---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,transcription used in this e-text3 ,texts in italics in the original work are transcribed between underscores1 as in text4 ,bold-face text in the original work has been transcribed between equal signs1 as in text4 ,small capitals have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,the author sometimes uses a different typeface to describe a shape1 as the ,v in ,v-form4 ,where this different typeface is used1 this has been transcribed as ,v4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes will be found at the end of this text4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,the ,,artistic ,,anatomy ,,of ,,animals ,,artistic ,,anatomy ,,of ,,animals ,,by ,,edouard ,,cuyer1 ,,supplementary ,,prof ,,of ,,anatomy ,,at ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,paris1 ,,prof ,,of ,,anatomy ,,at ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,rouen ,,translated ,,edited ,,by ,,george ,,haywood ,,lecturer ,,on ,,anatomy ,,at ,,the ,,royal ,,college ,,of ,,art ,,south ,,kensington ,illustration ,,london ,,bailliere1 ,,tindall ,,cox #h ,,henrietta ,,st ,,covent ,,garden ,,anno ,,domini ,,mdccccv ,,all ,,rights ,,resvd ,,preface ,a few lines will suffice to explain why we have compiled the present volume1 to what wants it responds1 and what its sphere of usefulness may possibly embrace4 ,in our teaching of plastic anatomy1 especially at the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts--where1 for the past nine years1 we have had the very great honour of supplementing the teaching of our distinguished master1 ,mathias ,duval1 after having been prosector for his course of lectures since #ahha--;it is our practice to give1 as a complement to the study of human anatomy1 a certain number of lessons on the anatomy of those animals which artists might be called on to represent4 ,now1 we were given to understand that the subject treated in our lectures interested our hearers1 so much so that we were not surprised to learn that a certain number repeatedly expressed a desire to see these lectures united in book form4 ,to us this idea was not new2 for many years the work in question had been in course of preparation1 and we had collected materials for it1 with the object of filling up a void of which the existence was to be regretted4 ,but our many engagements prevented us from executing our project as early as we would have wished4 ,it is this work which we publish to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,,reproduction ,,of ,a ,,sketch ,,by ,,barye 7,,collections ,,of ,,the ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,of ,,the ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,huguier ,,museum74 ,putting aside for a moment the wish expressed by our hearers1 we feel ourselves in duty bound to inquire whether the utility of this publication is self-evident4 ,let it be clearly understood that we wish to express here our opinion on this subject1 while putting aside every personal sentiment of an author4 ,no one now disputes the value of anatomical studies made in view of carrying out the artistic representation of man4 ,nevertheless--for we must provide against all contingencies--the conviction on this subject may be more or less absolute2 and yet it must possess this character in an intense degree in order that these studies may be profitable1 and permit the attainment of the goal which is proposed in undertaking them4 ,it is in this way that we ever strive to train the students whose studies we direct2 not only to admit the value of these studies1 but to be materially and deeply convinced of the fact without any restriction4 ,such is the sentiment which we endeavour to create and vigorously encourage4 ,and we may be permitted to add that we have often been successful in this direction4 ,therefore it is that1 at the beginning of our lectures1 and in anticipation of possible objections1 we are accustomed to take up the question of the utility of plastic anatomy4 ,and in so doing1 it is in order to combat at the outset the idea--as mischievous as it is false--which is sometimes imprudently enunciated1 that the possession of scientific knowledge is likely to tarnish the purity and freshness of the impressions received by the artist1 and to place shackles on the emotional sincerity of their representation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,,reproduction ,,of ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,barye 7,,collections ,,of ,,the ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,of ,,the ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,huguier ,,museum74 ,it is chiefly by employment of examples that we approach the subject4 ,these strike the imagination of the student more forcibly1 and the presentation of models of a certain choice1 although rough in execution1 is1 in our opinion1 preferable to considerations of an order possibly more exalted1 but of a character less clearly practical4 ,let us1 then1 ask the question3 ,those artists whose eminence nobody would dare to question1 did they study anatomy8 ,if the answer be in the affirmative1 we surely cannot permit ourselves to believe that we can dispense with a similar course4 ,and1 as proof of the studies of this class which the masters have made1 we may cite ,raphael1 ,michelangelo1 and1 above all1 ,leonardo da ,vinci2 and1 of the moderns1 ,gericault4 ,and we may more clearly define these proofs by an examination of the reproductions of their anatomical works1 chosen from certain of their special writings4#a #a ,mathias ,duval and ,a4 ,bical1 ',l'anatomie des ,maitres4' ,thirty plates reproduced from the originals of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,michelangelo1 ,raphael1 ,gericault1 etc41 with letterpress and a history of plastic anatomy1 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,the manuscripts of ,leonardo da ,vinci of the ,royal ,library1 ,windsor1 ',anatomy1 ,foliae ,a41' published by ,theodore ,sabachnikoff1 with a ,french translation1 written and annotated by ,giovanni ,piumati1 with an introduction by ,mathias ,duval4 ,edouard ,rouveyre1 publisher1 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,mathias ,duval and ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',history of ,plastic ,anatomy3 ,the ,masters1 their ,books1 and ,anatomical ,figures' 7,library of ,instruction of the ,school of ,fine ,arts71 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,accordingly1 there is no scope for serious discussion1 and it only remains for us to enunciate the opinion that it is necessary that we should imitate those masters1 and1 with a sense of respectful discipline1 follow their example4 ,here1 with regard to the anatomy of animals1 we pursue the same method1 and the example chosen shall be that of ,barye4 ,his talent is too far above all criticism to allow that this example should be refused4 ,the admiration which the works of this great artist elicit is too wide-spread for us to remain uninfluenced by the lessons furnished by his studies4 ,it is sufficient to see the sketches relating to these studies1 and his admirable casts from nature which form part of the anatomical museum of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 to be convinced that the artistic temperament1 of which ,barye was one of the most brilliant examples1 has nothing to lose by its association with researches the precision of which might seem likely to check its complete expansion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,,reproduction ,,of ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,barye 7,,collections ,,of ,,the ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,of ,,the ,,ecole ,,des ,,beaux-,,arts--,,huguier ,,museum74 ,in those sketches we find proofs of observation so scrupulous that we cannot restrain our admiration for the man whose ardent imagination was voluntarily subjected to the toil of study so profound4 ,if the example of ,barye1 with whom we associate the names of other great modern painters of animals1 can determine the conviction which we seek to produce1 we shall be sincerely glad4 ,to contribute to the propagation of useful ideas1 and to see them accepted1 gives a feeling of satisfaction far too legitimate for us to hesitate to say what we should feel if our hope be realized in this instance4 ,,edouard ,,cuyer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iv4--,,reproduction ,,of ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,barye 7,,collections ,,of ,,anatomical ,,museum ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,fine ,,arts--,,huguier ,,museum74 ,,contents ,,introduction ,,page ,,generalities ,,of ,,comparative ,,anatomy #a ,,chapter ,i ,,osteology ,,and ,,arthrology3 ,,the ,,trunk #d ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs #gh ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs ,,in ,,some ,,animals #ij ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,birds #abg ,,chapter ,,ii ,,myology3 ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,trunk #aca ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,anterior ,,limbs #afb ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs #bjj ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head #bcb ,,chapter ,,iii ,,epidermic ,,products ,,of ,,the ,,extremities ,,of ,,the ,,fore ,,and ,,hind ,,limbs #bdg ,,chapter ,,iv ,,proportions ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse #bgc ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,paces ,,of ,,the ,,horse #bhb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,a ,,human ,,skeleton ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,of ,a ,,quadruped1 ,,to ,,give ,a ,,general ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,in ,,other ,,vertebrates #e #b4 ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,atlas ,,compared ,,with ,,the ,,transverse ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,corresponding ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,in ,,man #g #c4 ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,atlas ,,compared ,,with ,,the ,,transverse ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,corresponding ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,in ,a ,,dog #h #d4 ,,lumbar ,,vertebrae ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,the ,,horse73 ,,superior ,,surface #i #e4 ,a ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,a ,,man ,,placed ,,vertically--,,that ,,is ,,to ,,say1 ,,in ,,the ,,direction ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,assume ,,in ,a ,,man ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,a ,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #ac #f4 ,a ,,vertical ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,diagrammatic7 #ad #g4 ,,sternum ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #ag #h4 ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,bat3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface #bj #i4 ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,seal3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #ba #aj4 ,,situation ,,and ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,scapula ,,in ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,the ,,trunk ,,being ,,horizontal1 ,,as ,,in ,,quadrupeds4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bb #aa4 ,,position ,,and ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,scapula ,,in ,,quadrupeds4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bb #ab4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,posterior ,,surface1 ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,occupy ,,in ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,quadruped #bc #ac4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,external ,,surface #bc #ad4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section1 ,,at ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,shoulders1 ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bd #ae4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section1 ,,at ,,the ,,plane ,,of ,,the ,,shoulders1 ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,,the ,,dog 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bd #af4 ,,left ,,clavicle ,,of ,,the ,,cat3 ,,superior ,,surface 7,,natural ,,size7 #bf #ag4 ,,clavicle ,,of ,,the ,,dog 7,,natural ,,size7 #bf #ah4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,antero- ,,external ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,side #bg #ai4 ,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,humerus ,,of ,a ,,felidae 7,,lion7 #ca #bj4 ,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,human ,,humerus1 ,,showing ,,the ,,presence ,,of ,a ,,supratrochlear ,,process #ca #ba4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,surface #cc #bb4 ,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,for ,,its ,,whole ,,extent ,,on ,,its ,,palmar ,,surface3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #ce #bc4 ,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,on ,,its ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #cf #bd4 ,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,on ,,the ,,tips ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,third ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,view #cf #be4 ,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,forearm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,superior ,,surface #ci #bf4 ,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,a ,,dog3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,superior ,,surface #ci #bg4 ,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,superior ,,surface #dj #bh4 ,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,a ,,man3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,posterior ,,surface1 ,,position ,,of ,,supination #da #bi4 ,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,a ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface1 ,,normal ,,position--,,that ,,is1 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,pronation #da #cj4 ,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bone ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface #db #ca4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,superior ,,limb ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #dg #cb4 ,,superior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,the ,,different ,,segments ,,being ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,which ,,the ,,corresponding ,,parts ,,occupy ,,in ,,birds3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #dh #cc4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,bear3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #ej #cd4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #eb #ce4 ,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #ec #cf4 ,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,cat3 ,,external ,,surface #ec #cg4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,finger ,,of ,a ,,felide 7,,lion73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,internal ,,surface #eg #ch4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #eh #ci4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #fa #dj4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #fd #da4 ,,flexion ,,of ,,the ,,humerus3 ,,right ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface 7,,after ,a ,,chromophotographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey7 #gd #db4 ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,humerus3 ,,right ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface 7,,after ,a ,,chromophotographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey7 #gd #dc4 ,,the ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being3 ,,external ,,surface1 ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,occupy ,,in ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,quadruped #gi #dd4 ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,horse73 ,,external ,,surface #gi #de4 ,,pubic ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,marsupial 7,,phalanger1 ,,fox7 #ha #df4 ,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,external ,,surface1 ,,left ,,side #hb #dg4 ,,posterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,should ,,occupy ,,if ,,the ,,animal ,,were ,a ,,plantigrade3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,external ,,surface #hi #dh4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #ij #di4 ,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,dog1 ,,seen ,,from ,,above #ia #ej4 ,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,felide 7,,lion71 ,,viewed ,,from ,,above #ib #ea4 ,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,superior ,,surface #ie #eb4 ,,tarsus ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,posterior ,,left ,,limb1 ,,antero-,,external ,,surface #ig #ec4 ,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,superior ,,surface #aja #ed4 ,,tarsus ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,anterior ,,surface #ajd #ee4 ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,leg3 ,,right ,,posterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface 7,,after ,a ,,chronographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey7 #ajg #ef4 ,,human ,,skull3 ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,camper4 ,,angle ,,bac #hj deg4 #aaj #eg4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,camper4 ,,angle ,,bac #ac deg4 #aaj #eh4 ,,skull ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,felidae 7,,jaguar73 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aac #ei4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,lion3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aac #fj4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aae #fa4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aag #fb4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aai #fc4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #aba #fd4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,hare3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect #abc #fe4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,cock3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface #abh #ff4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,aspect ,,of ,,the ,,trunk #acb #fg4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,inferior ,,aspect ,,of ,,the ,,trunk #ace #fh4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles #ada #fi4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles #adc #gj4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles #adf #ga4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,panniculus ,,muscle ,,of ,,the ,,trunk #adh #gb4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse--,,shoulder ,,and ,,arm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface #aff #gc4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect #agh #gd4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect #ahj #ge4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect #ahb #gf4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,internal ,,aspect #aij #gg4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,left ,,side1 ,,internal ,,aspect #aib #gh4 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,internal ,,aspect #aid #gi4 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect #aif #hj4 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect #aif #ha4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,part ,,of ,a ,,transverse ,,section ,,passing ,,through ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,fore-,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,inferior ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,section #aih #hb4 ,,diagram ,,of ,a ,,horizontal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,leg ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,section #aih #hc4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,the ,,anterior ,,tibial ,,muscle 7,,flexor ,,of ,,the ,,metatarsus71 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,anterior ,,view #bad #hd4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect #baf #he4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,external ,,aspect #bah #hf4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect #bbj #hg4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,internal ,,aspect #bbb #hh4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,hind-,,leg1 ,,internal ,,aspect #bbc #hi4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,masticatory ,,muscles 7,a ,,deeper ,,dissection ,,than ,,that ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #ij7 #bcc #ij4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head #bce #ia4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head #bcg #ib4 ,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head #bci #ic4 ,,claw ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,inferior ,,surface #bdi #id4 ,,left ,,hand ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,inferior ,,surface1 ,,plantar ,,tubercles #bdi #ie4 ,,vertical ,,antero-,,posterior ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,horse #bej #if4 ,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,surface #bea #ig4 ,,left ,,anterior ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,aspect #bec #ih4 ,,left ,,anterior ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect #bed #ii4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,a ,,left ,,human ,,foot3 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,segment ,,of ,,this ,,section 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure7 #bee #ajj4 ,,inferior ,,surface ,,of ,a ,,fore-,,hoof ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side #bef #aja4 ,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,inferior ,,view #beg #ajb4 ,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,inferior ,,view #beg #ajc4 ,,inferior ,,surface ,,of ,a ,,hind-,,hoof ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side #beh #ajd4 ,,left ,,posterior ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect #bei #aje4 ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,antero-,,external ,,view #bfj #ajf4 ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,bourgelat7 #bfe #ajg4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset7 #bgj #ajh4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,viewed ,,in ,,profile 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset7 #bgd #aji4 ,,the ,,same ,,design ,,as ,,that ,,of ,,fig4 #ajh1 ,,on ,,which ,,we ,,have ,,indicated1 ,,by ,,similar ,,lines1 ,,the ,,principal ,,corresponding ,,measurements #bge #aaj4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,front 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset7 #bgf #aaa4 ,,the ,,same ,,figure ,,as ,,fig4 #aaj1 ,,on ,,which ,,we ,,have ,,marked1 ,,by ,,similar ,,lines1 ,,the ,,principal ,,measurements ,,which ,,correspond ,,thereto #bgg #aab4 ,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exceeds ,,the ,,height #bgi #aac4 ,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exceeds ,,the ,,height #bhj #aad4 ,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,is ,,inferior ,,to ,,the ,,height #bha #aae4 ,,experimental ,,shoes1 ,,intended ,,to ,,record ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,on ,,the ,,ground #bhd #aaf4 ,,runner ,,furnished ,,with ,,the ,,exploratory ,,and ,,registering ,,apparatus ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,paces #bhe #aag4 ,,tracing ,,of ,,the ,,running ,,of ,a ,,man 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bhf #aah4 ,,notation ,,of ,a ,,tracing ,,of ,,the ,,running ,,of ,a ,,man 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bhg #aai4 ,,notation ,,of ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,progression ,,of ,a ,,man 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bhg #abj4 ,,swing ,,of ,,the ,,raised ,,anterior ,,limb 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin7 #bhi #aba4 ,,swing ,,of ,,the ,,anterior ,,limb ,,on ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,pressure 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin7 #bij #abb4 ,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,giving ,,the ,,impulse 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin7 #bia #abc4 ,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,ambling ,,gait ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bib #abd4 ,,the ,,amble3 ,,right ,,lateral ,,pressure #bic #abe4 ,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gait ,,of ,,the ,,trot ,,in ,a ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bid #abf4 ,,the ,,trot3 ,,right ,,diagonal ,,pressure #bie #abg4 ,,the ,,trot3 ,,time ,,of ,,suspension #bie #abh4 ,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,pace ,,of ,,stepping ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #bif #abi4 ,,the ,,step3 ,,right ,,lateral ,,pressure #big #acj4 ,,the ,,step3 ,,right ,,diagonal ,,pressure #big #aca4 ,,the ,,gallop3 ,,first ,,period #bih #acb4 ,,the ,,gallop3 ,,second ,,period #bih #acc4 ,,the ,,gallop3 ,,third ,,period #bii #acd4 ,,the ,,gallop3 ,,time ,,of ,,suspension #bii #ace4 ,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gallop ,,divided ,,into ,,three ,,periods ,,of ,,time 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #cjj #acf4 ,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gallop ,,of ,,four ,,periods ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey7 #cjj #acg4 ,,leap ,,of ,,the ,,hare 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin7 #cja #ach4 ,,the ,,leap #cjb #aci4 ,,the ,,leap #cjb #adj4 ,,the ,,leap #cjc #ada4 ,,the ,,leap #cjc #adb4 ,,the ,,leap #cje #adc4 ,,the ,,leap #cje ,,the ,,artistic ,,anatomy ,,of ,,animals ,,introduction ,,generalities ,,of ,,comparative ,,anatomy ,of the animals by which we are surrounded1 there are some which1 occupying a place in our lives by reason of their natural endowments1 are frequently represented in the works of artists--either as accompanying man in his work or in his amusements1 or as intended to occupy the whole interest of the composition4 ,the necessity of knowing1 from an artistic point of view1 the structure of the human body makes clear the importance we attach1 from the same point of view1 to the study of the anatomy of animals--that is1 the study of comparative anatomy4 ,the name employed to designate this branch of anatomy shows that the object of this science is the study of the relative position and form which each region presents in all organized beings1 taking for comparison the corresponding regions in man4 ,the head in animals compared with the human head2 the trunk and limbs compared to the trunk and limbs of the human being--this is the analysis we undertake1 and the plan of the subject we are about to commence4 ,our intention being1 as we have just said1 the comparison of the structure of animals with that of man1 should we describe the anatomy of the human being in the pages which follow8 ,we do not think so4 ,plastic human anatomy having been previously studied in special works1#b we take it for granted that these have been studied before undertaking the subject of comparative anatomy4 ,we will therefore not occupy time with the elementary facts relative to the skeleton and the superficial layer of muscles4 ,we will not dilate on the division of the bones into long1 short1 large1 single1 paired1 etc4 ,all these preliminary elements we shall suppose to have been already studied4 #b ,mathias ,duval1 ',precis of ,anatomy for the ,use of ,artists'3 ,paris1 #ahha4 ',artistic ,anatomy of the ,human ,body1' third edition1 plates by ,dr4 ,fau1 text with figures by ,edouard ,cuyer3 ,paris1 #ahif4 ',artistic ,anatomy of ,man1' by ,j4 ,c4 ,l4 ,sparkes1 second edition1 text with #ej plates3 ,bailliere1 ,tindall and ,cox1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,this being granted1 it is1 nevertheless1 necessary to take a rapid bird's-eye view of organized beings1 and to recall the terms used in their classification4 ,animals are primarily classed in great divisions1 based on the general characters which differentiate them most4 ,these divisions1 or branches1 allow of their being so grouped that in each of them we find united the individuals whose general structure is uniform2 and under the name of vertebrates are included man and the animals with which our studies will be occupied4 ,the vertebrates1 as the name indicates1 are recognised by the presence of an interior skeleton formed by a central axis1 the vertebral column1 round which the other parts of the skeleton are arranged4 ,the vertebrate branch is divided into classes3 fishes1 amphibians or batrachians1 reptiles1 birds1 and mammals4 ,the mammals--from the ,latin mamma1 a breast--are characterized by the presence of breasts designed for the alimentation of their young4 ,their bodies are covered with hair1 hence the name piliferes proposed by ,blainville2 and1 notwithstanding that in some individuals the hairs are few1 the character is sufficient to distinguish them from all other vertebrates4 ,we find united in this class animals which1 at first1 seem out of place1 such as the whale and the bat2 and1 from their external appearance alone1 the former would appear to belong to the fishes1 and the latter to birds4 ,yet1 on studying their structure1 we find that1 not only do these animals merit a place in the class which they occupy1 because they possess the distinctive characters of mammals2 but1 still further1 their internal structure is analogous to that of man and of the other individuals of this class4 ,notwithstanding this similarity of structure1 the whale is not without some points of difference from its neighbours the horse and the dog2 therefore1 in order to place each of these animals in a position suitable to it1 mammals are divided into secondary groups called orders4 ,the first of these orders includes1 under the name primates1 man and apes4 ,the latter contain animals which approach birds in certain characters of their organism1 forming a link between the latter and mammals4 ,we find1 in studying the regions of the body in some of the vertebrates1 that1 while they present differences from the corresponding regions of the human body1 they also offer most striking analogies4 ,we can1 for example1 recognise the upper limb of man in the anterior one of quadrupeds1 in the wing of the bat1 in the paddle of the seal1 etc4 ,it is1 so to speak1 those variations of a great plan which give such a charm to the study of comparative anatomy4 ,the division of classes into orders1 which we have just mentioned1 being still too general1 it was found necessary to establish subdivisions--more and more specialized--to which the names families1 genera1 species1 and varieties were given4 ,,chapter ,i ,,osteology ,,and ,,arthrology ,,the ,,trunk ,the ,vertebral ,column ,we commence the study of the skeleton with a description of the trunk4 ,the trunk being1 in quadrupeds1 horizontal in direction 7,fig4 #a71 the two regions of which it consists occupy1 for this reason1 the following positions3 the thorax occupies the anterior part1 the abdomen is placed behind it2 the vertebral column is horizontal1 and is situated at the superior aspect of the trunk2 it projects beyond the latter3 anteriorly1 to articulate with the skull2 and1 posteriorly1 to form the skeleton of the tail1 or caudal appendix4 ,the number of the vertebrae is not the same in all mammalia4 ,of the several regions of the vertebral column1 the cervical shows the greatest uniformity in the number of the vertebrae of which it consists1 with but two exceptions 7eight or nine in the three-toed sloth1 and six in the manatee72 we always find seven cervical vertebrae1 whatever the length of the neck of the animal4 ,there are no more than seven vertebrae in the long neck of the giraffe1 but they are very long ones2 and not less than seven in the very short neck of the dolphin1 in which they are reduced to mere plates of bone not thicker than sheets of cardboard4 ,if the cervical region presents uniformity in the number of its bones1 it is not so with the other regions of the column4 ,the following table shows their classification in some animals3 ,,vertebrae4 ---------------------------------------- - ,cervical4 ,dorsal4 ,lumbar4 ---------------------------------------- - ,bear #g #ad #f ,dog #g #ac #g ,cat #g #ac #g ,rabbit #g #ab #g ,pig #g #ad #f or #g ,horse #g #ah #f or #e ,ass #g #ah #e ,camel #g #ab #g ,giraffe #g #ad #e ,ox #g #ac #f ,sheep #g #ac #f ---------------------------------------- - ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,a ,,human ,,skeleton ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,of ,a ,,quadruped4 ,,to ,,give ,a ,,general ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,in ,,other ,,vertebrates4 ,it is worthy of notice that in birds the number of the cervical vertebrae is not constant1 as in mammals2 they are more numerous than the dorsal4 ,these latter are almost always joined to one another by a fusion of their spinous processes2 the two or three last vertebrae are similarly united to the iliac bones1 between which they are fixed4 ,the dorsal vertebrae thus form one piece1 which gives solidity to the trunk1 and provides a base of support to the wings1 for the movements of flying4 ,there are1 so to speak1 no lumbar vertebrae1 the bones of that region1 which cannot be differentiated from the sacrum1 having coalesced with the bones of the pelvis4 ,,vertebrae4 -------------------------------------- ,cervical4 ,dorsal4 -------------------------------------- ,vulture #ae #g ,eagle #ac #i ,cock #ad #g ,ostrich #ah #i ,swan #bc #aj ,goose #ah #i ,duck #ae #i -------------------------------------- ,in reptiles1 the relation between the number of the cervical vertebrae and that of the dorsal is very variable2 some serpents are devoid of cervical vertebrae1 having only dorsal ones--that is1 vertebrae carrying well-developed ribs4 ,,vertebrae4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,cervical4 ,dorsal4 ,lumbar4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,crocodile #g #ad #c ,caiman #g #ab #e ,boa #c #bdh #j ,python #j #cbj #j ,viper #b #ade #j ---------------------------------------- -------- ,regarding the direction of the vertebral column in animals1 in which the trunk is not vertical1 it is evident that the spinous processes point upward1 and that in comparing them with those of man they must be arranged so that the superior surface of the