---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes ,transcription us$ 9 ?is e-text3 ,texts 9 italics 9 ! orig9al "w are transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores1 z 9 text4 ,bold-face text 9 ! orig9al "w has be5 transcrib$ betwe5 equal signs1 z 9 text4 ,small capitals h be5 transcrib$ z ,,all ,,capitals4 ,! au?or sometimes uses a diff]5t typeface to describe a %ape1 z ! ,v 9 ,v-=m4 ,:]e ?is diff]5t typeface is us$1 ?is has be5 transcrib$ z ,v4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes w be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,! ,,arti/ic ,,anatomy ,,( ,,animals ,,arti/ic ,,anatomy ,,( ,,animals ,,by ,,ed\>d ,,cuy]1 ,,supplem5t>y ,,pr( ,,( ,,anatomy ,,at ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,f9e ,,art ,,p>is1 ,,pr( ,,( ,,anatomy ,,at ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,f9e ,,art ,,r\5 ,,translat$ ,,edit$ ,,by ,,george ,,haywood ,,lectur] ,,on ,,anatomy ,,at ,,! ,,royal ,,college ,,( ,,art ,,s\? ,,k5s+ton ,illu/ration ,,london ,,bailli]e1 ,,t9dall ,,cox #h ,,h5rietta ,,/ ,,cov5t ,,g>d5 ,,anno ,,dom9i ,,mdccccv ,,all ,,rights ,,resvd ,,preface ,a few l9es w suffice to expla9 :y we h compil$ ! pres5t volume1 to :at wants x responds1 & :at its sph]e ( usefulness may possibly embrace4 ,9 our tea*+ ( pla/ic anatomy1 especially at ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts--:]e1 = ! pa/ n9e ye>s1 we h _h ! v great hon\r ( supplem5t+ ! tea*+ ( our di/+ui%$ ma/]1 ,ma?ias ,duval1 aft] hav+ be5 prosector = 8 c\rse ( lectures s9ce #ahha--;x is our practice to give1 z a complem5t to ! /udy ( human anatomy1 a c]ta9 numb] ( lessons on ! anatomy ( ^? animals :i* arti/s might be call$ on to repres5t4 ,n[1 we 7 giv5 to und]/& t ! subject treat$ 9 our lectures int]e/$ our he>]s1 s mu* s t we 7 n surpris$ to le>n t a c]ta9 numb] repeat$ly express$ a desire to see ^! lectures unit$ 9 book =m4 ,to u ?is idea 0 n new2 = _m ye>s ! "w 9 "q _h be5 9 c\rse ( prep>ation1 & we _h collect$ mat]ials = x1 ) ! object ( fill+ up a void ( :i* ! exi/5ce 0 to be regrett$4 ,b our _m engagem5ts prev5t$ u f execut+ our project z e>ly z we w\ld h wi%$4 ,x is ?is "w :i* we publi% to-day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,,reproduction ,,( ,a ,,sket* ,,by ,,b>ye 7,,collections ,,( ,,! ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,( ,,! ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,hugui] ,,museum74 ,putt+ aside = a mom5t ! wi% express$ by our he>]s1 we feel ourselves 9 duty b\nd to inquire :e!r ! utility ( ?is publication is self-evid5t4 ,let x be cle>ly und]/ood t we wi% to express "h our op9ion on ?is subject1 :ile putt+ aside e p]sonal s5tim5t ( an au?or4 ,no "o n[ disputes ! value ( anatomical /udies made 9 view ( c>ry+ out ! arti/ic repres5tation ( man4 ,nev]!less--= we mu/ provide aga9/ all cont+5cies--! conviction on ?is subject may be m or less absolute2 & yet x mu/ possess ?is "* 9 an int5se degree 9 ord] t ^! /udies may be pr(itable1 & p]mit ! atta9m5t ( ! goal :i* is propos$ 9 und]tak+ !m4 ,x is 9 ?is way t we ev] /rive to tra9 ! /ud5ts ^: /udies we direct2 n only to admit ! value ( ^! /udies1 b to be mat]ially & deeply conv9c$ ( ! fact )\t any re/riction4 ,su* is ! s5tim5t :i* we endeav\r to create & vigor\sly enc\rage4 ,& we may be p]mitt$ to add t we h (t5 be5 successful 9 ?is direction4 ,!re=e x is t1 at ! beg9n+ ( our lectures1 & 9 anticipation ( possible objections1 we are accu/om$ to take up ! "q ( ! utility ( pla/ic anatomy4 ,& 9 s do+1 x is 9 ord] to combat at ! outset ! idea--z mis*iev\s z x is false--:i* is sometimes imprud5tly enunciat$1 t ! possession ( sci5tific k is likely to t>ni% ! purity & fre%ness ( ! impressions receiv$ by ! arti/1 & to place %ackles on ! emotional s9c]ity ( _! repres5tation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,,reproduction ,,( ,a ,,sket* ,,( ,,b>ye 7,,collections ,,( ,,! ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,( ,,! ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,hugui] ,,museum74 ,x is *iefly by employm5t ( examples t we approa* ! subject4 ,^! /rike ! imag9ation ( ! /ud5t m =cibly1 & ! pres5tation ( models ( a c]ta9 *oice1 al?\gh r\gh 9 execution1 is1 9 our op9ion1 pref]able to consid]ations ( an ord] possibly m exalt$1 b ( a "* less cle>ly practical4 ,let u1 !n1 ask ! "q3 ,^? arti/s ^: em95ce nobody w\ld d>e to "q1 did !y /udy anatomy8 ,if ! answ] be 9 ! affirmative1 we surely _c p]mit ourselves to believe t we c disp5se ) a simil> c\rse4 ,&1 z pro( ( ! /udies ( ?is class :i* ! ma/]s h made1 we may cite ,raphael1 ,mi*elangelo1 &1 above all1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci2 &1 ( ! mod]ns1 ,g]icault4 ,& we may m cle>ly def9e ^! pro(s by an exam9ation ( ! reproductions ( _! anatomical works1 *os5 f c]ta9 ( _! special writ+s4#a #a ,ma?ias ,duval & ,a4 ,bical1 ',l'anatomie des ,maitres4' ,?irty plates reproduc$ f ! orig9als ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 ,mi*elangelo1 ,raphael1 ,g]icault1 etc41 ) lett]press & a hi/ory ( pla/ic anatomy1 ,p>is1 #ahij4 ,! manuscripts ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci ( ! ,royal ,libr>y1 ,w9dsor1 ',anatomy1 ,foliae ,a41' publi%$ by ,!odore ,saba*nik(f1 ) a ,fr5* translation1 writt5 & annotat$ by ,giovanni ,piumati1 ) an introduction by ,ma?ias ,duval4 ,ed\>d ,r\veyre1 publi%]1 ,p>is1 #ahih4 ,ma?ias ,duval & ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',hi/ory ( ,pla/ic ,anatomy3 ,! ,ma/]s1 _! ,books1 & ,anatomical ,figures' 7,libr>y ( ,in/ruction ( ! ,s*ool ( ,f9e ,arts71 ,p>is1 #ahih4 ,accord+ly1 !re is no scope = s]i\s discussion1 & x only rema9s = u to enunciate ! op9ion t x is necess>y t we %\ld imitate ^? ma/]s1 &1 ) a s5se ( respectful discipl9e1 foll[ _! example4 ,"h1 ) reg>d to ! anatomy ( animals1 we pursue ! same me?od1 & ! example *os5 %all be t ( ,b>ye4 ,8 tal5t is too f> above all criticism to all[ t ?is example %\ld be refus$4 ,! admiration :i* ! works ( ?is great arti/ elicit is too wide-spread = u to rema9 un9flu5c$ by ! lessons furni%$ by 8 /udies4 ,x is suffici5t to see ! sket*es relat+ to ^! /udies1 & 8 admirable ca/s f nature :i* =m "p ( ! anatomical museum ( ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 to be conv9c$ t ! arti/ic temp]am5t1 ( :i* ,b>ye 0 "o ( ! mo/ brilliant examples1 has no?+ to lose by its association ) rese>*es ! precision ( :i* might seem likely to *eck its complete expansion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,,reproduction ,,( ,a ,,sket* ,,( ,,b>ye 7,,collections ,,( ,,! ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,( ,,! ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,hugui] ,,museum74 ,9 ^? sket*es we f9d pro(s ( obs]vation s scrupul\s t we _c re/ra9 our admiration = ! man ^: ard5t imag9ation 0 volunt>ily subject$ to ! toil ( /udy s pr(\nd4 ,if ! example ( ,b>ye1 ) :om we associate ! names ( o!r great mod]n pa9t]s ( animals1 c det]m9e ! conviction :i* we seek to produce1 we %all be s9c]ely glad4 ,to contribute to ! propagation ( useful ideas1 & to see !m accept$1 gives a feel+ ( satisfaction f> too legitimate = u to hesitate to say :at we %\ld feel if our hope be realiz$ 9 ?is in/ance4 ,,ed\>d ,,cuy]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 ,,iv4--,,reproduction ,,( ,a ,,sket* ,,( ,,b>ye 7,,collections ,,( ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,( ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,f9e ,,arts--,,hugui] ,,museum74 ,,cont5ts ,,introduction ,,page ,,g5]alities ,,( ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy #a ,,*apt] ,i ,,o/eology ,,& ,,ar?rology3 ,,! ,,trunk #d ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs #gh ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs ,,9 ,,"s ,,animals #ij ,,! ,,skull ,,( ,,birds #abg ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,myology3 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,trunk #aca ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,limbs #afb ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs #bjj ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head #bcb ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,epid]mic ,,products ,,( ,,! ,,extremities ,,( ,,! ,,=e ,,& ,,h9d ,,limbs #bdg ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,proportions ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse #bgc ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,paces ,,( ,,! ,,horse #bhb ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,a ,,human ,,skeleton ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$1 ,,to ,,give ,a ,,g5]al ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,9 ,,o!r ,,v]tebrates #e #b4 ,,size ,,( ,,! ,,atlas ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,transv]se ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,skull ,,9 ,,man #g #c4 ,,size ,,( ,,! ,,atlas ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,transv]se ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,regions ,,( ,,! ,,skull ,,9 ,a ,,dog #h #d4 ,,lumb> ,,v]tebrae ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,! ,,horse73 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #i #e4 ,a ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,a ,,man ,,plac$ ,,v]tically--,,t ,,is ,,to ,,say1 ,,9 ,,! ,,direction ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,assume ,,9 ,a ,,man ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,a ,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #ac #f4 ,a ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,diagrammatic7 #ad #g4 ,,/]num ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ag #h4 ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,bat3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface #bj #i4 ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,seal3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ba #aj4 ,,situation ,,& ,,direction ,,( ,,! ,,scapula ,,9 ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,! ,,trunk ,,be+ ,,horizontal1 ,,z ,,9 ,,quadrup$s4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bb #aa4 ,,position ,,& ,,direction ,,( ,,! ,,scapula ,,9 ,,quadrup$s4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bb #ab4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,po/]ior ,,surface1 ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,occupy ,,9 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ #bc #ac4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #bc #ad4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section1 ,,at ,,! ,,site ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]s1 ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bd #ae4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section1 ,,at ,,! ,,plane ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]s1 ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,,! ,,dog 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bd #af4 ,,left ,,clavicle ,,( ,,! ,,cat3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface 7,,natural ,,size7 #bf #ag4 ,,clavicle ,,( ,,! ,,dog 7,,natural ,,size7 #bf #ah4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld] ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,ant]o- ,,ext]nal ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,side #bg #ai4 ,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,hum]us ,,( ,a ,,felidae 7,,lion7 #ca #bj4 ,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,human ,,hum]us1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,pres5ce ,,( ,a ,,supratro*le> ,,process #ca #ba4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,surface #cc #bb4 ,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,= ,,its ,,:ole ,,ext5t ,,on ,,its ,,palm> ,,surface3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ce #bc4 ,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,on ,,its ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #cf #bd4 ,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,on ,,! ,,tips ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,its ,,?ird ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,view #cf #be4 ,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,=e>m3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #ci #bf4 ,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,a ,,dog3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #ci #bg4 ,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #dj #bh4 ,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,a ,,man3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,po/]ior ,,surface1 ,,position ,,( ,,sup9ation #da #bi4 ,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,a ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface1 ,,normal ,,position--,,t ,,is1 ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,pronation #da #cj4 ,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bone ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface #db #ca4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,sup]ior ,,limb ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #dg #cb4 ,,sup]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,segm5ts ,,be+ ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,:i* ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,p>ts ,,occupy ,,9 ,,birds3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #dh #cc4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,be>3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #ej #cd4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #eb #ce4 ,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ec #cf4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,cat3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ec #cg4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,f+] ,,( ,a ,,felide 7,,lion73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,int]nal ,,surface #eg #ch4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #eh #ci4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #fa #dj4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #fd #da4 ,,flexion ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us3 ,,"r ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface 7,,aft] ,a ,,*romophotographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #gd #db4 ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us3 ,,"r ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface 7,,aft] ,a ,,*romophotographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #gd #dc4 ,,! ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface1 ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,occupy ,,9 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ #gi #dd4 ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,horse73 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #gi #de4 ,,pubic ,,region ,,( ,,! ,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,m>supial 7,,phalang]1 ,,fox7 #ha #df4 ,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,ext]nal ,,surface1 ,,left ,,side #hb #dg4 ,,po/]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,%\ld ,,occupy ,,if ,,! ,,animal ,,7 ,a ,,plantigrade3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #hi #dh4 ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #ij #di4 ,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,dog1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,above #ia #ej4 ,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,felide 7,,lion71 ,,view$ ,,f ,,above #ib #ea4 ,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #ie #eb4 ,,t>sus ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,po/]ior ,,left ,,limb1 ,,ant]o-,,ext]nal ,,surface #ig #ec4 ,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface #aja #ed4 ,,t>sus ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface #ajd #ee4 ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,leg3 ,,"r ,,po/]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface 7,,aft] ,a ,,*ronographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #ajg #ef4 ,,human ,,skull3 ,,measure ,,( ,,! ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,camp]4 ,,angle ,,bac #hj deg4 #aaj #eg4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,measure ,,( ,,! ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,camp]4 ,,angle ,,bac #ac deg4 #aaj #eh4 ,,skull ,,( ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,felidae 7,,jagu>73 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aac #ei4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,lion3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aac #fj4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aae #fa4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aag #fb4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aai #fc4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #aba #fd4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,h>e3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect #abc #fe4 ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,cock3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface #abh #ff4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,trunk #acb #fg4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,inf]ior ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,trunk #ace #fh4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles #ada #fi4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles #adc #gj4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles #adf #ga4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,panniculus ,,muscle ,,( ,,! ,,trunk #adh #gb4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse--,,%\ld] ,,& ,,arm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #aff #gc4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #agh #gd4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #ahj #ge4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #ahb #gf4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect #aij #gg4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,left ,,side1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect #aib #gh4 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,int]nal ,,aspect #aid #gi4 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #aif #hj4 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #aif #ha4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,"p ,,( ,a ,,transv]se ,,section ,,pass+ ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,middle ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,=e-,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,inf]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,section #aih #hb4 ,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,horizontal ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,leg ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,int]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,section #aih #hc4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,tibial ,,muscle 7,,flexor ,,( ,,! ,,metat>sus71 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,ant]ior ,,view #bad #hd4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #baf #he4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #bah #hf4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #bbj #hg4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect #bbb #hh4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,leg1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect #bbc #hi4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,ma/icatory ,,muscles 7,a ,,deep] ,,dissection ,,?an ,,t ,,%[n ,,9 ,,fig4 #ij7 #bcc #ij4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head #bce #ia4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head #bcg #ib4 ,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head #bci #ic4 ,,claw ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,inf]ior ,,surface #bdi #id4 ,,left ,,h& ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,inf]ior ,,surface1 ,,plant> ,,tub]cles #bdi #ie4 ,,v]tical ,,ant]o-,,po/]ior ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,horse #bej #if4 ,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface #bea #ig4 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,aspect #bec #ih4 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #bed #ii4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,a ,,left ,,human ,,foot3 ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,?is ,,section 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bee #ajj4 ,,inf]ior ,,surface ,,( ,a ,,=e-,,ho( ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side #bef #aja4 ,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,inf]ior ,,view #beg #ajb4 ,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,inf]ior ,,view #beg #ajc4 ,,inf]ior ,,surface ,,( ,a ,,h9d-,,ho( ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side #beh #ajd4 ,,left ,,po/]ior ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect #bei #aje4 ,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]o-,,ext]nal ,,view #bfj #ajf4 ,,! ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,b\rgelat7 #bfe #ajg4 ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset7 #bgj #ajh4 ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,view$ ,,9 ,,pr(ile 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset7 #bgd #aji4 ,,! ,,same ,,design ,,z ,,t ,,( ,,fig4 #ajh1 ,,on ,,:i* ,,we ,,h ,,indicat$1 ,,by ,,simil> ,,l9es1 ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,correspond+ ,,measurem5ts #bge #aaj4 ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,front 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset7 #bgf #aaa4 ,,! ,,same ,,figure ,,z ,,fig4 #aaj1 ,,on ,,:i* ,,we ,,h ,,m>k$1 ,,by ,,simil> ,,l9es1 ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,measurem5ts ,,:i* ,,correspond ,,!reto #bgg #aab4 ,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exce$s ,,! ,,height #bgi #aac4 ,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exce$s ,,! ,,height #bhj #aad4 ,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,is ,,inf]ior ,,to ,,! ,,height #bha #aae4 ,,exp]im5tal ,,%oes1 ,,int5d$ ,,to ,,record ,,! ,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,on ,,! ,,gr\nd #bhd #aaf4 ,,runn] ,,furni%$ ,,) ,,! ,,exploratory ,,& ,,regi/]+ ,,app>atus ,,( ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,paces #bhe #aag4 ,,trac+ ,,( ,,! ,,runn+ ,,( ,a ,,man 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bhf #aah4 ,,notation ,,( ,a ,,trac+ ,,( ,,! ,,runn+ ,,( ,a ,,man 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bhg #aai4 ,,notation ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,modes ,,( ,,progression ,,( ,a ,,man 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bhg #abj4 ,,sw+ ,,( ,,! ,,rais$ ,,ant]ior ,,limb 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col97 #bhi #aba4 ,,sw+ ,,( ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,on ,,! ,,po9t ,,( ,,pressure 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col97 #bij #abb4 ,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,giv+ ,,! ,,impulse 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col97 #bia #abc4 ,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,ambl+ ,,gait ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bib #abd4 ,,! ,,amble3 ,,"r ,,lat]al ,,pressure #bic #abe4 ,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gait ,,( ,,! ,,trot ,,9 ,a ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bid #abf4 ,,! ,,trot3 ,,"r ,,diagonal ,,pressure #bie #abg4 ,,! ,,trot3 ,,"t ,,( ,,susp5sion #bie #abh4 ,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,pace ,,( ,,/epp+ ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #bif #abi4 ,,! ,,/ep3 ,,"r ,,lat]al ,,pressure #big #acj4 ,,! ,,/ep3 ,,"r ,,diagonal ,,pressure #big #aca4 ,,! ,,gallop3 ,,fir/ ,,p]iod #bih #acb4 ,,! ,,gallop3 ,,second ,,p]iod #bih #acc4 ,,! ,,gallop3 ,,?ird ,,p]iod #bii #acd4 ,,! ,,gallop3 ,,"t ,,( ,,susp5sion #bii #ace4 ,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gallop ,,divid$ ,,into ,,?ree ,,p]iods ,,( ,,"t 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #cjj #acf4 ,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gallop ,,( ,,f\r ,,p]iods ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey7 #cjj #acg4 ,,leap ,,( ,,! ,,h>e 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col97 #cja #ach4 ,,! ,,leap #cjb #aci4 ,,! ,,leap #cjb #adj4 ,,! ,,leap #cjc #ada4 ,,! ,,leap #cjc #adb4 ,,! ,,leap #cje #adc4 ,,! ,,leap #cje ,,! ,,arti/ic ,,anatomy ,,( ,,animals ,,introduction ,,g5]alities ,,( ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy ,( ! animals by :i* we are surr\nd$1 !re are "s :i*1 occupy+ a place 9 our lives by reason ( _! natural end[m5ts1 are frequ5tly repres5t$ 9 ! works ( arti/s--ei!r z accompany+ man 9 8 "w or 9 8 amusem5ts1 or z int5d$ to occupy ! :ole int]e/ ( ! composition4 ,! necessity ( kn[+1 f an arti/ic po9t ( view1 ! /ructure ( ! human body makes cle> ! importance we atta*1 f ! same po9t ( view1 to ! /udy ( ! anatomy ( animals--t is1 ! /udy ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,! "n employ$ to designate ?is bran* ( anatomy %[s t ! object ( ?is sci5ce is ! /udy ( ! relative position & =m :i* ea* region pres5ts 9 all organiz$ be+s1 tak+ = comp>ison ! correspond+ regions 9 man4 ,! head 9 animals comp>$ ) ! human head2 ! trunk & limbs comp>$ to ! trunk & limbs ( ! human be+--?is is ! analysis we und]take1 & ! plan ( ! subject we are ab\t to comm5ce4 ,our int5tion be+1 z we h j said1 ! comp>ison ( ! /ructure ( animals ) t ( man1 %\ld we describe ! anatomy ( ! human be+ 9 ! pages :i* foll[8 ,we d n ?9k s4 ,pla/ic human anatomy hav+ be5 previ\sly /udi$ 9 special works1#b we take x = grant$ t ^! h be5 /udi$ be=e und]tak+ ! subject ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,we w !re=e n occupy "t ) ! elem5t>y facts relative to ! skeleton & ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles4 ,we w n dilate on ! division ( ! bones into long1 %ort1 l>ge1 s+le1 pair$1 etc4 ,all ^! prelim9>y elem5ts we %all suppose to h be5 already /udi$4 #b ,ma?ias ,duval1 ',precis ( ,anatomy = ! ,use ( ,arti/s'3 ,p>is1 #ahha4 ',arti/ic ,anatomy ( ! ,human ,body1' ?ird edition1 plates by ,dr4 ,fau1 text ) figures by ,ed\>d ,cuy]3 ,p>is1 #ahif4 ',arti/ic ,anatomy ( ,man1' by ,j4 ,c4 ,l4 ,sp>kes1 second edition1 text ) #ej plates3 ,bailli]e1 ,t9dall & ,cox1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,?is be+ grant$1 x is1 nev]!less1 necess>y to take a rapid bird's-eye view ( organiz$ be+s1 & to recall ! t]ms us$ 9 _! classification4 ,animals are prim>ily class$ 9 great divisions1 bas$ on ! g5]al *>act]s :i* diff]5tiate !m mo/4 ,^! divisions1 or bran*es1 all[ ( _! be+ s gr\p$ t 9 ea* ( !m we f9d unit$ ! individuals ^: g5]al /ructure is uni=m2 & "u ! "n ( v]tebrates are includ$ man & ! animals ) :i* our /udies w be occupi$4 ,! v]tebrates1 z ! "n indicates1 are recognis$ by ! pres5ce ( an int]ior skeleton =m$ by a c5tral axis1 ! v]tebral column1 r\nd :i* ! o!r p>ts ( ! skeleton are arrang$4 ,! v]tebrate bran* is divid$ into classes3 fi%es1 amphibians or batra*ians1 reptiles1 birds1 & mammals4 ,! mammals--f ! ,lat9 mamma1 a brea/--are *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( brea/s design$ = ! alim5tation ( _! "y4 ,_! bodies are cov]$ ) hair1 h5ce ! "n pilif]es propos$ by ,bla9ville2 &1 not)/&+ t 9 "s individuals ! hairs are few1 ! "* is suffici5t to di/+ui% !m f all o!r v]tebrates4 ,we f9d unit$ 9 ?is class animals :i*1 at fir/1 seem out ( place1 su* z ! :ale & ! bat2 &1 f _! ext]nal appe>ance alone1 ! =m] w\ld appe> to belong to ! fi%es1 & ! latt] to birds4 ,yet1 on /udy+ _! /ructure1 we f9d t1 n only d ^! animals m]it a place 9 ! class :i* !y occupy1 because !y possess ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( mammals2 b1 /ill fur!r1 _! int]nal /ructure is analog\s to t ( man & ( ! o!r individuals ( ?is class4 ,not)/&+ ?is simil>ity ( /ructure1 ! :ale is n )\t "s po9ts ( diff]5ce f its neighb\rs ! horse & ! dog2 !re=e1 9 ord] to place ea* ( ^! animals 9 a position suitable to x1 mammals are divid$ into second>y gr\ps call$ ord]s4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ord]s includes1 "u ! "n primates1 man & apes4 ,! latt] conta9 animals :i* approa* birds 9 c]ta9 *>act]s ( _! organism1 =m+ a l9k betwe5 ! latt] & mammals4 ,we f9d1 9 /udy+ ! regions ( ! body 9 "s ( ! v]tebrates1 t1 :ile !y pres5t diff]5ces f ! correspond+ regions ( ! human body1 !y also (f] mo/ /rik+ analogies4 ,we c1 = example1 recognise ! upp] limb ( man 9 ! ant]ior "o ( quadrup$s1 9 ! w+ ( ! bat1 9 ! paddle ( ! seal1 etc4 ,x is1 s to speak1 ^? v>iations ( a great plan :i* give su* a *>m to ! /udy ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,! division ( classes into ord]s1 :i* we h j m5tion$1 be+ /ill too g5]al1 x 0 f\nd necess>y to e/abli% subdivisions--m & m specializ$--to :i* ! names families1 g5]a1 species1 & v>ieties 7 giv54 ,,*apt] ,i ,,o/eology ,,& ,,ar?rology ,,! ,,trunk ,! ,v]tebral ,column ,we comm5ce ! /udy ( ! skeleton ) a description ( ! trunk4 ,! trunk be+1 9 quadrup$s1 horizontal 9 direction 7,fig4 #a71 ! two regions ( :i* x consi/s occupy1 = ?is reason1 ! foll[+ positions3 ! ?orax occupies ! ant]ior "p1 ! abdom5 is plac$ beh9d x2 ! v]tebral column is horizontal1 & is situat$ at ! sup]ior aspect ( ! trunk2 x projects beyond ! latt]3 ant]iorly1 to articulate ) ! skull2 &1 po/]iorly1 to =m ! skeleton ( ! tail1 or caudal app5dix4 ,! numb] ( ! v]tebrae is n ! same 9 all mammalia4 ,( ! sev]al regions ( ! v]tebral column1 ! c]vical %[s ! greate/ uni=mity 9 ! numb] ( ! v]tebrae ( :i* x consi/s1 ) b two exceptions 7eight or n9e 9 ! ?ree-to$ slo?1 & six 9 ! manatee72 we always f9d sev5 c]vical v]tebrae1 :atev] ! l5g? ( ! neck ( ! animal4 ,!re are no m ?an sev5 v]tebrae 9 ! long neck ( ! giraffe1 b !y are v long ones2 & n less ?an sev5 9 ! v %ort neck ( ! dolph91 9 :i* !y are r$uc$ to m]e plates ( bone n ?ick] ?an %eets ( c>dbo>d4 ,if ! c]vical region pres5ts uni=mity 9 ! numb] ( its bones1 x is n s ) ! o!r regions ( ! column4 ,! foll[+ table %[s _! classification 9 "s animals3 ,,v]tebrae4 ---------------------------------------- - ,c]vical4 ,dorsal4 ,lumb>4 ---------------------------------------- - ,be> #g #ad #f ,dog #g #ac #g ,cat #g #ac #g ,rabbit #g #ab #g ,pig #g #ad #f or #g ,horse #g #ah #f or #e ,ass #g #ah #e ,camel #g #ab #g ,giraffe #g #ad #e ,ox #g #ac #f ,%eep #g #ac #f ---------------------------------------- - ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,a ,,human ,,skeleton ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$4 ,,to ,,give ,a ,,g5]al ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,9 ,,o!r ,,v]tebrates4 ,x is wor?y ( notice t 9 birds ! numb] ( ! c]vical v]tebrae is n con/ant1 z 9 mammals2 !y are m num]\s ?an ! dorsal4 ,^! latt] are almo/ always jo9$ to "o ano!r by a fusion ( _! sp9\s processes2 ! two or ?ree la/ v]tebrae are simil>ly unit$ to ! iliac bones1 betwe5 :i* !y are fix$4 ,! dorsal v]tebrae ?us =m "o piece1 :i* gives solidity to ! trunk1 & provides a base ( support to ! w+s1 = ! movem5ts ( fly+4 ,!re are1 s to speak1 no lumb> v]tebrae1 ! bones ( t region1 :i* _c be diff]5tiat$ f ! sacrum1 hav+ coalesc$ ) ! bones ( ! pelvis4 ,,v]tebrae4 -------------------------------------- ,c]vical4 ,dorsal4 -------------------------------------- ,vulture #ae #g ,eagle #ac #i ,cock #ad #g ,o/ri* #ah #i ,swan #bc #aj ,goose #ah #i ,duck #ae #i -------------------------------------- ,9 reptiles1 ! relation betwe5 ! numb] ( ! c]vical v]tebrae & t ( ! dorsal is v v>iable2 "s s]p5ts are devoid ( c]vical v]tebrae1 hav+ only dorsal ones--t is1 v]tebrae c>ry+ well-develop$ ribs4 ,,v]tebrae4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,c]vical4 ,dorsal4 ,lumb>4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,crocodile #g #ad #c ,caiman #g #ab #e ,boa #c #bdh #j ,py?on #j #cbj #j ,vip] #b #ade #j ---------------------------------------- -------- ,reg>d+ ! direction ( ! v]tebral column 9 animals1 9 :i* ! trunk is n v]tical1 x is evid5t t ! sp9\s processes po9t upw>d1 & t 9 comp>+ !m ) ^? ( man !y mu/ be arrang$ s t ! sup]ior surface ( ! human v]tebra w correspond to ! ant]ior surface ( t ( ! quadrup$4 ,( ! c]vical v]tebrae1 ! atlas & axis call = special notice4 ,apropos ( ! atlas1 we f9d t x1 9 ! human be+1 is n>r[] ?an ! correspond+ p>ts ( ! skull1 & is !re=e hidd5 "u ! base ( ! cranium 7,fig4 #b72 9 quadrup$s its wid? is equal to t ( ! skull1 & sometimes exce$s1 because ( ! great developm5t ( its w+-%ap$ transv]se processes1 t ( ! neighb\r+ p>ts ( ! head 7,fig4 #c74 ,on ?is acc\nt ^? transv]se processes (t5 project "u ! sk9 ( ! lat]al surfaces ( ! upp] "p ( ! neck4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,size ,,( ,,! ,,atlas ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,transv]se ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,skull ,,9 ,,man4 #a1 ,atlas2 #b1 ma/oid process2 #c1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #d1 inf]ior maxilla4 ,! axis is furni%$ on its ant]ior surface ) ! odontoid process1 :i* articulates ) ! ant]ior 7or inf]ior7 ar* ( ! atlas1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! neck4 ,! sp9\s process1 flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds1 is m or less po9t$2 x is elongat$ f be=e backw>ds1 s z p>tly to ov]lap ! atlas & ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,we f9d t ?is process ov]laps less & less ! neighb\r+ v]tebrae :5 we exam9e 9 succession ! be>1 ! cat1 ! dog1 ! ox1 & ! horse4 ,) reg>d to ! o!r v]tebrae ( ?is region1 !y dim9i% 9 wid? f ! second to ! sev5?2 &1 9 "s animals1 ! ant]ior surface ( ! body pres5ts a tub]cle :i* articulates ) a cavity holl[$ 9 ! po/]ior surface ( t ( ! v]tebra be=e x2 ?is feature dw9dles away 9 ! dorsal & lumb> regions4 ,! sp9\s process1 slightly develop$ 9 ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra1 gradually increases 9 size to ! sev5?1 ! sp9\s process ( :i*1 long & po9t$1 well des]ves ! "n ( ! prom95t :i* is be/[$ on x2 b x %\ld n be =gott5 t ! sp9\s process ( ! axis is equally develop$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,size ,,( ,,! ,,atlas ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,transv]se ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,regions ,,( ,,! ,,skull ,,9 ,a ,,dog4 #a1 ,atlas2 #b1 zygomatic ar*2 #c1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #d1 inf]ior maxilla4 ,on ! inf]ior surface ( ! body ( ea* ( ! v]tebrae is f\nd a prom95t cre/1 especially well m>k$ at ! po/]ior "p2 ?is cre/ is b slightly develop$ 9 ! be> & 9 ! cat tribe1 & is n f\nd 9 sw9e4 ,! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebrae1 f _! relation to ! tra*ea1 are kn[n z ! tra*eal processes4 ,! mo/ m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! dorsal v]tebrae is furni%$ by ! sp9\s processes4 ,!y are long & n>r[4 ,z a rule1 ! sp9\s processes ( ! =emo/ dorsal v]tebrae are ! mo/ develop$ & are direct$ obliquely upw>ds & backw>ds4 ,z we approa* ! la/ v]tebrae ( ?is region1 ! processes become %ort] & t5d to become v]tical1 & ! la/ ones are ev51 9 "s cases1 direct$ upw>ds & =w>ds2 ?is disposition is well m>k$ 9 ! dog & ! cat4 ,9 ! cetaceans1 on ! contr>y1 ! l5g? ( ! sp9\s processes increases f ! fir/ to ! la/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,lumb> ,,v]tebrae ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,! ,,horse73 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,sp9\s process2 #b1 ant]ior articul> process & transv]se process ( ! fir/ lumb> v]tebra ( ! left side2 #c1 co/i=m process4 ,9 ! horse ! sp9\s processes ( ! fir/ dorsal v]tebrae produce ! prom95ce at ! ant]ior limit ( ! trunk1 :]e ! mane ends1 :i* is kn[n z ! )]s4 ,! lumb> v]tebrae are ?ick] ?an ! prec$+2 !y are kn[n by _! %ort & latt]ly-flatt5$ sp9\s processes1 & /ill m readily by _! transv]se processes1 :i*1 z !y are evid5tly atrophi$ ribs1 x is m accurate to d5om9ate co/i=m processes 7,fig4 #d74 ,^! are long1 flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds1 & direct$ outw>ds & =w>ds4 ,! true transv]se processes are repres5t$ by tub]cles situat$ on ! sup]ior bord]s ( ! articul> processes ( ea* ( ! v]tebrae ( ! lumb> region4 ,apropos ( ^! diff]5t osse\s processes1 we are rem9d$ t !y are also pres5t 9 ! human skeleton4 ,9 ! horse ! co/i=m processes ( ! fif? & six? lumb> v]tebrae articulate1 & are sometimes ankylos$1 "o ) ! o!r2 ! t]m9al ones articulate ) ! base ( ! sacrum4 ,sometimes ! processes ( ! f\r? & fif? are ?us relat$2 ?is is ! case 9 ! figure 7#d7 giv52 "h ! co/i=m processes ( ! f\r? & fif? v]tebrae articulate1 & ! two t]m9al ones h coalesc$4 ,9 ! ox1 ! same processes are m develop$ ?an 9 ! horse2 _! summits elevat+ ! sk91 produce1 especially 9 animals :i* h n mu* fle%1 prom95ces :i* limit ! flanks 9 ! sup]ior aspect4 ,! co/i=m processes ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebrae are sep>ate f ea* o!r2 ^? ( ! latt] are n 9 contact ) ! sacrum4 ,! ,sacrum4#c--,?is bone1 s+le & m$ian1 is =m$ by ! mutual coalesc5ce ( sev]al v]tebrae1 :i* v>y 9 numb] accord+ to ! species obs]v$4 #c ,9 human anatomy1 ! sacrum & ! coccyx are /udi$ z "p ( ! pelvis2 we1 !re=e1 9 ! /udy ( ! arti/ic anatomy ( man1 /udy ^! bones ) ! bones ( ! l[] limbs4 ,"h we d n foll[ ?is plan4 ,9 animals ! sacrum & ! coccyx1 z a matt] ( fact1 cle>ly cont9ue ! sup]ior bord] ( ! skeleton ( ! trunk2 h5ce we /udy !m ) ! v]tebral column4 ,v]tebrae ,con/itut+ ! ,sacrum4--,be>s1 #e2 dogs1 #c2 cats1 #c2 rabbits1 #d2 sw9e1 #d2 horses1 #e2 camels1 #d2 ox51 #e2 %eep1 #d4 ,! sacrum is situat$ betwe5 ! two iliac bones2 ) :i* x articulates1 & contributes to ! =mation ( ! pelvis4 ,x is obliquely plac$1 f be=e backw>ds1 & f bel[ upw>ds2 imm$iately beh9d ! lumb> section ( ! v]tebral column2 & is cont9u$ by ! coccygeal v]tebrae1 :i* =m ! skeleton ( ! tail4 ,x is triangul> 9 outl9e1 & is g5]ally m n>r[ 9 proportion ?an 9 ! human be+4 ,all ?+s consid]$1 x is m l>ge & massive1 & ( great] d5sity1 9 species :i* sometimes assume ! upright po/ure1 r ?an 9 ^? :i* _c assume t attitude2 = example1 ! sacrum ( ! ape1 ( ! be>1 ( ! dog1 & ( ! opossum are proportionately l>g] ?an ^? ( ! horse4#d #d ,?is is p>ticul>ly /rik+ only 9 ^? portions ( ! sacrum t are n 9 relation ) ! o!r bones ( ! pelvis4 ,we ?9k t ! g5]al =m ( ?is bone dep5ds on ! mode ( its connexions ) ! iliac bones & ! ext5t ( ! articul> surfaces by :i* x is 9 contact ) ! latt]4 ,its sup]ior surface pres5ts a cre/1 =m$ by ! fusion ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebrae :i* =m x4 ,9 c]ta9 species ^! processes are atta*$ only by _! bases1 & are sep>at$ f ea* o!r sup]iorly4 ,9 ! pig !y are :olly want+4 ,! ,coccygeal ,v]tebrae4--,^! v]tebrae1 few 9 numb] 7& sometimes ankylos$7 9 ! human be+1 =m 9 ! latt] a small s]ies1 ! coccyx2 :i* is incl9$ =w>ds1 t is to say1 t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! pelvis4 ,9 quadrup$s1 on ! contr>y1 _! numb] is l>ge2 !y are n ankylos$1 & !y =m ! skeleton ( ! caudal app5dix4 ,! fir/ coccygeal v]tebrae--t is1 ^? :i* are next ! sacrum--pres5t *>act]s :i* are common to ^? ( o!r regions3 !y h a body1 a =am51 & processes4 ,z we trace !m backw>ds1 ^! *>act]s become gradually effac$2 & !y become little m ?an small osse\s cyl9d]s simply exp&$ at _! extremities4 ,direction & ,=m ( ! ,sp9al ,column ,! curves ( ! v]tebral column are1 9 quadrup$s1 slightly diff]5t f ^? :i* *>act]ize ! human sp9e4 ,fir/1 in/ead ( _! be+1 z 9 ! latt]1 curves 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior aspect1 because ( ! g5]al attitude ( ! body1 !y are turn$ 9 ! sup]o-inf]ior direction4 ,! c]vical region is n a s+le curve1 z 9 ! human be+4 ,x pres5ts two3 "o sup]ior1 ) its convexity look+ upw>ds2 ! o!r inf]ior1 ! convexity ( :i* is turn$ d[nw>ds4 ,?is arrangem5t rem9ds "o ( t ( a console4 ,! dorsal & lumb> regions are plac$ 9 a s+le curv$ l9e1 m or less concave d[nw>ds2 s t 9 ! lumb> region !re is no curve analog\s to t :i* exi/s 9 man2 a =m :i*1 9 ! latt]1 is due to ! bip$ attitude--t is to say1 ! v]tical position ( ! trunk4 ,briefly1 !re is 9 quadrup$s "o dorso-lumb> curve2 & n bo? a dorsal & a lumb>1 ) convexities 9 opposite directions4 ,at ! extremity ( ! dorso-lumb> region is ! sacrum & ! caudal app5dix1 :i* describe a curve ( :i* ! concavity is direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds4 ,x is necess>y to po9t out t x is n ! curves ( ! ?ree ant]ior portions ( ! sp9al column :i* det]m9e ! =m ( ! sup]ior bord] ( ! neck & %\ld]s1 & ( ! same "p ( ! trunk4 ,= ! fir/ portion1 !re is a ligam5t :i* surm\nts ! c]vical region1 & sub/itutes its modell+ influ5ce = t ( ! v]tebrae4 ,x is ! sup]ior c]vical ligam5t1 :i* arises f ! sp9\s process ( ! fir/ c]vical v]tebrae1 & is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal occipital protub]ance on ! upp] "p ( ! po/]ior surface ( ! skull4 ,! summits ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebrae alone give =m to ! sup]ior m$ian bord] ( ! trunk4 ,9 ?is connection we "h repeat t x is n ! g5]al curvature ( ! v]tebral column :i* produces ! )]s1 b ! great l5g? ( ! sp9\s process ( ! fir/ v]tebrae ( ! dorsal region4 ,! ,?orax ,! dorsal v]tebrae =m ! po/]ior limit 9 man1 & sup]ior 9 quadrup$s1 ( ! region ( ! trunk kn[n z ! ?orax4 ,a s+le bone1 ! /]num1 is situat$ at ! aspect opposite2 ! ribs b\nd ! ?orax on its sides4 ,9 its g5]al outl9es ! ?orax 9 quadrup$s resembles t ( man--t is to say1 t1 z 9 ! latt]1 ! ant]ior portion--sup]ior 9 ! human be+--is n>r[] ?an ! "p opposite4 ,b ! progressive wid5+ takes place 9 a m regul> & cont9u\s fa%ion1 s t x pres5ts a m def9itely conical outl9e4 ,?is purely conical =m is nev]!less f\nd 9 ! human species1 b only dur+ infancy2 ! inf]ior portion ( ! ?oracic cage be+ !n widely exp&$1 because ( ! developm5t ( ! abdom9al visc]a1 :i* at t p]iod are relatively l>ge4 ,b ! proportionate measurem5ts ( ! ?orax are diff]5t4 ,inde$1 we may recall t 9 man ! ?orax is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds1 s t ! di/ance betwe5 ! /]num & ! v]tebral column is %ort] ?an ! di/ance f ! rib ( "o side to ! correspond+ "o ( ! opposite side 7,fig4 #e74 ,9 animals1 on ! contr>y1 x is flatt5$ lat]ally4 ,its v]tical diamet]--measur$ f ! /]num to ! v]tebral column--is great] ?an ! transv]se measurem5t 7,fig4 #f74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,a ,,man ,,plac$ ,,v]tically--,,t ,,is ,,to ,,say1 ,,9 ,,! ,,direction ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,assume ,,9 ,a ,,man ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,a ,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,dorsal v]tebra2 #b1 /]nal region2 #c1 co/al region ( "o side2 #c'1 co/al region ( ! o!r side4 ,f ?is results a peculi> arrangem5t ( ! muscles t we are able to br+ directly into prom95ce1 :i* pres5ts po9ts ( int]e/ f ! po9t ( view ( ! contraction ( ! subcutane\s lay]4 ,inde$1 9 man ! region occupi$ by ! pectorals is v broad2 x is a wide surface turn$ directly =w>d4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ?is region ( ! pectorals is n>r[$4 ,x is n spread out1 z 9 ! prec$+ in/ances2 & ! appe>ance x pres5ts is expla9$ by ! fact t ! ?orax is compress$ lat]ally4 ,if we exam9e ! ?orax on "o ( its lat]al surfaces1 ! muscles1 on ! contr>y1 are m ext5d$4 ,we see ! cont\r ( ! v]tebral column1 & ! m$ian "p ( ! abdom52 &1 especially 9 ! horse1 betwe5 ! great dorsal & ! great oblique ( ! abdom51 we f9d a l>ge space1 9 :i* ! ribs1 ) ! int]co/als :i* jo9 !m1 are uncov]$2 ! muscles 9 "q sep>ate ! "o f ! o!r1 "u ! influ5ce1 x w\ld seem1 ( ! great dim5sions ( ! lat]al wall ( ! ?orax4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a ,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,diagrammatic74 #a1 ,fif? dorsal v]tebra2 #b1 /]nal region2 #c1 co/al region ( "o side2 #c'1 co/al region ( ! opposite side4 ,! ,/]num4--,! /]num is1 9 quadrup$s1 direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds2 its =m v>ies 9 diff]5t species4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 x consi/s ( eight bones1 irregul>ly cyl9drical 9 =m1 be+ slightly flatt5$ f )9 outw>ds1 & ?ick5$ at _! extremities4 ,!y rema9 sep>ate1 & ?is contributes ela/icity & flexibility to ! ?orax4 ,! fir/ n9e co/al c>tilages articulate directly ) ! /]num4 ,! fir/ ( ^! c>tilages articulates ) a nodule situat$ a little above ! middle ( ! fir/ bone ( ! /]num4 ,9 ! horse ! /]num is flatt5$ lat]ally 9 its ant]ior portion1 & f above d[nw>ds 9 its po/]ior half4 ,! six bones :i* =m ! /]num are connect$ by c>tilage4 ,! keel-%ap$ piece1 situat$ 9 front ( ! /]num1 is also c>tilag9\s4 ,?is process1 b slightly m>k$ po/]iorly1 becomes m & m prom95t 9 front1 & t]m9ates at its ant]ior extremity by a prolongation1 slightly curv$ backw>ds1 :i* projects = "s c5timetres beyond ! cavity 9 :i* ! fir/ co/al c>tilage is receiv$4 ,?is process is kn[n z ! tra*eal process1 or ro/ral c>tilage4 ,! po/]ior extremity ( ! /]num1 flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds1 ends 9 a c>tilag9\s plate2 concave sup]iorly1 & convex inf]iorly3 ?is is ! abdom9al prolongation1 or xiphoid app5dix4 ,9 ! ox1 ! /]num is =m$ ( two di/9ct bones1 :i* are unit$ by an articulation4 ,"o1 ! ant]ior1 is %ort1 & =ms ! fir/ portion ( ! /]num2 x is slightly flatt5$ f side to side1 & v]tical 9 direction4 ,! o!r1 ! po/]ior1 is long]1 & is =m$ by ! fusion ( sev]al small bones2 x is plac$ horizontally1 & is flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds4 ,at ! level ( articulation ( ^! two portions1 & because ( _! diff]5t directions1 ! bone is b5t4 ,?is b5d occurs at ! po9t ( articulation ( ! second co/al c>tilage4 ,on ! sup]ior bord] ( ! ant]ior segm5t ! c>tilage ( ! fir/ rib is articulat$4 ,! xiphoid app5dix1 :i* is c>tilag9\s1 is atta*$ to ! extremity ( a long process ( ! la/ bone ( ! /]num4 ,! %ape ( ! ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num is influ5c$ by ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( clavicles4 ,we h se5 t 9 "s quadrup$s ! clavicles are want+4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ?is extremity is l>ge1 & approa*es 9 %ape to ! correspond+ "p ( ! human /]num1 :i* is s cle>ly design$ to give a po9t ( support to ! ant]ior bone ( ! %\ld]4 ,9 ! second1 on ! contr>y1 ?is extremity is n>r[4 ,! /]num 9 birds is v diff]5t f t 9 mammalia1 :i* we h be5 /udy+4 ,x v>ies greatly 9 ext5t & %ape1 "u ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 conditions4 ,to und]/& ! cause ( ^! v>iations x is necess>y to rememb] t 9 man 7z1 inde$1 9 o!r animals2 b ! example ( man1 = t :i* foll[s1 w be m /rik+1 on acc\nt ( ! mobility ( 8 upp] limbs7 ! /]num gives orig9 to ! pectoral muscles1 & t ^! muscles are ins]t$ into o!r p>ts ( ! ?oracic limbs1 design$ by _! contraction to draw ! arms d[nw>ds1 =w>ds1 & inw>ds--t is1 :5 ^! are 9 a /ate ( abduction & 9 a horizontal direction1 !y draw !m t[>ds ! ant]ior surface ( ! ?orax & d[nw>ds4 ,n[1 ?is movem5t is simil> to t made by birds dur+ flight4 ,x is necess>y to add t1 9 ! latt] case1 ! m ! displacem5t ( ! upp] limbs has ( =ce & ext5t1 ! m ! pectoral muscles are develop$4 ,= ^! reasons1 birds1 9 :i*1 dur+ flight1 ! movem5ts ( ! ?oracic limbs--! w+s--are necess>ily en]getic1 pres5t a great developm5t ( ! pectoral muscles2 hav+ consequ5tly1 because an ext5t ( surface = ! orig9 ( ! muscles comm5surate ) _! developm5t is necess>y1 a v l>ge & peculi>ly %ap$ /]num 7,figs4 #ah1 #f2 & #ba1 #f74 ,inde$1 n only is ! /]num l>ge1 b1 fur!r1 9 ord] to =m a deep] surface1 proportionately adapt$ to ! muscles :i* arise f & cov] x1 its ant]ior surface pres5ts1 9 ! m$ian l9e1 a prom95t cre/ kn[n z ! keel4 ,?is prom95ce =ms two lat]al fossae4 ,we cite z examples1 ! /]num ( ! eagle1 ! vulture1 ! falcon1 & ! hawk4 ,all birds are n1 h[ev]1 equally adapt$ to flight1 = 9 ! dome/ic cock1 :i* flies b a %ort di/ance1 & badly1 ! /]num is less develop$ 7,fig4 #g72 x is also dim9i%$ by slots1 :i* dim9i% its surface4 ,^! slots1 two on ea* side1 are call$ f _! position ! int]nal & ext]nal slots4 ,!y are b\nd$ by n>r[1 elongat$1 bony processes1 an int]nal & an ext]nal2 ! exp&$ l[] extremity ( ! latt] ov]laps ! la/ inf]ior ribs 7see p4 #ai74 ,! "p ( ! ext]nal bord] :i* surm\nts ?is ext]nal process is holl[$ out into grooves1 :i* receive ! inf]ior ribs1 & t]m9ates sup]iorly 9 an osse\s projection kn[n z ! co/al prom95ce4 ,9 ! o/ri*1 ! cass[>y1 & ! apt]yx1 :i* run1 b d n fly1 ! /]num has ! =m ( a plate ( bone slightly convex1 b )\t a keel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,/]num ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,keel2 #b1 int]nal slot2 #c1 ext]nal slot2 #d1 int]nal process2 #e1 ext]nal process2 #f1 inf]ior ribs2 #g1 co/al process2 #h1 surface = articulation ) ! coracoid bone4 ,! %ape ( ! /]num1 correlat$ to ! faculty ( flight 7or ( swimm+2 apropos ( :i* we may cite ! p5gu91 ( :i* ! rudim5t>y w+s resemble f9s1 & p]=m _! functions only71 or ! abs5ce ( ?is faculty1 has furni%$ ! division ( birds into two gr\ps4 ,9 "o are includ$1 "u ! "n ,c>9ates 7c>9a1 keel71 ^? 9 :i* ! /]num is provid$ ) a keel2 9 ! o!r division are ^? 9 :i* ! /]num is n furni%$ ) "o4 ,^! latt]1 on acc\nt ( _! unique mode ( progression1 are m ne>ly alli$ to ! mammals4 ,! keel is develop$ 9 fly+ mammals 7bats74 ,ribs & ,co/al ,c>tilages4--,!re are on ea* side ( ! ?orax z _m ribs z !re are dorsal v]tebrae4 ,9 animals1 z 9 man1 ! ribs :i* articulate ) ! /]num by _! c>tilages are call$ true1 or /]nal ribs2 ^? ^: c>tilages d n articulate ) ! /]num are call$ false1 or a/]nal4 ,! long] ribs are ^? situat$ 9 ! middle region ( ! ?orax4 ,! ribs are direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & ?is obliquity is m m>k$ 9 ! po/]ior ones ?an 9 ! ant]ior4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 less oblique ?an 9 ! human be+2 :at proves ?is is t ! fir/ rib 9 man is oblique1 :ile 9 quadrup$s x is v]tical4 ,! curvature ( ! ribs is less pron\nc$ 9 quadrup$s ?an 9 ! human be+1 b ?is is n equal 9 all animals4 ,! ribs ( ! be> are m curv$ ?an ^? ( ! dog2 ! latt] has ribs m curv$ ?an ^? ( ! horse4 ,ea* rib1 at its v]tebral extremity1 pres5ts1 f )9 outw>ds1 a w$ge-%ap$ head = articulation ) two dorsal v]tebrae1 a neck1 & a tub]osity4 ,ext]nal to ! tub]cle are f\nd "s r\gh impressions1 = muscul> atta*m5ts1 :i* correspond to ! angle ( ! human rib4 ,9 ! foll[+ table1 we give ! numb] & classification ( ! ribs ( "s animals3 ,,numb] ,,( ,,! ,,ribs ,,on ,,ea* ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,?orax4 ,/]nal4 ,a/]nal4 ,be> #ad divid$ into #i & #e ,dog #ac #i #d ,cat #ac #i #d ,rabbit #ab #g #e ,pig #ad #g #g ,horse #ah #h #aj ,camel #ab #h #d ,ox #ac #h #e ,%eep #ac #h #e ,! co/al c>tilages1 by :i* ! fir/ ribs are unit$ to ! /]num 7/]nal ribs71 :il/ ! latt] are unit$ "o to ! o!r )\t be+ directly connect$ ) ! /]num 7a/]nal ribs71 are1 z a rule1 9 quadrup$s1 direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds1 =w>ds1 & inw>ds2 ea* =ms1 ) ! rib to :i* x belongs1 an obtuse angle m or less op5 ant]iorly4 ,_! l5g? is proportionate to t ( ! ribs4 ,! c>tilages1 :i* are cont9u$ f ! a/]nal ribs1 unite & =m ! bord]s1 direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 ( ! fossa :i* is f\nd at ! inf]ior & po/]ior "p ( ! ?orax1 & :i* =ms ! lat]al limits ( ! epiga/ric region4 ,9 ! dog & cat ! ribs are ?ick & almo/ cyl9drical2 ! co/al c>tilages are ?ick] at ! m>g9 ( ! /]num ?an at _! co/al extremity4 ,9 ! ox1 ! ribs are flatt5$ lat]ally & are v broad1 ! m s z we exam9e a portion fur!r f ! v]tebral column4 ,f ! second to ! twelf? !y are quadrangul> 9 ! sup]ior f\r?1 & ?ick] ?an 9 ! re/ ( _! ext5t4 ,! fir/ co/al c>tilage is v]tical2 ! foll[+ ones are progressively m oblique 9 a direction d[nw>ds & =w>ds4 ,! f\r or five c>tilages :i* succe$ ! fir/ unite ) slight obliquity to ! /]num2 _! union ) t bone gives ! impression ( a v /rong1 well-knit app>atus4 ,! co/al c>tilages :i* unite ) ! /]num are flatt5$ lat]ally 9 ! portions next ! ribs1 & flatt5$ f front to back 9 ! re/ ( _! ext5t4 ,9 ! horse ! ribs increase 9 l5g? f ! fir/ to ! n9?2 !y are flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds1 & increase 9 wid? f ! fir/ to ! six? or sev5?1 & ! foll[+ ones become n>r[]4 ,! co/al c>tilages1 f ! second to ! eigh?1 are1 z 9 ! ox1 at fir/ flatt5$ lat]ally1 ne> ! ribs2 :ile ne> ! /]num !y are flatt5$ f front to back4 ,9 birds1 ! ribs are ea* furni%$ ) a flat process 7,fig4 #ah1 #aj71 :i* spr+s f ! po/]ior bord]1 is direct$ backw>ds1 & ov]laps ! ext]nal surface ( ! succe$+ rib4 ,^! processes are n f\nd1 z a rule1 on ! fir/ or la/ ribs4 ,z = ! co/al c>tilages1 !y are1 z a rule1 ossifi$1 & receive ! "n ( inf]ior ribs 7,fig4 #ah1 #aa71 unit$ to ! prec$+ 7sup]ior ribs2 ,fig4 #ah1 #i7 by articulation2 by ! o!r extremity !y are jo9$ to ! /]num2 ! fir/ sup]ior ribs g5]ally want !m4 ,sometimes ! la/ inf]ior rib becomes connect$ ) ! "o t prec$es x1 n articulat+ ) ! /]num2 & ?us recalls ! relations ( ! a/]nal ribs :i* we h notic$ 9 our /udy ( ! mammals4 ,9 ! bat1 z 9 birds1 ! co/al c>tilages are ossifi$4 ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,limbs#e #e ,consult ,figs4 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #df4 ,! ant]ior limbs1 homolog\s to ! upp] limbs 9 man1 are =m$1 z 9 ! latt]1 ( f\r segm5ts3 ! %\ld]1 ! arm1 ! =e>m1 & ! h&4 ,^! limbs1 consid]$ 9 ! v]tebral s]ies1 pres5t !mselves "u v diff]5t aspects1 :i* are det]m9$ by ! functions !y are call$ ^u to p]=m4 ,!y con/itute ! =epaw 9 t]re/rial mammals2 9 a]ial v]tebrates !y =m w+s2 9 aque\s mammals !y act z paddles4 ,9 :atev] s]ies we /udy !m1 we c readily f9d ! relation%ip ( ! diff]5t p>ts2 x is v easy to recognise ! same bones 9 ! upp] limbs ( ! human be+1 ! w+s ( ! bat 7,fig4 #h7 & ( birds 7,fig4 #ba71 & 9 ! ant]ior paddles ( ! seal 7,fig4 #i7 & ( ! dolph94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,bat3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,clavicle2 #b1 scapula2 #c1 hum]us2 #d1 radius2 #e1 cubitus2 #f1 c>pus2 #g1 ?umb2 #h1 metac>pus2 #i1 phalanges4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ! %\ld] & arm are hidd51 ! latt] m or less completely1 9 ! muscul> mass :i* b9ds x to ! lat]al wall ( ! trunk2 s t ! ant]ior limbs only pres5t2 free f ! trunk3 ! elb[1 =e>m1 & h&4 ,! ,%\ld] ,9 "s v]tebrates1 ! %\ld] is =m$ ( two bones--! scapula & clavicle2 9 o!rs ( only "o bone--! scapula2 ! clavicle 9 ?is case does n exi/4 ,! ,scapula or ,omoplate4--,! scapula is situat$ on ! lat]al surface ( ! ?orax1 & is direct$ obliquely1 f above d[nw>ds & f beh9d =w>ds4 ,we mu/ fir/ recall1 s z to be able to make a comp>ison1 t 9 man ?is bone is plac$ at ! po/]ior surface ( ! ?oracic cage2 s t if we look at ! human ?orax on "o ( its lat]al aspects we see *iefly ! ext]nal bord] ( ! scapula2 x is ! ext]nal surface 7homolog\s to ! po/]ior surface ( ! human scapula7 :i* we see 9 its full ext5t :5 we look on ! same surface ( ! ?orax 9 quadrup$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,seal3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,scapula2 #b1 hum]us2 #c1 radius2 #d1 ulna2 #e1 c>pus2 #f1 metac>pus2 #g1 phalanges ( ! f+]s4 ,to sum up1 if we fancy ! human be+ 9 ! position ( ! quadrup$1 ! scapula w h its surfaces almo/ p>allel to ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #aj72 :ile 9 quadrup$s1 ! surfaces are situat$ 9 a plane :i* is almo/ p]p5dicul> to ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #aa74 ,?is position ( ! scapula 9 an almo/ v]tical plane is design$ to give ! necess>y po9t ( support to ! osse\s columns t =m ! skeleton ( ! o!r portions ( ! ant]ior limbs4 ,because ( ?is position ( ! scapula 7,figs4 #ab & #ac71 ! sp9al bord] is sup]ior1 ! c]vical1 ant]ior1 & ! axill>y1 po/]ior4 ,9 direct contra/ to :at obta9s 9 ! human scapula1 ! sp9al bord] is ! %orte/ ( ! ?ree2 except 9 ! bat1 & ! majority ( ! cetaceans4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,situation ,,& ,,direction ,,( ,,! ,,scapula ,,9 ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,! ,,trunk ,,be+ ,,horizontal1 ,,z ,,9 ,,quadrup$s4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,cont\r ( ! ?orax2 #b1 #b1 ! scapula4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,position ,,& ,,direction ,,( ,,! ,,scapula ,,9 ,,quadrup$s4 ,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,?orax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,cont\r ( ! ?orax2 #b1 #b1 ! scapula4 ,9 c]ta9 animals 79 ! ungulates ho($#f--pigs1 ox51 %eep1 horses7 ! sup]ior1 or sp9al1 bord] ( ! scapula is surm\nt$ by a c>tilage call$ ! c>tilage ( prolongation4 #f ,= ! def9ition ( ! ^w ho($1 see p4 #cg4 ,?is is ! cause :y ! bord] to :i* x is fix$ is s slightly noticeable "u ! sk9 9 ^! animals2 inde$1 9 ! upp] "p1 ! bone & c>tilage are n di/+ui%able 9 ! cont\r ( ! correspond+ region ( ! back2 be+ appli$ to ! lat]al surfaces ( ! sp9\s processes1 ! prom95ce =m$ by ! extremities ( :i* is directly cont9u\s ) ! plane ( ! scapula 7,fig4 #af74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,po/]ior ,,surface1 ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,occupy ,,9 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$4 #a1 ,c]vical bord]2 #b1 sp9al bord]2 #c1 axill>y bord]2 #d1 suprasp9\s fossa2 #e1 subsp9\s fossa2 #f1 scapul> sp9e2 #g1 gl5oid cavity2 #h1 coracoid process2 #i1 acromion process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,c]vical bord]2 #b1 sp9al bord]--! scapula "h repres5t$1 be+ f a ho($ animal1 has a c>tilage ( ext5sion atta*$ to its sp9al bord]2 #c1 axill>y bord]2 #d1 suprasp9\s fossa2 #e1 subsp9\s fossa2 #f1 sp9e ( ! scapula2 #g1 gl5oid cavity2 #h1 coracoid process4 ,! scapula ( ! horse has no acromion process1 b x is easy1 if we comp>e ! human scapula1 to judge ( ! position :i* ?is process w\ld occupy if x 7 pres5t4 ,9 quadrup$s ^: scapula1 on ! contr>y1 is want+ 9 ! c>tilage ( prolongation 79 ! claw$1#g su* z ! cat & dog71 ! sup]ior bord] ( ! scapula is visible1 especially :5 ! animal is re/+ on its =e-limbs1 p>ticul>ly :5 x cr\*es2 at su* a "t ! sk9 is m>k$ly rais$ by t bord]2 & ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebrae1 beyond :i* x projects1 occupy ! bottom ( a fossa 7,fig4 #ae74 ,! int]nal surface ( ! scapula is turn$ t[>ds ! ribs2 x is kn[n1 z 9 man 79 :om ?is surface is ant]ior71 z ! subscapul> fossa4 #g ,= ! def9ition ( ?is ^w1 see p4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section1 ,,at ,,! ,,site ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]s1 ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,outl9e ( ! ?orax at ! level ( ! ?ird dorsal v]tebra2 #b1 #b1 scapula2 #c1 sp9al bord] ( ! scapula2 #d1 c>tilage ( prolongation2 #e1 cont\r ( ! sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section1 ,,at ,,! ,,plane ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]s1 ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,( ,a ,,dog 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,outl9e ( ! ?orax at ! level ( ! ?ird dorsal v]tebra2 #b1 #b1 scapula2 #c1 sp9al bord] ( ! scapula2 #d1 cont\r ( ! sk94 ,its ext]nal surface is divid$ into two p>ts by ! sp9e ( ! scapula2 :i*1 9 "s animals1 t]m9ates inf]iorly 9 a flat & cle>ly di/9ct process1 ! homologue ( ! acromion process ( ! human scapula4 ,! two regions sep>at$ by ! sp9e are kn[n z ! suprasp9\s fossa & ! infrasp9\s fossa4 ,! suprasp9\s fossa is ant]ior to ! sp9e1 & ! infrasp9\s is po/]ior to x4 ,! surfaces ( ! scapula are1 9 quadrup$s1 flatt] ?an 9 ! human be+1 & 9 p>ticul> ! subscapul> fossa1 :i* is also less concave4 ,"s au?ors attribute ?is to ! less] curvature ( ! ribs 9 quadrup$s4 ,a few words w suffice to prove t !re mu/ be ano!r reason4 ,! scapula is n 9 imm$iate contact ) ! ribs2 ! subscapul> fossa is n m\ld$ on !m4 ,besides1 ! =m ( ! scapula is1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! skeleton1 dep5d5t on ! disposition ( muscles1 & ! developm5t ( ^! latt] is correlat$ to ! ext5t & en]gy ( ! movem5ts :i* ! individual is able or requir$ to execute4 ,b ! movem5ts :i* ^? muscles produce 7m especially ! rotation ( ! hum]us7 are1 9 quadrup$s1 less ext5sive ?an 9 ! human be+2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! muscles :i* produce !m are1 proportionally1 less /rongly develop$4 ,! inf]ior angle 7sup]ior & ext]nal 9 man71 situat$ at ! junction ( ! c]vical & axill>y bord]s1 pres5ts ! gl5oid cavity1 :i*1 look+ d[nw>ds1 receives ! articul> surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! bone ( ! arm--t is to say1 ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,above ?is cavity1 on ! l[] "p ( ! c]vical bord]1 is situat$ a tub]cle :i* rem9ds u ( ! coracoid process ( ! human scapula4 ,! region occupi$ by ! gl5oid cavity is sep>at$ f ! body ( ! bone by a con/riction--! neck ( ! scapula4 ,9 birds ! scapula is elongat$ 9 a direction p>allel to ! v]tebral column1 & v n>r[ 9 ! opposite 7,fig4 #ah73 x is also flat1 & has no sp9e4 ,its coracoid process is repres5t$ by a peculi> bone--! coracoidean or coracoid bone--:i* we %all describe lat] on :5 we come to ! /udy ( ! clavicle & ( ! ant]ior region ( ! %\ld] 7see p4 #bf74 ,! ,clavicle4--,! clavicle is f\nd only 9 ! human be+1 & 9 animals ^: ant]ior limbs1 possess+ great fre$om ( movem5t 9 all directions1 require t ! scapula %\ld possess a po9t ( support :i*1 :ile af=d+ ?is1 c be displac$ ) x1 or draw x 9 c]ta9 directions4 ,n[1 ?is po9t ( support is furni%$ by ! clavicle4 ,9 animals possess$ ( ho(s 7ungulates71 su* z ! %eep1 ox1 & horse1 ! clavicle does n exi/4 ,inde$1 9 !m ! fre$om ( movem5t ( ! ant]ior limbs is limit$2 !y move by projection 9 ! =w>d & backw>d directions only2 !y m]ely fulfil ! functions ( giv+ support to & c>ry+ ab\t ! body4 ,! clavicle is rudim5t>y 9 ! cat & ! dog2 9 ! cat x is a small1 elongat$ bone 7,fig4 #af71 #b c5timetres 9 l5g?1 ?9 & curv$1 connect$ ) ! /]num & ! scapula by ligam5t\s bundles4 ,9 ! dog x is repres5t$ by a small osse\s plate only 7,fig4 #ag71 :i* is n connect$ ) any ( ! neighb\r+ bones4 ,x is on ! deep surface ( a muscle :i* passes f ! head & neck to ! hum]us 7ma/oido-hum]al1 a muscle common to ! arm1 neck1 & head7 9 :i* ?is rudim5t>y bone is f\nd to be develop$4 ,! clavicle exi/s 9 p]fect /ate 9 mammals :i* use _! limbs = digg+1 grasp+1 or fly+2 ! insectivora 7h$gehog1 mole7 & "s rod5ts 7squirrel1 wood*uck7 are provid$ ) x4 ,! *eiropt]a 7bats7 possess an extremely well-develop$ clavicle1 on acc\nt ( ! v>i$ movem5ts :i* _! ?oracic limbs execute4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,left ,,clavicle ,,( ,,! ,,cat3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface 7,,natural ,,size74 #a1 ,int]nal extremity2 #b1 ext]nal extremity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,clavicle ,,( ,,! ,,dog 7,,natural ,,size74 ,?is =mation ( ! %\ld] :i* fav\rs flight 9 ! bat is ev5 m rem>kable 9 birds4 ,9 ^! latt] 7,fig4 #ah7 ! clavicles1 fus$ toge!r by _! l[] extremities1 =m "o bone1 hav+ ! %ape ( ! lett] ,v or ,u1 :i* is kn[n z ! f\r*ette2 ?is bone1 act+ z a true spr+1 keeps ! %\ld]s ap>t1 & prev5ts _! approximation dur+ ! en]getic movem5ts :i* flight necessitates4 ,9 birds ^: p[] ( flight is /rong1 ! two limbs ( ?is bone are widely sep>at$ & ?ick1 & ! f\r*ette is ,u-%ap$4 ,^? ^: flight is awkw>d & b slightly en]getic h ! limbs ( ! f\r*ette sl5d]2 !y unite at a m acute angle1 & ! bone is ,v %ap$4 ,fur!rmore1 a bone nam$ ! coracoid jo9s ! scapula to ! /]num2 ?is bone1 (t5 fus$ ) ! scapula1 :]e x contributes to ! =mation ( ! gl5oid cavity1 repres5ts 9 birds ! coracoid process ( ! human scapula4 ,if we fancy ?is process direct$ inw>ds1 & suffici5tly l5g!n$ to jo9 ! /]num1 we %all h an idea ( ! disposition ( ! bone we are n[ discuss+1 & ! reasons = :i* ! "n has be5 *os5 by :i* x is designat$4 ,! coracoid bone1 l ! f\r*ette :i* x re9=ces1 (f]s to ! w+s a degree ( support proportionate to ! ef=ts develop$ by ^? limbs2 = ?is reason x is ?ick & solid 9 birds ( p[]ful flight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld] ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,ant]o-,,ext]nal ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,left clavicle2 #b1 inf]ior portion ( ! "r clavicle1 =m+ by its ankylosis ) t ( ! o!r side ! f\r*ette2 #c1 coracoid bone2 #d1 scapula2 #e1 articul> surface = hum]us2 #f1 sup]ior half ( ! /]num2 #g1 keel ( /]num2 #h1 sp9\s process ( ! dorsal v]tebrae2 #i1 sup]ior ribs2 #aj1 process ( "o ( ^! ribs2 #aa1 inf]ior ribs4 ,! sup]ior extremity ( ea* bran* ( ! f\r*ette1 at ! level ( its junction ) ! coracoid & ! scapula1 b\nds1 ) ^! latt]1 a =am5 :i* gives passage to ! t5don ( ! elevator muscle ( ! w+1 or small pectoral4 ,! importance ( ! f\r*ette be+1 z we h se51 9 proportion to ! movem5ts ( fly+1 x is easy to und]/& t ! bone is n f\nd 9 ! o/ri*4 ,! ,arm ,a s+le bone1 ! hum]us1 =ms ! skeleton ( ?is portion ( ! ?oracic limb4 ,! ,hum]us4--,! bone ( ! arm is1 9 quadrup$s1 incl9$ f above d[nw>ds & f be=e backw>ds4 ,x is1 ) relation to o!r regions1 %ort 9 proportion z ! metac>pus is elongat$1 & z ! numb] ( digits is less5$4 ,9 ! horse1 = example1 ^: metac>pus is long1 & 9 :i* b "o digit is app>5t1 ! hum]us is v %ort4 ,! slight developm5t 9 l5g? ( ! hum]us expla9s its close application to ! side ( ! animal z f> z ! elb[4 ,9 animals 9 :i* ! hum]us is long]1 ! bone is slightly free1 z well z ! elb[1 at its inf]ior extremity4 ,lat] on we w return to ! consid]ation ( ?is peculi>ity & ( ! proportions ( ! hum]us1 aft] we h /udi$ ! o!r p>ts ( ! =e-limbs4 ,! hum]us 9 quadrup$s is inflect$ l ! lett] ,s2 9 man ?is g5]al =m is less acc5tuat$1 ! hum]us be+ almo/ /raight4 ,on its body1 :i* appe>s twi/$ on its own axis1 we f9d ! musculo-spiral groove1#h :i* crosses ! ext]nal surface1 & is v deep 9 "s animals4 ,above ?is groove1 & on ! ext]nal surface1 !re exi/s a r\gh surface :i* is ! impression ( ! deltoid4 ,9 "s species ?is rugosity is v prom95t1 & is call$ ! tub]osity ( ! deltoid2 x is prolong$ d[nw>ds by a bord] :i* =ms ! ant]ior cre/ ( ! musculo-spiral groove & limits ?is latt] 9 front4 ,! ext]nal bord] ( ! bone1 or po/]ior cre/ ( ! groove1 limits x beh9d4 #h ,x w\ld be go+ outside our prov9ce to discuss :e!r ! hum]us is really twi/$ on its axis4 ,?is "q1 (t5 discuss$1 has be5 solv$ 9 "s rec5t works 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ! hum]us has und]gone torsion at ! level ( its sup]ior extremity1 & n at ! level ( its body2 ?is does n au?orize u fur!r to accord any def9ite s5se to ! d5om9ation 'groove ( torsion' 7musculo-spiral groove74 ,t :i* we mu/ especially rememb] 9 connection ) ?is fact1 is1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 ! diff]5ce ( direction :i* ! articul> head pres5ts accord+ z ! torsion has be5 m or less consid]able3 because ?is is e/abli%$1 accord+ to ! same ord]1 9 man & 9 quadrup$s4 ,! sup]ior extremity is enl>g$1 & rem>kable 9 ?ree portions :i* x pres5ts2 ^! are3 an articul> surface & two tub]osities4 ,! articul> surface1 or head ( ! hum]us1 smoo? & r\nd1 is 9 contact ) ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula4 ,?is head 9 ! human skeleton is direct$ upw>ds & inw>ds2 9 quadrup$s its direction is upw>ds & backw>ds4 ,! inf]ior extremity1 hav+ 9 bo? "o & ! o!r its long axis direct$ transv]sely1 & ! po9t ( ! elb[ look+ backw>ds 9 all1 ! result is t ! head ( ! hum]us is n situat$ v]tically above ! same regions2 9 ! fir/1 x is almo/ directly above ! int]nal "p ( ?is extremity2 9 ! latt]1 x is situat$ above its po/]ior surface1 or ! po9t ( ! elb[ 9 ! complete skeleton4 ,?is diff]5ce ( direction is correlat$ ) ! position ( ! scapula1 ! gl5oid cavity ( :i*1 z we h already se51 is 9 man turn$ outw>ds1 :]eas 9 quadrup$s x looks d[nw>ds4 ,9 ! latt] case ! scapula consequ5tly re/s on ! head ( ! hum]us2 & ?is position is mo/ fav\rable = ! p]=mance ( ! functions :i* ! ant]ior limbs h to fulfil 9 ^! latt]4 ,( ! tub]osities ( ! head ( ! hum]us1 "o is situat$ on ! ext]nal aspect--x is ! great tub]osity1 or tro*it]2 ! o!r is plac$ int]nally--x is ! small tub]osity1 or tro*94 ,! great tub]osity is divid$ into ?ree p>ts--summit1 convexity1 & cre/2 ^! diff]5t p>ts give ins]tion to ! muscles ( ! %\ld]4 ,we recollect t ! facets 7ant]ior1 middle1 & po/]ior7 ( ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us 9 man give atta*m5t to ! muscles ( ! same region4 ,! head ( ! hum]us 9 ! human body projects above ! tub]osities4 ,we %all see aft]w>ds1 :5 deal+ ) "s special quadrup$s1 t 9 "s ( ^!1 on ! o!r h&1 ! tub]osities are on a high] level ?an ! articul> head ( ! bone4 ,betwe5 ! two tub]osities is ! bicipital groove4 ,9 man1 ! sup]ior extremity ( ! hum]us1 al?