely forbids its escape4 ,the     
effect of a direct and continuous influx
 such as we have assumed would          
inevitably be an increase in the angular
 velocity of the system4 ,this effect   
has already been verified from an       
experimental point of view by           
consideration of the phenomena of a     
rotating pendulum system 7,secs4 #db1   
#dc74 ,whilst the influx of energy      
proceeds1 then in virtue of the         
increasing velocity of the planetary    
material in the lines of the various    
incepting fields of the sun1 all        
terrestrial phenomena involving the     

transformation of rotary or axial energy
 would be increased in magnitude and    
intensified in degree4 ,the planet would
 thus rapidly attain an unstable        
condition2 its material would soon      
become energised beyond its normal      
capacity1 and the natural stability     
7,sec4 #be7 of its constituent energy   
machines would be destroyed2 the system 
as a whole would steadily proceed       
towards disruption4  ,but1 happily1     
,nature presents no evidence of such a  
course of events4 ,the earth spins on   
its axis with quiet and persistent      
regularity2 the unvarying uniformity of 
its motion of axial rotation has been   
verified by the observations of         
generations of philosophers4 ,its       
temperature gradations show no evidence 
of change or decay in its essential heat
 qualities1 and the recurrence of       
natural phenomena is maintained without 
visible sign of increase either in their
 intensity or multiplicity4 ,the finger 
of ,nature ever points to closed energy 

circuits1 to the earth as a complete and
 conservative system in which energy1   
mutable to the highest degree with      
respect to its plurality of form1       
attains to the perfection of permanence 
in its essential character and amount4  
,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson      
,,co4  ,edinburgh  ,london              
,,transcriber',s ,,note3  ,in this      
plain-text version1 numerical subscripts
 have been transcribed within  brackets1
 such as3 ,m#a4  ,obvious typographical 
errors from the original printed version
 of this book have been corrected       
without comment4  ,footnotes in the     
plain-text version have been placed at  
the end of the paragraph in which the   
footnote tag appears4  ,illustrations   
have been moved to the nearest paragraph
 break4