human vertebra will correspond to the anterior surface of that of the quadruped4 ,of the cervical vertebrae1 the atlas and axis call for special notice4 ,apropos of the atlas1 we find that it1 in the human being1 is narrower than the corresponding parts of the skull1 and is therefore hidden under the base of the cranium 7,fig4 #b72 in quadrupeds its width is equal to that of the skull1 and sometimes exceeds1 because of the great development of its wing-shaped transverse processes1 that of the neighbouring parts of the head 7,fig4 #c74 ,on this account those transverse processes often project under the skin of the lateral surfaces of the upper part of the neck4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,size ,,of ,,the ,,atlas ,,compared ,,with ,,the ,,transverse ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,corresponding ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,in ,,man4 #a1 ,atlas2 #b1 mastoid process2 #c1 external occipital protuberance2 #d1 inferior maxilla4 ,the axis is furnished on its anterior surface with the odontoid process1 which articulates with the anterior 7or inferior7 arch of the atlas1 according to the direction of the neck4 ,the spinous process1 flattened from without inwards1 is more or less pointed2 it is elongated from before backwards1 so as partly to overlap the atlas and the third cervical vertebra4 ,we find that this process overlaps less and less the neighbouring vertebrae when we examine in succession the bear1 the cat1 the dog1 the ox1 and the horse4 ,with regard to the other vertebrae of this region1 they diminish in width from the second to the seventh2 and1 in some animals1 the anterior surface of the body presents a tubercle which articulates with a cavity hollowed in the posterior surface of that of the vertebra before it2 this feature dwindles away in the dorsal and lumbar regions4 ,the spinous process1 slightly developed in the third cervical vertebra1 gradually increases in size to the seventh1 the spinous process of which1 long and pointed1 well deserves the name of the prominent which is bestowed on it2 but it should not be forgotten that the spinous process of the axis is equally developed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,size ,,of ,,the ,,atlas ,,compared ,,with ,,the ,,transverse ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,corresponding ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,in ,a ,,dog4 #a1 ,atlas2 #b1 zygomatic arch2 #c1 external occipital protuberance2 #d1 inferior maxilla4 ,on the inferior surface of the body of each of the vertebrae is found a prominent crest1 especially well marked at the posterior part2 this crest is but slightly developed in the bear and in the cat tribe1 and is not found in swine4 ,the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae1 from their relation to the trachea1 are known as the tracheal processes4 ,the most marked characteristic of the dorsal vertebrae is furnished by the spinous processes4 ,they are long and narrow4 ,as a rule1 the spinous processes of the foremost dorsal vertebrae are the most developed and are directed obliquely upwards and backwards4 ,as we approach the last vertebrae of this region1 the processes become shorter and tend to become vertical1 and the last ones are even1 in some cases1 directed upwards and forwards2 this disposition is well marked in the dog and the cat4 ,in the cetaceans1 on the contrary1 the length of the spinous processes increases from the first to the last4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,lumbar ,,vertebrae ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,the ,,horse73 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,spinous process2 #b1 anterior articular process and transverse process of the first lumbar vertebra of the left side2 #c1 costiform process4 ,in the horse the spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebrae produce the prominence at the anterior limit of the trunk1 where the mane ends1 which is known as the withers4 ,the lumbar vertebrae are thicker than the preceding2 they are known by their short and latterly-flattened spinous processes1 and still more readily by their transverse processes1 which1 as they are evidently atrophied ribs1 it is more accurate to denominate costiform processes 7,fig4 #d74 ,these are long1 flattened from above downwards1 and directed outwards and forwards4 ,the true transverse processes are represented by tubercles situated on the superior borders of the articular processes of each of the vertebrae of the lumbar region4 ,apropos of these different osseous processes1 we are reminded that they are also present in the human skeleton4 ,in the horse the costiform processes of the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae articulate1 and are sometimes ankylosed1 one with the other2 the terminal ones articulate with the base of the sacrum4 ,sometimes the processes of the fourth and fifth are thus related2 this is the case in the figure 7#d7 given2 here the costiform processes of the fourth and fifth vertebrae articulate1 and the two terminal ones have coalesced4 ,in the ox1 the same processes are more developed than in the horse2 their summits elevating the skin1 produce1 especially in animals which have not much flesh1 prominences which limit the flanks in the superior aspect4 ,the costiform processes of the last lumbar vertebrae are separate from each other2 those of the latter are not in contact with the sacrum4 ,the ,sacrum4#c--,this bone1 single and median1 is formed by the mutual coalescence of several vertebrae1 which vary in number according to the species observed4 #c ,in human anatomy1 the sacrum and the coccyx are studied as part of the pelvis2 we1 therefore1 in the study of the artistic anatomy of man1 study these bones with the bones of the lower limbs4 ,here we do not follow this plan4 ,in animals the sacrum and the coccyx1 as a matter of fact1 clearly continue the superior border of the skeleton of the trunk2 hence we study them with the vertebral column4 ,vertebrae ,constituting the ,sacrum4--,bears1 #e2 dogs1 #c2 cats1 #c2 rabbits1 #d2 swine1 #d2 horses1 #e2 camels1 #d2 oxen1 #e2 sheep1 #d4 ,the sacrum is situated between the two iliac bones2 with which it articulates1 and contributes to the formation of the pelvis4 ,it is obliquely placed1 from before backwards1 and from below upwards2 immediately behind the lumbar section of the vertebral column2 and is continued by the coccygeal vertebrae1 which form the skeleton of the tail4 ,it is triangular in outline1 and is generally more narrow in proportion than in the human being4 ,all things considered1 it is more large and massive1 and of greater density1 in species which sometimes assume the upright posture1 rather than in those which cannot assume that attitude2 for example1 the sacrum of the ape1 of the bear1 of the dog1 and of the opossum are proportionately larger than those of the horse4#d #d ,this is particularly striking only in those portions of the sacrum that are not in relation with the other bones of the pelvis4 ,we think that the general form of this bone depends on the mode of its connexions with the iliac bones and the extent of the articular surfaces by which it is in contact with the latter4 ,its superior surface presents a crest1 formed by the fusion of the spinous processes of the vertebrae which form it4 ,in certain species these processes are attached only by their bases1 and are separated from each other superiorly4 ,in the pig they are wholly wanting4 ,the ,coccygeal ,vertebrae4--,these vertebrae1 few in number 7and sometimes ankylosed7 in the human being1 form in the latter a small series1 the coccyx2 which is inclined forwards1 that is to say1 towards the interior of the pelvis4 ,in quadrupeds1 on the contrary1 their number is large2 they are not ankylosed1 and they form the skeleton of the caudal appendix4 ,the first coccygeal vertebrae--that is1 those which are next the sacrum--present characters which are common to those of other regions3 they have a body1 a foramen1 and processes4 ,as we trace them backwards1 these characters become gradually effaced2 and they become little more than small osseous cylinders simply expanded at their extremities4 ,direction and ,form of the ,spinal ,column ,the curves of the vertebral column are1 in quadrupeds1 slightly different from those which characterize the human spine4 ,first1 instead of their being1 as in the latter1 curves in the antero-posterior aspect1 because of the general attitude of the body1 they are turned in the supero-inferior direction4 ,the cervical region is not a single curve1 as in the human being4 ,it presents two3 one superior1 with its convexity looking upwards2 the other inferior1 the convexity of which is turned downwards4 ,this arrangement reminds one of that of a console4 ,the dorsal and lumbar regions are placed in a single curved line1 more or less concave downwards2 so that in the lumbar region there is no curve analogous to that which exists in man2 a form which1 in the latter1 is due to the biped attitude--that is to say1 the vertical position of the trunk4 ,briefly1 there is in quadrupeds one dorso-lumbar curve2 and not both a dorsal and a lumbar1 with convexities in opposite directions4 ,at the extremity of the dorso-lumbar region is the sacrum and the caudal appendix1 which describe a curve of which the concavity is directed downwards and forwards4 ,it is necessary to point out that it is not the curves of the three anterior portions of the spinal column which determine the form of the superior border of the neck and shoulders1 and of the same part of the trunk4 ,for the first portion1 there is a ligament which surmounts the cervical region1 and substitutes its modelling influence for that of the vertebrae4 ,it is the superior cervical ligament1 which arises from the spinous process of the first cervical vertebrae1 and is inserted into the external occipital protuberance on the upper part of the posterior surface of the skull4 ,the summits of the spinous processes of the vertebrae alone give form to the superior median border of the trunk4 ,in this connection we here repeat that it is not the general curvature of the vertebral column which produces the withers1 but the great length of the spinous process of the first vertebrae of the dorsal region4 ,the ,thorax ,the dorsal vertebrae form the posterior limit in man1 and superior in quadrupeds1 of the region of the trunk known as the thorax4 ,a single bone1 the sternum1 is situated at the aspect opposite2 the ribs bound the thorax on its sides4 ,in its general outlines the thorax in quadrupeds resembles that of man--that is to say1 that1 as in the latter1 the anterior portion--superior in the human being--is narrower than the part opposite4 ,but the progressive widening takes place in a more regular and continuous fashion1 so that it presents a more definitely conical outline4 ,this purely conical form is nevertheless found in the human species1 but only during infancy2 the inferior portion of the thoracic cage being then widely expanded1 because of the development of the abdominal viscera1 which at that period are relatively large4 ,but the proportionate measurements of the thorax are different4 ,indeed1 we may recall that in man the thorax is flattened from before backwards1 so that the distance between the sternum and the vertebral column is shorter than the distance from the rib of one side to the corresponding one of the opposite side 7,fig4 #e74 ,in animals1 on the contrary1 it is flattened laterally4 ,its vertical diameter--measured from the sternum to the vertebral column--is greater than the transverse measurement 7,fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,a ,,man ,,placed ,,vertically--,,that ,,is ,,to ,,say1 ,,in ,,the ,,direction ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,assume ,,in ,a ,,man ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,a ,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,dorsal vertebra2 #b1 sternal region2 #c1 costal region of one side2 #c'1 costal region of the other side4 ,from this results a peculiar arrangement of the muscles that we are able to bring directly into prominence1 which presents points of interest from the point of view of the contraction of the subcutaneous layer4 ,indeed1 in man the region occupied by the pectorals is very broad2 it is a wide surface turned directly forward4 ,in quadrupeds1 this region of the pectorals is narrowed4 ,it is not spread out1 as in the preceding instances2 and the appearance it presents is explained by the fact that the thorax is compressed laterally4 ,if we examine the thorax on one of its lateral surfaces1 the muscles1 on the contrary1 are more extended4 ,we see the contour of the vertebral column1 and the median part of the abdomen2 and1 especially in the horse1 between the great dorsal and the great oblique of the abdomen1 we find a large space1 in which the ribs1 with the intercostals which join them1 are uncovered2 the muscles in question separate the one from the other1 under the influence1 it would seem1 of the great dimensions of the lateral wall of the thorax4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a ,,vertical ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,diagrammatic74 #a1 ,fifth dorsal vertebra2 #b1 sternal region2 #c1 costal region of one side2 #c'1 costal region of the opposite side4 ,the ,sternum4--,the sternum is1 in quadrupeds1 directed obliquely downwards and backwards2 its form varies in different species4 ,in the carnivora1 it consists of eight bones1 irregularly cylindrical in form1 being slightly flattened from within outwards1 and thickened at their extremities4 ,they remain separate1 and this contributes elasticity and flexibility to the thorax4 ,the first nine costal cartilages articulate directly with the sternum4 ,the first of these cartilages articulates with a nodule situated a little above the middle of the first bone of the sternum4 ,in the horse the sternum is flattened laterally in its anterior portion1 and from above downwards in its posterior half4 ,the six bones which form the sternum are connected by cartilage4 ,the keel-shaped piece1 situated in front of the sternum1 is also cartilaginous4 ,this process1 but slightly marked posteriorly1 becomes more and more prominent in front1 and terminates at its anterior extremity by a prolongation1 slightly curved backwards1 which projects for some centimetres beyond the cavity in which the first costal cartilage is received4 ,this process is known as the tracheal process1 or rostral cartilage4 ,the posterior extremity of the sternum1 flattened from above downwards1 ends in a cartilaginous plate2 concave superiorly1 and convex inferiorly3 this is the abdominal prolongation1 or xiphoid appendix4 ,in the ox1 the sternum is formed of two distinct bones1 which are united by an articulation4 ,one1 the anterior1 is short1 and forms the first portion of the sternum2 it is slightly flattened from side to side1 and vertical in direction4 ,the other1 the posterior1 is longer1 and is formed by the fusion of several small bones2 it is placed horizontally1 and is flattened from above downwards4 ,at the level of articulation of these two portions1 and because of their different directions1 the bone is bent4 ,this bend occurs at the point of articulation of the second costal cartilage4 ,on the superior border of the anterior segment the cartilage of the first rib is articulated4 ,the xiphoid appendix1 which is cartilaginous1 is attached to the extremity of a long process of the last bone of the sternum4 ,the shape of the anterior extremity of the sternum is influenced by the presence or absence of clavicles4 ,we have seen that in some quadrupeds the clavicles are wanting4 ,in the first case1 this extremity is large1 and approaches in shape to the corresponding part of the human sternum1 which is so clearly designed to give a point of support to the anterior bone of the shoulder4 ,in the second1 on the contrary1 this extremity is narrow4 ,the sternum in birds is very different from that in mammalia1 which we have been studying4 ,it varies greatly in extent and shape1 under the influence of certain conditions4 ,to understand the cause of these variations it is necessary to remember that in man 7as1 indeed1 in other animals2 but the example of man1 for that which follows1 will be more striking1 on account of the mobility of his upper limbs7 the sternum gives origin to the pectoral muscles1 and that these muscles are inserted into other parts of the thoracic limbs1 designed by their contraction to draw the arms downwards1 forwards1 and inwards--that is1 when these are in a state of abduction and in a horizontal direction1 they draw them towards the anterior surface of the thorax and downwards4 ,now1 this movement is similar to that made by birds during flight4 ,it is necessary to add that1 in the latter case1 the more the displacement of the upper limbs has of force and extent1 the more the pectoral muscles are developed4 ,for these reasons1 birds1 in which1 during flight1 the movements of the thoracic limbs--the wings--are necessarily energetic1 present a great development of the pectoral muscles2 having consequently1 because an extent of surface for the origin of the muscles commensurate with their development is necessary1 a very large and peculiarly shaped sternum 7,figs4 #ah1 #f2 and #ba1 #f74 ,indeed1 not only is the sternum large1 but1 further1 in order to form a deeper surface1 proportionately adapted to the muscles which arise from and cover it1 its anterior surface presents1 in the median line1 a prominent crest known as the keel4 ,this prominence forms two lateral fossae4 ,we cite as examples1 the sternum of the eagle1 the vulture1 the falcon1 and the hawk4 ,all birds are not1 however1 equally adapted to flight1 for in the domestic cock1 which flies but a short distance1 and badly1 the sternum is less developed 7,fig4 #g72 it is also diminished by slots1 which diminish its surface4 ,these slots1 two on each side1 are called from their position the internal and external slots4 ,they are bounded by narrow1 elongated1 bony processes1 an internal and an external2 the expanded lower extremity of the latter overlaps the last inferior ribs 7see p4 #ai74 ,the part of the external border which surmounts this external process is hollowed out into grooves1 which receive the inferior ribs1 and terminates superiorly in an osseous projection known as the costal prominence4 ,in the ostrich1 the cassowary1 and the apteryx1 which run1 but do not fly1 the sternum has the form of a plate of bone slightly convex1 but without a keel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,sternum ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,keel2 #b1 internal slot2 #c1 external slot2 #d1 internal process2 #e1 external process2 #f1 inferior ribs2 #g1 costal process2 #h1 surface for articulation with the coracoid bone4 ,the shape of the sternum1 correlated to the faculty of flight 7or of swimming2 apropos of which we may cite the penguin1 of which the rudimentary wings resemble fins1 and perform their functions only71 or the absence of this faculty1 has furnished the division of birds into two groups4 ,in one are included1 under the name ,carinates 7carina1 keel71 those in which the sternum is provided with a keel2 in the other division are those in which the sternum is not furnished with one4 ,these latter1 on account of their unique mode of progression1 are more nearly allied to the mammals4 ,the keel is developed in flying mammals 7bats74 ,ribs and ,costal ,cartilages4--,there are on each side of the thorax as many ribs as there are dorsal vertebrae4 ,in animals1 as in man1 the ribs which articulate with the sternum by their cartilages are called true1 or sternal ribs2 those whose cartilages do not articulate with the sternum are called false1 or asternal4 ,the longer ribs are those situated in the middle region of the thorax4 ,the ribs are directed obliquely downwards and backwards1 and this obliquity is more marked in the posterior ones than in the anterior4 ,they are1 however1 less oblique than in the human being2 what proves this is that the first rib in man is oblique1 while in quadrupeds it is vertical4 ,the curvature of the ribs is less pronounced in quadrupeds than in the human being1 but this is not equal in all animals4 ,the ribs of the bear are more curved than those of the dog2 the latter has ribs more curved than those of the horse4 ,each rib1 at its vertebral extremity1 presents1 from within outwards1 a wedge-shaped head for articulation with two dorsal vertebrae1 a neck1 and a tuberosity4 ,external to the tubercle are found some rough impressions1 for muscular attachments1 which correspond to the angle of the human rib4 ,in the following table1 we give the number and classification of the ribs of some animals3 ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,ribs ,,on ,,each ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,thorax4 ,sternal4 ,asternal4 ,bear #ad divided into #i and #e ,dog #ac #i #d ,cat #ac #i #d ,rabbit #ab #g #e ,pig #ad #g #g ,horse #ah #h #aj ,camel #ab #h #d ,ox #ac #h #e ,sheep #ac #h #e ,the costal cartilages1 by which the first ribs are united to the sternum 7sternal ribs71 whilst the latter are united one to the other without being directly connected with the sternum 7asternal ribs71 are1 as a rule1 in quadrupeds1 directed obliquely downwards1 forwards1 and inwards2 each forms1 with the rib to which it belongs1 an obtuse angle more or less open anteriorly4 ,their length is proportionate to that of the ribs4 ,the cartilages1 which are continued from the asternal ribs1 unite and form the borders1 directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 of the fossa which is found at the inferior and posterior part of the thorax1 and which forms the lateral limits of the epigastric region4 ,in the dog and cat the ribs are thick and almost cylindrical2 the costal cartilages are thicker at the margin of the sternum than at their costal extremity4 ,in the ox1 the ribs are flattened laterally and are very broad1 the more so as we examine a portion further from the vertebral column4 ,from the second to the twelfth they are quadrangular in the superior fourth1 and thicker than in the rest of their extent4 ,the first costal cartilage is vertical2 the following ones are progressively more oblique in a direction downwards and forwards4 ,the four or five cartilages which succeed the first unite with slight obliquity to the sternum2 their union with that bone gives the impression of a very strong1 well-knit apparatus4 ,the costal cartilages which unite with the sternum are flattened laterally in the portions next the ribs1 and flattened from front to back in the rest of their extent4 ,in the horse the ribs increase in length from the first to the ninth2 they are flattened from without inwards1 and increase in width from the first to the sixth or seventh1 and the following ones become narrower4 ,the costal cartilages1 from the second to the eighth1 are1 as in the ox1 at first flattened laterally1 near the ribs2 while near the sternum they are flattened from front to back4 ,in birds1 the ribs are each furnished with a flat process 7,fig4 #ah1 #aj71 which springs from the posterior border1 is directed backwards1 and overlaps the external surface of the succeeding rib4 ,these processes are not found1 as a rule1 on the first or last ribs4 ,as for the costal cartilages1 they are1 as a rule1 ossified1 and receive the name of inferior ribs 7,fig4 #ah1 #aa71 united to the preceding 7superior ribs2 ,fig4 #ah1 #i7 by articulation2 by the other extremity they are joined to the sternum2 the first superior ribs generally want them4 ,sometimes the last inferior rib becomes connected with the one that precedes it1 not articulating with the sternum2 and thus recalls the relations of the asternal ribs which we have noticed in our study of the mammals4 ,in the bat1 as in birds1 the costal cartilages are ossified4 ,,the ,,anterior ,,limbs#e #e ,consult ,figs4 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #df4 ,the anterior limbs1 homologous to the upper limbs in man1 are formed1 as in the latter1 of four segments3 the shoulder1 the arm1 the forearm1 and the hand4 ,these limbs1 considered in the vertebral series1 present themselves under very different aspects1 which are determined by the functions they are called upon to perform4 ,they constitute the forepaw in terrestrial mammals2 in aerial vertebrates they form wings2 in aqueous mammals they act as paddles4 ,in whatever series we study them1 we can readily find the relationship of the different parts2 it is very easy to recognise the same bones in the upper limbs of the human being1 the wings of the bat 7,fig4 #h7 and of birds 7,fig4 #ba71 and in the anterior paddles of the seal 7,fig4 #i7 and of the dolphin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,bat3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface4 #a1 ,clavicle2 #b1 scapula2 #c1 humerus2 #d1 radius2 #e1 cubitus2 #f1 carpus2 #g1 thumb2 #h1 metacarpus2 #i1 phalanges4 ,in quadrupeds1 the shoulder and arm are hidden1 the latter more or less completely1 in the muscular mass which binds it to the lateral wall of the trunk2 so that the anterior limbs only present2 free from the trunk3 the elbow1 forearm1 and hand4 ,the ,shoulder ,in some vertebrates1 the shoulder is formed of two bones--the scapula and clavicle2 in others of only one bone--the scapula2 the clavicle in this case does not exist4 ,the ,scapula or ,omoplate4--,the scapula is situated on the lateral surface of the thorax1 and is directed obliquely1 from above downwards and from behind forwards4 ,we must first recall1 so as to be able to make a comparison1 that in man this bone is placed at the posterior surface of the thoracic cage2 so that if we look at the human thorax on one of its lateral aspects we see chiefly the external border of the scapula2 it is the external surface 7homologous to the posterior surface of the human scapula7 which we see in its full extent when we look on the same surface of the thorax in quadrupeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,seal3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,scapula2 #b1 humerus2 #c1 radius2 #d1 ulna2 #e1 carpus2 #f1 metacarpus2 #g1 phalanges of the fingers4 ,to sum up1 if we fancy the human being in the position of the quadruped1 the scapula will have its surfaces almost parallel to the ground 7,fig4 #aj72 while in quadrupeds1 the surfaces are situated in a plane which is almost perpendicular to the ground 7,fig4 #aa74 ,this position of the scapula in an almost vertical plane is designed to give the necessary point of support to the osseous columns that form the skeleton of the other portions of the anterior limbs4 ,because of this position of the scapula 7,figs4 #ab and #ac71 the spinal border is superior1 the cervical1 anterior1 and the axillary1 posterior4 ,in direct contrast to what obtains in the human scapula1 the spinal border is the shortest of the three2 except in the bat1 and the majority of the cetaceans4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,situation ,,and ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,scapula ,,in ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,the ,,trunk ,,being ,,horizontal1 ,,as ,,in ,,quadrupeds4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,contour of the thorax2 #b1 #b1 the scapula4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,position ,,and ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,scapula ,,in ,,quadrupeds4 ,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,thorax 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,contour of the thorax2 #b1 #b1 the scapula4 ,in certain animals 7in the ungulates hoofed#f--pigs1 oxen1 sheep1 horses7 the superior1 or spinal1 border of the scapula is surmounted by a cartilage called the cartilage of prolongation4 #f ,for the definition of the word hoofed1 see p4 #cg4 ,this is the cause why the border to which it is fixed is so slightly noticeable under the skin in these animals2 indeed1 in the upper part1 the bone and cartilage are not distinguishable in the contour of the corresponding region of the back2 being applied to the lateral surfaces of the spinous processes1 the prominence formed by the extremities of which is directly continuous with the plane of the scapula 7,fig4 #af74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,posterior ,,surface1 ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,occupy ,,in ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,quadruped4 #a1 ,cervical border2 #b1 spinal border2 #c1 axillary border2 #d1 supraspinous fossa2 #e1 subspinous fossa2 #f1 scapular spine2 #g1 glenoid cavity2 #h1 coracoid process2 #i1 acromion process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,cervical border2 #b1 spinal border--the scapula here represented1 being from a hoofed animal1 has a cartilage of extension attached to its spinal border2 #c1 axillary border2 #d1 supraspinous fossa2 #e1 subspinous fossa2 #f1 spine of the scapula2 #g1 glenoid cavity2 #h1 coracoid process4 ,the scapula of the horse has no acromion process1 but it is easy1 if we compare the human scapula1 to judge of the position which this process would occupy if it were present4 ,in quadrupeds whose scapula1 on the contrary1 is wanting in the cartilage of prolongation 7in the clawed1#g such as the cat and dog71 the superior border of the scapula is visible1 especially when the animal is resting on its fore-limbs1 particularly when it crouches2 at such a time the skin is markedly raised by that border2 and the spinous processes of the vertebrae1 beyond which it projects1 occupy the bottom of a fossa 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the internal surface of the scapula is turned towards the ribs2 it is known1 as in man 7in whom this surface is anterior71 as the subscapular fossa4 #g ,for the definition of this word1 see p4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section1 ,,at ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,shoulders1 ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,outline of the thorax at the level of the third dorsal vertebra2 #b1 #b1 scapula2 #c1 spinal border of the scapula2 #d1 cartilage of prolongation2 #e1 contour of the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section1 ,,at ,,the ,,plane ,,of ,,the ,,shoulders1 ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,of ,a ,,dog 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 #a1 ,outline of the thorax at the level of the third dorsal vertebra2 #b1 #b1 scapula2 #c1 spinal border of the scapula2 #d1 contour of the skin4 ,its external surface is divided into two parts by the spine of the scapula2 which1 in some animals1 terminates inferiorly in a flat and clearly distinct process1 the homologue of the acromion process of the human scapula4 ,the two regions separated by the spine are known as the supraspinous fossa and the infraspinous fossa4 ,the supraspinous fossa is anterior to the spine1 and the infraspinous is posterior to it4 ,the surfaces of the scapula are1 in quadrupeds1 flatter than in the human being1 and in particular the subscapular fossa1 which is also less concave4 ,some authors attribute this to the lesser curvature of the ribs in quadrupeds4 ,a few words will suffice to prove that there must be another reason4 ,the scapula is not in immediate contact with the ribs2 the subscapular fossa is not moulded on them4 ,besides1 the form of the scapula is1 as in other parts of the skeleton1 dependent on the disposition of muscles1 and the development of these latter is correlated to the extent and energy of the movements which the individual is able or required to execute4 ,but the movements which those muscles produce 7more especially the rotation of the humerus7 are1 in quadrupeds1 less extensive than in the human being2 and1 consequently1 the muscles which produce them are1 proportionally1 less strongly developed4 ,the inferior angle 7superior and external in man71 situated at the junction of the cervical and axillary borders1 presents the glenoid cavity1 which1 looking downwards1 receives the articular surface of the superior extremity of the bone of the arm--that is to say1 the head of the humerus4 ,above this cavity1 on the lower part of the cervical border1 is situated a tubercle which reminds us of the coracoid process of the human scapula4 ,the region occupied by the glenoid cavity is separated from the body of the bone by a constriction--the neck of the scapula4 ,in birds the scapula is elongated in a direction parallel to the vertebral column1 and very narrow in the opposite 7,fig4 #ah73 it is also flat1 and has no spine4 ,its coracoid process is represented by a peculiar bone--the coracoidean or coracoid bone--which we shall describe later on when we come to the study of the clavicle and of the anterior region of the shoulder 7see p4 #bf74 ,the ,clavicle4--,the clavicle is found only in the human being1 and in animals whose anterior limbs1 possessing great freedom of movement in all directions1 require that the scapula should possess a point of support which1 while affording this1 can be displaced with it1 or draw it in certain directions4 ,now1 this point of support is furnished by the clavicle4 ,in animals possessed of hoofs 7ungulates71 such as the sheep1 ox1 and horse1 the clavicle does not exist4 ,indeed1 in them the freedom of movement of the anterior limbs is limited2 they move by projection in the forward and backward directions only2 they merely fulfil the functions of giving support to and carrying about the body4 ,the clavicle is rudimentary in the cat and the dog2 in the cat it is a small1 elongated bone 7,fig4 #af71 #b centimetres in length1 thin and curved1 connected with the sternum and the scapula by ligamentous bundles4 ,in the dog it is represented by a small osseous plate only 7,fig4 #ag71 which is not connected with any of the neighbouring bones4 ,it is on the deep surface of a muscle which passes from the head and neck to the humerus 7mastoido-humeral1 a muscle common to the arm1 neck1 and head7 in which this rudimentary bone is found to be developed4 ,the clavicle exists in perfect state in mammals which use their limbs for digging1 grasping1 or flying2 the insectivora 7hedgehog1 mole7 and some rodents 7squirrel1 woodchuck7 are provided with it4 ,the cheiroptera 7bats7 possess an extremely well-developed clavicle1 on account of the varied movements which their thoracic limbs execute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,left ,,clavicle ,,of ,,the ,,cat3 ,,superior ,,surface 7,,natural ,,size74 #a1 ,internal extremity2 #b1 external extremity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,clavicle ,,of ,,the ,,dog 7,,natural ,,size74 ,this formation of the shoulder which favours flight in the bat is even more remarkable in birds4 ,in these latter 7,fig4 #ah7 the clavicles1 fused together by their lower extremities1 form one bone1 having the shape of the letter ,v or ,u1 which is known as the fourchette2 this bone1 acting as a true spring1 keeps the shoulders apart1 and prevents their approximation during the energetic movements which flight necessitates4 ,in birds whose power of flight is strong1 the two limbs of this bone are widely separated and thick1 and the fourchette is ,u-shaped4 ,those whose flight is awkward and but slightly energetic have the limbs of the fourchette slender2 they unite at a more acute angle1 and the bone is ,v shaped4 ,furthermore1 a bone named the coracoid joins the scapula to the sternum2 this bone1 often fused with the scapula1 where it contributes to the formation of the glenoid cavity1 represents in birds the coracoid process of the human scapula4 ,if we fancy this process directed inwards1 and sufficiently lengthened to join the sternum1 we shall have an idea of the disposition of the bone we are now discussing1 and the reasons for which the name has been chosen by which it is designated4 ,the coracoid bone1 like the fourchette which it reinforces1 offers to the wings a degree of support proportionate to the efforts developed by those limbs2 for this reason it is thick and solid in birds of powerful flight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,antero-,,external ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,left clavicle2 #b1 inferior portion of the right clavicle1 forming by its ankylosis with that of the other side the fourchette2 #c1 coracoid bone2 #d1 scapula2 #e1 articular surface for humerus2 #f1 superior half of the sternum2 #g1 keel of sternum2 #h1 spinous process of the dorsal vertebrae2 #i1 superior ribs2 #aj1 process of one of these ribs2 #aa1 inferior ribs4 ,the superior extremity of each branch of the fourchette1 at the level of its junction with the coracoid and the scapula1 bounds1 with these latter1 a foramen which gives passage to the tendon of the elevator muscle of the wing1 or small pectoral4 ,the importance of the fourchette being1 as we have seen1 in proportion to the movements of flying1 it is easy to understand that the bone is not found in the ostrich4 ,the ,arm ,a single bone1 the humerus1 forms the skeleton of this portion of the thoracic limb4 ,the ,humerus4--,the bone of the arm is1 in quadrupeds1 inclined from above downwards and from before backwards4 ,it is1 with relation to other regions1 short in proportion as the metacarpus is elongated1 and as the number of digits is lessened4 ,in the horse1 for example1 whose metacarpus is long1 and in which but one digit is apparent1 the humerus is very short4 ,the slight development in length of the humerus explains its close application to the side of the animal as far as the elbow4 ,in animals in which the humerus is longer1 the bone is slightly free1 as well as the elbow1 at its inferior extremity4 ,later on we will return to the consideration of this peculiarity and of the proportions of the humerus1 after we have studied the other parts of the fore-limbs4 ,the humerus in quadrupeds is inflected like the letter ,s2 in man this general form is less accentuated1 the humerus being almost straight4 ,on its body1 which appears twisted on its own axis1 we find the musculo-spiral groove1#h which crosses the external surface1 and is very deep in some animals4 ,above this groove1 and on the external surface1 there exists a rough surface which is the impression of the deltoid4 ,in some species this rugosity is very prominent1 and is called the tuberosity of the deltoid2 it is prolonged downwards by a border which forms the anterior crest of the musculo-spiral groove and limits this latter in front4 ,the external border of the bone1 or posterior crest of the groove1 limits it behind4 #h ,it would be going outside our province to discuss whether the humerus is really twisted on its axis4 ,this question1 often discussed1 has been solved in some recent works in the following manner3 the humerus has undergone torsion at the level of its superior extremity1 and not at the level of its body2 this does not authorize us further to accord any definite sense to the denomination 'groove of torsion' 7musculo-spiral groove74 ,that which we must especially remember in connection with this fact1 is1 as we shall afterwards see1 the difference of direction which the articular head presents according as the torsion has been more or less considerable3 because this is established1 according to the same order1 in man and in quadrupeds4 ,the superior extremity is enlarged1 and remarkable in three portions which it presents2 these are3 an articular surface and two tuberosities4 ,the articular surface1 or head of the humerus1 smooth and round1 is in contact with the glenoid cavity of the scapula4 ,this head in the human skeleton is directed upwards and inwards2 in quadrupeds its direction is upwards and backwards4 ,the inferior extremity1 having in both one and the other its long axis directed transversely1 and the point of the elbow looking backwards in all1 the result is that the head of the humerus is not situated vertically above the same regions2 in the first1 it is almost directly above the internal part of this extremity2 in the latter1 it is situated above its posterior surface1 or the point of the elbow in the complete skeleton4 ,this difference of direction is correlated with the position of the scapula1 the glenoid cavity of which1 as we have already seen1 is in man turned outwards1 whereas in quadrupeds it looks downwards4 ,in the latter case the scapula consequently rests on the head of the humerus2 and this position is most favourable for the performance of the functions which the anterior limbs have to fulfil in these latter4 ,of the tuberosities of the head of the humerus1 one is situated on the external aspect--it is the great tuberosity1 or trochiter2 the other is placed internally--it is the small tuberosity1 or trochin4 ,the great tuberosity is divided into three parts--summit1 convexity1 and crest2 these different parts give insertion to the muscles of the shoulder4 ,we recollect that the facets 7anterior1 middle1 and posterior7 of the great tuberosity of the humerus in man give attachment to the muscles of the same region4 ,the head of the humerus in the human body projects above the tuberosities4 ,we shall see afterwards1 when dealing with some special quadrupeds1 that in some of these1 on the other hand1 the tuberosities are on a higher level than the articular head of the bone4 ,between the two tuberosities is the bicipital groove4 ,in man1 the superior extremity of the humerus1 although covered by the deltoid1 reveals its presence by elevating the corresponding portion of the latter4 ,in quadrupeds1 the anterior part of this extremity1 although similarly covered by muscular bundles1 produces a prominence under the skin4 ,this prominence is situated at the summit of the angle formed by the opposing directions of the scapula and the bone of the arm1 and constitutes what is known by the name of the point of the shoulder1 or of the point of the arm4 ,the inferior extremity1 transversely enlarged1 presents an undulating articular surface1 which reminds us of the trochlea and the condyle of the human humerus2 on which1 however1 the condyle is more sharply defined from the trochlea4 ,in the human skeleton1 the internal lip of the trochlea descends lower than the external2 and also lower than the condyle4 ,in the bear1 the cat1 and the dog1 it is the same4 ,in the ox and the sheep1 the condyle is lower than the trochlea1 but only very little lower4 ,in the horse the arrangement is still the same1 but a little more accentuated4 ,on the lateral parts of this extremity we find3 internally1 a prominence1 the epitrochlea2 and1 externally1 another1 the epicondyle4 ,it is from this latter that the crest arises1 which1 passing upwards1 forms the posterior limit of the groove of torsion4 ,the two prominences1 which we have just described from a general point of view1 present special arrangements which it is necessary to point out4 ,when we examine the form of the outline of the inferior extremity of the humerus in man1 the bear1 the cat1 the dog1 the ox1 and the horse1 we find in following this order that the extremity tends to become narrow transversely1 and that the epicondyle and the epitrochlea are less and less prominent on the external and internal aspects respectively4 ,these two processes1 indeed1 project backwards2 the epitrochlea always remaining more developed than the epicondyle4 ,because of this projection backwards1 the cavity situated on the posterior surface of the inferior extremity1 the olecranon fossa1 is very deep1 more so than in the humerus of man4 ,its borders being thus formed by the two processes1 are very prominent4 ,in front we find the coronoid fossa1 which is less deep than that of which we have just spoken4 ,there exists in some mammals an osseous canal1 situated above the epitrochlea1 and known as the supratrochlear canal 7,fig4 #ai74 ,it is bounded by a plate of bone which at its middle portion is detached from the shaft of the humerus1 and blends with the latter at both its extremities4 ,the brachial artery and median nerve pass through the foramen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,humerus ,,of ,a ,,felide 7,,lion74 #a1 ,epitrochlea2 #b1 supra-epitrochlear foramen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,human ,,humerus1 ,,showing ,,the ,,presence ,,of ,a ,,supratrochlear ,,process4 #a1 ,epitrochlea2 #b1 supra-epitrochlear process4 ,a similar condition is sometimes found1 as an abnormality1 in man1 which presents itself under the following aspect 7,fig4 #bj73 an osseous prominence more or less long1 in the shape of a crochet-needle--supra-epitrochlear process--situated #e or #f centimetres above the epitrochlea2 the summit of this process gives attachment to a fibrous band1 which is inserted by its other end into the epitrochlea and the internal intermuscular aponeurosis4 ,the fibro-osseous ring thus formed gives passage to the brachial artery and the median nerve1 or in case of a premature division of this artery to the ulnar branch of the same4#i #i ,for further details of this anomaly1 see ,testut1 ',the ,epitrochlear ,process in ,man' 7,international ,journal of ,anatomy and ,physiology1 #ahhi72 ,a4 ,nicolas1 ',new ,studies on the ,supratrochlear ,process in ,man' 7,review of ,biology of the ,north of ,france1 t4 iii41 #ahij-ahia74 ,there is also found in some mammals a perforation of the thin plate of bone which1 in others1 separates the olecranon fossa from the coronoid4 ,this perforation is sometimes found as an abnormality in the human humerus4 ,as does the sternum and the skeleton of the shoulder1 the humerus of birds presents differences correlated to the functions which the thoracic limbs are destined to fulfil4 ,lying on the side of the thorax1 directed obliquely downwards and backwards 7,fig4 #ba71 it is proportionately longer in individuals of powerful flight than in those which fly less or not at all4 ,in the vulture it projects beyond the posterior part of the pelvis2 in the cock it does not even reach the anterior border of the same4 ,to these differences in length are added differences in volume and in the development of the processes which serve for muscular attachment1 which are more considerable in birds of powerful flight4 ,the humerus is so placed that the radial border1 external in man and quadrupeds1 looks upwards1 with the result that the surface of the bone of the arm1 which in these latter is anterior1 in the former looks outwards4 ,the humeral head1 which is turned forwards and a little inwards1 is convex and elongated in the vertical direction4 ,behind and above this head is found a crest for the insertion of muscles4 ,it is the same for the region below1 where there is a tuberosity whose inferior surface presents a pretty large opening which looks inwards to a fossa from the floor of which a number of minute openings communicate with the interior of the bone4 ,this is the pneumatic foramen of the humerus4 ,it is of interest to remember in connection with this subject that in birds1 in keeping with the conditions of flight1 every system of organs is adapted to diminish the weight of the body4 ,we particularly draw attention to the osseous framework1 the structure of which is such that the weight of the animal is greatly lessened4 ,this condition is secured by the pneumaticity4 ,the bone consists of a cover of compact tissue1 which1 instead of enclosing marrow1 is hollowed out by cavities which contain air1 and communicate with special pouches1 the air-sacs1 which are appendages of the lungs4#aj #aj ,the presence of air in the bones does not seem to be always associated with the power of flight2 as a matter of fact1 we find air spaces in the bones of some birds which do not fly 7,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 ',the ,flight of ,birds1' ,paris1 #ahij1 p4 #ea74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 cervical vertebrae2 #d1 spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae2 #e1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #f1 sternum2 #g1 keel2 #h1 superior ribs2 #i1 inferior ribs2 #aj1 clavicle2 #aa1 coracoid bone 7for the details of the skeleton of the shoulder1 see ,fig4 #ah72 #ab1 humerus2 #ac1 radius2 #ad1 ulna2 #ae1 carpus2 #af1 hand 7for details of the skeleton of this region1 see ,fig4 #ca72 #ag1 ilium2 #ah1 ischium2 #ai1 pubis 7for the details of the pelvis1 see ,fig4 #df72 #bj1 femur2 #ba1 tibia2 #bb1 fibula2 #bc1 osseous nodule1 which some anatomists think represents the calcaneum2 it is the sole vestige of the tarsus2 #bd1 metatarsus2 #be1 foot2 #bf1 first toe 7for the details of the skeleton of the foot1 see ,fig4 #dh74 ,the antibrachial extremity of the humerus is flattened from without inwards4 ,it terminates in two articular surfaces1 which articulate with the radius and ulna4 ,the olecranon process of the ulna being slightly developed1 it follows that the olecranon fossa is not large2 neither is the coronoid4 ,general ,view of the ,form of the ,forearm and ,hand ,we now proceed to the study of the two regions of the fore-limbs which present the greatest variety in regard to the number of bones and also in regard to form and proportions4 ,these two regions are the forearm and the hand4 ,it is first of all necessary to say that in man1 when the fore-limb hangs beside the body1 and the dorsum of the hand looks backwards1 the two bones of the forearm are parallel1 and that this position is known by the name of supination4 ,it is also necessary to remember that there is another attitude1 in which the radius1 crossing the ulna1 and carrying the hand with it1 displaces the latter in such a way that the palmar surface looks backwards4 ,this second position is known as pronation4 ,let us now suppose that a man wishes to walk in the attitude of a quadruped4 ,it will be necessary1 in order that his upper limbs1 being for the moment anterior ones1 may act as members of support1 to place the forearm in pronation1 in order that1 as is more normal1 the hands may rest on the ground by their palmar surfaces4 ,in this position the radius1 being rotated on its own axis at its upper extremity and around the ulna in the rest of its extent1 shall have its inferior extremity situated on the inner side of the corresponding extremity of the latter4 ,such is the situation of the bones of the forearm and the attitude of the hand in quadrupeds4 ,in short1 quadrupeds have their anterior members in the position of pronation4 ,the individual whom we have just supposed placed in the attitude of a quadruped would be able to maintain this position by pressing on the ground more or less extensive portions of his hands2 the whole palm of the hand may be applied to the ground 7,fig4 #bb72 or the fingers only--that is to say1 the phalanges 7,fig4 #bc72 or the extremities of the fingers only--that is to say1 the third phalanges 7,fig4 #bd74 ,this last position1 which is certainly difficult to maintain1 should here be regarded rather as theoretical4 ,we shall meet with each of these modes of support in certain groups of animals4 ,thus1 the bear1 badger1 and the majority of rodents1 have the paws applied to the ground by the whole extent of the palmar surface of the hand1 from the wrist to the tips of the fingers4 ,they are therefore called plantigrade1 from the analogy1 in this case1 of the palm of the hand to the plantar surface1 or sole of the foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,for ,,its ,,whole ,,extent ,,on ,,its ,,palmar ,,surface3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 ,in others1 such as the lion1 tiger1 panther1 cat1 wolf1 and fox1 the support is made no longer on the whole extent of the palmar surface1 but on the corresponding surface of the fingers only--the metacarpus is turned back1 and1 consequently1 the wrist--that is to say1 the carpus--is removed from the ground4 ,these are the digitigrades4 ,lastly1 the ruminants 7sheep1 oxen1 deer1 etc471 and also the pig1 ass1 and horse1 rest on the third phalanx only4 ,in them not only is the metacarpus turned back1 but also the two first phalanges4 ,the wrist is very far removed from the ground4 ,in these animals1 the third phalanx is enclosed in a case of horn1 a nail 7the hoof71 and because the support of the limb is on that nail1 the name of unguligrades has been given them4 ,nevertheless1 as the point of support is on the third phalanx1 which is also known by the name of phalangette1 we are of opinion that1 in order to specify definitely1 although they walk on their fingers1 as do the digitigrades1 the support is provided not by the whole extent of those appendages1 they might receive the name of phalangettigrades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,on ,,its ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,the ,,human ,,hand ,,resting ,,on ,,the ,,tips ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,third ,,phalanges3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,view4 ,it is necessary among the ruminants to make an exception of the camel and the llama1 which are digitigrades4 ,just in proportion as the hand is raised from the ground1 as we have just seen in passing from the plantigrades to the digitigrades and unguligrades1 the number of bones of that region diminishes1 the bones of the forearm coalesce1 and the ulna tends to disappear2 the hand becomes less and less suitable for grasping1 climbing1 or digging1 so as to form an organ exclusively adapted for walking and supporting the body4 ,thus1 the bear 7plantigrade7 has five digits1 and the power of performing the movements of supination and pronation4 ,indeed1 we know with what facility this animal is able to move his paws in every direction1 and climb a tree by grasping it with his fore-limbs4 ,it is well known1 however1 that no animal except the ape can perform the movements of rotation of the radius around the ulna with the same facility as man2 and that none possesses the same degree of suppleness1 extent1 and variety of movements of the forearm and hand4 ,in the digitigrades there is one finger which is but slightly developed1 and which is always removed from the ground--that is1 the thumb3 there is also a little less mobility of the radius around the ulna4 ,in the ungulates the limbs are simply required to perform the movements of walking1 and form veritable columns of support1 which become the more solid as they are less divided4 ,the bones of the forearm are fused together2 there is therefore no possibility of rotation of the radius around the ulna4 ,the metacarpus is reduced to a single piece1 which in the horse constitutes what is known as the canon4 ,the number of digits becomes diminished1 so that in ruminants there are not more than two1 and in the horse but one4 ,we should1 however1 add that1 up to the present1 we have taken into account only perfect digits1 those that rest on the ground4 ,we shall see further on that there exist supplementary digits1 but that they are only slightly developed1 and are represented in some cases by mere osseous spurs2 it is this fact that has permitted us to ignore them in the general study which we have just made4 ,because1 as we have already said1 the unguligrades have the inferior extremity of the digit encased in a horny sheath1 which forms the hoof of the horse and the corresponding structures 7onglons7 in the ox1 those animals have been placed in a special group1 which is based on that peculiarity--that is1 the group of ungulate mammals4 ,the plantigrades and digitigrades1 of which the paws have their surfaces of support strengthened by an epidermic sole and fatty pads1 have the free extremities of the third phalanges covered on their dorsal surface by nails or claws2 hence they are named unguiculate mammals4 ,the bat and birds have the bones of the forearm so arranged that the radius cannot rotate around the ulna4 ,this is necessary in order that during flight1 when the wing is being lowered1 the radius and hand shall not be able to turn2 for1 if such rotation took place1 each stroke of the wing would place it in a vertical position1 which would occasion a loss of resistance incompatible with the effect to be obtained4 ,the ,forearm ,the skeleton of the forearm in quadrupeds is vertical in direction2 consequently1 it forms with the arm an angle open anteriorly2 this is well seen on examining the lateral surface4 ,if we examine it on its anterior surface1 we find a slight obliquity directed downwards and inwards4 ,in animals in which the bones of the forearm are separate--that is to say1 susceptible of supination and pronation--we find a more close resemblance to those of the human skeleton4 ,the ulna1 the superior extremity of which always projects beyond that of the radius1 has a shaft which gradually narrows from above downwards4 ,its inferior extremity is terminated by a round head in those animals in which the ulna is fully developed2 in others1 as it is atrophied1 it ends in a thin1 long process4 ,the ulna presents at its superior extremity a posterior process1 the olecranon1 which forms the point of the elbow4 ,we find on the anterior surface of the same1 another process1 the coronoid4 ,it is necessary to dwell on the relations of these parts4 ,in man the head of the radius is situated at the anterior part of the external surface of the superior extremity of the ulna 7,fig4 #be72 indeed1 the small sigmoid cavity with which the head articulates is situated on the outer side of the coronoid process1 and this apophysis is placed in front4 ,in the plantigrades and digitigrades the head of the radius is placed still more forward1 so much so that it is situated almost in front of the superior extremity of the ulna 7,fig4 #bf74 ,in the unguligrades it is placed directly in front of this latter 7,fig4 #bg74 ,further1 the displacement of the radius is made at the expense of the superior extremity of the neighbouring bone2 the radius appears to appropriate more and more the parts which in man belong exclusively to the ulna--for example1 the coronoid process4 ,in the plantigrades and the digitigrades half of the process still belongs to the ulna and the remainder to the radius4 ,in the ungulates--the horse1 for example--the coronoid process belongs to the radius2 the ulna1 situated behind the latter1 is correspondingly diminished in size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,forearm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,in brief1 when we study this region of the skeleton in plantigrades1 then in digitigrades1 and finally in unguligrades1 we find a kind of progressive absorption of one of the two bones 7ulna7 by the other 7radius71 which thus becomes the more developed4 ,it is easy to explain this partial disappearance of the ulna4 ,when the forearm is capable of performing the movements of pronation and supination1 the ulna is completely developed1 for it is in its small sigmoid cavity that the head of the radius revolves1 and it is around its inferior extremity1 the head1 that the corresponding extremity of the radius turns4 ,but when the movements of rotation of the forearm do not exist1 the inferior extremity of the ulna becomes functionally useless and disappears4 ,as to its role in the movements of the region of the wrist1 that is nil1 for we may remember--we will observe it again when we come to treat of the articulations--that the hand articulates with the radius alone 7radio-carpal articulation72 this is the reason that1 when the forearm possesses the fullest mobility1 the hand follows the movements which that bone makes around the ulna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,superior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 olecranon process2 #d1 coronoid process4 ,it is not so with the articulation at the elbow-joint2 there it is the ulna1 which1 with the humerus1 forms the essential parts 7humero-ulnar articulation72 its olecranon process limits the movement of extension of the forearm4 ,it is for this reason that1 even in those quadrupeds in which the ulna is atrophied1 the olecranon process presents a relatively considerable degree of development4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,a ,,man3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,posterior ,,surface1 ,,position ,,of ,,supination4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 ,a1 groove for the long abductor and short extensor muscles of the thumb2 ,b1 groove for the radial muscles2 ,c1 groove for the long extensor of the thumb2 ,d1 groove for the special extensor of the index finger and of the common extensor of the fingers2 ,e1 groove for the proper extensor of the little finger2 ,f1 groove for the posterior ulna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface1 ,,normal ,,position--,,that ,,is1 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,pronation4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 ,a1 groove for the long abductor and for the short extensor of the thumb2 ,b1 groove for the radials2 ,d1 groove for the long extensor of the thumb1 the special extensor of the index-finger1 and the common extensor of the fingers2 ,e1 groove for the special extensor of the little finger4 ,we know that on the posterior surface of the inferior extremity of the bones of the human forearm are grooves in which pass the tendons of the posterior and external muscles which1 belonging to this region1 are directed for insertion towards the hand4 ,in animals1 because of the movement of rotation of the radius1 the surface of this bone1 which is anterior1 corresponds to the posterior surface of the same in man4 7,to possess a clear conception of this1 it is necessary to remember that1 in this latter1 the bones of the forearm are always described as in the position of supination2 they are thus represented in ,fig4 #bh4 ,the direction of the surfaces of the radius is the reverse of that in animals1 since the latter have the radius always in a state of pronation47 ,consequently it is on the anterior surface of the bone that we find the grooves concerning which it is necessary to give some details4 ,regarding them in passing from the radius towards the ulna1 those grooves give passage to the tendons of the muscles whose names occupy the columns on p4 #dc4 ,the letters which are referred to each serve to define their order1 and to facilitate reference to ,figs4 #bh1 #bi1 and #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,inferior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,bone ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,anterior ,,surface4 #a1 ,radius2 ,a1 groove for the long abductor and the short extensor of the thumb2 ,b1 groove for the radials2 ,d1 groove for the common extensor of the digits2 ,e1 groove for the special extensor of the little finger4 ,we should mention that the groove ,e is situated1 both in man and in the dog1 at the level of the inferior radio-ulnar articulation2 but that in the horse1 as the ulna does not exist at that level1 the groove is situated on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the radius4 ,it is necessary to add that1 in some horses1 the ulna is1 nevertheless1 represented in this region by a tongue-like process of bone2 and in such cases the groove is situated in front of this process1 at the level of the line of coalescence1 which there represents the articulation4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,man4 ,,dog4 ,,horse4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,a4 ,long abductor of the,a4 ,long abductor of the,a4 ,oblique extensor of of the thumb1 and thumb and short the metacarpus1 the short extensor of extensor of the homologue of the the thumb4 thumb united as one long abductor of the muscle1 the oblique thumb and the short extensor of the extensor of the metacarpus4#aa thumb1 united as one muscle4 ,b4 ,first and second ,b4 ,the two radials ,b4 ,the radials external radials blended superiorly1 represented by a 7extensor carpi distinct inferiorly2 single muscle1 the radialis longior this is the anterior extensor of and brevior74 anterior extensor of the metacarpus4 the metacarpus4 ,c4 ,long extensor of the,c4 ,long extensor of the,c4 ,the long extensor of thumb4 thumb and special the thumb and the extensor of the special extensor of index finger united the index are superiorly4 ,these absent4 muscles pass in the following groove4 ,d4 ,special extensor of ,d4 ,common extensor of ,d4 ,anterior extensor the index finger and the digits and the of the phalanges1 the common extensor two preceding the homologue of the of the fingers4 muscles4 common extensor of the digits4 ,e4 ,special extensor of ,e4 ,extensor of the ,e4 ,lateral extensor of the little finger4 third1 fourth1 and the phalanges1 the fifth digits1 or homologue of the the lateral special extensor of extensor of the the little finger4 digits1 the homologue of the special extensor of the little finger4 ,f4 ,the posterior ulnar ,there does not exist on the forearm a groove 7extensor carpi for the posterior ulnar muscle1 or external ulnaris74 flexor of the metacarpus4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #aa ,the words printed in italics are the names used in veterinary anatomy4 ,it is also useful to note1 with reference to the groove ,f1 in which passes1 in man1 the tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle1 that1 when the forearm is in pronation1 the radius alone being displaced1 we can only see this groove on the surface which looks backwards2 and that it is then separated from the groove which contains the tendon of the special extensor of the little finger by an interval equal to the thickness of the head of the ulna4#ab ,when the forearm is supinated1 the two grooves are found1 on the other hand1 one beside the other3 and the tendons which they contain are very naturally in contact4 #ab ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',shape of the ,region of the ,wrist in ,supination and ,pronation' 7,bulletin de la ,societe d',anthropologie1 ,paris1 #ahhh74 ,in birds the forearm is flexed on the arm1 and the latter being directed downwards and backwards1 the former is1 consequently1 directed upwards and forwards4 ,further1 because of the position of the humerus1 which1 as we mentioned on p4 #cb1 has its inferior extremity so turned that the surface which is anterior in man becomes external1 the radius1 instead of being outside the ulna1 is placed above it4 ,this latter is larger than the radius1 but its olecranon process is very slightly developed4 ,the ,hand ,the hand in animals1 as in man1 is formed of three parts--the carpus1 metacarpus1 and fingers4 ,in man1 the forearm and the hand being described in the position of supination2 the bones of the carpus are named in passing from the most external to the most internal--that is to say1 from that which corresponds to the radial side of the forearm to that which corresponds to the ulnar side4 ,in animals in which1 as we know1 but it is not unprofitable to repeat1 the hand is in pronation1 the radial side of the forearm being placed inside1 we enumerate the carpal bones in counting the most internal as the first2 this is the only method which permits us1 in taking our point of departure from the human skeleton as our standard1 to recognise the homologies of the bones of the carpal region4 ,these bones1 eight in number1 are arranged in two transverse rows1 of which one1 the first1 is superior or antibrachial2 the other1 the second1 is inferior or metacarpal4 ,each of these rows contains four bones4 ,considered in the order we have indicated above--that is to say1 proceeding from the radial to the ulnar side--they are thus named3 scaphoid1 semilunar1 cuneiform1 and pisiform1 in the first row2 trapezium1 trapezoid1 os magnum1 and unciform1 in the second4 ,the number of these bones is not the same in all animals on account of the coalescence or absence of some4 ,in each row the bones are placed side by side1 with the exception of the pisiform1 which being placed on the palmar surface of the cuneiform1 produces a small projection in man1 but a very pronounced one in quadrupeds4 ,the pisiform is called the hooked bone in some veterinary anatomies4 ,if we consider the hook which it forms1 we may recognise that the name is appropriate2 but from the point of view of comparison with the human carpus1 the name is unfortunate1 for it creates confusion between the true pisiform 7the fourth bone in the upper row71 and the last bone in the lower row1 which is the veritable unciform bone4 ,we do not here seek for similarity of form1 but homology of regions2 and it is only by using the same names to denote the same things that we can succeed in determining such homology4 ,taken as a whole1 the bones of the carpus form a mass which1 by its superior border1 articulates with the bones of the forearm1 and by its inferior border is in relation with the metacarpal region4 ,its dorsal surface 7anterior in quadrupeds7 is slightly convex2 its palmar surface 7posterior in quadrupeds7 is excavated1 and forms a groove in which pass the tendons of the flexors of the fingers4 ,this last1 in man1 has the appearance of a gutter1 because of