\gh cov]$ by ! deltoid1 reveals its pres5ce by elevat+ ! correspond+ portion ( ! latt]4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ! ant]ior "p ( ?is extremity1 al?\gh simil>ly cov]$ by muscul> bundles1 produces a prom95ce "u ! sk94 ,?is prom95ce is situat$ at ! summit ( ! angle =m$ by ! oppos+ directions ( ! scapula & ! bone ( ! arm1 & con/itutes :at is kn[n by ! "n ( ! po9t ( ! %\ld]1 or ( ! po9t ( ! arm4 ,! inf]ior extremity1 transv]sely enl>g$1 pres5ts an undulat+ articul> surface1 :i* rem9ds u ( ! tro*lea & ! condyle ( ! human hum]us2 on :i*1 h[ev]1 ! condyle is m %>ply def9$ f ! tro*lea4 ,9 ! human skeleton1 ! int]nal lip ( ! tro*lea desc5ds l[] ?an ! ext]nal2 & also l[] ?an ! condyle4 ,9 ! be>1 ! cat1 & ! dog1 x is ! same4 ,9 ! ox & ! %eep1 ! condyle is l[] ?an ! tro*lea1 b only v little l[]4 ,9 ! horse ! arrangem5t is /ill ! same1 b a little m acc5tuat$4 ,on ! lat]al p>ts ( ?is extremity we f9d3 int]nally1 a prom95ce1 ! epitro*lea2 &1 ext]nally1 ano!r1 ! epicondyle4 ,x is f ?is latt] t ! cre/ arises1 :i*1 pass+ upw>ds1 =ms ! po/]ior limit ( ! groove ( torsion4 ,! two prom95ces1 :i* we h j describ$ f a g5]al po9t ( view1 pres5t special arrangem5ts :i* x is necess>y to po9t out4 ,:5 we exam9e ! =m ( ! outl9e ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us 9 man1 ! be>1 ! cat1 ! dog1 ! ox1 & ! horse1 we f9d 9 foll[+ ?is ord] t ! extremity t5ds to become n>r[ transv]sely1 & t ! epicondyle & ! epitro*lea are less & less prom95t on ! ext]nal & int]nal aspects respectively4 ,^! two processes1 inde$1 project backw>ds2 ! epitro*lea always rema9+ m develop$ ?an ! epicondyle4 ,because ( ?is projection backw>ds1 ! cavity situat$ on ! po/]ior surface ( ! inf]ior extremity1 ! olecranon fossa1 is v deep1 m s ?an 9 ! hum]us ( man4 ,its bord]s be+ ?us =m$ by ! two processes1 are v prom95t4 ,9 front we f9d ! coronoid fossa1 :i* is less deep ?an t ( :i* we h j spok54 ,!re exi/s 9 "s mammals an osse\s canal1 situat$ above ! epitro*lea1 & kn[n z ! supratro*le> canal 7,fig4 #ai74 ,x is b\nd$ by a plate ( bone :i* at its middle portion is deta*$ f ! %aft ( ! hum]us1 & bl5ds ) ! latt] at bo? its extremities4 ,! bra*ial art]y & m$ian n]ve pass ?r\gh ! =am54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,hum]us ,,( ,a ,,felide 7,,lion74 #a1 ,epitro*lea2 #b1 supra-epitro*le> =am54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,human ,,hum]us1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,pres5ce ,,( ,a ,,supratro*le> ,,process4 #a1 ,epitro*lea2 #b1 supra-epitro*le> process4 ,a simil> condition is sometimes f\nd1 z an abnormality1 9 man1 :i* pres5ts itself "u ! foll[+ aspect 7,fig4 #bj73 an osse\s prom95ce m or less long1 9 ! %ape ( a cro*et-ne$le--supra-epitro*le> process--situat$ #e or #f c5timetres above ! epitro*lea2 ! summit ( ?is process gives atta*m5t to a fibr\s b&1 :i* is ins]t$ by its o!r end into ! epitro*lea & ! int]nal int]muscul> aponeurosis4 ,! fibro-osse\s r+ ?us =m$ gives passage to ! bra*ial art]y & ! m$ian n]ve1 or 9 case ( a premature division ( ?is art]y to ! uln> bran* ( ! same4#i #i ,= fur!r details ( ?is anomaly1 see ,te/ut1 ',! ,epitro*le> ,process 9 ,man' 7,int]national ,j\rnal ( ,anatomy & ,physiology1 #ahhi72 ,a4 ,nicolas1 ',new ,/udies on ! ,supratro*le> ,process 9 ,man' 7,review ( ,biology ( ! ,nor? ( ,france1 t4 iii41 #ahij-ahia74 ,!re is also f\nd 9 "s mammals a p]=ation ( ! ?9 plate ( bone :i*1 9 o!rs1 sep>ates ! olecranon fossa f ! coronoid4 ,?is p]=ation is sometimes f\nd z an abnormality 9 ! human hum]us4 ,z does ! /]num & ! skeleton ( ! %\ld]1 ! hum]us ( birds pres5ts diff]5ces correlat$ to ! functions :i* ! ?oracic limbs are de/9$ to fulfil4 ,ly+ on ! side ( ! ?orax1 direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds 7,fig4 #ba71 x is proportionately long] 9 individuals ( p[]ful flight ?an 9 ^? :i* fly less or n at all4 ,9 ! vulture x projects beyond ! po/]ior "p ( ! pelvis2 9 ! cock x does n ev5 rea* ! ant]ior bord] ( ! same4 ,to ^! diff]5ces 9 l5g? are add$ diff]5ces 9 volume & 9 ! developm5t ( ! processes :i* s]ve = muscul> atta*m5t1 :i* are m consid]able 9 birds ( p[]ful flight4 ,! hum]us is s plac$ t ! radial bord]1 ext]nal 9 man & quadrup$s1 looks upw>ds1 ) ! result t ! surface ( ! bone ( ! arm1 :i* 9 ^! latt] is ant]ior1 9 ! =m] looks outw>ds4 ,! hum]al head1 :i* is turn$ =w>ds & a little inw>ds1 is convex & elongat$ 9 ! v]tical direction4 ,beh9d & above ?is head is f\nd a cre/ = ! ins]tion ( muscles4 ,x is ! same = ! region bel[1 :]e !re is a tub]osity ^: inf]ior surface pres5ts a pretty l>ge op5+ :i* looks inw>ds to a fossa f ! floor ( :i* a numb] ( m9ute op5+s communicate ) ! int]ior ( ! bone4 ,?is is ! pneumatic =am5 ( ! hum]us4 ,x is ( int]e/ to rememb] 9 connection ) ?is subject t 9 birds1 9 keep+ ) ! conditions ( flight1 e sy/em ( organs is adapt$ to dim9i% ! weight ( ! body4 ,we p>ticul>ly draw att5tion to ! osse\s framework1 ! /ructure ( :i* is su* t ! weight ( ! animal is greatly less5$4 ,?is condition is secur$ by ! pneumaticity4 ,! bone consi/s ( a cov] ( compact tissue1 :i*1 in/ead ( enclos+ m>r[1 is holl[$ out by cavities :i* conta9 air1 & communicate ) special p\*es1 ! air-sacs1 :i* are app5dages ( ! lungs4#aj #aj ,! pres5ce ( air 9 ! bones does n seem to be always associat$ ) ! p[] ( flight2 z a matt] ( fact1 we f9d air spaces 9 ! bones ( "s birds :i* d n fly 7,e4 ,j4 ,m>ey1 ',! ,flight ( ,birds1' ,p>is1 #ahij1 p4 #ea74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 c]vical v]tebrae2 #d1 sp9\s processes ( ! dorsal v]tebrae2 #e1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #f1 /]num2 #g1 keel2 #h1 sup]ior ribs2 #i1 inf]ior ribs2 #aj1 clavicle2 #aa1 coracoid bone 7= ! details ( ! skeleton ( ! %\ld]1 see ,fig4 #ah72 #ab1 hum]us2 #ac1 radius2 #ad1 ulna2 #ae1 c>pus2 #af1 h& 7= details ( ! skeleton ( ?is region1 see ,fig4 #ca72 #ag1 ilium2 #ah1 is*ium2 #ai1 pubis 7= ! details ( ! pelvis1 see ,fig4 #df72 #bj1 femur2 #ba1 tibia2 #bb1 fibula2 #bc1 osse\s nodule1 :i* "s anatomi/s ?9k repres5ts ! calcaneum2 x is ! sole ve/ige ( ! t>sus2 #bd1 metat>sus2 #be1 foot2 #bf1 fir/ toe 7= ! details ( ! skeleton ( ! foot1 see ,fig4 #dh74 ,! antibra*ial extremity ( ! hum]us is flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds4 ,x t]m9ates 9 two articul> surfaces1 :i* articulate ) ! radius & ulna4 ,! olecranon process ( ! ulna be+ slightly develop$1 x foll[s t ! olecranon fossa is n l>ge2 nei!r is ! coronoid4 ,g5]al ,view ( ! ,=m ( ! ,=e>m & ,h& ,we n[ proce$ to ! /udy ( ! two regions ( ! =e-limbs :i* pres5t ! greate/ v>iety 9 reg>d to ! numb] ( bones & also 9 reg>d to =m & proportions4 ,^! two regions are ! =e>m & ! h&4 ,x is fir/ ( all necess>y to say t 9 man1 :5 ! =e-limb hangs beside ! body1 & ! dorsum ( ! h& looks backw>ds1 ! two bones ( ! =e>m are p>allel1 & t ?is position is kn[n by ! "n ( sup9ation4 ,x is also necess>y to rememb] t !re is ano!r attitude1 9 :i* ! radius1 cross+ ! ulna1 & c>ry+ ! h& ) x1 displaces ! latt] 9 su* a way t ! palm> surface looks backw>ds4 ,?is second position is kn[n z pronation4 ,let u n[ suppose t a man wi%es to walk 9 ! attitude ( a quadrup$4 ,x w be necess>y1 9 ord] t 8 upp] limbs1 be+ = ! mom5t ant]ior ones1 may act z memb]s ( support1 to place ! =e>m 9 pronation1 9 ord] t1 z is m normal1 ! h&s may re/ on ! gr\nd by _! palm> surfaces4 ,9 ?is position ! radius1 be+ rotat$ on its own axis at its upp] extremity & ar\nd ! ulna 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t1 %all h its inf]ior extremity situat$ on ! inn] side ( ! correspond+ extremity ( ! latt]4 ,su* is ! situation ( ! bones ( ! =e>m & ! attitude ( ! h& 9 quadrup$s4 ,9 %ort1 quadrup$s h _! ant]ior memb]s 9 ! position ( pronation4 ,! individual :om we h j suppos$ plac$ 9 ! attitude ( a quadrup$ w\ld be able to ma9ta9 ?is position by press+ on ! gr\nd m or less ext5sive portions ( 8 h&s2 ! :ole palm ( ! h& may be appli$ to ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #bb72 or ! f+]s only--t is to say1 ! phalanges 7,fig4 #bc72 or ! extremities ( ! f+]s only--t is to say1 ! ?ird phalanges 7,fig4 #bd74 ,?is la/ position1 :i* is c]ta9ly difficult to ma9ta91 %\ld "h be reg>d$ r z !oretical4 ,we %all meet ) ea* ( ^! modes ( support 9 c]ta9 gr\ps ( animals4 ,?us1 ! be>1 badg]1 & ! majority ( rod5ts1 h ! paws appli$ to ! gr\nd by ! :ole ext5t ( ! palm> surface ( ! h&1 f ! wri/ to ! tips ( ! f+]s4 ,!y are !re=e call$ plantigrade1 f ! analogy1 9 ?is case1 ( ! palm ( ! h& to ! plant> surface1 or sole ( ! foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,= ,,its ,,:ole ,,ext5t ,,on ,,its ,,palm> ,,surface3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 ,9 o!rs1 su* z ! lion1 tig]1 pan!r1 cat1 wolf1 & fox1 ! support is made no long] on ! :ole ext5t ( ! palm> surface1 b on ! correspond+ surface ( ! f+]s only--! metac>pus is turn$ back1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! wri/--t is to say1 ! c>pus--is remov$ f ! gr\nd4 ,^! are ! digitigrades4 ,la/ly1 ! rum9ants 7%eep1 ox51 de]1 etc471 & also ! pig1 ass1 & horse1 re/ on ! ?ird phalanx only4 ,9 !m n only is ! metac>pus turn$ back1 b also ! two fir/ phalanges4 ,! wri/ is v f> remov$ f ! gr\nd4 ,9 ^! animals1 ! ?ird phalanx is enclos$ 9 a case ( horn1 a nail 7! ho(71 & because ! support ( ! limb is on t nail1 ! "n ( unguligrades has be5 giv5 !m4 ,nev]!less1 z ! po9t ( support is on ! ?ird phalanx1 :i* is also kn[n by ! "n ( phalangette1 we are ( op9ion t1 9 ord] to specify def9itely1 al?\gh !y walk on _! f+]s1 z d ! digitigrades1 ! support is provid$ n by ! :ole ext5t ( ^? app5dages1 !y might receive ! "n ( phalangettigrades4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,on ,,its ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,! ,,human ,,h& ,,re/+ ,,on ,,! ,,tips ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,its ,,?ird ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,view4 ,x is necess>y among ! rum9ants to make an exception ( ! camel & ! llama1 :i* are digitigrades4 ,j 9 proportion z ! h& is rais$ f ! gr\nd1 z we h j se5 9 pass+ f ! plantigrades to ! digitigrades & unguligrades1 ! numb] ( bones ( t region dim9i%es1 ! bones ( ! =e>m coalesce1 & ! ulna t5ds to disappe>2 ! h& becomes less & less suitable = grasp+1 climb+1 or digg+1 s z to =m an organ exclusively adapt$ = walk+ & support+ ! body4 ,?us1 ! be> 7plantigrade7 has five digits1 & ! p[] ( p]=m+ ! movem5ts ( sup9ation & pronation4 ,inde$1 we "k ) :at facility ?is animal is able to move 8 paws 9 e direction1 & climb a tree by grasp+ x ) 8 =e-limbs4 ,x is well kn[n1 h[ev]1 t no animal except ! ape c p]=m ! movem5ts ( rotation ( ! radius ar\nd ! ulna ) ! same facility z man2 & t none possesses ! same degree ( suppl5ess1 ext5t1 & v>iety ( movem5ts ( ! =e>m & h&4 ,9 ! digitigrades !re is "o f+] :i* is b slightly develop$1 & :i* is always remov$ f ! gr\nd--t is1 ! ?umb3 !re is also a little less mobility ( ! radius ar\nd ! ulna4 ,9 ! ungulates ! limbs are simply requir$ to p]=m ! movem5ts ( walk+1 & =m v]itable columns ( support1 :i* become ! m solid z !y are less divid$4 ,! bones ( ! =e>m are fus$ toge!r2 !re is !re=e no possibility ( rotation ( ! radius ar\nd ! ulna4 ,! metac>pus is r$uc$ to a s+le piece1 :i* 9 ! horse con/itutes :at is kn[n z ! canon4 ,! numb] ( digits becomes dim9i%$1 s t 9 rum9ants !re are n m ?an two1 & 9 ! horse b "o4 ,we %\ld1 h[ev]1 add t1 up to ! pres5t1 we h tak5 into acc\nt only p]fect digits1 ^? t re/ on ! gr\nd4 ,we %all see fur!r on t !re exi/ supplem5t>y digits1 b t !y are only slightly develop$1 & are repres5t$ 9 "s cases by m]e osse\s spurs2 x is ?is fact t has p]mitt$ u to ignore !m 9 ! g5]al /udy :i* we h j made4 ,because1 z we h already said1 ! unguligrades h ! inf]ior extremity ( ! digit encas$ 9 a horny %ea?1 :i* =ms ! ho( ( ! horse & ! correspond+ /ructures 7onglons7 9 ! ox1 ^? animals h be5 plac$ 9 a special gr\p1 :i* is bas$ on t peculi>ity--t is1 ! gr\p ( ungulate mammals4 ,! plantigrades & digitigrades1 ( :i* ! paws h _! surfaces ( support /r5g!n$ by an epid]mic sole & fatty pads1 h ! free extremities ( ! ?ird phalanges cov]$ on _! dorsal surface by nails or claws2 h5ce !y are nam$ unguiculate mammals4 ,! bat & birds h ! bones ( ! =e>m s arrang$ t ! radius _c rotate ar\nd ! ulna4 ,?is is necess>y 9 ord] t dur+ flight1 :5 ! w+ is be+ l[]$1 ! radius & h& %all n be able to turn2 =1 if su* rotation took place1 ea* /roke ( ! w+ w\ld place x 9 a v]tical position1 :i* w\ld occasion a loss ( resi/ance incompatible ) ! effect to be obta9$4 ,! ,=e>m ,! skeleton ( ! =e>m 9 quadrup$s is v]tical 9 direction2 consequ5tly1 x =ms ) ! arm an angle op5 ant]iorly2 ?is is well se5 on exam9+ ! lat]al surface4 ,if we exam9e x on its ant]ior surface1 we f9d a slight obliquity direct$ d[nw>ds & inw>ds4 ,9 animals 9 :i* ! bones ( ! =e>m are sep>ate--t is to say1 susceptible ( sup9ation & pronation--we f9d a m close resemblance to ^? ( ! human skeleton4 ,! ulna1 ! sup]ior extremity ( :i* always projects beyond t ( ! radius1 has a %aft :i* gradually n>r[s f above d[nw>ds4 ,its inf]ior extremity is t]m9at$ by a r\nd head 9 ^? animals 9 :i* ! ulna is fully develop$2 9 o!rs1 z x is atrophi$1 x ends 9 a ?91 long process4 ,! ulna pres5ts at its sup]ior extremity a po/]ior process1 ! olecranon1 :i* =ms ! po9t ( ! elb[4 ,we f9d on ! ant]ior surface ( ! same1 ano!r process1 ! coronoid4 ,x is necess>y to dwell on ! relations ( ^! p>ts4 ,9 man ! head ( ! radius is situat$ at ! ant]ior "p ( ! ext]nal surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #be72 inde$1 ! small sigmoid cavity ) :i* ! head articulates is situat$ on ! out] side ( ! coronoid process1 & ?is apophysis is plac$ 9 front4 ,9 ! plantigrades & digitigrades ! head ( ! radius is plac$ /ill m =w>d1 s mu* s t x is situat$ almo/ 9 front ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #bf74 ,9 ! unguligrades x is plac$ directly 9 front ( ?is latt] 7,fig4 #bg74 ,fur!r1 ! displacem5t ( ! radius is made at ! exp5se ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! neighb\r+ bone2 ! radius appe>s to appropriate m & m ! p>ts :i* 9 man belong exclusively to ! ulna--= example1 ! coronoid process4 ,9 ! plantigrades & ! digitigrades half ( ! process /ill belongs to ! ulna & ! rema9d] to ! radius4 ,9 ! ungulates--! horse1 = example--! coronoid process belongs to ! radius2 ! ulna1 situat$ beh9d ! latt]1 is correspond+ly dim9i%$ 9 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,=e>m3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,9 brief1 :5 we /udy ?is region ( ! skeleton 9 plantigrades1 !n 9 digitigrades1 & f9ally 9 unguligrades1 we f9d a k9d ( progressive absorption ( "o ( ! two bones 7ulna7 by ! o!r 7radius71 :i* ?us becomes ! m develop$4 ,x is easy to expla9 ?is p>tial disappe>ance ( ! ulna4 ,:5 ! =e>m is capable ( p]=m+ ! movem5ts ( pronation & sup9ation1 ! ulna is completely develop$1 = x is 9 its small sigmoid cavity t ! head ( ! radius revolves1 & x is ar\nd its inf]ior extremity1 ! head1 t ! correspond+ extremity ( ! radius turns4 ,b :5 ! movem5ts ( rotation ( ! =e>m d n exi/1 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! ulna becomes functionally useless & disappe>s4 ,z to its role 9 ! movem5ts ( ! region ( ! wri/1 t is nil1 = we may rememb]--we w obs]ve x aga9 :5 we come to treat ( ! articulations--t ! h& articulates ) ! radius alone 7radio-c>pal articulation72 ?is is ! reason t1 :5 ! =e>m possesses ! fulle/ mobility1 ! h& foll[s ! movem5ts :i* t bone makes ar\nd ! ulna4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,sup]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,x is n s ) ! articulation at ! elb[-jo9t2 !re x is ! ulna1 :i*1 ) ! hum]us1 =ms ! ess5tial p>ts 7hum]o-uln> articulation72 its olecranon process limits ! movem5t ( ext5sion ( ! =e>m4 ,x is = ?is reason t1 ev5 9 ^? quadrup$s 9 :i* ! ulna is atrophi$1 ! olecranon process pres5ts a relatively consid]able degree ( developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,a ,,man3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,po/]ior ,,surface1 ,,position ,,( ,,sup9ation4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 ,a1 groove = ! long abductor & %ort ext5sor muscles ( ! ?umb2 ,b1 groove = ! radial muscles2 ,c1 groove = ! long ext5sor ( ! ?umb2 ,d1 groove = ! special ext5sor ( ! index f+] & ( ! common ext5sor ( ! f+]s2 ,e1 groove = ! prop] ext5sor ( ! little f+]2 ,f1 groove = ! po/]ior ulna4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface1 ,,normal ,,position--,,t ,,is1 ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,pronation4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 ,a1 groove = ! long abductor & = ! %ort ext5sor ( ! ?umb2 ,b1 groove = ! radials2 ,d1 groove = ! long ext5sor ( ! ?umb1 ! special ext5sor ( ! index-f+]1 & ! common ext5sor ( ! f+]s2 ,e1 groove = ! special ext5sor ( ! little f+]4 ,we "k t on ! po/]ior surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! bones ( ! human =e>m are grooves 9 :i* pass ! t5dons ( ! po/]ior & ext]nal muscles :i*1 belong+ to ?is region1 are direct$ = ins]tion t[>ds ! h&4 ,9 animals1 because ( ! movem5t ( rotation ( ! radius1 ! surface ( ?is bone1 :i* is ant]ior1 corresponds to ! po/]ior surface ( ! same 9 man4 7,to possess a cle> conception ( ?is1 x is necess>y to rememb] t1 9 ?is latt]1 ! bones ( ! =e>m are always describ$ z 9 ! position ( sup9ation2 !y are ?us repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bh4 ,! direction ( ! surfaces ( ! radius is ! rev]se ( t 9 animals1 s9ce ! latt] h ! radius always 9 a /ate ( pronation47 ,consequ5tly x is on ! ant]ior surface ( ! bone t we f9d ! grooves conc]n+ :i* x is necess>y to give "s details4 ,reg>d+ !m 9 pass+ f ! radius t[>ds ! ulna1 ^? grooves give passage to ! t5dons ( ! muscles ^: names occupy ! columns on p4 #dc4 ,! lett]s :i* are ref]r$ to ea* s]ve to def9e _! ord]1 & to facilitate ref]5ce to ,figs4 #bh1 #bi1 & #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,inf]ior ,,extremity ,,( ,,! ,,bone ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 ,a1 groove = ! long abductor & ! %ort ext5sor ( ! ?umb2 ,b1 groove = ! radials2 ,d1 groove = ! common ext5sor ( ! digits2 ,e1 groove = ! special ext5sor ( ! little f+]4 ,we %\ld m5tion t ! groove ,e is situat$1 bo? 9 man & 9 ! dog1 at ! level ( ! inf]ior radio-uln> articulation2 b t 9 ! horse1 z ! ulna does n exi/ at t level1 ! groove is situat$ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius4 ,x is necess>y to add t1 9 "s horses1 ! ulna is1 nev]!less1 repres5t$ 9 ?is region by a tongue-l process ( bone2 & 9 su* cases ! groove is situat$ 9 front ( ?is process1 at ! level ( ! l9e ( coalesc5ce1 :i* !re repres5ts ! articulation4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,man4 ,,dog4 ,,horse4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,a4 ,long abductor ( !,a4 ,long abductor ( !,a4 ,oblique ext5sor ( ( ! ?umb1 & ?umb & %ort ! metac>pus1 ! %ort ext5sor ( ext5sor ( ! homologue ( ! ! ?umb4 ?umb unit$ z "o long abductor ( ! muscle1 ! oblique ?umb & ! %ort ext5sor ( ! ext5sor ( ! metac>pus4#aa ?umb1 unit$ z "o muscle4 ,b4 ,fir/ & second ,b4 ,! two radials ,b4 ,! radials ext]nal radials bl5d$ sup]iorly1 repres5t$ by a 7ext5sor c>pi di/9ct inf]iorly2 s+le muscle1 ! radialis longior ?is is ! ant]ior ext5sor ( & brevior74 ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus4 ! metac>pus4 ,c4 ,long ext5sor ( !,c4 ,long ext5sor ( !,c4 ,! long ext5sor ( ?umb4 ?umb & special ! ?umb & ! ext5sor ( ! special ext5sor ( index f+] unit$ ! index are sup]iorly4 ,^! abs5t4 muscles pass 9 ! foll[+ groove4 ,d4 ,special ext5sor ( ,d4 ,common ext5sor ( ,d4 ,ant]ior ext5sor ! index f+] & ! digits & ! ( ! phalanges1 ! common ext5sor two prec$+ ! homologue ( ! ( ! f+]s4 muscles4 common ext5sor ( ! digits4 ,e4 ,special ext5sor ( ,e4 ,ext5sor ( ! ,e4 ,lat]al ext5sor ( ! little f+]4 ?ird1 f\r?1 & ! phalanges1 ! fif? digits1 or homologue ( ! ! lat]al special ext5sor ( ext5sor ( ! ! little f+]4 digits1 ! homologue ( ! special ext5sor ( ! little f+]4 ,f4 ,! po/]ior uln> ,!re does n exi/ on ! =e>m a groove 7ext5sor c>pi = ! po/]ior uln> muscle1 or ext]nal uln>is74 flexor ( ! metac>pus4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #aa ,! words pr9t$ 9 italics are ! names us$ 9 vet]9>y anatomy4 ,x is also useful to note1 ) ref]5ce to ! groove ,f1 9 :i* passes1 9 man1 ! t5don ( ! po/]ior uln> muscle1 t1 :5 ! =e>m is 9 pronation1 ! radius alone be+ displac$1 we c only see ?is groove on ! surface :i* looks backw>ds2 & t x is !n sep>at$ f ! groove :i* conta9s ! t5don ( ! special ext5sor ( ! little f+] by an int]val equal to ! ?ickness ( ! head ( ! ulna4#ab ,:5 ! =e>m is sup9at$1 ! two grooves are f\nd1 on ! o!r h&1 "o beside ! o!r3 & ! t5dons :i* !y conta9 are v naturally 9 contact4 #ab ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',%ape ( ! ,region ( ! ,wri/ 9 ,sup9ation & ,pronation' 7,bullet9 de la ,societe d',an?ropologie1 ,p>is1 #ahhh74 ,9 birds ! =e>m is flex$ on ! arm1 & ! latt] be+ direct$ d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 ! =m] is1 consequ5tly1 direct$ upw>ds & =w>ds4 ,fur!r1 because ( ! position ( ! hum]us1 :i*1 z we m5tion$ on p4 #cb1 has its inf]ior extremity s turn$ t ! surface :i* is ant]ior 9 man becomes ext]nal1 ! radius1 in/ead ( be+ outside ! ulna1 is plac$ above x4 ,?is latt] is l>g] ?an ! radius1 b its olecranon process is v slightly develop$4 ,! ,h& ,! h& 9 animals1 z 9 man1 is =m$ ( ?ree p>ts--! c>pus1 metac>pus1 & f+]s4 ,9 man1 ! =e>m & ! h& be+ describ$ 9 ! position ( sup9ation2 ! bones ( ! c>pus are nam$ 9 pass+ f ! mo/ ext]nal to ! mo/ int]nal--t is to say1 f t :i* corresponds to ! radial side ( ! =e>m to t :i* corresponds to ! uln> side4 ,9 animals 9 :i*1 z we "k1 b x is n unpr(itable to repeat1 ! h& is 9 pronation1 ! radial side ( ! =e>m be+ plac$ inside1 we enum]ate ! c>pal bones 9 c\nt+ ! mo/ int]nal z ! fir/2 ?is is ! only me?od :i* p]mits u1 9 tak+ our po9t ( dep>ture f ! human skeleton z our /&>d1 to recognise ! homologies ( ! bones ( ! c>pal region4 ,^! bones1 eight 9 numb]1 are arrang$ 9 two transv]se r[s1 ( :i* "o1 ! fir/1 is sup]ior or antibra*ial2 ! o!r1 ! second1 is inf]ior or metac>pal4 ,ea* ( ^! r[s conta9s f\r bones4 ,consid]$ 9 ! ord] we h indicat$ above--t is to say1 proce$+ f ! radial to ! uln> side--!y are ?us nam$3 scaphoid1 semilun>1 cunei=m1 & pisi=m1 9 ! fir/ r[2 trapezium1 trapezoid1 os magnum1 & unci=m1 9 ! second4 ,! numb] ( ^! bones is n ! same 9 all animals on acc\nt ( ! coalesc5ce or abs5ce ( "s4 ,9 ea* r[ ! bones are plac$ side by side1 ) ! exception ( ! pisi=m1 :i* be+ plac$ on ! palm> surface ( ! cunei=m1 produces a small projection 9 man1 b a v pron\nc$ "o 9 quadrup$s4 ,! pisi=m is call$ ! hook$ bone 9 "s vet]9>y anatomies4 ,if we consid] ! hook :i* x =ms1 we may recognise t ! "n is appropriate2 b f ! po9t ( view ( comp>ison ) ! human c>pus1 ! "n is un=tunate1 = x creates confusion betwe5 ! true pisi=m 7! f\r? bone 9 ! upp] r[71 & ! la/ bone 9 ! l[] r[1 :i* is ! v]itable unci=m bone4 ,we d n "h seek = simil>ity ( =m1 b homology ( regions2 & x is only by us+ ! same names to d5ote ! same ?+s t we c succe$ 9 det]m9+ su* homology4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! bones ( ! c>pus =m a mass :i*1 by its sup]ior bord]1 articulates ) ! bones ( ! =e>m1 & by its inf]ior bord] is 9 relation ) ! metac>pal region4 ,its dorsal surface 7ant]ior 9 quadrup$s7 is slightly convex2 its palm> surface 7po/]ior 9 quadrup$s7 is excavat$1 & =ms a groove 9 :i* pass ! t5dons ( ! flexors ( ! f+]s4 ,?is la/1 9 man1 has ! appe>ance ( a gutt]1 because ( ! prom95ces caus$ by ! projection ( ! int]nal & ext]nal bones beyond _! fell[s4 ,9 quadrup$s ! palm> groove is especially det]m9$ by ! pisi=m bone1 ( :i* we h j m5tion$ ! great developm5t4 ,! region occupi$ by ! c>pus1 9 ! unguligrades1 is kn[n z ! knee2 x w\ld h be5 m appropriately nam$ _h x be5 call$ ! wri/4 ,! numb] ( ! metac>pal bones 9 mammals nev] exce$s five1 b x (t5 falls bel[ x2 ! same is true = ! digits4 ,! fir/ are g5]ally equal 9 numb] to ! latt]2 an exception is met ) 9 rum9ants1 ^: two metac>pals coalesc+ soon aft] bir?1 =m b "o bone2 ?is1 ! canon bone1 articulates ) two digits4 ,! numb] ( metac>pals & digits dim9i%es 9 proportion z ! limbs cease to be organs ( preh5sion1 & become m exclusively organs ( support & locomotion4 ,! numb] ( phalanges is two = ! ?umb & ?ree = ea* ( ! o!r digits2 except 9 ! cetaceans1 9 :i* !y are m num]\s4 ,9 ! bat1 ! metac>pals & phalanges are v long1 & =m ! skeleton ( ! w+2 ^! phalanges are n furni%$ ) nails2 ! ?umb1 :i* is v %ort1 is alone provid$ ) "o 7,fig4 #h74 ,) reg>d to ! relative dim5sions ( ! bones ( ! metac>pus1 x is necess>y to rememb] t1 9 ! human be+1 ! second metac>pal is ! longe/2 !n1 9 ! ord] ( decrease1 come ! ?ird1 f\r?1 fif?1 & fir/4 ,9 quadrup$s we %all also f9d diff]5ces 9 l5g? 7see ! *apt] relat+ to ! ant]ior limbs 9 c]ta9 animals71 b ! ord] ( decrease is n always t :i* we h j m5tion$4 ,9 man ! articul> surface1 situat$ at ! inf]ior extremity ( ea* ( ! metac>pals1 is r\nd$1 & is call$ ! head4 ,?is all[s ! fir/ phalanx1 :i* is 9 relation ) t surface1 to be displac$ 9 e direction2 inde$1 ?is phalanx c n only be flex$ & ext5d$1 b x c also be mov$ lat]ally2 ?is latt] movem5t all[s ( ! f+]s be+ sep>at$ & drawn toge!r4 ,9 quadrup$s :i* c only p]=m ! movem5ts ( flexion & ext5sion ( ! digits--= example1 ! horse--! inf]ior extremity ( ! metac>pal has n a r\nd$ head ( a regul> outl9e2 x is m>k$ by a prom95t m$ian cre/1 direct$ f be=e backw>ds1 s t ! articul> surfaces1 :i* fit m exactly1 =m a sort ( h+e :i* all[s ( backw>d & =w>d movem5ts only1 & p]mits no lat]al displacem5t4 ,9 man1 at ! level ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fir/ metac>pal1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! articulation ( ?is bone ) ! fir/ phalanx ( ! ?umb1 we f9d two sesamoid bones--small bones develop$ 9 ! fibr\s tissue :i* surr\nds ! articulation4 ,we also meet ) su* /ructures1 b m r>ely1 at ! level ( ! correspond+ articulation ( ! index & auricul> digits2 &1 m r>ely /ill1 at ^? ( ! middle & r+ f+]s4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ^! bones are normally develop$1 & we %all see aft]w>ds t 9 "s animals1 z !y rea* a consid]able size1 !y are able to influ5ce ! ext]nal outl9es2 we %all see ?is1 = example1 9 ! horse4 ,! h&1 9 birds1 is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds 7,fig4 #ca74 ,= ! bett] und]/&+ ( its position 9 relation to ! =e>m1 we %\ld rememb] t ?is latt]1 z we h describ$ 7p4 #dd71 direct$ obliquely upw>ds & =w>ds1 has ! radius plac$ above ! ulna2 ! h& be+ oblique 9 ! opposite direction & plac$ "u ! =e>m is1 by ?is arrangem5t1 incl9$ t[>ds ! uln> bord] ( ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,sup]ior ,,limb ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,hum]us2 #b1 radius2 #c1 ulna2 #d1 radial bone ( ! c>pus2 #e1 uln> bone ( ! c>pus2 #f1 fir/ metac>pal2 #g1 second metac>pal2 #h1 ?ird metac>pal2 #i1 fir/ digit1 ! homologue ( ! ?umb2 #aj1 fir/ phalanx ( ! second digit2 #aa1 second phalanx ( ! second digit2 #ab1 ?ird digit4 ,= ! re/1 9 ord] to be able to di/+ui% readily ! correspond+ p>ts 9 ! h& ( a bird & t ( a man1 we m]ely h to place ! human =e>m obliquely1 9 a direction upw>ds & =w>ds 7,fig4 #cb71 ! radius be+ above2 ?is position we c obta9 by semi-pronation2 !n1 to incl9e /rongly ! h& d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 mov+ ! uln> bord] ( ! h& t[>ds ! ulna2 ! ?umb is !n ant]ior1 ! little f+] po/]ior1 & ! palm ( ! h& is turn$ t[>ds ! trunk4 ,! c>pus 9 birds is =m$ by two bones only1 ) :i* ! skeleton ( ! =e>m articulates4 ,t :i* is 9 contact ) ! radius is call$ ! radial bone ( ! c>pus2 & t ) :i* ! ulna articulates is nam$ ! uln> bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,sup]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+1 ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,segm5ts ,,be+ ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,attitude ,,:i* ,,! ,,correspond+ ,,p>ts ,,occupy ,,9 ,,birds3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 ,! metac>pus is =m$ ( ?ree bones2 ! fir/1 :i* is v %ort1 is fus$ at its sup]ior extremity ) ! adjo9+ "o2 ?is latt] & ! ?ird1 bo? long] ?an ! fir/1 b ( unequal size1 are fus$ at _! extremities4 ,! metac>pal1 :i* articulates ) ! radial bone ( ! c>pus1 is l>g] ?an ! "o :i* is 9 l9e ) ! ulna4 ,to ! metac>pus succe$ ?ree digits1 ( :i* ! c5tral is ! longe/1 & is =m$ ( two phalanges2 ! o!r two are =m$ ea* by a small1 /ylet-%ap$ bone4 ,! middle f+]1 situat$ on ! prolongation ( ! metac>pal1 :i* articulates ) ! radial bone ( ! c>pus1 has its fir/ phalanx l>ge & flatt5$ transv]sely2 ?is phalanx seems to h be5 =m$ by ! union ( two bones ( unequal developm5t2 ! second phalanx is /yloid 9 =m4 ,z to ! o!r two f+]s1 !y are plac$1 "o 9 front & ! o!r beh9d2 ! fir/1 :i* articulates ) ! %ort metac>pal1 fus$ at its upp] end ) ! pr9cipal bone ( ! metac>pus1 9 position repres5ts ! ?umb4 ,! o!r1 :i* is ! ?ird f+]1 articulates ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! ?9ne/ bone ( ! metac>pus2 x is sometimes closely unit$ to ! correspond+ bord] ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! l>ge--t is to say1 ( ! m$ian--digit4 ,! ,ant]ior ,limbs 9 ,c]ta9 ,animals ,plantigrades3 ,be> 7,fig4 #cc74--,! scapula ( ! be> approa*es 9 %ape to a trapezium1 ( :i* ! angles h be5 r\nd$ (f4 ,! ant]ior bord] 7c]vical7 is /rongly convex 9 ! "p next ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! junction ( ! sup]ior 7sp9al7 & ! c]vical bord] =ms almo/ a "r angle1 ! summit ( :i* corresponds to ! orig9 ( ! sp9e4 ,at its po/]ior angle !re is a prom95ce1 direct$ d[nw>ds1 ! surface ( :i* is holl[$ & is sep>at$ f ! infrasp9\s fossa by a cre/1 s t at ?is level a ?ird fossa is add$ to ! infrasp9\s "o4 ,! neck ( ! scapula is b slightly m>k$4 ,! acromion is prom95t1 & projects a little beyond ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! clavicle is rudim5t>y1 b1 z an example ( ! complete developm5t ( ?is bone 9 plantigrade quadrup$s1 we may cite ! m>moset4 ,! hum]us is furni%$ at its sup]ior extremity ) a l>ge tub]osity1 wide1 & situat$ 9 front ( ! head ( ! bone2 ! effect ( ?is is t ! bicipital groove is int]nal4 ,z 9 man1 ! great tub]osity does n rea* s high z ! hum]al head1 b x approa*es m ne>ly to t level4 ,! deltoid impression is v ext5sive1 & desc5ds pretty f> d[n on ! body ( ! bone4 ,! epitro*lea is prom95t2 ! epicondyle is surm\nt$ by a well-m>k$ cre/1 curv$ & flexu\s 9 outl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,be>3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a4 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 sev5? c]vical v]tebra2 #f1 fir/ dorsal v]tebra2 #g1 f\rte5? & la/ dorsal v]tebra2 #h1 lumb> v]tebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #aa1 /]num2 #ab1 n9? & la/ /]nal rib2 #ac1 co/al c>tilages2 #ad1 acromion process2 #ae1 ?ird fossa on ! ext]nal surface ( ! scapula2 #af1 great tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #ag1 musculo-spiral groove2 #ah1 epicondyle2 #ai1 radius2 #bj1 ulna2 #ba1 olecranon process2 #bb1 c>pus2 #bc1 pisi=m2 #bd1 metac>pus2 #be1 phalanges2 #bf1 ilium1 ext]nal fossa2 #bg1 pubis2 #bh1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #bi1 obturator =am52 #cj1 great tro*ant] ( ! femur2 #ca1 condyles ( ! femur2 #cb1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #cc1 ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia2 #cd1 fibula2 #ce1 t>sus2 #cf1 calcaneum1 or heel-bone2 #cg1 metat>sus2 #ch1 phalanges4 ,! articul> surface1 :i* is 9 contact ) ! radius1 is n a regul>ly =m$ condyle2 x is a little flatt5$ on its ant]ior surface1 & pres5ts at ?is level a slight depression :i* corresponds to a small em95ce on ! ant]ior aspect ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius4 ,! surface :i* articulates ) ! ulna1 view$ on its ant]ior aspect1 has ! %ape ( a slightly-m>k$ tro*lea2 except at ! level ( ! int]nal lip1 :i*1 z 9 man1 desc5ds l[] ?an ! surface = articulation ) ! radius 7condyle74 ,beh9d1 ! tro*lea is m cle>ly def9$4 ,! be> possesses a consid]able p[] ( rotation ( ! radius2 ! bones ( ! =e>m are jo9$ only at _! extremities1 :ile 9 ! rema9d] ( _! ext5t !y are widely sep>at$4 ,! ulna t]m9ates bel[ 9 a head & a /yloid process2 ^! articulate ) ! two la/ bones ( ! fir/ r[ ( ! c>pus--viz41 ! cunei=m & pisi=m4 ,! bones ( ! c>pus are sev5 9 numb]1 ! scaphoid & ! semilun> be+ fus$ toge!r4 ,! metac>pals1 five 9 numb]1 diff] v little f "o ano!r 9 reg>d to l5g?1 ?\gh !y increase 9 size f ! fir/ to ! fif?2 ?is may be demon/rat$ by look+ at ! palm> surface ( ! h&4 ,x is ! rev]se ( t :i* we f9d 9 man1 = ! fif? metac>pal is ! ?icke/ ( all1 & ! fir/ is ! mo/ sl5d]4 ,at ! level ( ea* metac>po-phalangeal articulation are two sesamoid bones4 ,! ?ird digit is ! longe/4 ,! t]m9al phalanges pres5t two v diff]5t portions3 "o1 ! ant]ior1 is curv$ & po9t$2 x s]ves to support ! nail1 ^: %ape x assumes2 ! o!r1 po/]ior1 =ms a sort ( %ea? into :i* ! base ( ! nail is receiv$4 ,! inf]ior portion ( ! po/]ior surface ( ?is latt] "p articulates ) ! second phalanx 9 ! case ( ea* ( ! la/ f\r digits1 b ) ! fir/ phalanx 9 ! case ( ! ?umb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 sev5? c]vical v]tebra2 #f1 ?irte5? & la/ dorsal v]tebra2 #g1 lumb> v]tebrae2 #h1 sacrum2 #i1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #aj1 ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num2 #aa1 xiphoid app5dix2 #ab1 n9? & la/ /]nal rib2 #ac1 co/al c>tilages2 #ad1 sp9al bord] ( ! scapula2 #ae1 suprasp9\s fossa ( ! scapula2 #af1 infrasp9\s fossa ( ! scapula2 #ag1 great tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #ah1 deltoid impression2 #ai1 musculo-spiral groove2 #bj1 olecranon process2 #ba1 radius2 #bb1 c>pus2 #bc1 pisi=m2 #bd1 metac>pus2 #be1 sesamoid bones2 #bf1 phalanges2 #bg1 ilium1 iliac cre/2 #bh1 pubis2 #bi1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #cj1 great tro*ant] ( ! femur2 #ca1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #cb1 ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia2 #cc1 fibula2 #cd1 t>sus2 #ce1 calcaneum1 or heel-bone2 #cf1 metat>sus2 #cg1 sesamoid bones2 #ch1 phalanges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,po/]ior or axill>y bord]2 #b1 sup]ior or sp9al bord]2 #c1 ant]ior or c]vical bord]2 #d1 sp9e ( scapula2 #e1 coracoid process2 ,,aa'1 l5g? ( sp9al bord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,left ,,scapula ,,( ,,! ,,cat3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,po/]ior or axill>y bord]2 #b1 sup]ior or sp9al bord]2 #c1 ant]ior or c]vical bord]2 #d1 sp9e ( ! scapula2 #e1 coracoid process2 ,,aa'1 l5g? ( ! sp9al bord]4 ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 ,dog 7,fig4 #cd74--;,9 ^! animals ! ant]ior 7c]vical7 bord] ( ! scapula is convex2 ! po/]ior 7axill>y7 bord] is /raight or slightly concave4 ,! suprasp9\s & infrasp9\s fossae are ( equal ext5t 7,figs4 #ce & #cf74 ,! neck is %ort4 ,! sp9e ( ! scapula becomes m & m prom95t t[>ds its inf]ior extremity1 :]e x ends 9 a twi/$ & inflex$ portion1 :i* repres5ts ! acromion process2 ?is process t]m9ates at ! level ( ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! coracoid process is repres5t$ by a small tub]cle1 slightly curv$ inw>ds2 ?is tub]cle is situat$ above ! gl5oid cavity1 at ! inf]ior "p ( ! c]vical bord]4 ,9 ! dog1 ! po/]ior angle1 =m$ by ! junction ( ! axill>y & ! sup]ior 7sp9al7 bord]s1 is obtuse2 ! sp9e rises p]p5dicul>ly f ! surface ( ! bone4 ,! wid? ( ! scapula1 measur$ at ! level ( ! sp9al bord] 7f ,a to ,a'1 ,fig4 #ce71 equals ab\t half ! l5g? ( ! sp9e4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 make an exception = ! turnspit dog1 9 :i* ! sup]ior bord] equals ?ree-f\r?s ( t l5g?4 ,! scapula is1 9 ?is case1 ( a m compact type2 x is broad]1 b %ort]4 ,9 ! cat1 ! ant]ior outl9e ( ! scapula1 =m$ by ! union ( ! c]vical bord] & ! correspond+ half ( ! sp9al1 is m convex2 ! po/]ior angle is n obtuse1 z 9 ! dog4 ,! sp9e is b5t slightly d[nw>ds & backw>ds2 be=e t]m9at+ 9 ! acromion process x pres5ts a triangul> projection1 ! apex ( :i* is direct$ d[nw>ds4 ,! tub]cle :i* repres5ts ! coracoid process is curv$ inw>ds m /rongly ?an t ( ! dog1 ?us resembl+ m closely ! appe>ance ( ?is process 9 ! human be+4 ,all proportions consid]$1 ! scapula ( ! cat is broad] ?an t ( ! dog2 its wid?1 measur$ along ! l5g? ( its sp9al bord] 7f ,a to ,a'1 ,fig4 #cf71 equals ?ree-f\r?s ( ! l5g? ( ! sp9e4 ,! clavicle is rudim5t>y2 x is1 h[ev]1 bett] develop$ 9 ! cat ?an 9 ! dog4 ,! clavicle ( ! cat is repres5t$ by a small1 elongat$ bone1 curv$ 9 outl9e1 ! convexity be+ turn$ =w>d2 x is unit$ to ! acromion & ! /]num by ligam5t\s fibres2 t ( ! dog is m]ely a scale-l osse\s plate situat$ on ! po/]ior surface ( a muscle ( ?is region 7see ,figs4 #af & #ag74 ,! hum]us is long & twi/$ 9 ! %ape ( an ,s4 ,! inf]ior articul> surface has ! =m ( a simple pulley1 = ! condyle is v slightly m>k$4 ,! int]nal "p ( ?is articul> surface desc5ds l[] ?an ! ext]nal2 ?is condition resembles t f\nd 9 ! human be+1 :]e ! inn] lip ( ! tro*lea is l[] ?an ! condyle4 ,9 ! dog1 ! olecranon fossa communicates ) ! coronoid by an op5+4 ,9 ! cat1 !re is a supra-epitro*le> canal 7see ,fig4 #ai71 b no olecranon p]=ation4 ,! bones ( ! =e>m articulate at _! extremities4 ,! body ( ! radius is unit$ to ! body ( ! ulna by a %ort1 ?ick1 int]osse\s ligam5t2 ! fibres ( ?is ligam5t1 ?\gh %ort1 d n prev5t ! production ( "s movem5ts at ! articulations ( ! bones4 ,! radius s crosses ! ulna t above1 x is 9 front & ext]nal to ! latt]1 :ile bel[1 x is int]nal4 ,?is bone is flatt5$ f front to back1 & slightly convex ant]iorly4 ,its sup]ior extremity is =m$1 ext]nally1 ( a portion :i* repres5ts ! head ( ! radius 9 man2 int]nally1 by ano!r portion :i* repres5ts half ( ! coronoid process ( ! ulna1 :i*1 9 ! human be+1 belongs exclusively to ! latt] 7see p4 #ci1 ! encroa*m5t ( ! radius on ! ulna74 ,?is extremity is surr\nd$ ) a v]tical articul> surface :i* is plac$ 9 contact ) a small cavity :i* is holl[$ out on ! ulna 7! less] sigmoid cavity72 & pres5ts at its sup]ior aspect a surface :i* articulates ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us4 ,! %aft ( ! bone has on its int]nal bord] rugosities analog\s to ! impr9t ( ! pronator radii t]es ( ! human skeleton2 ^! rugosities1 inde$1 give ins]tion to a muscle ( ! same function1 & be>+ ! same "n4 ,! inf]ior extremity1 broad] ?an ! sup]ior1 is holl[$ on its ext]nal aspect by a small cavity :i* receives ! inf]ior extremity ( ! ulna2 its inf]ior surface 7concave7 articulates ) ! c>pus2 its ant]ior surface 7! homologue ( ! po/]ior surface ( ! correspond+ extremity ( ! human radius7 pres5ts grooves :i* s]ve = ! passage ( ! t5dons ( ! muscles :i* pass f ! =e>m to ! back ( ! h&4 7,= ! names ( ! muscles ^: t5dons pass 9 ^! grooves1 see ,fig4 #bi47 ,! ulna is furni%$ at its sup]ior extremity ) an olecranon process1 :i* is m prom95t ?an t ( ! human ulna2 ?is process is compress$ lat]ally1 & its int]nal surface is holl[$2 !re we also f9d a great sigmoid cavity1 & a coronoid process situat$ at ! int]nal "p ( ! ant]ior surface1 a process :i*1 z we h previ\sly %[n1 x %>es ) ! radius4 ,! %aft ( ! bone1 prismatic & triangul>1 dim9i%es 9 ?ickness z x approa*es ! l[] extremity1 :i* articulates ) ! correspond+ extremity ( ! radius4 ,9 ! dog1 ! ulna t]m9ates inf]iorly 9 a blunt po9t1 )\t enl>gem5t1 analog\s to ! head ( ! human ulna2 9 ! cat1 by a head :i* is prolong$ into a /yloid process1 by :i* x articulates ) a portion ( ! c>pus4 ,! c>pus consi/s ( sev5 bones--?ree 9 ! sup]ior r[ & f\r 9 ! inf]ior4 ,9 ! sup]ior r[ ! scaphoid & semilun> bones are fus$ toge!r4 ,! pisi=m is elongat$ & exp&$ at its two extremities2 x =ms a prom95ce :i*1 direct$ backw>ds1 projects beyond ! level ( ! o!r bones ( ?is region4 ,! metac>pal bones are five 9 numb]2 !y are enum]at$ f )9 outw>ds2 !y articulate ) ! c>pus & ) ea* o!r4 ,! inf]ior extremity ( ea* metac>pal bone pres5ts ! =m ( a condyle 9 front2 & is divid$ beh9d s z to =m two lat]al condyles1 :i* are sep>at$ by a m$ian cre/2 on ^! po/]ior condyles are appli$ two small sesamoid bones4 ,! metac>pal bone ( ! ?umb is v %ort2 ! ?ird & f\r? are ! longe/4 ,! metac>pus1 z a :ole1 is direct$ v]tically4 ,! phalanges are ?ree 9 numb] = ea* f+]1 except ! ?umb1 :i* has b two4 ,! fir/ phalanx1 direct$ almo/ horizontally =w>ds1 is ! longe/2 ! second is direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 ! ?ird consi/s ( two portions3 a po/]ior "p1 :i* =ms a sort ( %ea? into :i* ! base ( ! nail is receiv$2 & an ant]ior1 conical 9 =m1 & curv$ 9 cro*et %ape1 :i* =ms a support = ! nail 7,fig4 #cg74 ,! ?ird & f\r? digits are ! longe/2 ! second & fif? are ( equal l5g?2 ! ?umb is ! %orte/2 x does n t\* ! gr\nd1 & does n ev5 rea* ! articulation ( ! metac>pal bone & fir/ phalanx ( ! second f+]4 ,9 ! cat1 ! metac>pal bone ( ! ?umb1 al?\gh %ort] ?an any ( ! o!rs1 is q z ?ick4 ,! ?ird digit is a little long] ?an ei!r ! second or f\r?4 ,9 animals ( ?is g5us1 ! claws1 9 ! condition ( repose1 are retract$1 & remov$ f ! gr\nd2 ?is prev5ts _! be+ worn1 & ?us pres]ves _! %>pness4 ,at su* times ! ?ird phalanx is receiv$ into a groove :i* is f\nd on ! ext]nal surface ( ! second phalanx4 ,9 ! dog1 ! claws are n tractile4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,f+] ,,( ,a ,,felide 7,,lion73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,int]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,metac>pus2 #b1 sesamoid bones2 #c1 fir/ phalanx2 #d1 second phalanx2 #e1 ?ird phalanx2 #f1 gutt] = ! reception ( ! base ( ! nail2 #g1 prom95t osse\s cre/ =m$ to lodge 9 ! concavity ( ! nail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 sev5? c]vical v]tebra2 #f1 fir/ dorsal v]tebra2 #g1 f\rte5? & la/ dorsal v]tebra2 #h1 lumb> v]tebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #aa1 ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num2 #ab1 xiphoid app5dix2 #ac1 sev5? & la/ /]nal rib2 #ad1 co/al c>tilage2 #ae1 c>tilage ( prolongation ( ! scapula2 #af1 great tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #ag1 olecranon process2 #ah1 radius2 #ai1 ulna2 #bj1 pisi=m2 #ba1 metac>pus2 #bb1 phalanges ( ! two great toes2 #bc1 phalanges ( ! ext]nal toe2 #bd1 ilium2 #be1 pubis2 #bf1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #bg1 great tro*ant]2 #bh1 knee-cap2 #bi1 ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia2 #cj1 fibula2 #ca1 t>sus2 #cb1 calcaneum2 #cc1 metat>sus2 #cd1 phalanges ( ! two great toes2 #ce1 phalanges ( ! ext]nal toe4 ,unguligrades3 ,pig 7,fig4 #ch74--,! scapula is m>k$ly n>r[$ 9 ! region above ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! sp9e is atrophi$ at bo? its extremities1 s t at its inf]ior "p we d n f9d ! acromion process4 ,9 its middle portion ! sp9e is prom95t1 & pres5ts a triangul> process :i* turns backw>ds1 ov]lapp+ a "p ( ! infrasp9\s fossa2 ?is latt] is mu* l>g] ?an ! suprasp9\s4 ,! sp9al bord] is surm\nt$ by ! c>tilage ( prolongation1 ! sup]ior m>g9 ( :i* is convex2 ?is c>tilage ext5ds po/]iorly beyond ! po/]ior 7axill>y7 bord] ( ! bone4 ,! small tub]osity ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! hum]us is b slightly develop$2 ! great tub]osity1 on ! contr>y1 is v l>ge4 ,! bicipital groove is situat$ int]nal to ?is4 ,! deltoid impression is sc>cely m>k$4 ,! =e>m is %ort1 direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 ?us =m+ ) ! h& an angle1 ( :i* ! apex is direct$ inw>ds4 ,! two bones ( ! =e>m are /rongly b\nd to "o ano!r by an int]osse\s ligam5t1 :i* is =m$ ( v %ort fibres4 ,! radius appropriates1 at its sup]ior extremity1 ! coronoid process ( ! ulna4 ,! latt] is1 not)/&+1 well develop$ 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t2 x has a flatt5$ %aft :i* almo/ completely ov]laps ! po/]ior surface ( ! radius2 its inf]ior extremity rea*es to ! c>pus4 ,! c>pus is =m$ ( eight bones--f\r 9 ! sup]ior r[1 & f\r 9 ! inf]ior4 ,! ?ird bone ( ! sup]ior r[ 7cunei=m7 is m 9 contact ) ! ulna ?an ) ! radius4 ,!re are b f\r metac>pal bones2 !re is no metac>pal ( ! ?umb4 ,! two m$ian metac>pal bones are ! longe/2 !y are ^? :i* correspond to ! digits :i* alone t\* ! gr\nd4 ,! int]nal digit & ! ext]nal "o are ?9 & %ort2 !y are functionless1 z a rule1 tak+ no "p 9 support+ ! limbs on ! gr\nd4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 !y are =m$1 z ! o!r digits1 ( a numb] ( phalanges1 :i* give !m ! semblance ( p]fect digits4 7,we %all soon see t 9 c]ta9 animals !re exi/ digits :i*1 be+ incomplete ) reg>d to ! numb]s ( _! con/itu5t bones1 m accurately m]it ! "n ( imp]fect digits47 ,! ?ird phalanges are ea* enclos$ 9 a horny ho(1 to :i* ! "n ( onglon has be5 giv54 ,we h already drawn att5tion to ! small] lat]al digits1 & not$ ! g5]al fact t !y d n come 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,x is necess>y to modify ?is /atem5t by add+ t "u c]ta9 conditions !y give a slight am\nt ( support2 = example1 :5 ! individual is ! subject ( excessive obesity1 ! limbs yield "u ! weight1 & ! nails ( ! lat]al digits may t\* ! gr\nd4 ,a simil> fact may be notic$ 9 pigs ( ord9>y bulk at ! mom5t :51 dur+ walk+1 ea* ( ! =e-limbs comm5ces to be> ! weight--t is to say1 :5 x is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 !n all ! digits are 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,unguligrades 7,ungulates73 ,%eep1 ,ox 7,fig4 #ci74--,! scapula1 :i* is ( elongat$ =m1 is v n>r[ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! sp9e1 :i* becomes m & m sali5t t[>ds its inf]ior "p1 t]m9ates abruptly 9 a bord]1 :i*1 =m+ an acute angle ) ! cre/1 produces a projection :i* repres5ts ! acromion process--a v rudim5t>y acromion1 = x does n rea* ! level ( ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! suprasp9\s fossa is mu* small] ?an ! infrasp9\s2 x h>dly equals "o-?ird ! ext5t ( ! latt]4 ,! ant]ior bord]1 ?9 & convex 9 its sup]ior portion1 is concave 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t2 ! po/]ior bord] is ?ick & slightly concave2 ! sp9al bord] is surm\nt$ by ! c>tilage ( prolongation4 ,9 ! ox ! sp9e ( ! scapula1 9 its middle portion1 is flex$ a little backw>ds on ! infrasp9\s fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 sev5? c]vical v]tebra2 #f1 fir/ dorsal v]tebra2 #g1 ?irte5? & la/ dorsal v]tebra2 #h1 lumb> v]tebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #aa1 /]num2 #ab1 xiphoid app5dix2 #ac1 eigh? & la/ /]nal rib2 #ad1 co/al c>tilages2 #ae1 sp9e ( scapula2 #af1 c>tilage ( prolongation ( ! scapula2 #ag1 great tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #ah1 musculo-spiral groove2 #ai1 olecranon process2 #bj1 radius2 #ba1 c>pus2 #bb1 pisi=m2 #bc1 metac>pus2 #bd1 rudim5t>y metac>pal2 #be1 sesamoid bones2 #bf1 fir/ phalanges2 #bg1 second phalanges2 #bh1 ?ird phalanges2 #bi1 ant]ior iliac sp9e2 #cj1 pubis2 #ca1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #cb1 great tro*ant]2 #cc1 supracondyloid fossa ( ! femur2 #cd1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #ce1 ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia2 #cf1 fibula2 #cg1 coronoid t>sal bone2 #ch1 t>sus2 #ci1 calcaneum2 #dj1 metat>sus2 #da1 rudim5t>y metat>sus2 #db1 sesamoid bones2 #dc1 fir/ phalanges2 #dd1 second phalanges2 #de1 ?ird phalanges4 ,! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us is highly develop$2 its summit1 v prom95t1 is flex$ ov] ! bicipital groove2 a prom95ce ( ! small tub]osity also b5ds ov] ! groove1 ) ! result t at ?is level ! latt] is conv]t$ into a sort ( canal4 ,at ! inf]ior extremity ! condyle1 al?\gh n l>ge1 is recognisable2 = x is sep>at$ f ! tro*lea by a depression 9 =m ( a groove4 ,9 contra/ to ! condition f\nd 9 man1 ! condyle desc5ds to a level a little bel[ t ( ! int]nal lip ( ! tro*lea4 7,= ! arrangem5t ( ! epicondyle & ! epitro*lea1 see p4 #cj47 ,9 ! %eep1 ! deltoid impression is b slightly m>k$2 9 ! ox1 x is m evid5t4 ,! =e>m is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 s z to =m1 ) ! h&1 an angle ( :i* ! apex is int]nal2 ?is angul> outl9e ( ! knee 7wri/7 is s *>act]i/ic ( rum9ants t ! correspond+ region ( ! horse1 :5 sali5t inw>ds1 receives ! "n ( ox-knee4 ,! radius be>s ! coronoid process1 & ! l>g] "p ( ! articul> surface :i* comes 9 contact ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us2 ! condyle & ! tro*lea articulate ) ! radius 9 front2 :ile beh9d1 ! tro*lea articulates ) t "p ( ! sigmoid cavity :i* belongs to ! ulna4 ,! po/]ior surface ( ! %aft ( ! radius is flatt5$2 its ant]ior surface is slightly convex4 ,! inf]ior extremity articulates ) ! c>pus by a surface :i* is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & inw>ds4 ,! %aft ( ! ulna is v sl5d]1 & fus$ 9 its middle ?ird ) ! body ( ! radius2 x t]m9ates bel[1 at ! level ( ! ext]nal "p ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius1 by a slightly exp&$ portion :i*1 fus$ ) ?is latt]1 =ms ! articul> surface = ! c>pal bones4 ,9 ! ox ! =e>m is %ort2 9 ! %eep x is proportionally long]4 ,! bones ( ! c>pus are six 9 numb]--f\r 9 ! upp] r[1 & two 9 ! l[]2 !y =m an irregul> cuboid mass :i* contributes to ! =mation ( ! region kn[n z ! knee 9 rum9ants1 z 9 ! horse2 we h already rem>k$ t ! "n 'wri/' w\ld be m accurate4 ,! ant]ior surface 9 its =emo/ "p is v]tical1 & is slightly convex f side to side4 ,at its po/]ior & ext]nal "p ! pisi=m bone =ms a prom95ce4 ,! metac>pus consi/s ( two bones only--"o1 well develop$1 :i* is kn[n z ! pr9cipal metac>pal1 or ! canon bone 7?is is ! "n giv5 to ! region 9 ! ho($ animals72 & a rudim5t>y "o1 :i* is situat$ at ! sup]ior & ext]nal aspect ( ! prec$+ metac>pal4 ,sometimes !re is f\nd a ?ird metac>pal at ! int]nal aspect2 b1 :5 pres5t1 x is b v slightly develop$4 ,! pr9cipal metac>pal consi/s ( two metac>pals fus$ toge!r2 on ?is acc\nt ! bone is longitud9ally m>k$ 9 ! m$ian l9e by a slight depression :i* m>ks ! junction ( ! two bones ( :i* x is =m$4 ,9 "s rum9ants 7c]ta9 species ( *evrota9s7 ! coalesc5ce does n take place1 & ! two metac>pals rema9 sep>ate4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal is convex transv]sely2 its po/]ior surface is flatt5$4 ,! sup]ior extremity ( ?is bone articulates by two facets ) ! two bones ( ! inf]ior r[ ( ! c>pus2 on ! int]nal "p ( ! ant]ior surface ( ?is extremity is f\nd a tub]cle4 ,! inf]ior extremity is divid$ into two p>ts by a fissure or not*2 ea* "p is articul>1 & consi/s ( two sep>ate condyles1 :i* are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by an ant]o-po/]ior cre/2 on ea* side ( ?is cre/1 & beh9d1 are f\nd two sesamoid bones4 ,z = ! ext]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal bone1 x is no?+ m ?an a small1 %ort tongue ( bone2 :i*1 9 goats & %eep1 is (t5 abs5t4 ,! division ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal into two p>ts is correlat$ ) ! two p]fect digits :i* give ! foot ( ! rum9ant its =k$ appe>ance4 ,ea* digit consi/s ( ?ree phalanges1 :i* are direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 fur!r1 ^! phalanges are incl9$ a little outw>ds f ! axis ( ! limb1 s t ! two digits div]ge f ea* o!r z !y desc5d4 ,! fir/ phalanx1 :i* is ! longe/1 articulates sup]iorly ) ! pr9cipal metac>pal2 its inf]ior extremity t]m9ates 9 a tro*lea1 & ! lip ( ?is1 :i* is situat$ t[>ds ! axis ( ! limb1 desc5ds l[] ?an t ( ! opposite side2 ?is arrangem5t is correlat$ ) ! div]g5t direction ( ! digits4 ,! second phalanx has its sup]ior extremity m\ld$ on ! tro*lea :i* t]m9ates ! extremity ( ! fir/2 its inf]ior extremity is articul>1 & elongat$ f be=e backw>ds4 ,on ! po/]ior surface ( ?is extremity is f\nd a sesamoid bone4 ,) reg>d to ! ?ird phalanx1 x pres5ts ! =m ( a triangul> pyramid1 & displays a po/]o-sup]ior concave surface ) :i* ! second phalanx articulates2 an ant]ior1 convex surface1 :i* t]m9ates 9 a po9t on its ant]ior "p2 & an int]nal surface1 :i* is flatt5$4 ,! ?ird phalanx ( ea* digit is conta9$ 9 a ho( 7onglon74 ,!re is also f\nd 9 rum9ants two imp]fect rudim5t>y digits1 :i* are repres5t$ by two small bones situat$ beh9d ! articulation ( ! metac>pal & ! digits :i* we h j be5 /udy+4 ,^! rudim5t>y digits are ea* envelop$ 9 a lay] ( horn2 !y con/itute ! spurs4 ,! two digits ( ! rum9ants repres5t ! ?ird & f\r? f+]s ( ! human h&2 ! two lat]al digits1 greatly atrophi$1 are ! homologues ( ! second & fif? f+]s2 ! ?umb is n pres5t4 ,x is ! same z reg>ds ! metac>pal bones1 :i* =m1 by _! union1 ! pr9cipal metac>pal2 ! ext]nal repres5ts ! f\r? metac>pal1 & ! int]nal ! ?ird4 ,x is to ! latt] t ! tub]cle1 ( :i* we h already made m5tion1 belongs2 & ) ! signification ( :i*1 because x gives atta*m5t to a muscle1 we %all conc]n ourselves 9 ! section on myology 7see ,radial ,muscles74 ,unguligrades3 ,horse 7,fig4 #dj74--,! scapula is n>r[1 comp>$ ) t ( ! animals we h j be5 consid]+4 ,! ant]ior bord] is convex 9 its sup]ior portion1 & concave 9 its inf]ior2 ! po/]ior bord] is slightly holl[$ out4 ,! suprasp9\s fossa is less 9 ext5t ?an ! infrasp9\s2 b ! diff]5ce is less ?an t betwe5 ! same fossae 9 ! ox & ! %eep2 9 ! ox1 z we h already indicat$1 ! proportion is "o-?ird2 9 ! horse1 "o-half4 ,! sp9e1 :i* disappe>s at ! extremities1 is r\gh & ?ick 9 its middle ?ird1 !re =m+ a k9d ( tub]osity--tub]osity ( ! sp9e4 ,above & 9 front ( ! gl5oid cavity is f\nd a /rong process consi/+ ( a rug\s base1 & a summit :i* is direct$ inw>ds4 ,?is =ms a k9d ( hook curv$ t[>ds ! inside2 x repres5ts ! coracoid process4 ,! scapula is surm\nt$ by ! c>tilage ( prolongation1 ( :i* ! sup]ior bord]1 :i* is ?9 & curv$1 is p>allel to ! sup]ior bord] ( ! prom95ce ( ! )]s2 ! c>tilage =ms1 consequ5tly1 ! lat]al surface ( ?is region4 ,! c>tilage ( prolongation und]goes ossification 9 old horses4 ,! hum]us is %ort2 ! bicipital groove1 situat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ! sup]ior extremity1 sep>ates ! great] tub]osity f ! less]1 & is divid$ into two p>ts by a m$ian ridge2 x is ?is portion ( ! hum]us :i* =ms ! prom95ce kn[n z ! po9t ( ! %\ld]1 or po9t ( ! arm4 ,! deltoid impression well des]ves ! "n ( tub]osity :i* has be5 giv5 to x1 = x is v prom95t2 ! musculo-spiral groove is v deep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 sev5? c]vical v]tebra2 #f1 fir/ dorsal v]tebra2 #g1 eighte5? & la/ dorsal v]tebra2 #h1 lumb> v]tebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal v]tebrae2 #aa1 /]num2 #ab1 xiphoid app5dix2 #ac1 eighte5? & la/ /]nal rib2 #ad1 co/al c>tilage2 #ae1 scapula2 #af1 c>tilage ( ext5sion2 #ag1 great tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #ah1 deltoid cre/2 #ai1 olecranon process2 #bj1 radius2 #ba1 c>pus2 #bb1 pisi=m2 #bc1 pr9cipal metac>pal2 #bd1 metac>pal1 ext]nal rudim5t>y2 #be1 l>ge sesamoids2 #bf1 fir/ phalanx2 #bg1 second phalanx2 #bh1 ?ird phalanx2 #bi1 ilium1 %[+ ext]nal iliac fossa2 #cj1 pubis2 #ca1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #cb1 great tro*ant]2 #cc1 infratro*ant]ic cre/1 or ?ird tro*ant]2 #cd1 supracondyloid fossa ( ! femur2 #ce1 knee-cap2 #cf1 ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia2 #cg1 ! fibula2 #ch1 t>sus a/ragalus2 #ci1 calcaneum2 #dj1 pr9cipal metat>sal2 #da1 rudim5t>y ext]nal metat>sal2 #db1 l>ge sesamoids2 #dc1 fir/ phalanx2 #dd1 second phalanx2 #de1 ?ird phalanx4 ,to face p4 #fd4 ,at ! inf]ior extremity1 ! tro*lea is l>ge2 ! portion correspond+ to ! condyle ( ! hum]us 9 man is1 9 proportion to ! latt]1 ( small ext5t4 ,! olecranon fossa is deep4 ,! epicondyle & ! epitro*lea are some:at diff]5t f ^? ( ! human bone4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! epitro*lea is sali5t t[>ds ! inn] side1 caus+ an increas$ transv]se diamet] ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us4 ,9 ! horse--x is ! same 9 rum9ants--?is tub]osity projects backw>ds1 folds on itself 9 =m+ ! int]nal b\nd>y ( ! olecranon cavity1 & exce$s 9 diamet]1 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction1 ! prom95ce ( ! epicondyle1 :i* pres5ts a ne>ly simil> arrangem5t4 ,?is latt] has1 h[ev]1 a "p :i*1 project+ ext]nally1 is situat$ at ! inf]ior "p ( a cre/1 t =ms ! po/]ior b\nd>y ( ! musculo-spiral groove4 ,! result is t1 contr>y to ! condition f\nd 9 ! human be+1 ! epicondyle is m prom95t transv]sely ?an ! epitro*lea1 b ?is latt] is m sali5t on ! po/]ior aspect4 ,! epitro*lea & ! epicondyle (f] a l>g] surface = ! orig9 ( muscles ( ! =e>m ?an ! same prom95ces 9 ! human bone d = ! analog\s muscles ( ! same region4 ,"s vet]9>y anatomi/s h giv5 to ! inf]ior & ext]nal articul> surface ( ! hum]us ! "n ( tro*lea2 & to ! int]nal "o1 t ( condyle4 ,on ?is acc\nt !y designate ! ext]nal prom95ce z ! epitro*lea1 & ! int]nal "o z ! epicondyle4 ,9 addition to ! fact t ?is po9t ( view is n legitimate1 x produces inevitable confusion :5 comp>+ ! p>ts ) ^? ( ! human hum]us1 & ?is confusion exi/s1 n alone 9 describ+ ! bone1 b also 9 ! description ( ! muscul> atta*m5ts1 & 9 ! comp>ison ( ! muscles ( ! =e>m ( quadrup$s ) ! correspond+ muscles 9 ! human species4 ,! radius is plac$ 9 front ( ! ulna2 its body1 slightly convex =w>ds1 has ! ant]ior surface convex transv]sely1 & ! po/]ior surface plane 9 ! same direction4 ,x is to ! ext]nal "p ( ?is latt] t ! ulna is appli$1 :i* is completely fus$ ) ! radius4 ,! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius is a little l>g] ?an ! inf]ior4 ,its sup]ior aspect1 concavo-convex1 m\ld$ on ! inf]ior articul> surface ( ! hum]us1 pres5ts int]nally two cavities1 :i* receive ! lips ( ! tro*lea1 &1 ext]nally1 ano!r1 small]1 cavity1 :i* receives ! condyle4 ,! radius articulates ) ! tro*lea & ! condyle1 hav+ appropriat$ a portion ( ! ulna1 z is prov$ by ! pres5ce ( ! coronoid process1 :i* belongs to ! =m]4 ,?is sup]ior extremity pres5ts1 int]nally1 a tub]osity into :i* ! biceps is ins]t$2 ?is is ! bicipital tub]osity2 & on ! o!r side is ano!r tub]osity1 :i* is a little m prom95t ?an ! prec$+4 ,! inf]ior extremity1 :i* is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds1 is furr[$ on its ant]ior surface by grooves = ! passage ( muscles 7! names ( ! muscles ^: t5dons pass 9 ^! grooves h already be5 giv5 on p4 #dc74 ,x articulates at ! l[] end ) ! sup]ior r[ ( ! c>pus1 & x t]m9ates lat]ally 9 tub]osities3 "o1 ext]nal1 on :i* is f\nd a groove = ! t5don ( ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 ! homologue ( ! special ext5sor ( ! little f+]2 ! o!r1 int]nal1 is a little m prom95t ?an ! "o we h j describ$4 ,^! tub]osities are visible "u ! sk9 :i* cov]s ! sup]ior & lat]al p>ts ( ! region kn[n z ! knee2 b :i*1 we aga9 repeat1 is no o!r ?an ! wri/4 ,! ulna has a triangul> %aft1 situat$ at ! po/]ior surface ( ! radius1 ) :i* x is fus$4 ,x disappe>s completely at ! level ( ! inf]ior ?ird ( ! =e>m4 ,occasionally1 9 "s horses1 ! ulna is abnormally long1 9 ! =m ( a sl5d] tongue ( bone2 & ext5ds to ! neighb\rhood ( ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius 7see ,fig4 #gi1 p4 #aif74 ,its sup]ior extremity is *iefly repres5t$ by ! olecranon process1 :i* is volum9\s 9 bulk1 & =ms ! projection kn[n z ! po9t ( ! elb[4 ,?is process is flatt5$ lat]ally2 its int]nal surface is excavat$2 ! ant]ior surface1 :i* is concave1 =ms a "p ( ! great sigmoid cavity2 ! rema9d] ( ! cavity is =m$ by ! radius4 ,9 ! ass1 ! ulna is a little long] ?an 9 ! horse--t is to say1 x desc5ds l[]2 & ! radius is a little m convex ant]iorly4 ,! c>pal bones are sev5 9 numb]--f\r 9 ! sup]ior r[1 & ?ree 9 ! inf]ior4 ,! trapezium is want+ 9 ! latt]4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 9 c]ta9 v>ieties ( horses ! trapezium is develop$1 b !n x is no m ?an a v small osse\s nodule4 ,! pisi=m bone1 situat$ at ! ext]nal "p ( ! fir/ r[ ( bone1 is prom95t po/]iorly4 ,x is ( r\nd] =m & flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds4 ,x articulates ) ! trapezium & ! radius4 ,x pres5ts1 on its ext]nal surface1 a groove = ! passage ( ! t5don ( ! po/]ior uln> muscle1 :i* is nam$ by vet]9>y anatomi/s ! ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus4 ,! c>pus1 z a :ole1 is ( an irregul>ly cuboid %ape2 its ant]ior surface1 slightly convex f side to side1 =ms ! skeleton ( ! region ( ! knee 7wri/74 ,! metac>pus is =m$ ( ?ree bones3 ! pr9cipal metac>pal & ! two rudim5t>y ones4 ,! pr9cipal metac>pal1 :i* =ms ! region ( ! canon1 is direct$ v]tically2 its ant]ior surface is slightly convex transv]sely4 ,?is surface is cov]$ by a numb] ( t5dons1 :i* slightly alt] its appe>ance2 s t x is ! pr9cipal base ( ?is "p ( ! =e-limb4 ,its po/]ior surface is flatt5$4 ,! sup]ior extremity ( ?is metac>pal pres5ts plane surfaces1 v>i\sly incl9$1 ) :i* ! bones ( ! inf]ior r[ ( ! c>pus articulate4 ,on ! ant]ior surface1 & a little to ! inn] side1 is f\nd a tub]osity1 :i* is de/9$ = ! ins]tion ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus1 ! homologue ( ! radial muscles4 ,! inf]ior extremity is =m$ by two condyles1 an int]nal & an ext]nal2 betwe5 :i* is f\nd a m$ian cre/4 ,?is extremity1 ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fir/ phalanx1 :i* articulates ) x1 toge!r ) two sesamoid bones--! great sesamoids--:i* are situat$ on its po/]ior surface1 collectively =m ! region :i* f its r\nd$ outl9es is call$ ! ball4 ,) reg>d to ! rudim5t>y metac>pals1 ext]nal & int]nal1 to :i* "s au?ors give ! "n ( fibulae1 !y are appli$ to ! sides ( ! po/]ior surface ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal4 ,!y are elongat$ bones1 ( :i* ! sup]ior extremity1 :i* is a little ?ick5$1 is call$ ! head2 ! lat]al bones ( ! second r[ ( ! c>pus p>tly re/ on ! heads ( ^!4 ,!y become m sl5d] z !y desc5d1 & t]m9ate opposite ! inf]ior f\r? ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal4 ,ea* ends 9 a slight swell+1 to :i* ! "n button has be5 giv54 ,! int]nal "o is ! bett] develop$4 ,! rudim5t>y metac>pals are ve/iges ( atrophi$ digits1 z w be expla9$ fur!r on4 ,! s+le f+] ( ! horse consi/s ( ?ree phalanges4 ,! fir/ phalanx1 :i* is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 corresponds to ! con/rict$ region situat$ bel[ ! 'ball1' & kn[n z ! pa/]n4 ,x is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds2 its ant]ior surface is convex transv]sely1 :ile ! po/]ior surface is plane4 ,its sup]ior extremity is m\ld$ on ! inf]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal1 & its inf]ior extremity1 :i* is small]1 pres5ts a tro*lea ) :i* ! second phalanx articulates4 ,?is is also direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 & is %ort]4 ,x corresponds to ! region :i*1 situat$ betwe5 ! pa/]n & ! ho(1 is kn[n z ! cornet4 ,! ?ird phalanx1 situat$ entirely )9 ! ho(1 has ! same direction z ! fir/ & second4 ,x is l>ge & broad1 & pres5ts ?ree surfaces sep>at$ by well-m>k$ angul> bord]s 7see ,fig4 #if74 ,! ant]ior surface is oblique d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 x is convex transv]sely4 ,! inf]ior surface is slightly holl[$1 & is 9 relation ) ! sole1 or plant> surface ( ! ho(4 ,! sup]ior surface1 :i* is articul>1 is divid$ by a m$ian ridge into two lat]al cavities1 :i* correspond to ! tro*lea on ! inf]ior surface ( ! l[] extremity ( ! second phalanx4 ,! inf]ior bord] corresponds 9 %ape ) ! ho(4 ,! sup]ior bord] pres5ts 9 its m$ian "p a projection1 ! pyramidal em95ce1 :i* prolongs at ?is level ! ant]ior surface ( ! bone4 ,f9ally1 ! po/]ior bord]1 :i* is concave1 is 9 contact ) a sesamoid bone1 ! less] sesamoid1 :i* increases ! sup]ior articul> surface beh9d1 & is also 9 contact ) ! second phalanx4 ,z we h j se51 ! horse possesses b "o digit4 ,9 ! ance/ors ( ! animal--t is1 9 ! prehi/oric species :i* are n[ ext9ct 7orohippus1 miohippus1 protohippus1 or hipp>ion7--! numb] ( digits 0 l>g]2 ?is fact conclusively proves t ! rudim5t>y metac>pals ( ! exi/+ horse are ve/iges ( digits :i* h disappe>$ ?r\gh want ( use4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^? ance/ors--orohippus--!re 7 f\r digits2 all save ! fir/1 ! ?umb1 be+ !n develop$4 ,9 ! o!rs ( ! s]ies !re exi/$ b ?ree digits4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be not$ t 9 ^? animals x is always ! digit :i* corresponds to ! middle f+] ( ! p5t$actyl h& t is longe/4 ,9 o!r less anci5t species ! lat]al f+]s are r$uc$ to ! condition ( m]e spl9ts ( bone4 ,x foll[s f :at has be5 said t ! digit :i* p]si/s 9 ! equ9e species %\ld be consid]$ z ! ?ird f+]1 & t ! rudim5t>y metac>pals repres5t lat]al digits consid]ably atrophi$4 ,?is disappe>ance ( ! lat]al digits _c excite surprise :5 we consid] ! functions ( ! organs4 ,becom+ useless1 !y mu/ und]go gradual atrophy f want ( use4 ,!re und\bt$ly is1 9 ?is =m] exi/5ce ( supplem5t>y digits 9 ! horse1 some?+ analog\s to :at we /ill f9d 9 ! pig2 :]e ! two pr9cipal digits are accompani$ by two %ort] ones1 :i* v probably1 f _! infrequ5t use1 are de/9$ to disappe> 9 a m or less di/ant future4 ,proportions ( ! ,arm1 ! ,=e>m1 & ! ,metac>pus ,z a supplem5t to ! /udy ( ! ant]ior limbs :i* we h j f9i%$1 x appe>s necess>y to give "s indications ( ! relative proportions ( c]ta9 ( ! segm5ts :i* =m ^! limbs 9 ! plantigrades1 ! digitigrades1 & ! ungulates4 ,fir/1 we w\ld rem>k t1 9 foll[+ ?is ord] ( classification1 ! scapula becomes less & less n>r[1 & assumes a =m m & m elongat$4 ,9 ord] to conv9ce ourselves ( ?is1 x w be suffici5t to /udy ! bone fir/ 9 man1 !n 9 ! be>1 ! cat1 dog1 ox1 & f9ally 9 ! horse4 ,z to ! proportions ( l5g?1 :i* are ^? we %\ld *iefly /udy1 we %all comm5ce ) ! comp>ison ( ! =e>m & arm--t is to say1 ! radius & ! hum]us4 ,! radius is f\nd to be long] 9 proportion to ! hum]us1 z ! numb] ( digits is small]1 & ! h& loses m & m ! functions ( an organ ( preh5sion4 ,9 man1 ! radius is %ort] ?an ! hum]us2 9 ! horse1 on ! contr>y1 x is long]4 ,to give an idea ( ?is proportion1 we %all employ :at is kn[n z ! antibra*ial index4 ,?is index gives ! relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! l5g? ( ! =e>m & t ( ! hum]us2 ! l5g? ( ?is latt]1 :atev] may be ! actual measurem5t1 is repres5t$ by a fix$ figure1 ! numb] #ajj4 ,a v simple ari?metical op]ation gives ! proportion-- =e>m x #ajj -------------1 ! quoti5t obta9$ furni%es ! index4 hum]us ,! index is less ?an #ajj if ! =e>m is %ort] ?an ! bone ( ! arm4 ,! index is m ?an #ajj if1 on ! contr>y1 ! =e>m is long]4 ,9 man1 ! radius is %ort] ?an ! hum]us2 inde$1 9 adult individuals ( ! :ite race ! av]age index is #gd4 ,9 ! be>1 ! l5g? ( ! radius approa*es closely to t ( ! hum]us2 ! index is ab\t #ij4 ,9 ! skeleton ( a be> 9 ! anatomical museum ( ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ! hum]us is #cc c5timetres 9 l5g?1 & ! radius #cj c5timetres4 ,9 ! cat1 ! radius is v little %ort] ?an ! hum]us4 ,9 ! dog !y are equal4 ,! antibra*ial index ( ! latt] is1 accord+ly1 #ajj4 ,9 ! horse1 ! radius is long] ?an ! hum]us2 ! index is !re=e above #ajj4 ,?us1 9 ! skeleton ( ! horse :i* we h 9 ! museum ( ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ! index is #aac--l5g? ( hum]us1 #bi c5timetres2 l5g? ( radius1 #cc c5timetres4 ,9 o!r skeletons :i* we h measur$ we f\nd3 9 "o1 #ajh--;hum]us1 #cd c5timetres2 radius1 #cg c5timetres2 9 ano!r1 #aaf--;hum]us1 #be c5timetres2 radius1 #bi c5timetres4 ,! metac>pal bone und]goes1 relatively to ! hum]us1 a proportional elongation1 analog\s to t ( ! =e>m4 ,9 man1 ! l5g? ( ! metac>pus is conta9$ ab\t #e-a_/b times 9 t ( ! hum]us2 9 ! be>1 x is conta9$ #d times2 9 ! dog1 #b-a_/b times2 9 ! horse1 #a-a_/c times only4 ,x is well kn[n t ! proportions v>y accord+ to race1 & t :at we h "h giv5 are b ! g5]al indications4 ,! ,articulations ( ! ,ant]ior ,limbs ,! k ( human ar?rology :i* we presume ! read] to h previ\sly acquir$ makes x unnecess>y = u to ent] into num]\s details reg>d+ ! configuration ( ! articul> osse\s surfaces & ! disposition ( ! fibr\s b&s t reta9 !m 9 position4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! description :i* foll[s1 & also 9 t ( ! articulations ( ! po/]ior limbs1 we %all occupy ourselves b v briefly ) ! details above ref]r$ to1 s z to devote ourselves especially to ! indication ( ! movem5ts--t is to say1 ( t :i*1 :ile easily compreh5d$ on recollection ( =m] /udies1 pres5ts ! greate/ int]e/ f ! arti/ic /&po9t 9 ^! /udies 9 comp>ative anatomy4 ,! ,scapulo-,hum]al ,articulation4--,! head ( ! hum]us & ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula be+ 9 contact1 ! two bones are b\nd toge!r by a r loose articul> capsule1 :i* is /r5g!n$ by ! muscles ( ?is region :i* fulfil ! function ( active ligam5ts4 ,?is articulation1 s movable 9 e direction 9 ! human species1 is n s mu* s 9 quadrup$s2 ! arm 9 ! latt]1 z also ! %\ld]1 be+ kept 9 contact ) ! lat]al region ( ! ?orax by ! num]\s muscles :i* surr\nd x4 ,( ! movem5ts p]=m$ by ! hum]us1 flexion & ext5sion are ! mo/ ext5sive2 ^? ( abduction & adduction are mu* less s4 ,x is necess>y1 be=e proce$+ fur!r1 to det]m9e :at ! two pr9cipal movem5ts :i* we h j m5tion$ really are1 viz41 flexion & ext5sion4 ,we "k t 9 man ! displacem5ts ( ! hum]us :i* take place 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction are kn[n z movem5t or projection =w>ds1 & movem5t or projection backw>ds1 respectively4 ,we d n say t ! hum]us is flex$ or ext5d$1 because1 9 reality1 on acc\nt ( ! position :i* ! skeleton ( ! %\ld] occupies1 x is n able to flex or place itself on ! l9e ( prolongation ( ! scapula ) :i* x articulates4 ,9 quadrup$s x is n s4 ,! hum]us & ! scapula are conta9$ 9 almo/ ! same v]tical plane2 & ! bone ( ! arm c take1 9 relation to ! latt]1 ! positions *>act]i/ic ( flexion & ext5sion--t is1 ( approa* to ! scapula & removal f x4 ,:at makes ! mean+s ( ^! t]ms a little confus+ is t1 9 human anatomy1 "s au?ors consid] ! backw>d movem5t ( ! hum]us z ext5sion1 & ! =w>d movem5t z flexion2 9 ord] to be able to comp>e ^! movem5ts to ^? t ! femur executes 9 relation to ! pelvis4 ,n[1 9 our op9ion1 ! indication ( ?is correspond5ce is n absolutely necess>y2 s9ce x ceases to be exact if we wi%$1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! direction giv5 to o!r segm5ts ( ! skeleton1 to e/abli% ! same relation betwe5 ! elb[ & ! articulation ( ! knee4 ,x is !re=e indisp5sable1 :5 discuss+ quadrup$s1 to discont9ue ^! t]ms1 9 ord] ! m readily to recognise t3 9 flexion ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us is direct$ backw>ds2 9 ext5sion1 on ! contr>y1 x is direct$ =w>ds4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! hum]us approa*es ! scapula2 9 ! second1 on ! contr>y1 x moves away f x4 ,^! movem5ts1 :i* take place dur+ walk+1 are execut$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,:5 "o ( ! ant]ior limbs is at ! end ( t /age ( progression :i* is call$ support 7see p4 #bhi1 ,displacem5ts ( ! ,limbs7--t is to say1 dur+ ! "t t ! foot rema9s 9 contact ) ! gr\nd1 :il/ ! trunk is mov+ =w>d--! direction ( ?is limb becomes m & m oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds4 ,at a c]ta9 mom5t ! limb is rais$ f ! gr\nd1 to be c>ri$ =w>ds1 9 ord] to be aga9 press$ on ! gr\nd1 & recomm5ce a new re/+ /age4 ,9 ^! diff]5t phases ! hum]us is flex$4 ,b at ! mom5t t ! limb1 :5 c>ri$ =w>ds1 is ab\t to resume its contact ) ! gr\nd x becomes direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 !n ! hum]us is 9 ! position ( ext5sion4 ,dur+ ^! movem5ts ( ! hum]us1 !re exi/s an ess5tial factor--t is1 ! scapul> balance4 7,x is ! same z :at occurs 9 man :5 he balances 8 arm 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior plane47 ,:5 ! hum]us is flex$1 ! scapula moves 9 su* a way t ! sup]ior portion projects =w>ds2 :5 x is ext5d$1 ! scapula1 on ! o!r h&1 is incl9$ m backw>ds4 ,b x is necess>y to add t1 dur+ ^! displacem5ts1 ! scapulo-hum]al angle v>ies2 x t5ds to close dur+ ! flexion ( ! hum]us1 & becomes m op5 dur+ ext5sion4 ,! movem5ts & ! relations ( ! hum]us & ! scapula are cle>ly repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #da & #db1 reproduc$ f ! *romophotographic /udies ( ,pr(essor ,m>ey--/udies relative to ! analyses ( ! movem5ts ( ! horse4#ac ,!y %[ cle>ly ! movem5ts ( flexion & ext5sion ( ! hum]us1 also ! balanc+ ( ! scapula :i* accompanies ! movem5ts4 #ac ,e4 ,j4 ,m>ey1 ',analyses ( ! ,movem5ts ( ! ,horse by ! ,*romophotograph' 7,la ,nature1 ,june #aa1 #ahih74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,flexion ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us3 ,,"r ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface 7,,aft] ,a ,,*romophotographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us3 ,,"r ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface 7,,aft] ,a ,,*romophotographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 ,! ,articulation ( ! ,elb[1 or ! ,hum]o-uln> ,articulation4--,9 ?is articulation1 :i* is con/ruct$ 9 ! =m ( a true h+e1 ! movem5ts ( flexion & ext5sion alone are possible4 ,9 flexion1 ! =e>m1 direct$ =w>ds1 is fold$ on ! arm1 ) :i*1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 x comes 9 contact4 ,= example1 9 a horse ( mettle :i* leaps ov] an elevat$ ob/acle1 ! animal =cibly raises 8 =e-limbs by flex+ !m4 ,flexion is produc$ to ! same ext5t1 & ev5 m s1 & = a long] p]iod1 9 felides :i* cr\*4 ,9 ext5sion1 on ! contr>y1 ! =e>m is c>ri$ backw>d4 ,?is movem5t be+ limit$ only by ! contact ( ! tip ( ! olecranon ) ! bottom ( ! olecranon fossa ( ! hum]us1 ! =e>m is enabl$1 9 ?is case1 to move until x is 9 l9e ) ! arm4 ,= example1 dur+ walk+1 :5 "o ( ! ant]ior limbs1 hav+ rea*$ ! end ( its re/+ /age1 is consid]ably incl9$ d[nw>ds & backw>ds4 ,! apex ( ! olecranon process--t is to say1 ! po9t ( ! elb[--=ms a m>k$ prom95ce1 m sali5t 9 flexion ?an 9 ext5sion1 z 9 ! correspond+ region ( ! human elb[4 ,! ,radio-uln> ,articulation4--,x is 9 ! dog & ! cat1 9 :i* ! two bones ( ! =e>m articulate by _! extremities only1 & rema9 sep>ate 9 ! re/ ( _! ext5t1 t ! articulations call = special notice4 ,9 ! upp] "p1 ! radius rotates on itself2 :ile bel[1 x rotates ar\nd ! ulna4 ,x foll[s t ! =e>m1 :i* 9 all quadrup$s is 9 a /ate ( p]man5t pronation1 c1 9 c>nivora1 take ! position ( sup9ation1 or r1 ( demi-sup9ation4 ,9 fact1 :atev] be ! mobility ( ! two bones ( ! =e>m1 ! movem5t is n able to br+ ! palm> surface to ! front1 b only to direct x t[>ds ! m$ian l9e4 ,! ,articulation ( ! ,wri/4--,"h are f\nd1 z 9 man1 ?ree sup]impos$ articulations3 ! radio-c>pal1 int]c>pal1 & c>po-metac>pal4 ,if we rememb] ! movem5ts :i* take place at ! plane ( ^! articulations 9 man1 & take acc\nt ( ! fact t ! mobility ( ! limbs is r$uc$ j 9 proportion z !y are simplifi$ 9 /ructure s z to become organs ( support only1 we c easily compreh5d t1 9 ! horse & ! ox1 &1 9 a ^w1 animals t h a canon bone1 ! movem5ts ( ! wri/ are little v>i$ 9 "*1 :ile 9 c>nivorae1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are relatively m s4 ,we w rememb] t 9 ! ox & ! horse ! region ( ! wri/ is call$ ! knee4 ,9 flexion1 ! h& is b5t backw>ds2 9 ext5sion x is c>ri$ =w>ds4 ,^! two movem5ts take place especially 9 ! radioc>pal & int]c>pal articulations4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! articulations1 x is ! sup]ior r[ ( ! c>pus :i* glides backw>ds & =w>ds on ! correspond+ articul> surface ( ! =e>m4 ,9 ! second articulation1 x is ! second r[ :i* moves2 glid+ on ! inf]ior articul> surfaces ( ! r[ above x4 ,?is inf]ior r[ c>ries ! metac>pus ) x2 = ! c>po-metac>pal articulation is mu* less mobile ?an ei!r ( ! o!r two4 ,9 flexion1 ! articul> surfaces are sep>at$ f "o ano!r 9 front2 & ! *anges ( =m :i* result f ?is are noticeable on ! ant]ior surface ( ! 'knee4' ,moreov]1 at t mom5t ?is region contra/s m>k$ly 9 its outl9es ) ! p>ts above x & bel[ x--t is to say1 ) ! correspond+ surfaces ( ! =e>m & ( ! canon bone4 ,z = ! lat]al movem5ts1 by :i* ! h& is incl9$ outw>ds & inw>ds 9 its movem5ts at ! wri/1 !y exi/ to an appreciable ext5t 9 ! cat & ! dog only2 9 ord] to und]/& ?is1 x is en\gh to comp>e ! %ape ( ! articul> surfaces ( ?is region 9 c>nivora & ! horse1 = example4 ,9 ! latt]1 ^? surfaces are almo/ plane2 9 ! cat1 on ! contr>y1 !y are curv$ 7inf]ior surface ( ! =e>m1 concave2 sup]ior bord] ( ! c>pus1 convex74 ,^! latt]1 !n1 are1 9 =m1 simil> to ^? :i* exi/ at ! same level 9 ! human be+2 ?is expla9s ! possibility ( analog\s movem5ts ( ! :ole h&--t is to say1 ( ! movem5ts ( abduction & adduction4 ,! ,metac>po-phalangeal ,articulations4--,) reg>d to ! mobility1 x is 9 ^! articulations1 z 9 ^? ( ! wri/--t is to say1 al?\gh 9 all quadrup$s ! fir/ phalanges c be flex$ & ext5d$ on ! metac>pus1 x is only 9 ! cat & dog t lat]al movem5t is possible4 ,inde$1 9 ! horse1 9 :i* ! pr9cipal metac>pal t]m9ates inf]iorly 9 two convex surfaces1 :i* are sep>at$ by a cre/2 & :]e ! :ole articulates ) a cavity on ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fir/ phalanx2 because ( ! h++ ( ^! surfaces1 !re c only be movem5ts ( op5+ & clos+ ( ?is articulation4 ,! fir/ phalanx is direct$ backw>ds dur+ flexion & =w>ds dur+ ext5sion4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ! digits c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & also drawn toge!r--t is to say1 abduct$ & adduct$2 b1 z 9 man1 ^! movem5ts c be made only :5 ! fir/ phalanges are 9 ! /ate ( ext5sion4 ,dur+ flexion !y are impossible1 because ( ! t5sion ( ! lat]al ligam5ts1 :i* increases z ! flexion is m pron\nc$4 ,?is c be demon/rat$1 = example1 9 ! cat1 :i*1 9 ord] to sep>ate ! digits1 op5s ! h& widely--t is to say1 =cibly raises ! fir/ phalanges4 ,! ,int]phalangeal ,articulations4--,! phalanges are 9 contact ) "o ano!r by surfaces1 :i*1 on "o side1 are ( tro*le> =m1 &1 on ! o!r1 are m\ld$ on ^! tro*leae2 accord+ly1 at ! level ( ^! articulations1 ! movem5ts ( flexion & ext5sion only c take place4 ,9 ! felidae1 ! claws :i* ! ?ird phalanges be> _c be utiliz$ :5 ! latt] are 9 a /ate ( ext5sion1 at :i* "t1 be+ =cibly rais$1 !y are1 9 fact1 plac$ on ! out] sides ( ! phalanges1 :i* are groov$ to receive !m4 ,b :5 ! animal wi%es to use !m1 x flexes ^? ?ird phalanges1 ( :i* ! t]m9al extremity is !n project$ =w>d1 & ! claws are ready to fulfil _! function4 ,b at ! same "t x ext5ds ! fir/ phalanges1 to produce a c]ta9 t5sion ( ! flexors ( ! digits1 & ?us enable ! latt] to act ) great] efficacy1 ) a m9imum ( contraction4 ,we c demon/rate ?is action exp]im5tally on ourselves4 ,x is en\gh to c>ry ! fir/ phalanges =cibly into a /ate ( ext5sion2 ! ?ird phalanges !n become flex$1 q spontane\sly1 by ! t5sion ( ! t5dons ( ! flexors :i* are ins]t$ into !m4 ,at ! same "t1 if we exam9e ! felidae :i* we h tak5 z examples1 :5 ! fir/ phalanges are 9 ! /ate ( ext5sion1 ! digits w be f\nd to be sep>able1 z we h already indicat$ 9 connection ) ! metac>po-phalangeal articulations1 ) ! result t ! claws are !n able to lac]ate a wid] surface4 ,! ext5sion ( ! ungual phalanx1 :i* det]m9es ! retraction ( ! claw & /ops its action1 is ! me*anical result ( an ela/ic1 fibr\s app>atus :i* is atta*$ to ea* ( ! ?ird phalanges1 & has its orig9 ( ! second4 ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs#ad #ad ,exam9e ,figs4 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #di4 ,! po/]ior limbs are divid$1 z are ! inf]ior limbs ( ! human be+1 ( :i* !y are ! homologues1 into f\r p>ts3 pelvis1 ?igh1 leg1 & foot4 ,! ,pelvis ,! pelvis1 :i* incompletely limits ! abdom9al cavity1 inf]iorly 9 ! v]tical position ( ! body & po/]iorly 9 ! normal attitude ( quadrup$s1 is =m$ by ! iliac bones & sacrum--! coccyx =m+ a prolongation ( ! latt]4 ,we h already describ$ ! two latt] 7pp4 #aj & #aa7 9 connection ) ! v]tebral column1 ( :i* !y =m ! inf]ior or po/]ior portion or segm5t1 accord+ to ! attitude ( ! individual4 ,! ,iliac ,bone4--,! iliac or coxal bone1 is a pair$ or non-symmetrical bone1 unit$ bel[ to its fell[ ( ! opposite side1 :ile x is sep>at$ f x above by ! sacrum4 ,9 all animals1 z well z 9 man1 ! iliac bone1 at ! beg9n+ ( life1 consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 :i* aft]w>ds unite & fuse toge!r & jo9 at ! middle ( ! bottom ( a deep cavity :i* is situat$ on ! out] aspect ( ! bone--! cotyloid cavity4 ,( ^? ?ree portions :5 exam9$ 9 ! human iliac bone1 t above ! cavity is ! ilium2 t on ! inside is ! pubis2 & ! la/1 ! l[] "o1 is ! is*ium4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ! iliac bone be+1 9 its entirety1 direct$ mu* m obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 ! relative position ( ^! con/itu5t p>ts is a little modifi$3 ! ilium is 9 front1 ! pubis is /ill int]nal1 b 9 a m inf]ior position1 & ! is*ium is beh9d ! cotyloid cavity4 ,we notice ?is peculi>ity ( ! developm5t ( ! iliac bone because x is cu/om>y to cont9ue to apply to ! osse\s regions :i* correspond to ^! p>ts ! names by :i* !y 7 kn[n :5 indep5d5t bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,! ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,be+3 ,,ext]nal ,,surface1 ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,w\ld ,,occupy ,,9 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$4 #a1 ,cotyloid cavity2 #b1 ilium2 #c1 iliac cre/2 #d1 ant]ior iliac cre/2 #e1 po/]ior iliac sp9e2 #f1 pubis2 #g1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #h1 obturator =am52 #i1 is*iadic sp9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,( ,a ,,quadrup$ 7,,horse73 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,cotyloid cavity2 #b1 ilium1 ext]nal iliac fossa 7direct$ upw>d 9 ! horse72 #c1 iliac cre/2 #d1 ant]ior iliac sp9e 7direct$ inw>ds 9 ! horse1 x is ! angle ( ! haun*72 #e1 po/]ior iliac sp9e 7direct$ inw>ds 9 ! horse2 x is ! angle ( ! haun*72 #f1 pubis2 #g1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #h1 obturator =am52 #i1 is*iadic sp9e1 or subcotyloid =am54 ,! bones :i* =m ! skeleton ( ! pelvis ( quadrup$s are proportionally m elongat$ & less massive ?an ^? ( ! human pelvis 7,figs4 #dc & #dd74 ,we f9d1 on ! ext]nal surface ( ! iliac bone1 ! cotyloid cavity1 ^: bord] is int]rupt$ by ! cotyloid not*2 a deep not* :i* looks d[nw>ds4 ,9 front ( ?is cavity is ! ilium4 ,?is portion1 n>r[ 9 ! "p :i* is next ! cavity1 is direct$ =w>ds & upw>ds1 exp&+ m & m z x passes upw>ds4 ,x pres5ts an ext]nal or sup]ior surface 7ext]nal 9 "s animals1 sup]ior 9 o!rs71 :i* recalls ! ext]nal iliac fossa2 & an int]nal or inf]ior surface1 at ! sup]ior "p ( :i* is f\nd ! auricul> surface = articulation ) ! sacrum4 ,! ant]ior bord] ( ! ilium is r\gh2 ?is is ! iliac cre/1 at ! extremities ( :i* we f9d1 bel[ or outside1 a prom95ce :i* corresponds to ! ant]ior sup]ior iliac sp9e ( man2 & int]nally ano!r projection :i* corresponds to ! po/]ior iliac sp9e4 ,imm$iately above ! cotyloid cavity is a r\gh cre/1 :i* is kn[n z ! supracotyloid cre/1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 no o!r ?an ! homologue ( ! sciatic sp9e4 ,9 front ( ?is prom95ce1 ! bord] ( ! ilium1 :i* is not*$1 =ms ! great sciatic not*4 ,if1 /ill tak+ ! cotyloid cavity z ! po9t ( dep>ture1 we proce$ inw>ds--t is1 t[>ds ! m$ian l9e ( ! body--we f9d ! pubis2 if 9 a po/]ior direction1 ! is*ium4 ,^! two portions1 pubis & is*ium1 limit an oval orifice1 ! subpubic =am54 ,9 ! human skeleton1 ! pubis ( "o side is unit$ to t ( ! opposite side1 to =m ! pubic symphysis4 ,9 ! animals :i* we are n[ /udy+ a portion ( ! is*ium ent]s into ! =mation ( ! symphysis2 9 o!r words1 x is =m$1 n only by ! body ( ! pubis1 b also by ! desc5d+ bran* or ramus ( ! pubis & a portion ( ! asc5d+ bran* or ramus ( ! is*ium1 :i* are fus$ ) ^? ( ! opposite side4 ,x results t1 ?\gh 9 ! human be+ ! symphysis is %ort & ! is*io-pubic ar* l>ge1 9 quadrup$s x is ! opposite4 ,9 !m ! ar* is a m]e slot1 & be+ =m$ by ! is*ium alone1 m]its ! "n ( ! is*ial ar*4 ,! is*io-pubic symphysis is v l>ge1 & =ms a horizontal surface relatively ext5sive1 a sort ( floor1 on :i* re/ c]ta9 organs :i* occupy ! cavity ( ! pelvis4 ,! po/]ior & ext]nal angle ( ! is*ium is r\gh & prom95t2 x is ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium4 ,?is =ms a projection "u ! sk92 x also does 9 man :5 ! trunk is /rongly incl9$ =w>ds1 :ile ! ?ighs are ma9ta9$ 9 ! v]tical position4 ,9 m>supials--opossum1 kang>oo1 & phalang]--! pelvis at its pubic region is surm\nt$ by two bones1 situat$ "o on ea* side ( ! m$ian l9e1 & arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a =k ( two prongs 7,fig4 #de74 ,^!1 :i* are call$ m>supial bones1 support ! p\* :i*1 9 animals ( ?is g5us1 lodges _! "y1 :i*1 at ! "t ( bir?1 are incapable ( support+ a sep>ate exi/5ce1 _! developm5t be+ absolutely incomplete4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,pubic ,,region ,,( ,,! ,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,m>supial 7,,phalang]1 ,,fox74 #a1 ,symphysis pubis2 #b1 obturator =am52 #c1 m>supial bones4 ,9 ! cetaceans--= example1 ! dolph9--because ( ! abs5ce ( po/]ior limbs1 ! pelvis is repres5t$ by two sep>ate bones only1 :i* h no connection ) ! v]tebral column4 ,9 birds1 ! pelvis is rem>kable = its elongat$ =m 7see = its =m ,fig4 #ba1 & = details ,fig4 #df74 ,! cotyloid cavity is pi]c$ by an op5+1 & pres5ts on its po/]ior bord]1 :i* is "h a little prom95t1 a surface ) :i* ! great tro*ant] is 9 contact4 ,! ilium is v highly develop$1 & is fus$ 9 ! m$ian l9e ) ! ilium ( ! opposite side1 ! la/ dorsal v]tebrae1 ! lumb> v]tebrae1 & ! sacrum4 ,because ( ^! relations ) ! dorsal v]tebrae1 x is 9 contact ant]iorly ) ! la/ ribs1 :i* consequ5tly em]ge f ea* side ( ! iliac region ( ! pelvis4 ,! is*ium =ms a plate ( bone :i*1 9 "p1 closes ! ext]nal portion ( ! cavity ( ! pelvis4 ,its sup]ior bord] is sep>ate = a c]ta9 di/ance f ! ext]nal bord] ( ! ilium2 !re is ?us left an op5+ ( m or less consid]able size1 :i* repres5ts or takes ! place ( ! great sciatic not*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,ext]nal ,,surface1 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,ilium2 #b1 is*ium2 #c1 pubis2 #d1 inf]ior extremity ( ! pubis2 #e1 sciatic =am52 #f1 oval =am51 homolog\s to ! obturator2 #g1 coccygeal v]tebrae4 ,! pubis1 long & sl5d]1 is 9 connection ) ! inf]ior bord] ( ! is*ium1 ( :i* x foll[s ! g5]al direction2 & circumscribes ) ?is latt]1 bel[ ! cotyloid cavity1 an oval orifice1 :i* is ! homologue ( ! obturator =am54 ,its inf]ior extremity rea*es beyond ! correspond+ "p ( ! is*ium1 b5d+ t[>ds ! middle l9e1 b )\t jo9+ ! pubis ( ! opposite side4 ,on ?is acc\nt !re is no symphysis pubis 9 birds4 ,nev]!less1 an exception mu/ be not$ 9 ! case ( ! o/ri*1 ! pubic bones ( :i* meet 9 ! middle l9e1 & are articulat$ 9 =m ( a symphysis4 ,! ,?igh ,a s+le bone1 ! femur1 =ms ! skeleton ( ?is portion ( ! l[] limb4 ,! ,femur4--,! bone ( ! ?igh is1 9 man1 direct$ d[nw>ds & inw>ds2 ?is obliquity1 we may rem9d ! read]1 is due to ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? ( ! two condyles :i* =m its inf]ior extremity2 ! int]nal is ! m prom95t1 ! result ( :i* is t :5 ! femur is held v]tically1 ! int]nal condyle desc5ds l[] ?an ! ext]nal4 ,n[1 z ^? two articul> expansions re/ on ! horizontal plane =m$ by ! upp] extremity ( ! tibia1 x foll[s t ! sup]ior "p ( ! femur incl9es t[>ds ! side ( ! %ort] condyle--t is to say1 outw>ds--& t1 ! leg be+ v]tical1 x & ! bone ( ! ?igh unite 9 =m+ an angle1 ( :i* ! apex is direct$ t[>ds ! inn] side ( ! knee4 ,9 _m mammals ! two condyles are equally prom95t1 ! result ( :i* is t ! femur incl9es nei!r inw>ds nor outw>ds1 b is conta9$ 9 a plane p>allel to ! axis ( ! trunk2 :ile ! leg is includ$ 9 ! same plane4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh conta9$ 9 ! plane :i* we h j indicat$1 ! femur is obliquely plac$1 & direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 x accord+ly =ms1 ) ! pelvis1 an angle1 ( :i* ! op5+ is direct$ to ! ant]ior aspect ( ! body4 ,9 reptiles & 9 birds ! femur & leg are bo? plac$ 9 ! same plane1 b ?is plane is n p>allel to ! axis ( ! trunk4 ,?is is ! result1 on ! "o h&1 ( ! ?orax be+ wide1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ( ! femur1 :i* is direct$ =w>ds1 be+ 9 contact by its ant]ior extremity ) ! lat]al aspect ( ! co/al region1 x is ?us necess>ily plac$ 9 a direction =w>ds & outw>ds1 & ! knee is fur!r remov$ f ! axis ( ! trunk ?an is ! articulation :i* unites ! ?igh ) ! pelvis4 ,! femur1 l ! hum]us1 is almo/ completely envelop$ by muscul> masses1 :i* b9d x to ! lat]al walls ( ! abdom54 ,its inf]ior extremity alone is free1 & is always ! m s 9 proportion to its elongation--t is to say1 z x belongs to an animal ^: foot is m divid$4 ,! femur 9 ?is respect con=ms to ! law :i* we h indicat$ 9 connection ) ! bone ( ! arm1 9 :i* ! developm5t1 z to l5g?1 is 9 proportion to ! division ( ! h&4 ,if we comp>e ! femur ( c]ta9 animals ) t ( man1 we see t ! correspond+ details ( =m are readily recognisable1 b !y are slightly modifi$4 ,?us1 on exam9+ ! sup]ior extremity1 we f9d !re a head1 a neck1 a great tro*ant]1 & a less]2 b ! neck is usually %ort & ?ick1 & ! great tro*ant] does n occupy ! same level ) reg>d to ! articul> head ( ! bone4 ,9 man1 ! great tro*ant] does n rise to ! level ( ! head ( ! femur2 9 ! dog & ! cat x approa*es t level2 9 ! horse & 9 rum9ants x rises above x4 ,) reg>d to ! inf]ior extremity1 its surfaces und]go modifications :i* are fur!r acc5tuat$ z we pass f ! digitigrades to ! ungulates1 or unguligrades4 ,we "k t 9 man ! femoral tro*lea is cont9u\s beh9d1 )\t int]ruption1 ) ! condyles--t is to say1 t ea* ( ! condyles is ! cont9uation ( "o ( ! lips ( ! tro*lea4 ,we h j said t ! tro*lea is cont9u\s )\t int]ruption ) ! condyles2 ?is is accurate4 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ rem>k t1 at ! level ( ! junction ( ^! surfaces1 ! bone pres5ts a slight con/riction1 :i* is m m>k$ on ! ext]nal ?an on ! int]nal aspect4 ,?is con/riction1 :i* is b slightly m>k$ 9 man1 is acc5tuat$ 9 ! dog & ! cat2 9 ! rum9ants & ! solip$s x is /ill m pron\nc$ s t we may say t 9 ^! latt] ! tro*lea & ! condyles are almo/ completely sep>at$4 ,!re is ano!r modification 9 reg>d to ! prom95ce & ext5t ( ! two lips ( ! tro*lea4 ,9 man1 ! ext]nal lip ( ! tro*lea rea*es high] ?an ! int]nal1 & x is m prom95t 9 front4 ,9 ! dog1 ^! lips are equal ) reg>d to ?ickness1 b ! ext]nal /ill rea*es high] ?an ! int]nal2 9 ! cat1 !y are equal 9 e respect2 9 rum9ants & solip$s ! int]nal lip is wid]1 ?ick]1 & rises high] ?an ! ext]nal4 ,9 animals ! tro*lea is1 z a g5]al rule1 n>r[] ?an 9 man1 & ! condyles are m prom95t po/]iorly2 s t1 :5 view$ f "o ( ! lat]al aspects1 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur is1 9 !m1 bett] develop$ 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction4 ,9 birds1 ! femur is %ort] ?an ! bones ( ! leg2 its great tro*ant] is 9 contact ) a prom95ce :i* occupies ! po/]ior "p ( ! bord] ( ! cotyloid cavity4 ,in/ead ( articulat+ at ! level ( ! knee1 ) ! knee-cap & tibia only1 z 9 man1 x articulates1 9 addition1 ) ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fibula4 ,a simil> arrangem5t is f\nd 9 m>supials & reptiles4 ,! ,knee-cap4--,?is bone1 develop$ 9 ! ?ickness ( ! t5don ( ! triceps muscle ( ! ?igh1 is 9 contact1 by its po/]ior surface1 ) ! femoral tro*lea4 ,! two articul> surfaces :i* are appli$ to ! lips ( ! tro*lea pres5t1 ) reg>d to _! ext5t1 an inequality :i* is 9 proportion to ! arrangem5t :i* we h above indicat$--t is1 :ile 9 man x is ! ext]nal surface :i* is ! l>g]1 9 ! horse x is ! int]nal4 ,we %all see :at ! g5]al =m ( ! knee-cap is :5 we come1 lat] on1 to /udy m p>ticul>ly ! po/]ior limbs ( "s animals4 ,! ,leg ,! skeleton ( ! leg consi/s ( two bones3 ! tibia & ! fibula4 ,! tibia is ! m int]nal & ! l>g] ( ! two2 ! fibula is sl5d]1 & situat$ on ! out] side1 & a little po/]ior to1 ! prec$+4 ,! fibula is m or less develop$ accord+ to ! species2 9 "s x is complete1 9 o!rs x is v mu* atrophi$4 ,?is peculi>ity may be comp>$ ) t :i* we h drawn att5tion to reg>d+ ! developm5t ( ! ulna2 b "h ! s]iation is less di/9ct4 ,n only 9 ! diff]5t species1 b ev5 9 ! individuals ( ! same species1 ! developm5t ( ! fibula pres5ts little regul>ity4 ,9 quadrup$s1 ! bones ( ! leg are direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 s t !y =m1 ) ! femur1 :i* is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 an angle1 ! apex ( :i* is plac$ at ! ant]ior surface ( ! knee4 ,tibia4--,! tibia ( quadrup$s is readily comp>able ) t ( man2 z 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 its %aft has ?ree surfaces--an ext]nal1 :i* is holl[$ out 9 its upp] portion1 & becomes ant]ior bel[2 an int]nal1 slightly convex & subcutane\s2 ! po/]ior1 :i* pres5ts1 9 its sup]ior "p1 a cre/1 ! oblique l9e ( ! tibia1 & "s rugosities4 ,! bord]s sep>ate ! surfaces4 ,! ant]ior bord]1 or cre/ ( ! tibia1 is prom95t 9 its sup]ior "p2 bel[ x gradually disappe>s 9 pass+ t[>ds ! int]nal aspect ( ! inf]ior extremity4 ,! ext]nal & int]nal bord]s sep>ate ! correspond+ surfaces f ! po/]ior "o4 ,! sup]ior extremity is ?ick1 & exp&s 9 =m+ ?ree tub]osities3 two lat]al & an ant]ior4 ,! ant]ior tub]osity1 situat$ at ! sup]ior "p ( ! cre/ ( ! tibia1 is v prom95t2 = ?is reason ! sup]ior extremity is v mu* exp&$ 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction--h5ce x results t ?is diamet] is equal to ! transv]se1 & sometimes ev5 great]4 ,9 man1 x is ! latt] :i* is ! l>g]4 ,! ant]ior tub]osity is visible "u ! sk94 ,! inf]ior extremity1 less ?ick1 is prolong$ int]nally by a prom95ce :i* corresponds to ! int]nal malleolus ( man4 ,9 animals ^: fibula is b slightly develop$ ! tibia pres5ts1 on ! ext]nal "p ( its inf]ior extremity1 a small prom95ce1 :i* replaces ! fibul> malleolus4 ,! rum9ants mu/1 h[ev]1 be except$1 9 :i* we f9d 9 ?is region a special bone1 :i* c]ta9 au?ors look on z ! inf]ior "p ( ! fibula 7see p4 #ig74 ,! inf]ior surface ( ?is extremity ( ! tibia is articul>2 & is 9 contact ) "o ( ! t>sal bones1 ! a/ragalus4 ,because ! sup]ior surface ( ?is latt] has ! =m ( a pulley1 a pulley mu* m m>k$ ?an t on ! human a/ragalus1 ! correspond+ surface ( ! tibia1 :i* has ! opposite =m1 pres5ts two lat]al cavities1 sep>at$ by a m$ian ridge1 :i* is direct$ =w>ds & slightly outw>ds2 ?is ridge projects into ! groove ( ! pulley4 ,! ,fibula4--,?is bone1 situat$ at ! back ( ! ext]nal surface ( ! tibia1 is1 z we h said1 m or less develop$4 ,its sup]ior extremity1 or head1 articulates ) ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia4 ,its inf]ior extremity1 :5 x exi/s--x is ?is :i* disappe>s 9 animals :i* h ! fibula incompletely develop$--=ms a prom95ce :i*1 plac$ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia1 articulates ) ! a/ragalus1 & recalls ! ext]nal malleolus ( man4 ,we h /at$ above t x is ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fibula :i* disappe>s :5 ! bone is incompletely develop$2 x is necess>y to except ! bat1 9 :i* ! fibula1 fairly well develop$ at its inf]ior extremity1 by :i* x articulates ) ! tibia1 ?9s (f 9 its sup]ior portion1 & does n rea* ! correspond+ extremity ( ! latt]4 ,fur!r1 z 9 ?is animal ! surface ( ! knee1 :i* corresponds to ! ant]ior surface ( ! same region 9 o!r animals1 is turn$ backw>ds1 ! result is t ! fibula is situat$ on ! inn] side ( ! tibia1 in/ead ( be+ plac$ on ! out]4 ,! ,foot ,! foot1 9 animals1 z well z 9 man1 is =m$ ( ?ree portions1 :i*1 z we pass f ! "p :i* articulates ) ! leg t[>ds ! t]m9al extremity1 are3 ! t>sus1 ! metat>sus1 & ! toes4 ,^! ?ree portions are ! homologues ( ! c>pus1 ! metac>pus1 & ! f+]s1 :i*1 z we h already se5 9 ! case ( ! h&1 are ! osse\s gr\ps :i* =m its skeleton4 ,! t>sus is =m$ ( %ort bones1 z ! c>pus is2 ^! are1 9 man1 sev5 9 numb]4 ,! bones are arrang$ 9 two r[s3 "o1 ! po/]ior1 =m$ ( two bones sup]impos$--! a/ragalus1 by :i* ! t>sus articulates ) ! leg1 & ! calcaneum1 :i* =ms ! prom95ce ( ! heel2 & an ant]ior r[ =m$ ( five juxtapos$ ones--! cuboid1 situat$ ext]nally1 & ! scaphoid int]nally1 9 front ( :i* are f\nd ! ?ree cunei=ms4 ,to ! t>sus succe$s ! metat>sus1 ^: =m rem9ds u v mu* ( t ( ! metac>pals4 ,) reg>d to ! toes1 :i* we enum]ate 9 proce$+ f ! mo/ int]nal to ! mo/ ext]nal1 !y are =m$ ( phalanges1 :i* are ?ree 9 numb] = ! f\r out] toes2 b ! numb] is r$uc$ to two 9 ! case ( ! fir/--t is1 ! s-call$ great-toe4 ,! bones ( ! t>sus are n sev5 9 all animals2 !y are few] 9 rum9ants & solip$s4 ,we already "k t1 9 ! latt]1 ! metac>pals & ! digits are equally r$uc$ 9 numb]2 ! same is ! case = ! metat>sals & ! toes4 ,we w analyze ^! diff]5ces :5 deal+ ) ! species individually4 ,:5 we /udi$ ! ant]ior limbs1 we saw 9 pass+ f ! plantigrades to ! digitigrades1 & f9ally ! ungulates1 or unguligrades1 z ! h& became hyp]ext5d$1 ! c>pus 0 rais$ & m & m remov$ f ! gr\nd4 ,we %all e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( ! same condition 9 ! po/]ior limbs2 9 ! plantigrades ! t>sus re/s on ! gr\nd2 9 ! digitigrades x is remov$ f x2 :ile 9 ! unguligrades ! di/ance :i* sep>ates x f ! po9t ( support is /ill m consid]able2 & x is1 inde$1 necess>y to imag9e t if ^! latt] 7 plantigrades1 w\ld occupy ! position on ! gr\nd :i* is indicat$ by ,fig4 #dg4 ,9 vet]9>y anatomy ! t>sus is call$ ! ham2 a "n we adopt 9 con=mity ) usage1 b :i* we _c b regret1 z 9 human anatomy ! ham is ! region ( ! po/]ior surface ( ! knee4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! region ( ! digits ( ! po/]ior limbs 9 birds1 pres5ts "s po9ts ( int]e/4 ,we %all m]ely say ) reg>d to ! metat>sus1 t x is =m$ by a s+le bone1 :i* 9 ! cock is furni%$ t[>ds its inf]ior ?ird ) a po9t$ process1 ! spur4 ,at ! inf]ior "p1 !re is1 h[ev]1 f\nd ano!r1 :i* is b v slightly develop$1 & ) :i* ! fir/ phalanx ( ! inn]mo/ toe articulates4 ,! toes are1 9 ! majority ( species1 f\r 9 numb]3#ae an int]nal1 :i* is direct$ backw>ds1 & corresponds to ! great-toe2 ! o!rs are direct$ =w>ds4 ,?is arrangem5t is con/ant 9 grallatores 7wad+ birds71 gall9aceae#af 7dome/ic f[ls71 & raptores 7birds ( prey74 #ae ,9 spite ( ! fact t ! cu/om is to designate ! t]m9al portions ( ! foot ( birds by ! "n ( digits1 we pref] to employ "h ! t]ms foot & toes4 ,9 adopt+ ?is decision we believe we are act+ accord+ to a m didactic me?od4 ,homology ( names %\ld1 9 our op9ion1 always accompany homology ( regions4 #af ,) reg>d to ! gall9aceae1 we mu/ add t 9 c]ta9 v>ieties ! numb] ( toes is five2 ^? :i* are direct$ =w>ds are ?ree 9 numb]2 ! int]nal "o :i* passes backw>d1 is d\ble4 ,! two toes :i* are ! subject ( ?is special arrangem5t are plac$ v close toge!r1 & are ne>ly always sup]impos$4 ,?is condition is f\nd 9 ! ,h\dan & ,dork+ bre$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,po/]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,position ,,:i* ,,x ,,%\ld ,,occupy ,,if ,,! ,,animal ,,7 ,a ,,plantigrade3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 a/ragalus2 #c1 calcaneum2 #d1 metat>sus2 #e1 fir/ phalanx2 #f1 second phalanx2 #g1 ?ird phalanx4 ,9 climb+ birds 7p>rots1 woodpeck]s1 & t\cans71 ! inn]mo/ toe is n only direct$ backw>d1 b ! ext]nal toe accompanies x 9 t direction2 consequ5tly1 !re are two po/]ior & two ant]ior toes4 ,sometimes !y are all direct$ =w>ds2 ?is disposition is f\nd 9 ! m>t9s4 ,9 "s birds1 ! numb] ( toes is r$uc$ to ?ree3 ! cass[>y %[s ?is r$uction2 9 o!rs1 ! numb] is /ill fur!r dim9i%$--! o/ri*1 = example1 has b two4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,bird 7,,! ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,metat>sus2 #b1 spur2 #c1 rudim5t>y metat>sal2 #d1 fir/ toe2 #e1 second toe2 #f1 ?ird toe2 #g1 f\r? toe4 ,fur!r1 we f9d t1 9 g5]al1 ! numb] ( ! phalanges increases1 :5 we exam9e ! toes 9 comm5c+ ) ! mo/ int]nal 7,fig4 #dh73 ?is has two2 !n ! foll[+ "o ?ree2 t :i* comes next 9 ord] has f\r2 & ! mo/ ext]nal toe has five4 ,! phalanges ( ?is la/ are %ort2 s t1 al?\gh x is =m$ by a l>g] numb] ( bones1 x is n ! longe/ ( ! toes4 ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs ,,9 ,,"s ,,animals4 ,plantigrades3 ,be> 7,fig4 #cc1 p4 #ej74--,! ext]nal iliac fossa is v deep4 ,! femur is long] ?an ! bones ( ! leg2 ! great tro*ant] does n rea* ! level ( ! head ( ! femur4 ,! fibula is well develop$2 x is unit$ to ! tibia at its sup]ior & inf]ior extremities only4 ,! foot1 :i*1 z 9 ! case ( ! h&1 re/s on ! gr\nd by ! :ole ext5t ( its plant> surface1 pres5ts five toes2 ! %orte/ ( ^! is ! int]nal--t is1 ! toe :i* corresponds to ! great-toe 9 man2 ! ?ird & f\r? are ! longe/1 & !y are almo/ equal2 !re is a v slight diff]5ce 9 fav\r ( ! f\r?1 :i* is slightly sup]ior 9 dim5sions to ! ?ird4 ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 ,dog 7,fig4 #cd1 p4 #eb74--,! ext]nal iliac fossa1 :i* looks outw>ds1 is deep2 ! iliac cre/ is convex ant]iorly1 ! convexity is cont9u$ f "o iliac sp9e to ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,dog1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,above4 #a1 ,iliac cre/2 #b1 ext]nal iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diamet]2 ,,bb'1 bi-is*ial diamet]4 ,9 ! dog1 ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! ant]ior iliac sp9es is less ?an t :i* sep>ates ! is*ia 7,fig4 #di74 ,on a skeleton :i* we measur$1 ! transv]se diamet]1 ! di/ance f ! ant]ior iliac sp9e ( "o side to t ( ! opposite side1 0 #h c5timetres1 :il/ ! di/ance :i* sep>at$ ! is*ia 0 #aje millimetres2 on ano!r skeleton1 ! fir/ measurem5t 0 #abg metres1 & ! second 0 #adf millimetres4 ,x seems to u unnecess>y to multiply examples4 ,9 ! cat1 ! iliac sp9es are b slightly m>k$2 ! result is t ! iliac cre/ is almo/ conf\nd$ ) ! inf]ior & sup]ior bord]s ( ! ilium4 ,! two diamet]s ref]r$ to above are almo/ equal 7,fig4 #ej74 ,we draw p>ticul> att5tion to :at we h j not$ 9 reg>d to ! transv]se proportions ( ! iliac & is*iatic regions ( ! dog & ! cat4 ,^! relations are evid5tly ( importance ) reg>d to %ape1 s9ce ! iliac cre/s & ! is*ia are noticeable b5ea? ! sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,pelvis ,,( ,a ,,felide 7,,lion71 ,,view$ ,,f ,,above4 #a1 ,iliac cre/2 #b1 ext]nal iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diamet]2 ,,bb'1 bi-is*ial diamet]4 ,9 ! dog1 ! %aft ( ! femur is slightly convex 9 front2 b 9 ! cat x is /raight4 ,! bord]s ( ! %aft are slightly m>k$1 s t x is almo/ cyl9drical4 ,! l9ea asp]a1 less prom95t ?an 9 man1 ga9s 9 wid? :at x loses 9 elevation2 x con/itutes :at may almo/ be call$ a r\gh surface4 ,?is surface is n>r[] 9 its middle portion ?an at its extremities1 :]e x bifurcates to g upw>ds to ! two tro*ant]s1 & d[nw>ds to ! two condyles4 ,at ! sup]ior extremity1 ! neck is %ort1 ! great tro*ant] rea*+ almo/ to ! level ( ! head ( ! femur2 ! digital cavity1 :i* is situat$ on ! int]nal surface ( ! great tro*ant]1 is v deep4 ,at its inf]ior extremity x projects /rongly backw>d4 ,! tro*lea is n>r[2 9 ! cat its two lips are equally prom95t1 :ile 9 ! dog ! ext]nal is a little m elevat$ ?an ! int]nal1 :i* on its "p is a little ?ick]4 ,! tro*lea is /ill m indep5d5t ( ! condyles ?an 9 ! human femur2 x is sep>at$ f ^! latt] by a slight con/riction4 ,! knee-cap is long & n>r[4 ,! tibia ( ! dog is slightly curv$ f be=e backw>d3 x has ! =m ( an elongat$ ,s2 ?is con=mation is 9 great "p due to ! v m>k$ projection ( ! ant]ior tub]osity & ( ! sup]ior portion ( ! cre/1 :i*1 a little bel[ t tub]osity1 turns abruptly backw>ds1 & ?us describes a curve ! concavity ( :i* is direct$ =w>d4 ,! sup]ior "p ( ! ext]nal surface is v mu* holl[$ out4 ,! sup]ior extremity is mu* ?ick] ?an ! inf]ior "o4 ,x is n only wide 9 ! transv]se direction1 b is m especially ext5d$ f be=e backw>ds2 ! prom95ce ( ! ant]ior tub]osity is ! cause ( ! elongation ( ?is ant]o-po/]ior diamet]4 ,on ! po/]ior "p ( ! ext]nal tub]osity is f\nd a surface to :i* ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fibula is appli$4 ,! inf]ior extremity pres5ts an articul> surface1 :i* is =m$ ( two lat]al cavities1 sep>at$ by a cre/1 :i* is direct$ obliquely =w>ds & outw>ds4 ,! int]nal "p is prom95t1 & =ms ! int]nal malleolus4 ,) reg>d to ! fibula1 x is unit$ to ! tibia by its extremities & by ! inf]ior half ( its %aft4 ,?is latt] is m exp&$ bel[ ?an 9 its upp] "p4 ,! sup]ior extremity is flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds4 ,! inf]ior extremity projects beyond ! articul> surface ( ! tibia1 & =ms ! ext]nal malleolus1 :i*1 in/ead (1 z 9 man1 desc5d+ fur!r ?an ! tibial malleolus1 /ops at ! same level1 & ev5 desc5ds a little less ?an does ! latt]4 ,9 ! cat1 ! curve ( ! tibia is less pron\nc$2 ?is is due to ! fact t ! cre/1 in/ead ( be+ concave 9 its middle portion1 is slightly convex ant]iorly4 ,! fibula1 less flatt5$ ?an t ( ! dog1 is unit$ to ! tibia by its extremities only1 & is sep>ate 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t4 ,! bones ( ! t>sus are sev5 9 numb]1 & arrang$ z 9 man1 ) ?is diff]5ce 7:i* is easily compreh5d$71 t _! g5]al relations are *ang$ on acc\nt ( ! v]tical direction ( ! t>sus4 ,= example1 ! a/ragalus1 in/ead ( be+ above ! calcaneum1 is situat$ 9 front ( x2 ! cunei=m bones1 in/ead ( be+ situat$ 9 front ( ! scaphoid1 are f\nd bel[ x1 etc4 ,^! animals h b f\r well-develop$ metat>sals2 t :i* corresponds to ! great-toe is repres5t$ m]ely by a small /yle-%ap$ bone1 situate at ! int]nal "p ( ! region4 ,nev]!less1 we f9d ?is toe fully develop$ 9 "s dogs4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 ! bones :i* =m x are1 h[ev]1 b rudim5t>y1 & mu* small] ?an ^? ( ! inn]mo/ digit ( ! =e-limb4 ,sometimes x is d\ble2 ?is condition is demon/rable 9 individuals belong+ to bre$s ( l>ge size4 ,! m$ian metat>sals are m fully develop$ ?an ! o!r bones ( ! same region :i* are next !m4 ,view$ z a :ole1 ! metat>sal bones are a little long] ?an ! metac>pals2 ! result is t ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! t>sus f ! gr\nd is a little great] ?an t :i* sep>ates ! c>pus f ! plane on :i* ! ant]ior limbs re/4 ,! l5g? ( ! calcaneum /ill fur!r exagg]ates ?is diff]5ce1 &1 z 9 ! animals ) :i* we %all occupy ourselves lat] on1 ! projection :i* ?is bone =ms is di/9ctly high] ?an t :i* is produc$ by ! pisi=m4 ,! metat>sus1 z a :ole1 is a little n>r[] ?an ! metac>pus2 n only on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce ( a ?umb 9 ! ant]ior limb1 b1 fur!r1 because ! bones ( ?is latt] region are wid] ?an ^? ( ! correspond+ "p ( ! po/]ior limb4 ,! phalanges closely resemble ^? ( ! ant]ior limbs4 ,unguligrades3 ,pig 7,fig4 #ch1 p4 #eh74--,! pelvis 9 ?is animal pres5ts a few ( ! *>act]s :i* we %all aga9 meet ) 9 ! rum9ants & ! solip$s2 h[ev]1 ! po/]ior 7or int]nal7 iliac sp9es are relatively m widely sep>at$ f "o ano!r ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,?is arrangem5t rem9ds u ( t f\nd 9 ! c>nivora4 ,! femur pres5ts no?+ v special4 ,! knee-cap is ?ick1 & ovoid 9 outl9e4 ,! fibula is completely develop$1 z 9 ! c>nivora2 & is connect$ ) ! tibia at bo? its extremities4 ,! t>sus consi/s ( sev5 bones4 ,! a/ragalus & ! calcaneum diff] slightly f ^? ( rum9ants4 ,! foot1 l ! h&1 has two m$ian digits :i* re/ on ! gr\nd by _! ?ird phalanges2 & an int]nal & an ext]nal digit1 :i* are remov$ f x4 ,! metat>sals are a little long] ?an ! metac>pals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,iliac cre/2 #b1 ext]nal iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diamet]2 ,,bb'1 bi-is*iadic diamet]4 ,unguligrades3 ,%eep1 ,ox 7,fig4 #ci1 p4 #fa74--,! pelvis ( rum9ants ( ?is gr\p closely resembles t ( ! horse1 :i* we w /udy lat] on 7see p4 #ii74 ,t :i* we mu/ at once po9t out is t1 ) reg>d to ! ratio =m$ by a comp>ison ( ! bi-iliac & bi-is*iatic diamet]s1 x may be plac$ betwe5 ! ratio obta9$ 9 comp>+ ^? diamet]s 9 ! pelvis ( ! c>nivora & t ( ! solip$s4 ,inde$1 9 ! rum9ants1 ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! is*ia exce$s ! wid? ( "o iliac only1 & does n equal1 z 9 ! felide1 ! total wid? ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! pelvis 7,fig4 #ea74 ,9 ! skeleton ( ! ox1 :i* =ms "p ( ! anatomical museum ( ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ! bi-is*iadic diamet] is #ci c5timetres1 :il/ ! wid? ( "o iliac cre/ is #bi c5timetres1 s t1 9 contra/ to t :i* we f9d 9 ! dog1 ! wid? ( ! is*iadic region is less ?an t =m$ 9 front by ! addition ( ! iliac cre/s4 ,! great tro*ant] is l>ge1 & ext5ds beyond ! level ( ! plane 9 :i* ! head ( ! femur is f\nd4 ,9 ! ox1 ! l9ea asp]a1 in/ead ( be+ a n>r[ cre/1 is spread out1 & =ms 9 reality a surface2 ! po/]ior surface ( ! femur4 ,at ! inf]ior & ext]nal "p ( ?is surface is situat$ a cavity :i* surm\nts ! correspond+ condyle1 & is kn[n z ! supracondyloid fossa4 ,on ! int]nal "p ( ! same region !re are a s]ies ( tub]cles1 :i*1 because ( _! position 9 relation to ! correspond+ condyle1 con/itute ! supracondyloid cre/4 ,! int]nal lip ( ! tro*lea is mu* ?ick] & mu* m prom95t ?an ! ext]nal4 ,! details :i* we h j n[ exam9$ 9 connection ) ! ox are less m>k$ 9 ! %eep4 ,! tro*lea1 n>r[ z a :ole1 is cle>ly sep>ate f ! condyles by a v m>k$ con/riction4 ,! patella1 :i* is ?ick5$ 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction1 has ! %ape ( a triangul> pyramid ) ! base upw>ds4 ,its po/]ior surface1 :i* articulates ) ! tro*lea1 pres5ts an arrangem5t :i* is adapt$ to ! disposition ( ?is latt]--t is to say1 ! surface :i* is 9 contact ) ! int]nal lip is l>g] ?an t :i* articulates ) ! lip ( ! opposite side4 ,! tibia ( ! ox is proportionately %ort] ?an t ( ! %eep4 ,! %aft ( ?is bone is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds1 9 its inf]ior half4 ,! m$ian cre/ ( ! articul> surface ( ! inf]ior extremity is ! mo/ prom95t "p ( t region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,t>sus ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,po/]ior ,,left ,,limb1 ,,ant]o-,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 coronoid bone ( ! t>sus2 #c1 sup]ior articul> surface ( ! a/ragalus2 #d1 inf]ior articul> surface ( ! a/ragalus2 #e1 calcaneum2 #f1 cuboido-scaphoid bone2 #g1 great cunei=m bone--! small cunei=m bone is situat$ at ! back ( ! latt]2 #h1 pr9cipal metat>sal--! small1 or rudim5t>y1 metat>sal bone is v small2 x is situat$ at ! back ( ! prec$+1 & is n to be se5 9 ! sket*4 ,x w\ld be visible if ! view 7 directly lat]al1 b !n ! sup]ior & inf]ior articul> surfaces ( ! a/ragalus w\ld be less app>5t4 ,! fibula is extremely atrophi$4 ,! %aft & sup]ior extremity ( ?is bone are repres5t$ m]ely by a simple ligam5t\s cord1 :i* is sometimes ossifi$4 ,!re rema9s ( ! fibula1 z a portion well & di/9ctly develop$1 ! inf]ior extremity only4 ,?is pres5ts itself "u ! =m ( a small bone situat$ 9 ! region ord9>ily occupi$ by ! inf]ior extremity ( ! out] bone ( ! leg--t is to say1 ! ext]nal "p ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia2 ?is little bone articulates ) ! a/ragalus & ! calcaneum4 ,"s au?ors consid] x to be a t>sal bone1 & describe x "u ! "n ( ! coronoid bone ( ! t>sus 7,fig4 #eb1 #b74 ,x is n1 p]haps1 q legitimate to describe x z a bone ( ?is region1 = x has n a homologue 9 ! t>sus ( o!r animals4 ,its ext]nal surface is r\gh2 its sup]ior bord] is furni%$ ) a small po9t$ process occupy+ a depression :i* is provid$ = x by ! tibia4 ,x rea*es l[] d[n ?an ! latt]1 & =ms 9 ?is way a sort ( ext]nal malleolus1 :i* frames1 on ! out] aspect1 ! mortise 9 :i* ! a/ragalus is ma9ta9$4 ,! t>sus1 z a :ole1 has an elongat$ =m2 x is =m$ ( five bones3 ! a/ragalus1 calcaneum1 cuboid & scaphoid1 :i* coalesce1 to =m a s+le bone1 & two cunei=m bones1 :i* correspond to ! second & ?ird cunei=m bones ( ! human foot4 ,^! cunei=ms are call$1 f _! size1 comm5c+ int]nally1 by ! names small & great cunei=m4 ,! calcaneum is long & n>r[2 x is long] ?an t ( ! horse2 x is on ! ant]ior & ext]nal "p t ! bone 7coronoid t>sal bone7 :i* repres5ts ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fibula is situat$4 ,x =ms ! prom95ce kn[n z ! po9t ( ! ham1 a prom95ce :i* is no o!r ?an ! heel1 :i*1 9 ! unguligrades1 is1 z we h already said1 v f> remov$ f ! gr\nd4 ,! a/ragalus1 :i* is elongat$ 9 ! v]tical direction1 has ?ree articul> surfaces dispos$ 9 ! =m ( tro*leae3 a sup]ior tro*lea1 :i* is 9 contact ) ! skeleton ( ! leg1 & :i* is pres5t 9 all animals2 an inf]ior1 :i* replaces ! articul> head f\nd on ! ant]ior aspect ( ! a/ragalus 9 man2 ?is articulates ) ! portion ( ! scaphoido-cuboid t corresponds to ! scaphoid2 &1 la/ly1 a po/]ior tro*lea ) :i* ! calcaneum articulates4 ,( ^! ?ree tro*leae1 ! sup]ior is ! mo/ /rongly m>k$4 ,betwe5 ?is latt] & ! inf]ior is f\nd1 on ! ant]ior surface ( ! a/ragalus1 a deep depression1 :i*1 dur+ flexion ( ! foot on ! leg1 receives a prom95ce :i* ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia pres5ts 9 its m$ian portion4 ,we c easily recognise ! tro*leae :i* we h be5 discuss+1 9 ! little bones :i* *ildr5 use 'to play at bones'2 ^! bones are no o!r ?an ! a/ragali ( %eep4 ,we h already m5tion$ t ! scaphoid & ! cuboid are ankylos$2 !y =m by _! union an irregul> bone1 on :i* ! a/ragalus & calcaneum are support$4 ,! cunei=ms articulate ) ! int]nal half ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metat>sal2 ! ext]nal half ( ?is metat>sal articulates ) ! portion ( bone :i* repres5ts ! cuboid4 ,! metat>sus is repres5t$ by a pr9cipal metat>sal1 =m$ by ! coalesc5ce ( two metat>sals2 we also f9d 9 ?is region a v small rudim5t>y metat>sal4 ,! metat>sus is a little long] ?an ! metac>pus2 its transv]se measurem5t is a little less2 on ! o!r h&1 x is a little ?ick] 9 ant]o-po/]ior direction2 f ^! two diff]5ces x results t ! body ( ! metat>sus is quadrilat]al1 :]eas ! metac>pus pres5ts only an ant]ior & a po/]ior surface4 ,! rudim5t>y metat>sal is a v small r\ndi% bone1 situat$ at ! back ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metat>sal4 ,! phalanges closely resemble ^? ( ! ant]ior limbs2 nev]!less1 ! fir/ & second phalanges diff] f ! latt] 9 ! fact t !y are a little long] & n>r[]4 ,at ! back ( ! metat>so-phalangeal articulations1 z 9 ! correspond+ region ( ! ant]ior limbs1 are f\nd ! sesamoid bones4 ,su* also exi/ at ! articulations ( ! second & ?ird phalanges4 ,unguligrades3 ,horse 7,fig4 #dj1 p4 #fd74--,! pelvis ( ! horse pres5ts a g5]al =m :i* %>ply diff]5tiates x f t ( ! c>nivora2 9 fact1 ! ilium is twi/$ 9 su* a way t ! ext]nal iliac fossa does n look outw>ds1 b upw>ds4 ,x results f ?is twi/ t ! ant]ior iliac sp9e1 :i* we h se5 to be direct$ d[nw>ds 9 ! c>nivora1 has become ext]nal2 & ?is prom95ce is mu* f>!r remov$ f ! v]tebral column ?an 9 ! dog or cat4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! po/]ior iliac sp9e1 :i* is direct$ upw>ds 9 ! c>nivora1 has become int]nal2 x is also plac$ ne>] to ! v]tebral column1 ) ! result t ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ?is sp9e f t ( ! bone ( ! opposite side is proportionately less4 ,! int]nal iliac sp9e1 :i* is conical 9 %ape1 & curv$ upw>ds1 =ms a prom95ce kn[n z ! angle ( ! crupp]2 ! ext]nal iliac sp9e1 ?ick & provid$ ) tub]osities1 =ms a cle>ly-def9$ prom95ce2 ?is is ! angle ( ! haun*4 ,! iliac cre/1 ext5d+ directly f "o sp9e to ! o!r1 is curv$1 its concavity be+ turn$ upw>ds4 ,! ext]nal iliac fossa1 :i* looks upw>d1 is limit$ ant]iorly by ?is cre/1 & is1 l ! latt]1 slightly holl[$4 ,! portion ( ! bone :i* connects ! ilium to ! region occupi$ by ! cotyloid cavity is extremely n>r[2 po/]iorly1 ! bone enl>ges aga9 to =m ! is*ial & pubic portions4 ,! tub]osity ( ! is*ium1 ?ick & curv$ upw>ds1 b less s ?an 9 ! ox1 =ms ! mo/ prom95t "p ( ! po/]ior bord] ( ! region ( ! ?igh2 ?is project+ portion1 s %>ply def9$ 9 sp>e subjects1 is kn[n z ! po9t or angle ( ! buttock4 ,contr>y to :at we h indicat$ 9 ! case ( ! dog1 ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! is*iatic tub]osities is inconsid]able 9 proportion to t :i* we f9d betwe5 ! ext]nal iliac sp9e ( "o side & t ( ! opposite4 ,! bi-is*iatic diamet] does n ev5 equal ! wid? ( "o iliac bone measur$ at ! level ( its cre/ 7,fig4 #ec74 ,on ! skeleton ( ! horse 9 ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! tub]osities ( ! is*ia is #bbe millimetres2 t betwe5 ! two sp9es ( ea* iliac bone is #be c5timetres4 ,! ant]ior region ( ! crupp] is ?us mu* broad] ?an t occupi$ by ! is*ia4 ,! femur is relatively %ort4 ,its %aft is rectil9e>1 & does n pres5t ! ant]ior convexity :i* is f\nd on ! human femur1 & :i* we indicat$ :5 discuss+ t ( ! dog4 ,! %aft ( ! bone1 in/ead ( be+ prismatic & triangul>1 pres5ts f\r surfaces2 ! ant]ior1 int]nal1 & ext]nal1 almo/ pass into ea* o!r1 be+ sep>at$ "o f ! o!r m]ely by r\nd$ & slightly m>k$ bord]s2 ! po/]ior surface1 :i* is plane1 replaces ! l9ea asp]a1 :i* 9 ! horse1 in/ead ( pres5t+ ! appe>ance ( a cre/1 is consid]ably wid5$4 ,! num]\s irregul>ities :i* ?is surface pres5ts give ins]tion to ! muscles :i* correspond to ^? atta*$ to ! l9ea asp]a4 ,betwe5 ?is po/]ior surface & ! ext]nal is f\nd a r\gh prom95ce :i* curves =w>d2 ?is 0 designat$ by ,cuvi] ! ?ird tro*ant]2 x replaces ! ext]nal bran* ( ! sup]ior l9e ( bifurcation ( ! l9ea asp]a2 o!r au?ors call x ! infratro*ant]ic cre/1 because x is situat$ bel[ ! great tro*ant]4 ,at ! inf]ior "p ( ! same region is f\nd a deep fossa1 ! bord]s ( :i* are r\gh2 ?is is ! supracondyloid fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #ec4--,,pelvis ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,sup]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,iliac cre/2 #b1 ext]nal iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diamet]2 ,,bb'1 bi-is*iatic diamet]4 ,betwe5 ! po/]ior surface & ! int]nal are f\nd3 above1 ! less] tro*ant]1 :i* is long & r\gh2 bel[1 at ! level ( ! supracondyloid fossa1 an equally r\gh surface kn[n by ! "n ( ! supracondyloid cre/4 ,! sup]ior extremity is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds4 ,! neck is n well m>k$4 ,! great tro*ant] is v prom95t1 & projects beyond ! level ( ! head ( ! femur4 ,we divide ! great tro*ant] into ?ree p>ts3 ! summit1 :i* is ! mo/ elevat$ portion2 ! convexity1 :i* is situat$ 9 front2 & ! cre/1 =m$ by muscul> impressions1 situat$ outside & bel[ ! convexity4 ,! digital fossa is situat$ beh9d & bel[ ! summit ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,) reg>d to ! less] tro*ant]1 x is plac$ s f> d[n t x really =ms "p ( ! %aft ( ! bone1 ) :i*1 besides1 we h describ$ x4 ,on ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur are two condyles & a tro*lea2 ! condyles are cle>ly sep>at$ f ?is latt] by a m>k$ con/riction4 ,! tro*lea is direct$ ) a slight obliquity d[nw>ds & inw>ds2 its int]nal lip is mu* ?ick] & m prom95t ?an ! ext]nal2 ?is is1 accord+ly1 a condition exactly ! opposite ( t :i* *>act]izes ! correspond+ region ( ! human femur4 ,! knee-cap is loz5ge-%ap$2 its sup]ior angle projects upw>d1 & produces a prom95ce at ! "p :i* corresponds to ! base ( ! human patella1 ! "p :i* is "h ! ?icke/ portion ( ! bone4 ,its ant]ior surface is convex & r\gh4 ,its po/]ior surface pres5ts two lat]al articul> facets1 sep>at$ by a cre/2 ?is surface is 9 contact ) ! tro*lea ( ! femur1 &1 z x is ! int]nal lip ( ! latt] :i* is ! m develop$1 x results !refrom t ! int]nal articul> surface ( ! knee-cap is l>g] ?an ! ext]nal4 ,! knee-cap contributes to ! =mation ( ! region ( ! po/]ior limb :i* is call$ ! /ifle4 ,! tibia is l>ge 9 its upp] portion2 9 its inf]ior "p x is flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds4 ,! po/]ior surface ( ! %aft pres5ts an oblique l9e1 bel[ :i* are f\nd v]tical r\gh l9es = ! ins]tion ( muscles4 ,! ext]nal surface is holl[$ out 9 its upp] "p4 ,! ant]ior tub]osity ( ! tibia rises j to ! level ( ! flat articul> surface2 x is holl[$ 9 its m$ian portion by a v]tical groove ( elongat$ =m1 :i* receives ! ligam5t t b9ds ! knee-cap to ! tibia4 ,! ext]nal tub]osity is m prom95t ?an ! int]nal2 9 x is f\nd a groove = ! passage ( ! ant]ior tibial muscle4 ,! inf]ior extremity1 flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds1 pres5ts a surface :i* is m\ld$ on ! tro*lea ( ! a/ragalus2 ! m$ian cre/ ( ?is surface is ?ick1 & desc5ds l[] po/]iorly ?an ! tub]osities :i* are situat$ on ! ext]nal & int]nal aspects ( ?is extremity4 ,( ! two tub]osities1 t :i* is int]nal is comp>able to ! int]nal malleolus ( man1 ! "o on ! out] side =ms a sort ( ext]nal malleolus2 b ?is latt] "h belongs to ! tibia1 & n to ! fibula4 ,! fibula1 9 fact1 does n rea* ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia2 x is a poorly develop$ bone1 elongat$ & t]m9at+ inf]iorly 9 a po9t1 at ! middle ( ! %aft ( ! tibia or at its l[] ?ird4 ,its sup]ior extremity1 :i* is slightly exp&$1 articulates ) ! tub]osity :i* occupies ! out] aspect ( ! correspond+ extremity ( ! tibia4 ,! bones ( ! t>sus are six 9 numb]3 ! calcaneum & a/ragalus =m ! upp] r[2 ! cuboid1 scaphoid1 & two cunei=ms =m ! l[] 7,fig4 #ed74 ,! a/ragalus has n1 z 9 rum9ants1 an inf]ior tro*lea = articulation ) ! scaphoid2 ?is portion ( ! bone pres5ts a surface :i* is slightly convex4 ,x articulates ) ! tibia by a tro*lea t occupies n only ! sup]ior surface1 b also ! ant]ior4 ,?is tro*lea1 :i* is direct$ slightly obliquely d[nw>ds & outw>ds1 has a v pron\nc$ =m2 its lips1 :i* are extremely prom95t1 det]m9e by _! ant]ior "p "o ( ! features :i* we recognise on ! ant]ior aspect ( ! ham--a feature :i* is /ill m acc5tuat$ :5 ! metat>sus 7canon7 is ext5d$ on ! leg4 ,on ! int]nal surface ( ! a/ragalus is f\nd a tub]cle1 :i* =ms a projection 9 ! correspond+ region ( ! ham4 ,! calcaneum1 :i* is n q s long z t ( ! ox1 =ms by its summit a prom95ce :i* is call$ ! po9t ( ! ham4 ,! cuboid is small2 ! scaphoid is l>ge1 & flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds4 ,( ! two cunei=ms1 ! m ext]nal is ! l>g]2 x closely resembles ! scaphoid2 x is flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds z is ! latt]2 b x is a little small] 9 size4 ,! small cunei=m1 :i* occupies ! inn] side ( ! t>sus1 is ! smalle/ bone 9 ?is region2 x is sometimes divid$ into two p>ts2 ?is raises ! numb] ( ! cunei=ms to ?ree1 & t ( ! bones ( ! t>sus to sev54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,t>sus ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,ant]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 int]nal tub]osity ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia 7homologue ( ! int]nal malleolus ( man72 #c1 ext]nal tub]osity ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia 7homologue ( ! ext]nal malleolus72 #d1 m$ian cre/ lodg$ 9 ! groove ( ! pulley ( ! a/ragalus2 #e1 pulley ( ! a/ragalus2 #f1 int]nal tub]osity ( ! a/ragalus2 #g1 calcaneum2 #h1 cuboid2 #i1 scaphoid2 #aj1 great cunei=m1 ! small cunei=m is plac$ beh9d ?is latt]2 #aa1 pr9cipal metat>sal2 #ab1 ext]nal rudim5t>y metat>sal4 ,! int]nal rudim5t>y metat>sal1 be+ m sl5d] ?an ! ext]nal1 does n appe> 9 ! figure4 ,! bones ( ! metat>sus & ! phalanges are equal 9 numb] to ! correspond+ bones 9 ! ant]ior limbs2 !y are =m$ on a type analog\s to t ( ^! latt]4 ,accord+ly1 we %all m]ely indicate ! diff]5ces :i* *>act]ize !m4 ,! pr9cipal metat>sal is long] ?an ! metac>pal ( ! same class2 its %aft is m cyl9drical2 its inf]ior extremity is some:at ?ick]4 ,! ext]nal rudim5t>y metat>sal is bett] develop$ ?an ! int]nal2 9 ! metac>pus ! rev]se is ! case4 ,! phalanges s f> resemble ^? ( ! ant]ior limb t1 z diff]5tial *>act]s1 we ne$ po9t out only ! foll[+3 ! fir/ phalanx ( ! h9d-foot is a little %ort] ?an t ( ! =e-foot2 its inf]ior extremity is a little n>r[]1 & its sup]ior extremity a little ?ick]4 ,! second phalanx is a little less exp&$ lat]ally4 ,! diff]5ce 9 appe>ance :i* ! ?ree phalanges1 ant]ior & po/]ior1 respectively pres5t are to be borne 9 m9d2 = !y are correlat$ to ! g5]al =m ( ! =e & h9d feet4 ,we w e/abli% ?is po9t :5 we come to /udy ! ho( 7see ,figs4 #aja & #ajb1 p4 #beg74 ,9 ! =e-foot ! ungual phalanx has its inf]ior surface limit$ ext]nally by a circul> bord]1 :ile ! same bone ( ! h9d-foot has ?is surface a little n>r[]1 m concave1 & limit$ by two curv$ bord]s :i* unite ant]iorly to =m an angle--an arrangem5t :i* gives to ! g5]al outl9e ( ?is region ! =m ( ! lett] ,v4 ,articulations ( ! ,po/]ior ,limbs ,! ,coxo-femoral ,articulation4--,! head ( ! femur is receiv$ 9 ! cotyloid cavity2 ^! are ! osse\s surfaces 9 contact 9 ?is articulation4 ,!y are ma9ta9$ 9 position by a fibr\s capsule & a r\nd ligam5t4 ,to ?is latt] is f\nd atta*$1 9 ! horse1 a fasciculus :i*1 comm5c+1 z does ! r\nd ligam5t1 at ! depression on ! head ( ! femur1 em]ges f ! cotyloid cavity by ! not* :i* is pres5t 9 its circumf]5ce1 & is atta*$ to ! ant]ior bord] ( ! pubes1 to bl5d ) ! t5don ( ! rectus muscle ( ! abdom54 ,?is is ! pubio-femoral ligam5t4 ,! movem5ts :i* ?is jo9t p]mits are ! same 9 ! quadrup$s z 9 man1 b less ext5sive4 ,!y are3 flexion & ext5sion1 abduction & adduction1 ! two latt] be+ mu* m limit$ ?an ! =m]4 ,!re is also rotation4 ,by flexion1 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur is direct$ =w>ds2 ! bone ( ! ?igh !n takes a m oblique direction ?an ! normal4 ,?is movem5t takes place1 = example1 :5 ! animal c>ries =w>d "o ( its h9d] limbs4 ,ext5sion1 :i* takes place 9 an inv]se s5se1 is produc$ :5 ! foot is fix$ on ! gr\nd1 :ile ! body is project$ =w>d4 ,x is also produc$ 9 ! action ( kick+4 ,z = ! lat]al movem5ts--viz41 abduction & adduction--!y are less ext5sive ?an ! prec$+ movem5ts4 ,! abs5ce ( ! pubio-femoral ligam5t 9 o!r quadrup$s ?an ! horse expla9s :y 9 !m abduction is less limit$ ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,inde$1 x is ! t5sion ( ?is ligam5t1 occasion$ by ! abduction ( ! ?ighs1 :i* arre/s m quickly ! movem5t 9 "q4 ,articulation ( ! ,knee4--,?is articulation1 z 9 man1 is =m$ by ! femur1 ! patella1 & ! tibia4 ,9 ! horse ! ligam5t ( ! patella is n s+le1 b consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 designat$1 on acc\nt ( _! position1 by ! respective names ( ext]nal1 int]nal1 & m$ian patell> ligam5ts4 ,! two =m] come f ! angles on ! correspond+ bord]s ( ! knee-cap2 ! m$ian spr+s f ! ant]ior surface & inf]ior angle ( ! same bone4 ,!y all ?ree pass to _! t]m9ation on ! ant]ior tub]cle ( ! tibia4 ,! ext]nal ligam5t is ! /ronge/1 & ! int]nal ligam5t ! lea/ develop$4 ,9 ! dog1 ! cat1 ! pig1 & ! %eep1 ! patell> ligam5t consi/s ( a s+le b&4 ,! articulation is fur!r /r5g!n$ on ! sides by lat]al ligam5ts--an int]nal & an ext]nal4 ,) reg>d to ! pr9cipal movem5ts1 ^! are flexion & ext5sion1 to :i* may be add$ movem5ts ( rotation ( limit$ ext5t4 ,9 flexion1 ! leg b5ds on ! ?igh2 its inf]ior extremity is direct$ upw>ds & backw>ds2 ! angle :i* ! tibia naturally =ms ) ! femur becomes less obtuse4 ,b x %\ld be und]/ood t "o "p ( ?is description--t :i* has relation to ! leg--holds good only :5 ! femur is 9 its normal condition1 or 9 flexion4 ,inde$1 at ! close ( ! movem5t 9 :i*1 dur+ a /ep1 ! foot is 9 contact ) ! gr\nd--t is1 at ! t]m9ation ( ! re/+ /age--! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia is direct$ backw>ds4 ,b ! femur is !n 9 a /ate ( ext5sion1 & 9 reg>d to ?is latt] ! attitude ( ! leg is un*ang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,leg3 ,,"r ,,po/]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 7,,aft] ,a ,,*ronographic ,,/udy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey47 ,at ?is mom5t1 not)/&+ ! direction1 :i* recalls t :i* x has at ! "t ( flexion1 ! leg is n b5t on ! ?igh2 on ! contr>y1 x is almo/ 9 ! l9e ( its cont9uation 7,fig4 #ee74 ,z we h done 9 connection ) ! articulations ( ! ant]ior limbs1 we borr[ ?is figure f ! int]e/+ *ronophotographic /udies ( ,pr(essor ,m>ey4#ag #ag ,e4 ,j4 ,m>ey1 ',analysis ( ! ,movem5ts ( ! ,horse by ! ,*ronophotograph' 7,la ,nature1 ,june #aa1 #ahih74 ,! ,tibio-t>sal ,articulation & ( ! ,bones ( ! ,t>sus4--,9 ! region :i* vet]9>y anatomi/s call ! ham1 ! articulations ( ! leg & foot alone call = special /udy 9 ! case ( ! horse4 ,! articulations ( ! bones ( ! t>sus1 & ( ^! ) ! metat>sus1 d n (f] any int]e/ ) reg>d to mobility1 ?is be+ almo/ :olly abs5t at t level4 ,! leg & ! a/ragalus1 9 a g5]al way1 are plac$ 9 contact by su* articul> surfaces t ! result+ jo9t1 :i* is a true h+e1 p]mits movem5ts ( flexion & ext5sion only4 ,inde$1 z we h indicat$ above1 ! tibia is furni%$1 on ! inf]ior surface1 ) a cre/ t fits into ! deep groove :i* is situat$ on ! correspond+ surface ( ! a/ragalus4 ,dur+ flexion1 ! ant]ior surface ( ! foot t5ds to approa* ! ant]ior surface ( ! leg1 ! angle =m$ by ^! two segm5ts becom+ m & m n>r[$4 ,! displacem5t 9 ! opposite direction *>act]izes ext5sion4 ,9 o!r quadrup$s1 ! articulations :i* b9d toge!r ! bones ( ! t>sus possess a little m fre$om ( movem5t4 ,! %ape ( ^! bones1 & p>ticul>ly ! %ape ( ! surfaces ( ! a/ragalus1 :i* are 9 contact ) !m1 all[ movem5ts 9 ?is region1 9 ! case ( ! dog & cat1 :i*1 )\t be+ s ext5sive z ^? ( ! human foot1 9 ! suba/ragaloid articulation1 nev]!less1 recall ! mobility :i* we f9d 9 ! human species at ?is level--t is to say1 rotation1 abduction1 & adduction ( ! foot4 ,z = ! articulations ( ! metat>sus ) ! phalanges1 & ( ! phalanges ) "o ano!r1 !y resemble ^? ( ! ant]ior limb too closely t x %\ld be necess>y to /udy !m "h4 ,su* a /udy w\ld be1 9 ?is case1 b a repetition 7see p4 #gf1 a description ( ! articulations 9 "q74 ,,! ,,head ,,9 ,,g5]al1 ,,& ,,9 ,,"s ,,animals ,,9 ,,p>ticul> ,:5 we comp>e1 by ! exam9ation ( "o ( _! lat]al aspects1 ! skull ( man & ! same region 9 o!r mammals1 x is easy to obs]ve t ! relative developm5t ( ! cranium & face is entirely diff]5t4 ,9 ! case ( man ! cranium is l>ge1 & ! face relatively small2 9 animals ! face is proportionally mu* m highly develop$4 ,! measure ( ! facial angle p]mits u to note ^! diff]5ces1 & ! figures relative to ! value ( ?is angle are suffici5tly demon/rative to induce u to indicate ^? :i* are1 9 a g5]al way1 connect$ ) "s ( ! =ms 9 individuals :i* "h occupy our att5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ rememb] t ! angle 9 "q is m acute1 z ! cranium is less develop$ 9 proportion to ! facial region 7,figs4 #ef & #eg74 ,x is especially to ?is "* t we wi% to draw att5tion4 ,man #gj deg4-#hj deg4 ,cat #da deg4 ,dog #bh deg4-#da deg4 ,%eep #bj deg4-#be deg4 ,ox #ah deg4-#bj deg4 ,ass #ab deg4-#af deg4 ,horse #aa deg4-#ac deg4 ,besides1 9 animals ! cranium is v prom95t sup]iorly1 & ! face1 m or less elongat$1 is %>ply project$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 9 man ! cranial region occupies n only ! sup]ior1 b also ! po/]ior "p2 ! face is %ort & ( a compact =m4 ,! human head1 9 its g5]al aspect1 may be comp>$ to a sph]e1 :ile ! skull ( ! quadrup$s pres5ts ! aspect ( a quadrangul> pyramid1 ) ! base turn$ upw>ds & ! summit at ! incisor tee?4 ,direction ( ! ,head4--,be=e ent]+ on ! /udy ( ! bones ( ! head1 x is necess>y1 9 our op9ion1 to agree z to ! position 9 :i* we %all suppose x to be plac$4 ,! "q may seem to be "o ( little importance2 nev]!less1 x _c be reg>d$ z indiff]5t1 s9ce au?ors are n all agre$ on ?is subject4 ,"s suppose x to be plac$ v]tically--t is1 ) ! incisor tee? turn$ directly d[nw>ds4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 suppose x to be plac$ horizontally1 re/+ on ! :ole l5g? ( ! l[] jaw1 ! face be+ !n turn$ upw>ds4 ,^! two extreme me?ods ( arrangem5t appe> to u to possess inconv5i5ces--at lea/1 = comp>ison ) ! human head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,human ,,skull3 ,,measure ,,( ,,! ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,camp]4 ,,angle ,,bac #hj deg4 ,! int]nal wall ( ! cranial cavity is m>k$ by ! dott$ l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,measure ,,( ,,! ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,camp]4#ah ,,angle ,,bac #ac deg4 ,! int]nal wall ( ! cranial cavity is %[n by ! dott$ l9e4 #ah ,we h indicat$ on ?is sket* ( ! skull ( ! horse ! facial angle measur$ by ! me?od ( ,camp]1 9 ord] t ! correspond5ce ) ,fig4 #ef may be m complete4 ,b x is c]ta9 t ! proc$ure "h employ$ is 9 practice n satisfactory1 s9ce ! apex ( ! angle1 z we c demon/rate1 is f\nd to be situat$ )9 ! cont\r ( ! head1 & t1 consequ5tly1 x is r difficult to localize x precisely 9 ! case ( a giv5 skeleton4 ,fur!r1 because ( ! abs5ce ( ! base ( ! nose 9 ! complete skull1 ! auriculo-nasal l9e _c be accurately fix$4 ,x w\ld be ! same = mo/ o!r animals4 ,?is is :y ! me?od employ$ = ^! latt] is pref]ably t ( ,cuvi]1 or1 aga91 t ( ,cloquet4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! apex ( ! angle ( ,camp] is transf]r$ to ! free bord] ( ! upp] incisors1 b ^! tee? may be abs5t1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 rum9ants are de/itute ( !m4 ,9 ! second1 ! same apex is plac$ at ! alveol> bord]1 & ! angle !n becomes fairly easy to appreciate4 ,inde$1 if1 :5 ! head is v]tical1 ! same regions ( ! face 7=ehead1 nose7 are1 9 ! case ( animals z well z man1 turn$ =w>d1 ! l[] jaw ceases to m]it its appellation1 z x is !n situat$1 n bel[1 b beh9d ! upp]4 ,fur!rmore1 if ?is position is *os51 = example1 = modell+ or draw+1 x _c be obta9$ )\t difficulty :5 we h to deal ) an isolat$ piece ( ! skeleton1 on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce ( equilibrium1 :i* x is necess>y to obviate4 ,x is true t ! "q ( conv5i5ce %\ld n take prec$5ce ( all o!rs1 & x suffices = u 9 ?is connection to recall1 9 reg>d to ! human pelvis1 t1 al?\gh ! old] anatomi/s us$ to repres5t x z re/+ commodi\sly on ! ?ree angles :i* t]m9ate x at its l[] "p 7is*ial tub]osities & coccyx71 ?is attitude be+ false1 x is cu/om>y n[ to incl9e ! sup]ior aspect =w>ds1 inasmu* z ?is arrangem5t m ne>ly con=ms to reality1 9 spite ( ! fact t x is a little m difficult s to dispose an isolat$ pelvis4 ,fur!r1 to return to ! head2 if its v]tical direction c be demon/rat$1 = example1 9 _m horses1 x is n suffici5tly g5]al to be adopt$ z ! classic position4 ,9 reg>d to ! facility ( plac+ 9 position1 ! horizontal direction is c]ta9ly to be pref]r$2 b ?is is also f> remov$ f ! natural position 9 ! animal :ile 9 ! /ate ( repose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! m9d is n satisfi$ ) ! idea t c]ta9 regions ( ! face1 su* z ! nose & ! =ehead1 are !n direct$ upw>ds4 ,& yet x is necess>y to come to a decision1 see+ t :at we are n[ inve/igat+ applies also to ! position to :i* x is necess>y to give ! pref]5ce 9 plac+ ! skeleton ( ! head :5 we wi% to draw x 9 pr(ile4 ,t :i* we adopt is a compromise1 b to u x seems m rational4 ,! position ( ! head ( ! horse1 to be normal1 %\ld be su* z to give x an incl9ation ( #de deg4 ,9 ?is case ! l[] jaw is /ill po/]ior2 &1 = ?is reason1 we see 9 adopt+ ?is position "s inconv5i5ces f a didactic po9t ( view4 ,accord+ly1 we w suppose ! head br\ght a little ne>] to ! horizontal1 & ?is1 f ! imag9ative po9t ( view1 has c]ta9ly an advantage :i* we _c af=d to neglect :5 address+ arti/s4 ,inde$1 let u suppose t to a clay model ( a human head we wi% to give ! aspect ( ! head ( a quadrup$4 ,we %\ld elevate ! occiput2 & !n1 tak+ hold ( ! l[] "p ( ! face1 we %\ld l5g!n x1 n 9 a direction precisely ant]o-po/]ior1 b d[nw>ds & =w>ds4 ,x is obvi\sly ?is latt] proc$ure :i*1 on ! o!r h&1 is c>ri$ out :5 a p]son wi%es to give to 8 own face "s resemblance to ! muzzle ( a quadrup$4 ,x is true t1 9 ! position we h adopt$1 ! face is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 & t !re may result a c]ta9 confusion 9 describ+ ! position ( its diff]5t p>ts4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 ) ! object ( n mak+ complications1 we purpose1 = ! pres5t1 to sub/itute1 = example1 = ! t]m 'ant]o-sup]ior'--:i* :5 speak+ ( ! position ( ! =ehead & nose w\ld be m exact--! t]m 'ant]ior1' :i* is suffici5tly compreh5sible4 ,! m\? w be1 = ! same reason1 ref]r$ to z be+ situat$ at ! inf]ior "p ( ! face1 & n ! ant]o-inf]ior4 ,! ,skull4--,! elevation ( ! cranial region becomes especially appreciable :5 we exam9e ! occipital bone4 ,be=e v]ify+ ?is fact1 x is n sup]flu\s to recall ! g5]al arrangem5t :i* ?is bone pres5ts 9 ! human skull4 ,a portion ( ! occipital bone occupies ! base ( ! skull2 b ?is base 9 man is horizontal2 to ?is region succe$s ! %ell-%ap$ portion ( ! occipital bone1 :i*1 pass+ v]tically upw>ds1 =ms ) ! prec$+ portion an angle situat$ at ! level ( ! ext]nal occipital protub]ance1 & ( ! curv$ l9e :i* />ts f x on ea* side4 ,9 animals a portion ( ! occipital bone is horizontal1 x is true2 b ?is bone be+ %>ply b5t at ! level ( ! occipital =am5 & condyles1 ! result is t ! portion :i* surm\nts ^! latt] looks backw>ds1 & is limit$ above by ! ext]nal occipital protub]ance1 :i* =ms ! culm9at+ po9t ( ! skull2 ?is po9t is situat$ betwe5 ! e>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,skull ,,( ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,felidae 7,,jagu>73 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,po/]ior surface ( ! occipital bone2 #b1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #c1 condyle ( ! occipital bone2 #d1 jugul> process2 #e1 p>ietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 squam\s portion ( ! temporal bone2 #aj1 ext]nal auditory canal1 9 front ( :i* is situat$ ! zygomatic process2 #aa1 tympanic bulla2 #ab1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #ac1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #ad1 nasal bone2 #ae1 ant]ior orifice ( ! nasal cavity2 #af1 mal> bone2 #ag1 ungual or la*rymal bone2 #ah1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ai1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #bj1 coronoid process2 #ba1 incisor tee?2 #bb1 can9e tee?2 #bc1 mol> tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,lion3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 ,?is figure is int5d$ to %[ t 9 ! lion ! cont\r ( ! face betwe5 ! nasal bones & ! cranial region is m flatt5$ ?an 9 o!r felidae1 su* z ! tig]1 jagu>1 pan!r1 & dome/ic cat4 ,?is diff]5ce is %[n by comp>ison ( ?is figure ) ! prec$+ "o 7,fig4 #eh74 ,we are indebt$ to ,m4 ,tramond1 ! well-kn[n naturali/1 = ! indication ( ?is diff]5tial "* :i*1 f ! arti/ic pla/ic po9t ( view1 is "o ( real int]e/4 ,?is protub]ance1 prolong$ on ea* side by ! sup]ior curv$ l9e ( ! occipital bone1 is s mu* ! m prom95t z ?is bone b5ds %>ply a second "t1 s z to =m a ?ird portion1 :i*1 look+ =w>ds1 =ms "p ( ! ant]ior aspect ( ! skull1 & proce$s to articulate ) ! p>ietals4 ,on ?is ?ird portion is f\nd a cre/ :i*1 proce$+ f ! occipital protub]ance1 is cont9u\s 9 front ) ! p>ietal cre/s1 to :i* we w aga9 ref] 9 speak+ ( ! p>ietal bones4 ,on ! inf]ior surface ( ! human occipital bone are f\nd1 at ! level (1 & ext]nal to1 ! condyles two bony elevations :i* be> ! "n ( jugul> em95ces4 ,!y are long 9 quadrup$s1 & con/itute :at are designat$ by "s au?ors ! /yloid processes1 b !y mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! processes ( ! same "n :i* 9 ! case ( man =m "p ( ! temporal bone4 ,^! processes are v highly develop$ 9 ! pig1 horse1 ox1 & %eep4 ,9 ! ox1 ! occipital bone is depriv$ ( ! protub]ance1 & is n b5t on itself 9 ! ant]ior portion1 nei!r does x =m ! mo/ sali5t "p ( ! skull2 ?is latt]1 :i* is situat$ at ! level ( ! horns1 belongs to ! frontal bone4 ,9 ! pig1 also1 ! occipital bone is n b5t ^u itself 9 its ant]ior portion1 b =ms ! summit ( ! head4 ,! occipital protub]ance1 holl[$ on its po/]ior surface1 rises v]tically1 & re/s ^u ! p>ietal bone1 ) :i* x =ms an acute angle4 ,! p>ietals1 two sep>ate bones 9 ! dog & ! cat1 b fus$ 9 ! m$ian l9e 9 ! ox1 %eep1 & horse1 are ( special int]e/ 9 reg>d to ! two cre/s :i*1 9 ! c>nivora1 & also 9 ! pig & ! horse1 occupy _! ext]nal surface1 &1 aft] div]g+ f "o ano!r1 are cont9u$ by a cre/ :i* crosses ! frontal bone & ends at ! ext]nal orbital process ( ! latt] bone4 ,^! cre/s1 kn[n z ! p>ietal or temporal cre/s1 recall bo? 9 position & relations ! temporal curv$ l9e ( ! p>ietal bone ( man4 ,!y contribute1 z 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 to ! =mation ( ! b\nd>ies ( ! temporal fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,po/]ior surface ( ! occipital bone2 #b1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #c1 occipital condyle2 #d1 jugul> process2 #e1 p>ietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 ext]nal auditory canal1 9 front ( :i* is f\nd ! zygomatic process2 #aj1 tympanic bulla2 #aa1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #ab1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 ant]ior op5+ ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae2 #ae1 mal> bone2 #af1 la*rymal bone2 #ag1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ah1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ai1 coronoid process2 #bj1 incisor tee?2 #ba1 can9e tee?2 #bb1 mol> tee?4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 ^! cre/s are situat$1 ?r\gh\t _! :ole l5g?1 9 ! m$ian l9e1 ! temporal fossae be+1 accord+ly1 z ext5d$ z !y possibly c be4 ,9 c]ta9 species1 ! developm5t ( ^! cre/s is su* t !y =m by _! union a v]tical plate1 :i*1 9 sep>at+ ! two temporal fossae1 gives !m a great] dep?4 ,9 ! pig1 ! p>ietal cre/s1 analog\s 9 ?is respect to ! temporal curv$ l9es ( ! p>ietal bones ( man1 are sep>at$ by an int]val1 proportionately less ext5d$1 h[ev]1 ?an t ( ! human skull4 ,! p>ietal bone 9 ! ox & ! %eep does n ent] into ! =mation ( ! ant]ior surface ( ! skull2 x is =m$ by an osse\s plate1 n>r[ & elongat$ transv]sely1 :i*1 ) ! occipital bone1 con/itutes ! base ( ! region ( ! nape ( ! neck4 ,x is b5t ^u itself at ! level ( its lat]al portions s z to occupy ! temporal fossa4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! frontal bone1 :i* is depress$ 9 ! m$ian l9e 9 ! dog1 b plane 9 ! horse1 is limit$ by two cre/s1 :i*1 situat$ on ! prolongation ( ! p>ietal cre/s1 div]ge m & m f "o ano!r 9 proportion z !y occupy a l[] position4 ,?is surface t]m9ates ext]nally 9 two processes1 :i* are ! homologues ( ! ext]nal orbital processes ( ! human frontal bone4 ,! sup]ior bord] ( ^! orbital processes1 situat$ on ! prolongation ( ! correspond+ p>ietal cre/s1 contributes to limit ! temporal fossa4 ,ea* ( ^! orbital processes t]m9ates 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,9 ! be>1 dog1 cat1 & pig1 9 :i* ! orbital cavities are incompletely b\nd$ by bone1 ?is process1 slightly develop$1 is n 9 connection1 by its inf]ior extremity1 ) any o!r "p ( ! skeleton ( ! region4 ,9 ! ox & ! %eep1 x articulates ) a process ( ! mal> bone4 ,9 ! horse1 x articulates ) ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal bone4 ,! inf]ior m>g9 ( ?is process =ms a "p ( ! b\nd>y ( ! ant]ior op5+ ( ! orbital cavity4 ,! supra-orbital =am51 :i* does n exi/ 9 c>nivora1 occupies 9 ! horse ! base ( ! orbital process4 ,9 ! ox1 x is situat$ a little ne>] ! middle l9e2 & its ant]ior orifice op5s into an osse\s gutt] :i* is direct$ upw>ds t[>ds ! base ( ! horn1 :ile inf]iorly x meets ! inf]ior bord] ( ! frontal bone2 9 ! %eep ?is groove is b slightly develop$4 ,9 ?is latt]1 z 9 ! ox1 x is ! frontal bone :i* =ms ! mo/ elevat$ portion ( ! skull4 ,9 fact1 be+ b5t ^u itself at a c]ta9 level1 its ext]nal surface is =m$ ( two planes3 "o1 po/]ior1 :i* is incl9$ d[nw>ds & direct$ backw>ds2 ! o!r1 ant]ior1 is also incl9$ d[nw>ds1 b ) a =w>d obliquity4 ,at ! union ( ^! planes ! bone =ms an elb[1 on ei!r side ( :i* are f\nd ! osse\s processes on :i* ! horns are m\nt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,occipital bone2 #b1 condyle ( ! occipital2 #c1 jugul> process2 #d1 p>ietal bone2 #e1 p>ietal cre/s2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 ext]nal auditory canal2 #aj1 zygomatic process2 #aa1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #ab1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 ant]ior orifice ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae2 #ae1 mal> bone2 #af1 la*rymal bone2 #ag1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ah1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ai1 incisor tee?2 #bj1 can9e tee?2 #ba1 mol> tee?4 ,9 ! be>1 ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! frontal bone is prolong$ by two small tongues ( bone1 :i*1 desc5d+ on ! lat]al bord]s ( ! nasal bones1 articulate ) ! sup]ior half ( ! latt]4 ,! temporal bone is1 z 9 man1 furni%$ ) a squam\s portion1 f :i* spr+s ! zygomatic process1 :i* is direct$ t[>ds ! face1 to t]m9ate 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 9 ! c>nivora1 ! pig1 & rum9ants1 x articulates ) ! mal> bone by its inf]ior bord]2 9 ! horse1 x ins9uates itself z a sort ( w$ge betwe5 ! mal> bone & ! orbital process ( ! frontal bone1 ) :i* x articulates1 z we h already po9t$ out1 & contributes1 by a portion situat$ 9 front ( ?is articulation1 to =m ! b\nd>y ( ! ant]ior op5+ ( ! correspond+ orbital cavity4 ,z 9 man1 ! zygomatic process arises by two roots3 "o1 transv]se1 beh9d :i* is situat$ ! gl5oid cavity ( ! temporal bone2 ! o!r1 ant]o-po/]ior1 :i* proce$s to jo9 above ) ! sup]ior curv$ l9e ( ! occipital bone4 ,beh9d ! gl5oid cavity is f\nd ! ext]nal auditory canal1 &1 fur!r back /ill1 ! ma/oid process4 ,?is latt]1 b slightly develop$ 9 ! c>nivora1 a little m s 9 ! rum9ants1 & /ill m 9 ! horse1 has its ext]nal surface trav]s$ by a cre/1 ! ma/oid cre/1 :i*1 aft] becom+ bl5d$ ) ! ant]o-po/]ior root ( ! zygomatic process1 proce$s ) ?is latt] to jo9 ! sup]ior occipital curv$ l9e4 ,bel[ ! auditory canal is situat$ a r\nd prom95ce1 highly develop$ 9 c>nivora2 ?is is ! tympanic bulla1 also call$ ! ma/oid protub]ance2 x is an app5dage ( ! tympanum4 ,! ,face ,! bone ( ?is region1 ar\nd :i* all ! o!rs come to be gr\p$1 is1 z 9 man1 ! sup]ior maxill>y4 ,! relations ( ?is maxill>y ) ! neighb\r+ bones is n exactly ! same 9 all animals2 = example1 9 ! ox1 %eep1 & horse1 9 :i* ! bones ( ! nose are wide 9 _! upp] "p1 & 9 :i* ! la*rymal bone1 :i* is v highly develop$1 encroa*es on ! face1 ! sup]ior maxill>y does n meet ! frontal bone2 x is sep>at$ f x by ! above-nam$ bones4 ,x unites ) x1 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! dog & ! cat4 ,9 ! be>1 x is sep>at$ f ! bones ( ! nose by a small tongue ( bone :i* spr+s f ! ant]ior bord] ( ! frontal--a process :i* we h notic$ 9 connection ) ?is latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,! ,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,occipital condyle2 #b1 jugul> process2 #c1 p>ietal bone2 #d1 frontal bone2 #e1 osse\s process1 :i* s]ves to support ! horn 7horn-core72 #f1 orbital cavity2 #g1 ext]nal auditory canal1 9 front ( :i* is f\nd ! zygomatic process2 #h1 temporal fossa2 #i1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #aj1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #aa1 nasal bone2 #ab1 ant]ior orifice ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae2 #ac1 mal> bone2 #ad1 la*rymal bone2 #ae1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #af1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ag1 incisor tee?2 #ah1 mol> tee?4 ,9 ! pig1 ox1 %eep1 & horse1 ! ext]nal surface is trav]s$1 to a great] or less ext5t1 by a cre/ :i* is situat$ on ! prolongation ( ! inf]ior bord] ( ! mal> bone4 ,?is cre/1 :i* is /raight 9 ! horse1 b curv$ ) its convexity upw>ds 9 ! ox & ! %eep1 is kn[n z ! maxill>y sp9e or ! mal> tub]osity3 x gives atta*m5t to ! masset] muscle1 &1 9 ! horse1 is di/9ctly visible "u ! sk94 ,x does n exi/ 9 ! c>nivora4 ,on ! same surface is situat$ ! sub-orbital =am54 ,! inf]ior bord] is holl[$ out into alveoli1 9 :i* are implant$ ! sup]ior mol> & can9e tee?4 ,?is bord] is prolong$ =w>ds f ! alveolus1 :i* corresponds to ! fir/ mol> too?1 to t]m9ate1 aft] a c\rse m or less prolong$1 at ! alveolus ( ! can9e4 ,?is space1 m or less consid]ably exp&$1 :i* ?us sep>ates ^! tee? is call$ ! int]d5tal space2 b ?is d5om9ation is n applicable to rum9ants1 because ^! latt] possess nei!r can9e nor incisor tee? 9 ! upp] jaw 7see p4 #abe1 d5tition ( ! ox & %eep74 ,! sup]ior maxill>y bone ( "o side & t ( ! opposite side d n meet 9 ! m$ian l9e 9 ! region :i* corresponds to ! incisor tee?2 !y are sep>at$ by a bone :i*1 9 ! human species1 is pres5t only at ! comm5cem5t ( life1 & aft]w>ds coalesces ) ! maxilla2 ?is is ! int]maxill>y or incisor bone4 ,?is bone1 :i* is pair$1 is =m$ ( a c5tral "p1 :i* be>s ! sup]ior incisor tee?2 x is prolong$ upw>ds & backw>ds by two processes3 "o1 ext]nal1 :i* ins9uates itself betwe5 ! sup]ior maxill>y & ! nasal bone1 except 9 ! %eep1 9 :i* x rema9s widely sep>at$ f ! latt]2 ! o!r1 int]nal1 :i* is unit$ to t :i* belongs to ! bone ( ! opposite side to =m "p ( ! floor ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae2 ! ext]nal bord] ( ?is process1 :i* is sep>at$ f ! body ( ! bone by a not*1 =ms ! int]nal b\nd>y ( ! correspond+ incisor op5+ or ! incisor slit4 ,ow+ to ! abs5ce ( sup]ior incisors 9 rum9ants1 ! int]maxill>y bone pres5ts no alveoli4 ,! mal> bone1 & ! os unguis or la*rymal1 are m or less develop$ accord+ to ! species consid]$4 ,) reg>d to ! mal> bone1 x is mo/ important to notice ! "p :i* x takes 9 ! =mation ( ! zygomatic ar*1 & t its inf]ior bord] contributes to =m ! cre/ to :i* is atta*$ ! masset] muscle4 ,z = ! nasal bones1 !y pres5t diff]5tial *>act]s :i*1 z !y affect ! =m ( ! region :i* !y occupy1 are wor?y ( notice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,po/]ior surface ( ! occipital bone2 #b1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #c1 occipital condyle2 #d1 jugul> process2 #e1 p>ietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital cavity2 #h1 zygomatic process ( ! temporal bone2 #i1 ext]nal auditory canal2 #aj1 ma/oid process2 #aa1 sup]ior maxill>y bone or maxilla2 #ab1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 ant]ior orifice ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae2 #ad'1 mal> bone2 #ae1 la*rymal bone2 #af1 inf]ior maxill>y bone or m&ible2 #ag1 inf]ior maxill>y fissure2 #ah1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ai1 coronoid process ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #bj1 incisor tee?2 #ba1 can9e tee?2 #bb1 mol> tee?4 ,_! dim5sions 9 l5g? are proportional to ^? ( ! face4 ,v small 9 man1 !y are m develop$ 9 c>nivora4 ,we recognise 9 ! latt] ! two curves :i* *>act]ize !m 9 ! human species1 & :i* we cle>ly notice :5 we view !m on "o ( _! lat]al aspects3 a concavity above1 & a convexity bel[4 ,^! curves are m or less acc5tuat$--v /rongly m>k$ 9 ! bulldog1 & sc>cely at all 9 ! greyh\nd4 ,moreov]1 9 ! c>nivora also ! nasal bones are wid] bel[ ?an above1 & =m1 by _! junction1 a semicircul> not* :i* limits1 9 its sup]ior portion1 ! ant]ior op5+ ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae4 ,9 ! horse !y pres5t an opposite arrangem5t ) reg>d to _! dim5sions 9 wid?2 broad above1 ea* t]m9ates bel[ by =m+ a po9t$ process :i*1 sep>at$ f ! int]maxill>y bones1 is prolong$ 9 front ( ! nasal orifice4 ,! inf]ior maxill>y bone is1 z 9 man1 =m$ ( a body & two bran*es4 ,b among ! _m special *>act]i/ics ( =m & size :i* %>ply diff]5tiate x f ! human bone1 "o detail mu/ be indicat$2 ?is is ! abs5ce ( a m5tal prom95ce4 ,h5ce x results t ! ant]ior bord] ( ! body ( ! l[] jaw1 in/ead ( be+ direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 is1 on ! contr>y1 oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & t 9 c]ta9 animals ?is bord] is actually f\nd almo/ exactly on ! prolongation ( ! inf]ior bord] ( ! body ( ! bone4 ,on ! ext]nal surface ( ! body are f\nd ! ?ree m5tal =am9a4 ,! sup]ior bord] is holl[$ out by alveoli4 ,) reg>d to ! bran*es 7rami71 !y t]m9ate 9 two processes3 "o1 ! po/]ior1 is ! condyle2 ! o!r1 situat$ m =w>ds1 is ! coronoid process1 :i* gives ins]tion to ! temporal muscle4 ,^! two processes are sep>at$ by ! sigmoid not*4 ,= reasons :i* we w expla9 fur!r on 7see p4 #abg1 movem5ts ( ! l[] jaw71 ! condyle pres5ts diff]5ces ( =m4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 x is /rongly convex f be=e backw>ds1 exp&$ transv]sely1 & firmly mortis$ 9 ! gl5oid cavity ( ! temporal bone2 9 ! rum9ants1 x is less convex f be=e backw>ds1 x is m slightly concave 9 ! transv]se direction2 9 ! rod5ts--we give z an example ! h>e 7,fig4 #fd7--! condyle is /ill convex f be=e backw>ds1 b x is flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds4 ,9 ! animals 9 :i* ! muscles ( ma/ication are v highly develop$1 & especially 9 ! c>nivora1 ! osse\s regions occupi$ by ^! muscles are m ext5sive & m deep ?an 9 ! human species4 ,! l5g? ( ! coronoid process1 ! dep? ( ! temporal fossa1 ! ext5t ( ! zygomatic ar*1 ! appe>ance ( ! ext]nal surface ( ea* ( ! rami ( ! l[] jaw1 deeply holl[$ out = accommodation ( ! masset]1 & to provide ext5sive surfaces ( ins]tion = ?is muscle1 are sure pro(s furni%$ by ! skeleton ( ! occasionally enorm\s developm5t ( ! muscles ( ma/ication4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 a r /rong process1 :i* is direct$ backw>ds1 occupies ! angle ( ! inf]ior maxilla2 x is1 accord+ly1 situat$ bel[ ! region ( ! condyle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,h>e3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ext]nal occipital protub]ance2 #b1 occipital condyle2 #c1 p>ietal bone2 #d1 frontal bone2 #e1 orbital process2 #f1 orbital cavity2 #g1 zygomatic process2 #h1 ext]nal auditory canal2 #i1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #aj1 int]maxill>y or incisor bone2 #aa1 nasal bone2 #ab1 ant]ior op5+ ( ! nasal fossa2 #ac1 mal> bone2 #ad1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ae1 condyle ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #af1 incisor tee?2 #ag1 mol> tee?4 ,! tee? :i* ! jaws c>ry v>y 9 numb]1 & ev5 9 appe>ance1 accord+ to species2 x is useful to note _! diff]5ces4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ! nature ( ^! latt] m effectively1 we w fir/ recall ! fact t 9 man ! tee?1 ?irty-two 9 numb]1 are equally di/ribut$ betwe5 ! jaws1 & are divid$ into incisors1 can9es1 & mol>s1 ( :i* ! arrangem5t is ?us =mulat$3 #em4 #a;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #a;c4 #em4 ---------------------------------------- #cb4ai #em4 #a;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #a;c4 #em4 #ai ,i4e41 i1 incisors2 c1 can9es2 m1 mol>s4 ,we also note t ! incisors are edg$1 ! can9es are po9t$1 & t ! mol>s1 cubical 9 %ape1 h _! surface ( contact provid$ ) tub]cles4 ,! tee? ( ! cat are ?irty 9 numb]2 !y are ?us arrang$3 #dm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #dm4 ---------------------------------------- #cj4 #cm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #cm4 ,^? ( ! dog numb] =ty-two3 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #db4 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ,9 ^! animals1 ! incisors1 su* z are n damag$ by use1 are furni%$1 on ! free bord] ( _! cr[n1 ) ?ree tub]cles1 ( :i* "o1 ! m$ian1 is m develop$ ?an ^? :i* are situat$ lat]ally4 ,we d5ote ^! tee?1 comm5c+ ) ^? ne>e/ ! m$ian l9e1 by ! names c5tral incisors or nipp]s1 int]m$iate & corn] incisors4 ,! can9es1 or fangs1 are long & conical2 !y are curv$ backw>ds & outw>ds4 ,! upp] can9es1 :i* are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! l[] jaw1 are sep>at$ f ! mo/ ext]nal ( ! incisors 7corn]7 by an int]val 9 :i* ! can9es ( ! l[] jaw are receiv$4 ,! l[] can9es1 on ! o!r h&1 are 9 contact ) ! neighb\r+ incisors1 & are ea* sep>at$ f ! fir/ mol> :i* succe$s !m by a wid] int]val ?an t :i* is situat$ betwe5 ! correspond+ tee? 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,! mol>s diff] ess5tially f ! tee? ( ! same class 9 ! human species4 ,_! cr[n t]m9ates 9 a cutt+ bord] bri/l+ ) %>p-po9t$ projections2 ?is =mation indicates t ^! tee? are pr9cipally design$ = te>+4 ,dur+ ! movem5t ( rais+ ! l[] jaw1 :i* is s en]getic 9 ! c>nivora1 !y act1 inde$1 9 ! same mann] z ! two blades ( a pair ( scissors4 ,! l>ge/ mol>s are3 9 ! dog1 ! f\r? ( ! upp] jaw1 & ! fif? 9 ! opposite "o2 9 ! cat1 ! ?ird bo? above & bel[4 ,! pig has =ty-f\r tee? dispos$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ---------------------------------------- #dd4 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ,( ! incisors1 ! nipp]s & ! int]m$iate ones ( ! upp] jaw h _! analogues 9 ^? ( ! horse2 9 ! l[] jaw1 ! correspond+ tee?1 /raight1 & direct$ =w>d1 r resemble ! same incisors 9 rod5ts4 ,! corn] incisor tee? are mu* small]1 & are sep>at$ f ! neighb\r+ tee?4 ,! can9e tee?1 also call$ tusks or tu%es1 are greatly develop$1 especially 9 ! male4 ,! mol>s increase 9 size f ! fir/ to ! la/2 !y are n cutt+1 z 9 ! c>nivora1 b !y are n flatt5$ & provid$ ) tub]cles on _! surfaces ( contact z 9 ! h]bivora4 ,9 ! ox & ! %eep ! tee? are ?irty-two 9 numb]3 #fm4 #j;c4 #j;i4 #j;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #cb4 #fm4 #j;c4 #d;i4 #d;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ,z we see f ?is d5tal =mula1 ! incisors are f\nd only 9 ! l[] jaw2 !y are replac$ 9 ! upp] jaw by a ?ick c>tilag9\s pad on :i* ! inf]ior incisors f9d a surface ( resi/ance4 ,^! h _! cr[ns flatt5$ f above d[nw>ds1 & gradually become ?9n] f ! root to ! ant]ior bord]1 :i* is edg$ & slightly convex4 ,^! tee? gradually we> away4 ,9 proportion to ! progress ( ?is we>1 on acc\nt ( ! fact t x involves ! ant]ior bord]s & upp] surfaces ( ! incisor tee?1 & t ^! tee? are n>r[] t[>ds ! root ?an at ! opposite extremity1 ! int]vals :i* sep>ate !m t5d to become wid] & wid]2 & :5 ! roots become expos$ by ! retraction ( ! gums1 !y are !n sep>at$ f "o ano!r by a consid]able int]val4 ,! mol>s h _! gr9d+ surface comp>able to t ( ! horse2 !y increase 9 size f ! fir/ to ! six?4 ,! tee? ( ! horse are =ty 9 numb]2 !y are ?us di/ribut$3 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #dj4 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ,z !y become worn1 ^! tee? cont9ue to gr[1 & z1 on ! "o h&1 ?is ph5om5on takes place ?r\gh\t ! :ole life ( ! animal1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! process ( we> br+s out & makes visible at ! surface ( friction p>ts =m]ly deep] & deep]1 & ( :i* ! configuration v>ies at diff]5t levels1 !re result special features :i* p]mit ! det]m9ation ( ! age ( ! animal by an exam9ation ( its jaws4 ,! incisors are call$1 comm5c+ ) ^? situat$ ne>e/ ! middle l9e1 c5tral incisors or nipp]s1 int]m$iate & corn] incisors4 ,! can9es1 also designat$ z ! fangs1 exi/ only 9 ! male4 ,x is exceptional to f9d !m 9 ! m>e1 & :5 !y exi/ 9 ?is latt] !y are less develop$ ?an ^? ( ! horse4 ,! mol>s h cuboid cr[ns2 ! surface ( friction is almo/ squ>e 9 ! case ( ! upp] mol>s1 & is incl9$ s z to look inw>ds2 9 ! case ( ! inf]ior ones1 x is a little n>r[$1 & is incl9$ s z to look outw>ds4 ,9 ! upp] jaw ! ext]nal surface ( ! cr[n is holl[$ by two longitud9al furr[s2 9 ! l[] jaw ! same surface has only "o furr[1 :i* at times is b slightly m>k$4 ,9 ! h>e ! tee? are tw5ty-eight 9 numb]3 #fm4 #j;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #bh4 #em4 #j;c4 #a;i4 #a;i4 #j;c4 #em4 ,! f\r incisors ( ! upp] jaw are divid$ into two gr\ps2 "o ( ^! is =m$ by ! two pr9cipal tee?1 ! o!r by two v small incisors :i* are plac$ beh9d ! prec$+4 ,hav+ /udi$ ! jaws & exam9$ ! arrangem5t ( ! tee?1 we %\ld say a few words on ! movem5ts :i* ! l[] jaw is able to execute4 ,9 man1 ^! movem5ts are v>i$ 9 "*3 ! jaw is l[]$ & rais$2 x c also be project$ =w>ds & drawn backw>ds1 or c>ri$ to ! "r or left side by lat]al movem5ts4 ,ow+ to ! diff]5t modes ( nutrition ( animals1 ) :i* ! %ape ( ! tee? is cle>ly correlat$1 be+ m specializ$ ?an 9 ! human species1 ! l[] jaw is mov$ 9 a fa%ion less v>i$ & 9 ! direction mo/ suitable = ! ma/ication ( ! foods :i* =m ! alim5t ( ! species consid]$4 ,moreov]1 ?is is pla9ly %[n 9 ! skeleton by ! %ape ( ! condyle ( ! l[] jaw 7see p4 #abb1 diff]5t =ms ( ?is condyle74 ,9 ! c>nivora1 ^: tee?1 z we h se51 are all cutt+ ones1 ! jaw rises & falls2 ! food !n is1 if we consid] ! two jaws1 cut z by ! blades ( a pair ( scissors4 ,9 ! rum9ants1 ! incisors exi/ only 9 ! l[] jaw1 b ! mol>s are ?ick & well develop$2 ! food is gr\nd by ^! latt] z by mill/ones1 & ! movem5ts :i* fav\r ?is action are1 above all1 ! lat]al4 ,z = ! rod5ts1 9 :i* ! incisors are =m$ = fil+ d[n & cutt+ ?r\gh h>d resi/+ bodies1 _! l[] jaw moves 9 ! ant]o-po/]ior direction1 9 su* a way t ! inf]ior incisors alt]nately advance & rec$e b5ea? ^? ( ! upp] jaw4 ,! free cutt+ bord] ( ^! tee? effectively fulfils ! function to :i* !y are de/9$2 _! con/ant we> pres]ves & revivifies ! *isel edge :i* *>act]izes !m1 )\t lead+ to _! de/ruction1 = ! incisors 9 rod5ts are ( cont9u\s gr[?4 ,,! ,,skull ,,( ,,birds ,! ,skull ( ,birds 7,fig4 #fe74--;,if1 because x is less important f ! arti/ic po9t ( view1 we d n consid] x necess>y to describe 9 detail ! skull ( birds1 we yet ?9k x useful to indicate1 9 _! g5]al l9es1 ! peculi>ities x pres5ts4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! skull is g5]ally pe>-%ap$2 to ! cranium1 ( :i* ! bones are arrang$ 9 su* a way z to give x a =m m or less sph]ical1 succe$s a face m or less elongat$1 accord+ z ! bill is m or less develop$4 ,9 g5]al1 ! bones ( ! skull coalesce v e>ly1 ) ! result t x is only 9 v "y individuals t we c det]m9e _! pres5ce4 ,we f9d ! skull to consi/ ( an occipital bone1 two p>ietals1 a frontal1 etc42 we w indicate b "o detail 9 connection ) ^! bones3 x is ! pres5ce ( a s+le condyle = ! articulation ( ! occipital bone ) ! atlas4 ,we also note ! quadrate bone1 :i* is situat$ on ! lat]al "p ( ! cranium1 is movable on ?is latt]1 & acts z an int]m$i>y betwe5 x1 ! bones ( ! face1 & ! l[] jaw4 ,! quadrate bone is reg>d$ z a deta*$ portion ( ! temporal2 on ! signification ( ?is we d n n[ propose to dwell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,skull ,,( ,,! ,,cock3 ,,left ,,lat]al ,,surface4 #a1 ,occipital bone2 #b1 p>ietal bone2 #c1 frontal bone2 #d1 e?moid bone2 #e1 cavity ( ! tympanum2 #f1 quadrate bone2 #g1 sup]ior maxill>y bone2 #h1 mal> bone2 #i1 nasal bone2 #aj1 #aj1 int]maxill>y bone2 #aa1 nasal orifice2 #ab1 os unguis or la*rymal bone2 #ac1 inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,on ! ant]ior portion ( ! face we f9d ! nasal bones1 :i*1 articulat+ ) ! frontal on "o side1 circumscribe1 on ! o!r1 ! po/]ior bord] ( ! n>es4 ,! nasal bone ( ! "o side is sep>at$ f t ( ! opposite by ! int]maxill>y or premaxill>y bone1 :i* =ms ! skeleton ( ! sup]ior m&ible4 ,! sup]ior maxill>ies1 :i* are rudim5t>y1 are situat$ on ! lat]al p>ts1 & prolong$ backw>d by an osse\s /yle :i* articulates ) ! quadrate bone2 ?is /yloid bone1 ! homologue ( ! mal>1 is designat$ by c]ta9 au?ors z ! jugal or quadrato-jugal bone4 ,x is ) ! quadrate bone also t ! inf]ior maxill>y articulates4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,myology ,! fir/ po9t to decide 9 comm5c+ ?is /udy is ! ord] 9 :i* we %all consid] ! diff]5t muscles :i* we h to exam9e4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t 9 ! pres5t "w we comp>e ! organization ( animals ) t ( man1 :i* we already "k1 & t x is on ! con/ruction ( ?is latt] t1 9 ^! /udies1 ! ?\ght mu/ at ea* in/ant be c>ri$ back 9 ord] to e/abli% ?is comp>ison4 ,n[1 ! g5]al t5d5cy :i* we notice 9 our tea*+ ( anatomy1 :5 "o reg>ds ! region ( ! trunk 9 ! human figure 7a liv+ model or a figure 9 ! r\nd71 is fir/ to consid] ! ant]ior aspect4 ,x is ! latt] t1 = ?is reason1 we /udy at ! v beg9n+2 we next deal ) ! po/]ior surface ( ! trunk1 because x is opposite2 la/ly1 ! lat]al surfaces1 because !y unite ) ! prec$+ surfaces1 ! "o to ! o!r4 ,9 /udy+ an animal1 x is usually by "o ( its lat]al aspects t "o fir/ obs]ves x2 x is1 9 fact1 by ^! aspects t x pres5ts its greate/ dim5sions1 & t ! morphological *>act]s z a :ole c be m readily appreciat$4 ,h5ce1 possibly1 ! ord] ( description adopt$ 9 mo/ texts1 or 9 ! figures :i* accompany !m4 ,! fir/ repres5tation ( ! human figure z a :ole1 9 a treatise on anatomy1 repres5ts ! ant]ior aspect2 ! fir/ view ( ! horse z a :ole1 9 a treatise on vet]9>y anatomy1 = example1 is1 on ! o!r h&1 a lat]al view4 ,we break ) ?is latt] cu/om1 &1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! t5d5cy above indicat$1 we w comm5ce our analysis ) ! /udy ( ! aspect ( ! trunk1 :i* corresponds to ! ant]ior aspect ( ! same region 9 man4 ,! fir/ muscles usually pres5t$ = /udy to arti/s be+ ! pectorals1 x is _! homologues t we w fir/ describe "h4 ,we w aft]w>ds describe ! abdom9al region1 !n ! muscles :i* occupy ! dorsal aspect ( ! trunk4 ,) reg>d to ! lat]al surfaces1 !y w be f\nd1 by ?is fact alone1 almo/ completely /udi$1 s9ce ! muscles ( ! two prec$+ 7back & abdom571 spread+ out1 s to speak1 ov] !m1 contribute to _! =mation4 ,no?+ fur!r w rema9 b to incorporate ) !m ! muscles ( ! %\ld]2 b ^! w be /udi$ 9 connection ) ! ant]ior limbs1 f :i* !y _c be sep>at$4 ,! neck1 9 man1 may be consid]$ 9 an isolat$ fa%ion1 because1 on acc\nt ( its n>r[ness 9 proportion to ! wid? ( ! %\ld]s1 x is cle>ly diff]5tiat$ f ! trunk2 = ?is reason we comb9e ! /udy ( x ) t ( ! head4 ,9 animals1 because ( ! abs5ce or slight developm5t ( ! clavicles1 ! neck is g5]ally too mu* conf\nd$ ) ! region ( ! %\ld]s to make x legitimate to sep>ate x f t region 9 too m>k$ a fa%ion4 ,x w1 accord+ly1 be consid]$ next4 ,we w !n und]take ! /udy ( ! muscles ( ! limbs1 & end ) ! myology ( ! head4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,trunk ,we %all divide !m into muscles ( ! ?orax1 ( ! abdom51 & ( ! back4 ,muscles ( ! ,?orax ,! ,pectoralis ,major 7,fig4 #ff1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #fg1 #c1 #d2 ,fig4 #fh1 #g2 ,fig4 #fi1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gj1 #aa74--;,fur!r designat$ by ! "n ( sup]ficial pectoral1 ?is muscle is describ$ 9 treatises on vet]9>y anatomy z =m$ ( two portions3 an ant]ior "o1 call$ ! /]no-hum]al muscle2 ! o!r1 situat$ bel[ & beh9d ! prec$+1 be>+ ! "n ( /]no-aponeurotic4 ,x occupies ! region ( ! brea/1 &1 z a :ole1 x takes orig9 f ! m$ian portion ( ! /]num1 f :i* x is direct$ t[>ds ! arm & =e>m4 ,! ant]ior portion 7/]no-hum]al muscle7--?ick1 =m+ an elevation "u ! sk91 & really con/itut+ ! pectoral region--is direct$ d[nw>ds & outw>ds to be ins]t$ into ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! hum]us--t is to say1 to ! ridge :i* limits 9 front ! spiral groove ( ?is bone4 ,! o!r "p 7/]no-aponeurotic muscle7 is situat$ m po/]iorly1 & corresponds to ! region kn[n 9 vet]9>y anatomy z ! int]-=e-limb space1 :i* is limit$ lat]ally on ea* side by ! sup]ior portion ( ! =e>m1 ( :i* ! po9t ( junction ) ! trunk be>s ! "n ars4 ,aris+ f ! /]num1 z we h above indicat$1 ?is portion is direct$ outw>ds1 to be jo9$ ) ! t]m9al aponeurosis ( ! /]no-hum]al1 & ) t :i* cov]s ! int]nal surface ( ! =e>m4 ,all ?+s consid]$1 ! /]no-hum]al muscle may be reg>d$ z ! repres5tative ( ! upp] fibres ( ! great pectoral ( man1 ( :i* ! atta*m5ts1 ow+ to ! m or less complete abs5ce ( ! clavicle 9 ! dome/ic mammals1 ! fibres mu/ be conc5trat$ on ! /]num2 ! /]no-aponeurotic portion !n repres5t+ ! inf]ior fasciculae ( ! same muscle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,trunk4 #a1 ,pectoralis major 7/]no-hum]al72 #b1 pectoralis major 7/]no-aponeurotic72 #c1 ma/oido-hum]alis2 #d1 po9t ( ! %\ld]2 #e1 /]no-ma/oid or /]no-maxill>y3 #f1 inf]ior portion ( ! platysma myoides ( ! neck1 divid$2 #g1 triceps cubiti2 #h1 bra*ialis anticus2 #i1 radialis 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #aj1 scapul> region4 ,! great pectoral muscle ( "o side is sep>at$ f t ( ! opposite side along ! m$ian l9e1 & especially above & 9 front1 by a groove :i* is m or less deep1 accord+ z ! muscles are m or less develop$4 ,at ! bottom ( ?is groove1 sugge/ive ( t :i* exi/s 9 ! correspond+ region 9 man1 is f\nd1 z 9 ?is latt]1 ! m$ian portion ( ! /]num4 ,! prec$+ description p>ticul>ly applies to ! arrangem5t :i* ! great pectoral pres5ts 9 ! horse2 9 o!r animals x is m>k$ by "s di/9ctive *>act]s4 ,9 ! pig1 x is ins]t$ into ! /]num z f> only z ! level ( ! ?ird co/al c>tilage2 9 ! ox & %eep1 x ext5ds z f> z ! six?2 9 ! dog1 x is atta*$ to ! two fir/ /]nal pieces only--t is to say1 z f> z ! ?ird co/al c>tilage4 ,moreov]1 9 ! latt]1 z 9 ! cat1 ! two portions :i* we h indicat$ are less readily di/+ui%$4 ,! great pectoral1 by its contraction1 draws ! =e-limb t[>ds ! middle l9e--t is to say1 adducts x4 ,! ,pectoralis ,m9or 7,fig4 #fg1 #f2 ,fig4 #fh1 #h2 ,fig4 #fi1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ab1 #bf74--,?is muscle1 also call$ ! deep pectoral1 is1 9 animals1 l>g] ?an ! sup]ficial pectoral1 !re=e c]ta9 au?ors pref] to give to ?is muscle & ! prec$+ "o ! names ( deep & sup]ficial pectoral respectively4 ,?is nom5clature is evid5tly legitimate1 & con=ms m to reality1 s9ce x does n br+ 9 ! notion ( dim5sions :i* "h is f\nd 9 contradiction to nom5clature2 b1 9 ord] to e/abli% m cle>ly ! p>allelism ) ! correspond+ muscles 9 man1 we ?9k x bett]1 nev]!less1 to give !m ! names by :i* x has be5 cu/om>y to designate !m 9 connection ) ! latt]4 ,we w recall at ! outset t ! less] pectoral muscle 9 man is completely cov]$ by ! great4 ,9 animals ?is is n ! case2 ! less] pectoral be+ v highly develop$1 projects beyond ! great pectoral po/]iorly1 & occupies to a great] or less ext5t ! inf]ior surface ( ! abdom54 ,x also consi/s ( two p>ts3 "o ant]ior1 :i* we designate by ! "n ( /]no-prescapul>2 ! o!r1 po/]ior1 be>+ t ( /]no-hum]al4#bj #bj ,?is division ( ! pectorals c]ta9ly complicates ! nom5clature ( ^! muscles2 nev]!less1 x introduces no insup]able difficulty f ! mnemonic po9t ( view4 ,b :]e ! /udy becomes less pr(itable1 & comp>ison ) ! correspond+ muscles 9 man m complicat$1 is 9 adopt+ ! nom5clature ( ,b\rgelat4 ,inde$1 ! great pectoral is designat$ by ?is au?or ! 'common muscle ( ! arm & =e>m1' :ile ! less] pectoral 7or deep pectoral7 is call$ ! 'great pectoral' 9 its /]no-tro*9ian & 'less] pectoral' 9 its /]no-prescapul> portion4 ,we d n consid] x necess>y to give ! o!r !ories relative to ! homologies ( ^!1 not)/&+ ! v real int]e/ :i* !y pres5t f ! purely anatomical po9t ( view1 z !y h b few applications 9 ! /udy ( =ms4 ,! /]no-prescapul> muscle1 be+ cov]$ by ! /]no-hum]al1 has little int]e/ = u4 ,x arises f ! /]num1 & is direct$ t[>ds ! angle =m$ by ! junction ( ! scapula & hum]us2 !n x is reflect$ upw>ds & backw>ds1 to t]m9ate on ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! %\ld] by ins]tion into ! aponeurosis1 :i* cov]s ! suprasp9atus muscle4 ,we c1 especially 9 ! horse aft] removal ( ! sk91 recognise x1 at ! level ( ?is region1 9 ! int]space limit$ by ! sup]ficial muscles 7,fig4 #gj1 #bf74 ,9 ! dog & cat ?is portion ( ! muscle does n exi/4 ,! o!r division ( ! muscle1 ! /]no-tro*9ian1 is m int]e/+4 ,x arises f ! abdom9al aponeurosis & ! po/]ior "p ( ! /]num2 h5ce x passes =w>d1 turns "u ! sup]ficial pectoral1 & is ins]t$ into ! less] tub]osity 7tro*97 ( ! hum]us4 ,9 ! pig1 dog1 & cat1 x is ins]t$ into ! great] tub]osity 7tro*it]7 ( ! bone ( ! arm4 ,! sup]ior bord] ( ?is muscle is 9 relation ) a sup]ficial ve91 :i* is di/9ctly visible 9 ! horse--! subcutane\s ?oracic ve91 :i* 9 ?is animal is call$ ! ve9 ( ! spur4 ,! /]no-hum]al muscle1 9 contract+1 draws ! %\ld] & ! :ole ant]ior limb backw>ds4 ,s]ratus ,magnus 7,fig4 #fg1 #b2 ,fig4 #fi1 #h2 ,fig4 #gj1 #i74--,?is muscle1 :i* is situat$ on ! lat]al aspect ( ! ?orax1 is cov]$ to a consid]able ext5t by ! %\ld]1 ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm1 & by ! great dorsal muscle4 ,x arises by digitations f ! ext]nal surface ( ! dorsal v]tebrae2 f ! fir/ eight 9 ! horse1 ox1 & dog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,inf]ior ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,trunk4 #a1 ,ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num2 #b1 po9t ( ! %\ld] & inf]ior portion ( ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle2 #c1 pectoralis major 7/]no-hum]al72 #d1 pectoralis major 7/]no-aponeurotic72 #e1 po9t ( ! elb[2 #f1 pectoralis m9or 7/]no-tro*9ian72 #g1 s]ratus magnus2 #h1 ext]nal oblique2 #i1 %ea? ( ! rectus abdom9is2 #aj1 l9ea alba2 #aa1 ! umbilicus2 #ab1 ext]nal oblique divid$ 9 ord] to expose ! rectus abdom9is2 #ac1 rectus abdom9is4 ,! muscul> bundles1 conv]g+ z !y proce$1 t[>ds ! scapula1 pass "u ?is bone1 to be ins]t$ into ! sup]ior portion ( ! subscapul> fossa1 ne> ! sp9al bord]4 ,! inf]ior portion ( its po/]ior digitations is visible 9 ! ox & 9 ! horse2 ^! digitations are less visible 9 ! pig4 ,!y are n se5 at all 9 ! dog 7,fig4 #fh7 or cat1 = 9 ^! animals ! great dorsal muscle cov]s !m completely4 ,! great s]ratus muscle1 by ! position :i* x occupies & ! arrangem5t t x pres5ts1 =ms ) ! correspond+ muscle ( ! opposite side a sort ( gir?1 :i* supports ! ?orax1 & at ! same "t helps to fix ! scapula aga9/ ! latt]4 ,:5 x contracts1 9 tak+ its fix$ po9t at ! ribs1 x draws ! sup]ior portion ( ! scapula d[nw>ds & backw>ds 9 su* a way t ?is bone has its inf]ior angle direct$ =w>ds & upw>ds4 ,if x takes its fix$ po9t at ! %\ld]1 x !n acts on ! ribs1 raises !m1 & s becomes a muscle ( inspiration4 ,because ( ! connections ( ! s]ratus magnus ) ! levator anguli scapulae1 "s au?ors consid] x z unit$ ) ! latt]4 ,b z ! latt] muscle is visible only 9 ! region ( ! neck 7see p4 #aeg71 & z x is sep>ately describ$ 9 man1 we pref] to di/+ui% !m f "o ano!r4 ,we %all recall ! connections to :i* we h j made allusion :5 describ+ ! c]vical region4 ,muscles ( ! ,abdom5 ,! abdom9al wall is1 z 9 man1 =m$ by f\r l>ge muscles3 ! ext]nal oblique1 ! int]nal oblique1 & ! transv]salis1 :i* =m ! lat]al walls1 & ! rectus abdom9is1 situat$ on ea* side ( ! middle l9e ( ! abdom54 ,?is latt]1 because ( ! g5]al direction ( ! trunk 9 quadrup$s1 has its sup]ficial surface direct$ d[nw>ds4 ,! arrangem5t ( ^! muscles closely corresponds to t :i* we f9d 9 ! human species4 ,! ,ext]nal ,oblique ,muscle 7,fig4 #fg1 #h1 #ab2 ,fig4 #fh1 #e2 ,fig4 #fi1 #i2 ,fig4 #gj1 #aj74--,?is muscle arises1 by digitations1 f a numb] ( ribs1 :i* v>ies accord+ to ! species1 ! numb] ( ! ribs be+ itself v>iable = ea* ( !m1 z we po9t$ out 9 connection ) ! o/eology ( ! ?orax4 ,inde$1 ! great oblique arises f ! eight or n9e po/]ior ribs 9 ! dog & ! ox1 & f ! ?irte5 or f\rte5 po/]ior 9 ! horse4 ,x is atta*$1 besides1 to ! dorso-lumb> aponeurosis4 ,^! atta*m5ts are arrang$ 9 a l9e direct$ obliquely upw>ds & backw>ds1 & ! fir/ digitations--t is to say1 ! mo/ ant]ior ones--dovetail ) ! po/]ior digitations ( orig9 ( ! great s]ratus muscle4 ,! fle%y fibres are direct$ d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & t]m9ate 9 an aponeurosis :i* cov]s ! inf]ior aspect ( ! abdom51 & proce$s to =m ! l9ea alba by jo9+ ) t ( ! muscle ( ! opposite side1 & also to be ins]t$ into ! crural ar*4 ,?is aponeurosis ( ! ext]nal oblique is cov]$ by an expansion ( ela/ic fibr\s tissue1 :i* d\bles x ext]nally1 & :i* is kn[n z ! abdom9al tunic4 ,?is latt] is fur!r develop$ z ! organs ( ! dige/ive app>atus are m volum9\s1 & _! weight1 consequ5tly1 m consid]able4 ,= ?is reason1 9 ! l>ge h]bivora1 z ! ox & ! horse1 ?is tunic is extremely ?ick1 :]eas 9 ! pig1 cat1 & dog x is1 on ! contr>y1 r$uc$ to a simple membrane4 ,inde$1 9 ^! latt]1 ! abdom9al visc]a be+ less develop$1 ! inf]ior wall ( ! abdom5 does n require s /rong a fibr\s app>atus = support+ !m4 ,! great oblique1 :5 x contracts1 compresses ! abdom9al visc]a 9 all circum/ances "u :i* ?is compression is necess>y2 x also acts z a flexor ( ! v]tebral column4 ,! ,int]nal ,oblique ,muscle4--,?is muscle1 :i* is cov]$ by ! prec$+1 arises f ! ant]ior sup]ior iliac sp9e 7ext]nal angle 9 rum9ants & solip$s7 & ! neighb\r+ p>ts4 ,f ?is orig9 its muscul> fibres1 ! g5]al direction ( :i* is opposite to t ( ! fibres ( ! ext]nal oblique1 div]g+1 proce$ to t]m9ate 9 an aponeurosis1 :i* contributes to ! =mation ( ! l9ea alba1 & to be atta*$ sup]iorly to ! int]nal surface ( ! la/ co/al c>tilages4 ,x has ! same action z ! great oblique4 ,:at x pres5ts ( special int]e/ is ! detail ( =m :i* x det]m9es 9 ! region ( ! flank2 ?is detail is ! cord ( ! flank4 ,x is *>act]iz$ by an elongat$ prom95ce :i*1 />t+ f ! iliac sp9e1 is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 to t]m9ate ne> ! c>tilag9\s bord] ( ! false ribs4 ,(t5 v app>5t 9 ! ox1 & /ill m s 9 ! c[1 ! cord 9 "q contra/s ) ! depression :i* surm\nts x2 ?is depression is situat$ bel[ ! co/i=m processes ( ! lumb> v]tebrae1 & is call$ ! holl[ ( ! flank4 ,x is s mu* ! m m>k$ z ! mass ( ! inte/9al visc]a is ( great] weight4 ,we sometimes meet ) a case ( ! pres5ce ( ?is holl[ 9 ! horse4 ,b :5 9 ! latt]1 ! flank is well =m$1 ! holl[ is sc>cely visible1 & ! cord b slightly prom95t4 ,x is only 9 emaciat$ subjects t ^! details are f\nd cle>ly m>k$4 ,transv]salis ,abdom9is4--,?is muscle be+ deeply situat$ does n pres5t any int]e/ = u4 ,we w1 h[ev]1 po9t out1 9 ord] to complete ! s]ies ( muscles :i* =m ! abdom9al wall1 t ! direction ( its fibres is transv]se1 & t !y ext5d f ! int]nal surface ( ! c>tilages ( ! false ribs1 & ! co/i=m processes ( ! lumb> v]tebrae to ! l9ea alba4 ,! ,rectus ,abdom9is 7,fig4 #fg1 #ac2 ,fig4 #fh1 #f74--,?is muscle1 enclos$1 z x is 9 man1 9 a fibr\s %ea? 7,fig4 #fg1 #i7 =m$ by ! aponeuroses ( ! lat]al muscles ( ! abdom51 is a long & wide fle%y b&1 :i*1 z 9 ! human species1 rea*es f ! ?orax to ! pubis4 ,:at di/+ui%es x 9 quadrup$s is t !re are co/al atta*m5ts :i* ext5d fur!r on ! /]nal surface ( ! ?orax1 & ! numb] ( its aponeurotic ins]tions1 :i*1 9 g5]al1 is m consid]able4 ,^! are1 inde$1 six or sev5 9 numb] 9 ! pig & 9 rum9ants1 & ab\t t5 9 ! horse4 ,x is true t we may f9d b ?ree 9 ! cat & dog2 /ill1 we (t5 f9d z _m z six4 ,^! int]sections are n m>k$ on _! ext]ior by transv]se grooves1 su* z we f9d 9 ! human species 9 individuals ) delicate sk9 & ^: adipose tissue is n v mu* develop$4 ,! rectus abdom9is is cov]$1 9 its ant]ior portion1 by ! /]no-tro*9ian muscle 7po/]ior segm5t ( ! small pectoral74 ,9 contract+1 ?is muscle br+s ! *e/ ne>] ! pelvis1 & z a result flexes ! v]tebral column4 ,x also contributes to ! compression ( ! abdom9al visc]a4 ,pyramidalis ,abdom9is4--,?is unimportant little muscle1 :i* 9 man is situat$ at ! l[] "p ( ! abdom51 ext5ds f ! pubis to ! l9ea alba4 ,x is n pres5t 9 ! dome/ic animals4 ,we consid] x int]e/+1 h[ev]1 to po9t out1 al?\gh ! fact is n a v useful "o z reg>ds ext]nal =m1 t ?is muscle is di/9ctly develop$ 9 m>supials4 ,we "k t 9 ! opossum1 ! kang>oo1 & ! phalang] fox1 ! "y are br\ght =? 9 an entirely incomplete /ate ( developm5t1 & t1 dur+ a c]ta9 p]iod1 !y are oblig$ to lodge 9 a p\* :i* is plac$ at ! l[] "p ( ! abdom5 ( ! "m4 ,n[1 ?is p\* conta9s ! mamm>y gl&s2 b ! "y1 be+ too feeble to ex]cise ! requisite suction1 ! pyramidal muscles come to _! assi/ance4 ,^! muscles1 9 contract+1 approximate to "o ano!r two bones :i* are plac$ above ! pubis1 ! 7s-call$7 m>supial bones 7see ,fig4 #hj72 by _! approximation ! bones 9 "q1 :i* are plac$ beh9d & on ! out] side ( ! mamm>y gl&s1 compress ! latt]1 & ?us is br\ght ab\t ! result :i* ! little ones1 on acc\nt ( _! feebl5ess1 w\ld1 )\t t int]v5tion1 be incapable ( obta9+ = !mselves4 ,muscles ( ! ,back ,trapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #fi1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #gj1 #a1 #b74--,?is muscle1 m or less well develop$1 accord+ to ! species1 is divid$ into two portions1 ( :i* ! names indicate ! respective situations--a c]vical & a dorsal4 ,^! two p>ts1 consid]$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* we f9d !m1 take _! orig9 f ! sup]ior c]vical ligam5t & f ! sp9\s processes ( ! fir/ dorsal v]tebrae4 ,f ^! diff]5t po9ts ! fibres are direct$ t[>ds ! %\ld]2 ! ant]ior are1 consequ5tly1 oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & ! po/]ior are direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds4 ,!y are ins]t$ into ! scapula 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ! fibres ( ! dorsal portion are atta*$ to ! tub]osity ( ! sp9e2 ^? ( ! c]vical region are also fix$ into ! same sp9e1 b into a consid]ably l>g] surface4 ,! c]vical portion occupies1 9 ! region ( ! neck1 an area relatively small] ?an ! correspond+ portion ( ! trapezius 9 man4 ,?is dim9i%$ degree ( developm5t results f ! abs5ce1 complete1 or ne>ly s1 ( ! clavicle 9 ! animals :i* we are n[ consid]+4 ,we rememb]1 t ! trapezius ( man is p>tly ins]t$ into ! clavicle1 & ! disappe>ance ( ?is latt] _c fail to br+ modifications 9 ! g5]al disposition ( ! correspond+ portion ( ! muscle4 ,!re results a disconnection ( ?is latt]1 & x becomes unit$ to o!r muscul> fibres to =m a muscle ) :i* we %all soon h to deal--! ma/oido-hum]al 7see p4 #aej74 ,z specific diff]5ces we %\ld add t ! trapezius occupies a m or less ext5sive portion ( ! m$ian & sup]ior regions ( ! neck2 t]m9at+ at a consid]able di/ance f ! head 9 ! dog & horse1 x1 on ! contr>y1 approa*es x 9 ! pig & 9 rum9ants4 ,! c]vical portion1 :5 x contracts1 draws ! scapula upw>ds & =w>ds1 ! dorsal portion draws x upw>ds & backw>ds4 ,:5 ! trapezius acts z a :ole ! scapula is rais$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 c]vical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 sup]ior outl9e ( ! scapula2 #d1 latissimus dorsi2 #e1 ext]nal oblique muscle2 #f1 rectus abdom9is2 #g1 pectoralis major ( ! "r side2 #h1 pectoralis m9or 7/]no-tro*9ian72 #i1 #i1 ma/oido hum]al muscle2 #aj1 t5d9\s int]section1 at ! level ( :i* is f\nd a rudim5t>y clavicle2 #aa1 /]no-ma/oid muscle2 #ab1 infrahyoid muscles2 #ac1 omo-tra*eal or acromio-tra*eal muscle2 #ad1 spl5ius2 #ae1 levator anguli scapulae2 #af1 deltoid muscle1 sp9al portion2 #ag1 deltoid1 acromial portion2 #ah1 sup]ior extremity ( ! hum]us2 #ai1 suprasp9atus2 #bj1 infrasp9atus2 #ba1 biceps cubiti2 #bb1 bra*ialis anticus2 #bc1 triceps cubiti1 long head2 #bd1 triceps cubiti1 ext]nal head2 #be1 olecranon process2 #bf1 radialis 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #bg1 iliac cre/2 #bh1 gluteus maximus2 #bi1 gluteus m$ius2 #cj1 biceps cruris2 #ca1 semit5d9osus2 #cb1 semi-membranosus2 #cc1 ga/rocnemius2 #cd1 t5sor ( ! fascia lata2 #ce1 s>torius2 #cf1 fascia lata drawn up by ! triceps2 #cg1 ! patella or knee-cap2 #ch1 is*io-coccygeal muscle2 #ci1 sup]ior sacro-coccygeal2 #dj1 lat]al sacro-coccygeal2 #da1 inf]ior sacro-coccygeal4 ,! ,latissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 #d2 ,fig4 #fi1 #e2 ,fig4 #gj1 #e74--,?is muscle arises by an aponeurosis1 ! s-call$ dorso-lumb> aponeurosis1 f ! sp9\s processes ( ! la/ dorsal v]tebrae 7! sev5 la/ 9 ! dog1 f\rte5 or fifte5 la/ 9 ! horse71 f ! sp9\s processes ( ! lumb> v]tebrae1 & f ! la/ ribs4 ,its fle%y fibres are direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 be+ m oblique 9 direction po/]iorly1 & pass on ! inn] side ( ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm1 to be ins]t$ into ! int]nal lip ( ! bicipital groove ( ! hum]us1 or1 a little l[] d[n1 on ! m$ian portion ( ! int]nal surface ( ! same bone4 ,?is latt] mode ( ins]tion is met ) 9 ! horse & ! ox4 ,! ant]ior fibres cov] ! po/]ior angle ( ! scapula 7z 9 man1 :]e ! correspond+ angle1 b 9 ?is case inf]ior1 is cov]$ by ! same muscle71 &1 a little high] up1 are 9 _! turn conceal$ by a portion ( ! dorsal fibres ( ! trapezius4 ,x cov]s1 to a great] or less ext5t1 ! great s]ratus muscle4 ,^! relations are simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! human species4 ,we f9d t ! fle%y fibres ( ! great dorsal are prolong$ m or less backw>ds if we exam9e ?is muscle 9 ! dog1 ! ox1 ! pig1 & ! horse4 ,inde$1 ! fibres rea* to ! ?irte5? rib 9 ! dog & ! cat 7t is to say1 ! la/ rib71 ! elev5? 9 ! ox1 t5? 9 ! pig1 & twelf? only 9 ! horse4 ,we say 'only' 9 connection ) ?is la/ because x is necess>y to rememb] t ! ribs are eighte5 9 numb] on ea* side ( ! ?orax ( ?is animal1 & t1 accord+ly1 ! fle%y fibres ( ! great dorsal muscle are1 relatively1 ( small ext5t4 ,:5 ?is muscle contracts x flexes ! hum]us ^u ! scapula1 & helps to draw ! :ole ( ! ant]ior limb backw>ds & upw>ds4 ,!re is a muscul> fasciculus :i*1 because ( its relations ) ! muscle we h j be5 /udy+1 is kn[n z ! supplem5t>y muscle ( ! latissimus dorsi4 ,b z1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is fasciculus is 9 relation ) ! triceps1 we %all 9 pref]5ce consid] x 9 relation ) ?is latt] 7see p4 #agc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 c]vical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 outl9e ( ! scapula2 #d1 sp9e ( ! scapula2 #e1 latissimus dorsi2 #f1 small po/]ior s]ratus2 #g1 prom95ce caus$ by ! co/i=m processes ( ! lumb> v]tebrae2 #h1 s]ratus magnus2 #i1 ext]nal oblique2 #aj1 pectoralis major 7/]no-hum]al72 #aa1 ma/oido-hum]alis2 #ab1 atlas2 #ac1 atlas2 #ad1 p>otid gl&2 #ae1 /]no-ma/oid muscle2 #af1 infrahyoid muscles2 #ag1 omo-tra*elian or acromio-tra*elian muscle2 #ah1 deltoid2 #ai1 bra*ialis anticus2 #bj1 triceps1 long head2 #ba1 triceps1 ext]nal head2 #bb1 olecranon2 #bc1 radialis 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #bd1 ant]ior iliac sp9e2 #be1 gluteus maximus2 #bf1 gluteus m$ius2 #bg1 biceps cruris2 #bh1 semit5d9osus2 #bi1 ga/rocnemius2 #cj1 t5sor ( ! fascia lata2 #ca1 fascia lata cov]+ ! triceps ( ! ?igh2 #cb1 patella2 #cc1 is*io-coccygeal muscle2 #cd1 sup]ior is*io-coccygeal2 #ce1 lat]al is*io-coccygeal2 #cf1 inf]ior is*io-coccygeal4 ,! aponeurosis by :i* ! great dorsal arises f ! v]tebral column cov]s1 z 9 man1 ! muscles :i* occupy ! grooves situat$ on ea* side ( ! sp9\s processes--! sp9al muscles or common muscul> mass1 if we reg>d !m z a :ole 7,fig4 #gj1 #g72 ! sacro-lumb> & ! long dorsal muscles cov]+ ! transv]se sp9al1 if we consid] !m z di/9ct4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to ent] "h into a detail$ exam9ation ( ^! muscles4 ,if !y are b little develop$ ! sp9\s processes become prom95t "u ! sk92 if !y are m s !y may by _! ?ickness project beyond ! level ( ^! processes1 & ^! latt] ?us come to lie 9 a groove m or less m>k$1 :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! division :i* is det]m9$ by its pres5ce1 has caus$ ! regions :i* x occupies to be designat$ by ! names d\ble back & d\ble lo9s4 ,! muscles are ext5sors ( ! v]tebral column4 ,"u ! aponeurosis ( ! great dorsal muscle !re is f\nd 9 man ano!r muscle1 ! s]ratus po/icus inf]ior1 :i*1 on acc\nt ( be+ deeply plac$ & its slight ?ickness1 (f]s no?