the prominences caused by the projection of the internal and external bones beyond their fellows4 ,in quadrupeds the palmar groove is especially determined by the pisiform bone1 of which we have just mentioned the great development4 ,the region occupied by the carpus1 in the unguligrades1 is known as the knee2 it would have been more appropriately named had it been called the wrist4 ,the number of the metacarpal bones in mammals never exceeds five1 but it often falls below it2 the same is true for the digits4 ,the first are generally equal in number to the latter2 an exception is met with in ruminants1 whose two metacarpals coalescing soon after birth1 form but one bone2 this1 the canon bone1 articulates with two digits4 ,the number of metacarpals and digits diminishes in proportion as the limbs cease to be organs of prehension1 and become more exclusively organs of support and locomotion4 ,the number of phalanges is two for the thumb and three for each of the other digits2 except in the cetaceans1 in which they are more numerous4 ,in the bat1 the metacarpals and phalanges are very long1 and form the skeleton of the wing2 these phalanges are not furnished with nails2 the thumb1 which is very short1 is alone provided with one 7,fig4 #h74 ,with regard to the relative dimensions of the bones of the metacarpus1 it is necessary to remember that1 in the human being1 the second metacarpal is the longest2 then1 in the order of decrease1 come the third1 fourth1 fifth1 and first4 ,in quadrupeds we shall also find differences in length 7see the chapter relating to the anterior limbs in certain animals71 but the order of decrease is not always that which we have just mentioned4 ,in man the articular surface1 situated at the inferior extremity of each of the metacarpals1 is rounded1 and is called the head4 ,this allows the first phalanx1 which is in relation with that surface1 to be displaced in every direction2 indeed1 this phalanx can not only be flexed and extended1 but it can also be moved laterally2 this latter movement allows of the fingers being separated and drawn together4 ,in quadrupeds which can only perform the movements of flexion and extension of the digits--for example1 the horse--the inferior extremity of the metacarpal has not a rounded head of a regular outline2 it is marked by a prominent median crest1 directed from before backwards1 so that the articular surfaces1 which fit more exactly1 form a sort of hinge which allows of backward and forward movements only1 and permits no lateral displacement4 ,in man1 at the level of the inferior extremity of the first metacarpal1 in the vicinity of the articulation of this bone with the first phalanx of the thumb1 we find two sesamoid bones--small bones developed in the fibrous tissue which surrounds the articulation4 ,we also meet with such structures1 but more rarely1 at the level of the corresponding articulation of the index and auricular digits2 and1 more rarely still1 at those of the middle and ring fingers4 ,in quadrupeds1 these bones are normally developed1 and we shall see afterwards that in some animals1 as they reach a considerable size1 they are able to influence the external outlines2 we shall see this1 for example1 in the horse4 ,the hand1 in birds1 is directed obliquely downwards and backwards 7,fig4 #ca74 ,for the better understanding of its position in relation to the forearm1 we should remember that this latter1 as we have described 7p4 #dd71 directed obliquely upwards and forwards1 has the radius placed above the ulna2 the hand being oblique in the opposite direction and placed under the forearm is1 by this arrangement1 inclined towards the ulnar border of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,superior ,,limb ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,vulture73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,humerus2 #b1 radius2 #c1 ulna2 #d1 radial bone of the carpus2 #e1 ulnar bone of the carpus2 #f1 first metacarpal2 #g1 second metacarpal2 #h1 third metacarpal2 #i1 first digit1 the homologue of the thumb2 #aj1 first phalanx of the second digit2 #aa1 second phalanx of the second digit2 #ab1 third digit4 ,for the rest1 in order to be able to distinguish readily the corresponding parts in the hand of a bird and that of a man1 we merely have to place the human forearm obliquely1 in a direction upwards and forwards 7,fig4 #cb71 the radius being above2 this position we can obtain by semi-pronation2 then1 to incline strongly the hand downwards and backwards1 moving the ulnar border of the hand towards the ulna2 the thumb is then anterior1 the little finger posterior1 and the palm of the hand is turned towards the trunk4 ,the carpus in birds is formed by two bones only1 with which the skeleton of the forearm articulates4 ,that which is in contact with the radius is called the radial bone of the carpus2 and that with which the ulna articulates is named the ulnar bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,superior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being1 ,,the ,,different ,,segments ,,being ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,attitude ,,which ,,the ,,corresponding ,,parts ,,occupy ,,in ,,birds3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 ,the metacarpus is formed of three bones2 the first1 which is very short1 is fused at its superior extremity with the adjoining one2 this latter and the third1 both longer than the first1 but of unequal size1 are fused at their extremities4 ,the metacarpal1 which articulates with the radial bone of the carpus1 is larger than the one which is in line with the ulna4 ,to the metacarpus succeed three digits1 of which the central is the longest1 and is formed of two phalanges2 the other two are formed each by a small1 stylet-shaped bone4 ,the middle finger1 situated on the prolongation of the metacarpal1 which articulates with the radial bone of the carpus1 has its first phalanx large and flattened transversely2 this phalanx seems to have been formed by the union of two bones of unequal development2 the second phalanx is styloid in form4 ,as to the other two fingers1 they are placed1 one in front and the other behind2 the first1 which articulates with the short metacarpal1 fused at its upper end with the principal bone of the metacarpus1 in position represents the thumb4 ,the other1 which is the third finger1 articulates with the inferior extremity of the thinnest bone of the metacarpus2 it is sometimes closely united to the corresponding border of the first phalanx of the large--that is to say1 of the median--digit4 ,the ,anterior ,limbs in ,certain ,animals ,plantigrades3 ,bear 7,fig4 #cc74--,the scapula of the bear approaches in shape to a trapezium1 of which the angles have been rounded off4 ,the anterior border 7cervical7 is strongly convex in the part next the glenoid cavity4 ,the junction of the superior 7spinal7 and the cervical border forms almost a right angle1 the summit of which corresponds to the origin of the spine4 ,at its posterior angle there is a prominence1 directed downwards1 the surface of which is hollowed and is separated from the infraspinous fossa by a crest1 so that at this level a third fossa is added to the infraspinous one4 ,the neck of the scapula is but slightly marked4 ,the acromion is prominent1 and projects a little beyond the glenoid cavity4 ,the clavicle is rudimentary1 but1 as an example of the complete development of this bone in plantigrade quadrupeds1 we may cite the marmoset4 ,the humerus is furnished at its superior extremity with a large tuberosity1 wide1 and situated in front of the head of the bone2 the effect of this is that the bicipital groove is internal4 ,as in man1 the great tuberosity does not reach so high as the humeral head1 but it approaches more nearly to that level4 ,the deltoid impression is very extensive1 and descends pretty far down on the body of the bone4 ,the epitrochlea is prominent2 the epicondyle is surmounted by a well-marked crest1 curved and flexuous in outline4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,bear3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a4 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 seventh cervical vertebra2 #f1 first dorsal vertebra2 #g1 fourteenth and last dorsal vertebra2 #h1 lumbar vertebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #aa1 sternum2 #ab1 ninth and last sternal rib2 #ac1 costal cartilages2 #ad1 acromion process2 #ae1 third fossa on the external surface of the scapula2 #af1 great tuberosity of the humerus2 #ag1 musculo-spiral groove2 #ah1 epicondyle2 #ai1 radius2 #bj1 ulna2 #ba1 olecranon process2 #bb1 carpus2 #bc1 pisiform2 #bd1 metacarpus2 #be1 phalanges2 #bf1 ilium1 external fossa2 #bg1 pubis2 #bh1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #bi1 obturator foramen2 #cj1 great trochanter of the femur2 #ca1 condyles of the femur2 #cb1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #cc1 anterior tuberosity of the tibia2 #cd1 fibula2 #ce1 tarsus2 #cf1 calcaneum1 or heel-bone2 #cg1 metatarsus2 #ch1 phalanges4 ,the articular surface1 which is in contact with the radius1 is not a regularly formed condyle2 it is a little flattened on its anterior surface1 and presents at this level a slight depression which corresponds to a small eminence on the anterior aspect of the superior extremity of the radius4 ,the surface which articulates with the ulna1 viewed on its anterior aspect1 has the shape of a slightly-marked trochlea2 except at the level of the internal lip1 which1 as in man1 descends lower than the surface for articulation with the radius 7condyle74 ,behind1 the trochlea is more clearly defined4 ,the bear possesses a considerable power of rotation of the radius2 the bones of the forearm are joined only at their extremities1 while in the remainder of their extent they are widely separated4 ,the ulna terminates below in a head and a styloid process2 these articulate with the two last bones of the first row of the carpus--viz41 the cuneiform and pisiform4 ,the bones of the carpus are seven in number1 the scaphoid and the semilunar being fused together4 ,the metacarpals1 five in number1 differ very little from one another in regard to length1 though they increase in size from the first to the fifth2 this may be demonstrated by looking at the palmar surface of the hand4 ,it is the reverse of that which we find in man1 for the fifth metacarpal is the thickest of all1 and the first is the most slender4 ,at the level of each metacarpo-phalangeal articulation are two sesamoid bones4 ,the third digit is the longest4 ,the terminal phalanges present two very different portions3 one1 the anterior1 is curved and pointed2 it serves to support the nail1 whose shape it assumes2 the other1 posterior1 forms a sort of sheath into which the base of the nail is received4 ,the inferior portion of the posterior surface of this latter part articulates with the second phalanx in the case of each of the last four digits1 but with the first phalanx in the case of the thumb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 seventh cervical vertebra2 #f1 thirteenth and last dorsal vertebra2 #g1 lumbar vertebrae2 #h1 sacrum2 #i1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #aj1 anterior extremity of the sternum2 #aa1 xiphoid appendix2 #ab1 ninth and last sternal rib2 #ac1 costal cartilages2 #ad1 spinal border of the scapula2 #ae1 supraspinous fossa of the scapula2 #af1 infraspinous fossa of the scapula2 #ag1 great tuberosity of the humerus2 #ah1 deltoid impression2 #ai1 musculo-spiral groove2 #bj1 olecranon process2 #ba1 radius2 #bb1 carpus2 #bc1 pisiform2 #bd1 metacarpus2 #be1 sesamoid bones2 #bf1 phalanges2 #bg1 ilium1 iliac crest2 #bh1 pubis2 #bi1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #cj1 great trochanter of the femur2 #ca1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #cb1 anterior tuberosity of the tibia2 #cc1 fibula2 #cd1 tarsus2 #ce1 calcaneum1 or heel-bone2 #cf1 metatarsus2 #cg1 sesamoid bones2 #ch1 phalanges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,posterior or axillary border2 #b1 superior or spinal border2 #c1 anterior or cervical border2 #d1 spine of scapula2 #e1 coracoid process2 ,,aa'1 length of spinal border4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,left ,,scapula ,,of ,,the ,,cat3 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,posterior or axillary border2 #b1 superior or spinal border2 #c1 anterior or cervical border2 #d1 spine of the scapula2 #e1 coracoid process2 ,,aa'1 length of the spinal border4 ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 ,dog 7,fig4 #cd74--;,in these animals the anterior 7cervical7 border of the scapula is convex2 the posterior 7axillary7 border is straight or slightly concave4 ,the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae are of equal extent 7,figs4 #ce and #cf74 ,the neck is short4 ,the spine of the scapula becomes more and more prominent towards its inferior extremity1 where it ends in a twisted and inflexed portion1 which represents the acromion process2 this process terminates at the level of the glenoid cavity4 ,the coracoid process is represented by a small tubercle1 slightly curved inwards2 this tubercle is situated above the glenoid cavity1 at the inferior part of the cervical border4 ,in the dog1 the posterior angle1 formed by the junction of the axillary and the superior 7spinal7 borders1 is obtuse2 the spine rises perpendicularly from the surface of the bone4 ,the width of the scapula1 measured at the level of the spinal border 7from ,a to ,a'1 ,fig4 #ce71 equals about half the length of the spine4 ,we must1 however1 make an exception for the turnspit dog1 in which the superior border equals three-fourths of that length4 ,the scapula is1 in this case1 of a more compact type2 it is broader1 but shorter4 ,in the cat1 the anterior outline of the scapula1 formed by the union of the cervical border and the corresponding half of the spinal1 is more convex2 the posterior angle is not obtuse1 as in the dog4 ,the spine is bent slightly downwards and backwards2 before terminating in the acromion process it presents a triangular projection1 the apex of which is directed downwards4 ,the tubercle which represents the coracoid process is curved inwards more strongly than that of the dog1 thus resembling more closely the appearance of this process in the human being4 ,all proportions considered1 the scapula of the cat is broader than that of the dog2 its width1 measured along the length of its spinal border 7from ,a to ,a'1 ,fig4 #cf71 equals three-fourths of the length of the spine4 ,the clavicle is rudimentary2 it is1 however1 better developed in the cat than in the dog4 ,the clavicle of the cat is represented by a small1 elongated bone1 curved in outline1 the convexity being turned forward2 it is united to the acromion and the sternum by ligamentous fibres2 that of the dog is merely a scale-like osseous plate situated on the posterior surface of a muscle of this region 7see ,figs4 #af and #ag74 ,the humerus is long and twisted in the shape of an ,s4 ,the inferior articular surface has the form of a simple pulley1 for the condyle is very slightly marked4 ,the internal part of this articular surface descends lower than the external2 this condition resembles that found in the human being1 where the inner lip of the trochlea is lower than the condyle4 ,in the dog1 the olecranon fossa communicates with the coronoid by an opening4 ,in the cat1 there is a supra-epitrochlear canal 7see ,fig4 #ai71 but no olecranon perforation4 ,the bones of the forearm articulate at their extremities4 ,the body of the radius is united to the body of the ulna by a short1 thick1 interosseous ligament2 the fibres of this ligament1 though short1 do not prevent the production of some movements at the articulations of the bones4 ,the radius so crosses the ulna that above1 it is in front and external to the latter1 while below1 it is internal4 ,this bone is flattened from front to back1 and slightly convex anteriorly4 ,its superior extremity is formed1 externally1 of a portion which represents the head of the radius in man2 internally1 by another portion which represents half of the coronoid process of the ulna1 which1 in the human being1 belongs exclusively to the latter 7see p4 #ci1 the encroachment of the radius on the ulna74 ,this extremity is surrounded with a vertical articular surface which is placed in contact with a small cavity which is hollowed out on the ulna 7the lesser sigmoid cavity72 and presents at its superior aspect a surface which articulates with the inferior extremity of the humerus4 ,the shaft of the bone has on its internal border rugosities analogous to the imprint of the pronator radii teres of the human skeleton2 these rugosities1 indeed1 give insertion to a muscle of the same function1 and bearing the same name4 ,the inferior extremity1 broader than the superior1 is hollowed on its external aspect by a small cavity which receives the inferior extremity of the ulna2 its inferior surface 7concave7 articulates with the carpus2 its anterior surface 7the homologue of the posterior surface of the corresponding extremity of the human radius7 presents grooves which serve for the passage of the tendons of the muscles which pass from the forearm to the back of the hand4 7,for the names of the muscles whose tendons pass in these grooves1 see ,fig4 #bi47 ,the ulna is furnished at its superior extremity with an olecranon process1 which is more prominent than that of the human ulna2 this process is compressed laterally1 and its internal surface is hollowed2 there we also find a great sigmoid cavity1 and a coronoid process situated at the internal part of the anterior surface1 a process which1 as we have previously shown1 it shares with the radius4 ,the shaft of the bone1 prismatic and triangular1 diminishes in thickness as it approaches the lower extremity1 which articulates with the corresponding extremity of the radius4 ,in the dog1 the ulna terminates inferiorly in a blunt point1 without enlargement1 analogous to the head of the human ulna2 in the cat1 by a head which is prolonged into a styloid process1 by which it articulates with a portion of the carpus4 ,the carpus consists of seven bones--three in the superior row and four in the inferior4 ,in the superior row the scaphoid and semilunar bones are fused together4 ,the pisiform is elongated and expanded at its two extremities2 it forms a prominence which1 directed backwards1 projects beyond the level of the other bones of this region4 ,the metacarpal bones are five in number2 they are enumerated from within outwards2 they articulate with the carpus and with each other4 ,the inferior extremity of each metacarpal bone presents the form of a condyle in front2 and is divided behind so as to form two lateral condyles1 which are separated by a median crest2 on these posterior condyles are applied two small sesamoid bones4 ,the metacarpal bone of the thumb is very short2 the third and fourth are the longest4 ,the metacarpus1 as a whole1 is directed vertically4 ,the phalanges are three in number for each finger1 except the thumb1 which has but two4 ,the first phalanx1 directed almost horizontally forwards1 is the longest2 the second is directed downwards and forwards2 the third consists of two portions3 a posterior part1 which forms a sort of sheath into which the base of the nail is received2 and an anterior1 conical in form1 and curved in crochet shape1 which forms a support for the nail 7,fig4 #cg74 ,the third and fourth digits are the longest2 the second and fifth are of equal length2 the thumb is the shortest2 it does not touch the ground1 and does not even reach the articulation of the metacarpal bone and first phalanx of the second finger4 ,in the cat1 the metacarpal bone of the thumb1 although shorter than any of the others1 is quite as thick4 ,the third digit is a little longer than either the second or fourth4 ,in animals of this genus1 the claws1 in the condition of repose1 are retracted1 and removed from the ground2 this prevents their being worn1 and thus preserves their sharpness4 ,at such times the third phalanx is received into a groove which is found on the external surface of the second phalanx4 ,in the dog1 the claws are not tractile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,finger ,,of ,a ,,felide 7,,lion73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,internal ,,surface4 #a1 ,metacarpus2 #b1 sesamoid bones2 #c1 first phalanx2 #d1 second phalanx2 #e1 third phalanx2 #f1 gutter for the reception of the base of the nail2 #g1 prominent osseous crest formed to lodge in the concavity of the nail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 seventh cervical vertebra2 #f1 first dorsal vertebra2 #g1 fourteenth and last dorsal vertebra2 #h1 lumbar vertebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #aa1 anterior extremity of the sternum2 #ab1 xiphoid appendix2 #ac1 seventh and last sternal rib2 #ad1 costal cartilage2 #ae1 cartilage of prolongation of the scapula2 #af1 great tuberosity of the humerus2 #ag1 olecranon process2 #ah1 radius2 #ai1 ulna2 #bj1 pisiform2 #ba1 metacarpus2 #bb1 phalanges of the two great toes2 #bc1 phalanges of the external toe2 #bd1 ilium2 #be1 pubis2 #bf1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #bg1 great trochanter2 #bh1 knee-cap2 #bi1 anterior tuberosity of the tibia2 #cj1 fibula2 #ca1 tarsus2 #cb1 calcaneum2 #cc1 metatarsus2 #cd1 phalanges of the two great toes2 #ce1 phalanges of the external toe4 ,unguligrades3 ,pig 7,fig4 #ch74--,the scapula is markedly narrowed in the region above the glenoid cavity4 ,the spine is atrophied at both its extremities1 so that at its inferior part we do not find the acromion process4 ,in its middle portion the spine is prominent1 and presents a triangular process which turns backwards1 overlapping a part of the infraspinous fossa2 this latter is much larger than the supraspinous4 ,the spinal border is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation1 the superior margin of which is convex2 this cartilage extends posteriorly beyond the posterior 7axillary7 border of the bone4 ,the small tuberosity of the superior extremity of the humerus is but slightly developed2 the great tuberosity1 on the contrary1 is very large4 ,the bicipital groove is situated internal to this4 ,the deltoid impression is scarcely marked4 ,the forearm is short1 directed obliquely downwards and inwards1 thus forming with the hand an angle1 of which the apex is directed inwards4 ,the two bones of the forearm are strongly bound to one another by an interosseous ligament1 which is formed of very short fibres4 ,the radius appropriates1 at its superior extremity1 the coronoid process of the ulna4 ,the latter is1 notwithstanding1 well developed in the rest of its extent2 it has a flattened shaft which almost completely overlaps the posterior surface of the radius2 its inferior extremity reaches to the carpus4 ,the carpus is formed of eight bones--four in the superior row1 and four in the inferior4 ,the third bone of the superior row 7cuneiform7 is more in contact with the ulna than with the radius4 ,there are but four metacarpal bones2 there is no metacarpal of the thumb4 ,the two median metacarpal bones are the longest2 they are those which correspond to the digits which alone touch the ground4 ,the internal digit and the external one are thin and short2 they are functionless1 as a rule1 taking no part in supporting the limbs on the ground4 ,notwithstanding this1 they are formed1 as the other digits1 of a number of phalanges1 which give them the semblance of perfect digits4 7,we shall soon see that in certain animals there exist digits which1 being incomplete with regard to the numbers of their constituent bones1 more accurately merit the name of imperfect digits47 ,the third phalanges are each enclosed in a horny hoof1 to which the name of onglon has been given4 ,we have already drawn attention to the smaller lateral digits1 and noted the general fact that they do not come in contact with the ground4 ,it is necessary to modify this statement by adding that under certain conditions they give a slight amount of support2 for example1 when the individual is the subject of excessive obesity1 the limbs yield under the weight1 and the nails of the lateral digits may touch the ground4 ,a similar fact may be noticed in pigs of ordinary bulk at the moment when1 during walking1 each of the fore-limbs commences to bear the weight--that is to say1 when it is directed obliquely downwards and forwards2 then all the digits are in contact with the ground4 ,unguligrades 7,ungulates73 ,sheep1 ,ox 7,fig4 #ci74--,the scapula1 which is of elongated form1 is very narrow in the vicinity of the glenoid cavity4 ,the spine1 which becomes more and more salient towards its inferior part1 terminates abruptly in a border1 which1 forming an acute angle with the crest1 produces a projection which represents the acromion process--a very rudimentary acromion1 for it does not reach the level of the glenoid cavity4 ,the supraspinous fossa is much smaller than the infraspinous2 it hardly equals one-third the extent of the latter4 ,the anterior border1 thin and convex in its superior portion1 is concave in the rest of its extent2 the posterior border is thick and slightly concave2 the spinal border is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation4 ,in the ox the spine of the scapula1 in its middle portion1 is flexed a little backwards on the infraspinous fossa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 seventh cervical vertebra2 #f1 first dorsal vertebra2 #g1 thirteenth and last dorsal vertebra2 #h1 lumbar vertebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #aa1 sternum2 #ab1 xiphoid appendix2 #ac1 eighth and last sternal rib2 #ad1 costal cartilages2 #ae1 spine of scapula2 #af1 cartilage of prolongation of the scapula2 #ag1 great tuberosity of the humerus2 #ah1 musculo-spiral groove2 #ai1 olecranon process2 #bj1 radius2 #ba1 carpus2 #bb1 pisiform2 #bc1 metacarpus2 #bd1 rudimentary metacarpal2 #be1 sesamoid bones2 #bf1 first phalanges2 #bg1 second phalanges2 #bh1 third phalanges2 #bi1 anterior iliac spine2 #cj1 pubis2 #ca1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #cb1 great trochanter2 #cc1 supracondyloid fossa of the femur2 #cd1 patella1 or knee-cap2 #ce1 anterior tuberosity of the tibia2 #cf1 fibula2 #cg1 coronoid tarsal bone2 #ch1 tarsus2 #ci1 calcaneum2 #dj1 metatarsus2 #da1 rudimentary metatarsus2 #db1 sesamoid bones2 #dc1 first phalanges2 #dd1 second phalanges2 #de1 third phalanges4 ,the great tuberosity of the humerus is highly developed2 its summit1 very prominent1 is flexed over the bicipital groove2 a prominence of the small tuberosity also bends over the groove1 with the result that at this level the latter is converted into a sort of canal4 ,at the inferior extremity the condyle1 although not large1 is recognisable2 for it is separated from the trochlea by a depression in form of a groove4 ,in contrast to the condition found in man1 the condyle descends to a level a little below that of the internal lip of the trochlea4 7,for the arrangement of the epicondyle and the epitrochlea1 see p4 #cj47 ,in the sheep1 the deltoid impression is but slightly marked2 in the ox1 it is more evident4 ,the forearm is directed obliquely downwards and inwards1 so as to form1 with the hand1 an angle of which the apex is internal2 this angular outline of the knee 7wrist7 is so characteristic of ruminants that the corresponding region of the horse1 when salient inwards1 receives the name of ox-knee4 ,the radius bears the coronoid process1 and the larger part of the articular surface which comes in contact with the inferior extremity of the humerus2 the condyle and the trochlea articulate with the radius in front2 while behind1 the trochlea articulates with that part of the sigmoid cavity which belongs to the ulna4 ,the posterior surface of the shaft of the radius is flattened2 its anterior surface is slightly convex4 ,the inferior extremity articulates with the carpus by a surface which is directed obliquely downwards and inwards4 ,the shaft of the ulna is very slender1 and fused in its middle third with the body of the radius2 it terminates below1 at the level of the external part of the inferior extremity of the radius1 by a slightly expanded portion which1 fused with this latter1 forms the articular surface for the carpal bones4 ,in the ox the forearm is short2 in the sheep it is proportionally longer4 ,the bones of the carpus are six in number--four in the upper row1 and two in the lower2 they form an irregular cuboid mass which contributes to the formation of the region known as the knee in ruminants1 as in the horse2 we have already remarked that the name 'wrist' would be more accurate4 ,the anterior surface in its foremost part is vertical1 and is slightly convex from side to side4 ,at its posterior and external part the pisiform bone forms a prominence4 ,the metacarpus consists of two bones only--one1 well developed1 which is known as the principal metacarpal1 or the canon bone 7this is the name given to the region in the hoofed animals72 and a rudimentary one1 which is situated at the superior and external aspect of the preceding metacarpal4 ,sometimes there is found a third metacarpal at the internal aspect2 but1 when present1 it is but very slightly developed4 ,the principal metacarpal consists of two metacarpals fused together2 on this account the bone is longitudinally marked in the median line by a slight depression which marks the junction of the two bones of which it is formed4 ,in some ruminants 7certain species of chevrotains7 the coalescence does not take place1 and the two metacarpals remain separate4 ,the anterior surface of the principal metacarpal is convex transversely2 its posterior surface is flattened4 ,the superior extremity of this bone articulates by two facets with the two bones of the inferior row of the carpus2 on the internal part of the anterior surface of this extremity is found a tubercle4 ,the inferior extremity is divided into two parts by a fissure or notch2 each part is articular1 and consists of two separate condyles1 which are separated from each other by an antero-posterior crest2 on each side of this crest1 and behind1 are found two sesamoid bones4 ,as for the external rudimentary metacarpal bone1 it is nothing more than a small1 short tongue of bone2 which1 in goats and sheep1 is often absent4 ,the division of the inferior extremity of the principal metacarpal into two parts is correlated with the two perfect digits which give the foot of the ruminant its forked appearance4 ,each digit consists of three phalanges1 which are directed obliquely downwards and forwards2 further1 these phalanges are inclined a little outwards from the axis of the limb1 so that the two digits diverge from each other as they descend4 ,the first phalanx1 which is the longest1 articulates superiorly with the principal metacarpal2 its inferior extremity terminates in a trochlea1 and the lip of this1 which is situated towards the axis of the limb1 descends lower than that of the opposite side2 this arrangement is correlated with the divergent direction of the digits4 ,the second phalanx has its superior extremity moulded on the trochlea which terminates the extremity of the first2 its inferior extremity is articular1 and elongated from before backwards4 ,on the posterior surface of this extremity is found a sesamoid bone4 ,with regard to the third phalanx1 it presents the form of a triangular pyramid1 and displays a postero-superior concave surface with which the second phalanx articulates2 an anterior1 convex surface1 which terminates in a point on its anterior part2 and an internal surface1 which is flattened4 ,the third phalanx of each digit is contained in a hoof 7onglon74 ,there is also found in ruminants two imperfect rudimentary digits1 which are represented by two small bones situated behind the articulation of the metacarpal and the digits which we have just been studying4 ,these rudimentary digits are each enveloped in a layer of horn2 they constitute the spurs4 ,the two digits of the ruminants represent the third and fourth fingers of the human hand2 the two lateral digits1 greatly atrophied1 are the homologues of the second and fifth fingers2 the thumb is not present4 ,it is the same as regards the metacarpal bones1 which form1 by their union1 the principal metacarpal2 the external represents the fourth metacarpal1 and the internal the third4 ,it is to the latter that the tubercle1 of which we have already made mention1 belongs2 and with the signification of which1 because it gives attachment to a muscle1 we shall concern ourselves in the section on myology 7see ,radial ,muscles74 ,unguligrades3 ,horse 7,fig4 #dj74--,the scapula is narrow1 compared with that of the animals we have just been considering4 ,the anterior border is convex in its superior portion1 and concave in its inferior2 the posterior border is slightly hollowed out4 ,the supraspinous fossa is less in extent than the infraspinous2 but the difference is less than that between the same fossae in the ox and the sheep2 in the ox1 as we have already indicated1 the proportion is one-third2 in the horse1 one-half4 ,the spine1 which disappears at the extremities1 is rough and thick in its middle third1 there forming a kind of tuberosity--tuberosity of the spine4 ,above and in front of the glenoid cavity is found a strong process consisting of a rugous base1 and a summit which is directed inwards4 ,this forms a kind of hook curved towards the inside2 it represents the coracoid process4 ,the scapula is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation1 of which the superior border1 which is thin and curved1 is parallel to the superior border of the prominence of the withers2 the cartilage forms1 consequently1 the lateral surface of this region4 ,the cartilage of prolongation undergoes ossification in old horses4 ,the humerus is short2 the bicipital groove1 situated on the anterior surface of the superior extremity1 separates the greater tuberosity from the lesser1 and is divided into two parts by a median ridge2 it is this portion of the humerus which forms the prominence known as the point of the shoulder1 or point of the arm4 ,the deltoid impression well deserves the name of tuberosity which has been given to it1 for it is very prominent2 the musculo-spiral groove is very deep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a1 ,cranium2 #b1 face2 #c1 atlas2 #d1 axis2 #e1 seventh cervical vertebra2 #f1 first dorsal vertebra2 #g1 eighteenth and last dorsal vertebra2 #h1 lumbar vertebrae2 #i1 sacrum2 #aj1 coccygeal vertebrae2 #aa1 sternum2 #ab1 xiphoid appendix2 #ac1 eighteenth and last sternal rib2 #ad1 costal cartilage2 #ae1 scapula2 #af1 cartilage of extension2 #ag1 great tuberosity of the humerus2 #ah1 deltoid crest2 #ai1 olecranon process2 #bj1 radius2 #ba1 carpus2 #bb1 pisiform2 #bc1 principal metacarpal2 #bd1 metacarpal1 external rudimentary2 #be1 large sesamoids2 #bf1 first phalanx2 #bg1 second phalanx2 #bh1 third phalanx2 #bi1 ilium1 showing external iliac fossa2 #cj1 pubis2 #ca1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #cb1 great trochanter2 #cc1 infratrochanteric crest1 or third trochanter2 #cd1 supracondyloid fossa of the femur2 #ce1 knee-cap2 #cf1 anterior tuberosity of the tibia2 #cg1 the fibula2 #ch1 tarsus astragalus2 #ci1 calcaneum2 #dj1 principal metatarsal2 #da1 rudimentary external metatarsal2 #db1 large sesamoids2 #dc1 first phalanx2 #dd1 second phalanx2 #de1 third phalanx4 ,to face p4 #fd4 ,at the inferior extremity1 the trochlea is large2 the portion corresponding to the condyle of the humerus in man is1 in proportion to the latter1 of small extent4 ,the olecranon fossa is deep4 ,the epicondyle and the epitrochlea are somewhat different from those of the human bone4 ,in the latter1 the epitrochlea is salient towards the inner side1 causing an increased transverse diameter of the inferior extremity of the humerus4 ,in the horse--it is the same in ruminants--this tuberosity projects backwards1 folds on itself in forming the internal boundary of the olecranon cavity1 and exceeds in diameter1 in the antero-posterior direction1 the prominence of the epicondyle1 which presents a nearly similar arrangement4 ,this latter has1 however1 a part which1 projecting externally1 is situated at the inferior part of a crest1 that forms the posterior boundary of the musculo-spiral groove4 ,the result is that1 contrary to the condition found in the human being1 the epicondyle is more prominent transversely than the epitrochlea1 but this latter is more salient on the posterior aspect4 ,the epitrochlea and the epicondyle offer a larger surface for the origin of muscles of the forearm than the same prominences in the human bone do for the analogous muscles of the same region4 ,some veterinary anatomists have given to the inferior and external articular surface of the humerus the name of trochlea2 and to the internal one1 that of condyle4 ,on this account they designate the external prominence as the epitrochlea1 and the internal one as the epicondyle4 ,in addition to the fact that this point of view is not legitimate1 it produces inevitable confusion when comparing the parts with those of the human humerus1 and this confusion exists1 not alone in describing the bone1 but also in the description of the muscular attachments1 and in the comparison of the muscles of the forearm of quadrupeds with the corresponding muscles in the human species4 ,the radius is placed in front of the ulna2 its body1 slightly convex forwards1 has the anterior surface convex transversely1 and the posterior surface plane in the same direction4 ,it is to the external part of this latter that the ulna is applied1 which is completely fused with the radius4 ,the superior extremity of the radius is a little larger than the inferior4 ,its superior aspect1 concavo-convex1 moulded on the inferior articular surface of the humerus1 presents internally two cavities1 which receive the lips of the trochlea1 and1 externally1 another1 smaller1 cavity1 which receives the condyle4 ,the radius articulates with the trochlea and the condyle1 having appropriated a portion of the ulna1 as is proved by the presence of the coronoid process1 which belongs to the former4 ,this superior extremity presents1 internally1 a tuberosity into which the biceps is inserted2 this is the bicipital tuberosity2 and on the other side is another tuberosity1 which is a little more prominent than the preceding4 ,the inferior extremity1 which is flattened from before backwards1 is furrowed on its anterior surface by grooves for the passage of muscles 7the names of the muscles whose tendons pass in these grooves have already been given on p4 #dc74 ,it articulates at the lower end with the superior row of the carpus1 and it terminates laterally in tuberosities3 one1 external1 on which is found a groove for the tendon of the lateral extensor of the phalanges1 the homologue of the special extensor of the little finger2 the other1 internal1 is a little more prominent than the one we have just described4 ,these tuberosities are visible under the skin which covers the superior and lateral parts of the region known as the knee2 but which1 we again repeat1 is no other than the wrist4 ,the ulna has a triangular shaft1 situated at the posterior surface of the radius1 with which it is fused4 ,it disappears completely at the level of the inferior third of the forearm4 ,occasionally1 in some horses1 the ulna is abnormally long1 in the form of a slender tongue of bone2 and extends to the neighbourhood of the external tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the radius 7see ,fig4 #gi1 p4 #aif74 ,its superior extremity is chiefly represented by the olecranon process1 which is voluminous in bulk1 and forms the projection known as the point of the elbow4 ,this process is flattened laterally2 its internal surface is excavated2 the anterior surface1 which is concave1 forms a part of the great sigmoid cavity2 the remainder of the cavity is formed by the radius4 ,in the ass1 the ulna is a little longer than in the horse--that is to say1 it descends lower2 and the radius is a little more convex anteriorly4 ,the carpal bones are seven in number--four in the superior row1 and three in the inferior4 ,the trapezium is wanting in the latter4 ,sometimes1 however1 in certain varieties of horses the trapezium is developed1 but then it is no more than a very small osseous nodule4 ,the pisiform bone1 situated at the external part of the first row of bone1 is prominent posteriorly4 ,it is of rounder form and flattened from without inwards4 ,it articulates with the trapezium and the radius4 ,it presents1 on its external surface1 a groove for the passage of the tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle1 which is named by veterinary anatomists the external flexor of the metacarpus4 ,the carpus1 as a whole1 is of an irregularly cuboid shape2 its anterior surface1 slightly convex from side to side1 forms the skeleton of the region of the knee 7wrist74 ,the metacarpus is formed of three bones3 the principal metacarpal and the two rudimentary ones4 ,the principal metacarpal1 which forms the region of the canon1 is directed vertically2 its anterior surface is slightly convex transversely4 ,this surface is covered by a number of tendons1 which slightly alter its appearance2 so that it is the principal base of this part of the fore-limb4 ,its posterior surface is flattened4 ,the superior extremity of this metacarpal presents plane surfaces1 variously inclined1 with which the bones of the inferior row of the carpus articulate4 ,on the anterior surface1 and a little to the inner side1 is found a tuberosity1 which is destined for the insertion of the anterior extensor of the metacarpus1 the homologue of the radial muscles4 ,the inferior extremity is formed by two condyles1 an internal and an external2 between which is found a median crest4 ,this extremity1 the superior extremity of the first phalanx1 which articulates with it1 together with two sesamoid bones--the great sesamoids--which are situated on its posterior surface1 collectively form the region which from its rounded outlines is called the ball4 ,with regard to the rudimentary metacarpals1 external and internal1 to which some authors give the name of fibulae1 they are applied to the sides of the posterior surface of the principal metacarpal4 ,they are elongated bones1 of which the superior extremity1 which is a little thickened1 is called the head2 the lateral bones of the second row of the carpus partly rest on the heads of these4 ,they become more slender as they descend1 and terminate opposite the inferior fourth of the principal metacarpal4 ,each ends in a slight swelling1 to which the name button has been given4 ,the internal one is the better developed4 ,the rudimentary metacarpals are vestiges of atrophied digits1 as will be explained further on4 ,the single finger of the horse consists of three phalanges4 ,the first phalanx1 which is directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 corresponds to the constricted region situated below the 'ball1' and known as the pastern4 ,it is flattened from before backwards2 its anterior surface is convex transversely1 while the posterior surface is plane4 ,its superior extremity is moulded on the inferior extremity of the principal metacarpal1 and its inferior extremity1 which is smaller1 presents a trochlea with which the second phalanx articulates4 ,this is also directed downwards and forwards1 and is shorter4 ,it corresponds to the region which1 situated between the pastern and the hoof1 is known as the cornet4 ,the third phalanx1 situated entirely within the hoof1 has the same direction as the first and second4 ,it is large and broad1 and presents three surfaces separated by well-marked angular borders 7see ,fig4 #if74 ,the anterior surface is oblique downwards and forwards2 it is convex transversely4 ,the inferior surface is slightly hollowed1 and is in relation with the sole1 or plantar surface of the hoof4 ,the superior surface1 which is articular1 is divided by a median ridge into two lateral cavities1 which correspond to the trochlea on the inferior surface of the lower extremity of the second phalanx4 ,the inferior border corresponds in shape with the hoof4 ,the superior border presents in its median part a projection1 the pyramidal eminence1 which prolongs at this level the anterior surface of the bone4 ,finally1 the posterior border1 which is concave1 is in contact with a sesamoid bone1 the lesser sesamoid1 which increases the superior articular surface behind1 and is also in contact with the second phalanx4 ,as we have just seen1 the horse possesses but one digit4 ,in the ancestors of the animal--that is1 in the prehistoric species which are now extinct 7orohippus1 miohippus1 protohippus1 or hipparion7--the number of digits was larger2 this fact conclusively proves that the rudimentary metacarpals of the existing horse are vestiges of digits which have disappeared through want of use4 ,in the first of those ancestors--orohippus--there were four digits2 all save the first1 the thumb1 being then developed4 ,in the others of the series there existed but three digits4 ,it must1 however1 be noted that in those animals it is always the digit which corresponds to the middle finger of the pentedactyl hand that is longest4 ,in other less ancient species the lateral fingers are reduced to the condition of mere splints of bone4 ,it follows from what has been said that the digit which persists in the equine species should be considered as the third finger1 and that the rudimentary metacarpals represent lateral digits considerably atrophied4 ,this disappearance of the lateral digits cannot excite surprise when we consider the functions of the organs4 ,becoming useless1 they must undergo gradual atrophy from want of use4 ,there undoubtedly is1 in this former existence of supplementary digits in the horse1 something analogous to what we still find in the pig2 where the two principal digits are accompanied by two shorter ones1 which very probably1 from their infrequent use1 are destined to disappear in a more or less distant future4 ,proportions of the ,arm1 the ,forearm1 and the ,metacarpus ,as a supplement to the study of the anterior limbs which we have just finished1 it appears necessary to give some indications of the relative proportions of certain of the segments which form these limbs in the plantigrades1 the digitigrades1 and the ungulates4 ,first1 we would remark that1 in following this order of classification1 the scapula becomes less and less narrow1 and assumes a form more and more elongated4 ,in order to convince ourselves of this1 it will be sufficient to study the bone first in man1 then in the bear1 the cat1 dog1 ox1 and finally in the horse4 ,as to the proportions of length1 which are those we should chiefly study1 we shall commence with the comparison of the forearm and arm--that is to say1 the radius and the humerus4 ,the radius is found to be longer in proportion to the humerus1 as the number of digits is smaller1 and the hand loses more and more the functions of an organ of prehension4 ,in man1 the radius is shorter than the humerus2 in the horse1 on the contrary1 it is longer4 ,to give an idea of this proportion1 we shall employ what is known as the antibrachial index4 ,this index gives the relation which exists between the length of the forearm and that of the humerus2 the length of this latter1 whatever may be the actual measurement1 is represented by a fixed figure1 the number #ajj4 ,a very simple arithmetical operation gives the proportion-- forearm x #ajj -------------1 the quotient obtained furnishes the index4 humerus ,the index is less than #ajj if the forearm is shorter than the bone of the arm4 ,the index is more than #ajj if1 on the contrary1 the forearm is longer4 ,in man1 the radius is shorter than the humerus2 indeed1 in adult individuals of the white race the average index is #gd4 ,in the bear1 the length of the radius approaches closely to that of the humerus2 the index is about #ij4 ,in the skeleton of a bear in the anatomical museum of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 the humerus is #cc centimetres in length1 and the radius #cj centimetres4 ,in the cat1 the radius is very little shorter than the humerus4 ,in the dog they are equal4 ,the antibrachial index of the latter is1 accordingly1 #ajj4 ,in the horse1 the radius is longer than the humerus2 the index is therefore above #ajj4 ,thus1 in the skeleton of the horse which we have in the museum of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 the index is #aac--length of humerus1 #bi centimetres2 length of radius1 #cc centimetres4 ,in other skeletons which we have measured we found3 in one1 #ajh--;humerus1 #cd centimetres2 radius1 #cg centimetres2 in another1 #aaf--;humerus1 #be centimetres2 radius1 #bi centimetres4 ,the metacarpal bone undergoes1 relatively to the humerus1 a proportional elongation1 analogous to that of the forearm4 ,in man1 the length of the metacarpus is contained about #e-a_/b times in that of the humerus2 in the bear1 it is contained #d times2 in the dog1 #b-a_/b times2 in the horse1 #a-a_/c times only4 ,it is well known that the proportions vary according to race1 and that what we have here given are but the general indications4 ,the ,articulations of the ,anterior ,limbs ,the knowledge of human arthrology which we presume the reader to have previously acquired makes it unnecessary for us to enter into numerous details regarding the configuration of the articular osseous surfaces and the disposition of the fibrous bands that retain them in position4 ,accordingly1 in the description which follows1 and also in that of the articulations of the posterior limbs1 we shall occupy ourselves but very briefly with the details above referred to1 so as to devote ourselves especially to the indication of the movements--that is to say1 of that which1 while easily comprehended on recollection of former studies1 presents the greatest interest from the artistic standpoint in these studies in comparative anatomy4 ,the ,scapulo-,humeral ,articulation4--,the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula being in contact1 the two bones are bound together by a rather loose articular capsule1 which is strengthened by the muscles of this region which fulfil the function of active ligaments4 ,this articulation1 so movable in every direction in the human species1 is not so much so in quadrupeds2 the arm in the latter1 as also the shoulder1 being kept in contact with the lateral region of the thorax by the numerous muscles which surround it4 ,of the movements performed by the humerus1 flexion and extension are the most extensive2 those of abduction and adduction are much less so4 ,it is necessary1 before proceeding further1 to determine what the two principal movements which we have just mentioned really are1 viz41 flexion and extension4 ,we know that in man the displacements of the humerus which take place in the antero-posterior direction are known as movement or projection forwards1 and movement or projection backwards1 respectively4 ,we do not say that the humerus is flexed or extended1 because1 in reality1 on account of the position which the skeleton of the shoulder occupies1 it is not able to flex or place itself on the line of prolongation of the scapula with which it articulates4 ,in quadrupeds it is not so4 ,the humerus and the scapula are contained in almost the same vertical plane2 and the bone of the arm can take1 in relation to the latter1 the positions characteristic of flexion and extension--that is1 of approach to the scapula and removal from it4 ,what makes the meanings of these terms a little confusing is that1 in human anatomy1 some authors consider the backward movement of the humerus as extension1 and the forward movement as flexion2 in order to be able to compare these movements to those that the femur executes in relation to the pelvis4 ,now1 in our opinion1 the indication of this correspondence is not absolutely necessary2 since it ceases to be exact if we wished1 from the point of view of the direction given to other segments of the skeleton1 to establish the same relation between the elbow and the articulation of the knee4 ,it is therefore indispensable1 when discussing quadrupeds1 to discontinue these terms1 in order the more readily to recognise that3 in flexion the inferior extremity of the humerus is directed backwards2 in extension1 on the contrary1 it is directed forwards4 ,in the first case the humerus approaches the scapula2 in the second1 on the contrary1 it moves away from it4 ,these movements1 which take place during walking1 are executed in the following manner3 ,when one of the anterior limbs is at the end of that stage of progression which is called support 7see p4 #bhi1 ,displacements of the ,limbs7--that is to say1 during the time that the foot remains in contact with the ground1 whilst the trunk is moving forward--the direction of this limb becomes more and more oblique downwards and backwards4 ,at a certain moment the limb is raised from the ground1 to be carried forwards1 in order to be again pressed on the ground1 and recommence a new resting stage4 ,in these different phases the humerus is flexed4 ,but at the moment that the limb1 when carried forwards1 is about to resume its contact with the ground it becomes directed obliquely downwards and forwards2 then the humerus is in the position of extension4 ,during these movements of the humerus1 there exists an essential factor--that is1 the scapular balance4 7,it is the same as what occurs in man when he balances his arm in the antero-posterior plane47 ,when the humerus is flexed1 the scapula moves in such a way that the superior portion projects forwards2 when it is extended1 the scapula1 on the other hand1 is inclined more backwards4 ,but it is necessary to add that1 during these displacements1 the scapulo-humeral angle varies2 it tends to close during the flexion of the humerus1 and becomes more open during extension4 ,the movements and the relations of the humerus and the scapula are clearly represented in ,figs4 #da and #db1 reproduced from the chromophotographic studies of ,professor ,marey--studies relative to the analyses of the movements of the horse4#ac ,they show clearly the movements of flexion and extension of the humerus1 also the balancing of the scapula which accompanies the movements4 #ac ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 ',analyses of the ,movements of the ,horse by the ,chromophotograph' 7,la ,nature1 ,june #aa1 #ahih74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,flexion ,,of ,,the ,,humerus3 ,,right ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface 7,,after ,a ,,chromophotographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,humerus3 ,,right ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface 7,,after ,a ,,chromophotographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey74 ,the ,articulation of the ,elbow1 or the ,humero-ulnar ,articulation4--,in this articulation1 which is constructed in the form of a true hinge1 the movements of flexion and extension alone are possible4 ,in flexion1 the forearm1 directed forwards1 is folded on the arm1 with which1 in certain circumstances1 it comes in contact4 ,for example1 in a horse of mettle which leaps over an elevated obstacle1 the animal forcibly raises his fore-limbs by flexing them4 ,flexion is produced to the same extent1 and even more so1 and for a longer period1 in felides which crouch4 ,in extension1 on the contrary1 the forearm is carried backward4 ,this movement being limited only by the contact of the tip of the olecranon with the bottom of the olecranon fossa of the humerus1 the forearm is enabled1 in this case1 to move until it is in line with the arm4 ,for example1 during walking1 when one of the anterior limbs1 having reached the end of its resting stage1 is considerably inclined downwards and backwards4 ,the apex of the olecranon process--that is to say1 the point of the elbow--forms a marked prominence1 more salient in flexion than in extension1 as in the corresponding region of the human elbow4 ,the ,radio-ulnar ,articulation4--,it is in the dog and the cat1 in which the two bones of the forearm articulate by their extremities only1 and remain separate in the rest of their extent1 that the articulations call for special notice4 ,in the upper part1 the radius rotates on itself2 while below1 it rotates around the ulna4 ,it follows that the forearm1 which in all quadrupeds is in a state of permanent pronation1 can1 in carnivora1 take the position of supination1 or rather1 of demi-supination4 ,in fact1 whatever be the mobility of the two bones of the forearm1 the movement is not able to bring the palmar surface to the front1 but only to direct it towards the median line4 ,the ,articulation of the ,wrist4--,here are found1 as in man1 three superimposed articulations3 the radio-carpal1 intercarpal1 and carpo-metacarpal4 ,if we remember the movements which take place at the plane of these articulations in man1 and take account of the fact that the mobility of the limbs is reduced just in proportion as they are simplified in structure so as to become organs of support only1 we can easily comprehend that1 in the horse and the ox1 and1 in a word1 animals that have a canon bone1 the movements of the wrist are little varied in character1 while in carnivorae1 on the other hand1 they are relatively more so4 ,we will remember that in the ox and the horse the region of the wrist is called the knee4 ,in flexion1 the hand is bent backwards2 in extension it is carried forwards4 ,these two movements take place especially in the radiocarpal and intercarpal articulations4 ,in the first of these articulations1 it is the superior row of the carpus which glides backwards and forwards on the corresponding articular surface of the forearm4 ,in the second articulation1 it is the second row which moves2 gliding on the inferior articular surfaces of the row above it4 ,this inferior row carries the metacarpus with it2 for the carpo-metacarpal articulation is much less mobile than either of the other two4 ,in flexion1 the articular surfaces are separated from one another in front2 and the changes of form which result from this are noticeable on the anterior surface of the 'knee4' ,moreover1 at that moment this region contrasts markedly in its outlines with the parts above it and below it--that is to say1 with the corresponding surfaces of the forearm and of the canon bone4 ,as for the lateral movements1 by which the hand is inclined outwards and inwards in its movements at the wrist1 they exist to an appreciable extent in the cat and the dog only2 in order to understand this1 it is enough to compare the shape of the articular surfaces of this region in carnivora and the horse1 for example4 ,in the latter1 those surfaces are almost plane2 in the cat1 on the contrary1 they are curved 7inferior surface of the forearm1 concave2 superior border of the carpus1 convex74 ,these latter1 then1 are1 in form1 similar to those which exist at the same level in the human being2 this explains the possibility of analogous movements of the whole hand--that is to say1 of the movements of abduction and adduction4 ,the ,metacarpo-phalangeal ,articulations4--,with regard to the mobility1 it is in these articulations1 as in those of the wrist--that is to say1 although in all quadrupeds the first phalanges can be flexed and extended on the metacarpus1 it is only in the cat and dog that lateral movement is possible4 ,indeed1 in the horse1 in which the principal metacarpal terminates inferiorly in two convex surfaces1 which are separated by a crest2 and where the whole articulates with a cavity on the superior extremity of the first phalanx2 because of the hinging of these surfaces1 there can only be movements of opening and closing of this articulation4 ,the first phalanx is directed backwards during flexion and forwards during extension4 ,in the dog and the cat the digits can be separated from each other1 and also drawn together--that is to say1 abducted and adducted2 but1 as in man1 these movements can be made only when the first phalanges are in the state of extension4 ,during flexion they are impossible1 because of the tension of the lateral ligaments1 which increases as the flexion is more pronounced4 ,this can be demonstrated1 for example1 in the cat1 which1 in order to separate the digits1 opens the hand widely--that is to say1 forcibly raises the first phalanges4 ,the ,interphalangeal ,articulations4--,the phalanges are in contact with one another by surfaces1 which1 on one side1 are of trochlear form1 and1 on the other1 are moulded on these trochleae2 accordingly1 at the level of these articulations1 the movements of flexion and extension only can take place4 ,in the felidae1 the claws which the third phalanges bear cannot be utilized when the latter are in a state of extension1 at which time1 being forcibly raised1 they are1 in fact1 placed on the outer sides of the phalanges1 which are grooved to receive them4 ,but when the animal wishes to use them1 it flexes those third phalanges1 of which the terminal extremity is then projected forward1 and the claws are ready to fulfil their function4 ,but at the same time it extends the first phalanges1 to produce a certain tension of the flexors of the digits1 and thus enable the latter to act with greater efficacy1 with a minimum of contraction4 ,we can demonstrate this action experimentally on ourselves4 ,it is enough to carry the first phalanges forcibly into a state of extension2 the third phalanges then become flexed1 quite spontaneously1 by the tension of the tendons of the flexors which are inserted into them4 ,at the same time1 if we examine the felidae which we have taken as examples1 when the first phalanges are in the state of extension1 the digits will be found to be separable1 as we have already indicated in connection with the metacarpo-phalangeal articulations1 with the result that the claws are then able to lacerate a wider surface4 ,the extension of the ungual phalanx1 which determines the retraction of the claw and stops its action1 is the mechanical result of an elastic1 fibrous apparatus which is attached to each of the third phalanges1 and has its origin of the second4 ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs#ad #ad ,examine ,figs4 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #di4 ,the posterior limbs are divided1 as are the inferior limbs of the human being1 of which they are the homologues1 into four parts3 pelvis1 thigh1 leg1 and foot4 ,the ,pelvis ,the pelvis1 which incompletely limits the abdominal cavity1 inferiorly in the vertical position of the body and posteriorly in the normal attitude of quadrupeds1 is formed by the iliac bones and sacrum--the coccyx forming a prolongation of the latter4 ,we have already described the two latter 7pp4 #aj and #aa7 in connection with the vertebral column1 of which they form the inferior or posterior portion or segment1 according to the attitude of the individual4 ,the ,iliac ,bone4--,the iliac or coxal bone1 is a paired or non-symmetrical bone1 united below to its fellow of the opposite side1 while it is separated from it above by the sacrum4 ,in all animals1 as well as in man1 the iliac bone1 at the beginning of life1 consists of three parts1 which afterwards unite and fuse together and join at the middle of the bottom of a deep cavity which is situated on the outer aspect of the bone--the cotyloid cavity4 ,of those three portions when examined in the human iliac bone1 that above the cavity is the ilium2 that on the inside is the pubis2 and the last1 the lower one1 is the ischium4 ,in quadrupeds1 the iliac bone being1 in its entirety1 directed much more obliquely downwards and backwards1 the relative position of these constituent parts is a little modified3 the ilium is in front1 the pubis is still internal1 but in a more inferior position1 and the ischium is behind the cotyloid cavity4 ,we notice this peculiarity of the development of the iliac bone because it is customary to continue to apply to the osseous regions which correspond to these parts the names by which they were known when independent bones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,the ,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,being3 ,,external ,,surface1 ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,would ,,occupy ,,in ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,quadruped4 #a1 ,cotyloid cavity2 #b1 ilium2 #c1 iliac crest2 #d1 anterior iliac crest2 #e1 posterior iliac spine2 #f1 pubis2 #g1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #h1 obturator foramen2 #i1 ischiadic spine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,left ,,iliac ,,bone ,,of ,a ,,quadruped 7,,horse73 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,cotyloid cavity2 #b1 ilium1 external iliac fossa 7directed upward in the horse72 #c1 iliac crest2 #d1 anterior iliac spine 7directed inwards in the horse1 it is the angle of the haunch72 #e1 posterior iliac spine 7directed inwards in the horse2 it is the angle of the haunch72 #f1 pubis2 #g1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #h1 obturator foramen2 #i1 ischiadic spine1 or subcotyloid foramen4 ,the bones which form the skeleton of the pelvis of quadrupeds are proportionally more elongated and less massive than those of the human pelvis 7,figs4 #dc and #dd74 ,we find1 on the external surface of the iliac bone1 the cotyloid cavity1 whose border is interrupted by the cotyloid notch2 a deep notch which looks downwards4 ,in front of this cavity is the ilium4 ,this portion1 narrow in the part which is next the cavity1 is directed forwards and upwards1 expanding more and more as it passes upwards4 ,it presents an external or superior surface 7external in some animals1 superior in others71 which recalls the external iliac fossa2 and an internal or inferior surface1 at the superior part of which is found the auricular surface for articulation with the sacrum4 ,the anterior border of the ilium is rough2 this is the iliac crest1 at the extremities of which we find1 below or outside1 a prominence which corresponds to the anterior superior iliac spine of man2 and internally another projection which corresponds to the posterior iliac spine4 ,immediately above the cotyloid cavity is a rough crest1 which is known as the supracotyloid crest1 which is1 however1 no other than the homologue of the sciatic spine4 ,in front of this prominence1 the border of the ilium1 which is notched1 forms the great sciatic notch4 ,if1 still taking the cotyloid cavity as the point of departure1 we proceed inwards--that is1 towards the median line of the body--we find the pubis2 if in a posterior direction1 the ischium4 ,these two portions1 pubis and ischium1 limit an oval orifice1 the subpubic foramen4 ,in the human skeleton1 the pubis of one side is united to that of the opposite side1 to form the pubic symphysis4 ,in the animals which we are now studying a portion of the ischium enters into the formation of the symphysis2 in other words1 it is formed1 not only by the body of the pubis1 but also by the descending branch or ramus of the pubis and a portion of the ascending branch or ramus of the ischium1 which are fused with those of the opposite side4 ,it results that1 though in the human being the symphysis is short and the ischio-pubic arch large1 in quadrupeds it is the opposite4 ,in them the arch is a mere slot1 and being formed by the ischium alone1 merits the name of the ischial arch4 ,the ischio-pubic symphysis is very large1 and forms a horizontal surface relatively extensive1 a sort of floor1 on which rest certain organs which occupy the cavity of the pelvis4 ,the posterior and external angle of the ischium is rough and prominent2 it is the tuberosity of the ischium4 ,this forms a projection under the skin2 it also does in man when the trunk is strongly inclined forwards1 while the thighs are maintained in the vertical position4 ,in marsupials--opossum1 kangaroo1 and phalanger--the pelvis at its pubic region is surmounted by two bones1 situated one on each side of the median line1 and arranged in the form of a fork of two prongs 7,fig4 #de74 ,these1 which are called marsupial bones1 support the pouch which1 in animals of this genus1 lodges their young1 which1 at the time of birth1 are incapable of supporting a separate existence1 their development being absolutely incomplete4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,pubic ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,marsupial 7,,phalanger1 ,,fox74 #a1 ,symphysis pubis2 #b1 obturator foramen2 #c1 marsupial bones4 ,in the cetaceans--for example1 the dolphin--because of the absence of posterior limbs1 the pelvis is represented by two separate bones only1 which have no connection with the vertebral column4 ,in birds1 the pelvis is remarkable for its elongated form 7see for its form ,fig4 #ba1 and for details ,fig4 #df74 ,the cotyloid cavity is pierced by an opening1 and