+ ( int]e/ 9 connection ) ! /udy ( ext]nal =m4 ,x arises f ! sp9\s processes ( ! ?ree la/ dorsal v]tebrae & ^? ( ! ?ree fir/ lumb>2 x !n passes upw>ds & outw>ds1 & divides into f\r digitations1 to be ins]t$ into ! inf]ior bord]s ( ! f\r la/ ribs4 ,we repeat t x is cov]$ by ! great dorsal muscle4 ,9 ! pig1 ox1 & horse1 :i* h ?is latt] muscle less develop$ 9 its po/]ior portion1 ! same small s]ratus muscle1 kn[n z ! po/]ior s]ratus1 is visible 9 ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles 7,fig4 #fi1 #f2 ,fig4 #gj1 #f74 ,! numb] ( its digitations is m or less consid]able accord+ to ! species exam9$4 ,! ,rhomboid ,muscle 7,fig4 #gj1 #ba74--;,9 ord] to make intelligible ! position ( ! rhomboid 9 ! sup]ficial lay] 9 quadrup$s1 x appe>s to u necess>y to recall ! anatomical *>act]s ( ! muscle z f\nd 9 man4 ,! rhomboid arises f ! inf]ior portion ( ! po/]ior c]vical ligam5t1 f ! sp9\s process ( ! sev5? c]vical v]tebrae & ! f\r or five upp] dorsal2 !nce pass+ obliquely d[nw>ds & outw>ds1 x is ins]t$ into ! sp9al bord] ( ! scapula1 into ! portion ( ?is bord] :i* is situat$ bel[ ! sp9e2 x sometimes ext5ds to ! middle ( ! int]val :i* sep>ates ?is latt] f ! sup]ior int]nal angle ( ! same bone4 ,! portion ( ! muscle :i* arises f ! c]vical ligam5t & ! sev5? c]vical v]tebra is (t5 sep>at$ f ! l[] portion by a cellul> int]space4 ,= ?is cause "s anatomi/s h describ$ ! rhomboid z consi/+ ( two p>ts--! sup]ior or small rhomboid & ! inf]ior or l>ge rhomboid1 on acc\nt ( ! position occupi$ by ea*1 & ( _! diff]5ce 9 volume4 ,?is muscle c only be se5 9 ! region ( ! back1 9 ! space limit$ ext]nally by ! sp9al bord] ( ! scapula1 bel[ by ! latissimus dorsi1 & int]nally by ! trapezius1 :i* cov]s x 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t4 ,x is n 9 ?is space t x is se5 9 c]ta9 quadrup$s4 ,z we po9t$ out 9 ! section on o/eology1 ! sp9al bord] ( ! scapula is %ort1 & x seems to be due to ?is limitation 9 l5g? t ! trapezius & ! latissimus dorsi muscle are1 at ?is level1 9 contact ! "o ) ! o!r 9 su* a way t !y fill up ! int]val 9 :i* ! rhomboid is se5 9 man4 ,9 ! horse we c p>tly see x 9 ! sup]ficial muscul> lay]1 b 9 ! region ( ! neck only1 at ! sup]ior bord] ( ! %\ld]4 ,inde$1 z we h already po9t$ out1 ! trapezius does n rea* ! occipital protub]ance2 = ?is reason a "p ( ! ant]ior portion ( ! rhomboid may be se5--t is1 ! portion :i* corresponds to ! sup]ior "p ( ! human muscle4 ,b :e!r x be cov]$ by ! trapezius1 or1 z we f9d 9 ! cat & dog1 by ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle 7see p4 #aej71 :i* is v broad 9 ?is region1 we d n ! less recognise its pres5ce2 & 9 ! horse & ox1 9 p>ticul>1 x =ms an elongat$ prom95ce beg9n+ at ! level ( ! scapula1 & tap]+ z x asc5ds1 t[>ds ! po/]ior "p ( ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,sup]ficial ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 c]vical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 sup]ior outl9e ( ! scapula2 #d1 sp9e ( ! scapula2 #e1 latissimus dorsi muscle2 #f1 small po/]ior s]ratus2 #g1 sp9al muscles1 or common muscul> mass2 #h1 ribs2 #i1 s]ratus magnus2 #aj1 ext]nal oblique2 #aa1 pectoralis major 7/]no-hum]al72 #ab1 pectoralis m9or 7/]no-tro*9ian72 #ac1 atlas2 #ad1 p>otid gl&2 #ae1 ma/oido-hum]alis2 #af1 po9t ( ! arm2 #ag1 /]no-ma/oid1 or /]no-maxill>y2 #ah1 jugul> groove2 #ai1 infrahyoid muscles2 #bj1 omo-tra*elian muscle2 #ba1 rhomboid2 #bb1 spl5ius2 #bc1 levator anguli scapulae2 #bd1 deltoid2 #be1 suprasp9atus2 #bf1 t]m9al "p ( ! /]no-prescapul>1 a portion ( ! small pectoral muscle2 #bg1 bra*ialis anticus2 #bh1 triceps cubiti1 middle or long head2 #bi1 triceps cubiti1 ext]nal head2 #cj1 olecranon2 #ca1 radial ext5sor 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #cb1 ant]ior iliac sp9e2 #cc1 ant]ior portion ( ! gluteus maximus--! aponeurosis ( ! muscle has be5 divid$ 9 ord] to expose ! gluteus m$ius2 #cd1 po/]ior portion ( ! gluteus maximus2 #ce1 gluteus m$ius2 #cf1 biceps cruris2 #cg1 semit5d9osus2 #ch1 po9t ( ! buttock2 #ci1 ga/rocnemius2 #dj1 t5sor ( ! fascia lata2 #da1 triceps cruris2 #db1 is*io-coccygeal muscle2 #dc1 sup]ior sacro-coccygeal2 #dd1 lat]al sacro-coccygeal2 #de1 inf]ior sacro-coccygeal4 ,its orig9s are simil> to ^? :i* we h already describ$ 9 ! human rhomboid4 ,x arises f ! c]vical ligam5t & ! sp9\s processes ( ! =emo/ dorsal v]tebrae2 its fibres conv]ge & pass to ! scapula1 to be ins]t$ into its sup]ior or sp9al bord]1 or into ! int]nal surface ( ! c>tilage ( prolongation4 ,x assi/s 9 keep+ ! scapula appli$ to ! ?oracic cage1 & :5 x contracts1 draws ! scapula upw>ds & =w>ds4 ,tak+ its fix$ po9t at ! scapula1 x acts on ! neck by its ant]ior fibres1 & ext5ds x4 ,we %all soon h occasion to m5tion ?is muscle aga91 9 connection ) ! /udy ( ! muscles ( ! neck4 ,! ,cutane\s ,muscle ( ! ,trunk 7,fig4 #ga74--;,imm$iately b5ea? ! sk9 :i* cov]s ! neck1 %\ld]s1 & trunk is f\nd a va/ cutane\s muscle1 analog\s to t :i*1 9 ! human species1 exi/s only 9 ! c]vical region4 ,?is ?9 muscle1 ^: function is to move ! sk9 :i* /rongly adh]es to x1 & 9 ?is way to remove f x mat]ial causes ( irritation 7insects1 = example71 is ( consid]able ?ickness 9 ! region ( ! trunk2 :]e x con/itutes :at c]ta9 au?ors h designat$ by ! "n ( panniculus c>nosus4 ,9 ?is region x ext5ds f ! po/]ior bord] ( ! %\ld] to ! ?igh1 &1 9 ! v]tical direction1 f ! apices ( ! sp9\s process ( ! dorso-lumb> v]tebrae to ! m$ian l9e ( ! abdom54 ,aris+ above f ! suprasp9\s ligam5t ( ! dorso-lumb> & sacral regions 7except 9 ! c>nivora2 see bel[7 by an aponeurosis :i*1 po/]iorly1 cov]s ! muscles ( ! h9d-limbs1 its fibres are direct$ to ! elb[1 on :i* !y are arrang$ 9 two lay]s3 a sup]ficial1 :i* becomes cont9u\s ) ! panniculus muscle ( ! %\ld]2 & a deep1 :i* passes on ! inn] side ( ! %\ld] to be ins]t$ into ! int]nal surface ( ! hum]us2 ?is latt] exi/s only 9 ! dog & cat4 ,! mo/ inf]ior fibres1 beh9d1 at ! level ( ! knee-cap =m a triangul> process :i* 9 ! horse receives ! "n ( ! /ifle fold1 f ! "n vet]9>ians give to ! region ( ! articulation ( ! knee4 ,?is fold ( sk91 :i* comm5ces on ! ant]o-int]nal surface ( ?is region1 is direct$ upw>ds1 & !n =w>ds1 to end by gradually disappe>+ ov] ! correspond+ "p ( ! abdom54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,panniculus ,,muscle ,,( ,,! ,,trunk4 ,9 ! same animal ! muscul> fibres ( ! panniculus ( ! trunk arise along a l9e :i* connects ! /ifle-jo9t to ! )]s1 a l9e :i* is1 consequ5tly1 oblique upw>ds & =w>ds4 ,n[1 z ! fle%y lay] is ?ick] ?an ! aponeurosis1 ! result is t ! mode ( con/itution ( ?is muscle c be recognis$ "u ! sk94 ,inde$1 we c see 9 "s animals1 occasionally v di/9ctly1 a slight elevation />t+ f ! region ( ! abdom5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! knee1 & !nce direct$ obliquely upw>ds & =w>ds4 ,?is elevation is produc$ by ! fle%y portion ( ! panniculus4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 ! panniculus ( ! trunk is n atta*$ to ! suprasp9\s ligam5t2 x is bl5d$ ) ! same muscle ( ! opposite side1 pass+ ov] ! sp9\s region ( ! v]tebral column4 ,f ?is arrangem5t results a great mobility ( ! sk9 :i* cov]s ! back4 ,fur!r1 x expla9s :y x is possible to lift up ?is sk9 along ) ! panniculus :i* x cov]s1 & to :i* x adh]es1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ext5t ( ! dorso-lumb> column4 ,z we po9t$ out above1 !re is also a panniculus muscle ( ! %\ld] & "o ( ! neck4 ,we w deal ) !m :5 treat+ ( ! regions to :i* ^? muscles belong4 ,! ,coccygeal ,region ,z a sequel to ! /udy ( ! muscles ( ! region ( ! trunk v naturally comes ! description ( ^? :i*1 belong+ to ! region ( ! coccyx1 are de/9$ = ! movem5ts ( ! caudal app5dix1 ( :i* ?is latt] con/itutes ! skeleton4 ,! muscles may n seem to be ( mu* importance ) reg>d to ext]nal =m1 b1 z !y =m "p ( ! sup]ficial muscul> lay]1 & z ! mass ( ea* is se5 9 ! =m ( ! tail 9 "s animals 7! lion1 = example71 !y m]it our att5tion = a mom5t4 ,a few l9es w suffice to give an idea ( !m4 ,!y are3 ! is*io-coccygeal1 sup]ior sacro-coccygeal1 lat]al sacro-coccygeal1 & inf]ior sacro-coccygeal4 ,! ,is*io-coccygeal 7,fig4 #ah1 #ch2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cc2 ,fig4 #gj1 #db74--,?is muscle1 triangul> 9 %ape1 bett] develop$ 9 ! c>nivora ?an 9 ! horse1 arises f ! sp9e ( ! is*ium1 or f ! supracotyloid cre/1 :i* replaces ?is latt] 9 ! solip$s & ! rum9ants4 ,!nce its fle%y mass is direct$ upw>ds1 exp&+ z x proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes ( ! fir/ two coccygeal v]tebrae aft] ins9uat+ itself betwe5 two ( ! foll[+ muscles1 ! lat]al & inf]ior sacro-coccygeal4 ,9 ! dog & cat1 ! muscle is 9 great "p cov]$ by ! great gluteal4 ,9 ! ox1 by a peculi> arrangem5t ( ! correspond+ region ( ! muscles ( ! ?igh--an arrangem5t :i* we w exam9e 9 connection ) ! /udy ( ! latt]--x is m expos$ ?an 9 ! horse1 & gives orig9 to an outl9e :i* corresponds to its g5]al =m 9 ! region situat$ imm$iately bel[ ! root ( ! tail4 ,x is a depressor ( ! :ole caudal app5dix4 ,! ,sup]ior ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #ci2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cd2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dc74--,! fasciculi :i* =m ?is muscle arise f ! cre/ ( ! sacrum1 & proce$ !nce to end successively on ! coccygeal v]tebrae4 ,x is 9 contact 9 ! middle l9e ) ! correspond+ muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,x raises ! tail & incl9es x lat]ally2 if ! muscle ( "o side contracts at ! same "t z t ( ! o!r ! tail is elevat$ directly4 ,! ,lat]al ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #dj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ce2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dd74--,situat$ on ! lat]al "p ( ! caudal region1 ?is muscle arises1 9 ! dog1 f ! int]nal bord] ( ! iliac bone & ! ext]nal bord] ( ! sacrum2 9 ! horse1 x arises f ! cre/ ( ! sacrum4 ,x is ins]t$ into ! coccygeal v]tebrae4 ,x produces lat]al movem5t ( ! tail4 ,! ,inf]ior ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #da2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cf2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dc74--,?is muscle1 :i* is fairly ?ick1 arises f ! inf]ior surface ( ! sacrum & ! correspond+ surface ( ! sacro-sciatic ligam5t2 x is ins]t$ into ! coccygeal v]tebrae4 ,x depresses ! caudal app5dix4 ,muscles ( ! ,neck ,ma/oido-hum]alis 7,fig4 #ff1 #c2 ,fig4 #fh1 #i1 #i1 #aj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ae74--,"o ( ! mo/ important muscles ( ! region ( ! neck 9 man is ! /]no-cleido ma/oid4 ,we recollect t1 9 its inf]ior "p1 x is divid$ into two bundles1 "o ( :i* arises f ! manubrium ( ! /]num1 & ! o!r f ! inn] ?ird ( ! clavicle1 :5ce ! d5om9ations ( ! /]nal portion & clavicul> portion4 ,! muscle =m$ by ! union ( ^! two portions is !n direct$ obliquely outw>ds1 backw>ds1 & upw>ds1 to be ins]t$ into ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone & ! two ext]nal ?irds ( ! sup]ior curv$ l9e ( ! occipital bone4 ,n[1 ! animals :i* we are "h consid]+ h b a rudim5t>y clavicle or are entirely )\t x4 ,f ! abs5ce ( ?is item ( ! skeleton !re necess>ily result modifications 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! muscles ( ?is region1 :i* we mu/ at ! v outset expla91 be=e und]tak+ ! special /udy ( ! muscle :i* is ! subject ( ! pres5t p>agraph4 ,let u suppose1 = ! m def9ite arrangem5t ( our ideas1 t ! clavicle is altoge!r abs5t1 al?\gh we d f9d x 9 a rudim5t>y /ate 9 "s animals & completely develop$ 9 o!rs 7m>mot1 bat71 & we w proce$ to indicate :at ?is abs5ce det]m9es4 ,! great pectoral muscle 9 man arises 9 "p f ! clavicle2 ?is orig9 n be+ possible 9 animals :i* h no clavicle1 its atta*m5ts1 z we h already se51 are conc5trat$ on ! /]num4 ,! trapezius 9 man simil>ly arises 9 "p f ! clavicle2 = ! reasons above indicat$ its clavicul> fasciculi _c exi/ 9 di/9ct =m 9 ! animals :i* h no clavicle4 ,! /]no-cleido ma/oid1 ^: inf]ior atta*m5ts we m5tion$ above1 _c h a clavicul> portion4 ,x is ! same 9 ! case ( ! deltoid1 :i*1 we "k1 arises 9 "p f ! ant]ior bone ( ! %\ld]4 ,( ! f\r muscles :i* h p>tial clavicul> orig9s 9 man1 two are kn[n to u 9 connection ) animals--! great pectoral & ! trapezius4 ,:at has become ( ! o!r two1 ! /]no-cleido ma/oid & ! deltoid8 ,x is ?is :i* we n[ proce$ to inve/igate4 ,aft] a fa%ion simple en\gh1 b :i* x is necess>y to describe1 ! clavicul> fasciculi ( ! trapezius & ! correspond+ fasciculi ( ! /]no-cleido ma/oid are unit$ ! "o to ! o!r2 ! portion ( ! deltoid :i* 9 man arises f ! clavicle1 by reason ( ! abs5ce ( ?is latt]1 is also comb9$ ) ! fle%y mass =m$ by ! prec$+ muscles4 ,f ?is fusion results ! muscle kn[n z ! ma/oido-hum]al4 ,?is muscle1 :i* consi/s ( a long fle%y b& situat$ on ! lat]al aspect ( ! neck1 takes its orig91 z a g5]al rule1 f ! po/]ior surface ( ! skull & ! upp] "p ( ! neck1 f :i* x passes obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 cov]+ ! scapulo-hum]al angle--t is1 ! region kn[n z ! po9t ( ! %\ld] or arm--& is ins]t$ into ! ant]ior bord] ( ! hum]us1 ! bord] :i*1 limit+ ant]iorly ! musculo-spiral groove1 =ms a cont9uation ( ! deltoid impression4 ,on acc\nt ( ! regions ) :i* x is relat$1 ,b\rgelat nam$ ?is muscle ! muscle common to ! head1 neck1 & arm4 ,x is at ! level ( ! scapulo-hum]al angle t ! ve/iges ( ! clavicle are f\nd4 ,?is bone is repres5t$ 9 "s animals--! pig1 ox1 & horse--by a s+le t5d9\s int]section1 m or less app>5t1 :i* ext5ds transv]sely f ! scapula to ! ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat1 we f9d1 besides1 on ! deep surface ( ! muscle & at ! level ( ?is t5d9\s int]section1 ! rudim5t ( ! clavicle ( :i* we made m5tion 9 ! section on ,o/eology 7see p4 #be74 ,x is b5ea? ! int]section1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* we h j po9t$ out1 t is f\nd t portion ( ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle :i* corresponds to ! clavicul> fasciculi ( ! deltoid2 t portion :i* is situat$ above ! int]section corresponds to ! clavicul> fibres ( ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid & ( ! trapezius4 ,! ma/oido-hum]al pres5ts c]ta9 v>ieties 9 diff]5t animals4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat1 ?is muscle1 :i* is bl5d$ above ) ! /]no-ma/oid 7see p4 #aec71 to be ins]t$ ) x into ! ma/oid process & ! ma/oid cre/1 cov]s ! neck = a consid]able ext5t f ! sup]ior curv$ l9e ( ! occipital bone to :i* x is atta*$1 to ! trapezius ) :i* x unites po/]iorly1 b f :i* x sep>ates bel[4 ,betwe5 ^! two extreme po9ts ( its sup]ior portion x is atta*$ to ! c]vical ligam5t4 ,9 ! pig & 9 rum9ants1 9 :i* ! trapezius approa*es m closely to ! head1 ! ma/oido-hum]al occupies1 9 consequ5ce1 a less ext5t ( ! c]vical region4 ,9 ! horse1 ! ma/oido-hum]al nei!r cov]s ! neck nor jo9s ! trapezius2 inde$1 we h already %[n t x is sep>at$ by a consid]able di/ance f ! head4 ,9 ! limit$ int]val betwe5 ^! two muscles a "p ( ! rhomboid & p>ts ( o!r muscles are se5 ) :i* we %all soon be occupi$4 ,?is muscle1 z reg>ds ! horse1 is describ$ by "s anatomi/s z consi/+ ( two p>ts3 "o ant]ior1 or sup]ficial2 ! o!r po/]ior1 or deep4 ,9 reality1 ! fir/ only corresponds to ! ma/oido-hum]al1 :i* we are consid]+2 ! po/]ior may be m exactly reg>d$ z repres5t+ a special muscle ( quadrup$s1 b :i* is "h a little de=m$1 ! omo-tra*elian 7see p4 #aee74 ,:5 ! ma/oido-hum]al contracts1 tak+ its fix$ po9t above1 x acts z an ext5sor ( ! hum]us1 & c>ries ! entire =e-limb =w>ds4 ,if x takes its fix$ po9t bel[--t is to say1 at ! hum]us--x incl9es ! head & neck to its own side4 ,if x contracts at ! same "t z ! ma/oido-hum]al ( ! opposite side1 !n ! head & ! neck are c>ri$ into ! position ( ext5sion4 ,! ,/]no-ma/oid 7,fig4 #ff1 #e2 ,fig4 #fh1 #aa2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ae2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ag74--;,hav+ describ$ ! clavicul> portion ( ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid 9 connection ) ! ma/oido-hum]al1 because x =ms a "p ( ! latt]1 we h1 9 ord] to complete ! homologies ( ?is muscle1 to /udy n[ t :i* corresponds to its /]nal portion4 ,?is is ! /]no-ma/oid muscle4 ,9 all ! quadrup$s ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ ?is muscle arises f ! ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num2 n>r[ & elongat$ 9 =m1 x passes t[>ds ! head 9 a direction p>allel to ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ma/oido-hum]al1 f :i* x is sep>at$ by an int]space :i*1 along its :ole l5g?1 lodges sup]ficially ! jugul> ve92 h5ce ! "n ( jugul> groove1 :i* is giv5 to ?is "p ( ! neck 7,fig4 #aj1 #ah74 ,x is ins]t$1 9 ! case ( ! dog & cat1 into ! ma/oid process1 :]e x is unit$ ) ! ma/oido-hum]al2 9 ! ox x is divid$ into two portions--"o :i* goes to ! base ( ! occipital bone1 ! o!r pass+ 9 front ( ! masset] is by ! m$ium ( ! aponeurosis ( ?is latt] atta*$ to ! zygomatic cre/4 ,?is latt] "p is consid]$ by "s writ]s z =m+ a portion ( ! panniculus muscle ( ! neck4 ,9 ! horse x is atta*$ to ! angle ( ! l[] jaw by a t5don1 :i* an aponeurosis t passes "u ! p>otid gl& b9ds to ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle & ! ma/oid process4 ,by reason ( ?is ins]tion into ! jaw1 9 ! case ( ! solip$s1 ?is muscle is fur!r nam$ ! /]no-maxill>y4 ,:5 x contracts1 x flexes ! head1 & incl9es x lat]ally4 ,?is movem5t is *ang$ to direct flexion :5 ! two /]no-ma/oid muscles contract simultane\sly4 ,9 man1 ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid & ! trapezius leave a triangul> space betwe5 !m1 :i*1 be+ limit$ inf]iorly by ! middle ?ird ( ! clavicle1 is kn[n z ! supraclavicul> region2 ?is region1 be+ depress$1 especially 9 its inf]ior "p1 has also be5 giv5 ! "n ( supraclavicul> fossa--popul>ly call$ ! 'salt-cell>4' ,! muscles :i* =m ! floor ( ?is region1 pass+ f above d[nw>ds1 are3 a v small portion ( ! complexus1 spl5ius1 levator anguli scapulae1 po/]ior scal5us1 & ant]ior scal5us2 !n1 cross+ ^! latt]1 & mo/ sup]ficial1 is ! omo-hyoid muscle4 ,an analog\s region1 b ( only slight dep?1 exi/s 9 quadrup$s2 its bord]s are =m$ by ! ma/oido-hum]al & trapezius muscles4 ,x is n limit$ bel[ by ! clavicle--we "k1 inde$1 t ?is1 or ! int]section :i* repres5ts x1 belongs to ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle--b by ! inf]ior portion ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula4 ,x is ( great] or less ext5t accord+ to ! species consid]$4 ,9 ! dog1 cat1 pig1 & ox1 x is n>r[1 = ! muscles :i* b\nd x approa* "o ano!r pretty closely4 ,x has1 z 9 man1 ! =m ( a triangle1 ) ! apex above4 ,9 ! horse x is mu* broad]1 &1 contr>y to ! arrangem5t :i* x pres5ts 9 ! human species1 ! wide/ "p is direct$ upw>ds4 ,! muscles :i* we f9d !re are1 consequ5tly1 m or less num]\s4 ,9 ! dog & cat !y are3 a portion ( a muscle :i* we d n normally meet ) 9 man--! omo-tra*elian--!n 9 a decreas+ ext5t3 suprasp9atus1 levator anguli scapulae & spl5ius4 ,9 ! pig3 ! omo-tra*elian1 suprasp9atus1 & ! t]m9al portion ( ! /]no-prescapul>--! ant]ior "p ( ! less] or deep pectoral muscle4 ,9 ! ox3 ! omo-tra*elian only4 ,b 9 ! horse we f9d ! omo-tra*elian1 ! suprasp9atus1 & ! t]m9al extremity ( ! /]no-prescapul>2 !n 9 a l>g] ext5t ( area ! levator anguli scapulae & ! spl5ius2 &1 f9ally1 ! ant]ior portion ( ! rhomboid4 ,among ! muscles :i* we h j enum]at$ are "s t we h already /udi$2 ^! are ! /]no-prescapul> & ! rhomboid4 ,we w exam9e ! suprasp9atus muscle 9 connection ) ! region ( ! %\ld]4 ,z to ! scal5i muscles & ! complexus1 !y are deeply situat$1 :]eas ! omo-hyoid is visible 9 ! ant]ior region ( ! neck only4 ,!re rema9 = u1 accord+ly1 to exam9e1 at ! pres5t juncture1 b ! omo-tra*elian1 levator anguli scapulae1 & spl5ius muscles4 ,! ,omo-tra*elian ,muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 #ac2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ag2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bj74--;,also call$ ! acromio-tra*elian1 levator v5tri scapulae1#ba ! angulo-v5tral muscle1 & ! transv]so-scapul>1#bb etc41 ?is muscle is describ$ by "s hippotomi/s z belong+ to ! ma/oido-hum]al1 ( :i* x !n =ms its po/]ior or deep portion 7see p4 #aec74 #ba ,v5tri1 because ins]t$ into ! inf]ior "p ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula1 t[>ds ! acromion--t is1 on ! v5tral side--by contra/ ) ! trapezius1 :i* is atta*$ high] up 7dorsal side7 on ! same process4 #bb ,among ! _m names giv5 to ?is muscle1 ,arlo+ & ,lesbre recomm5d ! adoption ( ! "n 'transv]se scapul>' giv5 by ,/raus-,durckheim1 or 'transv]se ( ! %\ld]' 7,arlo+ & ,lesbre1 ',sugge/ions = ! ,re=m ( ,vet]9>ian ,muscul> ,nom5clature1' ,lyons1 #ahih74 ,! omo-tra*elian muscle is f\nd 9 all mammalia1 man alone except$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 sometimes f\nd 9 ! human be+2 b x !n con/itutes an anomaly4 ,9 ! dog1 pig1 & ox1 x arises f ! inf]ior "p ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula1 9 ! region ( ! acromion1 & t]m9ates on ! lat]al portion ( ! atlas4 ,9 ! cat x is atta*$ besides to ! base ( ! occipital bone4 ,x is visible 9 ! space limit$ by ! trapezius & ! ma/oido-hum]al1 ! direction ( :i* x crosses obliquely4 ,9 ! horse x appe>s to be bl5d$ 9 cle>ly def9$ fa%ion ) ! ma/oido-hum]al4 ,atta*$ bel[1 l ?is latt]1 to ! ant]ior bord] ( ! hum]us1 x cov]s ! scapulo-hum]al angle2 & is atta*$ by its upp] portion to ! transv]se processes ( ! fir/ f\r c]vical v]tebrae4 ,we rememb] t ! transv]se processes are (t51 f _! relation ) ! tra*ea1 kn[n z ! tra*eal processes4 ,h5ce ! ^w 'tra*elian1' :i* =ms "p ( ! "n ( ! muscle ) :i* we are n[ deal+4 ,by its contraction x helps to draw ! ant]ior limb =w>ds4 ,:5 ?is muscle1 z an abnormality1 exi/s 9 man1 x arises f ! clavicle or ! acromion process1 trav]ses ! supraclavicul> fossa1 & is ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes ( ! atlas or axis1 or ( bo? ^! v]tebrae1 or ( ! c]vical v]tebrae bel[ ^! latt]4 ,x is !n kn[n by ! names ( ! elevator ( ! clavicle or elevator ( ! scapula1 &1 f9ally1 z ! cleido-omo-transv]salis 7,te/ut74#bc #bc ,l4 ,te/ut1 ',les anomalies musculaires *ez l'homme expliquees p> l'anatomie comp>ee1' ,p>is1 #ahhd1 p4 #ig4 ,a4 ,f4 ,le ,d\ble1 ',traite des v>iations du sy/eme musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au po9t de vue de l'an?ropologie zoologique1' ,p>is1 #ahig1 t4 i41 p4 #bce4 ,! ,levator ,anguli ,scapulae 7,fig4 #fh1 #ae2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bc74--;,z we h po9t$ out 7p4 #acf71 ! levator anguli scapulae1 because ( its connections ) ! great s]ratus1 is sometimes describ$ ) x4 ,b inasmu* z 9 human anatomy ^! two muscles are consid]$ sep>ately1 & t1 9 ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles1 !y are se5 9 diff]5t regions--! great s]ratus 9 ! ?oracic1 & ! levator anguli scapulae 9 ! c]vical--we pref] to /udy !m sep>ately4 ,we rememb] t 9 man ?is muscle arises f ! transv]se processes ( ! upp] c]vical v]tebrae & is ins]t$ into ! sup]ior portion ( ! sp9al bord] ( ! scapula1 into ! portion ( ?is bord] :i* is situat$ above ! sp9e2 x also contributes to ! =mation ( ! floor ( ! supraclavicul> region4 ,:5 x contracts1 x draws ! sup]ior portion ( ! scapula =w>ds & upw>ds1 & causes a see-saw movem5t1 = at ! same "t ! inf]ior angle ( ! scapula is direct$ backw>ds4 ,tak+ its fix$ po9t at ! %\ld]1 x directly ext5ds ! neck if ! muscle ( "o side acts at ! same "t z t ( ! opposite2 b if only "o muscle contracts x incl9es ! neck to ! correspond+ side4 ,x is to be notic$ t dur+ movem5ts a little m active ?an ! ord9>y ! levator anguli scapulae1 z moreov] ! o!r muscles ( ! neck d1 becomes v di/9ct4 ,we h1 inde$1 (t5 rem>k$ t1 ap>t f ^! movem5ts1 ea* "t ! support ( "o ( ! =e-limbs is br\ght into requisition a brusque contraction ( ! muscles ( ?is region accompanies x4 ,?is contraction gives ! impression t1 z on ! "o h&1 ea* support det]m9es a mom5t>y arre/ ( progression1 a jolt1 & on ! o!r h&1 ! head cont9ues to be project$ 9 ! =w>d direction1 ! latt] %\ld be reta9$4 ,b x _c be s except by an ef=t 9 ! opposite direction--t is to say1 by ! brusque contraction :i* we h j po9t$ out4 ,analog\s contractions also take place 9 a man :ile runn+ at ! beg9n+ ( ea* contact ( ! l[] limbs ) ! gr\nd4 ,we may add1 apropos ( ?is latt]1 t displacem5ts ( ! head1 sometimes 9 v pron\nc$ fa%ion1 take place dur+ simple walk+1 & t e "t "o ( ! l[] limbs is c>ri$ =w>ds ! head is project$ 9 ! same direction4 ,^! displacem5ts1 :i* we also f9d take place 9 ! horse 9 pac+1 especially 9 ! region ( ! neck & head1 seem !n to h ! effect ( aid+ ! progression ( ! body =w>ds4 ,!y occur especially 9 animals :5 draw+ a heavy load1 & 9 individuals ^: walk+ movem5ts are execut$ ) difficulty4 ,x is necess>y to repeat t1 9 ^! cases1 ! individual appe>s to assi/ ! movem5t ( 8 body by ! impetus :i* ! projection ( 8 head =w>d det]m9es1 9 ord] to add--& x is = ?is t we h ref]r$ to ! subject--t dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 ea* projection ! head is c>ri$ backw>ds by a muscul> contraction simil> to t above discuss$4 ,! ,spl5ius 7,fig4 #fh1 #ad2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bb74--;,9 man1 ?is muscle is atta*$ 9 ! m$ian l9e to ! inf]ior half or two-?irds ( ! po/]ior c]vical ligam5t1 to ! sp9\s processes ( ! sev5? c]vical1 & f\r or five upp] dorsal v]tebrae2 x passes obliquely upw>ds & outw>ds1 becomes visible 9 ! supraclavicul> region1 passes "u ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid1 & proce$s to duplicate ! cranial ins]tions ( ?is latt]2 &1 fur!r1 ! mo/ ext]nal fasciculi ( ?is muscle are ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes ( ! atlas & ! axis4 ,^! sep>ate sup]ior atta*m5ts1 & ! division ( ! muscle :i* results1 h caus$ ! spl5ius to be reg>d$ z =m$ ( two portions3 spl5ius ( ! head1 & spl5ius ( ! neck4 ,9 ! horse1 ?is muscle1 :i* is ( volum9\s dim5sions1 arises f ! sup]ior c]vical ligam5t1 & ! sp9\s processes ( ! fir/ f\r or five dorsal v]tebrae2 !nce x proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! ma/oid cre/1 & ! transv]se processes ( ! atlas & ?ree or f\r v]tebrae foll[+4 ,! region occupi$ sup]ficially by ! spl5ius is rem>kable = ! prom95ce :i* ?is muscle1 ) ! deeply-seat$ complexus1 :i* is equally bulky1 det]m9es at ?is level2 x is situat$ above t region ( ! neck1 9 :i* are se5 9 "p ! fasciculi ( ! levator anguli scapulae4 ,x t]m9ates above & 9 front 9 ! ridge1 :i* is sometimes v pron\nc$1 :i* ! transv]se processes ( ! atlas make on ea* side ( ?is "p ( ! neck4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat1 ! sup]ior & ant]ior region ( ! neck is ?ick & ( r\nd$ =m1 on acc\nt ( ! developm5t :i* ! spl5ius pres5ts 9 ^? animals2 b x is cov]$ by ! ma/oido-hum]al4 ,?is latt] relation is also f\nd 9 ! ox1 b ! spl5ius 9 ?is case is b slightly develop$4 ,:5 ! spl5ius contracts x ext5ds ! head & neck1 :ile incl9+ !m to its own side4 ,if ! spl5ius ( "o side contracts at ! same "t z t ( ! opposite1 ! ext5sion takes place 9 a direct mann]--t is to say1 )\t any modify+ lat]al movem5t4 ,infrahyoid ,muscles ,hav+ /udi$ ! lat]al surfaces ( ! neck1 we mu/ n[ exam9e ! ant]ior "p ( ?is region4 ,"h1 betwe5 ! two /]no-ma/oid muscles1 we f9d a space broad] above ?an bel[1 9 :i* are situat$ ! l>ynx & ! tra*ea1 to ! g5]al arrangem5t ( :i* is due ! cyl9drical =m :i* ?is region pres5ts4 ,?is space corresponds to t :i* 9 ! neck ( man is limit$ lat]ally by ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid muscles1 bel[ by ! f\r*ette ( ! /]num1 & above by ! hyoid bone4 ,9 animals1 z 9 man1 x is call$ ! infrahyoid region4 ,! hyoid bone 9 quadrup$s is situat$ betwe5 ! two rami or bran*es ( ! l[] jaw4 ,ow+ to ?is disposition1 ! region above ?is bone1 in/ead ( hav+ its surface project+ a little beyond ! inf]ior bord] ( ! maxill>y bone1 is depress$4 ,?is is especially s 9 ! horse4 ,x is !re t we f9d 9 ?is animal ! region kn[n z ! tr\gh 7auge72 ! l>ynx corresponds to t "p kn[n z ! gullet4 ,! muscles :i* occupy ! infrahyoid region are3 ! /]no-?yroid1 ! /]no-hyoid1 & ! omo-hyoid4 ,!re is also a ?yro-hyoid1 b because ( its deep situation & its slight importance x (f]s no int]e/ f our po9t ( view4 ,/]no-?yroid & ! ,/]no-hyoid ,muscles4--,^! two muscles1 long1 n>r[1 & flat1 arise f ! ant]ior extremity ( ! /]num2 !n1 cov]+ ! ant]ior surface ( ! tra*ea1 !y proce$ to t]m9ate1 ! "o on ! ?yroid c>tilage1 & ! o!r on ! hyoid bone4 ,! /]no-hyoid is sup]ficial2 x cov]s ! /]no-?yroid1 :i*1 h[ev]1 projects a little on its out] side4 ,omo-hyoid4--,?is muscle does n exi/ 9 ! dog or cat4 ,x arises1 9 ! horse1 f ! c]vical bord] ( ! scapula1 :]e x bl5ds ) ! aponeurosis t envelops ! subscapul>is muscle1 b 9 ! pig & ! ox x arises f ! deep surface ( ! ma/oido-hum]al muscle4 ,x is direct$ obliquely upw>ds & inw>ds1 becom+ sup]ficial at ! int]nal bord] ( ! /]no-ma/oid1 & is ins]t$ into ! hyoid bone4 ,! region 9 :i* are unit$ ! portion ( ! neck :i* we h j /udi$ & ! neighb\r+ "p ( ! ?orax--t is1 ! brea/--has c]ta9ly1 9 our op9ion1 a =m less expressive ?an ! correspond+ region 9 man4 ,9 ! latt]1 inde$1 ! f\r*ette ( ! /]num1 ) ! holl[ :i* x det]m9es1 ! heads ( ! clavicles1 & ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid muscles1 by ! elevations :i* !y produce1 & ! tra*ea1 by ! situation :i* x occupies 9 ! inf]ior "p1 con/itute a :ole 9 :i* are admirably indicat$1 n only ! =ms ( ! organs :i* con/itute ?is region1 b also ! relations :i* ^! organs h "o ) ano!r2 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 _! respective functions4 ,9 mak+ an exception 9 ! case ( ! ox1 9 :i* a fold ( sk91 ! dewlap1 :i* passes f ! neck to ! brea/1 con/itutes an elem5t ( =m :i* possesses "s expressive value2 9 ! horse & 9 ! dog1 :i* possess no /]nal f\r*ette & no heads ( clavicles1 ! bones & ! muscles are f\nd ne>ly on ! same plane4 ,?is produces a uni=mity :i* is evid5tly inf]ior1 f an ae/hetic po9t ( view1 to ! modell+ ( ! correspond+ region ( ! human body4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is our impression4 ,suprahyoid ,muscles ,z _! "n indicates1 ^! muscles are f\nd above ! hyoid bone2 among/ ^? :i* %\ld arre/ our att5tion = a mom5t are ! mylo-hyoid & ! diga/ric4 ,mylo-hyoid4--,?is muscle1 =m+ a sort ( fle%y sl+ :i* contributes 9 great measure to =m ! floor ( ! m\?1 is situat$ betwe5 ! lat]al halves ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,aris+ on ea* side f ! int]nal oblique l9e ( ! m&ible1 its fibres are direct$ t[>ds ! m$ian l9e1 to be ins]t$ po/]iorly into ! hyoid bone1 &1 betwe5 ?is bone & ! ant]ior "p ( ! m&ible1 into a m$ian raphe :i* unites ^! latt]4 ,diga/ric4--,?is muscle arises f ! /yloid process ( ! occipital bone & f ! jugul> process2 x !nce passes d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 & t]m9ates v>i\sly1 9 diff]5t species4 ,9 ! ox & ! horse x t]m9ates 9 its ant]ior portion on ! int]nal surface ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone1 close to ! *94 ,b 9 ! horse a bundle ( fibres is deta*$ f ! upp] portion ( ! muscle1 to be ins]t$ into ! recurv$ portion ( ! jaw4 ,x is to ?is fasciculus t ,b\rgelat has giv5 ! "n ( '/ylo-maxill>y muscle4' ,9 ! pig1 dog1 & cat1 ! diga/ric diff]s m f ! correspond+ muscle 9 man2 x is n1 z 9 ! latt]1 =m$ ( two p>ts4 ,! ant]ior portion only exi/s4 ,?is consi/s ( a ?ick muscul> mass1 :i* is ins]t$ into ! middle ( ! int]nal surface ( ! l[] jaw4 ,9 ! dog & cat x is cle>ly recognisable 9 ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles by ! long & ?ick prom95ce :i* x produces bel[ ! masset]1 aga9/ ! inf]ior bord] ( ! m&ible 7see pp4 #bce & #bcg1 ! two figures %[+ ! myology ( ! head ( ! dog74 ,by its contraction1 x draws ! l[] jaw d[nw>ds & backw>ds4 ,panniculus ( ! ,neck4--,?is v ?9 muscle1 :i* _c be recognis$ on ! ext]ior1 calls = little notice4 ,we %all m]ely po9t out t x duplicates ! sk9 ( ! c]vical region2 b z ! latt] is only slightly adh]5t to x1 ! panniculus ( ?is region seems r de/9$ to ma9ta9 9 position ! muscles :i* x cov]s ?an to displace ! cutane\s cov]+4 ,we recall ! fact t 9 man1 on ! contr>y1 ! muscle is v evid5t at ! in/ant ( its contraction1 &1 = ?is reason1 x pres5ts a v great int]e/ ) reg>d to ext]nal modell+1 & x plays an important "p 9 ! expression ( ! physiognomy4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,limbs ,muscles ( ! ,%\ld] ,deltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 #af1 #ag2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ah2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bd74--,?is is ! fir/ muscle we /udy 9 connection ) ! %\ld] 9 human anatomy4 ,inde$1 its :olly sup]ficial position1 & especially ! mann] 9 :i* x is sep>at$ f ! surr\nd+ muscles1 its volume1 & its *>act]i/ic modell+1 give x su* an importance t1 f ! didactic po9t ( view1 !re is e indication = comm5c+ ) ?is muscle 9 /udy+ ! region to :i* x belongs4 ,if1 9 reg>d to quadrup$s1 we also comm5ce ) x1 x is m]ely 9 def]5ce to ! _s ( me?od1 & = ! sake ( symmetry2 = x is f> f pres5t+1 9 ! latt]1 *>act]s s di/9ctive & s cle>ly def9$4 ,x is necess>y to rem>k1 at ! outset1 t 9 quadrup$s1 on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce or slight developm5t ( ! clavicle1 ! clavicul> portion ( ?is muscle is1 z we h %[n1 unit$ to bundles ( ! same k9d belong+ to ! /]no-cleido-ma/oid & trapezius to =m ! ma/oido-hum]al 7see p4 #aea74 ,!re exi/s1 !re=e1 9 an indep5d5t =m1 ! scapul> portion only4 ,x is ?is latt] :i*1 by itself alone1 =ms ! deltoid ( quadrup$s1 a muscle kn[n1 9 vet]9>y anatomy1 z ! long abductor ( ! arm4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x consi/s ( two p>ts1 "o ( :i* arises f ! sp9e ( ! scapula2 ! o!r f ! acromion process4 ,!nce x passes to ! cre/ ( ! hum]us1 :i* limits ! musculo-spiral groove ant]iorly1 to be atta*$ at a po9t :i* is f\nd1 z 9 o!r quadrup$s1 to be ! homologue ( ! human deltoid impression1 or deltoid ,v1 ( ! human hum]us4 ,9 ! ox1 9 :i* ! acromion process1 :i* is v rudim5t>y1 does n atta9 ! level ( ! gl5oid cavity1 ! acromion portion is b slightly m>k$ (f f t :i* takes its orig9 f ! sp9e ( ! scapula4 ,/ill1 9 ! horse1 :i* is completely depriv$ ( an acromion process1 ! deltoid muscle is correspond+ly divid$ into two p>ts1 sep>at$ f "o ano!r by sup]ficial int]/ices1 b ( :i* ! arrangem5t diff]s f t ( ! portions above indicat$2 "o "p1 ! po/]ior1 arises above f ! sup]ior "p ( ! po/]ior bord]1 & ! po/]o-sup]ior angle ( ! scapula 7exactly z if1 9 man1 c]ta9 fasciculi ( ! deltoid took _! orig9 f ! axill>y bord] & inf]ior angle ( ! scapula72 ! o!r1 ant]ior1 arises f ! tub]osity ( ! sp9e ( ! same bone4 ,! two p>ts1 unit$ inf]iorly1 proce$ to be ins]t$ into ! deltoid impression or infratro*it]ian cre/ ( ! hum]us4 ,x is necess>y to add t ! deltoid is ins]t$ into ! hum]us1 above ! ins]tion ( ! ma/oido-hum]al4 ,?is muscle flexes & abducts ! hum]us1 & also rotates x outw>ds4 ,) reg>d to ! o!r muscles ( ! human %\ld]1 subscapul>is1 suprasp9atus1 infrasp9atus1 t]es m9or & t]es major1 !y are also pres5t 9 quadrup$s1 b 9 a =m m elongat$1 z ! scapula has its dim5sions m ext5d$ f bel[ upw>ds--t is1 f ! gl5oid cavity t[>ds ! sup]ior or sp9al bord]4 ,subscapul>is4--,?is muscle occupies ! subscapul> fossa1 f :i* x takes its orig91 leav+ free ! sup]ior "p :]e ! surface is f\nd1 to :i* are atta*$ ! s]ratus magnus & ! levator anguli scapulae4 ,x passes t[>ds ! arm1 to be ins]t$ into ! small tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,x is an adductor ( ! arm4 ,! subscapul>is does n (f] any int]e/ f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m1 = x is completely cov]$ by ! scapula4 ,we speak ( x1 h[ev]1 because we m5tion x 9 human anatomy1 & t x af=ds u "h a new opportunity ( br++ into prom95ce ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ 9 connection ) ! mobility ( ! %\ld]4 ,we rememb] t 9 man1 :5 ! arm is abduct$1 & !n rais$ a little above ! horizontal1 ! scapula see-saws1 is sep>at$1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 f ! ?oracic cage inf]iorly & ext]nally1 & t1 on ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles1 we are !n able to see 9 ! bottom ( ! armpit1 at ! level ( ! deep portion ( ! po/]ior wall ( ! latt]1 a small "p ( ! subscapul>is muscle4 ,9 ! animals ) :i* we are "h occupi$ x is n ! same2 = !y are incapable ( p]=m+ ) _! =e-limbs a movem5t analog\s to t to :i* we h j ref]r$1 ! hum]us 9 _! case be+ reta9$ 9 contact ) ! trunk by ! muscul> masses :i* surr\nd x4 ,suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #fh1 #ai2 ,fig4 #gj1 #be2 ,fig4 #gb1 #g74--,?is muscle1 z its "n indicates1 occupies ! suprasp9\s fossa--t is to say1 t :i*1 by reason ( ! direction ( ! scapula 9 quadrup$s1 is situat$ 9 front ( r ?an above ! sp9e4 ,x arises f ?is fossa2 &1 fur!r1 f ! ext]nal surface ( ! c>tilage :i* prolongs ! scapula upw>ds 9 solip$s & rum9ants4 ,x projects m or less beyond ! suprasp9\s fossa 9 front4 ,aft] pass+ d[nw>ds t[>ds ! hum]us1 x is ins]t$ into ! summit ( ! great tub]osity or tro*it]--t is to say1 to a "p ( ?is osse\s prom95ce :i* repres5ts ! ant]ior facet ( ! great tub]osity ( ! human hum]us1 into :i*1 z we "k1 ! correspond+ muscle is ins]t$4 ,9 solip$s & rum9ants x is ins]t$1 by a second fasciculus1 into ! small tub]osity4 ,9 ! pig & ! horse its ant]ior bord] is 9 relation ) ! t]m9al portion ( ! /]no-prescapul> ant]ior portion ( ! small or deep pectoral4 ,! suprasp9atus1 :i* 9 man is completely cov]$ by ! trapezius1 is p>tly visible 9 ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! cat1 dog1 pig1 & horse1 9 ! l[] "p ( ! space limit$ by ! ma/oido-hum]al & ! trapezius4 ,x is cross$ by ! scapulo-tra*elian4 ,x is1 9 ! ox1 completely cov]$ by ^! muscles1 b its =m1 not)/&+ ?is1 is easily disc]n$ by ! prom95ce :i* x produces4 ,:5 x contracts1 ! suprasp9atus muscle c>ries ! hum]us into ! position ( ext5sion4 ,infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bj2 ,fig4 #gb1 #h74--,?is muscle1 :i* occupies ! infrasp9\s fossa1 :i*1 9 quadrup$s1 is situat$ beh9d ! sp9e ( ! scapula1 arises f ! :ole ext5t ( ?is fossa1 & 9 solip$s & rum9ants encroa*es on ! c>tilage ( prolongation4 ,its fibres are direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 to be ins]t$ into ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us--! tro*it]--bel[ ! ins]tion ( ! suprasp9atus4 ,x is completely cov]$ 7ox & horse71 or 9 "p only 7cat & dog71 by ! portion ( ! deltoid :i* arises f ! sp9e ( ! scapula2 nev]!less1 its pres5ce is reveal$ by ! prom95ce :i* x produces4 ,x is an abductor & ext]nal rotator ( ! hum]us4 ,9 connection ) ?is muscle1 :i*1 z we h j po9t$ out1 is less se5 9 ! sup]ficial muscul> lay] ?an ! suprasp9atus1 we w draw att5tion to ! fact t ?is arrangem5t is exactly ! rev]se ( t :i* is f\nd 9 ! human %\ld]4 ,9 ?is latt] x is ! suprasp9atus :i* is n visible2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 ! infrasp9atus is uncov]$ 9 a consid]able "p ( its ext5t4 ,we fur!r notice t x is accompani$ by ! t]es m9or1 & t ! t]es major1 situat$ inf]iorly1 =ms ) ^! two muscles a fle%y mass :i*1 bel[1 ends on ! sup]ior bord] ( ! great dorsal muscle4 ,9 quadrup$s1 9 :i* ! infrasp9atus is s slightly visible1 ! t]es major & m9or are n f\nd at all 9 ! sup]ficial muscul> lay]4 ,accord+ly1 we w say b few words ab\t !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse--,,%\ld] ,,& ,,arm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,c>tilage ( prolongation ( ! scapula2 #b1 tub]osity ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula2 #c1 sup]ior extremity ( ! hum]us2 #d1 inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us2 #e1 radius2 #f1 ulna2 #g1 suprasp9atus muscle2 #h1 infrasp9atus2 #i1 t]es m9or2 #aj1 biceps2 #aa1 t5don ( ! biceps pass+ ov] ! ant]ior surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! hum]us2 #ab1 bra*ialis anticus2 #ac1 triceps1 long head2 #ad1 ext]nal head ( ! triceps divid$2 #ae1 ext]nal head ( ! triceps reflect$1 9 ord] to expose ! anconeus2 #af1 region normally occupi$ by ! ext]nal head ( ! triceps2 #ag1 anconeus4 ,t]es ,m9or 7,fig4 #gb1 #i74--,?is muscle1 also call$ 9 vet]9>y anatomy ! %ort abductor ( ! arm1 arises f ! po/]ior bord] ( ! scapula 7! ext]nal bord] 9 man71 & is ins]t$ bel[ ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us1 betwe5 ! atta*m5ts ( ! infrasp9atus & deltoid4 ,x is cov]$ by ! deltoid & ! infrasp9atus4 ,t]es ,major4--,?is muscle is kn[n to vet]9>ians z ! abductor ( ! arm2 x arises f ! po/]o-sup]ior angle ( ! scapula 7! inf]ior angle ( ! human scapula71 f :i* x passes to be ins]t$ into ! int]nal surface ( ! hum]us4 ,x is cov]$ by ! latissimus dorsi & ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm4 ,9 brief1 = ! bett] und]/&+ ( ! relations ( ! t]es major & m9or muscles 9 quadrup$s1 we may fancy ! correspond+ muscles 9 man modifi$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! infrasp9atus1 ?ick]1 cov]+ ! t]es m9or2 latissimus dorsi1 m ext5d$ 9 its sup]ior "p1 cov]+ a l>ge proportion ( ! t]es major4 ,z to ! relations ( ! t]es m9or ) ! deltoid1 !y exi/ 9 man1 see+1 9 ?is case1 ! same muscle is1 9 its ext]nal portion1 cov]$ by ?is latt]4 ,) reg>d to ! relations ( ! t]es major ) ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm1 !y also exi/ 9 man1 s9ce ! ext]nal surface ( ?is muscle is cov]$ by ! triceps4 ,^! modifications are suffici5t to r5d] ! small & l>ge t]es muscles completely invisible 9 ! sup]ficial lay]4 ,! muscles ( ! %\ld] :i* we h j be5 /udy+ fulfil1 ) reg>d to ! articulation :i* !y surr\nd1 ! function ( active ligam5ts4 ,?is role is made necess>y by ! laxity ( ! scapulo-hum]al capsule--a laxity :i* r5d]s x incapable by itself ( ma9ta9+ ! bones 9 contact at ?is jo9t4 ,! same condition exi/s 9 man4 ,panniculus ,muscle ( ! ,%\ld]4--,?is ?9 muscle cov]s1 z its "n implies1 ! region ( ! %\ld]1 & is ! cont9uation =w>d ( ! panniculus muscle ( ! trunk4 ,x arises1 by its sup]ior "p1 f ! region ( ! )]s & f ! sup]ior c]vical ligam5t2 !nce its fibres desc5d directly t[>ds ! elb[1 to t]m9ate at ! level ( ! region ( ! =e>m4 ,! muscle is n f\nd 9 ! pig or 9 ! c>nivora4 ,muscles ( ! ,arm ,we %\ld rememb]1 at ! outset1 t 9 man ! muscles ( ! arm are divid$ into two gr\ps3 "o ant]ior1 :i* conta9s ! biceps1 bra*ialis anticus1 & ! coraco-bra*ialis2 ! o!r1 po/]ior1 :i* is con/itut$ by a s+le muscle1 ! triceps4 ,9 animals1 we f9d !m 9 ! same numb] & arrang$ 9 analog\s fa%ion--t is to say1 9 two gr\ps--) respect to ! bone ( ! arm4 ,b !n we f9d t !y h und]gone a trans=mation ) reg>d to _! l5g?1 & x is ! *ange ( g5]al aspect :i* results f ?is modification t we proce$ to exam9e4 ,we "k t 9 quadrup$s1 & especially 9 ! dome/ic animals1 ! hum]us is relatively %ort 9 proportion to ! =e>m4 ,we h already se51 9 deal+ ) ! bones1 t :il/ 9 ! human species ! hum]us is long] ?an ! =e>m1 9 ! dog & cat ^! two segm5ts ( ! =e-limb are ( equal l5g?1 & t ! hum]us ( ! horse is1 on ! contr>y1 mu* %ort]4 ,n[1 let u suppose ! human hum]us to be %ort] ?an x is 9 reality2 ! ant]ior muscles und]go+1 v naturally1 ! same r$uction1 w be uncov]$ only slightly by ^? above--! deltoid & ! great pectoral--or w rema9 completely hidd5 by !m4 ,?us w\ld be f\nd realiz$ ! disposition :i* we meet ) 9 quadrup$s ( ! muscles ( ?is region4 ,) reg>d to ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm1 x does n und]go ! same *ange4 ,! muscle :i* con/itutes x--! triceps cubiti--occupies1 on ! contr>y1 a great] area4 ,let u suppose1 fur!r--= x is ! be/ me?od ( compreh5d+ ! homologies :i* n[ occupy our att5tion--! hum]us ( man to be %ort5$ z be=e1 & direct$ d[nw>ds & backw>ds 7z 9 quadrup$s71 ?is bone w\ld =m an acute angle ) ! axill>y bord] ( ! scapula4 ,let u suppose also t ! long portion ( ! triceps1 in/ead ( aris+ solely f ! sup]ior "p ( ?is axill>y bord]1 is atta*$ to ! :ole l5g? ( ! latt]1 & t ! triceps fills ! :ole int]ior ( ! angle =m$ by ! arm & ! %\ld]4 ,we !n %all h an idea ( :at ! triceps is 9 quadrup$s4 ,x is necess>y to add t ! g5]al resemblance w\ld be /ill m complete if ! arm 7 firmly support$ by ! side ( ! ?orax1 because 9 quadrup$s x occupies an analog\s position1 det]m9$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! muscles :i*1 proce$+ f ! trunk & neck1 are atta*$ to x4 ,ant]ior ,region ,biceps ,cubiti 7,fig4 #fh1 #ba2 ,fig4 #gb1 #aj1 #aa74--,?is muscle1 also call$ ! long flexor ( ! =e>m1 does n m]it ! "n except by its analogy ) ! correspond+ muscle 9 man4 ,inde$1 9 ! dome/ic animals x is n divid$ into two p>ts2 x is repres5t$ by a s+le fasciculus1 long & fusi=m1 situat$ on ! front ( ! hum]us1 & direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 z ! latt]1 on its "p1 is also incl9$4 ,x arises above f a tub]cle at ! base ( ! coracoid process1 :i* surm\nts ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula4 ,its t5don1 :i* is highly develop$ 9 ! solip$s1 occupies ! bicipital groove4 ,we rememb] t 9 ^! latt] ! groove 9 "q is divid$ into two *annels by a m$ian prom95ce4 ,! t5don 9 :i* ! muscle ends is ins]t$ into a tub]osity1 situat$ on ! int]nal surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius--! bicipital tub]osity4 ,9 ! pig1 ! cat1 & ! dog1 !re is deta*$ f ! t5don to :i* we h j ref]r$ a fasciculus ( ! same nature1 :i*1 aft] hav+ w\nd r\nd ! radius1 is ins]t$ into ! int]nal surface ( ! ulna1 t[>ds ! base ( ! olecranon process4 ,f ! inf]ior "p ( ! muscle arises a fibr\s b&1 comp>able to ! aponeurotic expansion ( ! human biceps2 b1 in/ead ( pass+ d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 z does ! latt]1 x t]m9ates on ! muscul> mass :i* con/itutes ! ant]o-ext]nal "p ( ! =e>m4 ,! biceps is n se5 9 ! sup]ficial lay]1 except 9 ! dog & cat 79 :i* ! hum]us is1 9 fact1 proportionately long72 & ev5 9 !m only to ! slighte/ ext5t4 ,x is cov]$ p>tly 9 ^! latt]1 & completely 9 o!r animals1 by ! great pectoral & ! inf]ior portion ( ! ma/oido-hum]al--t is to say1 t "p ( ! latt] :i* repres5ts ! :ole ( ! clavicul> fibres ( ! human deltoid4 ,! biceps is a flexor ( ! =e>m on ! arm4 ,x also contributes to ! movem5t ( ext5sion ( ! hum]us4 ,bra*ialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bb2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ai2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bg2 ,fig4 #gb1 #ab74--;,9 vet]9>y anatomy fur!r designat$ z ! %ort flexor ( ! =e>m1 ?is muscle1 :i* is ?ick1 occupies ! musculo-spiral groove1 & arises f x1 rea*+ upw>ds to j bel[ ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,b x does n1 z 9 man1 ext5d to ! int]nal surface ( ! bone4 ,situat$ on ! outside ( ! biceps1 x is direct$ t[>ds ! =e>m1 & t]m9ates by a flatt5$ t5don1 :i*1 divid+ into two slips1 passes bel[ ! bicipital tub]osity1 on ! int]nal surface ( ! radius1 into :i* "o ( ^! slips is ins]t$1 :ile ! o!r proce$s to t]m9ate on ! ulna4 ,! inf]ior half ( ?is muscle is visible on ! sup]ficial lay]1 9 ! space limit$ po/]iorly by ! triceps bra*ialis1 & bel[ by ! muscles ( ! =e>m1 :i* correspond to ! ext]nal muscles ( ! human =e>m1 & 9 front by ! great pectoral & ! ma/oido-hum]al4 ,x is 9 ! upp] "p ( ! int]space :i* sep>ates ^! latt] f ! bra*ialis anticus t ! deltoid ins9uates itself to proce$ to its ins]tion into ! hum]us4 ,^! relations precisely recall ^? :i* we meet ) :5 we exam9e ! ext]nal surface ( ! human arm1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]--t 9 ! latt] ! ant]ior bra*ialis anticus is ext5sively relat$1 9 front1 to ! biceps4 ,h[ev]1 9 animals x is n absolutely ! same1 s9ce1 z we h %[n above1 ! biceps is cov]$1 m or less completely1 by ! ma/oido-hum]al & ! great pectoral4 ,! bra*ialis anticus flexes ! =e>m on ! arm4 ,coraco-bra*ialis4--,9 man ?is muscle1 :i* occupies ! sup]ior half1 or ?ird1 ( ! int]nal surface ( ! hum]us1 is visible only :5 ! arm is abduct$1 & !n especially :5 x approa*es ! v]tical position2 inde$1 x is only 9 ?is attitude t ! region :i* x occupies is accessible to view4 ,b an analog\s attitude n be+ possible 9 dome/ic animals1 9 :i* ! arm is fix$ along ! correspond+ p>ts ( ! trunk1 ! result is t ! coraco-bra*ialis is always cov]$1 & t1 consequ5tly1 x pres5ts no?+ ( int]e/ f our po9t ( view4 ,we speak ( x1 !n1 m]ely 9 ord] to complete ! s]ies ( ! muscles ( ! ant]ior surface ( ! arm1 among :i* we rank x1 9 spite ( ! fact t 9 vet]9>y anatomy x is describ$ z a muscle ( ! %\ld]4 ,x arises above f ! coracoid process1 & !nce passes d[nw>ds t[>ds ! int]nal surface ( ! hum]us into :i* x is ins]t$1 m or less high up1 accord+ to ! species4 ,! coraco-bra*ialis is an adductor ( ! arm4 ,po/]ior ,region ,triceps ,cubiti 7,fig4 #fh1 #bc1 #bd2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bj1 #ba2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bh1 #bi2 ,fig4 #gb1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af74--,?is muscle1 :i* is volum9\s 9 ! quadrup$s ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 fits m or less completely ! angul> space betwe5 ! scapula & ! hum]us4 ,its bulk =ms a ?ick prom95ce1 :i* surm\nts ! elb[ & ! =e>m4 ,we %\ld say1 ) reg>d to ?is mass1 t if ! deltoid does n con/itute 9 quadrup$s a prom95ce suffici5t to rem9d "o ( t :i* ?is muscle produces 9 man1 ! triceps1 9 produc+ an analog\s elevation1 seems to replace 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! body ! relief :i* ! deltoid is incapable ( produc+4 ,! triceps is divid$ into ?ree portions1 :i*1 z 9 man1 h ! names middle1 or long head2 ext]nal & int]nal heads4 ,b t :i* r5d]s ! nom5clature a little complicat$ is t vet]9>y anatomi/s h giv5 o!r names to ^! ?ree p>ts3 t ( great ext5sor ( ! =e>m 7caput magnum7 to ! long head2 ! %ort ext5sor ( ! =e>m 7caput p>vum7 to ! ext]nal head2 & ( m$ium ext5sor ( ! =e>m 7caput m$ium7 to ! int]nal4#bd #bd ,o!r names giv5 by c]ta9 au?ors to ! p>ts ( ?is muscle :i* we h j enum]at$ /ill fur!r complicate ?is nom5clature4 ,! long head is fur!r designat$ by !m "u ! names ( ! long or great anconeus2 ! ext]nal head "u ^? ( ext]nal anconeus1 or lat]al or %ort anconeus2 :il/ ! int]nal head becomes ! int]nal anconeus1 or m$ian4 ,x is m especially ! long portion & ! ext]nal head :i*1 be+ visible on ! ext]nal surface ( ! arm1 contribute to ! ext]nal =m4 ,! long portion1 :i* is triangul> 9 %ape & ( consid]able developm5t1 arises 9 ! cat & ! dog f ! inf]ior half or two-?irds ( ! po/]ior bord] ( ! scapula 7axill>y bord]72 f ! :ole ext5t ( t bord] z f> z ! sup]ior po/]ior angle 9 ! pig1 ! ox1 & ! horse2 x !n passes d[nw>ds t[>ds ! articulation ( ! elb[1 to t]m9ate 9 a t5don :i* is ins]t$ into ! olecranon process4 ,! portion ( ?is muscle :i* is next ! scapula is cov]$ by ! deltoid4 ,! ext]nal head1 situat$ bel[ ! long portion1 is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds4 ,x arises f ! curv$ cre/ :i*1 f ! deltoid impression ( ! hum]us1 is direct$ upw>d to meet ! articul> head ( ! same bone4 ,?is cre/ limit+ ! musculo-spiral groove sup]iorly1 & ! bra*ialis anticus aris+ f ! :ole ext5t ( ?is groove1 ! result is t at ?is level ! ext]nal head is 9 relation ) ! bra*ialis anticus4 ,f ?is orig9 x is direct$ t[>ds ! elb[1 to be ins]t$ into ! olecranon1 ei!r directly or by ! m$ium ( ! t5don ( ! long portion4 ,! "p ( ?is muscle :i* arises f ! hum]us is cov]$ by ! deltoid4 ,z = ! int]nal head 7,fig4 #gf1 #d71 :i*1 9 ! sup]ficial lay]1 is only visible 9 its inf]ior "p1 on ! int]nal aspect ( ! arm 9 ^? animals 9 :i* ! elb[ is free ( ! lat]al wall ( ! ?orax 7! dog & ! cat1 = example71 x arises f ! int]nal surface ( ! hum]us1 & !nce proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! olecranon4 ,! triceps ext5ds ! =e>m on ! arm4 ,a f\r? muscle exi/s1 :i* vet]9>y anatomi/s include 9 ! /udy ( ! ?ree portions ( ! triceps :i* we h j be5 discuss+1 9 giv+ x ! "n ( small ext5sor ( ! =e>m4 ,b1 z ?is muscle is no o!r ?an ! anconeus1 & z1 9 human anatomy1 we describe ! latt]1 accord+ to cu/om1 9 connection ) ! =e>m1 x is :5 on ! subject ( ! latt] t we w conc]n ourselves ) x4 ,?is gr\p+ ( muscles _c fail to give great] cle>ness to ! description ( ! muscles ( ^! regions4 ,! ,supplem5tal or ,accessory ,muscle ( ! ,latissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #gf1 #b2 ,fig4 #gg1 #a74--;,because ( ! relations1 to :i* we h already ref]r$ 7see p4 #adb71 ( ?is muscle ) ! triceps cubiti1 its description v naturally foll[s t ( ! latt]4 ,inde$1 ?is supplem5t>y muscle ( ! great dorsal is fur!r designat$ 9 zoological anatomy "u ! "n ( long ext5sor ( ! =e>m2 & ?is "n indicates t its /udy may be unit$ to t ( ! triceps4 ,situat$ on ! int]nal surface ( ! arm1 x arises f ! ext]nal aspect ( ! t5don ( ! latissimus dorsi2 x is v highly develop$ 9 ! horse1 9 :i* x also arises f ! po/]ior bord] 7axill>y7 ( ! scapula2 !n1 cov]+ 9 "p ! int]nal head ( ! triceps & also ! long portion1 on ! sup]ior bord] ( :i* x is fold$1 x proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! olecranon process & ! anti-bra*ial aponeurosis4 ,x ext5ds ! =e>m on ! arm4 ,fur!r1 x makes t5se ! aponeurosis into :i* x is ins]t$2 ?is expla9s ! "n ( t5sor ( ! fascia ( ! =e>m1 :i* is sometimes giv5 to x4 ,x seems to u int]e/+ to add t1 abnormally1 we sometimes f9d 9 man an analogue ( ?is muscle4 ,x is giv5 (f f ! latissimus dorsi1 ne> ! ins]tion ( ! latt] into ! hum]us2 x accompanies ! long head ( ! triceps & becomes fus$ ) x4 ,sometimes x is ins]t$ into ! olecranon process1 at o!r times into ! antibra*ial aponeurosis or ! epitro*lea4 ,x is on acc\nt ( its ins]tion into ! la/-m5tion$1 9 "s cases1 t x is also designat$ by ! "n ( dorso-epitro*le> muscle4#be #be ,l4 ,te/ut1 ',anomalies musculaires *ez l'homme expliquees p> l'anatomie comp>ee1' ,p>is1 #ahhd1 p4 #aah4 ,a4 ,f4 ,le ,d\ble1 ',traite des v>iations du sy/eme musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au po9t de vue de l'an?ropologie zoologique1' ,p>is1 #ahig1 t4 i41 p4 #bjc4 ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',anomalies musculaires' 7,bullet9s de la ,societe ,an?ropologique1 ,p>is1 #ahic74 ,muscles ( ! ,=e>m ,be=e comm5c+ ! special exam9ation ( ea* ( ! muscles ( ?is region1 x is absolutely indisp5sable to consid] _! g5]al arrangem5t1 & to det]m9e v cle>ly h[ we %\ld /udy !m4 ,we are too well conv9c$ ( ! importance ( ?is prelim9>y exam9ation to dismiss x )\t ent]+ r fully into x4 ,inde$1 ! region on ! myological /udy ( :i* we are n[ ent]+ is1 unque/ionably1 "o ( ! mo/ complicat$ ) :i* we h to deal4 ,we "k besides1 9 reg>d to ! /udy ( ! =e>m 9 man1 h[ mu* a def9ite me?od is necess>y 9 ord] t ! arrangem5t ( ! muscles ( ?is region be fix$ 9 ! memory1 & t we are unable to obta9 ?is result o!rwise ?an by gr\p+ ! tw5ty muscles :i* con/itute x 9 cle>ly def9$ regions4 ,we also "k t ^! muscles are fir/ /udi$ ) ! =e>m 9 ! position ( sup9ation1 & t x is only :5 !y are well kn[n aft] hav+ consid]$ !m 9 ?is position t we are able to analyze & compreh5d _! =ms :5 x is 9 pronation4 ,n[1 z we h po9t$ out 9 ! section on o/eology 7see p4 #cd71 ! =e>m 9 quadrup$s is always 9 ! position ( pronation4 ,%\ld we1 !n1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! symmetry ) human anatomy1 fir/ /udy ! =e>m 9 ! position ( sup9ation8 ,evid5tly n4 ,besides ! fact t ?is w\ld 9 "s cases be impossible s9ce--z 9 ! horse1 = example--! radius & ulna are fus$ toge!r1 we %\ld n ga9 any advantage2 ?is position be+ nev] completely realizable ev5 9 ^? quadrup$s :i* h ! radius relatively movable--z1 = example1 9 ! cat4 ,accord+ly1 x is pronation :i* "h1 9 connection ) animals1 becomes ! /&>d attitude f ! po9t ( view ( description4 ,?is is :y1 suppos+ t ! read] kn[s well ! muscles ( ! human =e>m 9 ! position ( sup9ation1 we %\ld recall :at is ! g5]al arrangem5t occupi$ by ^! muscles :5 x is 9 pronation4 ,! =e-limb1 be+ view$ on its ant]ior surface1 pres5ts above ! ant]ior aspect ( ! region ( ! elb[2 b bel[1 x is ! po/]ior surface ( ! wri/ :i* is se54 ,consequ5tly1 9 ! sup]ior "p1 we see ! ext]nal & ant]ior muscles limit+ ! holl[ 9 front ( ! elb[2 int]iorly are f\nd ! po/]ior muscles4 ,! long sup9ator1 pass+ obliquely d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 divides1 9 fact1 ! =e>m into two p>ts3 "o sup]o-int]nal1 ! o!r inf]o-ext]nal4 ,9 ! fir/ we see1 b to an ext5t less & less consid]able1 ! pronator t]es1 ! flexor c>pi radialis1 ! palm>is longus1 & ! flexor uln>is2 z to ! flexors ( ! digits1 on acc\nt ( ! rotation ( ! radius1 !y are only visible on ! opposite surface--t is to say1 on ! surface ( ! wri/1 :i* is n[ po/]ior4 ,9 ! second "p we see ! two radial ext5sors1 ! common ext5sor ( ! f+]s1 ! prop] ext5sor ( ! little f+]1 & ! uln> ext5sor :i*1 inf]iorly1 rema9s beh9d1 by reason ( ! position ( ! ulna be+ un*ang$1 :il/ ! anconeus is :olly po/]ior1 s9ce ! direction ( ! elb[ is n modifi$4 ,we also f9d1 9 ?is region1 ! long abductor ( ! ?umb1 ! %ort ext5sor ( ! ?umb1 ! long ext5sor ( ! ?umb1 & ! special ext5sor ( ! index-f+]1 9 ! region :]e ^! deep muscles become sup]ficial4 ,s t1 to summ>ize1 ! ext]nal & po/]ior muscles occupy ! ant]ior & ext]nal regions ( ! =e>m1 :il/ ! ant]ior muscles occupy r ! int]nal & po/]ior4 ,x is 9 reg>d+ !m aft] ?is mann]--t is to say1 arrang$ 9 ^! two regions--t we proce$ to /udy ^! muscles 9 quadrup$s4 ,ant]ior & ,ext]nal ,region ,sup9ator ,longus4--,we "k t ?is muscle1 :i* is especially a flexor ( ! =e>m on ! arm1 plays1 not)/&+ ! "n :i* has be5 giv5 x1 a "p ( b little importance 9 ! movem5t ( sup9ation4 ,x acts slightly1 h[ev]1 z a sup9ator1 =1 be+ v oblique d[nw>ds & inw>ds at ! "t ( pronation1 x is able1 :ile t5d+ to resume its v]tical direction1 to c>ry ! radius outw>ds2 x places1 9 fact1 ! =e>m 9 a position midway betwe5 pronation & sup9ation4 ,we h j recall$ ^! details1 9 ord] t x may be m easy to und]/& :y x does n exi/ 9 animals 9 :i* ! radius & ulna are fus$ toge!r 7horse1 ox72 & :y1 on ! o!r h&1 we f9d traces ( x 9 ! cat & ! dog1 9 :i* ! radius--to a slight ext5t1 x is true--is able to rotate on ! ulna4 ,?is displacem5t be+ a little m consid]able 9 ! felide1 ! long sup9ator is a little fur!r develop$ ?an x is 9 ! can9e species2 b1 not)/&+1 x is only rudim5t>y4 ,! long sup9ator arises1 above1 f ! ext]nal bord] ( ! hum]us2 !nce1 9 ! =m ( a v n>r[ fle%y b&1 x passes obliquely d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 to be ins]t$ into ! inf]ior "p ( ! int]nal surface ( ! radius4 ,x assi/s 9 turn+ ! radius outw>ds & plac+ x 9 front ( ! ulna1 ! movem5t ( sup9ation be+ capable ( be+ b little fur!r ext5d$4 ,fir/ & ,second ,ext]nal ,radial ,muscles3 ,ext5sor c>pi radialis longior & brevior 7,fig4 #gc1 #h2 ,fig4 #gd1 #h1 #i2 ,fig4 #ge1 #h1 #i74--;,fus$ toge!r1 ^! muscles =m by _! union :at vet]9>y anatomi/s call ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus4 ,b we %\ld add t ^! two muscles are unit$ s mu* ! m intimately z we exam9e !m 9 pass+ successively f ! cat to ! dog1 pig1 ox1 & horse4 ,?us1 9 ! cat !y are (t5 di/9ct2 9 ! dog1 !y unite only at ! level ( ! middle ?ird ( ! radius1 & int]iorly !y h two t5dons2 9 ! pig1 ! ox1 & ! horse !y are completely unit$1 & !re exi/s b a s+le t5don4 ,! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus1 :i* is situat$ beh9d ! long sup9ator :5 ! latt] exi/s1 occupies ! ext]nal aspect ( ! =e>m2 its well-def9$ =m absolutely recalls ! prom95ce on ! sup]ior "p ( ! ext]nal m>g9 ( ! human =e>m4 ,x arises sup]iorly f ! portion ( ! ext]nal bord] ( ! hum]us :i* is situat$ above ! epicondyle & beh9d ! musculo-spiral groove4 ,its fle%y mass appe>s 9 ! angul> space b\nd$ by ! bra*ialis anticus & ! triceps4 ,! sup]ior portion is cov]$ by ! ext]nal head ( ! triceps2 yet1 9 ! dog1 ! sup]ior portion ( its hum]al atta*m5t is ! only "p s cov]$4 ,?is muscle is direct$ =w>d & d[nw>ds2 x is also incl9$ a little inw>ds 9 su* mann] z to proce$ to occupy ! ant]ior aspect ( ! =e>m4 ,its fle%y belly is n>r[$ bel[1 &1 t[>ds ! inf]ior "p ( ! =e>m1 is cont9u$ by a t5d9\s portion :i* is situat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ! c>pus1 aft] hav+ trav]s$ ! m$ian groove ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius4 ,9 ! cat & ! dog1 9 :i* ! union ( ! two radial ext5sors is incomplete1 ! two t5dons are ins]t$ into ! front ( ! base ( ! second & ?ird metac>pal bones2 consequ5tly1 z 9 man1 into ! metac>pals ( ! index & middle f+]s4 ,9 ! ox1 ! t5don1 :i* is s+le1 is ins]t$ into ! int]nal & ant]ior half ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal4 ,9 ! pig1 ?is t5don is atta*$ to ! base ( ! l>ge int]nal metac>pal4 ,9 ! horse1 ! correspond+ t5don is atta*$ to a tub]cle :i* is situat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ! base ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal1 a little int]nal to ! m$ian plane ( ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ma/oido-hum]alis2 #b1 biceps2 #c1 bra*ialis anticus2 #d1 triceps1 long portion2 #e1 triceps1 ext]nal head2 #f1 olecranon process2 #g1 epicondyle2 #h1 radialis muscles 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #i1 ext5sor communis digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #aj1 ext5sor m9imi digiti 7lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 or common ext5sor ( ! ?ree ext]nal digits72 #aa1 po/]ior uln> 7ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ab1 pisi=m bone2 #ac1 anconeus2 #ad1 ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis & ext5sor primi int]nodii pollicis 7oblique ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #ae1 radius2 #af1 ant]ior uln> 7oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ag1 ext]nal bord] ( ! hypo!n> em95ce 7abductor ( ! little f+]74 ,9 ord] to prop]ly und]/& & rememb] ! respective positions occupi$ by ^! inf]ior ins]tions1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! human =e>m be+ 9 ! position ( pronation1 ! t5dons ( ! radials are atta*$ to ! bases ( ! metac>pals ne>e/ to ! ?umb--t is to say1 ^? occupy+ an int]nal position z reg>ds ! f\r? & fif? metac>pals4 ,z its "n indicates1 ?is muscle ext5ds ! metac>pus4 ,consequ5tly x is1 9 ! horse1 an ext5sor ( ! canon-bone4 ,x is also an adductor ( ! h& 9 ^? animals 7cat1 dog7 9 :i* ! radio-c>pal articulation1 analog\s 9 =m to ! correspond+ articulation 9 man1 p]mits lat]al movem5ts ( ! h& on ! =e>m4 ,! union ( ! fle%y bodies ( ! two radials is sometimes f\nd 9 ! human species4 ,sup9ator ,brevis4--,z 9 ! case ( ! long sup9ator1 ! %ort sup9ator is f\nd only 9 animals 9 :i* ! radius c be rotat$ to a great] or less ext5t ar\nd ! ulna2 !re=e ?is muscle is n f\nd 9 ! pig1 ! ox1 or ! horse2 b x =ms "p ( ! =e>m ( ! cat & ! dog4 ,deeply situat$ at ! region ( ! elb[1 ! %ort sup9ator has little int]e/ = u4 ,all t we w say ( x is t x goes f ! ext]nal "p ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! hum]us to ! sup]ior "p ( ! radius2 & t x is1 9 c>nivora1 ! ess5tial ag5t 9 ! production ( ! movem5t ( sup9ation4 ,ext5sor ,communis ,digitorum 7,fig4 #gc1 #i1 #aj1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gd1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab74--;,also nam$ 9 vet]9>y anatomy ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 ?is muscle is situat$ ext]nal to & beh9d ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus already describ$4 ,9 ! human be+1 ! common ext5sor ( ! f+]s spr+s1 9 its sup]ior "p1 f ! bottom ( a depression1 situat$ on ! out] side ( & beh9d ! elb[1 & limit$ 9 front by ! muscul> prom95ce :i* ! long sup9ator & ! fir/ radial ext5sor =m at t level4 ,at ! bottom ( ?is holl[ or fossette is f\nd ! epicondyle1 :i* gives orig91 among/ o!r muscles1 to ! common ext5sor ( ! f+]s4 ,x is necess>y to add t x is mo/ prom95tly visible dur+ sup9ation1 & t x t5ds to be effac$ dur+ pronation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ma/oido-hum]alis2 #b1 pectoralis major2 #c1 deltoid2 #d1 bra*ialis anticus2 #e1 triceps2 #f1 triceps1 ext]nal head2 #g1 olecranon2 #h1 radial ext5sors 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #i1 ins]tion ( ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus to ! tub]cle ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal2 #aj1 #aa1 ext5sor communis digitorum 7#aj1 prop] ext5sor ( ! inn] digits2 #aa1 common ext5sor ( ! two digits72 #ab1 t5don ( ! common ext5sor ( ! two digits2 #ac1 b& ( re9=cem5t f ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #ad1 ext]nal tub]osity ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius2 #ae1 ext5sor m9imi digiti 7prop] ext5sor ( ! ext]nal digit72 #af1 t5don ( ! prop] ext5sor ( ! ext]nal digit2 #ag1 po/]ior uln> 7ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ah1 pisi=m2 #ai1 ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis & ext5sor primi int]nodii pollicis 7oblique ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #bj1 uln> portion ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes2 #ba1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #bb1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #bc1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock4 ,an analog\s arrangem5t is met ) 9 animals4 ,b ! muscul> prom95ce is =m$ by ! unit$ radial ext5sors1 & ! fossette1 because ( ! p]man5t pronation ( ! =e>m1 is sc>cely recognisable4 ,likewise1 ) reg>d to ! dog1 we may say t x does n exi/1 on acc\nt ( ! prom95ce :i* ! epicondyle =ms 9 t animal 7,fig4 #gc1 #g74 ,9 connection ) ?is prom95ce ( ! epicondyle1 x is int]e/+ to add t ?is detail recalls ! relief :i* ! same process produces on ! ext]nal aspect ( ! human elb[ :5 ! =e>m is flex$ on ! arm4 ,we "k t1 9 ?is case1 ! epicondyle is expos$1 because ! muscles :i* mask x 9 sup9ation 7long sup9ator & long radial ext5sor7 are displac$ & set x free dur+ flexion4 ,b1 9 ! dog1 z 9 o!r quadrup$s besides1 ! =e>m is1 9 ! normal /ate1 flex$ on ! arm2 ! latt] be+ oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & ! =m] be+ v]tical4 ,fur!r1 ! epicondyle is well develop$4 ,! muscle ) :i* we are n[ occupi$1 long & v]tical 9 direction1 arises f ! inf]ior "p ( ! ext]nal bord] ( ! hum]us 7!re x is cov]$ by ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus1 f :i* x is fre$ a little l[] d[n7 & f ! ext]nal & sup]ior tub]osity ( ! radius4 ,9 ! c>nivora1 x arises f ! epicondyle4 ,its fle%y body is fusi=m 9 %ape1 becomes t5d9\s 9 ! l[] half ( ! =e>m1 & !n divides into a numb] ( slips1 v>y+ 9 numb] accord+ to ! species2 ?is division is correlat$ to t ( ! h&--t is to say1 ) ! numb] ( ! digits4 ,be=e rea*+ ?is latt]1 ! common ext5sor ( ! digits passes ?r\gh ! mo/ ext]nal groove on ! ant]ior surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ma/oido-hum]al2 #b1 pectoralis major2 #c1 deltoid2 #d1 bra*ialis anticus2 #e1 triceps1 long head2 #f1 triceps1 ext]nal head2 #g1 olecranon2 #h1 radial ext5sors 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #i1 ins]tion ( ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus into ! tub]cle ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metac>pal2 #aj1 ext5sor communis digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #aa1 t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges2 #ab1 re9=c+ b& aris+ f ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #ac1 ext]nal tub]osity ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius2 #ad1 ext5sor m9imi digiti 7lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #ae1 t5don ( ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges2 #af1 fibr\s b& :i* ?is latt] receives f ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges2 #ag1 fibr\s b& :i* ! same t5don receives f ! c>pal region2 #ah1 po/]ior uln> 7ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ai1 pisi=m2 #bj1 ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis & ext5sor primi int]nodii pollicis 7oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ba1 uln> portion ( ! deep flexor ( ! digits2 #bb1 flexor digitorum pr(undus2 #bc1 #bc1 t5don ( ! flexor digitorum sublimis 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #bd1 #bd1 t5don ( ! flexor digitorum pr(undus 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #be1 sesamoid prom95ce2 #bf1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #bg1 ext]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal4 ,9 ! cat & ! dog1 ! f\r t5dons :i* result f ! division ( ! pr9cipal t5don g to ! f\r la/ digits1 & ea* ( !m is ins]t$1 z 9 ! human species1 to ! second & ?ird phalanges4 ,9 ! pig1 ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges is r complicat$ 9 its arrangem5t4 ,its fle%y body is divid$ into f\r bundles t]m9at$ by t5dons1 :i* 9 turn divide & jo9 c]ta9 digits2 :5ce ! special names giv5 to ea* ( ^! fasciculi1 comm5c+ ) ! mo/ int]nal1 (3 prop] ext5sor ( ! great inn] toe2 common ext5sor ( ! two inn] toes2 common ext5sor ( ! two out] toes2 & prop] ext5sor ( ! great out] toe4 ,9 ! ox1 ! same muscle is divid$ into two bundles3 ! int]nal proce$s to ! int]nal toe1 ! ext]nal is common to ! two toes4 ,9 ! horse1 ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges is divid$ into two p>ts ( unequal bulk4 ,! small] ( ^! t5d9\s slips1 :i* is ! m ext]nal1 unites at ! level ( ! sup]ior "p ( ! metac>pus ) ! t5don ( ! muscle :i* we are ab\t to /udy 9 ! foll[+ p>agraph 7,fig4 #ge1 #af74 ,! l>g]1 aft] hav+ rea*$ ! ant]ior surface ( ! digit1 is atta*$ to ! ant]ior aspect ( ! fir/ & second phalanges1 & !n =ms a t]m9al expansion :i* is ins]t$ into ! pyramidal em95ce ( ! ?ird4 ,at ! level ( ! fir/ phalanx ?is t5don receives on ea* ( its lat]al aspects a /r5g!n+ b&1 :i* proce$s f ! t]m9al extremity ( ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock1#bf & crosses obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! surface ( ! fir/ phalanx to jo9 ! ext5sor t5don 7,fig4 #ge1 #ab74 #bf ,see p4 #bjj = a description ( ?is ligam5t4 ,a simil> arrangem5t is f\nd 9 ! ox4 ,?is b& is noticeable "u ! sk9 :i* cov]s ! lat]al aspects ( ! ham4 ,z ! "n indicates1 ?is muscle ext5ds ! phalanges1 "o ^u ! o!r4 ,x also contributes to ! ext5sion ( ! h&1 z a :ole1 on ! =e>m4 ,ext5sor ,m9imi ,digiti 7,fig4 #gc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ae1 #af2 ,fig4 #ge1 #ad1 #ae74--,?is muscle1 ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges ( vet]9>y anatomy1 situat$ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! =e>m1 beh9d ! common ext5sor ( ! digits1 arises1 z a rule1 f ! epicondyle 7dog1 cat71 or f ! ext]nal surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! radius 7horse74 ,! t5don succe$+ to ! fle%y body appe>s t[>ds ! l[] ?ird ( ! =e>m1 & at ! level ( ! wri/ lies 9 a groove analog\s to t :i* 9 man is holl[$ out = ! passage ( ! correspond+ t5don at ! level ( ! inf]ior radio-uln> articulation4 ,?is groove corresponds to ! same articulation 9 animals 9 :i* ! ulna is well develop$1 su* z ! dog & ! cat2 b x belongs to ! radius :5 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! ulna does n exi/--= example1 9 ! horse4 ,inde$1 9 ?is animal ! groove 9 "q is f\nd on ! ext]nal surface ( ! c>pal extremity ( ! radius4 ,9 ! dog1 ! t5don is divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 :i*1 cross+ obliquely ! t5dons ( ! common ext5sor ( ! digits1 pass to ! ?ree ext]nal digits1 to be ins]t$ by bl5d+ ) ! correspond+ t5dons ( ! latt] into ! ?ird phalanges ( ^? digits4 ,?us is expla9$ ! "n ( common ext5sor ( ! ?ree ext]nal digits :i* is sometimes giv5 to ?is muscle4 ,9 ! cat1 !re is a f\r? t5don1 :i* passes to ! index-f+]1 s t ! "n common ext5sor ( ! f\r ext]nal digits is 9 ?is case legitimate1 & ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges is also a common ext5sor1 z is ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 or common ext5sor ( ! digits4 ,9 ! pig1 ! t5don1 :i* is s+le1 is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal digit1 = :i* reason x has receiv$ ! "n ( ! prop] ext5sor ( ! small ext]nal digit4 ,?is muscle is1 !n1 really ! homologue ( t :i* exi/s 9 ! human species4 ,9 ! ox1 x is call$ ! prop] ext5sor ( ! ext]nal digit2 x is z ?ick z ! common ext5sor4 ,f9ally1 9 ! horse1 ! muscle is little develop$4 ,its fle%y body1 ?9 & flatt5$ f be=e backw>ds1 becomes di/9ctly visible only bel[ ! middle ( ! =e>m4 ,above1 x is enclos$ 9 a limit$ space1 b\nd$ 9 front by ! common ext5sor ( ! digits1 & beh9d by ! po/]ior uln>2 !re ^! two muscles approa* ea* o!r s closely t f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m !y seem to be ne>ly 9 contact4 ,! t5don1 aft] receiv+ ! small fasciculus f ! common ext5sor 7,fig4 #ge1 #af71 z well z a fibr\s b& emanat+ f ! ext]nal surface ( ! c>pus 7,fig4 #ge1 #ag71 is situat$ at ! ext]nal side ( ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 & is ins]t$ into ! ant]ior surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,?is muscle ext5ds ! digit or digits into :i* x is ins]t$4 ,x also assi/s 9 ! movem5t ( ext5sion ( ! h& z a :ole4 ,po/]ior ,uln> 7,ext5sor c>pi uln>is7 7,fig4 #gc1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ag2 ,fig4 #ge1 #ah74--;,designat$ by vet]9>y anatomi/s z ! ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus1#bg or ext]nal cubital1 ?is muscle is situat$ 9 ! po/]ior region ( ! ext]nal surface ( ! =e>m1 beh9d ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 #bg ,c]ta9 au?ors give x ! "n ( uln> ext5sor ( ! wri/4 ,x is true t 9 ! human be+ ?is is its action2 b 9 quadrup$s1 ow+ to its ins]tion into ! pisi=m1 x draws ! h& into ! position ( flexion4 ,x arises f ! epicondyle2 its fle%y body1 ?ick b flatt5$1 is direct$ v]tically t[>ds ! c>pus1 & its t5don is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal "p ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! metac>pus1 aft] hav+ giv5 (f a fibr\s b&1 :i* takes its atta*m5t on ! pisi=m4 ,x is ins]t$1 9 ! cat & ! dog1 into ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fif? metac>pal2 9 ! pig to ! ext]nal metac>pal2 9 ! ox to ! ext]nal side ( ! canon-bone2 9 ! horse to ! sup]ior extremity ( ! ext]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal4 ,?is muscle flexes ! h& on ! =e>m1 & 9 animals 9 :i* ! radio-c>pal articulation p]mits1 by its =mation1 x incl9es ! h& slightly outw>ds--t is1 abducts x4 ,anconeus 7,fig4 #gb1 #ag2 ,fig4 #gc1 #ac74--,we h already /at$ 7p4 #agd7 t ! anconeus is includ$ ) ! triceps bra*ialis 9 zoological anatomy1 & t vet]9>y anatomi/s give x ! "n ( small ext5sor ( ! =e>m4#bh #bh ,x is also call$ by "s au?ors1 ! small anconeus4 ,9 ! dog x recalls1 z to position1 ! human anconeus1 b ) ?is diff]5ce--t1 9 ! latt]1 ! anconeus1 triangul> 9 outl9e1 has "o ( its angles turn$ outw>ds 7! epicondyloid atta*m5t7 & "o ( its sides turn$ t[>ds ! olecranon4 ,"h x is entirely ! opposite4 ,! anconeus1 simil>ly triangul>1 is broad] ext]nally4 ,at ?is level x takes its orig9 f ! ext]nal bord] ( ! hum]us1 ! epicondyle1 & ! ext]nal lat]al ligam5t ( ! articulation ( ! elb[2 !nce its fibres conv]ge t[>ds ! ext]nal surface ( ! olecranon1 to be !re ins]t$4 ,x is 9 relation1 ant]iorly & inf]iorly1 ) ! po/]ior uln> muscle4 ,x is cov]$ sup]iorly by ! ext]nal head ( ! triceps4 ,9 ! cat ! disposition ( ! anconeus is analog\s4 ,b 9 ! o!r quadrup$s ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ x is completely cov]$ by ! ext]nal head ( ! triceps4 ,x really p>ticipates 9 ! =mation ( ! triceps2 & see+ t x takes orig9 f ! po/]ior surface ( ! hum]us at ! m>g9 ( ! olecranon fossa 7,fig4 #gb71 & proce$s !nce t[>ds ! olecranon to be ins]t$1 we c und]/& :y vet]9>y anatomi/s h connect$ its /udy ) t ( ! po/]ior muscul> mass ( ! arm4 ,?is muscle is an ext5sor ( ! =e>m on ! arm4 ,we proce$ n[ to inquire :at ! deep muscles ( ! po/]ior region ( ! human =e>m become 9 quadrup$s3 ! long abductor ( ! ?umb1 ! %ort ext5sor ( ! ?umb1 ! long ext5sor ( ! ?umb1 ! prop] ext5sor ( ! index4 ,we "k t 9 e in/ance ^! muscles1 :i* are deeply seat$ at _! orig91 become sup]ficial aft]w>ds4 ,9 quadrup$s1 on acc\nt ( ! position 9 :i* ! =e>m is plac$--viz41 pronation--! correspond+ muscles occupy ! ant]ior aspect ( ?is region4 ,long ,abductor ( ! ,?umb 7,ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis7 & ,%ort ,ext5sor ( ! ,?umb 7,ext5sor primi int]nodii pollicis7 7,fig4 #gc1 #ad2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ai2 ,fig4 #ge1 #bj74--,unit$ "o to ! o!r 9 man1 bl5d$ 9 quadrup$s1 !y =m 9 ! latt] ! muscles to :i* vet]9>y anatomi/s give ! "n ( oblique ext5sor ( ! metac>pus4 ,?is muscle arises f ! m$ian portion ( ! skeleton ( ! =e>m4 ,!re x is cov]$ by ! common ext5sor ( ! digits & t ( ! small digit 7ant]ior ext5sor & lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges74 ,!n1 at ! int]nal bord] ( ! fir/ ( ^! muscles1 x becomes sup]ficial1 passes d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 crosses sup]ficially ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus1 rea*es ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius1 & becomes lodg$ 9 ! mo/ int]nal ( ! grooves situat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ?is extremity1 passes on ! int]nal side ( ! c>pus1 & is ins]t$ into ! sup]ior extremity ( ! mo/ int]nal metac>pal--t is1 to ! fir/ metac>pal1 or metac>pal ( ! ?umb--9 ! dog & cat2 to ! int]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal 9 ! horse4 ,x is an ext5sor ( ! metac>pal into :i* x is ins]t$2 b z1 if we recall ! extreme examples giv5 above1 9 ! dog ! fir/ metac>pal is n v mobile1 & 9 ! horse ! int]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal is absolutely fix$ to ! bone :i* x accompanies1 x is m exact to add t ?is muscle is pr9cipally an ext5sor ( ! metac>pus z a :ole4 ,& yet1 9 ! cat & ! dog1 x is also able to adduct ! fir/ metac>pal bone4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t ?is movem5t w\ld be abduction1 if ! h& c\ld be plac$ 9 ! position ( complete sup9ation1 z 9 ! human species4 ,long ,ext5sor ( ! ,?umb 7,ext5sor secundi int]nodii pollicis7 & ,prop] ,ext5sor ( ! ,index 7,ext5sor indicis74--,^! two muscles are bl5d$ toge!r by _! fle%y bodies1 s t ! s+le "n ( prop] ext5sor ( ! ?umb & index is pref]able4 ,?is muscle is b ( slight importance f our po9t ( view1 = x is extremely atrophi$1 & s mu* ! m z ! numb] ( ! digits is less5$4 ,x arises1 z ! prec$+1 f ! skeleton ( ! =e>m1 & !re x is deeply plac$4 ,bel[1 t[>ds ! c>pus1 its t5d9\s "p becomes sup]ficial1 to end 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,9 ! c>nivora1 ! t5don divides into two v sl5d] p>ts1 :i* are ins]t$ into ! ?umb & ! index4 ,9 ! pig1 ! t5don is bl5d$ ) t ( ! common ext5sor ( ! int]nal digits4 ,f9ally1 9 ! ox & ! horse1 x is sometimes reg>d$ z be+ bl5d$ ) ! common or ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,b to u x appe>s m rational to say t x does n exi/1 :i*1 moreov]1 is expla9$ by ! digital simplification ( ! h&4 ,int]nal & ,po/]ior ,region ,pronator ,t]es 7,fig4 #gf1 #h74--,?is muscle1 z may easily be und]/ood1 und]goes1 z d ! sup9ators1 a degree ( deg5]ation 9 proportion to ! loss ( mobility ( ! radius on ! ulna4 ,9 animals 9 :i* ! bones ( ! =e>m are n fus$ x exi/s2 9 ^?1 on ! o!r h&1 9 :i* ?is segm5t has become simply a support+ column1 x is n develop$--at lea/1 9 a normal mann]4 ,x is1 consequ5tly1 f\nd be/ m>k$ 9 ! dog & ! cat4 ,=m+1 z 9 man1 ! int]nal limit ( ! holl[ ( ! elb[1 ! pronator t]es has a disposition analog\s to t :i* *>act]izes ! correspond+ muscle 9 ! human species4 ,x arises f ! epitro*lea 7int]nal condyle71 proce$s d[nw>ds & outw>ds1 & is ins]t$ into ! middle portion ( ! body ( ! radius4 ,x is into ! holl[ 9 front ( ! elb[1 :i* ?is muscle contributes to limit1 t ! biceps & ! bra*ialis anticus dip4 ,9 ! pig & ! ox x is atrophi$4 ,9 ! horse x does n exi/4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 sometimes f9d x1 b 9 an abnormal =m4 ,we 7 able to demon/rate its pres5ce 9 ! =m ( a fle%y tongue situat$ on ! int]nal side ( ! elb[ 7,fig4 #gh7 9 a horse :i* we dissect$ _m ye>s ago 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,s*ool ( ,f9e ,arts4 ,moreov]--& ! fact seem$ to u an int]e/+ "o--! =e>m to :i* ! muscle belong$ _h an ulna ( relatively consid]able developm5t 7,figs4 #gi & #hj74bi #bi ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',abnormal ,l5g? ( ! ,ulna & ,pres5ce ( a ,pronator ,t]es ,muscle 9 a ,horse' 7,bullet9 de la ,societe d',an?ropologie1 ,p>is1 #ahhg74 ,?is muscle is a pronator4 ,flexor ,c>pi ,radialis 7,fig4 #gf1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gg1 #g74--;,call$ by vet]9>y anatomi/s ! int]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus1 ?is muscle1 :i* is f\nd on ! int]nal aspect ( ! =e>m1 is situat$ beh9d ! pronator t]es :5 ?is muscle exi/s1 :il/ 9 ! animals :i* are depriv$ ( ! latt] ! flexor c>pi radialis has 9 front ( x ! int]nal bord] ( ! radius1 :i* sep>ates x f ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus4 ,x is necess>y to add t ! flexor c>pi radialis is simil>ly sep>at$ f ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus by ! int]nal bord] ( ! radius 9 animals 9 :i* ! pronator t]es exi/s1 b !n only 9 t "p ( ! =e>m :i* is situat$ bel[ ?is latt]4 ,! flexor c>pi radialis arises f ! epitro*lea4 ,its fle%y body1 fusi=m 9 %ape1 desc5ds v]tically1 & t]m9ates 9 a t5don on ! po/]ior surface ( ! bases ( ! second & ?ird metac>pals 9 ! dog & ! cat1 on ! metac>pal ( ! l>ge int]nal digit 9 ! pig1 on ! int]nal side ( ! metac>pus 9 ! ox1 & on ! sup]ior extremity ( ! int]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal 9 ! horse4 ,we see cle>ly1 9 ?is latt]1 a sup]ficial ve9 :i*1 9 ! %ape ( a /rong cord1 passes along ! ant]ior bord] ( ! flexor c>pi radialis2 x is ! subcutane\s m$ian or int]nal ve91 :i*1 =m+ ! cont9uation ( ! int]nal metac>pal ve91 jo9s ! v5\s sy/em ( ! arm1 aft] hav+ cross$ obliquely ! correspond+ "p ( ! radius4 ,palm>is ,longus4--,?is muscle1 :i* exi/s di/9ctly 9 "s animals1 b ^: abs5ce is f> f be+ r>e 9 ! human species1 is n develop$ z a di/9ct muscle 9 any ( ! dome/ic quadrup$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,biceps2 #b1 long ext5sor ( ! =e>m 7supplem5t>y or accessory muscle ( ! great dorsal72 #c1 triceps1 long head2 #d1 triceps1 int]nal head2 #e1 olecranon2 #f1 epitro*lea 7int]nal condyle72 #g1 radial ext5sors 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #h1 pronator t]es2 #i1 radius2 #aj1 flexor c>pi radialis 7int]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #aa1 ant]ior uln> 7oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #ab1 sup]ficial flexor ( ! digits2 #ac1 deep flexor ( ! digits2 #ad1 flexor longus pollicis 7radial fasciculus ( ! deep flexor ( ! digits72 #ae1 pisi=m bone4 ,& yet "s au?ors ann\nce its pres5ce 9 ! dog1 & describe x z becom+ deta*$1 9 ! =m ( a cyl9drical bundle1 f ! ant]ior surface ( ! fle%y mass ( ! deep flexor ( ! digits 7see p4 #aif7 to proce$ !n by a t5don :i* divides into two p>ts1 to t]m9ate 9 ! palm ( ! h&1 :]e x bl5ds ) ! t5dons ( ! sup]ficial flexor1 :i* are de/9$ = ! ?ird & f\r? digits4 ,^! au?ors give to ?is muscle ! "n ( palm>is longus1 & attribute to x ! action ( flex+ ! h&4 ,ant]ior ,uln> 7,flexor c>pi uln>is7 7,fig4 #gc1 #af2 ,fig4 #gf1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gg1 #h74--;,call$ by vet]9>y anatomi/s ! oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus1 or int]nal uln>1 ?is muscle occupies ! int]nal "p ( ! po/]ior aspect ( ! =e>m 9 ! ox & ! horse1 :ile 9 ! dog x occupies r ! ext]nal "p4 ,?is diff]5ce arises f ! fact t 9 ?is latt]1 z 9 man1 ! ant]ior uln> is sep>at$ f ! flexor c>pi radialis by an int]val 9 :i* we see1 on ! int]nal aspect ( ! =e>m1 j at ! level ( ! elb[1 ! flexors ( ! digits4 ,?is int]val is s mu* ! wid] z !re is no palm>is muscle to subdivide its ext5t 7,fig4 #ha74 ,9 ! horse1 ! int]val 9 "q does n exi/4 ,9 ?is animal1 inde$1 ! ant]ior uln> is 9 contact ) ! radial flexor1 s t ?is muscle c occupy only a region belong+ r to ! int]nal surface ( ! =e>m 7,fig4 #hb74 ,9 ! dog ! ant]ior uln> is 9 contact ) ! po/]ior uln>4 ,?is relation recalls t :i* is f\nd 9 man1 :]e ! two muscles are m]ely sep>at$ by ! cre/ ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #ha74 ,b 9 ! horse1 9 :i* ! ant]ior uln> has1 s to speak1 slid t[>ds ! int]nal aspect1 ?is muscle is sep>at$ above f ! po/]ior uln>1 & x is 9 ! int]val sep>at+ ^! two muscles t we are able to p]ceive1 b ?is "t at ! back ( ! =e>m1 ! muscul> mass ( ! flexors ( ! digits 7,fig4 #hb74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,left ,,side1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,long ext5sor ( ! =e>m 7supplem5t>y or accessory muscle ( ! latissimus dorsi72 #b1 radialis muscles 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #c1 t5dons ( ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis ext5sor primi int]nodii pollicis unit$ 7oblique ext5sor ( ! metac>pus72 #d1 t5don ( ext5sor communis digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #e1 /r5g!n+ b& f ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #f1 int]nal surface ( ! radius2 #g1 flexor c>pi radialis 7int]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #h1 ant]ior uln> 7oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus72 #i1 pisi=m bone2 #aj1 #aj1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! digits 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #aa1 #aa1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! digits 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ab1 sesamoid prom95ce2 #ac1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #ad1 int]nal rudim5t>y metac>pal4 ,! ant]ior uln> arises above f ! epitro*lea & ! olecranon2 !nce x is direct$ t[>ds ! c>pus1 to be ins]t$ into ! pisi=m bone4 ,x proce$s !re=e f ! inn] side ( ! elb[ to ! out] side ( ! upp] "p ( ! h&2 x consequ5tly crosses ! po/]ior surface ( ! =e>m obliquely4 ,?is is :y1 z we h po9t$ out above1 x receives ! "n ( ! oblique flexor ( ! metac>pus4 ,x is n unpr(itable to recall 9 ?is connection t !re is an int]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus1 :i* is ! flexor c>pi radialis2 & an ext]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus1 :i* is ! po/]ior uln> 79 human anatomy1 ext5sor c>pi uln>is74 ,x is betwe5 ^! two muscles t we f9d ! oblique flexor--! ant]ior uln> :i* we h j be5 /udy+4 ,?is muscle flexes ! h& on ! =e>m4 ,sup]ficial ,flexor ( ! ,digits 7,flexor digitorum sublimis7 7,fig4 #gf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gg1 #aj1 #aj74--,?is muscle arises f ! epitro*lea2 !nce x passes t[>ds ! h&1 becomes t5d9\s1 passes 9 a groove on ! po/]ior aspect ( ! c>pus1 & t]m9ates on ! palm> surface ( ! phalanges 9 furni%+ a numb] ( t5dons proportion$ to ! digital division ( ! h&4 ,:atev] ! numb]1 to :i* we w aga9 ref]1 ea* t5don is atta*$ to ! second phalanx1 aft] bifurcat+ at ! level ( ! fir/1 s z to =m a sort ( r+1 de/9$ to give passage to ! correspond+ t5don ( ! deep flexor4 ,?is r+ & ?is passage h ga9$ = ! muscle ! "n ( p]=at$ flexor4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ! pr9cipal t5don is divid$ into f\r p>ts1 :i* g to ! f\r la/ digits4 ,9 ! ox x is divid$ into two p>ts only2 z1 moreov]1 9 ! pig1 ^: sup]ficial flexor is de/9$ = ! two l>ge digits only1 ! lat]al digits receiv+ no "p ( x4 ,f9ally1 9 ! horse ! t5don is s+le4 ,we h previ\sly po9t$ out t 9 ! c>nivora ?is muscle is visible on ! int]nal & po/]ior aspects ( ! =e>m1 9 ! int]val :i* is limit$ 9 front by ! flexor c>pi radialis & beh9d & outside by ! ant]ior uln>4 ,c]ta9 details are /ill to be add$ to ! description ( ?is muscle4 ,we w ent] on an analysis ( !m aft] we h giv5 "s indications relative to ! foll[+ muscle3 ,deep ,flexor ( ! ,digits 7,flexor digitorum pr(undus7 7,fig4 #ge1 #ba1 #bb2 ,fig4 #gf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gg1 #aa1 #aa74--,?is muscle is cov]$ by ! sup]ficial flexor4 ,x arises f ! epitro*lea1 f ! radius1 & f ! ulna1 ei!r f ! olecranon process--z 9 ! ox1 pig1 & horse--or f almo/ ! :ole ext5t ( ! %aft ( ! same bone1 z 9 ! cat & dog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,int]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,int]nal flexor ( ! metac>pus or great palm>2 #b1 inf]ior "p ( ! biceps2 #c1 inf]ior "p ( ! bra*ialis anticus2 #d1 int]nal lat]al ligam5t ( ! elb[2 #e1 pronato t]es muscle4 ,! radial fasciculus repres5ts 9 ! dome/ic quadrup$s ! long prop] flexor muscle ( ! ?umb 9 man4 ,= ?is reason we %all describe ! muscle afre% 9 ! foll[+ p>agraph3 ,! fle%y bundles ( :i* we h j spok5 t]m9ate 9 a t5don :i* aft]w>ds divides into slips1 ! numb] ( :i* is 9 proportion to ! digital division ( ! h&4 ,^! slips !n pass ?r\gh ! slit or buttonhole 9 ! t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor1 & proce$ to t]m9ate on ! ?ird phalanx2 h5ce ! "n ( p]=at+1 :i* is also giv5 to ! deep flexor ( ! digits4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ! t5don is divid$ into five portions1 ea* ( :i* proce$s to "o ( ! digits4 ,! int]nal t5don1 :i* is de/9$ = ! ?umb1 t]m9ates on ! second phalanx ( ?is digit4 ,9 ! pig ! t5don divides into f\r t5dons de/9$ = ! f\r digits4 ,9 ! ox !re are b two t5dons4 ,9 ! horse ! t5don is s+le4 ,z _! names indicate1 ^! muscles1 bo? sup]ficial & deep1 flex ! digits4 ,9 addition to ?is1 !y flex ! h& on ! =e>m4 ,we m5tion$ above t c]ta9 details relative to ! sup]ficial flexor mu/ be analyz$ 9 a special way4 ,we n[ add t ?is %\ld also be done ) reg>d to ! deep flexor4 ,! po9t 9 "q is ! arrangem5t :i* ! t5dons ( ^! muscles pres5t at ! level ( ! palm> region ( ! h&4 ,x is easy1 9 ! case ( ! dog or ! cat1 to picture to "o's self ?is arrangem5t1 especially if we recollect t :i* exi/s 9 ! human species4 ,! t5dons ( ! flexors are plac$ on a k9d ( muscul> b$ =m$ by ! union ( ! muscles ( ! region1 b1 moreov]1 f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m1 ^! t5dons are n ( v great importance4 ,b 9 ! ox & ! horse x is q o!rwise4 ,f ! simplification ( ! skeleton ( ! h&1 & ! r$uction ( ! numb] ( movem5ts :i* ! bones t =m x are able to execute1 !re naturally results a dim9ution ( its muscul> app>atus4 ,ap>t f ! exi/5ce ( muscul> ve/iges ( b little importance1 we c say t1 9 reality1 ! h& does n possess any muscles4 ,on its palm> aspect are f\nd only ! t5dons ( ! flexors ( ! digits1 & z ^! t5dons are l>ge1 & ! h& long1 !y give orig9 to ext]nal =ms :i* x is necess>y to exam9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ulna ( abnormal l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,normal ulna4 ,9 ! horse1 :i* we take z a type1 ! t5dons ( ! flexors1 aft] be+ reta9$ 9 position at ! c>pus by a fibr\s b&1 ! c>pal %ea?1 :i* recalls ! ant]ior annul> ligam5t ( ! human c>pus1 & hav+ pass$ ?is region1 desc5d v]tically1 rema9+ sep>at$ f ! po/]ior surface ( ! metac>pus1 s t ! sk9 s9ks slightly on ! lat]al p>ts 9 front ( ! ?ick cord :i* ^! t5dons =m4 ,?is cord is kn[n by ! "n ( t5don4 ,! flexors !n rea* ! fetlock1 & occupy ! groove =m$ by ! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! two l>ge sesamoid bones4 ,!y are reta9$ 9 position at ?is level by a fibr\s /ructure1 :i* =ms ! metac>po-phalangeal %ea?4 ,!y !n rea* ! phalanges1 be+ direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 z1 moreov]1 ! latt] are also incl9$4 ,!n ! t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor divides into two slips1 :i* are ins]t$ into ! second phalanx1 betwe5 :i* slips passes ! t5don ( ! deep flexor1 :i* 9 its turn goes to be ins]t$1 9 ! =m ( an expansion1 into ! semilun> cre/1 by :i* ! inf]ior surface ( ! ?ird phalanx is divid$ into two p>ts4#cj #cj ,see1 z reg>ds ?is cre/1 9 ! p>agraph relative to ! ho( ( ! solip$s1 ! figures :i* repres5t ! ?ird phalanx1 view$ on its inf]ior surface 7,figs4 #aja & #ajb1 p4 #beh74 ,! "p :i* ^! t5dons play is ( great importance 9 ! l>ge quadrup$s4 ,^! t5dons1 9 fact1 9 addition to ! action det]m9$ by ! contraction ( ! fle%y fibres to :i* !y succe$1 ma9ta9 ! angle =m$ by ! canon-bone & ! phalangeal portion ( ! h&1 & prev5t its effacem5t "u ! weight ( ! body dur+ ! "t ( /&+4 ,_! /rong developm5t1 & ! position !y occupy1 make ?is und]/ood1 )\t x be+ necess>y to insi/ on x fur!r4 ,we m5tion$ above t ! 't5don' desc5ds v]tically f ! c>pus t[>ds ! fetlocks4 ,?is is z x %\ld be4 ,b1 9 "s horses1 x is oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 s t ! canon1 in/ead ( be+ ( equal dep? f be=e backw>ds 9 its :ole l5g?1 is a little n>r[] 9 its upp] "p4 ,?is results f ! fact t ! t5dons ( ! flexors1 too firmly b\nd by ! c>pal %ea?1 gradually sep>ate z !y pass f ! metac>pus1 go+ to jo9 ! fetlock2 h5ce ! obliquity po9t$ out above4 ,?is abnormality produc+ a delet]i\s result1 9 ! s5se t ! t5d9\s app>atus acts ) less /r5g? z an organ ( support1 x con/itutes a defect ( con=mation :i* is express$ by say+ t ! t5don has 'fail$4' ,long ,prop] ,flexor ( ! ,?umb 7,flexor longus pollicis7 7,fig4 #gf1 #ad74--;,z we h already po9t$ out1 ?is muscle is repres5t$ 9 quadrup$s by ! radial bundle ( ! deep flexor ( ! digits1 s t ! two muscles are 9 reality bl5d$ ! "o to ! o!r4 ,?is union is sometimes f\nd1 b only z an abnormality1 9 ! human species4 ,we h met "s examples ( ?is 9 ! c\rse ( our dissections4 ,pronator ,quadratus4--,?is muscle con=ms to ! g5]al law :i* we h already po9t$ out 9 connection ) ^? :i* h = _! action ! rotation ( ! radius ar\nd ! ulna4 ,we rememb]1 inde$1 t :5 ! bones ( ! =e>m are fus$ ) "o ano!r1 ! muscles :i* are de/9$ to produce a mobility :i* has !n become impossible disappe> at ! same bl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,"p ,,( ,a ,,transv]se ,,section ,,pass+ ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,middle ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,=e-,,limb ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,inf]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,section4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 po/]ior uln>2 #d1 ant]ior uln>2 #e1 great palm> 7flexor c>pi radialis72 #f1 flexors ( ! digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,horizontal ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,leg ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,inf]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,section4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 po/]ior uln>2 #d1 ant]ior uln>2 #e1 great palm> 7flexor c>pi radialis72 #f1 flexors ( ! digits4 ,= ?is cause we d n f9d ! squ>e pronator 9 ei!r ! ox or ! horse1 b c demon/rate its pres5ce 9 ! dog & ! cat4 ,x is v deeply situat$4 ,?is is :y1 & also on acc\nt ( ! plan :i* we h trac$ = ourselves1 we w simply say t x is situat$ on ! po/]o-int]nal aspect ( ! skeleton ( ! =e>m1 & t x ext5ds f ! ulna to ! radius4 ,x seems to u1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly int]e/+ to add t1 in/ead ( occupy+1 z 9 ! human species1 ! inf]ior f\r? ( ! two bones1 x ext5ds1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! dog1 ov] _! :ole l5g?1 ) ! exception ( _! sup]ior & inf]ior extremities4 ,muscles ( ! ,h& ,we w fir/ recall t1 9 man1 ! palm ( ! h& is divid$ into ?ree regions3 a m$ian palm> region1 :i* is occupi$ by ! t5dons ( ! flexors ( ! digits1 ! lumbricales1 &1 deeply1 by ! int]osse\s muscles2 an ext]nal region1 or !n> em95ce1 =m$ by ! muscles de/9$ = ! movem5ts ( ! ?umb2 an int]nal region1 or hypo!n> em95ce1 :i* conta9s ! muscles prop] to ! small digit & ! palm> cutane\s muscle4 ,^! muscles are f\nd1 m or less develop$1 9 ! dog & ! cat4 ,9 ! ox & ! horse we meet ) no ve/ige ( ! muscles ( ! !n> or hypo!n> em95ces4 ,nev]!less1 9 ^! animals we f9d ! muscles :i* belong to ! c5tral region ( ! palm4 ,we ref] to ! lumbricales & ! int]osse\s4 ,al?\gh ?is fact has no relation to ! object ( our /udy1 x appe>s to u int]e/+ to ann\nce t !re are traces ( ! lumbricales f\nd 9 ! solip$s4 ,^! muscles are repres5t$ by two fle%y bundles1 situat$ "o on ea* side ( ! t5don ( ! deep flexor1 above ! r+ ( ! t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor4 ,^! small muscles are cont9u$ z sl5d] t5dons1 :i* become lo/ 9 ! fibr\s tissue ( ! spur1 :i* is ! horny process situat$ at ! po/]ior "p ( ! fetlock1 & :i* is cov]$ by ! hairs1 m or less abundant1 :i* con/itute ! wisp4 ,z = ! int]osse\s muscles1 !y are repres5t$ by ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock1 & by two o!r small muscles1 t5d9\s ?r\gh\t1 :i* are situat$ betwe5 ! pr9cipal metac>pal & ! rudim5t>y ones4 ,! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock is consid]$ an int]osse\s muscle1 on acc\nt ( ! r$ fle%y /riations :i* x conta9s1 & f c]ta9 relations :i* x =ms ) ! t5don ( ! common ext5sor ( ! digits or ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,?is ligam5t 7,fig4 #ge1 #bf2 ,fig4 #gg1 #ac71 :i* plays an important "p 9 ! /&+ position z a support ( ! foot1 is a fibr\s b& situat$ betwe5 ! t5dons ( ! flexors ( ! digits & ! pr9cipal metac>pal4 ,x arises above1 f ! second r[ ( ! c>pals1 desc5ds t[>ds ! fetlock1 :]e x divides into two bran*es1 :i* are ins]t$ into ! l>ge sesamoid bones4 ,at ! same level1 ?is ligam5t gives (f two fibr\s b&s :i*1 pass+ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 jo9 ! t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 bl5d+ ) x1 aft] hav+ ea* cross$ "o ( ! lat]al aspects ( ! pa/]n4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ^! b&s 7p4 #ahc74 ,x is ) ^! latt] t are bl5d$ ! long & sl5d] t5dons :i* =m 9 a great measure ! two o!r int]osse\s muscles previ\sly describ$4 ,a ligam5t ( ! same k9d is f\nd 9 ! ox 7,fig4 #gd1 #bc74 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limbs ,muscles ( ! ,pelvis ,! muscles :i* specially int]e/ u 9 ?is region1 because ( _! sup]ficial position1 are ! gluteus maximus & ! gluteus m$ius4 ,z = ! gluteus m9imus1 x is deeply situat$1 & m or less %>ply m>k$ (f f ! second ( ! prec$+ muscles4 ,inasmu* z ! gluteus m$ius is m simple 9 arrangem5t ?an ! maximus1 & w aid u 9 arrang+ our ideas 9 connection ) ! latt]1 x is ) ! /udy ( x t we w comm5ce4 ,gluteus ,m$ius 7,fig4 #fh1 #bi2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bf2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ce74--,?is muscle1 z 9 man1 occupies ! ext]nal iliac fossa4 ,b ?is latt] be+ direct$ diff]5tly 9 ! digitigrades & ! ungulates1 z we h po9t$ out 9 ! section on o/eology 7see pp4 #ia & #ii71 ! muscle 9 "q has consequ5tly n ! same direction 9 ! two gr\ps ( animals1 be+ turn$ outw>ds 9 ! fir/1 & upw>ds 9 ! second4 ,x is ! ?icke/ ( ! glutei1 & gives to ! region :i* x occupies a r\nd$ =m4 ,f ! iliac fossa f :i* x arises ! fle%y fibres are direct$ t[>ds ! femur1 to be ins]t$ into ! great tro*ant]4 ,x is cov]$ by an aponeurosis1 & 9 "p by ! great gluteal4 ,x completely cov]s ! small gluteal1 :i* vet]9>y anatomi/s designate by ! "n ( ! deep gluteal4 ,9 ! c>nivora x does n pass 9 front ( ! iliac cre/1 b1 9 ! ox1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ! horse1 x is prolong$ ant]iorly1 & ?us cov]s1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! muscles ( ! common mass4 ,:5 x contracts1 tak+ its fix$ po9t at ! pelvis1 ! gluteus m$ius ext5ds ! ?igh1 :i* x is also able to abduct4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 its fix$ po9t is on ! femur1 x acts on ! trunk1 :i* x raises1 produc+ oscillat+ movem5ts ( ! pelvis4 ,x contributes 9 ?is way to ! action ( re>+4 ,we also see x di/9ctly appe> by ! prom95ce :i* x produces 9 ! dog1 :i*1 accord+ to ! "t-hon\r$ phrase1 fait le beau4 ,gluteus ,maximus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bh2 ,fig4 #fi1 #be2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cc1 #cd74--,! great gluteal muscle1 fur!r designat$ 9 vet]9>y anatomy ! sup]ficial gluteal1 is proportionately less develop$ 9 quadrup$s ?an 9 man4 ,inde$1 9 ! latt]1 :]e x is ( v great ?ickness1 its volume is due to ! important function :i* x fulfils 9 ma9ta9+ ! bip$ attitude4 ,9 quadrup$s x contributes to =m ! sup]ficial "p ( ! crupp] & ! ext]nal surface ( ! ?igh4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts3 "o ant]ior1 ! o!r po/]ior4 ,) reg>d to ?is latt]1 x w be necess>y to indicate h[ x has be5 sometimes reg>d$1 & to :at portion ( ! muscul> sy/em 9 man x corresponds4 ,b we believe t x is bett] to see be=eh&1 )\t any preconceiv$ idea1 h[ ^! two p>ts are arrang$4 ,9 ! dog1 ! ant]ior portion ( ! gluteus maximus arises f ! sacrum1 :ile "s fibres situat$ fur!r =w>d arise f ! surface ( ! gluteus m$ius1 ne> ! iliac sp9e1 & f ! t5sor ( ! fascia lata ) :i* ^! fibres are bl5d$4 ,! po/]ior portion1 unit$ to ! prec$+--t is to say1 to ^? ( its fibres :i* arise f ! sacrum--takes its orig9 f ! fir/ coccygeal v]tebra4 ,^! two portions are direct$ t[>ds ! femur1 to be ins]t$ into ! great tro*ant]1 & to ! ext]nal bran* ( ! sup]ior bifurcation ( ! l9ea asp]a4 ,9 ! cat1 ! po/]ior bundle is less def9itely bl5d$ ) ! ant]ior4 ,by a long & sl5d] t5don :i*1 beh9d1 turns ar\nd ! great tro*ant]1 & passes along ! surface ( ! fascia lata1 x proce$s to jo9 ! knee-cap4 ,9 ! pig1 ! po/]ior portion is mu* m develop$4 ,9 ! horse1 ! ant]ior portion arises f ! int]nal iliac sp9e 7po/]ior 9 man71 f ! ext]nal iliac sp9e 7ant]ior 9 man71 &1 betwe5 ^! two osse\s po9ts1 f ! aponeurosis1 :i* cov]s ! gluteus m$ius4 ,betwe5 ^! two orig9s ! muscle is deeply groov$1 s t ! t5d5cy is to divide into two portions1 ea* ( :i* is direct$ t[>ds "o ( ! iliac angles4 ,9 ?is groove ! gluteus m$ius is to be se54 ,! fle%y bundles conv]ge1 & are direct$ t[>ds ! ext]nal aspect ( ! femur1 to be ins]t$ into ! osse\s prom95ce kn[n z ! ?ird tro*ant]1 aft] pass+ b5ea? ! fle%y fibres ( ! po/]ior portion4 ,! latt]1 :i* is m consid]able ?an ! prec$+ portion1 arises above f ! sacral cre/1 f ! aponeurosis :i* envelops ! coccygeal muscles1 f ! sacro-sciatic ligam5t1 & f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium4 ,f ?is orig9 x passes d[nw>ds1 exp&s1 !n1 describ+ a curve ) ! convexity beh9d1 x becomes n>r[$1 & proce$s to be ins]t$ by a deep fasciculus into ! ?ird tro*ant]1 to ! fascia lata1 &1 la/ly1 to ! knee-cap by ! inf]ior "p ( its t5don4 ,above1 its po/]ior bord] is cov]$ by ! semi-t5d9osus2 int]iorly1 ! same bord] is 9 relation ) ! biceps femoris4 ,9 ! ox1 ! two p>ts ( ! great gluteal muscle are bl5d$ toge!r4 ,! long & broad fle%y b& :i* !y =m arises 9 a mann] correspond+ to t :i* we h j indicat$ 9 connection ) ! horse1 except t x has no atta*m5t to ! femur4 ,! fascia lata adh]es /rongly to its ant]ior bord] = a consid]able l5g?4 ,! =m ( ! sup]ior bord] ( ! great gluteal muscle ( ?is animal diff]s f t ( ! analog\s portion 9 ! horse4 ,?is diff]5ce results f ! peculi> aspect :i* ! correspond+ region ( ! pelvis pres5ts1 & f ! fact t1 9 ! ox1 z ! semi-t5d9osus does n cov] ! portion ( ! great gluteal :i* arises f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium1 ! atta*m5ts ( ?is muscle to ! sacro-sciatic ligam5t are uncov]$4 ,its desc5d+ portion1 z a :ole1 has a rectil9e> =m1 & does n =m a curve su* z we indicat$ 9 ! case ( ! horse4 ,! ant]ior portion ( ! great gluteal flexes ! ?igh4 ,z reg>ds ! po/]ior portion1 x ext5ds ! ?igh1 & abducts x4 ,! action ( ?is latt] portion is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ z reg>ds ! horse1 because ( ! great developm5t ( ! muscul> mass :i* ?is region pres5ts 9 ?is animal4 ,if ! muscle takes its fix$ po9t above1 x acts1 9 ! ext5sion ( ! ?igh dur+ walk+1 by project+ ! trunk =w>d dur+ ! :ole "t t ! h9d-limb to :i* x belongs is 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x takes its fix$ po9t bel[1 x makes ! pelvis describe a see-saw movem5t1 upw>ds & backw>ds1 on ! coxo-femoral articulation1 & s contributes to ! action ( re>+4 ,n[ t we h a k ( ! disposition ( ! great gluteal muscle1 ! mom5t has come to inquire :at is ! signification ( its po/]ior portion4 ,! action ( ! ant]ior "p be+ cle>ly comp>able to ! human great gluteal1 !re c be no d\bt z reg>ds ! homology ( ?is portion1 s we w n insi/ on x fur!r4 ,( ! po/]ior portion x is :olly diff]5t1 = x is ! homologue ( a fle%y bundle annex$ to ! great gluteal ( man1 b :i* is n develop$ except z an abnormality4 ,inde$1 we sometimes f9d1 plac$ along ! inf]ior bord] ( ! great gluteal1 a fle%y fasciculus1 sep>at$ f ?is muscle by a slight int]space4 ,?is fasciculus1 long & n>r[1 takes orig9 f ! summit ( ! sacrum1 or ! coccyx1 & goes to p>take ( ! femoral ins]tions ( ! muscle :i* x accompanies4 ,we fur!r note a muscle ( ! same k9d1 & pres5t+ ! same aspect1 :i* comes f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium4 ,not)/&+ ! diff]5ce :i* exi/s1 x is ?is abnormal fasciculus ( man :i* 9 ! quadrup$s "h /udi$ is consid]$ z con/itut+ ! po/]ior portion ( ! great gluteal4 ,b\rgelat1 consid]+ ?is po/]ior portion z belong+ to ! biceps cruris1 to :i*1 x is true1 x adh]es1 =ms ( !m a muscle :i* he designates "u ! "n ( ! long va/us4 ,! ant]ior fasciculus ( ?is long va/us is none o!r ?an ! po/]ior portion ( ! great gluteal :i* we h j be5 /udy+4 ,muscles ( ! ,?igh ,^! muscles are divid$ into ?ree regions3 po/]ior1 ant]ior1 & int]nal4 ,9 a correspond+ mann] to t :i* we describ$ 9 connection ) ! arm1 ! ?igh is appli$ to ! side ( ! trunk1 & is free1 m or less1 only at ! level ( ! inf]ior "p4 ,fur!r1 by reason ( ?is %ort5+ ( ! femur1 ! great gluteal muscle1 :i* is elongat$ 9 ! ox & ! horse1 = example1 occupies 9 "p ! region correspond+ to t :i* 9 man is occupi$ by ! muscles ( ! ?igh1 :i* "h are r$uc$ 9 l5g?4 ,9 o!r words1 !y are n sup]pos$1 z 9 ! human species1 b juxtapos$4 ,?is is :at we w v]ify fur!r on4 ,! ?igh1 z a :ole1 is flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds1 its transv]se diamet] be+ less 9 ext5t ?an its ant]o-po/]ior4 ,its ext]nal surface is slightly r\nd$2 t is1 ( c\rse1 9 quadrup$s ) suffici5tly well-develop$ muscles4 ,its int]nal surface is kn[n z ! flat ( ! ?igh4 ,muscles ( ! ,po/]ior ,region ,x is n unpr(itable to recall to m9d :at muscles =m ! sup]ficial lay] ( ?is region 9 ! human be+4 ,!y are ! biceps cruris1 semi-t5d9osus1 & semi-membranosus4 ,we n[ proce$ to discov] _! analogues 9 quadrup$s4 ,biceps ,cruris 7,fig4 #fh1 #cj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bg2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cf74--;,x is ?is :i*1 accord+ to ,b\rgelat1 =ms ! c5tral & po/]ior portions ( ! long va/us muscle :i* we h m5tion$ above4 ,we "k t ! biceps ( man is s nam$ f ! two portions :i* =m its upp] "p4 ,9 dome/ic quadrup$s1 & also 9 ! majority ( ! mammals1 ?is muscle is r$uc$ to a s+le portion1 t :i* comes f ! pelvis4 ,x is !re=e ! portion :i* arises f ! femur :i* does n exi/4 ,?is condition is sometimes f\nd z an abnormality 9 ! human species4 ,! biceps arises f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 h5ce x is direct$1 wid5+ z x goes1 t[>ds ! leg1 :]e x t]m9ates by an aponeurosis :i* bl5ds ) ! fascia lata & ! aponeurosis ( ! leg1 & !n proce$s to be atta*$ to ! ant]ior bord] or cre/ ( ! tibia4 ,by its inf]ior portion x limits ext]nally ! po/]ior region ( ! knee--! popliteal space4 ,a fibr\s int]section trav]ses ! biceps 9 its :ole l5g?1 ) ! result t ! muscle looks z if =m$ ( two portions1 "o ( :i* is situat$ 9 front ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x also arises f ! sacro-sciatic ligam5t4 ,at ?is level its cont\r is di/+ui%able f t :i* corresponds to ! gluteal muscles1 s t we !re f9d two prom95ces "o above ! o!r4 ,! sup]ior is =m$ by ! gluteal muscles2 ! inf]ior corresponds to ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium4 ,! two prom95ces are sep>at$ by a depression1 f :i* ! biceps em]ges4 ,we draw att5tion to ?is =m1 ! "* ( :i* is s expressive ( en]gy 9 ! c>nivora4 ,9 ^! animals ! biceps is ins]t$1 by its ant]ior fibres1 into ! articulation ( ! knee1 :ile 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t x cov]s 9 great measure by its aponeurosis ! ext]nal aspect ( ! leg4 ,9 ! pig1 ! biceps is b slightly m>k$ (f f ! po/]ior "p ( ! great gluteal4 ,9 ! ox1 ! division betwe5 ^! two muscles is a little m di/9ct4 ,9 ! horse1 ! sciatic orig9 ( ! biceps is cov]$ by ! semi-t5d9osus1 s t x only becomes free l[] d[n1 to appe> 9 ! space limit$ beh9d by ! semi-t5d9osus1 & 9 front by ! po/]ior "p ( ! gluteus maximus4 ,:5 ! biceps contracts1 tak+ its fix$ po9t f above1 x flexes ! leg & helps to ext5d ! ?igh4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x takes its fix$ po9t f bel[1 x l[]s ! is*ium1 makes ! pelvis und]go a see-saw movem5t1 & acts ?us 9 ! movem5t ( re>+4 ,x is sometimes call$1 on acc\nt ( "o ( its actions1 & ! position :i* x occupies1 ! 'ext]nal flexor1 or p]oneal muscle ( ! leg4' ,semi-t5d9osus 7,fig4 #fh1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cg2 ,fig4 #hg1 #a2 ,fig4 #hh1 #a2 ,fig4 #hi1 #bh74--,?is muscle =ms ! cont\r ( ! ?igh po/]iorly1 s t :5 ! latt] is view$ f ! side1 x is ! semi-t5d9osus above all t =ms ! outl9e4 ,b1 z we %all soon see1 x is 9 ?is case m di/9ct above ?an bel[1 because ( ! deviation :i* x und]goes 9 ord] to occupy by its inf]ior "p ! int]nal side ( ! leg4 ,9 ! dog1 ! cat1 & ! ox1 ! semi-t5d9osus arises f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium only1 z 9 ! human species4 ,9 ! pig1 x also takes orig9 high] up f ! sacro-sciatic ligam5t & ! coccygeal aponeurosis4 ,9 ! horse1 x ext5ds /ill fur!r1 = x is also atta*$ to ! cre/ ( ! sacrum4 ,! indication ( ^! orig9s is ( importance f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m1 & to conv9ce ourselves ( ?is x is suffici5t to comp>e1 9 ! ox & ! horse1 ! region ( ! pelvis situat$ bel[ ! root ( ! tail4 ,9 ! ox1 ^: semi-t5d9osus arises f ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium only1 ?is region is depress$1 & ! cavity :i* is =m$ at ?is level is limit$ beh9d by ! tub]osity1 :i* we "k is v ?ick & prom95t above4 ,?is causes ! sup]ior "p ( ! crupp] to be less oblique ?an 9 ! horse4 ,?is *>act]i/ic is m especially m>k$ 9 ! c[1 ! bull hav+ ?is region ( a m r\nd$ =m4 ,9 ! horse1 on acc\nt ( ! semi-t5d9osus asc5d+ to ! coccyx1 & ev5 to ! sacrum1 ! depression 9 "q does n exi/1 & ! pres5ce ( ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium is only slightly reveal$4 ,desc5d+ f ! orig9 indicat$ above1 & incl9+ m & m inw>ds1 ! semi-t5d9osus proce$s to bl5d ) ! aponeurosis ( ! leg1 to be ins]t$ into ! ant]ior bord] ( ! tibia1 aft] cross+ ov] ! int]nal surface ( ! latt]4 ,x =ms ! int]nal b\nd>y ( ! popliteal space4 ,:5 ?is muscle contracts1 tak+ its fix$ po9t at ! pelvis1 x flexes ! leg4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x takes its fix$ po9t at ! tibia1 x makes ! pelvis describe a see-saw movem5t1 & acts accord+ly 9 ! movem5t ( re>+4 ,x is sometimes nam$ ! 'int]nal or tibial flexor ( ! leg1' 9 opposition to ! crural biceps1 :i*1 z /at$ above1 is !n ! ext]nal flexor ( ! same region4 ,semi-membranosus 7,fig4 #fh1 #cb2 ,fig4 #hg1 #b2 ,fig4 #hh1 #b74--,?is muscle1 situat$ on ! inn] side ( ! semi-t5d9osus1 c be se5 only :5 ! ?igh is reg>d$ on its po/]ior aspect4 ,x is only by reason ( ! homology ( situation ) ! correspond+ muscle 9 man t we give ! "n "u :i* we are /udy+ x2 inde$1 its /ructure is diff]5t1 = x does n pres5t ! long1 broad1 aponeurotic t5don :i*1 9 its sup]ior "p1 *>act]izes ?is muscle 9 ! human species4 ,x arises above f ! inf]ior surface ( ! is*ium1 & f ! tub]osity ( ! same bone4 ,9 ! pig1 & especially 9 ! horse1 x passes fur!r upw>ds1 to arise f ! aponeurosis ( ! coccygeal muscles4 ,s t if we comp>e x ) t ( ! ox1 :i* does n ext5d beyond ! is*ium1 we f9d t x is associat$ ) ! semi-t5d9osus 9 det]m9+ ! diff]5ce ( aspect to :i* we h already call$ att5tion 9 connection ) ! region ( ! pelvis situat$ bel[ ! root ( ! tail4 ,! semi-membranosus is !n direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 to take its place on ! int]nal surface ( ! ?igh1 :]e x is p>tly cov]$ by ! gracilis muscle4 ,x is ins]t$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x is divid$ into two p>ts1 ant]ior & po/]ior4 ,! fir/1 ! m develop$1 is atta*$ to ! int]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur2 ! second to ! int]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia4 ,! same arrangem5t occurs 9 ! ox4 ,9 ! horse x is ins]t$ into ! int]nal surface ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! femur4 ,! semi-membranosus is an ext5sor ( ! ?igh :5 x takes its fix$ po9t at ! pelvis2 x is also an adductor ( ! l[] limb4 ,if x takes its fix$ po9t bel[ x assi/s 9 ! action ( re>+4 ,x is n[ necess>y = u1 especially z reg>ds ! horse1 to add "s indications relative to ! ext]ior =ms ( ! region con/itut$ by ! semi-membranosus & semi-t5d9osus4 ,^! two muscles =m1 by _! union1 a surface cont\r1 slightly project+ & ( elongat$ =m1 :i* occupies ! po/]ior bord] ( ! ?igh1 ! cont\r correspond+ to ! region kn[n z ! buttock1 9 spite ( ! fact t none ( ! gluteal muscles take any "p 9 ! /ructure ( ?is region4 ,b ! appe>ances1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ju/ify ! pres]vation ( ?is "n4 ,inde$1 because ( ! groove :i* sep>ates ! gluteal region ( "o side f t ( ! opposite side1 & f ! position ( ! anal orifice 9 ! sup]ior "p ( ?is groove1 we may admit ! "n :i*1 9 hippology1 has be5 giv5 to ?is "p ( ! ?igh4 ,9 addition to ! reasons j giv51 & :i* are ju/ifi$ especially by ! position occupi$ by ! muscul> mass =m$ by ! union ( ! two muscles1 !re is ano!r :i*1 ?is "t1 has a relation to a c]ta9 detail ( =m4 ,9 ! sup]ior "p ( ! convexity1 :i* ! gluteal region describes 9 ! great] "p ( its ext5t1 !re is f\nd a m sali5t po9t1 greatly acc5tuat$ 9 lean animals1 due to ! pres5ce ( ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 x is ! po9t or angle ( ! buttock4 ,at ?is level1 & ne> ! m$ian l9e1 ! semi-membranosus1 n aponeurotic1 b fle%y1 & ev5 ?ick] !re ?an any:]e else1 sometimes produces a %>ply localiz$ prom95ce4 ,& z ?is prom95ce is situat$ on ! out] side ( ! anal orifice1 ! resemblance to a small 'buttock' is /ill m m>k$4 ,9 lean horses a deep groove sep>ates ! mass =m$ by ! semi-membranosus & semi-t5d9osus f t ( ! o!r muscles ( ! ?igh situat$ m 9 front2 ?is groove is kn[n by a "n :i* 9 ?is case is rem>kably expressive--t ( ! 'l9e ( pov]ty4' ,if we exam9e ! gluteal region z a :ole by look+ at ! ?igh f ! side1 we pla9ly see ! graceful curve produc$ by ! g5]al convexity above indicat$4 ,we return to ?is po9t1 9 ord] to add t1 9 its l[] "p1 ?is curve alt]s its "*2 t is to say1 x is replac$ by a slight concavity4 ,?is1 :i* is designat$ "u ! "n ( ! fold ( ! buttock1 is situat$ close to ! level ( articulation ( ! leg ) ! ?igh-bone4 ,muscles ( ! ,ant]ior ,region ,fir/ we recall t 9 man ! ant]ior muscles ( ! ?igh are3 ! triceps cruris1 ! t5sor ( ! fascia lata1 & ! s>torius4 ,triceps ,cruris 7,fig4 #h1 #cf2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #da2 ,fig4 #hd1 #b2 ,fig4 #hg1 #c2 ,fig4 #hh1 #c74--,?is muscle1 :i* occupies ! great] "p ( ! space betwe5 ! pelvis & ! ant]ior aspect ( ! femur1 consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3 an ext]nal1 or va/us ext]nus2 an int]nal1 or va/us int]nus2 & a m$ian or long portion1 or rectus femoris4 ,?is division accord+ly recalls t :i* *>act]izes ! human triceps cruris4 ,fur!rmore1 z 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 ! va/us ext]nus & ! va/us int]nus take _! orig9 f ! %aft ( ! femur1 :ile ! long portion arises f ! pelvis4 ,! va/us ext]nus arises f ! ext]nal lip ( ! l9ea asp]a ( ! femur 7or f ! ext]nal bord] ( ! po/]ior surface ( ?is bone 9 ! ox & ! horse1 9 :i* ! l9ea asp]a1 consid]ably wid5$1 especially 9 ! latt]1 =ms a surface71 & f ! ext]nal surface ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,f ?is orig9 its fibres pass d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 to be ins]t$ into ! t5don ( ! long portion ( ! muscle & into ! patella4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ! va/us ext]nus is ! mo/ volum9\s ( ! ?ree portions :i* con/itute ! triceps muscle4 ,x is cov]$ by ! fascia lata2 b not)/&+ ?is1 its pres5ce is reveal$ by a prom95ce :i* occupies ! ext]nal surface ( ! ?igh1 & surm\nts1 9 ! region ( ! knee1 ! m slightly develop$ "o :i* is produc$ by ! knee-cap4 ,! va/us int]nus1 situat$ on ! inn] surface ( ! ?igh1 takes its orig9 f ! correspond+ surface ( ! femur1 & proce$s t[>ds ! patella4 ,! rectus femoris arises f ! iliac bone1 above ! cotyloid cavity2 its fle%y body1 :i* is fusi=m1 & situat$ 9 front ( & betwe5 ! two va/i muscles1 is direct$ t[>ds ! patella1 into :i* x is ins]t$ by a t5don1 :i* receives ! o!r two portions4 ,x is cov]$ 9 front by ! t5sor ( ! fascia lata1 & contributes ) ! va/us ext]nus to =m ! upp] prom95ce ( ! knee4 ,! ligam5t\s fibres1 :i*1 z 9 man1 unite ! knee-cap to ! tibia1 transmit to ?is latt] ! action det]m9$ by ! contraction ( ! triceps4 ,?is muscle is an ext5sor ( ! leg4 ,fur!rmore1 ! rectus femoris1 or long portion1 acts z a flexor ( ! ?igh4 ,t5sor ,fascia ,lata 7,fig4 #fh1 #cd1 #cf2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cj1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dj74--,?is muscle1 g5]ally l>g] 9 quadrup$s ?an 9 man1 is flat & triangul>1 & occupies ! sup]ior & ant]ior "p ( ! ?igh4 ,x arises f ! ant]ior iliac sp9e 7inf]ior 9 c>nivora1 ext]nal 9 ! ox & ! horse72 x is prolong$ d[nw>ds by an aponeurosis 7fascia lata7 :i* occupies ! ext]nal aspect ( ! ?igh1 proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! patella & bl5d ) ! aponeurosis ( ! biceps muscle4 ,x cov]s ! rectus & va/us ext]nus portions ( ! triceps cruris2 x is also 9 relation ) ! gluteal muscles4 ,! t5sor ( ! fascia lata flexes ! ?igh1 & s]ves to raise ! l[] limb z a :ole4 ,s>torius 7,fig4 #fh1 #ce2 ,fig4 #hg1 #d1 #e2 ,fig4 #hh1 #e74--,?is muscle1 long & flatt5$1 is call$ by vet]9>ians ! long adductor ( ! leg4 ,be=e beg9n+ ! /udy ( its position 9 quadrup$s1 x is necess>y to rememb] t 9 man1 :]e ! ?igh has a =m almo/ conical1 ! s>torius comm5ces on ! ant]ior face ( ?is latt]1 & is direct$ d[nw>ds & inw>ds to rea* ! int]nal surface ( ! knee4 ,b n[ let u suppose ! ?igh flatt5$ f )\t inw>ds2 !re w evid5tly result f ?is a *ange 9 situation ) reg>d to ! muscle 9 "q4 ,9 fact1 :5 ?is supposition is admitt$1 x is easy to imag9e t 9 a great "p ( ! ext5t 9 :i* ! s>torius is normally ant]ior x w become int]nal4 ,?is is :y1 ^! conditions be+ realiz$ 9 quadrup$s1 we %all f9d t1 9 "s ( !m1 ! s>torius is situat$ on ! aspect ( ! ?igh :i* is turn$ to ! side ( ! trunk4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x arises f ! ant]ior iliac sp9e1 & f ! half ( ! bord] ( ! bone situat$ imm$iately bel[ x2 b ! fibres f ?is second orig9 be+ hidd5 by ! t5sor ( ! fascia lata1 on ! inn] side ( :i* !y are situat$1 view+ ! ext]nal surface ( ! ?igh1 ! muscle seems to arise f ! iliac sp9e only4 ,! s>torius 9 ^! animals is divid$ into two p>ts1 :i*1 9 g5]al1 are plac$ 9 contact4 ,"o ( ^! fasciculi is ant]ior2 ! o!r is situat$ fur!r back4 ,! fir/ is visible on ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ?igh1 9 front ( ! t5sor ( ! fascia lata1 b bel[ x incl9es inw>ds2 9 its sup]ior "p also1 a small ext5t ( ! int]nal surface is occupi$ by x4 ,! second1 :i*1 z we h said1 is situat$ fur!r back1 belongs :olly to ! inn] surface ( ! ?igh2 x is ?is portion :i* arises f ! inf]ior bord] ( ! ilium 7?is is ! homologue ( ! ant]ior bord] ( ! human iliac bone74 ,! two fasciculi !n pass t[>ds ! knee1 be+ 9 relation ) ! rectus & ! va/us int]nus ( ! triceps4 ,! ant]ior fasciculus is ins]t$ into ! patella4 ,! po/]ior unites ) ! t5dons ( ! gracilis 7see bel[7 & semi-t5d9osus1 & !n proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! sup]ior "p ( ! int]nal surface ( ! tibia4 ,on acc\nt ( _! diff]5t ins]tions ^! two p>ts receive ! names ( ! patell> s>torius & tibial s>torius respectively4 ,9 ! ox & ! horse ! s>torius is /ill m def9itely situat$ on ! int]nal surface ( ! ?igh4 ,consi/+ ( a s+le fasciculus1 repres5t+ ! tibial s>torius ( ! cat & ! dog1 x arises 9 ! abdom9al cavity f ! fascia cov]+ ! iliac muscle1 !n passes "u ! crural ar*1 & t]m9ates1 by an aponeurosis :i* bl5ds ) t ( ! gracilis1 on ! inn] fibres ( ! patell> ligam5t4 ,9 %ort1 ! s>torius is ( int]e/ to u 9 ! c>nivora only1 & especially on acc\nt ( its ant]ior or patell> fasciculus4 ,x is an adductor ( ! leg & a flexor ( ! ?igh4 ,muscles ( ! ,int]nal ,region ,! ilio-psoas pect9eus & ! adductors :i* we /udy 9 man1 9 connection ) ! int]nal aspect ( ! ?igh1 (f] little ( int]e/ f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m 9 quadrup$s2 x is = ?is reason t we w disreg>d !m4 ,! gracilis alone m]its description4 ,gracilis 7,fig4 #hg1 #i2 ,fig4 #hh1 #f74--;,designat$ 9 vet]9>y anatomy "u ! "n ( ! %ort adductor ( ! leg1 ?is muscle1 exp&$ 9 wid?1 occupies ! great] "p ( ! int]nal surface ( ! ?igh1 or flat ( ! ?igh1 z ?is region is also call$4 ,let u imag9e1 9 man1 ! int]nal surface ( ! ?igh broad]1 & ! int]nal rectus m exp&$1 & we %all h an idea ( ! same muscle z x exi/s 9 quadrup$s4 ,! gracilis arises f ! is*io-pubic symphysis & f ! neighb\r+ regions2 !nce x is direct$ t[>ds ! leg to be ins]t$ into ! sup]ior "p ( ! int]nal surface ( ! tibia1 aft] be+ unit$ to ! t5dons ( ! s>torius & semi-t5d9osus4 ,we f9d1 accord+ly1 at ?is level1 an arrangem5t :i* recalls ! g5]al appe>ance ( :at 9 man receives ! "n ( ! goose's foot 7pes ans]9us74 ,x is betwe5 ?is muscle & ! s>torius1 at ! sup]ior "p ( ! int]nal surface ( ! ?igh1 9 ! region :i* recalls ! triangle ( ,sc>pa1 t we are able1 especially 9 ! cat & ! dog1 to see ! adductor muscles ( ! ?igh4 ,we also p>tly see !re1 9 ^! animals1 ! va/us int]nus & ! rectus ( ! triceps 7see ,fig4 #hg74 ,! gracilis is an adductor ( ! ?igh4 ,muscles ( ! ,leg ,we w divide ! leg into ?ree regions3 ant]ior1 ext]nal1 & po/]ior4 ,) reg>d to ! int]nal region1 !re are no muscles :i* belong exclusively to x2 = x is 9 great measure =m$ by ! int]nal surface ( ! tibia1 :i*1 z 9 man1 is subcutane\s4 ,muscles ( ! ,ant]ior ,region ,we fir/ note t 9 ! human species ! tibialis anticus1 ext5sor proprius pollicis1 ext5sor longus digitorum & ! p]one\s t]tius or anticus1 =m ! subcutane\s lay] ( ?is region4 ,we n[ proce$ to /udy ^! muscles 9 quadrup$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,tibial ,,muscle 7,,flexor ,,( ,,! ,,metat>sus71 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,ant]ior ,,view4 #a1 ,femoral tro*lea2 #b1 tibia2 #c1 t5d9\s portion ( ! tibialis anticus2 #d1 cuboid bran* ( same2 #e1 #e1 its metat>sal bran*2 #f1 fle%y portion2 #g1 cunei=m bran* ( its t5don2 #h1 metat>sal bran* ( ! same t5don2 #i1 ext5sor longus digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges turn$ outw>ds72 #aj1 p]oneus brevis 7lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges74 ,tibialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #hc2 ,fig4 #hd1 #f2 ,fig4 #he1 #d2 ,fig4 #hg1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hh1 #aj1 #aa74--;,x is fur!r nam$ by vet]9>ians ! flexor ( ! metat>sus4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ?is muscle1 :i* is r l>ge1 arises f ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia & f ! cre/ ( ?is bone4 ,9 its sup]ior "p x is flat1 b l[] d[n x is ?ick & produces a prom95ce 9 front ( ! tibia4 ,f9ally1 x becomes t5d9\s1 & passes t[>ds ! t>sus2 !nce x is direct$ t[>ds ! inn] side ( ! metat>sus1 & is ins]t$ into ! great-toe1 ?is latt] be+ sometimes well develop$1 b also (t5 m]ely repres5t$ by a small bony nodule on :i* ! muscle is !n fix$4 ,9 ! o!r animals ) :i* we "h occupy ourselves1 ! tibialis anticus pres5ts a complexity :i* w\ld be incompreh5sible unless ?is muscle be fir/ /udi$ 9 ! horse4 ,9 ?is latt] ! tibialis anticus consi/s ( two di/9ct portions1 plac$ "o 9 front ( ! o!r3 a fle%y portion1 & a t5d9\s portion runn+ p>allel to x4 ,! muscle is cov]$1 except on its int]nal "p & inf]iorly1 by a muscle ) :i* we w occupy ourselves lat] on--t is1 ! common ext5sor ( ! toes4 ,! t5d9\s portion ( ! tibialis anticus 7,fig4 #hc71 especially cov]$ by ! ext5sor ( ! toes1 arises f ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur1 f ! fossa situat$ betwe5 ! tro*lea & ! ext]nal condyle2 !nce x desc5ds t[>ds a groove :i* is holl[$ out on ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia1 & is direct$ t[>ds ! t>sus1 :]e x divides into two bran*es1 :i* are ins]t$ into ! cuboid bone & ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metat>sal4 ,^! two p>ts =m a r+ ?r\gh :i* ! t]m9al t5don ( ! fle%y portion ( ! same muscle passes4 ,?is fle%y portion1 situat$ beh9d ! prec$+1 arises f ! sup]ior extremity ( ! tibia1 on ! bord]s ( ! groove 9 :i* ! t5d9\s portion lies2 !nce x passes d[nw>ds = a %ort di/ance on ! inn] side ( ! common ext5sor ( ! toes1 :i* cov]s x 9 ! re/ ( its ext5t4 ,x ends 9 a t5don :i*1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! t5d9\s r+ above notic$1 divides into two bran*es4 ,"o ( ^! bran*es is ins]t$ into ! ant]ior surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! pr9cipal metat>sal1 ! o!r into ! second cunei=m bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,biceps cruris & fascia lata1 divid$ 9 ord] to expose ! upp] "p ( ! muscles ( ! leg2 #b1 inf]ior portion ( ! triceps cruris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 semi-t5d9osus2 #e1 inf]ior extremity ( ! femur2 #f1 tibialis anticus 7flexor ( ! metat>sus72 #g1 ext5sor longus digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #h1 tibia2 #i1 p]oneus longus2 #aj1 p]oneus brevis2 #aa1 fif? metat>sal2 #ab1 fasciculus deta*$ f ! p]oneus brevis & pass+ t[>ds ! fif? toe2 #ac1 ext]nal head ( ga/rocnemius2 #ad1 t5do-,a*illis2 #ae1 calcaneum2 #af1 flexor digitorum sublimis2 #ag1 #ag1 t5don ( ! flexor digitorum sublimis2 #ah1 flexor longus pollicis 7portion ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes72 #ai1 dorsal muscle ( ! foot 7%ort ext5sor ( ! toes74 ,9 ! ox ! same two portions ( ! tibialis anticus exi/1 b ) ?is capital diff]5ce--t ! ant]ior portion is fle%y1 sup]ficial1 & bl5d$ = a great "p ( its l5g? ) ! common ext5sor ( ! toes4 ,! portion :i* corresponds to t :i* is fle%y 9 ! horse arises f ! tibia2 bel[1 x ends on ! inn] surface ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! metat>sus & ! cunei=m bones4 ,t :i* repres5ts ! t5d9\s "p1 :i* is also fle%y1 z we h j po9t$ out1 arises above ) ! common ext5sor ( ! toes1 f ! femur1 9 ! fossa situat$ betwe5 ! tro*lea & ! ext]nal condyle2 :il/ bel[1 aft] hav+ giv5 passage to ! t5don ( ! prec$+ portion1 z 9 ! horse1 x is ins]t$ into ! metat>sus & ! cunei=m bones4 ,9 ! pig1 ! tibialis anticus pres5ts an arrangem5t ne>ly simil> to t :i* we h j describ$4 ,x seems to u ( int]e/ to add t x has be5 s\ght to asc]ta9 to :at muscle ( ! human leg ! t5d9\s "p ( ! tibialis ( ! horse corresponds--a "p :i* has become fle%y 9 ! pig & ! ox4 ,accord+ to "s au?ors1 x repres5ts ! p]oneus t]tius2 b t muscle is situat$ on ! out] side ( ! common ext5sor ( ! toes2 & "h ! portion ) :i* x has be5 comp>$ is plac$ on ! inside4 ,x has also be5 lik5$ to a portion ( ! common ext5sor ( ! toes1 b x does n pass to ! latt]4 ,la/ly1 x has be5 consid]$ z be+ ! homologue ( ! prop] ext5sor ( ! great-toe2 b :y1 !n1 9 ! ox1 :i* has no great-toe1 is x s highly develop$8 ,nev]!less1 its position & its relations suffici5tly w>rant ?is me?od ( compreh5d+ x4 ,! tibialis anticus is a flexor ( ! foot4 ,x is also able1 9 animals 9 :i* ! t>sal articulations all[ ( ! movem5t1 to rotate ! foot inw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,gluteus maximus & biceps cruris2 #b1 semi-t5d9osus2 #c1 patella2 #d1 tibialis anticus 7flexor ( ! metat>sus72 #e1 ext5sor longus digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #f1 fasciculus ( ! ext5sor longus digitorum1 :i* is consid]$ z ! repres5tative ( ! t5d9\s portion ( ! tibialis anticus 9 ! horse2 #g1 p]oneus longus2 #h1 p]oneus brevis 7prop] ext5sor ( ! ext]nal toe72 #i1 ext]nal head ( ga/rocnemius2 #aj1 soleus2 #aa1 t5do-,a*illis2 #ab1 calcaneum2 #ac1 t5don ( ! ext5sor longus digitorum 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ad1 flexor longus pollicis & tibialis po/icus 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ae1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes2 #af1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes2 #ag1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock4 ,) reg>d to ! t5d9\s "p1 call$ by vet]9>ians ! cord ( ! flexor ( ! metat>sus1 x s]ves1 9 ! horse1 to produce ! flexion ( ! metat>sus :5 ! knee is already flex$2 x ?us acts 9 a passive fa%ion1 :i* is expla9$ by its resi/ance & ! position :i* x occupies 9 relation to ^! two articulations4 ,ext5sor ,proprius ,pollicis4--,?is muscle exi/s only 9 ! dog & ! cat1 & !re 9 a rudim5t>y condition4 ,x is cov]$ by ! common ext5sor ( ! toes & ! tibialis anticus1 & passes1 accompani$ by ! t5don ( ?is latt] muscle1 to t]m9ate on ! second metat>sal1 or ! phalanx1 :i* articulates ) x4 ,:5 ! fir/ toe exi/s 9 ! dog1 x is ins]t$ into ?is by a v sl5d] t5don4 ,ext5sor ,longus ,digitorum 7,fig4 #hc1 #i2 ,fig4 #hd1 #g2 ,fig4 #he1 #e1 #f2 ,fig4 #hf1 #d2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hh1 #g74--;,x is also call$ by vet]9>ians ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat ?is muscle is to be se5 9 ! space limit$ beh9d by ! p]oneus longus & 9 front by ! tibialis anticus4 ,above x is cov]$ by ?is latt]4 ,9 ! l[] half ( ! leg1 x is also 9 relation1 on ! inn] side1 ) ! tibialis anticus2 b beh9d x is sep>at$ f ! p]oneus longus by ! ext]nal surface ( ! %aft & inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia4 ,?is arrangem5t1 besides1 recalls t :i* is f\nd 9 man1 ! p]oneus longus ( ! latt] div]g+ 9 ! same way1 at ?is level1 f ! common ext5sor1 & leav+ expos$ ! correspond+ portion ( ! skeleton ( ! leg4 ,?is muscle1 fusi=m 9 %ape1 arises at its upp] "p f ! ext]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur1 !n its t5don passes into a groove holl[$ on ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia4 ,! fle%y body :i* succe$s is direct$ t[>ds ! t>sus1 b be=e rea*+ x is replac$ by a t5don4 ,?is t5don1 at ! level ( ! metat>sal bones1 divides into f\r slips1 :i* pass t[>ds ! toes1 & are ins]t$ into ! second & ?ird phalanges ( ! latt]4 ,9 ! horse x cov]s1 to a great ext5t1 ! tibialis anticus1 s t x is ! latt] :i* =ms ! l>ge fusi=m prom95ce especially noticeable 9 ! middle region1 to :i* ! cont\r ( ! ant]ior surface ( ! leg is due4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-t5d9osus2 #b1 biceps cruris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 ext5sor longus digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #e1 re9=c+ b& aris+ f ! ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #f1 p]oneus brevis 7lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #g1 ext]nal head ( ga/rocnemius2 #h1 soleus2 #i1 t5do-,a*illis2 #aj1 calcaneum2 #aa1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ab1 flexor longus pollicis & tibialis po/icus 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ac1 #ac1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges2 #ad1 #ad1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! phalanges2 #ae1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #af1 pr9cipal metat>sal3 #ag1 ext]nal rudim5t>y metat>sal4 ,x arises above f ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur1 f ! fossa situat$ betwe5 ! tro*lea & ! ext]nal condyle2 !re=e1 x has a common orig9 ) ! t5d9\s portion ( ! tibialis anticus1 or flexor ( ! metat>sus4 ,! t5don1 :i* at ! level ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! leg succe$s to ! fle%y body1 passes 9 front ( ! t>sus1 ! pr9cipal metat>sal1 & receives ! t5don ( ! p]oneus brevis :i* we w describe lat] on4 ,x !n rea*es ! ant]ior surface ( ! fetlock4 ,!re x pres5ts an arrangem5t analog\s to t :i* we h po9t$ out 9 connection ) ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges--a muscle :i*1 9 ! =e-limbs1 corresponds to ! common ext5sor ( ! digits2 t is to say1 x is ins]t$1 9 =m ( an expansion1 into ! pyramidal prom95ce ( ! ?ird phalanx1 aft] hav+ =m$ atta*m5ts to ! fir/ & second1 & hav+ receiv$ on ea* side a /r5g!n+ b& f ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock4 ,9 ! ox ! long ext5sor ( ! toes is unit$ above1 & = a great "p ( its l5g?1 ) ! portion ( ! tibialis anticus1 :i* repres5ts1 albeit 9 ! fle%y /ate1 ! t5d9\s cord ( ! latt] 9 ! horse4 ,9 common ) ?is portion1 x arises f ! inf]ior extremity ( ! femur4 ,!nce x passes t[>ds ! t>sus & divides into two fasciculi1 int]nal & ext]nal1 :i* are cont9u$ by t5dons4 ,^! pass t[>ds ! phalanges1 &1 9 case ( ! common ext5sor ( ! digits belong+ to ! =e-limbs1 ! int]nal is de/9$ = ! int]nal toe1 & ! ext]nal is common to ! two toes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,limb1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-t5d9osus2 #b1 semi-membranosus2 #c1 triceps cruris 7va/us int]nus72 #d1 s>torius 7patell>72 #e1 s>torius 7tibial72 #f1 patella2 #g1 fir/ or middle adductor2 #h1 small & great adductor unit$2 #i1 gracilis2 #aj1 tibialis anticus 7flexor ( ! metat>sus72 #aa1 tibia2 #ab1 t5don ( ext5sor longus digitorum 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges73 #ac1 ga/rocnemius1 inn] head2 #ad1 t5do-,a*illis2 #ae1 calcaneum2 #af1 popliteus2 #ag1 sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes2 #ah1 flexor longus pollicis 7portion ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes72 #ai1 flexor longus digitorum 7portion ( ! deep flexor ( ! toes72 #bj1 t5don ( ! tibialis po/icus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,h9d-,,leg1 ,,int]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-t5d9osus2 #b1 semi-membranosus2 #c1 triceps cruris 7va/us int]nus72 #d1 patella2 #e1 s>torius2 #f1 gracilis2 #g1 ext5sor longus digitorum common ext5sor ( ! toes 7ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges72 #h1 t5don ( ! prec$+ muscle2 #i1 re9=c+ b& giv5 (f by ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #aj1 tibialis anticus 7flexor ( ! metat>sus71 its t5d9\s portion2 #aa1 tibialis anticus 7flexor ( ! metat>sus71 its fle%y portion2 #ab1 cunei=m bran* ( ! t5don ( ?is fle%y portion2 #ac1 int]nal head ( ga/rocnemius2 #ad1 popliteus2 #ae1 t5don ( ! flexor brevis digitorum 7sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges72 #af1 flexor longus pollicis & tibialis po/icus 7deep flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ag1 flexor longus digitorum 7oblique flexor ( ! phalanges72 #ah1 #ah1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges2 #ai1 #ai1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! phalanges2 #bj1 susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #ba1 pr9cipal metat>sal2 #bb1 int]nal rudim5t>y metat>sal4 ,9 ! pig ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! muscle is simil>1 b ! t5dons end 9 a mann] :i* is a little m complicat$4 ,ap>t f ! fasciculi :i* correspond to ! t5d9\s portion ( ! tibialis anticus 7fle%y "h1 z 9 ! ox71 ! long ext5sor ( ! toes at ! level ( ! t>sus divides into ?ree t5dons3 ! int]nal goes to ! great int]nal toe2 ! middle bifurcates 9 ! upp] "p ( ! digital portion ( ! foot1 & ea* ( its bran*es goes t[>ds "o ( ! great-toes2 ! ext]nal divides to pass t[>ds ea* ( ! two small toes1 & t[>ds ! great ones2 b ?is latt] disposition is n con/ant4 ,by its contraction ! muscle :i* we h j /udi$ ext5ds ! phalanges & flexes ! foot4 ,p]oneus ,t]tius4--,?is muscle is n f\nd 9 dome/ic quadrup$s4 ,we %\ld rememb]1 nev]!less1 t c]ta9 au?ors consid] z repres5t+ x ! t5d9\s portion ( ! ant]ior tibial ( ! horse1 or ! correspond+ portion n[ fle%y1 ( ! same muscle 9 ! pig & ! ox4 ,x is by reason ( ?is fact t x is call$ ! ?ird p]oneal1 not)/&+ t 9 ! num]ical ord] ( ! p]oneals x is r ! fir/4 ,b t :i* /ill fur!r complicates ?is "q ( nom5clature is t "s au?ors give ?is "n ( ?ird to a p]oneal :i*1 9 ! c>nivora1 is situat$ m def9itely 9 ! gr\p ( ext]nal muscles 7see bel[1 ,%ort ,lat]al ,p]oneal74 ,muscles ( ! ,ext]nal ,region ,9 man1 two muscles con/itute ?is region2 !y are ! p]oneus longus & p]oneus brevis4 ,p]oneus ,longus 7,fig4 #hd1 #i2 ,fig4 #he1 #g74--,?is muscle does n exi/ 9 ! dome/ic animals2 only 9 ! fle%-eat]s1 ! pig & ! ox except$4 ,x is 9 relation sup]iorly ) ! tibialis anticus1 & inf]iorly ) ! common ext5sor ( ! toes2 9 ! ox1 x is 9 contact ) ?is latt] muscle ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g?4 ,! p]oneus longus arises f ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia2 t[>ds ! middle ( ! leg x is replac$ by a t5don4 ,?is proce$s t[>ds ! t>sus1 b previ\sly x passes betwe5 ! tibia & fibula4 ,9 ! ox x is situat$ 9 front ( ! coronoid t>sal bone2 we recollect t ?is bone is reg>d$ z repres5t+ ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fibula 7see p4 #ig74 ,!n x passes into a groove belong+ to ! cuboid bone or to ! cuboido-scaphoid bone 9 ! ox1 trav]ses obliquely ! po/]ior aspect ( ! t>sus1 & is ins]t$ into ! rudim5t>y bone :i* repres5ts ! fir/ toe2 or1 if ?is does n exi/1 into ! inn]mo/ ( ! metat>sal bones4 ,?is muscle is an ext5sor ( ! foot4 ,x also rotates x outw>ds 9 ! animals 9 :i* ! articulation p]mits ?is latt] movem5t4 ,p]oneus ,brevis 7,fig4 #hc1 #h2 ,fig4 #hc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hd1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hf1 #f74--;,9 ! dog & ! cat1 ?is muscle is cov]$ 9 "p by ! p]oneus longus1 & arises f ! inf]ior half ( ! tibia & ! fibula2 at ! level ( ! t>sus x becomes t5d9\s1 passes into a groove holl[$ out on ! ext]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fibula1 & t]m9ates on ! ext]nal aspect ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! fif? metat>sal4 ,a little be=e ?is ins]tion x crosses ! t5don ( ! long p]oneal 9 pass+ to ! out] side ( ! latt]4 ,to ! %ort p]oneal muscle is f\nd annex$ a v ?9 fasciculus :i* lies ^u x4 ,?is fasciculus arises f b5ea? ! head ( ! fibula1 & is soon replac$ by a ?9 t5don1 :i*1 accompany+ t ( ! %ort p]oneal1 proce$s t[>ds ! foot1 aft] hav+ trav]s$ ! groove 9 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! fibula2 passes along by ! fif? metat>sal 7,fig4 #hd1 #ab72 bl5ds at ! level ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! fif? toe ) ! correspond+ t5don ( ! long ext5sor ( ! toes1 & p>takes ( ! ins]tions ( ?is t5don4 ,?is fasciculus is designat$ by "s au?ors "u ! "n ( ! p]oneal ( ! fif? toe1 or ! prop] ext5sor ( ! same toe4 ,b :at makes /ill fur!r complications is t o!r au?ors reg>d x z an ant]ior1 or ?ird1 p]oneal4 ,n[1 ^! names are ^? :i* o!r anatomi/s h appli$ to ! fasciculus ( ! ant]ior tibial1 :i*1 9 ! pig & ! ox1 is fus$ 9 "p ) ! long ext5sor ( ! toes4 ,h5ce !re results a confusion :i* is truly regrettable4 ,9 brief1 we c1 )\t inconv5i5ce1 consid] x z a fasciculus ( ! %ort p]oneal muscle4 ,we sometimes f9d 9 man1 b abnormally1 an arrangem5t :i* p>tly recalls t :i* we h j indicat$4 ,x consi/s 9 a duplication ( ! t5don ( ! %ort p]oneal1 "o ( ! bran*es ( :i* goes to ! fif? metat>sal1 & ! o!r to ! fif? toe2 x is sometimes a s+le fasciculus :i* goes to ! phalanges ( ?is latt]4 ,we h met ) examples ( ^! anomalies4#ca ,9 ! pig1 ! %ort p]oneal is situat$ on ! same plane z ! long4 ,x consi/s ( two cle>ly di/9ct fasciculi1 :i* arise f ! fibula4 ,! t5don ( ! ant]ior fasciculus proce$s to ! great ext]nal toe--t is to say1 ! f\r?1 ( :i* x is ! prop] ext5sor4 ,! po/]ior fasciculus t]m9ates on ! small ext]nal toe1 ! fif?1 ( :i* x is 9 l mann] ! ext5sor4 #ca ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',anomalies1 ,osse\s & ,muscul>' 7,bullet9s de la ,societe d',an?ropologie1 ,p>is1 #ahia74 ,9 ! ox1 ! fle%y fibres ( ! %ort p]oneal arise f a fibr\s b& :i* replaces ! fibula1 & f ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia4 ,situat$ beh9d ! long p]oneal & on ! same plane1 x t]m9ates 9 a t5don :i* appe>s at ! level ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! leg2 x passes 9 front ( ! canon1 & is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal toe1 ( :i* x is ! prop] ext5sor4 ,9 ! horse1 x is ! sole repres5tative ( ! p]oneal muscles1 & vet]9>y anatomi/s h giv5 x ! "n ( ! lat]al ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,its fle%y body arises above f ! ext]nal lat]al ligam5t ( ! knee-jo9t1 & f ! :ole l5g? ( ! fibula4 ,9 ! middle ?ird ( ! leg x is n>r[$2 l[] d[n x is replac$ by a t5don4 ,?is is lodg$ 9 a groove holl[$ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia2 !n aft] pass+ along ! ext]nal surface ( ! t>sus1 x is direct$ =w>d1 & proce$s to bl5d t[>ds ! middle ( ! canon-bone ) ! t5don ( ! long ext5sor ( ! toes1 or ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges1 ( :i* x %>es ! ins]tions4 ,x ext5ds ! phalanges into :i* x is ins]t$4 ,x also flexes ! foot4 ,muscles ( ! ,po/]ior ,region ,x w n be unpr(itable to recall to m9d t1 9 man1 ! muscles ( ?is region are arrang$ 9 two lay]s3 a sup]ficial lay] consi/+ ( ! ga/rocnemius & soleus1 to :i* is add$ a muscle ( little importance1 ! plant>is1 & a deep lay] =m$ by f\r muscles--! popliteus1 flexor longus digitorum1 tibialis po/icus1 & flexor longus pollicis4 ,! ga/rocnemius & soleus1 indep5d5t 9 _! upp] portion1 unite bel[ 9 a common t5don2 !y ?us =m also a triceps muscle1 :i* we designate "u ! "n ( ! triceps ( ! leg1 or triceps suralis1 because x =ms ! elevation ( ! calf ( ! leg 7f sura1 calf74 ,ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #hc1 #i1 #aa2 ,fig4 #hd1 #ac1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #g1 #i2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ac74--,! ext]nal & int]nal heads ( ! ga/rocnemius1 di/9ct f "o ano!r only 9 _! upp] portion1 arise f ! %aft ( ! femur1 above ! condyles1 on ! bord]s ( ! popliteal surface1 to a relatively consid]able ext5t 9 ! great quadrup$s4 ,at ?is level !y are situat$ 9 ! popliteal region--t is to say1 9 ! space limit$ ext]nally by ! biceps1 & int]nally by ! semi-t5d9osus4 ,b z !y desc5d to a r l[ level on ! leg 9 quadrup$s1 & especially 9 c>nivora1 !y d n1 prop]ly speak+1 det]m9e a projection ( ! calf ( ! leg4 ,h[ev]1 !y pass f ?is region b to be soon cont9u$ by a t5don--! t5do-,a*illis1 :i* is ins]t$ into ! calcaneum4 ,n[1 ! region ( ! t>sus is call$ by vet]9>ians ! ham1 ! po/]ior surface ( :i* is angul>1 because ( ! oblique direction ( ! leg ) reg>d to ! v]tical direction ( ! metat>sus & ! pres5ce ( ! calcaneum2 ! prom95ce :i* ?is surface pres5ts has receiv$ ! "n ( ! po9t ( ! ham1 & ! t5don :i* ends !re t ( ! cord ( ! ham4 ,b ! t5do-,a*illis does n alone =m ?is cord4 ,inde$1 z we w soon see1 ! t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes takes "p 9 its =mation4 ,we may add1 ) reg>d to ! t5do-,a*illis1 t x is m cle>ly p]ceiv$ z an ext]nal feature1 because ! sk9 s9ks 9 front ( x1 z x does 9 man1 ov] ! lat]al p>ts ( ! region :i* x occupies4 ,! ga/rocnemius1 :5 x contracts1 ext5ds ! foot on ! leg4 ,x s]ves to ma9ta9 ! tibio-t>sal angle 9 ! /&+ position1 & dur+ walk+1 to det]m9e ! /eady+ ( ! h9d-limbs1 :i* !n1 aft] ! fa%ion ( a spr+1 project ! body =w>d4 ,by an analog\s movem5t !y take "p 9 ! po/]ior projection ( ! h9d-limbs 9 ! act ( kick+2 b !y are n ! only ones to act 9 ?is case1 ! muscles ( ! buttock & ?igh also be+ br\ght into play4 ,soleus 7,fig4 #hc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hf1 #h74--,?is muscle1 mu* less develop$ 9 quadrup$s ?an 9 man1 does n exi/ 9 ! dog4 ,) reg>d to ! soleus 9 ! pig1 ,pr(essor ,lesbre says3 ',meckel d5i$ its exi/5ce2 we1 h[ev]1 believe t x is unit$ to ! ext]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius1 its orig9 be+ transf]r$ to ! femur4'#cb #cb ,f4 ,x4 ,lesbre1 ',essai de ,myologie comp>ee de l'homme et des mammif]es dome/iques en vue d'etablir une nom5clature unique et rationelle1' ,lyon1 #ahig1 p4 #afi4 ,b 9 animals 9 :i* x exi/s1 ?is muscle1 ( b little importance1 occupies ! out] side ( ! leg4 ,x arises above f ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia1 & t]m9ates bel[ 9 a t5don :i* is unit$ ) t ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,! soleus has ! same action z ^! latt]4 ,plant>is4--,9 quadrup$s ?is muscle is bl5d$ ) ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes1 :i* we w /udy aft]w>ds4 ,popliteus 7,fig4 #hg1 #af2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ad74--;,9 man1 ?is muscle1 :i* occupies ! po/]ior surface ( ! tibia1 above ! oblique l9e1 is completely cov]$ by ! ga/rocnemius4 ,9 quadrup$s1 :]e x is m volum9\s1 x projects int]nally beyond ! ga/rocnemius1 s t x is se5 9 ! int]nal & sup]ior "p ( ! region ( ! sup]ficial lay] ( muscles1 imm$iately beh9d ! int]nal surface ( ! tibia1 :i*1 z we "k1 is subcutane\s4 ,! popliteus arises f ! ext]nal surface ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur4 ,!nce its fibres :i* div]ge pass to be ins]t$ into ! sup]ior "p ( ! po/]ior surface & ( ! int]nal bord] ( ! tibia4 ,x is 9 ?is latt] region t x projects beyond ! ga/rocnemius1 b we may add t !re x is m or less cov]$ by ! semi-t5d9osus4 ,x flexes ! leg1 & rotates x =w>ds4 ,sup]ficial ,flexor ( ! ,toes 7,fig4 #hc1 #ac1 #ae2 ,fig4 #hd1 #ag2 ,fig4 #hf1 #aa1 #ac1 #ac2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ag2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ae1 #ah1 #ah74--;,9 man1 ! homologue ( ?is muscle is f\nd 9 ! sole ( ! foot4 ,x is call$ ! %ort flexor ( ! toes4 ,x arises f ! calcaneum1 & passes to ! f\r out] toes4 ,9 quadrup$s1 x rises z high z ! back ( ! knee1 & is f\nd bl5d$ ) ! plant>is4 ,fur!r designat$ by ! "n ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges1 cov]$ 9 "p by ! ga/rocnemius1 ) :i* x is 9 relation = a great "p ( ! c\rse :i* x trav]ses1 ?is muscle arises f ! po/]ior surface ( ! femur1 on ! ext]nal bran* ( ! inf]ior bifurcation ( ! l9ea asp]a4 ,9 ! horse1 ?is orig9 takes place 9 a depression situat$ above ! ext]nal condyle1 9 ! supracondyloid fossa4 ,!n x accompanies ! ga/rocnemius1 & becomes t5d9\s :]e ! t5do-,a*illis comm5ces4 ,x !n w9ds r\nd ! latt] 9 plac+ itself on its inn] side1 !n on its po/]ior surface1 & rea*es ! calcaneum4 ,x accord+ly contributes1 z we h already po9t$ out1 to =m ! cord ( ! ham4 ,aft] hav+ become exp&$1 & hav+ cov]$ z ) a sort ( fibr\s cap ! bone ( ! heel1 x desc5ds beh9d ! metat>sus1 & pres5ts !re an arrangem5t analog\s to t :i* we po9t$ out 9 connection ) ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! digits--t is1 x contributes to =m ! t5don4 ,?is prom95ce1 9 ! =m ( a cord1 we see beh9d ! canon-bone 9 solip$s & rum9ants4 ,x f9ally t]m9ates 9 ! same way z ! muscle ) :i* we h comp>$ x 7see p4 #aig74 ,9 ! horse1 its fle%y body is b slightly develop$1 s t its t5don alone is specially visible 9 ! sup]ficial muscul> lay]1 b 9 ! dog & ! cat x is l>ge4 ,h5ce x results t its fle%y body appe>s on ea* side ( ! inf]ior half ( ! ga/rocnemius1 & produces an elevation :i* recalls t :i* ! soleus produces on ea* side ( ! same muscles 9 ! human species4 ,! muscles :i* foll[ =m1 ) ! popliteus1 :i* we h already /udi$1 ! deep lay] ( ! po/]ior region ( ! leg4 ,flexor ,longus ,digitorum 7,fig4 #hg1 #ai2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ag74--,?is muscle1 9 man1 is ! only common flexor ( ! toes belong+ to ! muscles ( ! leg4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! prec$+ muscle1 x is a deep flexor4 ,vet]9>ians h giv5 x ! "n ( ! oblique flexor ( ! phalanges4 ,visible on ! int]nal aspect ( ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! muscles ( ! leg1 ?is muscle arises above f ! po/]ior surface ( ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia1 becomes t5d9\s1 passes t[>ds ! metat>sus1 & bl5ds ) ! t5dons ( ! po/]ior tibial & ! long prop] flexor ( ! great-toe4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x is bl5d$ ) ?is latt] only4 ,tibialis ,po/icus 7,fig4 #he1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hg1 #bj2 ,fig4 #hh1 #af74--,?is muscle arises f ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! tibia1 & f ! head ( ! fibula4 ,!nce x passes to ! t>sus1 & t]m9ates 9 diff]5t fa%ion 9 c>nivora & o!r quadrup$s4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat1 x is ins]t$ into ! ligam5t\s app>atus ( ! t>sus1 or into ! base ( ! second metat>sal4 ,9 ! o!r quadrup$s ) :i* we are "h occupi$ x is bl5d$ ) ! long prop] flexor ( ! great-toe4 ,x is accord+ly 9 ! c>nivora t ! mode ( t]m9ation ( ! tibialis po/icus mo/ ne>ly resembles t ( ?is same muscle 9 ! human species4 ,f ?is indep5d5ce !re results a special action4 ,x is an adductor & int]nal rotator ( ! foot4 ,flexor ,longus ,pollicis 7,fig4 #hd1 #ah2 ,fig4 #he1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ah2 ,fig4 #hh1 #af74--,?is muscle1 z t 9 man1 is ! mo/ ext]nal ( ! deep lay] ( ! leg4 ,x is on ! ext]nal aspect ( ! latt] we p]ceive x1 betwe5 ! p]oneals & ! ga/rocnemius or t5do-,a*illis4 ,x arises f ! fibula & tibia1 & is !nce direct$ t[>ds ! t>sus4 ,x unites ) ! long common flexor ( ! toes to =m ) x ! deep flexor ( ! phalanges1 ( :i* x is ! pr9cipal fasciculus4 ,we may add t 9 ! dog & ! cat ! po/]ior tibial rema9s indep5d5t ( ?is latt]1 b t 9 ! pig1 ox1 & horse ! po/]ior tibial is unit$ to ! prec$+ to =m ) !m ! deep flexor muscle4 ,?us con/itut$1 ! deep flexor goes t[>ds ! phalanges1 :]e x t]m9ates z ! deep flexor ( ! digits ( ! =e-limbs 7see p4 #aig74 ,9 animals possess$ ( a canon x contributes to =m ! t5don 7,fig4 #he1 #af2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ad1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ai1 #ai74 ,muscles ( ! ,foot ,we mu/ rememb] t on ! dorsal surface ( ! foot 9 man we f9d b a s+le muscle--! dorsalis p$is4 ,! rema9+ subcutane\s /ructures ( ?is region consi/ ( ! t5dons ( ! ant]ior muscles ( ! leg :i* occupy ?is dorsal aspect4 ,dorsalis ,p$is 7,fig4 #hd1 #ai74--;,also call$ ! ext5sor brevis digitorum1 ! dorsalis p$is muscle is f\nd 9 all dome/ic quadrup$s2 b its developm5t is s mu* ! less z ! numb] ( digits is m r$uc$4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x arises f ! calcaneum1 & is ins]t$ into ! ?ree int]nal toes 7! fir/ toe except$7 by unit+ ) ! correspond+ t5dons ( ! common ext5sor4 ,9 ! pig its disposition is analog\s4 ,z = ! dorsalis p$is ( ! ox & ! horse1 x is extremely rudim5t>y1 & occupies ! sup]ior "p ( ! canon4 ,x is a small1 fle%y body1 situat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ! metat>sus1 :i* arises f ! calcaneum1 :5ce x passes to unite at its inf]ior extremity ) ! t5don ( ! ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,z reg>ds ! muscles ( ! sole ( ! foot1 we ?9k x unnecess>y to occupy ourselves at any l5g? ) !m because ( _! slight importance ) reg>d to ext]nal =m4 ,we w only recall t 9 ! m$ian portion ( ?is plant> surface we f9d 9 man ! %ort flexor ( ! toes1 :i* 9 quadrup$s arises high] up1 f ! po/]ior surface ( ! femur2 t x belongs to ! muscles ( ! leg2 & t x =ms ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes1 :i* we h already /udi$4 ,we may fur!r add t ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock 9 rum9ants & solip$s repres5ts1 z 9 ! =e-limbs1 ! int]osse\s muscles4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head ,we w divide ^! muscles into two categories3 ma/icatory & cutane\s4 ,ma/icatory ,muscles ,! muscles ( ?is gr\p :i* specially int]e/ u are ! masset] & ! temporal4 ,z reg>ds ! pt]ygoids1 s9ce !y are situat$ )9 ! bord]s ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone1 & consequ5tly d n rea* ! surface1 we %all n require to occupy ourselves ) !m "h4 ,masset] 7,fig4 #hi1 #b2 ,fig4 #ij1 #a2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,= ^? :o h /udi$ ! masset] ( man1 x is n difficult to recognise t ( quadrup$s4 ,nev]!less1 ! p>ticul> aspect :i* x pres5ts 9 diff]5t species gives to its /udy a c]ta9 int]e/4 ,aris+ f ! zygomatic ar*1 & pass+ d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 x is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal surface ( ! ramus ( ! m&ible & into its angle4 ,its po/]ior bord] is 9 relation ) ! p>otid gl& 7,fig4 #ij1 #ad2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib71 ?is gl& be+ situat$ betwe5 ! correspond+ bord] ( ! l[] jaw bone & ! transv]se process ( ! atlas4 ,su* are ! g5]al *>act]s2 ! foll[+ are ! p>ticul> ones3 ,9 ! c>nivora x is ?ick & convex4 ,9 ! horse x is flat1 b m exp&$2 x =ms ! flat ( ! *eek4 ,9 ! ox x is flat1 z 9 ! latt]2 b1 :ile be+ less ?ick1 x is m prolong$ 9 ! v]tical direction4 ,! =m ( ! osse\s p>ts :i* give x orig9 is1 besides1 9 relation ) ^! diff]5ces1 & expla9s ! peculi> *>act]s :i* ! masset] pres5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,ma/icatory ,,muscles 7,a ,,deep] ,,dissection ,,?an ,,t ,,%[n ,,9 ,,fig4 #ij74 #a1 ,zygomatic ar*2 #b1 masset]2 #c1 temporal expos$ by ! suppression ( ! auricul> & occipital muscles & ! p9na ( ! e>2 #d1 auditory canal2 #e1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #f1 diga/ric4 ,inde$1 9 ! dog & ! cat ! zygomatic ar*1 /rongly convex1 spr+s up 9 a m>k$ mann] f ! plane ( ! lat]al aspects ( ! skull4 ,9 ! horse ! same ar*1 less prom95t ext]nally1 is prolong$ by a rectil9e> cre/ on ! sup]ior maxill>y bone1 :]e x is cont9u$ 9 =m+ ! zygomatic or maxill>y sp9e4 ,9 ! ox ! same cre/ asc5ds a good way t[>ds ! inf]ior m>g9 ( ! orbit 9 a curv$ direction ) ! concavity inf]ior1 to r$esc5d aft]w>ds on ! ext]nal surface ( ! sup]ior maxilla4 ,! masset] is an elevator ( ! l[] jaw4 ,x acts1 above all1 z 9 ! human species1 9 ! process ( ma/ication4 ,temporal ,muscle 7,fig4 #hi1 #c74--,! developm5t ( ! temporal is 9 proportion to ! en]gy ( ! movem5ts ( elevation :i* ! l[] jaw has to execute4 ,x arises f ! temporal fossa1 & is ins]t$ into ! coronoid process ( ! inf]ior maxilla4 ,its developm5t1 enorm\s 9 ! c>nivora1 is su* t ! muscle projects beyond its fossa4 ,x is less volum9\s 9 ! horse1 & /ill less s 9 ! ox4 ,9 ! latt]1 inde$1 ! temporal fossa1 al?\gh deep1 is ( small ext5t 7see ,fig4 #fb1 p4 #aai72 ! frontal bone be+ l>ge1 x is f\nd to be ?r[n back on ! lat]al walls ( ! cranium1 bel[ ! osse\s processes :i* support ! horns & ov]hang ! fossa 9 "q1 z well z ! muscle :i* x conta9s4 ,x is cov]$ by ! auricul> muscles1 & by ! base ( ! p9na ( ! e>4 ,l ! masset]1 ! temporal is an elevator ( ! l[] jaw4 ,cutane\s ,muscles ( ! ,head ,occipito-,frontalis4--,! epicranial aponeurosis is extremely ?94 ,9 ! dog ! occipital muscle occupies ! sup]ior "p ( ! head2 x ov]lies ! temporal muscle4 ,) reg>d to ! frontal muscle1 :i* is ( great ext5t 9 ! ox 7,fig4 #ia1 ,f71 x is repres5t$ 9 ! horse & ! c>nivora by a small fle%y fasciculus only1 ! fronto-palpebral muscle1 simil> to ! sup]cili>y muscle4 ,?is1 occupy+ ! sup]ior & int]nal "p ( ! bord] ( ! orbit1 ends by bl5d+ its fibres ) ^? ( ! orbicul> muscle ( ! eyelids at ! region ( ! eyebr[4 ,orbicul>is ,palpebr>um 7,fig4 #ij1 #b2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,?is annul> muscle surr\nds ! palpebral orifice1 & takes its orig9 on ! int]nal "p ( ! orbital region4 ,9 ! horse x arises1 by a small t5don1 f a tub]cle :i* occupies ! ext]nal surface ( ! os unguis1 or la*rymal bone4 ,?is muscle det]m9es ! n>r[+ & closure ( ! palpebral orifice4 ,pyramidalis ,nasi4--,! pyramidal muscle is n f\nd 9 ! dome/ic animals4 ,x appe>s to be bl5d$ ) ! int]nal elevator ( ! upp] lip & w+ ( ! nose2 ?is is easy ( compreh5sion if we be> 9 m9d ! relative position ( ^! two muscles 9 ! human species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 #a1 ,masset]2 #b1 orbicul>is palpebr>um2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 la*rymal 7?is muscle is sometimes describ$ "u ! "n ( ! small zygomatic72 #e1 levator labii sup]ioris proprius2 #f1 levator labii sup]ioris alaeque nasi2 #g1 can9us2 #i1 bucc9ator2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricul>is2 #ab1 ext]nal temporo-auricul>is2 #ad1 p>otid gl&2 #ae1 p>otido-auricul>is2 #af1 inf]ior maxill>y bone2 #ag1 diga/ric4 ,corrugator ,sup]cilii4--,?is muscle is repres5t$ by ! fronto-palpebral muscle notic$ above1 :i* is by "s reg>d$ z a ve/ige ( ! frontal4 ,zygomaticus ,major 7,fig4 #ij1 #c2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,?is is ! zygomatic-labial ( vet]9>ians4 ,?is muscle is ( an elongat$ =m1 & has a ribbon-l aspect4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x arises f ! base ( ! p9na ( ! e>1 f ! portion ( ?is base :i* be>s ! "n ( scuti=m c>tilage4 7,) reg>d to ?is c>tilage1 see p4 #bdb1 ,zygomatico-auricul>is47 ,f ?is x is direct$ d[nw>ds & =w>ds1 to t]m9ate1 aft] hav+ cross$ ! masset]1 on ! deep surface ( ! sk9 ( ! correspond+ labial commissure4 ,?is mode ( t]m9ation is ! same 9 ! ox & ! horse2 b :]e ! muscle diff]s is at ! level ( its upp] extremity4 ,!re x asc5ds less ?an 9 ! c>nivora4 ,9 ! ox x arises f ! zygomatic ar* 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! temporo-maxill>y articulation2 9 ! pig & ! horse its orig9 is /ill l[]1 on ! surface ( ! masset]1 close to ! maxill>y sp9e4 ,:5 x contracts1 x draws upw>ds ! labial commissure4 ,n[1 9 man1 we rememb]1 x is ! great zygomatic t1 by an action ( ! same k9d1 det]m9es ! ess5tial *>act]s ( ! expression ( laugh+4 ,!re is1 accord+ly1 a connection to be e/abli%$ betwe5 ^? displacem5ts :i* are simil> & ! analogy ( facial expression :i* necess>ily results f !m4#cc #cc ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',! ,mimic1' ,p>is1 #ahjb4 ,zygomaticus ,m9or 7,fig4 #ij1 #d2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,! exi/5ce ( ?is muscle has n be5 cle>ly demon/rat$4 ,nev]!less1 ,/raus-,durckheim not$ its pres5ce 9 ! horse1 & describ$ x z 'a muscle aris+ by two heads1 ( :i* "o1 ! sup]ior1 arises f ! mal> bone bel[ ! orbit1 & passes d[nw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! fibro-adipose lay] :i* supports ! m\/a*e4 ,! second1 ! inf]ior1 arises f ! alveol> bord] 9 front ( ! second mol> too?1 & passes =w>d to be ins]t$ into ! same fibro-adipose lay]4'#cd #cd ,h4 ,/raus-,durckheim1 ',anatomie descriptive et comp>ative du *at1' ,p>is1 #ahde1 t4 ii41 p4 #baj4 ,9 connection ) o!r quadrup$s1 x is describ$ by c]ta9 au?ors z a v ?9 muscle1 aris+ bel[ ! cavity ( ! orbit1 :]e x is bl5d$ ) ! fibres ( ! int]nal elevator ( ! upp] lip & ! ala ( ! nose2 !nce x proce$s to t]m9ate bel[ by unit+ ) ! subcutane\s muscle4 ,b ?is muscle is reg>d$ by o!r au?ors z ! la*rymal muscle1 :i* does n exi/ 9 ?is /ate 9 man1 b ( :i* ! developm5t is p>ticul>ly rem>kable1 z to ext5t1 9 ! ox1 9 :i* x desc5ds z f> z ! bucc9ator4 ,accord+ to o!r au?ors1 "s ( ! fibres ( ?is muscle con/itute ! small zygomatic4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 #a1 ,masset]2 #b1 orbicul>is palpebr>um2 ,f1 frontalis2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 la*rymal 7?is muscle is sometimes describ$ "u ! "n ( small zygomatic72 #e1 levator labii sup]ioris proprius2 #f1 levator labii sup]ioris alaeque nasi2 #g1 levator anguli oris or can9us2 #h1 orbicul>is oris2 #i1 bucc9ator2 #aj1 maxillo-labial2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricul>is2 #ab1 ext]nal temporo-auricul>is2 #ad1 p>otid gl&2 #ae1 p>otido-auricul>is2 #af1 inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,levator ,labii ,sup]ioris ,proprius 7,fig4 #ij1 #e2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,also nam$ by vet]9>ians ! supramaxillo-labial1 or aga91 ! prop] elevator ( ! upp] lip1 ?is muscle arises f ! ext]nal surface ( ! sup]ior maxill>y bone1 passes "u ! sup]ficial elevator1 :i* we %all /udy 9 ! succe$+ p>agraph1 & goes to be ins]t$ into ! ?ickness ( ! lip1 to :i* its "n indicates t x belongs4 ,! peculi>ities ( ?is muscle 9 diff]5t animals are ! foll[+3 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x arises beh9d ! infra-orbital =am54 ,9 ! pig x arises f a depression bel[ ! orbital cavity1 & its fle%y body is t]m9at$ 9 front by a /rong t5don 9 ! upp] "p ( ! sn\t1 9 :i* x divides into fasciculi4 ,9 ! ox x arises f ! maxill>y sp9e4 ,9 ! horse x arises bel[ ! orbital cavity2 !n1 aft] hav+ cross$ ! sup]ficial elevator1 x ends 9 a t5d9\s expansion1 situat$ 9 ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! nasal fossae4 ,?is expansion divides into fasciculi1 :i* end 9 ! ?ickness ( ! upp] lip4 ,by ! contraction ( ?is muscle1 ! lip is rais$1 on "o side only1 if a s+le muscle contracts1 or 9 its :ole ext5t1 if ! two muscles act simultane\sly4 ,int]nal ,elevator 7or ,sup]ficial7 ( ! ,upp] ,lip & ! ,w+ ( ! ,nose 7levator labii sup]ioris alaeque nasi7 7,fig4 #ij1 #f2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,?is is ! muscle vet]9>ians designate ! supranaso-labial4 ,aris+ f ! frontal & nasal bones1 x !nce passes t[>ds ! upp] lip1 :]e x is ins]t$ z well z into ! w+ ( ! nose4 ,9 ! ox x is unit$ above ) ! frontal muscle1 & bel[ is divid$ into two fasciculi1 betwe5 :i* pass ! elevator describ$ above & ! can9e muscle4 ,9 ! horse x is also divid$ into two fasciculi2 b ! arrangem5t is ! opposite z reg>ds1 _! relations ) neighb\r+ muscles1 9 ?is animal & 9 ! prec$+4 ,9 ! ox ! ext]nal fasciculus is cov]$ by ! ext]nal elevator & ! can9e1 :i* pass "u ! int]nal fasciculus2 9 ! horse ! deep elevator passes "u ! two fasciculi1 & ! can9e passes "u ! ext]nal bundle1 & aft]w>ds cov]s ! int]nal4 ,9 ! pig1 ! int]nal elevator is want+4 ,z its "n indicates1 x raises ! upp] lip & ! w+ ( ! nose4 ,transv]sus ,nasi4--,9 ! horse ?is muscle1 :i* is v ?91 is situat$ on ! dorsum ( ! nose1 & proce$s to be ins]t$ into ! c>tilag9\s skeleton ( ! no/rils4 ,9 ! pig1 x occupies an analog\s situation4 ,x does n exi/ 9 ! ox or 9 c>nivora4 ,! transv]sus nasi is a dilator ( ! no/rils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,myology ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 #a1 ,masset]2 #b1 orbicul>is palpebr>um2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 la*rymal 7?is muscle is sometimes describ$ "u ! "n ( ! small zygomatic72 #e1 ext]nal elevator 7or deep7 ( ! upp] lip & ala ( ! nose2 #f1 int]nal elevator 7or sup]ficial7 ( ! upp] lip & ( ! ala ( ! nose2 #g1 levator anguli oris or can9us2 #h1 orbicul>is oris2 #i1 bucc9ator2 #aj1 maxillo-labialis2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricul>is2 #ab1 temporo-auricul>is ext]nus2 #ac1 c]vico-auricul>is2 #ad1 p>otid gl&2 #ae1 p>otido-auricul>is2 #af1 inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,can9us 7,fig4 #ij2 ,figs4 #g1 #ia1 #ib74--,?is is ! muscle call$ by vet]9>ians ! great supramaxillo-nasal4 ,9 ! dog & ! cat x is situat$ bel[ ! inf]ior bord] ( ! ext]nal elevator ( ! upp] lip1 ( :i* x foll[s ! direction4 ,x arises1 z does ?is latt]1 f ! ext]nal surface ( ! maxilla1 & goes also to t]m9ate 9 ! upp] lip by bl5d+ ) ! int]nal elevator ( ?is lip & ( ! alae ( ! nose4 ,x raises ! upp] lip4 ,9 ! ox1 x arises f ! maxill>y sp9e1 & !n divides into ?ree p>ts2 ! sup]ior passes "u ! int]nal portion ( ! int]nal elevator ( ! upp] lip & ! alae ( ! nose1 & goes into ! no/ril2 :il/ ! two o!rs1 situat$ l[] d[n1 t]m9ate 9 ! upp] lip4 ,9 ! pig1 x is =m$ ( two sup]impos$ fasciculi1 :i* arise f ! sp9e ( ! maxilla & ! impressions 9 front ( x4 ,^! two fasciculi t]m9ate 9 ! sn\t1 :i* !y move lat]ally4 ,9 ! horse1 x is situat$ at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! ext]nal elevator2 9 ! prec$+ animals x is 9 contact ) ! latt]4 ,aris+ beh9d f ! ext]nal surface ( ! maxilla1 9 front ( ! maxill>y sp9e1 x is direct$ t[>ds ! ant]ior "p ( ! face1 passes "u ! ext]nal portion ( ! int]nal elevator 7x is ! opposite ( ?is 9 ! ox71 & proce$s1 on exp&+1 to t]m9ate 9 ! sk9 ( ! no/ril4 ,by its contraction x dilates ! latt]4 ,orbicul>is ,oris 7,fig4 #ia1 #h2 ,fig4 #ib74--,?is muscle1 v fle%y 9 ! solip$s & ! rum9ants1 is arrang$ z a r+ r\nd ! buccal orifice1 9 ! ?ickness ( ! lips1 :]e x is bl5d$ ) ! o!r muscles ( ?is region4 ,hav+ = its function ! n>r[+ ( ! orifice x surr\nds1 x acts dur+ suction & 9 ! preh5sion ( food4 ,triangul>is ,oris4--,?is muscle does n exi/ 9 dome/ic quadrup$s4 ,quadratus ,m5ti4--,9 ! pig & ! c>nivora1 x arises f ! ant]ior "p ( ! body ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone1 & passes at ! o!r end to t]m9ate 9 ! correspond+ portion ( ! l[] lip1 :i* x depresses by its contraction4 ,9 ! ox & ! horse ?is muscle does n exi/2 x is replac$ = ! depression ( ! l[] lip1 :i* x affects 9 o!r animals1 by supplem5tal fibres ( ! bucc9ator4 ,! ,prom95ce ( ! ,*94--,bel[ ! l[] lip 9 ! horse is situat$ ! s-call$ prom95ce ( ! *91 limit$ po/]iorly by ! be>d1 a depress$ region :i* gives po9t to ! curb ( ! bridle4 ,! prom95ce1 :i* also exi/s 9 ! ox1 is a fibro-muscul> pad :i* bl5ds ) ! orbicul> muscle ( ! lips1 & receives on its sup]ior aspect ! ins]tion ( ! two muscles 7levator m5ti7 by :i* x is susp5d$4 ,^! arise1 above1 on ea* side ( ! symphysis ( ! inf]ior maxill>y bone4 ,!y raise ! l[] lip ) =ce1 & !y are ! ag5ts :i*1 z we c sometimes obs]ve 9 ! horse1 make x click aga9/ ! upp] lip1 sudd5ly project+ x upw>ds4 ,?is action sometimes becomes a habit1 & its cont9uance con/itutes a vice4 ,a correspond+ /ructure is f\nd 9 ! pig & 9 ! c>nivora1 b 9 !m x does n produce an ext]nal prom95ce su* z we h describ$4 ,bucc9ator 7,fig4 #ij1 #i2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,fur!r designat$ by ! "n ( alveolo-labial1 ?is muscle is situat$ on ! lat]al portions ( ! face1 9 ! ?ickness ( ! *eeks4 ,x consi/s ( two lay]s1 "o sup]ficial & ! o!r deep4 ,! deep portion arises f ! portion ( ! alveol> bord] ( ! sup]ior maxill>y bone :i* corresponds to ! mol> tee?1 & f ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ramus ( ! m&ible4 ,!nce x is direct$ =w>ds1 passes "u ! sup]ficial lay]1 & bl5ds ) ! fibres ( ! orbicul> muscle ( ! lips4 ,to ?is "p ( ! bucc9ator "s au?ors give ! "n ( mol> muscle4 ,! sup]ficial portion is =m$ by fibres :i* pass f ! alveol> bord] ( ! sup]ior maxill>y bone to ! correspond+ bord] ( ! opposite bone4 ,x is v highly develop$ 9 ! h]bivora4 ,?is muscle acts especially dur+ ma/ication2 x s]ves to press back aga9 "u ! mol> tee? ! portions ( food :i* fall outside ! d5tal ar*4 ,9 ! pig1 ! ox1 & ! horse1 a muscle :i* is consid]$ z supplem5tal to ! bucc9ator is plac$ along ! inf]ior bord] ( ! latt]4 ,?is muscle1 :i* we describe sep>ately "u ! names ( maxillo-labialis 7,fig4 #ia1 #aj2 ,fig4 #ib7 & depressor ( ! l[] lip1 is cle>ly di/9ct f ! bucc9ator1 especially 9 ! horse4 ,x arises1 beh9d1 ) ! deep lay] ( ! muscle to :i* x is annex$1 f ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ramus ( ! l[] jaw2 9 front x t]m9ates 9 ! ?ickness ( ! l[] lip4 ,9 ! ox1 x is m intimately unit$ ) ! bucc9ator4 ,x depresses ! lip to :i* x is atta*$1 & displaces x lat]ally :5 x acts on "o side only4 ,9 ! human species1 ! p9na ( ! e> be+ g5]ally immobile1 ! muscles :i* belong to x are1 v naturally1 consid]ably atrophi$4 ,accord+ly1 ! auricul> muscles1 ant]ior1 sup]ior1 & po/]ior1 are r$uc$ to pale & ?9 fle%y lamellae1 ^: action is reveal$ 9 c]ta9 individuals1 only 9 a way :i* may be said to be abnormal4 ,x is n ! same 9 quadrup$s4 ,! p9na ( ! e> is extremely mobile1 & its displacem5ts h a real value f ! po9t ( view ( physiognomical expression4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to review ! muscles :i* move ?is p9na )\t giv+ !m1 at ! same "t1 m importance ?an !y m]it1 s9ce 9 !mselves !y d n det]m9e ! =mation ( surface reliefs1 :i* are suffici5tly app>5t4 ,not)/&+ t = c]ta9 ( ^! muscles x is possible to trace _! analogy ) ^? ( ! auricul> region ( man1 x is v difficult1 because ( _! complexity1 to trace ?is analogy = all4 ,?is is :y we %all n be able "h1 z we h done = ! o!r muscles ( ! subcutane\s lay]1 to give at ! head ( ea* p>agraph ! "n ( a human muscle1 & !n to gr\p 9 ! same p>agraph ! muscles :i* correspond to x 9 diff]5t quadrup$s4 ,!re=e ! nom5clature & ! divisions adopt$ = ^! latt] mu/ s]ve u z a base or />t+-po9t4 ,because ! p9na ( ! horse's e> is s v mobile1 we w fir/ beg9 ) a /udy ( its auricul> muscles4 ,zygomatico-auricul>is 7,fig4 #ib1 #aa74--,?is muscle1 :i* is =m$ ( two small b&s ( fle%y fibres1 arises f ! zygomatic ar* 9 bl5d+ ) ! orbicul> muscle ( ! eyelids2 !nce x is direct$ t[>ds ! base ( ! p9na ( ! e>1 & is ins]t$ into ?is base1 & also into ! c>tilag9\s plate situat$ 9 front ( & int]nal to ?is1 & re/+ on ! surface ( ! temporal muscle2 ?is is ! scuti=m c>tilage4 ,! zygomatico-auricul>is1 :i* we look on z ! homologue ( ! ant]ior auricul> ( man1 draws ! p9na ( ! e> =w>ds4 ,temporo-auricul>is ,ext]nus 7,fig4 #ib1 #ab74--,?is1 :i* is ?9 & v broad1 cov]s ! temporal muscle4 ,x arises f ! :ole ext5t ( ! p>ietal cre/1 bl5d+ 9 ?is plane1 9 its po/]ior half1 ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,!nce x is direct$ outw>ds t[>ds ! p9na ( ! e>1 & is ins]t$ into ! int]nal bord] ( ! scuti=m c>tilage & on ! inn] side ( ! con*a--t is to say1 ( ! con*9ian c>tilage--:i* =ms ! pr9cipal "p ( ! p9na4 ,we are suppos+1 9 ! description ( ! muscles :i* move x1 t ?is p9na has its op5+ direct$ outw>ds4 ,! ext]nal temporo-auricul>1 :i* recalls1 f its situation1 ! sup]ior auricul> ( man1 is an adductor ( ! e>2 besides1 x causes x to describe a movem5t ( rotation f )\t inw>ds1 s z to direct its op5+ =w>ds4 ,scuto-auricul>is ,ext]nus4--,?is muscle may be consid]$ z supplem5t>y to ! ext]nal temporo-auricul>2 ! con*a fasciculus ( ?is latt] p>tly cov]s x4 ,ext5d+ f ! scuti=m c>tilage to ! inn] side ( ! con*a1 x contributes to ! movem5t ( rotation by :i* ! op5+ ( ! p9na ( ! e> is direct$ =w>ds4 ,c]vico-auricul> ,muscles 7,fig4 #ib1 #ac74--,^! muscles1 ?ree 9 numb]1 are situat$ beh9d ! p9na ( ! e>2 !y are call$1 f _! mode ( sup]position1 ! sup]ficial1 middle1 & deep4 ,^! arise1 all ?ree1 f ! sup]ior c]vical ligam5t1 & pass f !re t[>ds ! c>tilage ( ! con*a4 ,!y recall1 z reg>ds situation1 ! po/]ior auricul> muscle ( man4 ,sup]ficial ,c]vico-auricul> 7,c]vico-auricul>is sup]ioris74--,?is muscle1 ins]t$ into ! po/]ior surface ( ! con*a1 draws ?is c>tilage backw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,middle ,c]vico-auricul> 7,c]vico-auricul>is m$ius74--,situat$ betwe5 ! two o!r muscles ( ! same gr\p1 x proce$s1 aft] hav+ cov]$ ! sup]ior extremity ( ! p>otid gl&1 to be ins]t$ into ! ext]nal "p ( ! base ( ! con*a4 ,x det]m9es ! rotation ( ?is con*a 9 su* a way z to direct ! op5+ ( ! e> backw>ds4 ,deep ,c]vico-auricul> 7,c]vico-auricul>is inf]ioris74--,cov]$ by ! prec$+ muscle & ! sup]ior portion ( ! p>otid1 x is ins]t$ into ! base ( ! p9na ( ! e>1 & has ! same action z ! middle c]vico-auricul>4 ,p>otido-auricul>is 7,fig4 #ib1 #ae74--,?is is a long & ?9 fle%y b& :i* arises f ! ext]nal surface ( ! p>otid gl&1 & tap]+ z x passes upw>ds t[>ds ! p9na ( ! e>1 is ins]t$ into ! ext]nal surface ( ! base ( ! con*a1 bel[ ! inf]ior "p ( ! angle ( reunion ( ! two bord]s :i* limit its op5+4 ,x incl9es ! p9na outw>ds2 x is1 accord+ly1 an abductor ( ! p9na4 ,temporo-auricul>is ,int]nus4--,?is muscle is cov]$ by ! ext]nal temporo-auricul> & ! sup]ior c]vico-auricul>4 ,x arises f ! p>ietal cre/1 & is ins]t$ into ! int]nal surface ( ! con*a4 ,x is an adductor ( ! p9na ( ! e>4 ,!re are1 f9ally1 an int]nal scuto-auricul> muscle & a tympano-auricul>2 b !y d n pres5t any int]e/ = u2 we c simply conf9e ourselves to mak+ m5tion ( !m4 ,9 ! ox1 because ( ! situation ( ! temporal fossa & ! fact t ! ext]nal temporo-auricul> muscle is appli$1 z 9 ! horse1 ov] ! muscle :i* ?is fossa conta9s1 ?is temporo-auricul> muscle does n rea* ! middle l9e 7,fig4 #ia1 #ab74 ,b 9 ! cat & ! dog ?is muscle cov]s all ! upp] "p ( ! head 7,fig4 #ij1 #ab74 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts3 ! int]scutell> & ! fronto-scutell>4 ,! int]scutell> is a s+le muscle1 ?9 & broad1 cov]+ ! temporal muscle & a portion ( ! occipital1 ext5d+ f ! scuti=m c>tilage ( ! p9na ( "o side to ! same c>tilage ( ! p9na belong+ to ! side opposite4 ,x approximates ! two p9nae to "o ano!r by br++ !m ea* into ! position ( adduction4 ,! fronto-scutell> arises f ! orbital process ( ! frontal bone1 & f ! orbital ligam5t1 :i* at ?is level completes ! int]rupt$ osse\s b\nd>y ( ! orbital cavity4 ,!nce x is direct$1 wid5+ z x proce$s1 t[>ds ! scuti=m c>tilage1 & is !re ins]t$ by bl5d+ ) ! correspond+ "p ( ! great zygomatic4 ,its action is analog\s to t ( ! prec$+ muscle2 b1 fur!r1 x directs ! op5+ ( ! p9na =w>ds4 ,^! are ! muscles :i* act1 = example1 :5 ! dog1 hav+ 8 att5tion /rongly attract$ by any cause1 pricks up 8 e>s & turns ! op5+s =w>d1 9 ord] ! bett] to und]/& e s\nd :i* proce$s1 or may possibly proce$1 f t :i* he obs]ves4 ,f ?is1 :i* may be extremely well se5 9 "s individuals1 results ! appe>ance ( v]tical wr9kles ( ! sk9 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! p9nae ( ! e>s1 ^! be+ caus$ by ! fold+ ( ! integum5t1 :il/ ! p9nae approa* "o ano!r4 ,^! movem5ts1 ) :i* are associat$ fixation ( look & a wid5+ ( ! palpebral fissure1 produce a peculi>ly expressive look2 ?is is :y !y m]it our att5tion4 ,zygomatico-auricul>is 7,fig4 #ij1 #aa74--;,arises f ! int]nal surface ( ! great zygomatic1 passes t[>ds ! p9na ( ! e>1 & goes to be ins]t$ into ! ext]nal "p ( ! base ( ! p9na1 bel[ its op5+1 to a prom95ce :i* corresponds to ! antitragus ( ! human e>4 ,x is to ?is antitragus1 b proce$+ f ano!r direction1 t ! p>otido-auricul> muscle is ins]t$ 7,fig4 #ij1 #ae74 ,) reg>d to ! c]vico-auricul>s1 !y are all ?ree pres5t4 ,! sup]ior1 or sup]ficial1 situat$ beh9d ! int]scutell> portion ( ! ext]nal temporo-auricul>1 has its orig9 on ! m$ian l9e ( ! neck2 !nce x passes t[>ds ! p9na ( ! e>1 bl5d+ its fibres ) ^? ( ! int]scutell> muscle1 & is ins]t$ into ! scuti=m c>tilage & ! int]nal surface ( ! p9na4 ,su* are ! pr9cipal muscles ( ! e> 9 ! c>nivora2 x w\ld seem to u sup]flu\s to dwell on ! o!rs ( ?is region1 s t we w "h conclude ! /udy ( ! muscles 9 g5]al1 & t ( ! myology ( ! head 9 p>ticul>4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,epid]mic ,,products ,,( ,,! ,,t]m9al ,,extremities ,,( ,,! ,,=e ,,& ,,h9d ,,limbs ,we w fir/ recall to m9d t among ! quadrup$s "s are f\nd ( :i* ! f+]s & toes h _! ?ird phalanges t]m9at$ by claws--^! are ! unguiculates2 & t 9 o!rs ! t]m9al extremity ( ea* limb is completely encas$ 9 a horny envelope1 ! ho(--^! are ! ungulates4 ,9 ! fir/ gr\p1 ! claws rem9d u to a c]ta9 ext5t ( ! arrangem5t ( ! nails 9 man2 ! inf]ior aspect ( ! paws is cov]$ by an epid]mic lay]1 ?ick & protective1 :i* may be lik5$ to ! sk91 correspond+ly ?ick1 :i* cov]s 9 ! great] "p ( its ext5t ! plant> surface ( ! foot 9 ! human species4 ,9 ! second gr\p1 ! surface by :i* ! ?ird phalanx re/s on ! gr\nd is correspond+ly protect$1 b ?is "t by a lay] ( horn :i* belongs to ! ho(4 ,aft] ! prec$+ rem>ks1 our /udy w be f\nd to fall into a natural division1 & x is 9 ! ord] :i* we h j foll[$ = ! purpose ( indicat+ its exi/5ce t we n[ proce$ to /udy ! nature & =m ( ! diff]5t elem5ts :i* complete or protect ! digital extremities ( ! ?oracic & abdom9al limbs4 ,claws4--,^! horny cov]+s ( ! ?ird phalanges1 :i* we h to consid] only 9 ! dog & cat1 may be comp>$ ) ! nails ( man1 ) :i*1 h[ev]1 !y pres5t1 z is well und]/ood1 *>act]i/ic diff]5ces4 ,! claws are compress$ lat]ally1 curv$ on !mselves1 & are t]m9at$ 9 front by a %>p po9t 9 ! felide1 b m blunt$ 9 ! dog4 ,_! sup]ior bord] is convex & ?ick4 ,we may say1 !re=e1 t a claw is a sort ( holl[ tube1 9 ! =m ( a cone flatt5$ 9 ! transv]se direction1 9 :i* ! ?ird phalanx is set1 & :i* is itself set 9 a groove =m$ by a k9d ( osse\s hood :i* occupies ! base ( ?is ?ird phalanx 7see ,fig4 #cg1 p4 #eg74 ,?is def9ition is exact1 z reg>ds ! g5]al appe>ance2 b1 :5 m closely scrut9iz$1 x is n suffici5t4 ,! tube 9 "q is n =m$ ( a s+le piece2 ea* ( ! claws is =m$ by a lam9a lat]ally fold$1 b ( :i* ! bord]s are n exactly jo9$ toge!r inf]iorly2 !y leave betwe5 !m a small int]val1 & ?is is fill$ by a lay] ( m friable horny sub/ance1 to :i* has be5 giv5 ! "n ( plant> nail4 ,?is arrangem5t1 :i* is cle>ly def9$ 9 ! dog 7,fig4 #ic71 is comp>able to t :i* we %all aft]w>ds meet ) 9 connection ) ! sole ( ! ho( ( ! horse 7see ,fig4 #ajj1 p4 #beg74 ,9 ! dog & ! cat1 ! weight ( ! limb re/+ on ! inf]ior surface ( ! phalanges1 x 0 necess>y t ! region ( ! plant> surface ( ! foot correspond+ to ^! latt] %\ld be protect$2 ?is is ! function ( c]ta9 fibro-adipose pads1 :i* are situat$ !re1 & :i* are designat$ by ! "n ( plant> tub]cles4 ,plant> ,tub]cles 7,fig4 #id74--,^! tub]cles1 or d]mic cu%ions1 are divid$1 9 ea* paw1 into tub]cles ( ! digits 7or ( ! toes71 a plant> tub]cle1 &1 on ! =e-limbs1 a tub]cle ( ! c>pus4 ,! tub]cles ( ! f+]s 7or ( ! toes7 are ( ! same numb] z ! latt]4 ,t :i* belongs to ! ?umb is b little develop$1 b ! o!rs are m s4 ,!y are 9 relation ) ! plant> surfaces ( ! second & ?ird phalanges1 s t :5 ! paw is 9 contact ) ! gr\nd ! articulation :i*1 9 ea* ( ! f+]s or toes1 jo9s ^! phalanges1 re/s on ! correspond+ pad4 ,! plant> tub]cle is l>g] ?an ! prec$+4 ,x is ( a m or less r\nd$ =m2 sometimes x is triangul>1 & !n comp>able 9 outl9e to ! ace ( he>ts1 ! po9t ( :i* is1 9 ?is case1 turn$ t[>ds ! claws2 its m>g9 be+ sometimes /rongly ind5t$1 x may also h a trilobate =m4 ,x is on x t re/ ! metac>po-phalangeal or metat>so-phalangeal articulations1 accord+ to ! limb /udi$4 ,! tub]cle ( ! c>pus1 situat$ at ! level ( ! po/]ior surface ( ?is latt]1 is less important ?an ! prec$+1 ! region :i* x occupies n rea*+ ! gr\nd dur+ walk+4 ,b x is n to be neglect$ f ! po9t ( view ( ext]nal =m1 because ( ! prom95ce :i* x produces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,,claw ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,inf]ior ,,surface4 #a1 ,horny lam9a ( ! claw2 #b1 plant> nail2 #c1 tub]cle ( ! correspond+ digit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,left ,,h& ,,( ,,! ,,dog3 ,,inf]ior ,,surface1 ,,plant> ,,tub]cles4 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,tub]cles ( ! f+]s2 #b1 plant> tub]cle2 #c1 tub]cle ( ! c>pus4 ,9 ! ungulates ! t]m9al extremity ( ! limb is1 z we h above po9t$ out1 enclos$ 9 a horny envelope :i* is no o!r ?an ! ho(4 ,we w fir/ /udy ! ho( ( ! horse--a ho( :i* is s+le = ea* ( ! limbs1 inasmu* z 9 ?is animal ea* ( ^! has b a s+le digit4 ,ho(s ( ! ,solip$s4--,we w fir/ /udy ! ho( z reg>d$ 9 a g5]al way--t is1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! limb to :i* x belongs4 ,we w aft]w>ds po9t out ! diff]5ces pres5t$ :5 ! ho(s ( ! =e & h9d limbs are comp>$4 ,9 connection ) ! ext]nal =ms ( ! horse1 ! /udy :i* we are n[ comm5c+ is ( great importance4 ,b1 be=e ent]+ ^u x1 x appe>s to u necess>y to rapidly exam9e :at ! ho( conta9s 7,fig4 #ie74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,v]tical ,,ant]o-,,po/]ior ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,horse4 #a1 ,?ird phalanx2 #b1 fibro-c>tilage2 #c1 podophyll\s tissue2 #d1 inf]ior "p ( ! wall2 #e1 section ( ! wall ( ! ho(2 #f1 cutig]\s cavity2 #g1 t5don ( ! ant]ior ext5sor ( ! phalanges2 #h1 re9=c+ b& com+ f ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! fetlock2 #i1 t5don ( ! sup]ficial flexor ( ! phalanges2 #aj1 t5don ( ! deep flexor ( ! phalanges4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ?is horny box we f9d ! ?ird phalanx1 a small sesamoid bone plac$ opposite to ! po/]ior bord] ( ! latt]1 a portion ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! second phalanx1 & ! t5dons1 :i* t]m9ate at ?is region4 ,to ! ?ird phalanx are add$ two fibro-c>tilag9\s plates1 flatt5$ lat]ally1 :i* prolong backw>ds ! bone to :i* !y are annex$4 ,! inf]ior bord] ( ea* ( ^! fibro-c>tilages is fix$ by its ant]ior "p to two osse\s prom95ces situat$ at ea* ( ! angles :i* t]m9ate ! small phalanx beh9d2 ^! prom95ces are3 ! basil> process & ! retrorsal process 7,fig4 #if72 by its po/]ior "p1 ?is bord] is cont9u\s ) a /ructure kn[n z ! plant> cu%ion 7see fur!r on74 ,! po/]ior bord] is direct$ obliquely upw>ds & =w>ds4 ,! sup]ior bord]1 :i* is convex or rectil9e>1 is ?91 & is sep>at$ f ! po/]ior bord] by an obtuse angle4 ,f9ally1 ! ant]ior bord]1 :i* is direct$ obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 is unit$ to ! ligam5t\s app>atus1 :i* keeps ! second & ?ird phalanges 9 contact4 ,^! fibro-c>tilages1 at _! upp] extremities1 project beyond ! ho(1 & !re=e assi/ 9 ! =mation ( ! lat]al regions ( ! foot1#ce at ! "p :i* is call$ ! cr[n4 ,!y project less above ! ho( 9 ! po/]ior limbs4 #ce ,"h1 = ! fir/ "t1 apropos ( ! ho(1 we use ! ^w 'foot4' ,z 9 o/eology & 9 myology we h1 = ! sake ( cle>ness ( comp>ison1 designat$ "u ?is "n ! region limit$ above by ! t>sus1 x is necess>y to po9t out "h t we employ ! same ^w = a m re/rict$ region4 ,?is we did 9 con=mity ) ! usage ( vet]9>ians1 :o s designate ! region ( ! ho(4 ,x is necess>y to expla9 ?is d\ble employm5t ( ! ^w1 &1 fur!r1 to %[ ! p>ticul> mean+ ascrib$ to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 #a1 ,pyramidal em95ce2 #b1 surface1 = articulation ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! second phalanx2 #c1 basil> process2 #d1 retrorsal process4 ,! po/]ior & inf]ior bord]s ( ^! c>tilages meet at an acute angle4 ,! angle s =m$1 or c>tilag9\s bulb1 con/itutes ! base ( ! region1 :i* is commonly call$ ! heel--a "p ( ! foot :i*1 z its "n implies1 is situat$ po/]iorly1 b :i* we mu/ n conf\nd1 z we might be l$ to d1 ) ! region occupi$ by ! calcaneum4 ,we "k f our previ\s /udies ( comp>ative o/eology t ?is latt] is situat$ mu* high] up4 ,! plant> cu%ion is a sort ( fibr\s w$ge :i* occupies ! int]val b\nd$ by ! fibro-c>tilag9\s plates :i* we h j be5 /udy+4 ,its inf]ior surface1 ! =m ( :i* we %all f9d to be reproduc$ by a portion ( ! correspond+ surface ( ! ho(1 is prolong$ ant]iorly into a po9t1 :ile beh9d x is divid$ into two bran*es1 :i*1 div]g+ f "o ano!r1 jo9 ! po/]ior angles ( ! fibro-c>tilages4 ,^! two bran*es are sep>at$ by a m$ian excavation4 ,! diff]5t con/itu5t elem5ts :i* we h j be5 discuss+ give ela/icity to ! foot4 ,to f9i% ! exam9ation ( ! p>ts conta9$ 9 ! ho(1 we w add t among !m is also f\nd :at is call$ ! fle%y envelope1 or fle% ( ! foot4 ,we divide ! latt] into ?ree regions3 ! podophyll\s tissue1 /riat$ or lam9at$ fle% :i* is spread out ov] ! ant]ior surface ( ! ?ird phalanx2 ! pad1 or ! h>d5$ sk9 :i* corresponds to ! upp] bord] ( ! ho(1 & =ms a prom95ce above ! podophyll\s tissue2 & ! vill\s fle%1 or velvety tissue :i* cov]s ! plant> surface ( ! ?ird phalanx & ! plant> cu%ion4 ,^! ?ree tissues =m z a :ole ! k]atog5ic membrane--t is to say1 t :i* produces horny tissue1 & consequ5tly reg5]ates ! ho(4 ,x is ?is latt] t we n[ proce$ to /udy4 ,:5 we exam9e its ant]ior surface or ! opposite "o1 ! ho( ( ! horse has ! %ape ( a truncat$ cone ) ! base bel[ & ! summit cut (f obliquely d[nw>ds & backw>ds 7,fig4 #ig74 ,view$ on "o ( its lat]al aspects1 x may be comp>$ to a truncat$ cyl9d] plac$ on ! surface ( ! section 7,fig4 #ih74 ,we p>ticul>ly call att5tion to ?is latt] comp>ison1 = x s+ul>ly aids u 9 mak+ a repres5tation ( ! foot ( ! horse :5 view$ lat]ally4 ,not)/&+ t ! ho( =ms app>5tly a homog5e\s :ole1 x consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 :i* may be sep>at$ f "o ano!r by mac]ation4 ,! indication ( su* disunion1 artificially produc$1 may seem useless4 ,x is n s1 h[ev]1 = ?is division ( ! ho( w p]mit u to c>ry out ! /udy ( ! latt] 9 a cle>]1 & consequ5tly a m satisfactory1 way4 ,! ?ree p>ts 9 "q are ! wall1 or cru/1 ! sole1 & ! frog4 ,! wall is t portion ( ! ho( :i* we see :5 ! foot re/s on ! gr\nd4 ,x is a plate ( horn :i*1 appli$ to ! ant]ior & lat]al surfaces ( ! foot1 dim9i%es 9 height z x approa*es ! po/]ior "p ( ! region4 ,po/]iorly & at ea* side ! wall is fold$ on itself1 & is !n direct$ =w>ds to t]m9ate 9 a po9t1 aft] hav+ enclos$ ! frog1 :i* we w soon /udy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,left ,,ant]ior ,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ant]ior ,,aspect4 #a1 ,out] side2 #b1 inn] side4 ,al?\gh ! wall =ms a cont9u\s :ole1 x has be5 divid$ into regions to :i* special names are giv54 ,! ant]ior "p1 f ! sup]ior bord] to ! inf]ior1 is call$ ! p9ce or toe = a wid? ( #d to #e c5timetres4 ,ext]nal to ! toe1 & on ea* side ( x1 = a di/ance ( #c or #d c5timetres1 is ! nipple4 ,beh9d ! nipples are ! qu>t]s4 ,/ill fur!r back1 :]e ! wall folds on itself1 =m+ ! buttress1 is f\nd ! region ( ! heels4 ,f9ally1 ! portions ( ! wall :i* =m its cont9uation 9 pass+ =w>d are call$ ! b>s4#cf ,^! are only visible on ! inf]ior surface ( ! ho( 7see ,fig4 #ajj74 #cf ,x is to ! angle ( inflexion or heel t "s au?ors give ! "n ( buttress2 x is ! b>s :i* o!r au?ors designate 9 ?is fa%ion4 ,! wall1 convex transv]sely1 is1 9 its ant]ior "p 7viz41 ! toe7 incl9$ /rongly d[nw>ds & =w>ds4 ,?is obliquity t5ds to become gradually effac$ on ! lat]al p>ts to su* a degree t at ! qu>t]s x becomes almo/ p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,! int]nal qu>t] is less r\nd$ ?an ! ext]nal2 9 addition to ?is 7,fig4 #ig71 x approa*es m ne>ly to ! v]tical direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,left ,,ant]ior ,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,fetlock2 #b1 spur or be>d2 #c1 pa/]n2 #d1 outl9e det]m9$ by ! ext]nal fibro-c>tilage2 #e1 acute angle2 #f1 nipple2 #g1 qu>t]2 #h1 heel4 ,9 our op9ion1 ?is latt] diff]5ce cle>ly recalls c]ta9 *>act]s ( ! g5]al =m ( ! human foot4 ,9 fact1 ! latt] has its dorsal surface incl9$ d[nw>ds & outw>ds1 :]eas its int]nal bord] may be said r to be v]tical4 ,a transv]se section ( ! foot 7,fig4 #ii7 ju/ifies ?is comp>ison1 :i* to u appe>s int]e/+1 n only z reg>ds ! resemblance :i* exi/s betwe5 ^! organs ( support1 b1 fur!r1 because x con/itutes a mnemonic :i* enables u1 on condition t we rememb] ! =m ( ! human foot1 to recall ! above-describ$ "* ( t ( ! horse4 ,! great] convexity ( ! out] portion ( ! ho( is f\nd equally on ! human foot2 ! ext]nal bord] ( ?is foot is m convex ?an ! opposite "o4 ,! inf]ior bord] ( ! wall 7,fig4 #ajj7 is1 9 ! case ( un%od horses1 always 9 we> :5 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,x is intimately unit$ to ! circumf]5ce ( ! sole 7see fur!r on74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,v]tical ,,& ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,a ,,left ,,human ,,foot3 ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,divid$ ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,segm5t ,,( ,,?is ,,section 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 ,,aa'1 ,v]tical axis pass+ ?r\gh ! middle ( ! leg & ! second toe2 #a1 out] side2 #b1 inn] side4 ,! sup]ior bord] is holl[$ on its int]nal surface by a groove1 ! cutig]\s cavity or basil1 :i* lodges ! cu%ion 7see ,fig4 #ie74 ,we h describ$ ?is latt] above1 9 connection ) ! fle% ( ! foot4 ,! sub/ance ( ! wall pres5ts a fibr\s appe>ance :i* is pretty /rongly pron\nc$4 ,! con/itu5t fibres f :i* ?is appe>ance results are direct$ f ! sup]ior bord] t[>ds ! inf]ior 9 p>allel & regul> l9es4 ,! sole is a horny plate :i* occupies ! inf]ior surface ( ! ho( 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,x is situat$ betwe5 ! inf]ior bord] ( ! wall & ! b>s2 &1 on acc\nt ( ! oblique direction ( ^! latt]1 x pres5ts a /rongly-m>k$ groove ( a ,v-=m1 ) ! op5+ direct$ backw>ds4 ,9 ?is depression is lodg$ ! frog4 ,! inf]ior surface is concave1 & ?us =ms a sort ( vault1 m or less deep1 accord+ to ! individual4 ,! sole has a scaly1 lam9at$ aspect4 ,we h se5 7,fig4 #ic1 & p4 #bdi7 t on ! inf]ior surface ( ! claws ( c>nivora is f\nd a small int]val :i* is fill$ by a plate ( a m friable horny sub/ance1 to :i* has be5 giv5 ! "n ( ! plant> nail4 ,x seems to u t !re is an int]e/+ relation%ip betwe5 ! said plant> nail & ! sole :i* we h j be5 /udy+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,inf]ior ,,surface ,,( ,a ,,=e-,,ho( ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,int]nal bord] ( ! wall 7toe72 #b1 wall2 #c1 qu>t]2 #d1 heel2 #e1 b>2 #f1 sole2 #g1 frog2 #h1 m$ian cavity2 #i1 prom95ce ( ! frog2 #aj1 lat]al cavity4 ,inde$1 ^! two horny /ructures appe> to be homolog\s4 ,is n ! lam9a ( ! claw comp>able to ! wall ( ! ho(8 ,& does n ! int]val :i* occurs at ! inf]ior "p ( ?is latt]1 & is fill$ by ! sole1 recall t :i*1 9 extremely r$uc$ =m1 is fill$ by ! plant> portion ( ! claws8 ,! frog 7,fig4 #ajj7 is a mass ( horn1 9 =m ( a w$ge1 ) its apex 9 front1 :i* occupies ! space limit$ lat]ally by ! recurv$ portions ( ! wall 7! b>s7 & ! po/]ior bord] ( ! sole4 ,x cov]s ! plant> cu%ion previ\sly describ$ 7p4 #beb7 & reproduces its =m4 ,its inf]ior surface is holl[$ out 9 ! middle by an excavation1 :i* is kn[n z ! m$ian lacuna4 ,?is cavity sep>ates ! bran*es ( ! frog1 :i* t]m9ate po/]iorly by two swell+s :i* are kn[n z ! prom95ces ( ! frog1 =m+ two r\nd$ elevations situat$ above ! claws4 ,^! same bran*es unite 9 front ( ! m$ian lacuna to =m ! body ( ! frog4 ,?is latt]1 9 its ant]ior "p1 gradually n>r[s1 & t]m9ates 9 a po9t :i* occupies ! bottom ( ! holl[ limit$ lat]ally by ! b>s ( ! wall & ! po/]ior bord] ( ! sole4 ,betwe5 ! lat]al surfaces ( ! frog & ! b>s are f\nd two angul> cavities--! lat]al lacunae1 or ! commissures ( ! frog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,ant]ior ,,limb1 ,,inf]ior ,,view4 #a1 ,ext]nal bord]2 #b1 int]nal bord]2 #c1 semilun> cre/2 #d1 #d1 re-entrant processes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,?ird ,,phalanx ,,( ,,! ,,horse3 ,,left ,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,inf]ior ,,view4 #a1 ,ext]nal bord]2 #b1 int]nal bord]2 #c1 semilun> cre/2 #d1 #d1 re-entrant processes4 ,z an indisp5sable complem5t to ! /udy :i* we h j made1 x is necess>y to add t ! ho(s ( ! =e-limbs & ^? ( ! h9d ones pres5t diff]5ces ( =m :i* _c be ignor$--diff]5ces :i* we are already able to conjecture by look+ at ! respective ?ird phalanges :i* t]m9ate ^? limbs1 & especially at _! inf]ior surfaces 7,figs4 #aja1 #ajb74 ,! ho(s ( ! =e-limbs 7see ,fig4 #ajj71 view$ on _! plant> surface1 are m r\nd$ ?an ^? ( ! h9d-limbs 7,fig4 #ajc7--s t _! ext]nal cont\r may be comp>$ to a semicircle--:il/ ! h9d-ho(s1 :i* are n>r[ & ( m oval %ape1 r recall by _! =m ! aspect ( an ogive4 ,?is seems to result f ! fact t ! =e-limbs support ! m consid]able "p ( ! weight ( ! animal4 ,! be/ pro( :i* c be giv5 ( ?is ov]weight+ is ! eag]ness ) :i* v (t51 :5 a horse is /opp$ ne> ! edge ( a footpa?1 = example1 he places 8 =e-feet on ! latt]4 ,9 ?us rais+ 8 =e-qu>t]s1 he ?r[s "p ( 8 weight backw>ds1 & 9 ?is way relieves 8 =e-limbs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,,inf]ior ,,surface ,,( ,a ,,h9d-,,ho( ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,ext]nal bord]2 #b1 int]nal bord]4 ,) reg>d to ! diff]5ce ( =m :i* we h j po9t$ out1 we h sometimes he>d ! foll[+ comp>ison made3 ! cont\r ( ! ho(s ( ! =e-limbs1 view$ f bel[1 recalls t ( an apple2 t ( ! ho(s ( ! h9d-limbs recalls ! outl9e ( a pe>4 ,z a mnemonic ?is comp>ison is insuffici5t1 = no?