presents on its posterior border1 which is here a little prominent1 a surface with which the great trochanter is in contact4 ,the ilium is very highly developed1 and is fused in the median line with the ilium of the opposite side1 the last dorsal vertebrae1 the lumbar vertebrae1 and the sacrum4 ,because of these relations with the dorsal vertebrae1 it is in contact anteriorly with the last ribs1 which consequently emerge from each side of the iliac region of the pelvis4 ,the ischium forms a plate of bone which1 in part1 closes the external portion of the cavity of the pelvis4 ,its superior border is separate for a certain distance from the external border of the ilium2 there is thus left an opening of more or less considerable size1 which represents or takes the place of the great sciatic notch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,external ,,surface1 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,ilium2 #b1 ischium2 #c1 pubis2 #d1 inferior extremity of the pubis2 #e1 sciatic foramen2 #f1 oval foramen1 homologous to the obturator2 #g1 coccygeal vertebrae4 ,the pubis1 long and slender1 is in connection with the inferior border of the ischium1 of which it follows the general direction2 and circumscribes with this latter1 below the cotyloid cavity1 an oval orifice1 which is the homologue of the obturator foramen4 ,its inferior extremity reaches beyond the corresponding part of the ischium1 bending towards the middle line1 but without joining the pubis of the opposite side4 ,on this account there is no symphysis pubis in birds4 ,nevertheless1 an exception must be noted in the case of the ostrich1 the pubic bones of which meet in the middle line1 and are articulated in form of a symphysis4 ,the ,thigh ,a single bone1 the femur1 forms the skeleton of this portion of the lower limb4 ,the ,femur4--,the bone of the thigh is1 in man1 directed downwards and inwards2 this obliquity1 we may remind the reader1 is due to the difference in length of the two condyles which form its inferior extremity2 the internal is the more prominent1 the result of which is that when the femur is held vertically1 the internal condyle descends lower than the external4 ,now1 as those two articular expansions rest on the horizontal plane formed by the upper extremity of the tibia1 it follows that the superior part of the femur inclines towards the side of the shorter condyle--that is to say1 outwards--and that1 the leg being vertical1 it and the bone of the thigh unite in forming an angle1 of which the apex is directed towards the inner side of the knee4 ,in many mammals the two condyles are equally prominent1 the result of which is that the femur inclines neither inwards nor outwards1 but is contained in a plane parallel to the axis of the trunk2 while the leg is included in the same plane4 ,nevertheless1 although contained in the plane which we have just indicated1 the femur is obliquely placed1 and directed downwards and forwards2 it accordingly forms1 with the pelvis1 an angle1 of which the opening is directed to the anterior aspect of the body4 ,in reptiles and in birds the femur and leg are both placed in the same plane1 but this plane is not parallel to the axis of the trunk4 ,this is the result1 on the one hand1 of the thorax being wide1 and1 on the other hand1 of the femur1 which is directed forwards1 being in contact by its anterior extremity with the lateral aspect of the costal region1 it is thus necessarily placed in a direction forwards and outwards1 and the knee is further removed from the axis of the trunk than is the articulation which unites the thigh with the pelvis4 ,the femur1 like the humerus1 is almost completely enveloped by muscular masses1 which bind it to the lateral walls of the abdomen4 ,its inferior extremity alone is free1 and is always the more so in proportion to its elongation--that is to say1 as it belongs to an animal whose foot is more divided4 ,the femur in this respect conforms to the law which we have indicated in connection with the bone of the arm1 in which the development1 as to length1 is in proportion to the division of the hand4 ,if we compare the femur of certain animals with that of man1 we see that the corresponding details of form are readily recognisable1 but they are slightly modified4 ,thus1 on examining the superior extremity1 we find there a head1 a neck1 a great trochanter1 and a lesser2 but the neck is usually short and thick1 and the great trochanter does not occupy the same level with regard to the articular head of the bone4 ,in man1 the great trochanter does not rise to the level of the head of the femur2 in the dog and the cat it approaches that level2 in the horse and in ruminants it rises above it4 ,with regard to the inferior extremity1 its surfaces undergo modifications which are further accentuated as we pass from the digitigrades to the ungulates1 or unguligrades4 ,we know that in man the femoral trochlea is continuous behind1 without interruption1 with the condyles--that is to say1 that each of the condyles is the continuation of one of the lips of the trochlea4 ,we have just said that the trochlea is continuous without interruption with the condyles2 this is accurate4 ,nevertheless1 we must remark that1 at the level of the junction of these surfaces1 the bone presents a slight constriction1 which is more marked on the external than on the internal aspect4 ,this constriction1 which is but slightly marked in man1 is accentuated in the dog and the cat2 in the ruminants and the solipeds it is still more pronounced so that we may say that in these latter the trochlea and the condyles are almost completely separated4 ,there is another modification in regard to the prominence and extent of the two lips of the trochlea4 ,in man1 the external lip of the trochlea reaches higher than the internal1 and it is more prominent in front4 ,in the dog1 these lips are equal with regard to thickness1 but the external still reaches higher than the internal2 in the cat1 they are equal in every respect2 in ruminants and solipeds the internal lip is wider1 thicker1 and rises higher than the external4 ,in animals the trochlea is1 as a general rule1 narrower than in man1 and the condyles are more prominent posteriorly2 so that1 when viewed from one of the lateral aspects1 the inferior extremity of the femur is1 in them1 better developed in the antero-posterior direction4 ,in birds1 the femur is shorter than the bones of the leg2 its great trochanter is in contact with a prominence which occupies the posterior part of the border of the cotyloid cavity4 ,instead of articulating at the level of the knee1 with the knee-cap and tibia only1 as in man1 it articulates1 in addition1 with the superior extremity of the fibula4 ,a similar arrangement is found in marsupials and reptiles4 ,the ,knee-cap4--,this bone1 developed in the thickness of the tendon of the triceps muscle of the thigh1 is in contact1 by its posterior surface1 with the femoral trochlea4 ,the two articular surfaces which are applied to the lips of the trochlea present1 with regard to their extent1 an inequality which is in proportion to the arrangement which we have above indicated--that is1 while in man it is the external surface which is the larger1 in the horse it is the internal4 ,we shall see what the general form of the knee-cap is when we come1 later on1 to study more particularly the posterior limbs of some animals4 ,the ,leg ,the skeleton of the leg consists of two bones3 the tibia and the fibula4 ,the tibia is the more internal and the larger of the two2 the fibula is slender1 and situated on the outer side1 and a little posterior to1 the preceding4 ,the fibula is more or less developed according to the species2 in some it is complete1 in others it is very much atrophied4 ,this peculiarity may be compared with that which we have drawn attention to regarding the development of the ulna2 but here the seriation is less distinct4 ,not only in the different species1 but even in the individuals of the same species1 the development of the fibula presents little regularity4 ,in quadrupeds1 the bones of the leg are directed obliquely downwards and backwards1 so that they form1 with the femur1 which is directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 an angle1 the apex of which is placed at the anterior surface of the knee4 ,tibia4--,the tibia of quadrupeds is readily comparable with that of man2 as in the case of the latter1 its shaft has three surfaces--an external1 which is hollowed out in its upper portion1 and becomes anterior below2 an internal1 slightly convex and subcutaneous2 the posterior1 which presents1 in its superior part1 a crest1 the oblique line of the tibia1 and some rugosities4 ,the borders separate the surfaces4 ,the anterior border1 or crest of the tibia1 is prominent in its superior part2 below it gradually disappears in passing towards the internal aspect of the inferior extremity4 ,the external and internal borders separate the corresponding surfaces from the posterior one4 ,the superior extremity is thick1 and expands in forming three tuberosities3 two lateral and an anterior4 ,the anterior tuberosity1 situated at the superior part of the crest of the tibia1 is very prominent2 for this reason the superior extremity is very much expanded in the antero-posterior direction--hence it results that this diameter is equal to the transverse1 and sometimes even greater4 ,in man1 it is the latter which is the larger4 ,the anterior tuberosity is visible under the skin4 ,the inferior extremity1 less thick1 is prolonged internally by a prominence which corresponds to the internal malleolus of man4 ,in animals whose fibula is but slightly developed the tibia presents1 on the external part of its inferior extremity1 a small prominence1 which replaces the fibular malleolus4 ,the ruminants must1 however1 be excepted1 in which we find in this region a special bone1 which certain authors look on as the inferior part of the fibula 7see p4 #ig74 ,the inferior surface of this extremity of the tibia is articular2 and is in contact with one of the tarsal bones1 the astragalus4 ,because the superior surface of this latter has the form of a pulley1 a pulley much more marked than that on the human astragalus1 the corresponding surface of the tibia1 which has the opposite form1 presents two lateral cavities1 separated by a median ridge1 which is directed forwards and slightly outwards2 this ridge projects into the groove of the pulley4 ,the ,fibula4--,this bone1 situated at the back of the external surface of the tibia1 is1 as we have said1 more or less developed4 ,its superior extremity1 or head1 articulates with the external tuberosity of the tibia4 ,its inferior extremity1 when it exists--it is this which disappears in animals which have the fibula incompletely developed--forms a prominence which1 placed on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the tibia1 articulates with the astragalus1 and recalls the external malleolus of man4 ,we have stated above that it is the inferior extremity of the fibula which disappears when the bone is incompletely developed2 it is necessary to except the bat1 in which the fibula1 fairly well developed at its inferior extremity1 by which it articulates with the tibia1 thins off in its superior portion1 and does not reach the corresponding extremity of the latter4 ,further1 as in this animal the surface of the knee1 which corresponds to the anterior surface of the same region in other animals1 is turned backwards1 the result is that the fibula is situated on the inner side of the tibia1 instead of being placed on the outer4 ,the ,foot ,the foot1 in animals1 as well as in man1 is formed of three portions1 which1 as we pass from the part which articulates with the leg towards the terminal extremity1 are3 the tarsus1 the metatarsus1 and the toes4 ,these three portions are the homologues of the carpus1 the metacarpus1 and the fingers1 which1 as we have already seen in the case of the hand1 are the osseous groups which form its skeleton4 ,the tarsus is formed of short bones1 as the carpus is2 these are1 in man1 seven in number4 ,the bones are arranged in two rows3 one1 the posterior1 formed of two bones superimposed--the astragalus1 by which the tarsus articulates with the leg1 and the calcaneum1 which forms the prominence of the heel2 and an anterior row formed of five juxtaposed ones--the cuboid1 situated externally1 and the scaphoid internally1 in front of which are found the three cuneiforms4 ,to the tarsus succeeds the metatarsus1 whose form reminds us very much of that of the metacarpals4 ,with regard to the toes1 which we enumerate in proceeding from the most internal to the most external1 they are formed of phalanges1 which are three in number for the four outer toes2 but the number is reduced to two in the case of the first--that is1 the so-called great-toe4 ,the bones of the tarsus are not seven in all animals2 they are fewer in ruminants and solipeds4 ,we already know that1 in the latter1 the metacarpals and the digits are equally reduced in number2 the same is the case for the metatarsals and the toes4 ,we will analyze these differences when dealing with the species individually4 ,when we studied the anterior limbs1 we saw in passing from the plantigrades to the digitigrades1 and finally the ungulates1 or unguligrades1 as the hand became hyperextended1 the carpus was raised and more and more removed from the ground4 ,we shall establish the existence of the same condition in the posterior limbs2 in the plantigrades the tarsus rests on the ground2 in the digitigrades it is removed from it2 while in the unguligrades the distance which separates it from the point of support is still more considerable2 and it is1 indeed1 necessary to imagine that if these latter were plantigrades1 would occupy the position on the ground which is indicated by ,fig4 #dg4 ,in veterinary anatomy the tarsus is called the ham2 a name we adopt in conformity with usage1 but which we cannot but regret1 as in human anatomy the ham is the region of the posterior surface of the knee4 ,the general arrangement of the region of the digits of the posterior limbs in birds1 presents some points of interest4 ,we shall merely say with regard to the metatarsus1 that it is formed by a single bone1 which in the cock is furnished towards its inferior third with a pointed process1 the spur4 ,at the inferior part1 there is1 however1 found another1 which is but very slightly developed1 and with which the first phalanx of the innermost toe articulates4 ,the toes are1 in the majority of species1 four in number3#ae an internal1 which is directed backwards1 and corresponds to the great-toe2 the others are directed forwards4 ,this arrangement is constant in grallatores 7wading birds71 gallinaceae#af 7domestic fowls71 and raptores 7birds of prey74 #ae ,in spite of the fact that the custom is to designate the terminal portions of the foot of birds by the name of digits1 we prefer to employ here the terms foot and toes4 ,in adopting this decision we believe we are acting according to a more didactic method4 ,homology of names should1 in our opinion1 always accompany homology of regions4 #af ,with regard to the gallinaceae1 we must add that in certain varieties the number of toes is five2 those which are directed forwards are three in number2 the internal one which passes backward1 is double4 ,the two toes which are the subject of this special arrangement are placed very close together1 and are nearly always superimposed4 ,this condition is found in the ,houdan and ,dorking breeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,posterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,which ,,it ,,should ,,occupy ,,if ,,the ,,animal ,,were ,a ,,plantigrade3 ,,left ,,limb1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 astragalus2 #c1 calcaneum2 #d1 metatarsus2 #e1 first phalanx2 #f1 second phalanx2 #g1 third phalanx4 ,in climbing birds 7parrots1 woodpeckers1 and toucans71 the innermost toe is not only directed backward1 but the external toe accompanies it in that direction2 consequently1 there are two posterior and two anterior toes4 ,sometimes they are all directed forwards2 this disposition is found in the martins4 ,in some birds1 the number of toes is reduced to three3 the cassowary shows this reduction2 in others1 the number is still further diminished--the ostrich1 for example1 has but two4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,bird 7,,the ,,cock73 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,metatarsus2 #b1 spur2 #c1 rudimentary metatarsal2 #d1 first toe2 #e1 second toe2 #f1 third toe2 #g1 fourth toe4 ,further1 we find that1 in general1 the number of the phalanges increases1 when we examine the toes in commencing with the most internal 7,fig4 #dh73 this has two2 then the following one three2 that which comes next in order has four2 and the most external toe has five4 ,the phalanges of this last are short2 so that1 although it is formed by a larger number of bones1 it is not the longest of the toes4 ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs ,,in ,,some ,,animals4 ,plantigrades3 ,bear 7,fig4 #cc1 p4 #ej74--,the external iliac fossa is very deep4 ,the femur is longer than the bones of the leg2 the great trochanter does not reach the level of the head of the femur4 ,the fibula is well developed2 it is united to the tibia at its superior and inferior extremities only4 ,the foot1 which1 as in the case of the hand1 rests on the ground by the whole extent of its plantar surface1 presents five toes2 the shortest of these is the internal--that is1 the toe which corresponds to the great-toe in man2 the third and fourth are the longest1 and they are almost equal2 there is a very slight difference in favour of the fourth1 which is slightly superior in dimensions to the third4 ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 ,dog 7,fig4 #cd1 p4 #eb74--,the external iliac fossa1 which looks outwards1 is deep2 the iliac crest is convex anteriorly1 the convexity is continued from one iliac spine to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,dog1 ,,seen ,,from ,,above4 #a1 ,iliac crest2 #b1 external iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diameter2 ,,bb'1 bi-ischial diameter4 ,in the dog1 the distance which separates the anterior iliac spines is less than that which separates the ischia 7,fig4 #di74 ,on a skeleton which we measured1 the transverse diameter1 the distance from the anterior iliac spine of one side to that of the opposite side1 was #h centimetres1 whilst the distance which separated the ischia was #aje millimetres2 on another skeleton1 the first measurement was #abg metres1 and the second was #adf millimetres4 ,it seems to us unnecessary to multiply examples4 ,in the cat1 the iliac spines are but slightly marked2 the result is that the iliac crest is almost confounded with the inferior and superior borders of the ilium4 ,the two diameters referred to above are almost equal 7,fig4 #ej74 ,we draw particular attention to what we have just noted in regard to the transverse proportions of the iliac and ischiatic regions of the dog and the cat4 ,these relations are evidently of importance with regard to shape1 since the iliac crests and the ischia are noticeable beneath the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,pelvis ,,of ,a ,,felide 7,,lion71 ,,viewed ,,from ,,above4 #a1 ,iliac crest2 #b1 external iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diameter2 ,,bb'1 bi-ischial diameter4 ,in the dog1 the shaft of the femur is slightly convex in front2 but in the cat it is straight4 ,the borders of the shaft are slightly marked1 so that it is almost cylindrical4 ,the linea aspera1 less prominent than in man1 gains in width what it loses in elevation2 it constitutes what may almost be called a rough surface4 ,this surface is narrower in its middle portion than at its extremities1 where it bifurcates to go upwards to the two trochanters1 and downwards to the two condyles4 ,at the superior extremity1 the neck is short1 the great trochanter reaching almost to the level of the head of the femur2 the digital cavity1 which is situated on the internal surface of the great trochanter1 is very deep4 ,at its inferior extremity it projects strongly backward4 ,the trochlea is narrow2 in the cat its two lips are equally prominent1 while in the dog the external is a little more elevated than the internal1 which on its part is a little thicker4 ,the trochlea is still more independent of the condyles than in the human femur2 it is separated from these latter by a slight constriction4 ,the knee-cap is long and narrow4 ,the tibia of the dog is slightly curved from before backward3 it has the form of an elongated ,s2 this conformation is in great part due to the very marked projection of the anterior tuberosity and of the superior portion of the crest1 which1 a little below that tuberosity1 turns abruptly backwards1 and thus describes a curve the concavity of which is directed forward4 ,the superior part of the external surface is very much hollowed out4 ,the superior extremity is much thicker than the inferior one4 ,it is not only wide in the transverse direction1 but is more especially extended from before backwards2 the prominence of the anterior tuberosity is the cause of the elongation of this antero-posterior diameter4 ,on the posterior part of the external tuberosity is found a surface to which the superior extremity of the fibula is applied4 ,the inferior extremity presents an articular surface1 which is formed of two lateral cavities1 separated by a crest1 which is directed obliquely forwards and outwards4 ,the internal part is prominent1 and forms the internal malleolus4 ,with regard to the fibula1 it is united to the tibia by its extremities and by the inferior half of its shaft4 ,this latter is more expanded below than in its upper part4 ,the superior extremity is flattened from without inwards4 ,the inferior extremity projects beyond the articular surface of the tibia1 and forms the external malleolus1 which1 instead of1 as in man1 descending further than the tibial malleolus1 stops at the same level1 and even descends a little less than does the latter4 ,in the cat1 the curve of the tibia is less pronounced2 this is due to the fact that the crest1 instead of being concave in its middle portion1 is slightly convex anteriorly4 ,the fibula1 less flattened than that of the dog1 is united to the tibia by its extremities only1 and is separate in the rest of its extent4 ,the bones of the tarsus are seven in number1 and arranged as in man1 with this difference 7which is easily comprehended71 that their general relations are changed on account of the vertical direction of the tarsus4 ,for example1 the astragalus1 instead of being above the calcaneum1 is situated in front of it2 the cuneiform bones1 instead of being situated in front of the scaphoid1 are found below it1 etc4 ,these animals have but four well-developed metatarsals2 that which corresponds to the great-toe is represented merely by a small style-shaped bone1 situate at the internal part of the region4 ,nevertheless1 we find this toe fully developed in some dogs4 ,notwithstanding this1 the bones which form it are1 however1 but rudimentary1 and much smaller than those of the innermost digit of the fore-limb4 ,sometimes it is double2 this condition is demonstrable in individuals belonging to breeds of large size4 ,the median metatarsals are more fully developed than the other bones of the same region which are next them4 ,viewed as a whole1 the metatarsal bones are a little longer than the metacarpals2 the result is that the distance which separates the tarsus from the ground is a little greater than that which separates the carpus from the plane on which the anterior limbs rest4 ,the length of the calcaneum still further exaggerates this difference1 and1 as in the animals with which we shall occupy ourselves later on1 the projection which this bone forms is distinctly higher than that which is produced by the pisiform4 ,the metatarsus1 as a whole1 is a little narrower than the metacarpus2 not only on account of the presence of a thumb in the anterior limb1 but1 further1 because the bones of this latter region are wider than those of the corresponding part of the posterior limb4 ,the phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior limbs4 ,unguligrades3 ,pig 7,fig4 #ch1 p4 #eh74--,the pelvis in this animal presents a few of the characters which we shall again meet with in the ruminants and the solipeds2 however1 the posterior 7or internal7 iliac spines are relatively more widely separated from one another than in the latter4 ,this arrangement reminds us of that found in the carnivora4 ,the femur presents nothing very special4 ,the knee-cap is thick1 and ovoid in outline4 ,the fibula is completely developed1 as in the carnivora2 and is connected with the tibia at both its extremities4 ,the tarsus consists of seven bones4 ,the astragalus and the calcaneum differ slightly from those of ruminants4 ,the foot1 like the hand1 has two median digits which rest on the ground by their third phalanges2 and an internal and an external digit1 which are removed from it4 ,the metatarsals are a little longer than the metacarpals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,iliac crest2 #b1 external iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diameter2 ,,bb'1 bi-ischiadic diameter4 ,unguligrades3 ,sheep1 ,ox 7,fig4 #ci1 p4 #fa74--,the pelvis of ruminants of this group closely resembles that of the horse1 which we will study later on 7see p4 #ii74 ,that which we must at once point out is that1 with regard to the ratio formed by a comparison of the bi-iliac and bi-ischiatic diameters1 it may be placed between the ratio obtained in comparing those diameters in the pelvis of the carnivora and that of the solipeds4 ,indeed1 in the ruminants1 the distance which separates the ischia exceeds the width of one iliac only1 and does not equal1 as in the felide1 the total width of the anterior part of the pelvis 7,fig4 #ea74 ,in the skeleton of the ox1 which forms part of the anatomical museum of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 the bi-ischiadic diameter is #ci centimetres1 whilst the width of one iliac crest is #bi centimetres1 so that1 in contrast to that which we find in the dog1 the width of the ischiadic region is less than that formed in front by the addition of the iliac crests4 ,the great trochanter is large1 and extends beyond the level of the plane in which the head of the femur is found4 ,in the ox1 the linea aspera1 instead of being a narrow crest1 is spread out1 and forms in reality a surface2 the posterior surface of the femur4 ,at the inferior and external part of this surface is situated a cavity which surmounts the corresponding condyle1 and is known as the supracondyloid fossa4 ,on the internal part of the same region there are a series of tubercles1 which1 because of their position in relation to the corresponding condyle1 constitute the supracondyloid crest4 ,the internal lip of the trochlea is much thicker and much more prominent than the external4 ,the details which we have just now examined in connection with the ox are less marked in the sheep4 ,the trochlea1 narrow as a whole1 is clearly separate from the condyles by a very marked constriction4 ,the patella1 which is thickened in the antero-posterior direction1 has the shape of a triangular pyramid with the base upwards4 ,its posterior surface1 which articulates with the trochlea1 presents an arrangement which is adapted to the disposition of this latter--that is to say1 the surface which is in contact with the internal lip is larger than that which articulates with the lip of the opposite side4 ,the tibia of the ox is proportionately shorter than that of the sheep4 ,the shaft of this bone is flattened from before backwards1 in its inferior half4 ,the median crest of the articular surface of the inferior extremity is the most prominent part of that region4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,tarsus ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,posterior ,,left ,,limb1 ,,antero-,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 coronoid bone of the tarsus2 #c1 superior articular surface of the astragalus2 #d1 inferior articular surface of the astragalus2 #e1 calcaneum2 #f1 cuboido-scaphoid bone2 #g1 great cuneiform bone--the small cuneiform bone is situated at the back of the latter2 #h1 principal metatarsal--the small1 or rudimentary1 metatarsal bone is very small2 it is situated at the back of the preceding1 and is not to be seen in the sketch4 ,it would be visible if the view were directly lateral1 but then the superior and inferior articular surfaces of the astragalus would be less apparent4 ,the fibula is extremely atrophied4 ,the shaft and superior extremity of this bone are represented merely by a simple ligamentous cord1 which is sometimes ossified4 ,there remains of the fibula1 as a portion well and distinctly developed1 the inferior extremity only4 ,this presents itself under the form of a small bone situated in the region ordinarily occupied by the inferior extremity of the outer bone of the leg--that is to say1 the external part of the inferior extremity of the tibia2 this little bone articulates with the astragalus and the calcaneum4 ,some authors consider it to be a tarsal bone1 and describe it under the name of the coronoid bone of the tarsus 7,fig4 #eb1 #b74 ,it is not1 perhaps1 quite legitimate to describe it as a bone of this region1 for it has not a homologue in the tarsus of other animals4 ,its external surface is rough2 its superior border is furnished with a small pointed process occupying a depression which is provided for it by the tibia4 ,it reaches lower down than the latter1 and forms in this way a sort of external malleolus1 which frames1 on the outer aspect1 the mortise in which the astragalus is maintained4 ,the tarsus1 as a whole1 has an elongated form2 it is formed of five bones3 the astragalus1 calcaneum1 cuboid and scaphoid1 which coalesce1 to form a single bone1 and two cuneiform bones1 which correspond to the second and third cuneiform bones of the human foot4 ,these cuneiforms are called1 from their size1 commencing internally1 by the names small and great cuneiform4 ,the calcaneum is long and narrow2 it is longer than that of the horse2 it is on the anterior and external part that the bone 7coronoid tarsal bone7 which represents the inferior extremity of the fibula is situated4 ,it forms the prominence known as the point of the ham1 a prominence which is no other than the heel1 which1 in the unguligrades1 is1 as we have already said1 very far removed from the ground4 ,the astragalus1 which is elongated in the vertical direction1 has three articular surfaces disposed in the form of trochleae3 a superior trochlea1 which is in contact with the skeleton of the leg1 and which is present in all animals2 an inferior1 which replaces the articular head found on the anterior aspect of the astragalus in man2 this articulates with the portion of the scaphoido-cuboid that corresponds to the scaphoid2 and1 lastly1 a posterior trochlea with which the calcaneum articulates4 ,of these three trochleae1 the superior is the most strongly marked4 ,between this latter and the inferior is found1 on the anterior surface of the astragalus1 a deep depression1 which1 during flexion of the foot on the leg1 receives a prominence which the inferior extremity of the tibia presents in its median portion4 ,we can easily recognise the trochleae which we have been discussing1 in the little bones which children use 'to play at bones'2 these bones are no other than the astragali of sheep4 ,we have already mentioned that the scaphoid and the cuboid are ankylosed2 they form by their union an irregular bone1 on which the astragalus and calcaneum are supported4 ,the cuneiforms articulate with the internal half of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal2 the external half of this metatarsal articulates with the portion of bone which represents the cuboid4 ,the metatarsus is represented by a principal metatarsal1 formed by the coalescence of two metatarsals2 we also find in this region a very small rudimentary metatarsal4 ,the metatarsus is a little longer than the metacarpus2 its transverse measurement is a little less2 on the other hand1 it is a little thicker in antero-posterior direction2 from these two differences it results that the body of the metatarsus is quadrilateral1 whereas the metacarpus presents only an anterior and a posterior surface4 ,the rudimentary metatarsal is a very small roundish bone1 situated at the back of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal4 ,the phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior limbs2 nevertheless1 the first and second phalanges differ from the latter in the fact that they are a little longer and narrower4 ,at the back of the metatarso-phalangeal articulations1 as in the corresponding region of the anterior limbs1 are found the sesamoid bones4 ,such also exist at the articulations of the second and third phalanges4 ,unguligrades3 ,horse 7,fig4 #dj1 p4 #fd74--,the pelvis of the horse presents a general form which sharply differentiates it from that of the carnivora2 in fact1 the ilium is twisted in such a way that the external iliac fossa does not look outwards1 but upwards4 ,it results from this twist that the anterior iliac spine1 which we have seen to be directed downwards in the carnivora1 has become external2 and this prominence is much farther removed from the vertebral column than in the dog or cat4 ,on the other hand1 the posterior iliac spine1 which is directed upwards in the carnivora1 has become internal2 it is also placed nearer to the vertebral column1 with the result that the distance which separates this spine from that of the bone of the opposite side is proportionately less4 ,the internal iliac spine1 which is conical in shape1 and curved upwards1 forms a prominence known as the angle of the crupper2 the external iliac spine1 thick and provided with tuberosities1 forms a clearly-defined prominence2 this is the angle of the haunch4 ,the iliac crest1 extending directly from one spine to the other1 is curved1 its concavity being turned upwards4 ,the external iliac fossa1 which looks upward1 is limited anteriorly by this crest1 and is1 like the latter1 slightly hollowed4 ,the portion of the bone which connects the ilium to the region occupied by the cotyloid cavity is extremely narrow2 posteriorly1 the bone enlarges again to form the ischial and pubic portions4 ,the tuberosity of the ischium1 thick and curved upwards1 but less so than in the ox1 forms the most prominent part of the posterior border of the region of the thigh2 this projecting portion1 so sharply defined in spare subjects1 is known as the point or angle of the buttock4 ,contrary to what we have indicated in the case of the dog1 the distance which separates the ischiatic tuberosities is inconsiderable in proportion to that which we find between the external iliac spine of one side and that of the opposite4 ,the bi-ischiatic diameter does not even equal the width of one iliac bone measured at the level of its crest 7,fig4 #ec74 ,on the skeleton of the horse in the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 the distance which separates the tuberosities of the ischia is #bbe millimetres2 that between the two spines of each iliac bone is #be centimetres4 ,the anterior region of the crupper is thus much broader than that occupied by the ischia4 ,the femur is relatively short4 ,its shaft is rectilinear1 and does not present the anterior convexity which is found on the human femur1 and which we indicated when discussing that of the dog4 ,the shaft of the bone1 instead of being prismatic and triangular1 presents four surfaces2 the anterior1 internal1 and external1 almost pass into each other1 being separated one from the other merely by rounded and slightly marked borders2 the posterior surface1 which is plane1 replaces the linea aspera1 which in the horse1 instead of presenting the appearance of a crest1 is considerably widened4 ,the numerous irregularities which this surface presents give insertion to the muscles which correspond to those attached to the linea aspera4 ,between this posterior surface and the external is found a rough prominence which curves forward2 this was designated by ,cuvier the third trochanter2 it replaces the external branch of the superior line of bifurcation of the linea aspera2 other authors call it the infratrochanteric crest1 because it is situated below the great trochanter4 ,at the inferior part of the same region is found a deep fossa1 the borders of which are rough2 this is the supracondyloid fossa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #ec4--,,pelvis ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,superior ,,surface4 #a1 ,iliac crest2 #b1 external iliac fossa2 #c1 sacrum2 ,,aa'1 bi-iliac diameter2 ,,bb'1 bi-ischiatic diameter4 ,between the posterior surface and the internal are found3 above1 the lesser trochanter1 which is long and rough2 below1 at the level of the supracondyloid fossa1 an equally rough surface known by the name of the supracondyloid crest4 ,the superior extremity is flattened from before backwards4 ,the neck is not well marked4 ,the great trochanter is very prominent1 and projects beyond the level of the head of the femur4 ,we divide the great trochanter into three parts3 the summit1 which is the most elevated portion2 the convexity1 which is situated in front2 and the crest1 formed by muscular impressions1 situated outside and below the convexity4 ,the digital fossa is situated behind and below the summit of the great trochanter4 ,with regard to the lesser trochanter1 it is placed so far down that it really forms part of the shaft of the bone1 with which1 besides1 we have described it4 ,on the inferior extremity of the femur are two condyles and a trochlea2 the condyles are clearly separated from this latter by a marked constriction4 ,the trochlea is directed with a slight obliquity downwards and inwards2 its internal lip is much thicker and more prominent than the external2 this is1 accordingly1 a condition exactly the opposite of that which characterizes the corresponding region of the human femur4 ,the knee-cap is lozenge-shaped2 its superior angle projects upward1 and produces a prominence at the part which corresponds to the base of the human patella1 the part which is here the thickest portion of the bone4 ,its anterior surface is convex and rough4 ,its posterior surface presents two lateral articular facets1 separated by a crest2 this surface is in contact with the trochlea of the femur1 and1 as it is the internal lip of the latter which is the more developed1 it results therefrom that the internal articular surface of the knee-cap is larger than the external4 ,the knee-cap contributes to the formation of the region of the posterior limb which is called the stifle4 ,the tibia is large in its upper portion2 in its inferior part it is flattened from before backwards4 ,the posterior surface of the shaft presents an oblique line1 below which are found vertical rough lines for the insertion of muscles4 ,the external surface is hollowed out in its upper part4 ,the anterior tuberosity of the tibia rises just to the level of the flat articular surface2 it is hollowed in its median portion by a vertical groove of elongated form1 which receives the ligament that binds the knee-cap to the tibia4 ,the external tuberosity is more prominent than the internal2 in it is found a groove for the passage of the anterior tibial muscle4 ,the inferior extremity1 flattened from before backwards1 presents a surface which is moulded on the trochlea of the astragalus2 the median crest of this surface is thick1 and descends lower posteriorly than the tuberosities which are situated on the external and internal aspects of this extremity4 ,of the two tuberosities1 that which is internal is comparable to the internal malleolus of man1 the one on the outer side forms a sort of external malleolus2 but this latter here belongs to the tibia1 and not to the fibula4 ,the fibula1 in fact1 does not reach the inferior extremity of the tibia2 it is a poorly developed bone1 elongated and terminating inferiorly in a point1 at the middle of the shaft of the tibia or at its lower third4 ,its superior extremity1 which is slightly expanded1 articulates with the tuberosity which occupies the outer aspect of the corresponding extremity of the tibia4 ,the bones of the tarsus are six in number3 the calcaneum and astragalus form the upper row2 the cuboid1 scaphoid1 and two cuneiforms form the lower 7,fig4 #ed74 ,the astragalus has not1 as in ruminants1 an inferior trochlea for articulation with the scaphoid2 this portion of the bone presents a surface which is slightly convex4 ,it articulates with the tibia by a trochlea that occupies not only the superior surface1 but also the anterior4 ,this trochlea1 which is directed slightly obliquely downwards and outwards1 has a very pronounced form2 its lips1 which are extremely prominent1 determine by their anterior part one of the features which we recognise on the anterior aspect of the ham--a feature which is still more accentuated when the metatarsus 7canon7 is extended on the leg4 ,on the internal surface of the astragalus is found a tubercle1 which forms a projection in the corresponding region of the ham4 ,the calcaneum1 which is not quite so long as that of the ox1 forms by its summit a prominence which is called the point of the ham4 ,the cuboid is small2 the scaphoid is large1 and flattened from above downwards4 ,of the two cuneiforms1 the more external is the larger2 it closely resembles the scaphoid2 it is flattened from above downwards as is the latter2 but it is a little smaller in size4 ,the small cuneiform1 which occupies the inner side of the tarsus1 is the smallest bone in this region2 it is sometimes divided into two parts2 this raises the number of the cuneiforms to three1 and that of the bones of the tarsus to seven4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,tarsus ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,anterior ,,surface4 #a1 ,tibia2 #b1 internal tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia 7homologue of the internal malleolus of man72 #c1 external tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia 7homologue of the external malleolus72 #d1 median crest lodged in the groove of the pulley of the astragalus2 #e1 pulley of the astragalus2 #f1 internal tuberosity of the astragalus2 #g1 calcaneum2 #h1 cuboid2 #i1 scaphoid2 #aj1 great cuneiform1 the small cuneiform is placed behind this latter2 #aa1 principal metatarsal2 #ab1 external rudimentary metatarsal4 ,the internal rudimentary metatarsal1 being more slender than the external1 does not appear in the figure4 ,the bones of the metatarsus and the phalanges are equal in number to the corresponding bones in the anterior limbs2 they are formed on a type analogous to that of these latter4 ,accordingly1 we shall merely indicate the differences which characterize them4 ,the principal metatarsal is longer than the metacarpal of the same class2 its shaft is more cylindrical2 its inferior extremity is somewhat thicker4 ,the external rudimentary metatarsal is better developed than the internal2 in the metacarpus the reverse is the case4 ,the phalanges so far resemble those of the anterior limb that1 as differential characters1 we need point out only the following3 the first phalanx of the hind-foot is a little shorter than that of the fore-foot2 its inferior extremity is a little narrower1 and its superior extremity a little thicker4 ,the second phalanx is a little less expanded laterally4 ,the difference in appearance which the three phalanges1 anterior and posterior1 respectively present are to be borne in mind2 for they are correlated to the general form of the fore and hind feet4 ,we will establish this point when we come to study the hoof 7see ,figs4 #aja and #ajb1 p4 #beg74 ,in the fore-foot the ungual phalanx has its inferior surface limited externally by a circular border1 while the same bone of the hind-foot has this surface a little narrower1 more concave1 and limited by two curved borders which unite anteriorly to form an angle--an arrangement which gives to the general outline of this region the form of the letter ,v4 ,articulations of the ,posterior ,limbs ,the ,coxo-femoral ,articulation4--,the head of the femur is received in the cotyloid cavity2 these are the osseous surfaces in contact in this articulation4 ,they are maintained in position by a fibrous capsule and a round ligament4 ,to this latter is found attached1 in the horse1 a fasciculus which1 commencing1 as does the round ligament1 at the depression on the head of the femur1 emerges from the cotyloid cavity by the notch which is present in its circumference1 and is attached to the anterior border of the pubes1 to blend with the tendon of the rectus muscle of the abdomen4 ,this is the pubio-femoral ligament4 ,the movements which this joint permits are the same in the quadrupeds as in man1 but less extensive4 ,they are3 flexion and extension1 abduction and adduction1 the two latter being much more limited than the former4 ,there is also rotation4 ,by flexion1 the inferior extremity of the femur is directed forwards2 the bone of the thigh then takes a more oblique direction than the normal4 ,this movement takes place1 for example1 when the animal carries forward one of its hinder limbs4 ,extension1 which takes place in an inverse sense1 is produced when the foot is fixed on the ground1 while the body is projected forward4 ,it is also produced in the action of kicking4 ,as for the lateral movements--viz41 abduction and adduction--they are less extensive than the preceding movements4 ,the absence of the pubio-femoral ligament in other quadrupeds than the horse explains why in them abduction is less limited than in the latter4 ,indeed1 it is the tension of this ligament1 occasioned by the abduction of the thighs1 which arrests more quickly the movement in question4 ,articulation of the ,knee4--,this articulation1 as in man1 is formed by the femur1 the patella1 and the tibia4 ,in the horse the ligament of the patella is not single1 but consists of three parts1 designated1 on account of their position1 by the respective names of external1 internal1 and median patellar ligaments4 ,the two former come from the angles on the corresponding borders of the knee-cap2 the median springs from the anterior surface and inferior angle of the same bone4 ,they all three pass to their termination on the anterior tubercle of the tibia4 ,the external ligament is the strongest1 and the internal ligament the least developed4 ,in the dog1 the cat1 the pig1 and the sheep1 the patellar ligament consists of a single band4 ,the articulation is further strengthened on the sides by lateral ligaments--an internal and an external4 ,with regard to the principal movements1 these are flexion and extension1 to which may be added movements of rotation of limited extent4 ,in flexion1 the leg bends on the thigh2 its inferior extremity is directed upwards and backwards2 the angle which the tibia naturally forms with the femur becomes less obtuse4 ,but it should be understood that one part of this description--that which has relation to the leg--holds good only when the femur is in its normal condition1 or in flexion4 ,indeed1 at the close of the movement in which1 during a step1 the foot is in contact with the ground--that is1 at the termination of the resting stage--the inferior extremity of the tibia is directed backwards4 ,but the femur is then in a state of extension1 and in regard to this latter the attitude of the leg is unchanged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,leg3 ,,right ,,posterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,external ,,surface4 7,,after ,a ,,chronographic ,,study ,,by ,,professor ,,marey47 ,at this moment1 notwithstanding the direction1 which recalls that which it has at the time of flexion1 the leg is not bent on the thigh2 on the contrary1 it is almost in the line of its continuation 7,fig4 #ee74 ,as we have done in connection with the articulations of the anterior limbs1 we borrow this figure from the interesting chronophotographic studies of ,professor ,marey4#ag #ag ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 ',analysis of the ,movements of the ,horse by the ,chronophotograph' 7,la ,nature1 ,june #aa1 #ahih74 ,the ,tibio-tarsal ,articulation and of the ,bones of the ,tarsus4--,in the region which veterinary anatomists call the ham1 the articulations of the leg and foot alone call for special study in the case of the horse4 ,the articulations of the bones of the tarsus1 and of these with the metatarsus1 do not offer any interest with regard to mobility1 this being almost wholly absent at that level4 ,the leg and the astragalus1 in a general way1 are placed in contact by such articular surfaces that the resulting joint1 which is a true hinge1 permits movements of flexion and extension only4 ,indeed1 as we have indicated above1 the tibia is furnished1 on the inferior surface1 with a crest that fits into the deep groove which is situated on the corresponding surface of the astragalus4 ,during flexion1 the anterior surface of the foot tends to approach the anterior surface of the leg1 the angle formed by these two segments becoming more and more narrowed4 ,the displacement in the opposite direction characterizes extension4 ,in other quadrupeds1 the articulations which bind together the bones of the tarsus possess a little more freedom of movement4 ,the shape of these bones1 and particularly the shape of the surfaces of the astragalus1 which are in contact with them1 allow movements in this region1 in the case of the dog and cat1 which1 without being so extensive as those of the human foot1 in the subastragaloid articulation1 nevertheless1 recall the mobility which we find in the human species at this level--that is to say1 rotation1 abduction1 and adduction of the foot4 ,as for the articulations of the metatarsus with the phalanges1 and of the phalanges with one another1 they resemble those of the anterior limb too closely that it should be necessary to study them here4 ,such a study would be1 in this case1 but a repetition 7see p4 #gf1 a description of the articulations in question74 ,,the ,,head ,,in ,,general1 ,,and ,,in ,,some ,,animals ,,in ,,particular ,when we compare1 by the examination of one of their lateral aspects1 the skull of man and the same region in other mammals1 it is easy to observe that the relative development of the cranium and face is entirely different4 ,in the case of man the cranium is large1 and the face relatively small2 in animals the face is proportionally much more highly developed4 ,the measure of the facial angle permits us to note these differences1 and the figures relative to the value of this angle are sufficiently demonstrative to induce us to indicate those which are1 in a general way1 connected with some of the forms in individuals which here occupy our attention4 ,in the first place1 we must remember that the angle in question is more acute1 as the cranium is less developed in proportion to the facial region 7,figs4 #ef and #eg74 ,it is especially to this character that we wish to draw attention4 ,man #gj deg4-#hj deg4 ,cat #da deg4 ,dog #bh deg4-#da deg4 ,sheep #bj deg4-#be deg4 ,ox #ah deg4-#bj deg4 ,ass #ab deg4-#af deg4 ,horse #aa deg4-#ac deg4 ,besides1 in animals the cranium is very prominent superiorly1 and the face1 more or less elongated1 is sharply projected downwards and forwards2 in man the cranial region occupies not only the superior1 but also the posterior part2 the face is short and of a compact form4 ,the human head1 in its general aspect1 may be compared to a sphere1 while the skull of the quadrupeds presents the aspect of a quadrangular pyramid1 with the base turned upwards and the summit at the incisor teeth4 ,direction of the ,head4--,before entering on the study of the bones of the head1 it is necessary1 in our opinion1 to agree as to the position in which we shall suppose it to be placed4 ,the question may seem to be one of little importance2 nevertheless1 it cannot be regarded as indifferent1 since authors are not all agreed on this subject4 ,some suppose it to be placed vertically--that is1 with the incisor teeth turned directly downwards4 ,others1 on the contrary1 suppose it to be placed horizontally1 resting on the whole length of the lower jaw1 the face being then turned upwards4 ,these two extreme methods of arrangement appear to us to possess inconveniences--at least1 for comparison with the human head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,human ,,skull3 ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,camper4 ,,angle ,,bac #hj deg4 ,the internal wall of the cranial cavity is marked by the dotted line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,facial ,,angle ,,by ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,camper4#ah ,,angle ,,bac #ac deg4 ,the internal wall of the cranial cavity is shown by the dotted line4 #ah ,we have indicated on this sketch of the skull of the horse the facial angle measured by the method of ,camper1 in order that the correspondence with ,fig4 #ef may be more complete4 ,but it is certain that the procedure here employed is in practice not satisfactory1 since the apex of the angle1 as we can demonstrate1 is found to be situated within the contour of the head1 and that1 consequently1 it is rather difficult to localize it precisely in the case of a given skeleton4 ,further1 because of the absence of the base of the nose in the complete skull1 the auriculo-nasal line cannot be accurately fixed4 ,it would be the same for most other animals4 ,this is why the method employed for these latter is preferably that of ,cuvier1 or1 again1 that of ,cloquet4 ,in the former1 the apex of the angle of ,camper is transferred to the free border of the upper incisors1 but these teeth may be absent1 and1 on the other hand1 ruminants are destitute of them4 ,in the second1 the same apex is placed at the alveolar border1 and the angle then becomes fairly easy to appreciate4 ,indeed1 if1 when the head is vertical1 the same regions of the face 7forehead1 nose7 are1 in the case of animals as well as man1 turned forward1 the lower jaw ceases to merit its appellation1 as it is then situated1 not below1 but behind the upper4 ,furthermore1 if this position is chosen1 for example1 for modelling or drawing1 it cannot be obtained without difficulty when we have to deal with an isolated piece of the skeleton1 on account of the absence of equilibrium1 which it is necessary to obviate4 ,it is true that the question of convenience should not take precedence of all others1 and it suffices for us in this connection to recall1 in regard to the human pelvis1 that1 although the older anatomists used to represent it as resting commodiously on the three angles which terminate it at its lower part 7ischial tuberosities and coccyx71 this attitude being false1 it is customary now to incline the superior aspect forwards1 inasmuch as this arrangement more nearly conforms to reality1 in spite of the fact that it is a little more difficult so to dispose an isolated pelvis4 ,further1 to return to the head2 if its vertical direction can be demonstrated1 for example1 in many horses1 it is not sufficiently general to be adopted as the classic position4 ,in regard to the facility of placing in position1 the horizontal direction is certainly to be preferred2 but this is also far removed from the natural position in the animal while in the state of repose4 ,on the other hand1 the mind is not satisfied with the idea that certain regions of the face1 such as the nose and the forehead1 are then directed upwards4 ,and yet it is necessary to come to a decision1 seeing that what we are now investigating applies also to the position to which it is necessary to give the preference in placing the skeleton of the head when we wish to draw it in profile4 ,that which we adopt is a compromise1 but to us it seems more rational4 ,the position of the head of the horse1 to be normal1 should be such as to give it an inclination of #de deg4 ,in this case the lower jaw is still posterior2 and1 for this reason1 we see in adopting this position some inconveniences from a didactic point of view4 ,accordingly1 we will suppose the head brought a little nearer to the horizontal1 and this1 from the imaginative point of view1 has certainly an advantage which we cannot afford to neglect when addressing artists4 ,indeed1 let us suppose that to a clay model of a human head we wish to give the aspect of the head of a quadruped4 ,we should elevate the occiput2 and then1 taking hold of the lower part of the face1 we should lengthen it1 not in a direction precisely antero-posterior1 but downwards and forwards4 ,it is obviously this latter procedure which1 on the other hand1 is carried out when a person wishes to give to his own face some resemblance to the muzzle of a quadruped4 ,it is true that1 in the position we have adopted1 the face is directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 and that there may result a certain confusion in describing the position of its different parts4 ,on this account1 with the object of not making complications1 we purpose1 for the present1 to substitute1 for example1 for the term 'antero-superior'--which when speaking of the position of the forehead and nose would be more exact--the term 'anterior1' which is sufficiently comprehensible4 ,the mouth will be1 for the same reason1 referred to as being situated at the inferior part of the face1 and not the antero-inferior4 ,the ,skull4--,the elevation of the cranial region becomes especially appreciable when we examine the occipital bone4 ,before verifying this fact1 it is not superfluous to recall the general arrangement which this bone presents in the human skull4 ,a portion of the occipital bone occupies the base of the skull2 but this base in man is horizontal2 to this region succeeds the shell-shaped portion of the occipital bone1 which1 passing vertically upwards1 forms with the preceding portion an angle situated at the level of the external occipital protuberance1 and of the curved line which starts from it on each side4 ,in animals a portion of the occipital bone is horizontal1 it is true2 but this bone being sharply bent at the level of the occipital foramen and condyles1 the result is that the portion which surmounts these latter looks backwards1 and is limited above by the external occipital protuberance1 which forms the culminating point of the skull2 this point is situated between the ears4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,skull ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,felidae 7,,jaguar73 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,posterior surface of the occipital bone2 #b1 external occipital protuberance2 #c1 condyle of the occipital bone2 #d1 jugular process2 #e1 parietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 squamous portion of the temporal bone2 #aj1 external auditory canal1 in front of which is situated the zygomatic process2 #aa1 tympanic bulla2 #ab1 superior maxillary bone2 #ac1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #ad1 nasal bone2 #ae1 anterior orifice of the nasal cavity2 #af1 malar bone2 #ag1 ungual or lachrymal bone2 #ah1 inferior maxillary bone2 #ai1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #bj1 coronoid process2 #ba1 incisor teeth2 #bb1 canine teeth2 #bc1 molar teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,lion3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 ,this figure is intended to show that in the lion the contour of the face between the nasal bones and the cranial region is more flattened than in other felidae1 such as the tiger1 jaguar1 panther1 and domestic cat4 ,this difference is shown by comparison of this figure with the preceding one 7,fig4 #eh74 ,we are indebted to ,m4 ,tramond1 the well-known naturalist1 for the indication of this differential character which1 from the artistic plastic point of view1 is one of real interest4 ,this protuberance1 prolonged on each side by the superior curved line of the occipital bone1 is so much the more prominent as this bone bends sharply a second time1 so as to form a third portion1 which1 looking forwards1 forms part of the anterior aspect of the skull1 and proceeds to articulate with the parietals4 ,on this third portion is found a crest which1 proceeding from the occipital protuberance1 is continuous in front with the parietal crests1 to which we will again refer in speaking of the parietal bones4 ,on the inferior surface of the human occipital bone are found1 at the level of1 and external to1 the condyles two bony elevations which bear the name of jugular eminences4 ,they are long in quadrupeds1 and constitute what are designated by some authors the styloid processes1 but they must not be confounded with the processes of the same name which in the case of man form part of the temporal bone4 ,these processes are very highly developed in the pig1 horse1 ox1 and sheep4 ,in the ox1 the occipital bone is deprived of the protuberance1 and is not bent on itself in the anterior portion1 neither does it form the most salient part of the skull2 this latter1 which is situated at the level of the horns1 belongs to the frontal bone4 ,in the pig1 also1 the occipital bone is not bent upon itself in its anterior portion1 but forms the summit of the head4 ,the occipital protuberance1 hollowed on its posterior surface1 rises vertically1 and rests upon the parietal bone1 with which it forms an acute angle4 ,the parietals1 two separate bones in the dog and the cat1 but fused in the median line in the ox1 sheep1 and horse1 are of special interest in regard to the two crests which1 in the carnivora1 and also in the pig and the horse1 occupy their external surface1 and1 after diverging from one another1 are continued by a crest which crosses the frontal bone and ends at the external orbital process of the latter bone4 ,these crests1 known as the parietal or temporal crests1 recall both in position and relations the temporal curved line of the parietal bone of man4 ,they contribute1 as in the case of the latter1 to the formation of the boundaries of the temporal fossa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,posterior surface of the occipital bone2 #b1 external occipital protuberance2 #c1 occipital condyle2 #d1 jugular process2 #e1 parietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 external auditory canal1 in front of which is found the zygomatic process2 #aj1 tympanic bulla2 #aa1 superior maxillary bone2 #ab1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal fossae2 #ae1 malar bone2 #af1 lachrymal bone2 #ag1 inferior maxillary bone2 #ah1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #ai1 coronoid process2 #bj1 incisor teeth2 #ba1 canine teeth2 #bb1 molar teeth4 ,in the carnivora1 these crests are situated1 throughout their whole length1 in the median line1 the temporal fossae being1 accordingly1 as extended as they possibly can be4 ,in certain species1 the development of these crests is such that they form by their union a vertical plate1 which1 in separating the two temporal fossae1 gives them a greater depth4 ,in the pig1 the parietal crests1 analogous in this respect to the temporal curved lines of the parietal bones of man1 are separated by an interval1 proportionately less extended1 however1 than that of the human skull4 ,the parietal bone in the ox and the sheep does not enter into the formation of the anterior surface of the skull2 it is formed by an osseous plate1 narrow and elongated transversely1 which1 with the occipital bone1 constitutes the base of the region of the nape of the neck4 ,it is bent upon itself at the level of its lateral portions so as to occupy the temporal fossa4 ,the anterior surface of the frontal bone1 which is depressed in the median line in the dog1 but plane in the horse1 is limited by two crests1 which1 situated on the prolongation of the parietal crests1 diverge more and more from one another in proportion as they occupy a lower position4 ,this surface terminates externally in two processes1 which are the homologues of the external orbital processes of the human frontal bone4 ,the superior border of these orbital processes1 situated on the prolongation of the corresponding parietal crests1 contributes to limit the temporal fossa4 ,each of these orbital processes terminates in the following manner3 ,in the bear1 dog1 cat1 and pig1 in which the orbital cavities are incompletely bounded by bone1 this process1 slightly developed1 is not in connection1 by its inferior extremity1 with any other part of the skeleton of the region4 ,in the ox and the sheep1 it articulates with a process of the malar bone4 ,in the horse1 it articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone4 ,the inferior margin of this process forms a part of the boundary of the anterior opening of the orbital cavity4 ,the supra-orbital foramen1 which does not exist in carnivora1 occupies in the horse the base of the orbital process4 ,in the ox1 it is situated a little nearer the middle line2 and its anterior orifice opens into an osseous gutter which is directed upwards towards the base of the horn1 while inferiorly it meets the inferior border of the frontal bone2 in the sheep this groove is but slightly developed4 ,in this latter1 as in the ox1 it is the frontal bone which forms the most elevated portion of the skull4 ,in fact1 being bent upon itself at a certain level1 its external surface is formed of two planes3 one1 posterior1 which is inclined downwards and directed backwards2 the other1 anterior1 is also inclined downwards1 but with a forward obliquity4 ,at the union of these planes the bone forms an elbow1 on either side of which are found the osseous processes on which the horns are mounted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,pig3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,occipital bone2 #b1 condyle of the occipital2 #c1 jugular process2 #d1 parietal bone2 #e1 parietal crests2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital process2 #h1 orbital cavity2 #i1 external auditory canal2 #aj1 zygomatic process2 #aa1 superior maxillary bone2 #ab1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossae2 #ae1 malar bone2 #af1 lachrymal bone2 #ag1 inferior maxillary bone2 #ah1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #ai1 incisor teeth2 #bj1 canine teeth2 #ba1 molar teeth4 ,in the bear1 the anterior margin of the frontal bone is prolonged by two small tongues of bone1 which1 descending on the lateral borders of the nasal bones1 articulate with the superior half of the latter4 ,the temporal bone is1 as in man1 furnished with a squamous portion1 from which springs the zygomatic process1 which is directed towards the face1 to terminate in the following manner3 in the carnivora1 the pig1 and ruminants1 it articulates with the malar bone by its inferior border2 in the horse1 it insinuates itself as a sort of wedge between the malar bone and the orbital process of the frontal bone1 with which it articulates1 as we have already pointed out1 and contributes1 by a portion situated in front of this articulation1 to form the boundary of the anterior opening of the corresponding orbital cavity4 ,as in man1 the zygomatic process arises by two roots3 one1 transverse1 behind which is situated the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone2 the other1 antero-posterior1 which proceeds to join above with the superior curved line of the occipital bone4 ,behind the glenoid cavity is found the external auditory canal1 and1 further back still1 the mastoid process4 ,this latter1 but slightly developed in the carnivora1 a little more so in the ruminants1 and still more in the horse1 has its external surface traversed by a crest1 the mastoid crest1 which1 after becoming blended with the antero-posterior root of the zygomatic process1 proceeds with this latter to join the superior occipital curved line4 ,below the auditory canal is situated a round prominence1 highly developed in carnivora2 this is the tympanic bulla1 also called the mastoid protuberance2 it is an appendage of the tympanum4 ,the ,face ,the bone of this region1 around which all the others come to be grouped1 is1 as in man1 the superior maxillary4 ,the relations of this maxillary with the neighbouring bones is not exactly the same in all animals2 for example1 in the ox1 sheep1 and horse1 in which the bones of the nose are wide in their upper part1 and in which the lachrymal bone1 which is very highly developed1 encroaches on the face1 the superior maxillary does not meet the frontal bone2 it is separated from it by the above-named bones4 ,it unites with it1 on the other hand1 in the dog and the cat4 ,in the bear1 it is separated from the bones of the nose by a small tongue of bone which springs from the anterior border of the frontal--a process which