+ connects ei!r ( ! =ms indicat$ ) ! region to :i* ! ho(s belong4 ,we mu* pref] "o made = u ?is v ye> by "o ( ! /ud5ts ( our c\rse at ! ,s*ool ( ,f9e ,arts1 aft] ! lecture 9 :i* we _h j po9t$ out ! diff]5ces 9 "q4 ,giv+ ! idea ( a semicircle & an ogive1 :i* we describ$ above1 he rem>k$ to u t ! idea w\ld p]haps be m easily fix$ 9 ! memory if we associat$ ) x ! idea ( ! *ronological ord] 9 :i* ! ,roman & ogival art succe$$4 ,inde$1 z ! ,roman art prec$$ ! ogival art1 s ! ho(s :i* h ! semicircul> =m prec$e ^? :i* h ! =m ( an ogive4 ,?is int]pretation appe>$ to u +5i\s2 ?is is :y we wi%$ to give x "h a place :i* seems to u to be m]it$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,left ,,po/]ior ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,horse3 ,,ext]nal ,,aspect4 ,! wall ( ! ho( ( a =e-limb1 view$ on "o ( its lat]al surfaces 7see ,fig4 #ih71 is m oblique ?an t ( "o ( ! h9d-ho(s look$ at 9 ! same way 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,?is diff]5ce1 v m>k$ especially at ! region ( ! toe1 is correlat$ ) t ( ! direction ( ! pa/]n4 ,9 fact1 9 ! ant]ior limbs ?is is a little m oblique ?an 9 ! opposite ones4 ,we h /ill to describe1 9 connection ) ! horse1 "s epid]mic tissues1 :i* are kn[n z *e/nuts4 ,! *e/nut is a small1 horny plate :i* is f\nd on ! int]nal surface ( ea* ( ! limbs1 at a level diff]+ on ! ant]ior f t ( ! po/]ior ones4 ,on ! ant]ior limbs ! *e/nut is situat$ on ! int]nal surface ( ! =e>m1 t[>ds ! middle "p1 or ! inf]ior ?ird ( ?is region4 ,on ! po/]ior limbs x is develop$ on ! back ( ! sup]ior extremity ( ! int]nal surface ( ! canon1 t[>ds ! inf]ior "p ( ! ham--t is1 ! t>sus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,foot ,,( ,,! ,,ox3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,ant]o-,,ext]nal ,,view4 #a1 ,int]nal ho(2 #b1 ext]nal ho(2 #c1 int]nal surface ( ?is latt]2 #d1 int]nal spur4 ,inasmu* z "s au?ors consid] ! *e/nuts z be+ ve/iges ( ! ?umb & ! great-toe1 we propose giv+ a mnemonic :i* w enable u to rememb] _! situation1 or1 r1 _! diff]5ce ( level4 ,if we consid] t ! ?umb1 9 ! human species1 is long] ?an ! fir/ toe1 we may easily rememb] t ! *e/nut is plac$ high] 9 ! ant]ior limbs ?an 9 ! po/]ior ones4 ,inde$1 if we suppose a digit tak+ its orig9 at ^! po9ts1 x w be long] 9 front 7! ?umb7 ?an beh9d 7! fir/ toe74 ,ho(s ( ! ,ox & ! ,pig4--,! ox has f\r ho(s on ea* foot--two :i* conta9 ! ?ird phalanges1 & two o!rs1 rudim5t>y1 situat$ at ! po/]ior aspect ( ! limb1 at ! level ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! canon2 ^! latt] be> ! "n ( spurs4 ,we w occupy ourselves especially ) ! =m] 7,fig4 #aje74 ,ea* ( ! ho(s pres5ts ?ree faces :i*1 if we consid] !m 9 relation to ! m$ian axis ( ! limb to :i* !y belong1 are3 ext]nal1 int]nal1 & inf]ior4 ,! ext]nal surface resembles ! wall ( ! ho( ( ! horse4 ,! int]nal surface is slightly concave f be=e backw>ds1 s t ! ext]nal & int]nal ho(s ( ! same foot are n 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 except by ! extremities ( ?is surface1 & t an int]val sep>ates !m betwe5 ^! two po9ts4 ,! inf]ior surface1 slightly depress$1 ends beh9d 9 a swell+ produc$ by ! plant> cu%ion1 :i* cov]s a ?9 lam9a ( horn4 ,at ! ant]ior "p ( ! ho( ^! ?ree surfaces unite 9 =m+ a well-m>k$ angle :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! concavity ( ! int]nal surface1 is slightly curv$ t[>ds ! axis ( ! foot4 ,! pig has also f\r ho(s--two = ! great digits & two = ! lat]al digits4 ,!y recall ^? ( ! ox4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,proportions ,inasmu* z we h tak5 = grant$1 9 connection ) ! pres5t volume1 t be=e ent]+ on ! /udy ( ! anatomy ( quadrup$s ! read] 0 prep>$ = x by a suffici5t k ( human anatomy1 x is q natural t we %\ld ext5d ! same supposition to ! /udy ( proportions4 ,= ?is reason1 ! def9ition ( proportions1 consid]$ f a g5]al po9t ( view1 _! signification1 _! function & _! utility1 are que/ions :i* x w\ld be sup]flu\s to ent] ^u "h4 ,we w cont5t ourselves by call+ to m9d t ! common measure *os5 by pref]5ce is ! l5g? ( ! head1 & t1 ord9>ily1 x is ) x t we comp>e ! dim5sions ( o!r p>ts4 ,among ! animals ^: /ructure we h exam9$1 !re is "o ( :i* ! proportions des]ve to be m>k$ 9 pref]5ce to e o!r3 ?is is ! horse4 ,:]e=e ?is pref]5ce8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is because ( ! ov]:elm+ position :i* ?is animal occupies 9 ! arti/ic repres5tation ( quadrup$s2 t x is m frequ5tly associat$ ) man2 t1 not)/&+ its division into diff]5t races1 its g5]al proportions may be ref]r$ to a special type4 ,x is also because ! indications relative to ^! proportions w suffice to %[ ! way :i* ! arti/ mu/ foll[ 9 ord] to f9d = himself1 at ! "t :5 ! necessity = x arises1 ! proportions :i* *>act]ize ! o!r animals4 ,our int5tion is n1 9 connection ) ! subject :i* n[ occupies u1 to ent] into a deep discussion on ! v>i\s op9ions :i* h be5 set =?4 ,we desire1 above all1 to give "s indications :i*1 f ! practical po9t ( view1 c be utiliz$ 9 ! repres5tation ( ! horse1 & at ! beg9n+ to demon/rate ! advantages ( ^! indications4 ,n[1 !re is a fact :i* we h _h occasion to note2 x is ! foll[+3 almo/ inv>iably1 :5 a p]son :o is little accu/om$ to repres5t ! horse1 or n previ\sly in=m$ ( c]ta9 proportions ( l5g?s1 beg9s to draw f nature1 ! error g5]ally committ$ is t ( mak+ ! head too small & ! body too long4 ,is x a preconceiv$ idea :i* is ! cause t "o reg>ds !m 9 ?is mann]8 ,p]haps4 ,at all ev5ts1 c]ta9 arti/s :o h made ! repres5tation ( horses _! special /udy h ev5 _h ?is habit4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to be in=m$ ( ! proportions2 ?is is ! object ( ! /udy :i* we are n[ und]tak+4 ,b\rgelat1#cg 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 fix$ = ! fir/ "t & 9 complete fa%ion ! proportions ( ! horse2 x is he1 consequ5tly1 :o creat$ ! ae/hetics ( ! horse4 ,x is b ju/ice to recall ! fact4 ,8 sy/em has a po9t ( analogy ) t :i* is employ$ to det]m9e ! human proportions4 ,inde$1 ,b\rgelat *ose ! l5g? ( ! head z a /&>d ( measurem5t1 & ! subdivisions ( ! head = measures ( less ext5t4 ',s9ce beauty1' said he1#ch 'resides 9 ! congruity & proportion ( ! p>ts1 x is absolutely necess>y to obs]ve ! dim5sions1 individual & relative1 & 9 ord] to acquire a k ( ! proportions1 to assume a k9d ( measure :i* c be indiscrim9ately common = all horses4 ,! "p :i* c s]ve z a /&>d ( proportion = all ! o!rs is ! head4 ,take a measurem5t betwe5 two p>allel l9es--"o tang5t to ! nape ( ! neck or ! summit ( ! =elock1 ! o!r tang5t to ! extremity ( ! ant]ior lip--a l9e p]p5dicul> to ^! two tang5ts w give y its geometrical l5g?4 ,divide ?is l5g? into ?ree portions1 & give to ^! ?ree p>ts a special "n1 :i* may be appli$ indef9itely to all heads--z1 = example1 t ( prime4 ,any head :atsoev] w1 accord+ly1 9 its geometrical l5g?1 always h ?ree primes2 b all ! p>ts :i* y w h to consid]1 :e!r 9 _! l5g?1 9 _! height1 or 9 _! wid?1 _c con/antly h ei!r "o prime1 or a prime & a half1 or ?ree primes2 subdivide1 !n1 ea* prime into ?ree equal p>ts1 :i* y w "n seconds1 & z ?is subdivision w n suffice to give y a j measure ( all ! p>ts1 subdivide anew ea* second into tw5ty-f\r po9ts1 s t a head divid$ into ?ree primes w h1 by ! second division1 n9e seconds1 & two hundr$ & sixte5 po9ts by ! la/4' #cg ,claude ,b\rgelat1 f\nd] ( ! vet]9>y s*ools 9 ,france4 ,he 0 born at ,lyons 9 #agab1 & di$ at ,p>is 9 #aggi4 #ch ,b\rgelat1 ',elem5ts de l'art vet]9aire4 ,traite de la con=mation ext]ieure du *eval1' ,p>is1 edition ( #aghe1 p4 #acc4 ,b :]e ?is sy/em appe>s to u to h lo/ some:at ( its unity is :5 ! au?or trans=ms x1 9 po9t+ out ! foll[+ mode ( proc$ure3 ',b ! head itself may err by default ( proportion4 ,?is "p is n1 inde$1 consid]$ z ei!r too %ort or too long1 too ?9 or too ?ick1 b by comp>ison ) ! body ( ! animal4 ,n[1 ! body1 be+ requir$ to h--:e!r 9 l5g?1 reckon+ f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! prom95ce ( ! buttock1 or 9 height1 reckon+ f ! summit ( ! )]s to ! gr\nd--two heads & a half2 :5ev] ! head1 by its geometrical l5g?1 %all give1 9 l5g? or 9 height1 to ! body measur$ m ?an two & a half times its own l5g?1 x w be too %ort2 & if x gives less1 x w be too long4 ',9 ! case 9 :i* "o ( ^! faults exi/s !re w\ld be no fur!r "q ( e/abli%+ by its geometrical l5g? ! proportions ( ! o!r p>ts4 ,give up ?is common measure1 & measure ! height or ! l5g? ( ! body2 divide ! l5g? or ! height into five equal portions2 take1 !n1 two ( ^! divisions1 divide !m into primes1 seconds1 & po9ts1 correspond+ to ! divisions & subdivisions :i* y w\ld h made ( ! head1 & y w h a common measure1 su* z ! head w\ld h giv5 y if x _h be5 proportionate4'#ci #ci ,b\rgelat1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,! ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,b\rgelat74 ,to face p4 #bfe4 ,we und]/&1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 t ,b\rgelat may h be5 able to give ?is advice :i*1 g5]ally speak+1 is suffici5tly practical1 s9ce1 9 c]ta9 cases1 he 0 able to pron\nce t su* a head 0 too small or too l>ge4 ,b x is always mis*iev\s1 ) reg>d to ! effect produc$ on ! read]1 to propose to him1 9 ! application ( a rule1 to suppress ! f\ndation on :i* ?is rule is e/abli%$4 ,besides1 ev5 if all ! measurem5ts comp>$ ) ! two-fif?s ( ! l5g? ( ! body are proportionate ) reg>d to "o ano!r1 ! animal1 9 spite ( ?is1 s9ce ! head mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation1 w1 9 a /rict s5se1 be none ! less disproportion$4 ,! proportions giv5 by ,b\rgelat are z foll[s#dj 7,fig4 #ajf73 #dj ,ibid41 p4 #acf1 & onw>d4 #a4 ,?ree geometrical l5g?s ( ! head give3 ,! full height ( ! horse1 reckon$ f ! =elock to ! gr\nd on :i* he re/s1 provid$ t ! head be well plac$4#da #da ,by '! head be+ well plac$1' ,b\rgelat means 'v]tically pos$1' ! outl9e ( ! =ehead !n co9cid+ ) a v]tical l9e1 :i* at ! o!r end t\*es ! ant]ior portion ( ! nose4 #b4 ,two heads & a half 7,b7#db equals3 #db ,! lett]s 9 p>5!ses relate to ! correspond+ measures m>k$ by ! same lett]s on ! ?ird diagram ( ,fig4 #ajf4 ,! height ( ! body f ! summit ( ! )]s to ! gr\nd4 ,! l5g? ( ! same body1 ^? ( ! =eh& & ( ! h9d-qu>t] tak5 z a :ole f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! po9t ( ! buttock inclusive4 #c4 ,an entire head 7,a7 gives3 ,! l5g? ( ! =ep>t f ! summit ( ! )]s to ! t]m9ation ( ! neck4 ,! height ( ! %\ld]s f ! summit ( ! elb[ to ! top ( ! )]s4 ,! ?ickness ( ! body f ! middle ( ! belly to ! middle ( ! back4 ,! wid? f "o side to ! o!r4 #d4 ,a head measur$ f ! top ( ! =elock to ! commissure ( ! lips 7,c74 ,?is measurem5t slightly curtail$1 unless ! m\? is v deeply cleft1 equals3 ,! l5g? ( ! crupp]1 tak5 f ! sup]ior po9t ( ! ant]ior angle ( ! ilium to ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium1 =m+ ! po9t ( ! buttock4 ,! wid? ( ! crupp] or ( ! haun*es1 tak5 f ! inf]ior po9ts ( ! angles ( ! ilia4 ,! height ( ! crupp]1 view$ lat]ally1 tak5 f ! summit ( ! po/]ior angles ( ! ilia to ! po9t ( ! patella1 ! leg be+ 9 a /ate ( re/4 ,! lat]al measure ( ! po/]ior limb1 f ! po9t ( ! patella1 to ! lat]al & sali5t "p ( ! ham1 to ! "r ( ! articulation ( ! tibia ) ! tro*lea4 ,! p]p5dicul> height ( ! articulation above nam$ above ! gr\nd4 ,! di/ance f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! angle =m$ by ! junction ( ! head & neck4 ,! di/ance f ! summit ( ! )]s to ! junction ( ! neck ) ! ?orax4 #e4 ,twice ?is la/ measure 7,c7#dc gives almo/3 #dc ,! proportions giv5 9 ! two p>agraphs #f & #g are1 "u ano!r =m1 ! same z ^? po9t$ out 9 p>agraph #b1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t 9 ?is latt] !y are m cle>ly express$4 ,! di/ance ( ! summit ( ! )]s to ! tip ( ! patella4 ,! di/ance ( ! po9t ( ! elb[ to ! summit ( ! crupp] or ! po/]ior angles ( ! ilia4 #f4 ,?ree times ?is measure1 plus a half-wid? ( ! pa/]n1 ! equival5t ( two heads & a half1 w give3 ,! height ( ! body1 tak5 f ! top ( ! )]s to ! gr\nd4 ,its l5g?1 tak5 f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! po9t ( ! buttock inclusive4 #g4 ,?is same measure1 plus ! entire wid? ( ! pa/]n1 gives3 ,! total l5g? ( ! body1 tak5 accurately4 #h4 ,two-?irds ! l5g? ( ! head 7,d7 w equal3 ,! wid? ( ! *e/1 f ! tip ( "o arm to t ( ! o!r1 f outside to outside4 ,! horizontal measurem5t ( ! crupp] tak5 betwe5 two v]ticals1 ( :i* "o =ms a tang5t to ! buttock1 & ! o!r passes ?r\gh ! summit ( ! crupp] & t\*es ! tip ( ! patella4 ,! ?ird ( ! l5g? ( ! h9d-qu>t] & ( ! body tak5 toge!r1 z f> z ! v]tical f ! )]s1 t\*+ ! elb[4 ,! ant]ior l5g? ( ! h9d-limb1 tak5 f ! tub]osity ( ! tibia to ! fold ( ! ham4 #i4 ,"o-half ( ! l5g? ( ! head 7,e7 is ! same z3 ,! horizontal di/ance f ! tip ( ! arm to ! v]tical l9e f ! summit ( ! )]s & t\*+ ! elb[4 ,! wid? ( ! neck1 view$ lat]ally1 tak5 f its ins]tion 9 ! tr\gh ( ! jaw to ! roots ( ! fir/ hairs ( ! mane1 on a l9e :i* =ms ) ! sup]ior cont\r two equal angles4 #aj4 ,"o-?ird ( ! entire l5g? ( ! head 7,f7 gives3 ,! height ( its sup]ior "p f ! summit ( ! =elock to a l9e :i* passes ?r\gh ! mo/ sali5t po9ts ( ! orbits4 ,! wid? ( ! head bel[ ! l[] eyelids4 ,! lat]al wid? ( ! =e>m1 tak5 f its ant]ior orig9 to ! po9t ( ! elb[4 #aa4 ,two-?irds ( ?is l5g?#dd 7,g7 gives3 #dd ,t is to say1 two-n9?s ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! head4 ,! di/ance ( ! po9t ( ! elb[ above ! plane ( ! l[] surface ( ! /]num4 ,! depression ( ! back 9 relation to ! summit ( ! )]s4 ,! lat]al wid? ( ! po/]ior limbs ne> ! hams4 ,! space or di/ance ( ! =e>ms f "o ars#de to ! opposite4 #de ,we call ! region :]e ! sup]ior & int]nal "p ( ! =e>m is jo9$ to ! trunk ! 'ars4' ,! space betwe5 ! ars ( "o side & ! ars ( ! opposite side is call$ ! 'int]-ars4' #ab4 ,"o-half ( ! ?ird ( ! entire l5g? ( ! head#df 7,h7 equals3 #df ,t is to say1 "o-six? ( ! total l5g? ( ! head4 ,! ?ickness ( ! =e>m1 view$ f ! front1 & tak5 horizontally f ! ars to its ext]nal surface4 ,! wid? ( ! cr[n ( ! =e-feet :e!r f "o side to ! o!r1 or f be=e backw>ds4 ,! wid? ( ! cr[n ( ! h9d-feet1 f "o side to ! o!r only4 ,! wid? ( ! po/]ior fetlocks1 tak5 f ! front to ! orig9 ( ! spur4 ,! wid? ( ! knee se5 f ! front4 ,note3 ?is measure is a little too l>ge4 ,! ?ickness ( ! ham4 ,note3 ?is measure is a little "u ! m>k4 #ac4 ,"o-f\r? ( ! ?ird ( ! l5g? ( ! head#dg 7,i7 gives3 #dg ,t is1 "o-twelf? ( ! l5g? ( ! head4 ,! ?ickness ( ! canon ( ! =e-limb3 t ( ! h9d-qu>t] is a little ?ick]4 #ad4 ,"o-?ird ( ?is same measure#dh 7,k7 equals3 #dh ,t is1 a n9? ( ! l5g? ( ! head4 ,! ?ickness ( ! =e-limb close to ! knee 9 its n>r[e/ "p4 ,! ?ickness ( ! po/]ior pa/]ns1 view$ lat]ally4 #ae4 ,! height f ! elb[ to ! fold ( ! knee 7,l7 is ! same z3 ,! height f ?is same fold to ! e>?4 ,! height f ! patella to ! fold ( ! ham4 ,! height f ! fold ( ! ham to ! cr[n4 #af4 ,! six? "p ( ?is measure 7,m7 gives3 ,! wid? ( ! canon ( ! =e-limb1 view$ lat]ally1 9 ! middle ( its l5g?4 ,! fetlock1 view$ f ! front4 #ag4 ,! ?ird ( ?is same measure 7,n7 is v ne>ly equal to3 ,! wid? ( ! ham1 f ! fold to ! po9t4 #ah4 ,a f\r? ( ?is measure 7,o7 gives3 ,! wid? ( ! knee1 measur$ lat]ally4 ,! l5g? ( ! knee4 #ai4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! eyes f "o great angle to ! o!r 7,p7 equals3 ,! wid? ( ! h9d-leg1 view$ lat]ally1 f ! cleft ( ! buttocks to ! inf]ior "p ( ! tub]osity ( ! tibia4 #bj4 ,"o-half ( ?is int]val betwe5 ! eyes 7#a_/b ,p7 gives3 ,! wid? ( ! po/]ior canon-bone1 view$ lat]ally4 ,! wid? ( ! fetlock ( ! =e-limb1 f its ant]ior summit to ! root ( ! spur4 ,f9ally1 ! diff]5ce ( ! height ( ! crupp] ) respect to ! summit ( ! )]s4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! multiplicity ( ^! proportions1 & above all ! exagg]ation ( details into :i* ,b\rgelat fell 9 indicat+ c]ta9 ( ! measures :i* con/itute ! bases ( "s ( !m1 may repel ! read]4 ,= ?is cause we desire to add to ! prec$+1 & also because ! "q :i* we are treat+ w\ld be incomplete )\t x1 ! results obta9$ & publi%$ by o!r m mod]n au?ors1 & 9 p>ticul> by ,colonel ,duh\sset4#di #di ,e4 ,duh\sset1 ',le ,*eval1' ,p>is1 #ahha4 ,?is au?or1 "o ( ^: con/ant occupations is ! measurem5t ( ! diff]5t regions ( ! horse1 has ! inconte/able m]it ( hav+ drawn att5tion to ?is "q1 & ( hav+ /ra9$ all 8 en]gies 9 ! propagation ( ! k :i* until !n 0 little diffus$4 ,among ! proportions :i* he recomm5ds1 !re are "s :i* are ! result ( 8 own obs]vations2 :il/ o!rs1 :i* he has v]ifi$ & adopt$1 are ! result ( a judici\s selection ( ^? giv5 by ,b\rgelat1 :i* we h j reproduc$ 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,we jo9 !reto also c]ta9 indications furni%$ by ,,mm4 ,a4 ,g\beaux & ,g4 ,b>ri]1#ej di/+ui%+ ^! latt] by ! initials 7,g4 & ,b47 ( _! au?ors 7,fig4 #ajg74 #ej ,arm& ,g\beaux & ,gu/ave ,b>ri]1 ',de l'ext]ieure du ,*eval1' ,p>is1 #ahhb4 ,! l5g? ( ! head almo/ exactly equals3 #a4 ,dep? f ! back to ! belly1 ,n1 ,o1#ea ! ?ickness ( ! body4#eb #ea ,look = ! po9ts indicat$ by ^! lett]s on ,fig4 #ajg1 :i* is relat$ to ! proportions :i* are "h discuss$4 #eb ,! proportion previ\sly indicat$ by ,b\rgelat 7see p4 #bfe1 p>agraph #c74 #b4 ,f ! summit ( ! )]s to ! po9t ( ! arm1 ,h1 ,e4 #c4 ,f ! sup]ior fold ( ! /ifle to ! po9t ( ! ham1 ,j'1 ,j4 #d4 ,f ! po9t ( ! ham to ! gr\nd1 ,j1 ,k4 #e4 ,f ! dorsal angle ( ! scapula to ! po9t ( ! haun*1 ,d1 ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset74 #f4 ,f ! passage ( ! gir? to ! fetlock1 ,m1 ,i1 or high] 9 l>ge horses & rac]s2 to ! middle ( ! fetlock or l[] = small ones & ^? ( m$ium size4 #g4 ,f ! sup]ior fold ( ! /ifle to ! summit ( ! crupp] 9 ^? specim5s ^: coxo-femoral angle is v op54 ,?is di/ance is always mu* less 9 o!rs 7,g4 & ,b474#ec #ec ,a proportion relative to ! same region1 & :i* at ! outset might appe> simil>1 is po9t$ out by ,b\rgelat 7see p4 #bff1 p>agraph #d74 ,b !re exi/s a diff]5ce1 = ,b\rgelat comp>$ ! l5g? ( ! head1 measur$ f ! =elock to ! commissure ( ! lips1 & n t ( ! entire head1 to ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! summit ( ! rump & ! tip ( ! patella4 ,two & a half times ! l5g? ( ! head gives3 #a4 ,! height ( ! )]s1 ,h1 above ! gr\nd4#ed #ed ,?is proportion is t giv5 by ,b\rgelat 7see p4 #bfe1 p>agraph #b74 #b4 ,! height ( ! summit ( ! crupp] above ! gr\nd4#ee #ee ,consequ5tly ! )]s & ! crupp]1 be+ ! same height1 are situat$ on ! same horizontal plane4 ,b\rgelat1 on ! contr>y1 po9ts out a diff]5ce ( level 9 connection ) ^! regions4 ,accord+ to him ! summit ( ! crupp] is situat$ bel[ ! horizontal plane pass+ ! )]s1 & ?is di/ance equals half ( ! space :i* sep>ates ! great angle ( "o eye f t ( ! o!r 7see p4 #bfi1 p>agraph #bj74 #c4 ,v (t5 ! l5g? ( ! body1 f ! po9t ( ! arm to t ( ! buttock1 al?\gh = a long "t ! type ( ,b\rgelat _h be5 set aside z a conv5tional model1 %ort & massive4#ef #ef ,see p4 #bfe1 p>agraph #b4 ,& ,m4 ,duh\sset adds to ?is3 ',! draw+ t we (f]1 :i* has two heads & a half 9 height & l5g?1 is t ( a horse :i* we frequ5tly meet )' 7see ,fig4 #ajg2 see also p4 #bgi1 :]e we aga9 consid] ?is "q ( ! l5g? ( ! body ( ! horse74 ',! crupp]1 f ! po9t ( ! haun* to t ( ! buttock1 ,d1 ,f1 is always less ?an t ( ! head4 ,?is diff]5ce v>ies f #e to #aj c5timetres4 ,! wid? ( ! crupp]1 f "o haun* to ! o!r1 (t5 v slightly exce$s its l5g?4' ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] add t frequ5tly x equals x4#eg #eg ,if we ref] to ! proportions indicat$ by ,b\rgelat1 we %all f9d t ! proportions relative to ! crupp] are also indicat$ !re 7see p4 #bff1 p>agraph #d74 ',! crupp]1 su* z we h j def9$ x1 ,d1 ,h1 may also be f\nd to a fair degree ( exactness1 z reg>ds l5g?1 f\r times on ! same horse4' #a4 ,f ! po9t ( ! buttock to ! inf]ior "p ( ! /ifle1 ,f1 ,p4 #b4 ,! wid? ( ! neck1 a little 9 front ( ! )]s to a little above ! po9t ( ! arm1 ,s1 ,x4#eh #eh ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] replace ?is by ! foll[+3 ',! wid? ( neck at its inf]ior atta*m5t f its ins]tion into ! *e/ to ! orig9 ( ! )]s1 ,s1 ,x4' ,b\rgelat discov]$ ! same proportion 7see p4 #bff1 la/ l9e ( p>agraph #d74 #c4 ,f ?is latt] po9t to bel[ ! l[] jaw1 ,x1 ,q1 :5 ! head is naturally plac$ p>allel to ! %\ld]s1 ,e1 ,h4#ei #ei ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] replace ?is by ! foll[+3 ',f ! ins]tion ( ! neck into ! *e/ to ! l[] bord] ( ! l[] jaw1 ,x1 ,q1 :5 ! head is p>allel to ! %\ld]4' #d4 ,f ! nape to ! no/rils1 n1 n'4#fj #fj ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] add3 ',or to ! commissure ( ! lips4' ,x is ?us1 besides1 t ,b\rgelat measur$ ! head = comp>ison ) ! crupp] 7see p4 #bff1 p>agraph #d74 ,! measure ( half ( ! head also acts z a good guide = ! con/ruction ( ! horse1 :5 we "k t x frequ5tly applies to _m ( ! p>ts--to wit3 #a4 ,f ! =ehead above ! eyes1 p]p5dicul> to ! l9e :i* is tang5t to ! l[] jaw1 ,p1 ,q4 #b4 ,outl9e ( ! neck at ! level ( ! base ( ! head1 ,q1 ,l4#fa #fa ,proportion indicat$ by ,b\rgelat 7see p4 #bfg1 p>agraph #i74 #c4 ,f ! cr[n ( ! =e-foot to bel[ ! knee1 ,t1 ,t'4 #d4 ,9 ! legs1 f ! base ( ! fetlock to t ( ! ham1 ,u1 ,v4 #e4 ,f9ally1 x is ne>ly ( ! l5g? ( ! hum]us f ! po9t ,e to ! radius4#fb #fb ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] replace ^! by ! foll[+3 #a4 ',f ! mo/ prom95t "p ( ! l[] jaw to ! pr(ile ( ! =ehead above ! eye1 ,p1 ,q 7?ickness ( ! head74 #b4 ',f ! ?roat to ! sup]ior bord] ( ! neck beh9d ! nape1 ,q1 ,l 7atta*m5t ( ! head74 #c4 ',f ! inf]ior "p ( ! knee to ! cr[n1 ,t1 ,t'4 #d4 ',f ! base ( ! ham to ! fetlock1 ,u1 ,v4 #e4 ',f9ally1 f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! articulation ( ! elb[ 7approximate l5g? ( ! arm74' ,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse#fc #fc ,extract f ! "w ( ,,mm4 ,g\beaux & ,b>ri] on ! ext]ior ( ! horse4 ,z be=e1 ! initials ,g4 & ,b4 ( ^! au?ors are add$4 ,al?\gh x is v difficult1 says ,m4 ,duh\sset1 :5 we speak ( measurem5ts tak5 on ! liv+ animal1 to =mulate o!r ?an approximations1 we believe we h det]m9$ ) suffici5t accuracy ! foll[+ results1 :i* are ! outcome ( our num]\s obs]vations4 ,! head :i* we pres5t is t ( a horse :i* we h frequ5tly come across z a mean t]m betwe5 ! highly br$ & ! draught horse4 ,"u ?is head+1 x w n be devoid ( int]e/ to accompany ) dim5sions ! two draw+s to :i* are consign$ ! measurem5ts 9 "q4 ,head view$ 9 ,pr(ile 7,fig4 #ajh74--,l5g?1 ,a1 ,b1 f ! nape to ! m>g9 ( ! lips1 #j4fj metre4 ,?ickness1 ,c1 ,d1 f ! angle ( ! l[] jaw to ! ant]ior surface 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,?is l9e passes ?r\gh ! middle ( ! eye1 tak5 p]p5dicul>ly1 to ! pr(ile ( ! ant]ior surface4 ,_m common horses pres5t x1 especially ! heavi] draught horses2 9 f9ely-br$ subjects x is a little %ort] 7,g4 & ,b474 ,dep?1 ,i1 ,h1 ( ! neck 9 its n>r[e/ "p 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,x is frequ5tly great]2 ?is is noticeable 9 all in/ances :]e ! sup]ior p>ts ( ! neck are defici5t 9 f95ess4 ,x is ?is :i* we see 9 draught horses1 & 9 ^? :i* become too fle%y 7,g4 & ,b474 ,di/ance1 ,o1 ,r1 ( ! int]nal commissure ( ! eye f ! sup]ior bord] ( ! commissure ( ! no/ril 7,g4 & ,b47 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,x is m consid]able on ! common head1 & on t :i* is too long4 ,di/ance1 ,a1 ,o1 f ! nape to ! int]nal angle ( ! eye1 #j4bb metre4 ,?is di/ance is equival5t to ! ?ickness ( ! head1 ,p1 ,q1 tak5 p]p5dicul>ly f ! pr(ile ( ! ant]ior surface1 & pass+ at ! level ( ! maxill>y fissure & sp9e4 ,x is1 aga91 equal to ,q1 ,o1 f ! int]nal angle ( ! eye to ! maxill>y fissure2 & to ,p1 ,g1 f ! middle ( ! face to ! commissure ( ! lips 7,g4 & ,b474 ,! di/ance1 ,p1 ,e1 f ! middle ( ! face to ! maxill>y sp9e is ab\t ! six? ( ! total l5g? ( ! head--#j4aj metre4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,view$ ,,9 ,,pr(ile 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset74 ,! l9e ,b1 ,e1 reckon$ f ! extremity ( ! lips to ! maxill>y sp9e1 is equal3 ,to ,e1 ,f1 f ! maxill>y sp9e to ! ext]nal auditory meatus1 to be se5 only on ! skull2 ,to ,h1 ,g1 f ! ins]tion ( ! neck 9 ! tr\gh to ! commissure ( ! lips 7,g4 & ,b472 ,to ,q1 ,r1 f ! maxill>y fissure to ! sup]ior commissure ( ! no/ril 7,g4 & ,b472 ,to ,q1 ,b1 f ! fissure ( ! maxilla to ! bord] ( ! lips 7,g4 & ,b472 ,to ,o1 ,d1 f ! int]nal angle ( ! eye to ! angle ( ! l[] jaw1 provid$ t ! l9e ,c1 ,d be 9 proportion 7,g4 & ,b474 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,! ,,same ,,design ,,z ,,t ,,( ,,fig4 #ajh1 ,,on ,,:i* ,,we ,,h ,,indicat$1 ,,by ,,simil> ,,l9es1 ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,correspond+ ,,measurem5ts4 ,half ! l5g? ( ! head1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x2 di/ance :i* sep>ate ! nape f ! int]nal angle ( ! eye1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x2 di/ance :i* sep>ates ! int]nal angle ( ! eye f ! bord] ( ! lips1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x4#fd #fd ,x is ?us t 9 our tea*+1 b by means ( l9es ( diff]5t col\rs1 we pres5t ! proportions reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,exp]i5ce has demon/rat$ to u t ?is replacem5t ( lett]s by conv5tional l9es r5d]s ! proportions m easily appreciable1 & t ^! l9es1 /rik+ ! eye m =cibly1 !n impress !mselves bett] on ! memory4 ,fig4 #aaa be>s ! same relation to ,fig4 #aaj4 ,f9ally1 v frequ5tly to ,o1 ,h1 f ! int]nal angle ( ! eye to ! ins]tion ( ! ?roat into ! maxill>y tr\gh 7,g4 & ,b474 ,an equality /ill m frequ5t is t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! di/ances3 ,o1 ,b1 f ! int]nal angle ( ! eye to ! m>g9 ( ! lips2 ,a1 ,h1 f ! nape to ! ins]tion ( ! ?roat into ! maxill>y tr\gh2 ,& ,h1 ,b1 f ?is latt] po9t to ! m>g9s ( ! lips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,proportions ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,horse1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,front 7,,aft] ,,colonel ,,duh\sset74 ,! ,head1 ,front ,view 7,fig4 #aaj74--;,if1 to cont9ue our exam9ation1 adds ,m4 ,duh\sset1 we reg>d ! head f ! front1 we f9d its greate/ wid? at ,a1 ,b1 ! extreme po9ts ( ! orbital ar*es4 ,?is wid? is #bb c5timetres4 ,x is aga9 equal to3 ,a1 ,c1 f "o ar* to ! nape2 ,a1 ,d1 f "o ar* to ! middle ( ! face4 ,d1 ,e1 f ! middle ( ! face to ! m>g9 ( ! lips4 ,f ! auditory canal1 ,g1 to ! maxill>y sp9e1 ,f1 is ! same di/ance z f ?is po9t to ! m>g9s ( ! lips1 ,e1 or1 bett]1 to ! end ( ! tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,! ,,same ,,figure ,,z ,,fig4 #aaj1 ,,on ,,:i* ,,we ,,h ,,m>k$ ,,by ,,simil> ,,l9es ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,measurem5ts ,,:i* ,,correspond ,,!reto4 ,di/ance :i* sep>ates "o ( ! orbital ar*es f t ( ! opposite side1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x2 di/ance :i* sep>ates ! auditory meatus f ! maxill>y sp9e1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x2 di/ance :i* sep>ates "o maxill>y sp9e f t ( ! opposite side1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x2 di/ance :i* sep>ates ! lip ( "o side f t ( ! opposite1 & ! dim5sions :i* equal x4#fe #fe ,see ! note relative to ,fig4 #aji4 ,! l9e ,g1 ,c1 f ! auditory meatus to ! nape1 is equal to ! six? ( ! head1 #aj c5timetres2 ! l9e ,a1 ,g1 f ! orbital ar* to ! auditory meatus1 is a little long]1 & measures #ab c5timetres4 ,! di/ance ,f1 ,i1 compris$ betwe5 ! maxill>y sp9es1 is #ah c5timetres4 ,x is equal to3 ,o1 ,o1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! int]nal angles ( ! eyes 7,g4 & ,b472 ,f1 ,r1 ! di/ance f ! maxill>y sp9e to ! sup]ior commissure ( ! correspond+ no/ril 7,g4 &4 ,b472 ,f1 ,p1 f ! maxill>y sp9e to ! salt-cell>4#ff #ff ,we designate "u ! "n salt-cell> a depression situat$ ext]nal to ! frontal region & above ! eye4 ,f ! nape to ! int]nal angle ( ! eye1 ,c1 ,o1 is ! same di/ance z f ?is latt] po9t to ! commissure ( ! lips1 ,o1 ,t2 & f ! maxill>y sp9e to ! upp] lip ,f1 ,s 7,g4 & ,b474 ,! di/ance ap>t1 ,t1 ,t1 ( ! two commissures ( ! lips gives1 v ne>ly1 ! di/ance f ! sup]ior bord] ( ! orbital ar* to ! base ( ! e> or ! auditory meatus4 ,9 ! /ate ( re/1 ! out] limit ( ! sep>ation ( ! no/rils does n exce$ ! wid? ( ! knee2#fg we frequ5tly f9d ! same di/ance int]cept$ above ! nape by ! tranquil e>s4 ,9 ! figure 7,fig4 #aaj7 we h int5tionally repres5t$ !m direct$ 9 a diff]5t plane1 9 ord] to %[ t :5 ! p9na is turn$ backw>d1 x none ! less pres]ves ! cont\r ( bracket =m1 m or less pron\nc$ accord+ to ! bre$+ ( ! subject1 & *>act]iz+ 9 repose ! int]ior curves ( ! e>4 #fg ,we rem9d our read]s t ! "n 'knee' is giv5 by vet]9>ians to ! region occupi$ by ! c>pus4 ,! extreme limit ( ! lips1 ,m1 ,n1 b v slightly exce$s t ( ! no/rils2 on _m heads ( h>moni\s proportions ?is di/ance is f\nd to be ! half ( ,a1 ,b4 ,9 ord] n to int]rupt ! c\rse ( ! prec$+ exposition1 we decid$ to )hold till aft]w>ds "s reflections :i* h be5 sugge/$ to u by c]ta9 ( ! proportions :i* are !re indicat$4 ,! proportions 9 "q are important--we may ev5 say t !y are fundam5tal1 = !y h = object ! relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! l5g? ( ! head1 ! height ( ! body1 & ! l5g? ( ! latt]4 ,we h already se5 t1 accord+ to ,b\rgelat1 ! l5g? ( ! head is conta9$ two & a half times 9 ! l5g? ( ! body1 f ! po9t ( ! arm to ! po9t ( ! buttock2 &1 also1 two & a half times 9 ! height measur$ f ! apex ( ! )]s to ! gr\nd 7see p4 #bfe74 ,we saw aft]w>ds t ,m4 ,duh\sset1 hav+ adopt$ ^! proportions1 po9t$ out1 fur!r1 t ! same dim5sion 0 aga9 f\nd equally to exi/ f ! summit ( ! crupp] to ! gr\nd--a height :i* ,b\rgelat consid]$ z be+ ( less ext5t4 ,!re results1 !n1 f ! latt] proportions1 :i* we h j recall$1 ?is int]e/+ fact3 t !y simplify v mu*1 f ! po9t ( view ( design1 ! plac+ 9 position ( ! horse1 on ! condition always t ?is latt] be always view$ directly on "o ( its lat]al aspects4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exce$s ,,! ,,height4 ,inde$1 9 ?is case1 if we except ! neck & ! head1 ! body1 inasmu* z its height & its l5g? are equal1 may be inscrib$ 9 a squ>e1 ( :i* "o ( ! sides corresponds to ! )]s & to ! summit ( ! crupp]1 two ( ! o!r sides to ! po9t ( ! arm & to t ( ! buttock ! f\r? be+ repres5t$ by ! gr\nd4 ,?is is simple1 b ?is simplicity ev5 has its inconv5i5ces4 ,x foll[s t ?is proportion1 ?us express$1 seems to exclude f e arti/ic repres5tation c]ta9 categories ( horses1 :i* ^u ! :ole might be reg>d$ z beautiful1 & ! exi/5ce ( :i* 9 any case x w\ld be a pity n to indicate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exce$s ,,! ,,height4 ,let u exam9e at ! outset t :i* is relative to ! l5g? ( ! body1 equal to two & a half times ! l5g? ( ! head4 ,?is proportion is sometimes met )1 & !re=e may be consid]$ exact2 b x is necess>y to add t its exi/5ce is n discov]able 9 ! majority ( cases4 ,t = "s au?ors x con/itutes a p]fect model we w n ga9say1 b x is our impression t1 :5 x exi/s1 ! head appe>s a little l>ge1 or1 m exactly1 ! body a little %ort4 ,)\t atta9+ exactly to ?ree times ! l5g? ( ! head1 z "s au?ors 7,sa9t-,bel1 ,vallon7 h ann\nc$1 ! body ( ! horse1 nev]!less1 measur$ z is /at$ above1 frequ5tly conta9s x m ?an two & a half times4 ,we give 9 support ( ?is "s outl9e reproductions1 execut$ aft] photographs 7,figs4 #aab1 #aac1 #aad74 ,!re /ill rema9s ! "q reg>d+ ! equality ( ! height & ( ! l5g? ( ! body ( ! horse4 ,?is equality1 aft] ! proportions previ\sly indicat$1 w\ld seem b\nd to appe> 9 all ! cases obs]v$4 ,n[1 if we measure ! examples reproduc$ 9 ,figs4 #aab1 #aac1 & #aad1 we %all see t sometimes ! two dim5sions are unequal1 ! height be+ great] ?an ! l5g?1 or inv]sely4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,,horse ,,( ,,:i* ,,! ,,l5g? ,,conta9s ,,m ,,?an ,,two ,,& ,a ,,half ,,times ,,t ,,( ,,! ,,head1 ,,& ,,( ,,:i* ,,?is ,,dim5sion 7,a1 ,b7 ,,is ,,inf]ior ,,to ,,! ,,height4 ,x is ! same1 if we exam9e a c]ta9 numb] ( specim5s2 we are able to det]m9e t ! proportion *os5 9 pref]5ce by au?ors is n exactly t :i* is (t5e/ met )4 ,x w1 v probably1 be object$ t x is s = ! mo/ beautiful types1 & t ! indiff]5t ones are g5]ally ! m num]\s4 ,! ess5tial ?+ w\ld be to "k1 above all1 if ! type ( two heads & a half ( l5g? & ( height is really ! only beautiful "o4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ( ! fifty ,african horses measur$ by ,m4 ,duh\sset1 only f\rte5 possess$ ! equality indicat$2 tw5ty-six 7 less long ?an high1 & t5 m long ?an high4#fh #fh ,e4 ,duh\sset1 ',! ,horse1' ,p>is1 #ahha4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,paces ,,( ,,! ,,horse ,z a completion ( ! /udies we h j be5 mak+1 "s notions relative to ! paces ( ! horse seem to u to be absolutely indicat$4 ,let x be p]mitt$ to u to rem9d ! read] 9 ?is connection t we h already be5 = tw5ty-"o ye>s occupi$ ) ?is "q1 & t by means ( an articulat$ figure1 a sort ( movable mannik91 we h endeav\r$ to demon/rate to arti/s ! diff]5ces :i* *>act]ize ! v>i\s paces ( ! horse4#fi ,! arrangem5t !n employ$ _c1 evid5tly1 be us$ 9 ! pres5t volume1 b we w inspire ourselves1 9 ! prep>ation ( ! pres5t *apt]1 ) ! elem5ts ( demon/ration :i* we h employ$1 & :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( our tea*+1 we h _h ! satisfaction ( see+ fav\rably receiv$4 #fi ,ed\>d ,cuy]1 ',les ,allures du ,*eval1' demon/rat$ ) ! aid ( a col\r$1 sep>able1 & articulat$ table1 ,p>is1 #ahhc4 ,?is table 0 ! subject ( a note communicat$ to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces by ,pr(essor ,m>ey 7',comptes r5dus de l',academie de ,sci5ces'7 at ! meet+ ( ,june #bf1 #ahhb4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 ! subject ( a pres5tation :i* we h _h ! hon\r ( be+ p]mitt$ to make to ! ,academy ( ,f9e ,arts at ! meet+ ( ,novemb] #d1 #ahhb4 ,! fasciculus 9 "q has be5 s9ce unit$ ) a m complete :ole z reg>ds ! /udy ( ! horse4 ,e4 ,cuy] & ,e4 ,alex1 ',le ,*eval3 ,ext]ieur1 ,/ructure et ,fonctions1 ,races1' avec #bf plan*es coloriees1 dec\pees et sup]posees1 ,p>is1 #ahhf4 ,! progressive movem5ts by :i* an individual transports himself f "o place to ano!r d n op]ate accord+ to a unique me?od & ) a con/antly uni=m velocity4 ,^! v>i\s modes ( progression are designat$ "u ! "n ( paces4 ,x is extremely difficult to analyze1 by simple obs]vation1 ! movem5ts :i* *>act]ize ^! gaits4 ,let u1 = example1 exam9e ! displacem5ts made by ! limbs ( a horse dur+ t ( walk+2 if we h no notion ( ^! displacem5ts1 x w be1 s to speak1 impossible to det]m9e 9 :at ord] !y are execut$4 ,! sight ( ! impr9ts left on ! gr\nd by ! ho(s is n a suffici5t means ( demon/ration1 especially = arti/s4 ,! noise made by ! bl[s ( ^! limbs1 or by ! little bells ( diff]5t timbre susp5d$ f !m1 are absolutely 9 ! same case4 ,processes enabl+ u to fix or to regi/] ! paces are 9 e way pref]able4 ,su* really exi/2 !y are3 in/antane\s photography & ^? :i* con/itute ! graphic me?od ( ,pr(essor ,m>ey4 ,! results giv5 by ! photograph are c]ta9ly appreciable2 b1 f ! didactic po9t ( view1 we give ! pref]5ce to ! graphic me?od1 ! g5]al *>act]s & ! mode ( application ( :i* we n[ proce$ to analyze4#gj #gj ,we _c too /rongly recomm5d ! read+ ( ! excell5t works :i* ,pr(essor ,m>ey has publi%$1 & :i* h = _! object ! /udy ( movem5ts1 z well z ! exhibition ( ! proc$ures :i* he has employ$4 ,e4 ,j4 ,m>ey1 ',la ,ma*9e ,animale1' ,p>is1 #ahgc2 ',la ,me?ode graphique dans les ,sci5ces exp]im5tales1' ,p>is1 #ahhd2 ',le ,vol des ,oiseaux1' ,p>is1 #ahij2 ',le ,m\vem5t1' ,p>is1 #ahid4 ,x is necess>y to und]/& fir/ ( all1 9 ?is connection1 t :i* relates to a man's walk+ pace4 ,! me?od ( ,pr(essor ,m>ey re/s on ! foll[+ pr9ciple3 ,suppose two rubb] globes connect$ ) "o ano!r by a tube4 ,if we compress "o ( ^! globes1 ! air :i* x conta9s w be driv5 into ! o!r1 & w aft]w>ds return :5 ! pressure has ceas$4 ,no?+ m simple1 evid5tly2 b x is necess>y to describe x 9 detail 9 ord] ! bett] to compreh5d t :i* foll[s3 ,! walk] :o is ! subject ( exp]im5t is furni%$ ) special %oes 7,fig4 #aae71 hav+ ?ick indi>ubb] soles1 holl[$ 9 ! int]ior1 s t ! :ole ?us con/itut$ =ms a sort ( holl[ cu%ion :i* is compress$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! pressure ( ! foot on ! gr\nd4 ,a tube :i* is atta*$ to a regi/]+ app>atus1 :i* ! p]son :o is walk+ c>ries 9 8 h&1 communicates ) ?is cavity 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,?is app>atus is =m$ ( a metal drum1 :i* is clos$ at its upp] "p by a flexible membrane4 ,ea* "t t "o ( ! man's feet presses on ! gr\nd1 ! air conta9$ 9 ! cavity ( ! sole ( ! %oe is driv5 into ! drum1 :i* we h j m5tion$1 & ! flexible membrane ( ?is drum is elevat$4 ,to ?is membrane is atta*$ a v]tical rod :i* supports a horizontal /yle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,exp]im5tal ,,%oes1 ,,int5d$ ,,to ,,record ,,! ,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,on ,,! ,,gr\nd4 ,:5 ! membrane1 z we h j se51 is elevat$1 ! /yle is lift$1 & !n desc5ds :5 ! pressure ( ! foot ceases4 ,x traces ^! displacem5ts on a leaf ( pap]1 ! surface ( :i* is cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( lamp-black1 :i* x removes by its contact2 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is surface are successively pres5t$ to x1 ! pap] be+ roll$ r\nd a cyl9d] :i* is turn$ on its axis by means ( a clockwork movem5t4 ,x is necess>y to add t ! inscription is made1 9 ! /udy ( ! walk ( man1 by means ( two /yles1 ea* correspond+ to "o ( ! feet4 ,! trac+s ?us obta9$1 :i* are read f left to "r1 are suffici5tly simple2 b to und]/& !m prop]ly1 x is necess>y to rememb] t ! /yle und]goes a movem5t ( asc5sional displacem5t dur+ ea* pressure ( a foot1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 x desc5ds :5 ! latt] is sep>at$ f ! gr\nd4 ,we also see1 on ! trac+ :i* x leaves1 a l9e :i* asc5ds & !n desc5ds2 ! mean+ ( ?is is t fir/ ! foot presses on ! gr\nd1 & is aft]w>ds rais$ f x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,,runn] ,,furni%$ ,,) ,,! ,,exploratory ,,& ,,regi/]+ ,,app>atus ,,( ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,paces4 ,on ! trac+ 7,fig4 #aag71 ! l9e ,d relates to ! "r foot2 ! l9e ,g1 :i* is dott$ s t x may n be confus$ ) ! prec$+1 corresponds to ! left foot4 ,! l9e ,g fir/ asc5ds2 ! mean+ ( :i* is t ! left foot presses on ! gr\nd2 aft]w>ds x desc5ds3 ?is indicates t ! pressure ( ! foot has ceas$4 ,x is ! same = ! "r foot4 ,z we see1 ! pressures succe$ ea* o!r2 :5 ! left foot t\*es ! gr\nd1 ! "r is sep>at$ f x2 :5 ! latt] presses ! gr\nd1 x is ! left :i* no long] re/s !re4 ,! l9e ,o is relat$ to ! movem5ts ( ! body1 z indicat$ by ! oscillations ( ! head4 ,we w neglect ^!4 ,b ?is trac+1 :i* s]ves u = an example1 is n1 x mu/ inde$ be said1 ( v easy read+2 x w\ld be /ill less s if ! paces ( a horse 7 regi/]$1 = !re w\ld !n be f\r l9es1 ! entanglem5t ( :i* w\ld cause great] complication4 ,^! difficulties ( read+ ne$ be no long] fe>$1 if we trans=m ! trac+ into a notation by means ( ! foll[+ diagram4 ,!re are drawn 7,fig4 #aah7 bel[ ! graphic trac+ two horizontal l9es 7#a1 #b74 ,f ! po9t :]e ! l9e ,d rises 7comm5cem5t ( ! pressure ( ! "r foot71 & f ! po9t :]e ?is same l9e desc5ds 7end ( ! same pressure71 we let fall two v]tical l9es jo9+ ! two horizontal ones m5tion$ above4 ,at ?is plane1 & betwe5 ! two v]tical l9es1 we m>k a broad :ite "o 7a1 b74 ,?is expresses1 by its l5g?1 ! duration ( ! p]iod ( pressure ( ! "r foot4 ,9 do+ ! same = ! l9e ,g1 we obta9 = ! indication ( a pressure ( ! left foot an int]val ( ! same k9d1 9 :i* are m>k$ cross-l9es1 or :i* is t9t$ gray1 9 ord] to avoid all confusion ) ! prec$+ trac+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,trac+ ,,( ,,! ,,runn+ ,,( ,a ,,man 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey47 ,d1 ,pressures & elevations ( ! "r foot2 ,g1 pressures & elevations ( ! left foot4 ,?is notation c1 ) suffici5t exactitude1 be comp>$ to t :i* is employ$ 9 ! musical scale4 ,! horizontal l9es #a & #b repres5t ! compass4 ,we !re also see notes2 ^! are ! b>s indicat+ ! pressure1 ( :i* ! value--t is to say1 ! duration--is repres5t$ by ! l5g? ( ^! b>s4 ,x is ! same ) reg>d to ! int]vals ( sil5ce3 ^! are express$ by ! int]vals :i* sep>ate ! pressures1 & correspond to ! mom5ts 9 :i*1 dur+ c]ta9 paces1 su* z runn+1 ! body is rais$ f ! gr\nd4 ,besides1 we see int]vals ( ?is k9d on ! notation reproduc$ 7,fig4 #aah7 relative to ! runn+ ( man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,9 ord] to make ! signification ( ^! trac+s /ill bett] und]/ood1 we reproduce f\r v>ieties ( !m 7,fig4 #aai74 ,! fir/ notation is t ( ord9>y walk+4 ,! pressures succe$ ea* o!r regul>ly4 ,! second %[s :at takes place dur+ ! asc5t ( a /aircase4 ,at a c]ta9 mom5t1 ! weight ( ! body is ^u bo? feet at ! same "t1 "o ( !m n quitt+ ! l[] /ep1 until ! o!r is already 9 contact ) ! /ep above4 ,accord+ly1 !re is ?us produc$ an ov]rid+ ( ! pressures4 ,! ?ird is relative to runn+1 & has already be5 repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aah4 ,! pressures ( ! feet are sep>at$ by ! times ( susp5sion4 ,! f\r? also repres5ts runn+1 b 9 ?is case m rapid & *>act]iz$ by ! %ort] pressures1 ! slightly long] p]iods ( susp5sion int]vals1 & ! quick] succession ( movem5ts4 ,be=e putt+ aside ! indications relat+ to ! walk+ movem5ts ( man--indications :i* x 0 necess>y to give 9 ord] to r5d] intelligible ^? :i* are connect$ ) ! paces ( ! horse--we h yet to fix ! value ( t :i* we call 'a /ep4' ,x is g5]ally admitt$ t a /ep is con/itut$ by ! s]ies ( movem5ts :i* are produc$ betwe5 ! correspond+ phases ( ! action ( "o foot & t ( ! o!r--= example1 betwe5 ! mom5t at :i* ! "r foot comm5ces its pressure on ! gr\nd & t at :i* ! left foot comm5ces its own4 ,x is necess>y to adopt "h ano!r me?od ( look+ at x1 & to reg>d ! prec$+ z be+ b a half-/ep4 ,! /ep %\ld !n be def9$ z be+ con/itut$ by ! s]ies ( movem5ts :i* are execut$ betwe5 two simil> positions ( ! same foot--z1 = example1 betwe5 ! comm5cem5t ( a pressure ( ! "r foot & ! simil> phase ( ! foll[+ pressure ( ! same foot4 ,we %all soon und]/& ! importance ( ?is def9ition4 ,be=e ent]+ on ! details ( ! paces ( ! horse1 x is necess>y to see h[ ! limbs ( ! latt] oscillate dur+ ! p]iod ( a complete /ep2 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 to det]m9e :at ! displacem5ts are :i* a limb executes betwe5 two simil> positions ( its foot4 ,if we exam9e "o ( ! limbs dur+ a =w>d movem5t ( ! animal1 we see t ?is limb passes ?r\gh two pr9cipal phases3 7#a7 ,x is rais$ f ! gr\nd2 7#b7 x resumes contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,ea* ( ^! phases is divid$ into ?ree p]iods ( "t1 :i* we proce$ to analyze 9 connection ) ! ant]ior limb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,sw+ ,,( ,,! ,,rais$ ,,ant]ior ,,limb 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col974#ga ,c1 ,lift+2 ,b1 susp5sion2 ,a1 plac+4 #ga ,g4 ,col91 ',traite de ,physiologie ,comp>ee des ,animaux1' ?ird edition1 ,p>is1 #ahhf4 ,! foot quits ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #abj1 ,c72 ?is may be call$ lift+2 ! limb is oblique 9 direction d[nw>ds & backw>ds4 ,?is same limb is flex$ & c>ri$ =w>d 7,fig4 #abj1 ,b71 &1 z x is support$ by ! action ( its flexors1 ?is is ! p]iod nam$ susp5sion2 ! ho( is v]tical4 ,!n ! limb is c>ri$ /ill fur!r =w>d1 becom+ ext5d$ 7,fig4 #abj1 ,a72 ! heel is l[]$1 & ! foot1 be+ oblique1 is direct$ t[>ds ! gr\nd2 ?is is ! plac+4 ,!n takes place pressure 7,fig4 #aba74 ,! foot has j be5 plac$ on ! gr\nd2 ! limb is oblique 9 direction d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 ?is we call comm5cem5t ( ! pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,a74 ,!n ! body1 be+ c>ri$ =w>d1 :il/ ! ho(1 ,d1 is fix$ on ! gr\nd1 ! limb becomes v]tical3 ?is /age is mid-pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,b74 ,f9ally1 ! progression ( ! body cont9u+1 ! limb becomes oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds2 x is n[ at ! t]m9ation ( pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,c71 & proce$s to lift itself anew if ano!r /ep is to be made4 ,9 conclusion1 ! inf]ior extremity ( ! limb describes1 f its elevation to its be+ plac$ on ! gr\nd1 an arc ( a circle ar\nd its sup]ior extremity 7,fig4 #aba1 ,d72 :il/1 dur+ ! pressure1 x is its sup]ior extremity :i* describes "o ar\nd its inf]ior extremity1 !n fix$ on ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #aba1 ,d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,sw+ ,,( ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,limb ,,on ,,! ,,po9t ,,( ,,pressure 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col974 ,a1 ,comm5cem5t ( ! pressure2 ,b1 c5tre ( ! pressure2 ,c1 t]m9ation ( ! pressure4 ,if we simultane\sly exam9e ! two =e-limbs1 we rem>k t :5 "o ( !m beg9s its pressure ! o!r ends x1 & vice v]sa4 ,z to ! h9d-limbs1 ! oscillations are simil> to ^? ( ! =e ones4 ,9 ! second half ( ! pressure--t is1 :5 !y are pass+ f ! v]tical direction 7,fig4 #abb1 ,a7 to extreme obliquity backw>ds 7,fig4 #abb1 ,c7--! effect ( _! action is to give propulsion to ! body4 ,! =e & h9d limbs make ! same numb] ( /eps1 & ! /eps h ! same l5g?4 ,! limbs ( any quadrup$--b we make special allusion to ^? ( ! horse--are divid$ into gr\ps 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! ant]ior pair con/itutes ! ant]ior bip$4 ,! po/]ior bip$ is t =m$ by ! po/]ior limbs4 ,! "n ( lat]al bip$ s]ves to designate ! :ole =m$ by ! two limbs ( ! same side4 ,! "r =e-limb & ! "r h9d-limb =m ! "r lat]al bip$4 ,! two o!rs =m ! left lat]al bip$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,po/]ior ,,limb1 ,,giv+ ,,! ,,impulse 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col974 ,a1 ,comm5cem5t ( pressure2 ,b1 c5tre ( pressure2 ,c1 t]m9ation ( pressure4 ,a =e-limb & h9d-limb belong+ to ! opposite side =m a diagonal bip$1 :i* also takes ! "n ( ! =e-limb :i* =ms a "p ( x4 ,?us1 ! "r diagonal bip$ is =m$ by ! association ( ! "r =e-limb & ! left h9d "o4 ,! left diagonal bip$ is1 consequ5tly1 ! inv]se4 ,x is necess>y to rememb] well ^! prelim9>y indications2 x is ! only means ( compreh5d+ ) facility t :i* is ab\t to foll[4 ,let u fir/ return to ! gr\p+ ( ! limbs4 ,! d5om9ations ant]ior & po/]ior bip$s r5d] cle>ly p]ceptible ! comp>ison :i* consi/s 9 reg>d+ a horse :5 walk+ z capable ( be+ repres5t$ by two m5 m>*+ "o beh9d ! o!r1 & mak+ ! same numb] ( /eps4 ,accord+ z !y move ! legs ( ! same side at ! same "t 9 'cov]+ ! /ep1' or m>* 9 contretemps /ep1 we f9d reproduc$ all ! rhy?ms :i* *>act]ize ! diff]5t paces ( ! horse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,ambl+ ,,gait ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 ,pr(essor ,m>ey has /udi$ ^! paces by a simil> me?od to t :i* he adopt$ = ! walk+ ( man1 & :i* we h already describ$4 ,he employ$ holl[ balls fix$ "u ! ho(s1 & a regi/]+ app>atus ) f\r /yles1 ea* correspond+ to "o ( ! limbs4 ,! trac+ obta9$ is r complicat$1 s9ce two sets ( l9es are f\nd m>k$4 ,b a notation simil> to t ( :i* we h spok5 c be discov]$1 & its exact signification %\ld n[ be det]m9$4 ,= ?is purpose1 we h select$ ! mo/ simple 7see ,fig4 #abc74 ,we !re see1 plac$ 9 two sup]impos$ l9es1 ! pressure m>k+s ( ! "r feet 7:ite b&s71 & ( ! left feet 7gray b&s74 ,on ! upp] l9e are f\nd ^? relat$ to ! =e-legs2 ! l[] l9es conta9 ^? associat$ ) ! h9d-legs4 ,x is1 9 brief1 ! sup]position ( two notations ( ! human walk+ movem5ts4 ,& see+ t1 z we h previ\sly po9t$ out1 we may make a comp>ison betwe5 a quadrup$ & two m5 plac$ "o beh9d ! o!r1 x is easy to und]/& ! significance ( ! sup]impos$ notations1 if we accu/om ourselves to look on !m z ! notations ( two bip$s4 ,to read ^! notations--t is1 to le>n to "k :at occurs at ea* ( ! movem5ts ( ! pace--x is necess>y1 inde$1 to rememb] t !y %\ld be exam9$ 9 v]tical sections2 x is to ea* ( ^! sections--( ^! v]tical divisions--t ea* ( ! movem5ts :i* we m p>ticul>ly wi% to analyze corresponds4 ,we proce$ to /udy fir/ ! pace ( ambl+1 because x is ! mo/ simple2 we %all !n consid] ! trot1 &1 f9ally1 we %all exam9e t :i* is ! mo/ complicat$1 viz41 ! /ep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,! ,,amble3 ,,"r ,,lat]al ,,pressure4#gb #gb ,! figures :i*1 9 ! pres5t /udy1 reproduce ! diff]5t paces1 h be5 made f our articulat$ horse 7see ! note on p4 #bhb74 ,! ,amble4--,to give an exact idea ( ! g5]al "* ( ! amble1 let u fancy ! two m5 :om we discuss$ above m>*+ "o beh9d ! o!r & walk+ 9 /ep--t is1 mov+ ! legs ( ! same side simultane\sly4 ,!y w ?us repres5t ! amble1 :i*1 inde$1 results f ! alt]nate displacem5ts ( ! lat]al bip$s2 ! limbs ( ! same side 7"r or left7 execute ! same movem5ts 9 ! same "t4 ,?is is :at ! notation indicates 7,fig4 #abc74 ,we !re see t ! pressures ( ! "r =e-foot1 m>k$ by ! :ite b&s 9 ! upp] range1 are exactly sup]pos$ on ^? ( ! "r h9d "o1 :i* are m>k$ by a simil> b& on ! l[] l9e2 ?is means t ! pressures took place 9 ! same "t4 ,we !re see also a simil> arrangem5t ( ! gray b&s1 :i* has a simil> significance = ! left =e & h9d feet4 ,& if we recollect ! ?ree phases ( pressure 7see p4 #bhi1 & ,figs4 #aba1 #abb71 we %all compreh5d1 9 look+ at ! diagrams1 t1 at ! initial /age 7,a71 ! limbs are comm5c+ _! pressure1 & are oblique d[nw>ds & =w>ds2 t aft]w>ds 7,b7 ! two limbs are v]tical1 s9ce !y are at ! middle ( ! pressure /age2 & t f9ally 7,c7 !y are oblique d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 = x is !n ! t]m9ation ( _! pressure 7,fig4 #abd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gait ,,( ,,! ,,trot ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 ,dur+ ! "t t ! "r limbs are press+ 7notation1 :ite b&s7 ! left limbs are rais$2 aft]w>ds ^! latt] take up ! pressure 7gray b&s71 & !n ! "r limbs are rais$ 9 _! turn4 ,dur+ ! pace ( ambl+ ! weight ( ! body1 :i* is :olly su/a9$ by ! limbs ( "o side only1 is n 9 equilibrium1 s t ! limbs :i* are rais$ return by a brisk movem5t to ! position ( support 9 ord] to re-e/abli% x4 ,! ,trot4--,we h j se5 t1 9 ord] to repres5t ! amble1 ! two m>*]s mov$ _! "r limbs simultane\sly1 & !n _! left ones4 ,let u suppose n[ t ! h9d] man anticipat$ by half a pace ! movem5t ( ! front "o1 !n w be f\nd realiz$ ! association & ! nature ( ! displacem5ts ( ! limbs dur+ ! pace ( ! trot4 ,by ?is anticipation ( a half-/ep 7we h def9$1 p4 #bhh1 :at is to be und]/ood by ! ^w /ep71 x foll[s t :5 ! m>*] :o is 9 front advances 8 "r leg x is ! left leg ( ! m>*] :o foll[s him t is c>ri$ 9 ! same direction4 ,we %\ld ?us conclude f ?is t ! trot is *>act]iz$ by a succession ( displacem5ts ( ! diagonal bip$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,! ,,trot2 ,,"r ,,diagonal ,,pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,! ,,trot2 ,,"t ,,( ,,susp5sion4 ,inde$1 if we exam9e ! notation ( ?is gait 7,fig4 #abe71 we see t ) ! pressure ( ! "r =e-foot is f\nd associat$ ! pressure ( ! left h9d-foot4 ,x is1 accord+ly1 a typical diagonal bip$ 7,fig4 #abf74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,pace ,,( ,,/epp+ ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 ,l1 ,"r lat]al pressure2 ,d1 "r diagonal pressure2 ,l'1 left lat]al pressure2 ,d'1 left diagonal pressure4 ,b x is necess>y to add t ^! gr\ps ( pressures d n succe$ "o ano!r )\t int]ruption1 except 9 ! sl[ trot4 ,9 ! ord9>y trot1 or 9 t 9 :i* ! animal's /rides are v long1 ! body betwe5 ea* ( ! d\ble pressures :i* we h j be5 consid]+ is project$ =w>d ) su* =ce t x rema9s = an in/ant sep>at$ f ! gr\nd4 ,?is is :at we designate by ! "n ( "t ( susp5sion 7,fig4 #abg74 ,! notation 9 ?is case w\ld be slightly diff]5t f t :i* we reproduce above1 9 ?is s5se3 t betwe5 ! diagonal pressures !re !n w\ld be f\nd an int]val1 s9ce dur+ ! "t ! body is susp5d$ none ( ! feet c produce a pressure-m>k 7see1 ) reg>d to ^! int]vals1 ! notations ( ! runn+ ( a man1 ,fig4 #aah1 & ,fig4 #aai1 #c1 #d74 ,! ,walk4--,al?\gh sl[1 a feature :i* w\ld seem to make x possible to p]mit its analysis 9 a horse :5 walk+1 ?is pace is difficult to compreh5d )\t suffici5t prelim9>y /udy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,! ,,/ep3 ,,"r ,,lat]al ,,pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,,! ,,/ep3 ,,"r ,,diagonal ,,pressure4 ,we saw above t 9 ord] to repres5t ! amble ! m>*]s _h to move ! legs ( ! same side simultane\sly4 ,we h also j se5 t 9 ord] to repres5t ! trot ! m>*] at ! back _h to anticipate by a half-/ep4 ,suppose1 n[1 t ?is same m>*] anticipates ! man 9 front by a qu>t]-/ep only1 or by a half-pressure p]iod1 & ?us w be f\nd realiz$ ! ord] ( succession ( ! limbs 9 ! gait or pace call$ ! walk4 ,! feet meet ! gr\nd "o aft] ! o!r1 s9ce !y are ea* 9 advance by half ! duration ( a pressure4 ,! /rokes are f\r 9 numb] dur+ ! p]iod ( a /ep ( ?is pace2 9 ! amble & 9 ! trot !y d n exce$ two1 = !n ! limbs /rike ! gr\nd 9 lat]al diagonal pairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,! ,,gallop3 ,,fir/ ,,p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,! ,,gallop3 ,,second ,,p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,,! ,,gallop3 ,,?ird ,,p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,! ,,gallop3 ,,"t ,,( ,,susp5sion4 ,if we exam9e ! notation ( ! pace ( walk+ 7,fig4 #abh71 we see t ! "r =e-foot comm5ces its pressure :5 ! "r h9d-foot is 9 ! middle ( its own1 & t ! h9d] left beg9s 9 ! middle ( t ( ! "r =e-foot1 & t x is itself at ! mid/ ( its pressure :5 ! left =e-foot t\*es ! gr\nd1 etc4 ,9 a ^w1 ! foot-fall+s occur 9 ! foll[+ ord] & at regul> int]vals--! =e "r foot is "h consid]$ z act+ fir/3 "r =e1 left h9d1 left =e1 "r h9d1 & s on 9 succession4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gallop ,,divid$ ,,into ,,?ree ,,p]iods ,,( ,,"t 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 #a1 ,fir/ p]iod2 #b1 second p]iod2 #c1 ?ird p]iod4 ,z to ! nature ( ! bip$s :i* succe$ "o ano!r1 x is easy to und]/& !m by means ( ! notation4 ,9 read+ ?is f left to "r1 we see t ! associations ( pressure are fir/ made by ! two "r feet1 !n by a "r foot & a left "o1 !n by two left feet1 &1 f9ally1 by a left & "r4 ,x is1 accord+ly1 a succession ?is "t ( lat]al & diagonal pressures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,notation ,,( ,,! ,,gallop ,,( ,,f\r ,,p]iods ,,9 ,,! ,,horse 7,,aft] ,,pr(essor ,,m>ey74 #a1 ,fir/ p]iod2 #b1 second p]iod2 #c1 ?ird p]iod2 #d1 f\r? p]iod4 ,?us1 we f9d at ! />t a "r lat]al pressure 7,fig4 #abi71 next a "r diagonal 7,fig4 #acj71 !n a left lat]al2 f9ally1 a left diagonal pressure4 ,x is ?us t ! initial lett]s ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d' fur!r indicate ! notations repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #abh4 ,! ,gallop4--,! ord9>y gallop is a pace ( ?ree phases4 ,! fir/ is *>act]iz$ by ! fact t "o h9d-limb alone re/s on ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #aca72 9 ! second ! animal is on a diagonal support 7,fig4 #acb72 9 ! ?ird x comes d[n on a =e-limb 7,fig4 #acc74 ,! body is !n rais$ 7,fig4 #acd71 & to ?is p]iod ( susp5sion succe$ anew ! ?ree modes ( pressure indicat$ above4 ,! gallop is said to be f ei!r "r or left4 ,9 ! gallop f ! "r1 ! "r =e-leg is ! m frequ5tly 9 advance ( its neighb\r2 x is ! la/ to be plac$ on ! gr\nd4 ,! left foot ( ! po/]ior bip$ is ! "o :i* comm5ces ! action4 ,an entirely opposite arrangem5t *>act]izes ! gallop f ! left4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,,leap ,,( ,,! ,,h>e 7,,aft] ,g4 ,,col974 ,! notation reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #ace corresponds to ! gallop f ! "r4 ,x is !re se51 z we po9t$ out above1 t 9 ! fir/ phase ! exclusive support ( ! left h9d-foot takes place 7#a72 t aft]w>ds1 9 ! second1 comm5ce simultane\sly1 ! pressures ( ! left =e & ! "r h9d foot 7#b72 ?is is ! left diagonal support2 & t f9ally1 9 ! ?ird1 ! body comes d[n on a =e-limb1 :i* is !n ! "r 7#c72 & t = a mom5t x is on ?is limb alone t ! animal re/s4 ,to ^! ?ree phases on ! notation succe$s an int]val2 ?is is ! p]iod ( susp5sion4 ,! gallop ( f\r phases only diff]s f ! prec$+ 9 t ! foot-fall+s ( ea* diagonal bip$ occur at slight int]vals1 & give di/9ct s\nds4 ,! notation is reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #acf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,,! ,,leap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,,! ,,leap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,! ,,leap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,! ,,leap4 ,! ,leap4--,! leap is an act by :i* ! body is :olly rais$ f ! gr\nd & project$ upw>ds & =w>ds to a great] or less di/ance4 ,x is prep>$ = by ! flex+ ( ! h9d-limbs1 :i*1 by be+ sudd5ly ext5d$1 project ! body1 & ?us enable x to pass ov] an ob/acle4 ,?is prep>atory arrangem5t is v rem>kable 9 ! leap ( ! lion1 ! cat1 & ! pan!r1 :i* execute spr+s ( great l5g?2 9 ! horse1 9 :i* ! leap is n an habitual mode ( progression1 ?is flexion ( ! h9d] limbs is less m>k$4 ,) ?is animal ! leap is g5]ally associat$ ) ! gallop2 nev]!less1 x is sometimes made f a /ation>y position4 ,9 obs]v+ ! h>e or ! rabbit1 9 :i* ! leap is habitual1 we notice 7,fig4 #acg7 t ! h9d-limbs1 be+ extremely flex$1 re/ on ! gr\nd z f> z ! calcaneum1 are !n /raight5$ by ! action ( _! ext5sors1 become v]tical & !n oblique backw>ds at ! mom5t ! body is ?r[n =w>d into space by ! sudd5 ext5sion ( ^! limbs4 ,! action ( ! ext5sors is en]getic & in/antane\s1 & _! en]gy is great] ?an 9 ord9>y progression1 = x is requir$ to lift ! body & to project x =cibly a m or less consid]able di/ance4 ,x is ! extreme rapidity ( ?is action :i* enables ! animal to cle> an ob/acle1 = )\t ?is condition ! body w\ld be rais$1 b n sep>at$ f ! gr\nd4 ,fir/ ( all1 9 rea*+ ! ob/acle to be cle>$1 ! horse prep>es to leap by tak+ ! attitude ( re>+2 ! h9d-limbs are flex$ & c>ri$ "u ! body1 ! =e-qu>t]s are rais$1 & ! diff]5t segm5ts ( ! =e-limbs are flex$ 7,fig4 #ach74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,! ,,leap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,! ,,leap4 ,"o sudd5 trigg] action produc$ by ! viol5t contraction ( ! ext5sors ( ! h9d-legs !n takes place1 & ! animal is project$ =w>ds1 :ile he flexes ! =e-legs m & m 7,fig4 #aci74 ,he has !n ris5 above ! ob/acle 7,fig4 #adj74 ,!n :ile he makes ! d[nw>d & =w>d balanc+ movem5t1 & po9ts 8 =e-limbs 9 ! same direction1 he flexes ! h9d ones 7,fig4 #ada74 ,:il/ ! latt] are fur!r flex$1 9 ord] to pass ! ob/acle 9 _! turn1 ! =e-limbs :i* are ext5d$ come into contact ) ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #adb74 ,f9ally1 9 ! la/ phase ( ! leap1 ! animal1 rais+ himself 9 front1 aft] ! impact ( 8 h9d-feet has tak5 place 7,fig4 #adc71 prep>es to cont9ue ! pace at :i* he progress$ be=e meet+ ! ob/acle :i* he _h to cle>4 ,,! ,,end ,london3 ,bailli]e1 ,t9dall & ,cox1 #h1 ,h5rietta ,/reet1 ,cov5t ,g>d51 ,w4,c4 ,,! ,,arti/ic ,,anatomy ,,( ,,animals ,illu/ration ,,sectional ,,index ,,page ,g5]alities ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy #a ,,o/eology ,,& ,,ar?rology ,! ,trunk3 ,v]tebral ,column #d ,sacrum #aj ,coccygeal v]tebrae #aa ,direction & =m ( ! v]tebral column #aa ,?orax #ab ,/]num #ad ,ribs & co/al c>tilages #ad ,! ,ant]ior ,limbs3 ,%\ld] #bj ,scapula #ba ,clavicle #be ,arm #bh ,hum]us #bh ,g5]al view ( ! =m ( ! =e>m & h& #cd ,=e>m #ch ,h& #dd ,! ,ant]ior ,limbs 9 ,c]ta9 ,animals3 ,plantigrades3 ,be> #di ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 dog #ea ,unguligrades3 ,pig #eg ,%eep1 ,ox #fj ,horse #fd ,proportions ( ! arm1 ! =e>m1 & metac>pus #gj ,articulations ( ! ant]ior limbs #ga ,scapulo-hum]al articulation #gb ,hum]o-uln> articulation1 or elb[ #gd ,radio-uln> articulation #ge ,articulation ( ! wri/ #ge ,metac>po-phalangeal articulations #gf ,int]phalangeal articulations #gg ,! ,po/]ior ,limbs3 ,pelvis #gh ,iliac bone #gh ,! ,?igh #hc ,femur #hc ,knee-cap #he ,! ,leg #he ,tibia #hf ,fibula #hg ,! ,foot #hg ,! ,po/]ior ,limbs 9 ,"s ,animals3 ,plantigrades3 ,be> #ij ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 dog #ia ,unguligrades3 ,pig #id ,%eep1 ox #ie ,horse #ii ,articulations ( ! po/]ior limbs #aje ,coxo-femoral articulation #aje ,femoro-tibial articulation1 or knee #ajf ,tibio-t>sal articulation1 & ( ! bones ( ! t>sus #ajg ,! ,head 9 ,g5]al1 & 9 ,"s ,animals 9 ,p>ticul>3 ,direction ( ! head #aji ,! skull #aab ,! face #aah ,! skull ( birds #abg ,,myology ,muscles ( ! ,trunk3 ,pectoralis major #aca ,pectoralis m9or #acc ,s]ratus magnus #acd ,muscles ( ! ,abdom53 ,ext]nal oblique #acf ,int]nal oblique #acg ,transv]salis abdom9is #ach ,rectus abdom9is #ach ,pyramidalis abdom9is #aci ,muscles ( ! ,back3 ,trapezius #adj ,latissimus dorsi #adb ,rhomboid #add ,! ,cutane\s ,muscle ( ! ,trunk #adg ,! ,coccygeal ,region3 ,is*io-coccygeal muscle #adi ,sup]ior sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,lat]al sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,inf]ior sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,muscles ( ! ,neck3 ,ma/oido-hum]alis #aej ,/]no-ma/oid #aec ,omo-tra*elian #aee ,levator anguli scapulae #aef ,spl5ius #aeh ,infrahyoid ,muscles3 ,/]no-?yroid & /]no-hyoid #afj ,omo-hyoid #afj ,suprahyoid ,muscles3 ,mylo-hyoid #afa ,diga/ric #afa ,panniculus ( ! ,neck #afb ,muscles ( ! ,ant]ior ,limbs3 ,muscles ( ! ,%\ld] #afb ,deltoid #afb ,subscapul>is #afc ,suprasp9atus #afd ,infrasp9atus #afe ,t]es m9or #aff ,t]es major #aff ,panniculus muscle ( ! %\ld] #afg ,muscles ( ! ,arm #afh ,ant]ior region #afi ,biceps #afi ,bra*ialis anticus #agj ,coraco-bra*ialis #agj ,po/]ior region #aga ,triceps #aga ,supplem5tal or ,accessory ,muscle ( ! ,latissimus ,dorsi #agc ,muscles ( ! ,=e>m #agd ,ant]ior & ext]nal region #agf ,sup9ator longus #agf ,fir/ & second ext]nal radial #agf ,sup9ator brevis #agi ,ext5sor communis digitorum #agi ,ext5sor m9imi digiti #ahc ,po/]ior uln> #ahe ,anconeus #ahe ,long abductor ( ! ?umb #ahf ,%ort ext5sor ( ! ?umb #ahg ,long ext5sor ( ! ?umb #ahg ,prop] ext5sor ( ! index #ahg ,int]nal & po/]ior region #ahh ,pronator t]es #ahh ,flexor c>pi radialis #ahi ,palm>is longus #ahi ,ant]ior uln> #aia ,sup]ficial flexor ( ! digits #aic ,long prop] flexor ( ! ?umb #aig ,pronator quadratus #aih ,muscles ( ! ,h& #aii ,muscles ( ! ,po/]ior ,limbs3 ,muscles ( ! ,pelvis #bjj ,gluteus m$ius #bjj ,gluteus maximus #bja ,muscles ( ! ,?igh #bjd ,muscles ( ! po/]ior region #bje ,biceps #bje ,semi-t5d9osus #bjf ,semi-membranosus #bjg ,muscles ( ! ant]ior region #baj ,triceps #baj ,t5sor fascia lata #baa ,s>torius #baa ,muscles ( ! int]nal region #bac ,gracilis #bac ,muscles ( ! ,leg #bac ,muscles ( ! ant]ior region #bad ,tibialis anticus #bad ,ext5sor proprius pollicis #bai ,ext5sor longus digitorum #bai ,p]oneus t]tius #bbd ,muscles ( ! ext]nal region #bbd ,p]oneus longus #bbd ,p]oneus brevis #bbe ,muscles ( ! po/]ior region #bbg ,ga/rocnemius #bbg ,soleus #bbh ,plant>is #bbh ,popliteus #bbh ,sup]ficial flexor ( ! toes #bbi ,flexor longus digitorum #bcj ,tibialis po/icus #bcj ,flexor longus pollicis #bca ,muscles ( ! ,foot #bca ,dorsalis p$is #bca ,muscles ( ! ,head #bcb ,ma/icatory muscles #bcb ,masset] #bcb ,temporal muscle #bcd ,cutane\s muscles ( ! head #bcd ,occipito-frontalis #bcd ,orbicul>is palpebr>um #bcd ,pyramidalis nasi #bce ,corrugator sup]cilii #bce ,zygomaticus major #bce ,zygomaticus m9or #bcf ,levator labii sup]ioris proprius #bcg ,levator labii sup]ioris alaeque nasi #bch ,transv]sus nasi #bci ,can9us #bci ,orbicul>is oris #bdj ,triangul>is oris #bdj ,quadratus m5ti #bdj ,prom95ce ( ! *9 #bdj ,bucc9ator #bda ,maxillo-labialis #bdb ,zygomatico-auricul>is #bdb ,temporo-auricul>is ext]nus #bdc ,scuto-auricul>is ext]nus #bdc ,c]vico-auricul> muscles #bdc ,c]vico-auricul>is sup]ioris #bdd ,c]vico-auricul>is m$ius #bdd ,c]vico-auricul>is inf]ioris #bdd ,p>otido-auricul>is #bdd ,temporo-auricul>is int]nus #bdd ,zygomatico-auricul>is #bde ,,epid]mic ,,products ,,( ,,! ,,t]m9al ,,extremities ,,( ,,! ,,=e ,,& ,,h9d ,,limbs ,claws #bdg ,plant> tub]cles #bdh ,ho(s ( ! solip$s #bej ,ho(s ( ox & pig #bfa 99 99 99 99 99 ,proportions #bfb ,proportions ( head ( horse #bgc 7front view7 #bgf ,paces ( ! horse #bhb ,amble #bic ,trot #bid ,walk #bif ,gallop #cjj ,leap #cfd ,,errata ,p4 #aje1 ,articulations ( ! ,po/]ior ,limbs4 ,p4 #ajg1 ,tibio-t>sal ,articulation4 ,,! ,,end ,london3 ,bailli]e1 ,t9dall & ,cox1 #h1 ,h5rietta ,/reet1 ,cov5t ,g>d51 ,w4,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes3 ,footnotes h be5 mov$ to und]nea? ! p>agraph1 table or illu/ration !y ref] to4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s z to n disrupt ! fl[ ( ! text4 ,page numb]s 9 ! ,li/ ( ,illu/rations & 9 ref]5ces h n be5 *ang$1 & are !re=e n always correct4 ,! ,table ( ,cont5ts & ! ,sectional ,index are n complete & conta9 slightly diff]5t word+ ?an ! names ( sections 9 ! text4 ,?is has be5 left z 9 ! orig9al "w4 ,! ,errata h already be5 *ang$ 9 ! text4 ,! au?or uses ! t]ms *romophotograph & *ronophotograph 7& d]ivations ( ^! words72 ^! words h n be5 *ang$4 ,! correct t]m 9 ^! cases is *ronophotograph4 ,page #adc1 ,fig4 #fi3 atlas is m5tion$ twice 7nrs4 #ab & #ac72 only nr4 #ac indicates ! atlas4 ,! text us$ is t ( ! orig9al "w1 includ+ inconsi/5cies 9 spell+1 hyph5ation & lay-out1 & diff]5ces betwe5 ma9 text1 footnotes & captions1 except :5 m5tion$ bel[4 ,*anges made to ! text3 ,"s m9or obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,p]iods h be5 remov$ f "s section head+s = consi/5cy4 ,page #b1 footnote #b3 ,ma?ias-,duval *ang$ to ,ma?ias ,duval 7full "n3 ,ma?ias-,m>ie ,duval74 ,page #bc3 see replac$ ) see = consi/5cy4 ,page #dd 7footnote #ab73 ,edw>d ,cuy] *ang$ to ,ed\>d ,cuy] z else:]e4 ,page #ec1 captions 7#bx73 ,,aa#a *ang$ to ,,aa' z 9 draw+ & text4 ,page #abj1 ,fig4 #fc1 caption3 #ad'1 mal> bone add$1 #ad *ang$ to ant]ior orifice ( ! cavity ( ! nasal fossae 7z 9 previ\s figures74 ,page #baf3 t5do-,a*illes *ang$ to t5do-,a*illis z else:]e4 ,page #bcd3 ,fig4 #j1 #ib *ang$ to ,fig4 #ij1 #b4 ,page #bed1 ,fig4 #ih3 ept]nal *ang$ to ext]nal4 ,page #bfi1 la/ p>agraph3 "o an*or to same footnote delet$4 ,page #cbe3 ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d' *ang$ to ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d'4 ,footnotes #ac1 #ag3 ,la ,natura *ang$ to ,la ,nature4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------