we have noticed in connection with this latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,occipital condyle2 #b1 jugular process2 #c1 parietal bone2 #d1 frontal bone2 #e1 osseous process1 which serves to support the horn 7horn-core72 #f1 orbital cavity2 #g1 external auditory canal1 in front of which is found the zygomatic process2 #h1 temporal fossa2 #i1 superior maxillary bone2 #aj1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #aa1 nasal bone2 #ab1 anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossae2 #ac1 malar bone2 #ad1 lachrymal bone2 #ae1 inferior maxillary bone2 #af1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #ag1 incisor teeth2 #ah1 molar teeth4 ,in the pig1 ox1 sheep1 and horse1 the external surface is traversed1 to a greater or less extent1 by a crest which is situated on the prolongation of the inferior border of the malar bone4 ,this crest1 which is straight in the horse1 but curved with its convexity upwards in the ox and the sheep1 is known as the maxillary spine or the malar tuberosity3 it gives attachment to the masseter muscle1 and1 in the horse1 is distinctly visible under the skin4 ,it does not exist in the carnivora4 ,on the same surface is situated the sub-orbital foramen4 ,the inferior border is hollowed out into alveoli1 in which are implanted the superior molar and canine teeth4 ,this border is prolonged forwards from the alveolus1 which corresponds to the first molar tooth1 to terminate1 after a course more or less prolonged1 at the alveolus of the canine4 ,this space1 more or less considerably expanded1 which thus separates these teeth is called the interdental space2 but this denomination is not applicable to ruminants1 because these latter possess neither canine nor incisor teeth in the upper jaw 7see p4 #abe1 dentition of the ox and sheep74 ,the superior maxillary bone of one side and that of the opposite side do not meet in the median line in the region which corresponds to the incisor teeth2 they are separated by a bone which1 in the human species1 is present only at the commencement of life1 and afterwards coalesces with the maxilla2 this is the intermaxillary or incisor bone4 ,this bone1 which is paired1 is formed of a central part1 which bears the superior incisor teeth2 it is prolonged upwards and backwards by two processes3 one1 external1 which insinuates itself between the superior maxillary and the nasal bone1 except in the sheep1 in which it remains widely separated from the latter2 the other1 internal1 which is united to that which belongs to the bone of the opposite side to form part of the floor of the cavity of the nasal fossae2 the external border of this process1 which is separated from the body of the bone by a notch1 forms the internal boundary of the corresponding incisor opening or the incisor slit4 ,owing to the absence of superior incisors in ruminants1 the intermaxillary bone presents no alveoli4 ,the malar bone1 and the os unguis or lachrymal1 are more or less developed according to the species considered4 ,with regard to the malar bone1 it is most important to notice the part which it takes in the formation of the zygomatic arch1 and that its inferior border contributes to form the crest to which is attached the masseter muscle4 ,as for the nasal bones1 they present differential characters which1 as they affect the form of the region which they occupy1 are worthy of notice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,posterior surface of the occipital bone2 #b1 external occipital protuberance2 #c1 occipital condyle2 #d1 jugular process2 #e1 parietal bone2 #f1 frontal bone2 #g1 orbital cavity2 #h1 zygomatic process of the temporal bone2 #i1 external auditory canal2 #aj1 mastoid process2 #aa1 superior maxillary bone or maxilla2 #ab1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #ac1 nasal bone2 #ad1 anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossae2 #ad'1 malar bone2 #ae1 lachrymal bone2 #af1 inferior maxillary bone or mandible2 #ag1 inferior maxillary fissure2 #ah1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #ai1 coronoid process of the inferior maxillary bone2 #bj1 incisor teeth2 #ba1 canine teeth2 #bb1 molar teeth4 ,their dimensions in length are proportional to those of the face4 ,very small in man1 they are more developed in carnivora4 ,we recognise in the latter the two curves which characterize them in the human species1 and which we clearly notice when we view them on one of their lateral aspects3 a concavity above1 and a convexity below4 ,these curves are more or less accentuated--very strongly marked in the bulldog1 and scarcely at all in the greyhound4 ,moreover1 in the carnivora also the nasal bones are wider below than above1 and form1 by their junction1 a semicircular notch which limits1 in its superior portion1 the anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal fossae4 ,in the horse they present an opposite arrangement with regard to their dimensions in width2 broad above1 each terminates below by forming a pointed process which1 separated from the intermaxillary bones1 is prolonged in front of the nasal orifice4 ,the inferior maxillary bone is1 as in man1 formed of a body and two branches4 ,but among the many special characteristics of form and size which sharply differentiate it from the human bone1 one detail must be indicated2 this is the absence of a mental prominence4 ,hence it results that the anterior border of the body of the lower jaw1 instead of being directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 is1 on the contrary1 oblique downwards and backwards1 and that in certain animals this border is actually found almost exactly on the prolongation of the inferior border of the body of the bone4 ,on the external surface of the body are found the three mental foramina4 ,the superior border is hollowed out by alveoli4 ,with regard to the branches 7rami71 they terminate in two processes3 one1 the posterior1 is the condyle2 the other1 situated more forwards1 is the coronoid process1 which gives insertion to the temporal muscle4 ,these two processes are separated by the sigmoid notch4 ,for reasons which we will explain further on 7see p4 #abg1 movements of the lower jaw71 the condyle presents differences of form4 ,in the carnivora1 it is strongly convex from before backwards1 expanded transversely1 and firmly mortised in the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone2 in the ruminants1 it is less convex from before backwards1 it is more slightly concave in the transverse direction2 in the rodents--we give as an example the hare 7,fig4 #fd7--the condyle is still convex from before backwards1 but it is flattened from without inwards4 ,in the animals in which the muscles of mastication are very highly developed1 and especially in the carnivora1 the osseous regions occupied by these muscles are more extensive and more deep than in the human species4 ,the length of the coronoid process1 the depth of the temporal fossa1 the extent of the zygomatic arch1 the appearance of the external surface of each of the rami of the lower jaw1 deeply hollowed out for accommodation of the masseter1 and to provide extensive surfaces of insertion for this muscle1 are sure proofs furnished by the skeleton of the occasionally enormous development of the muscles of mastication4 ,in the carnivora1 a rather strong process1 which is directed backwards1 occupies the angle of the inferior maxilla2 it is1 accordingly1 situated below the region of the condyle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,hare3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,aspect4 #a1 ,external occipital protuberance2 #b1 occipital condyle2 #c1 parietal bone2 #d1 frontal bone2 #e1 orbital process2 #f1 orbital cavity2 #g1 zygomatic process2 #h1 external auditory canal2 #i1 superior maxillary bone2 #aj1 intermaxillary or incisor bone2 #aa1 nasal bone2 #ab1 anterior opening of the nasal fossa2 #ac1 malar bone2 #ad1 inferior maxillary bone2 #ae1 condyle of the inferior maxillary bone2 #af1 incisor teeth2 #ag1 molar teeth4 ,the teeth which the jaws carry vary in number1 and even in appearance1 according to species2 it is useful to note their differences4 ,in order to establish the nature of these latter more effectively1 we will first recall the fact that in man the teeth1 thirty-two in number1 are equally distributed between the jaws1 and are divided into incisors1 canines1 and molars1 of which the arrangement is thus formulated3 #em4 #a;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #a;c4 #em4 ---------------------------------------- #cb4ai #em4 #a;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #a;c4 #em4 #ai ,i4e41 i1 incisors2 c1 canines2 m1 molars4 ,we also note that the incisors are edged1 the canines are pointed1 and that the molars1 cubical in shape1 have their surface of contact provided with tubercles4 ,the teeth of the cat are thirty in number2 they are thus arranged3 #dm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #dm4 ---------------------------------------- #cj4 #cm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #cm4 ,those of the dog number forty-two3 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #db4 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ,in these animals1 the incisors1 such as are not damaged by use1 are furnished1 on the free border of their crown1 with three tubercles1 of which one1 the median1 is more developed than those which are situated laterally4 ,we denote these teeth1 commencing with those nearest the median line1 by the names central incisors or nippers1 intermediate and corner incisors4 ,the canines1 or fangs1 are long and conical2 they are curved backwards and outwards4 ,the upper canines1 which are larger than those of the lower jaw1 are separated from the most external of the incisors 7corner7 by an interval in which the canines of the lower jaw are received4 ,the lower canines1 on the other hand1 are in contact with the neighbouring incisors1 and are each separated from the first molar which succeeds them by a wider interval than that which is situated between the corresponding teeth in the upper jaw4 ,the molars differ essentially from the teeth of the same class in the human species4 ,their crown terminates in a cutting border bristling with sharp-pointed projections2 this formation indicates that these teeth are principally designed for tearing4 ,during the movement of raising the lower jaw1 which is so energetic in the carnivora1 they act1 indeed1 in the same manner as the two blades of a pair of scissors4 ,the largest molars are3 in the dog1 the fourth of the upper jaw1 and the fifth in the opposite one2 in the cat1 the third both above and below4 ,the pig has forty-four teeth disposed in the following manner3 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ---------------------------------------- #dd4 #gm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #gm4 ,of the incisors1 the nippers and the intermediate ones of the upper jaw have their analogues in those of the horse2 in the lower jaw1 the corresponding teeth1 straight1 and directed forward1 rather resemble the same incisors in rodents4 ,the corner incisor teeth are much smaller1 and are separated from the neighbouring teeth4 ,the canine teeth1 also called tusks or tushes1 are greatly developed1 especially in the male4 ,the molars increase in size from the first to the last2 they are not cutting1 as in the carnivora1 but they are not flattened and provided with tubercles on their surfaces of contact as in the herbivora4 ,in the ox and the sheep the teeth are thirty-two in number3 #fm4 #j;c4 #j;i4 #j;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #cb4 #fm4 #j;c4 #d;i4 #d;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ,as we see from this dental formula1 the incisors are found only in the lower jaw2 they are replaced in the upper jaw by a thick cartilaginous pad on which the inferior incisors find a surface of resistance4 ,these have their crowns flattened from above downwards1 and gradually become thinner from the root to the anterior border1 which is edged and slightly convex4 ,these teeth gradually wear away4 ,in proportion to the progress of this wear1 on account of the fact that it involves the anterior borders and upper surfaces of the incisor teeth1 and that these teeth are narrower towards the root than at the opposite extremity1 the intervals which separate them tend to become wider and wider2 and when the roots become exposed by the retraction of the gums1 they are then separated from one another by a considerable interval4 ,the molars have their grinding surface comparable to that of the horse2 they increase in size from the first to the sixth4 ,the teeth of the horse are forty in number2 they are thus distributed3 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #dj4 #fm4 #a;c4 #c;i4 #c;i4 #a;c4 #fm4 ,as they become worn1 these teeth continue to grow1 and as1 on the one hand1 this phenomenon takes place throughout the whole life of the animal1 and1 on the other hand1 the process of wear brings out and makes visible at the surface of friction parts formerly deeper and deeper1 and of which the configuration varies at different levels1 there result special features which permit the determination of the age of the animal by an examination of its jaws4 ,the incisors are called1 commencing with those situated nearest the middle line1 central incisors or nippers1 intermediate and corner incisors4 ,the canines1 also designated as the fangs1 exist only in the male4 ,it is exceptional to find them in the mare1 and when they exist in this latter they are less developed than those of the horse4 ,the molars have cuboid crowns2 the surface of friction is almost square in the case of the upper molars1 and is inclined so as to look inwards2 in the case of the inferior ones1 it is a little narrowed1 and is inclined so as to look outwards4 ,in the upper jaw the external surface of the crown is hollowed by two longitudinal furrows2 in the lower jaw the same surface has only one furrow1 which at times is but slightly marked4 ,in the hare the teeth are twenty-eight in number3 #fm4 #j;c4 #b;i4 #b;i4 #j;c4 #fm4 ---------------------------------------- #bh4 #em4 #j;c4 #a;i4 #a;i4 #j;c4 #em4 ,the four incisors of the upper jaw are divided into two groups2 one of these is formed by the two principal teeth1 the other by two very small incisors which are placed behind the preceding4 ,having studied the jaws and examined the arrangement of the teeth1 we should say a few words on the movements which the lower jaw is able to execute4 ,in man1 these movements are varied in character3 the jaw is lowered and raised2 it can also be projected forwards and drawn backwards1 or carried to the right or left side by lateral movements4 ,owing to the different modes of nutrition of animals1 with which the shape of the teeth is clearly correlated1 being more specialized than in the human species1 the lower jaw is moved in a fashion less varied and in the direction most suitable for the mastication of the foods which form the aliment of the species considered4 ,moreover1 this is plainly shown in the skeleton by the shape of the condyle of the lower jaw 7see p4 #abb1 different forms of this condyle74 ,in the carnivora1 whose teeth1 as we have seen1 are all cutting ones1 the jaw rises and falls2 the food then is1 if we consider the two jaws1 cut as by the blades of a pair of scissors4 ,in the ruminants1 the incisors exist only in the lower jaw1 but the molars are thick and well developed2 the food is ground by these latter as by millstones1 and the movements which favour this action are1 above all1 the lateral4 ,as for the rodents1 in which the incisors are formed for filing down and cutting through hard resisting bodies1 their lower jaw moves in the antero-posterior direction1 in such a way that the inferior incisors alternately advance and recede beneath those of the upper jaw4 ,the free cutting border of these teeth effectively fulfils the function to which they are destined2 their constant wear preserves and revivifies the chisel edge which characterizes them1 without leading to their destruction1 for the incisors in rodents are of continuous growth4 ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,birds ,the ,skull of ,birds 7,fig4 #fe74--;,if1 because it is less important from the artistic point of view1 we do not consider it necessary to describe in detail the skull of birds1 we yet think it useful to indicate1 in their general lines1 the peculiarities it presents4 ,in this group the skull is generally pear-shaped2 to the cranium1 of which the bones are arranged in such a way as to give it a form more or less spherical1 succeeds a face more or less elongated1 according as the bill is more or less developed4 ,in general1 the bones of the skull coalesce very early1 with the result that it is only in very young individuals that we can determine their presence4 ,we find the skull to consist of an occipital bone1 two parietals1 a frontal1 etc42 we will indicate but one detail in connection with these bones3 it is the presence of a single condyle for the articulation of the occipital bone with the atlas4 ,we also note the quadrate bone1 which is situated on the lateral part of the cranium1 is movable on this latter1 and acts as an intermediary between it1 the bones of the face1 and the lower jaw4 ,the quadrate bone is regarded as a detached portion of the temporal2 on the signification of this we do not now propose to dwell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,cock3 ,,left ,,lateral ,,surface4 #a1 ,occipital bone2 #b1 parietal bone2 #c1 frontal bone2 #d1 ethmoid bone2 #e1 cavity of the tympanum2 #f1 quadrate bone2 #g1 superior maxillary bone2 #h1 malar bone2 #i1 nasal bone2 #aj1 #aj1 intermaxillary bone2 #aa1 nasal orifice2 #ab1 os unguis or lachrymal bone2 #ac1 inferior maxillary bone4 ,on the anterior portion of the face we find the nasal bones1 which1 articulating with the frontal on one side1 circumscribe1 on the other1 the posterior border of the nares4 ,the nasal bone of the one side is separated from that of the opposite by the intermaxillary or premaxillary bone1 which forms the skeleton of the superior mandible4 ,the superior maxillaries1 which are rudimentary1 are situated on the lateral parts1 and prolonged backward by an osseous style which articulates with the quadrate bone2 this styloid bone1 the homologue of the malar1 is designated by certain authors as the jugal or quadrato-jugal bone4 ,it is with the quadrate bone also that the inferior maxillary articulates4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,myology ,the first point to decide in commencing this study is the order in which we shall consider the different muscles which we have to examine4 ,it must not be forgotten that in the present work we compare the organization of animals with that of man1 which we already know1 and that it is on the construction of this latter that1 in these studies1 the thought must at each instant be carried back in order to establish this comparison4 ,now1 the general tendency which we notice in our teaching of anatomy1 when one regards the region of the trunk in the human figure 7a living model or a figure in the round71 is first to consider the anterior aspect4 ,it is the latter that1 for this reason1 we study at the very beginning2 we next deal with the posterior surface of the trunk1 because it is opposite2 lastly1 the lateral surfaces1 because they unite with the preceding surfaces1 the one to the other4 ,in studying an animal1 it is usually by one of its lateral aspects that one first observes it2 it is1 in fact1 by these aspects that it presents its greatest dimensions1 and that the morphological characters as a whole can be more readily appreciated4 ,hence1 possibly1 the order of description adopted in most texts1 or in the figures which accompany them4 ,the first representation of the human figure as a whole1 in a treatise on anatomy1 represents the anterior aspect2 the first view of the horse as a whole1 in a treatise on veterinary anatomy1 for example1 is1 on the other hand1 a lateral view4 ,we break with this latter custom1 and1 without taking into account the tendency above indicated1 we will commence our analysis with the study of the aspect of the trunk1 which corresponds to the anterior aspect of the same region in man4 ,the first muscles usually presented for study to artists being the pectorals1 it is their homologues that we will first describe here4 ,we will afterwards describe the abdominal region1 then the muscles which occupy the dorsal aspect of the trunk4 ,with regard to the lateral surfaces1 they will be found1 by this fact alone1 almost completely studied1 since the muscles of the two preceding 7back and abdomen71 spreading out1 so to speak1 over them1 contribute to their formation4 ,nothing further will remain but to incorporate with them the muscles of the shoulder2 but these will be studied in connection with the anterior limbs1 from which they cannot be separated4 ,the neck1 in man1 may be considered in an isolated fashion1 because1 on account of its narrowness in proportion to the width of the shoulders1 it is clearly differentiated from the trunk2 for this reason we combine the study of it with that of the head4 ,in animals1 because of the absence or slight development of the clavicles1 the neck is generally too much confounded with the region of the shoulders to make it legitimate to separate it from that region in too marked a fashion4 ,it will1 accordingly1 be considered next4 ,we will then undertake the study of the muscles of the limbs1 and end with the myology of the head4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,trunk ,we shall divide them into muscles of the thorax1 of the abdomen1 and of the back4 ,muscles of the ,thorax ,the ,pectoralis ,major 7,fig4 #ff1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #fg1 #c1 #d2 ,fig4 #fh1 #g2 ,fig4 #fi1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gj1 #aa74--;,further designated by the name of superficial pectoral1 this muscle is described in treatises on veterinary anatomy as formed of two portions3 an anterior one1 called the sterno-humeral muscle2 the other1 situated below and behind the preceding1 bearing the name of sterno-aponeurotic4 ,it occupies the region of the breast1 and1 as a whole1 it takes origin from the median portion of the sternum1 from which it is directed towards the arm and forearm4 ,the anterior portion 7sterno-humeral muscle7--thick1 forming an elevation under the skin1 and really constituting the pectoral region--is directed downwards and outwards to be inserted into the anterior margin of the humerus--that is to say1 to the ridge which limits in front the spiral groove of this bone4 ,the other part 7sterno-aponeurotic muscle7 is situated more posteriorly1 and corresponds to the region known in veterinary anatomy as the inter-fore-limb space1 which is limited laterally on each side by the superior portion of the forearm1 of which the point of junction with the trunk bears the name ars4 ,arising from the sternum1 as we have above indicated1 this portion is directed outwards1 to be joined with the terminal aponeurosis of the sterno-humeral1 and with that which covers the internal surface of the forearm4 ,all things considered1 the sterno-humeral muscle may be regarded as the representative of the upper fibres of the great pectoral of man1 of which the attachments1 owing to the more or less complete absence of the clavicle in the domestic mammals1 the fibres must be concentrated on the sternum2 the sterno-aponeurotic portion then representing the inferior fasciculae of the same muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,aspect ,,of ,,the ,,trunk4 #a1 ,pectoralis major 7sterno-humeral72 #b1 pectoralis major 7sterno-aponeurotic72 #c1 mastoido-humeralis2 #d1 point of the shoulder2 #e1 sterno-mastoid or sterno-maxillary3 #f1 inferior portion of the platysma myoides of the neck1 divided2 #g1 triceps cubiti2 #h1 brachialis anticus2 #i1 radialis 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #aj1 scapular region4 ,the great pectoral muscle of one side is separated from that of the opposite side along the median line1 and especially above and in front1 by a groove which is more or less deep1 according as the muscles are more or less developed4 ,at the bottom of this groove1 suggestive of that which exists in the corresponding region in man1 is found1 as in this latter1 the median portion of the sternum4 ,the preceding description particularly applies to the arrangement which the great pectoral presents in the horse2 in other animals it is marked by some distinctive characters4 ,in the pig1 it is inserted into the sternum as far only as the level of the third costal cartilage2 in the ox and sheep1 it extends as far as the sixth2 in the dog1 it is attached to the two first sternal pieces only--that is to say1 as far as the third costal cartilage4 ,moreover1 in the latter1 as in the cat1 the two portions which we have indicated are less readily distinguished4 ,the great pectoral1 by its contraction1 draws the fore-limb towards the middle line--that is to say1 adducts it4 ,the ,pectoralis ,minor 7,fig4 #fg1 #f2 ,fig4 #fh1 #h2 ,fig4 #fi1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ab1 #bf74--,this muscle1 also called the deep pectoral1 is1 in animals1 larger than the superficial pectoral1 therefore certain authors prefer to give to this muscle and the preceding one the names of deep and superficial pectoral respectively4 ,this nomenclature is evidently legitimate1 and conforms more to reality1 since it does not bring in the notion of dimensions which here is found in contradiction to nomenclature2 but1 in order to establish more clearly the parallelism with the corresponding muscles in man1 we think it better1 nevertheless1 to give them the names by which it has been customary to designate them in connection with the latter4 ,we will recall at the outset that the lesser pectoral muscle in man is completely covered by the great4 ,in animals this is not the case2 the lesser pectoral being very highly developed1 projects beyond the great pectoral posteriorly1 and occupies to a greater or less extent the inferior surface of the abdomen4 ,it also consists of two parts3 one anterior1 which we designate by the name of sterno-prescapular2 the other1 posterior1 bearing that of sterno-humeral4#bj #bj ,this division of the pectorals certainly complicates the nomenclature of these muscles2 nevertheless1 it introduces no insuperable difficulty from the mnemonic point of view4 ,but where the study becomes less profitable1 and comparison with the corresponding muscles in man more complicated1 is in adopting the nomenclature of ,bourgelat4 ,indeed1 the great pectoral is designated by this author the 'common muscle of the arm and forearm1' while the lesser pectoral 7or deep pectoral7 is called the 'great pectoral' in its sterno-trochinian and 'lesser pectoral' in its sterno-prescapular portion4 ,we do not consider it necessary to give the other theories relative to the homologies of these1 notwithstanding the very real interest which they present from the purely anatomical point of view1 as they have but few applications in the study of forms4 ,the sterno-prescapular muscle1 being covered by the sterno-humeral1 has little interest for us4 ,it arises from the sternum1 and is directed towards the angle formed by the junction of the scapula and humerus2 then it is reflected upwards and backwards1 to terminate on the anterior margin of the shoulder by insertion into the aponeurosis1 which covers the supraspinatus muscle4 ,we can1 especially in the horse after removal of the skin1 recognise it1 at the level of this region1 in the interspace limited by the superficial muscles 7,fig4 #gj1 #bf74 ,in the dog and cat this portion of the muscle does not exist4 ,the other division of the muscle1 the sterno-trochinian1 is more interesting4 ,it arises from the abdominal aponeurosis and the posterior part of the sternum2 hence it passes forward1 turns under the superficial pectoral1 and is inserted into the lesser tuberosity 7trochin7 of the humerus4 ,in the pig1 dog1 and cat1 it is inserted into the greater tuberosity 7trochiter7 of the bone of the arm4 ,the superior border of this muscle is in relation with a superficial vein1 which is distinctly visible in the horse--the subcutaneous thoracic vein1 which in this animal is called the vein of the spur4 ,the sterno-humeral muscle1 in contracting1 draws the shoulder and the whole anterior limb backwards4 ,serratus ,magnus 7,fig4 #fg1 #b2 ,fig4 #fi1 #h2 ,fig4 #gj1 #i74--,this muscle1 which is situated on the lateral aspect of the thorax1 is covered to a considerable extent by the shoulder1 the posterior muscular mass of the arm1 and by the great dorsal muscle4 ,it arises by digitations from the external surface of the dorsal vertebrae2 from the first eight in the horse1 ox1 and dog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,inferior ,,aspect ,,of ,,the ,,trunk4 #a1 ,anterior extremity of the sternum2 #b1 point of the shoulder and inferior portion of the mastoido-humeral muscle2 #c1 pectoralis major 7sterno-humeral72 #d1 pectoralis major 7sterno-aponeurotic72 #e1 point of the elbow2 #f1 pectoralis minor 7sterno-trochinian72 #g1 serratus magnus2 #h1 external oblique2 #i1 sheath of the rectus abdominis2 #aj1 linea alba2 #aa1 the umbilicus2 #ab1 external oblique divided in order to expose the rectus abdominis2 #ac1 rectus abdominis4 ,the muscular bundles1 converging as they proceed1 towards the scapula1 pass under this bone1 to be inserted into the superior portion of the subscapular fossa1 near the spinal border4 ,the inferior portion of its posterior digitations is visible in the ox and in the horse2 these digitations are less visible in the pig4 ,they are not seen at all in the dog 7,fig4 #fh7 or cat1 for in these animals the great dorsal muscle covers them completely4 ,the great serratus muscle1 by the position which it occupies and the arrangement that it presents1 forms with the corresponding muscle of the opposite side a sort of girth1 which supports the thorax1 and at the same time helps to fix the scapula against the latter4 ,when it contracts1 in taking its fixed point at the ribs1 it draws the superior portion of the scapula downwards and backwards in such a way that this bone has its inferior angle directed forwards and upwards4 ,if it takes its fixed point at the shoulder1 it then acts on the ribs1 raises them1 and so becomes a muscle of inspiration4 ,because of the connections of the serratus magnus with the levator anguli scapulae1 some authors consider it as united with the latter4 ,but as the latter muscle is visible only in the region of the neck 7see p4 #aeg71 and as it is separately described in man1 we prefer to distinguish them from one another4 ,we shall recall the connections to which we have just made allusion when describing the cervical region4 ,muscles of the ,abdomen ,the abdominal wall is1 as in man1 formed by four large muscles3 the external oblique1 the internal oblique1 and the transversalis1 which form the lateral walls1 and the rectus abdominis1 situated on each side of the middle line of the abdomen4 ,this latter1 because of the general direction of the trunk in quadrupeds1 has its superficial surface directed downwards4 ,the arrangement of these muscles closely corresponds to that which we find in the human species4 ,the ,external ,oblique ,muscle 7,fig4 #fg1 #h1 #ab2 ,fig4 #fh1 #e2 ,fig4 #fi1 #i2 ,fig4 #gj1 #aj74--,this muscle arises1 by digitations1 from a number of ribs1 which varies according to the species1 the number of the ribs being itself variable for each of them1 as we pointed out in connection with the osteology of the thorax4 ,indeed1 the great oblique arises from the eight or nine posterior ribs in the dog and the ox1 and from the thirteen or fourteen posterior in the horse4 ,it is attached1 besides1 to the dorso-lumbar aponeurosis4 ,these attachments are arranged in a line directed obliquely upwards and backwards1 and the first digitations--that is to say1 the most anterior ones--dovetail with the posterior digitations of origin of the great serratus muscle4 ,the fleshy fibres are directed downwards and backwards1 and terminate in an aponeurosis which covers the inferior aspect of the abdomen1 and proceeds to form the linea alba by joining with that of the muscle of the opposite side1 and also to be inserted into the crural arch4 ,this aponeurosis of the external oblique is covered by an expansion of elastic fibrous tissue1 which doubles it externally1 and which is known as the abdominal tunic4 ,this latter is further developed as the organs of the digestive apparatus are more voluminous1 and their weight1 consequently1 more considerable4 ,for this reason1 in the large herbivora1 as the ox and the horse1 this tunic is extremely thick1 whereas in the pig1 cat1 and dog it is1 on the contrary1 reduced to a simple membrane4 ,indeed1 in these latter1 the abdominal viscera being less developed1 the inferior wall of the abdomen does not require so strong a fibrous apparatus for supporting them4 ,the great oblique1 when it contracts1 compresses the abdominal viscera in all circumstances under which this compression is necessary2 it also acts as a flexor of the vertebral column4 ,the ,internal ,oblique ,muscle4--,this muscle1 which is covered by the preceding1 arises from the anterior superior iliac spine 7external angle in ruminants and solipeds7 and the neighbouring parts4 ,from this origin its muscular fibres1 the general direction of which is opposite to that of the fibres of the external oblique1 diverging1 proceed to terminate in an aponeurosis1 which contributes to the formation of the linea alba1 and to be attached superiorly to the internal surface of the last costal cartilages4 ,it has the same action as the great oblique4 ,what it presents of special interest is the detail of form which it determines in the region of the flank2 this detail is the cord of the flank4 ,it is characterized by an elongated prominence which1 starting from the iliac spine1 is directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 to terminate near the cartilaginous border of the false ribs4 ,often very apparent in the ox1 and still more so in the cow1 the cord in question contrasts with the depression which surmounts it2 this depression is situated below the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebrae1 and is called the hollow of the flank4 ,it is so much the more marked as the mass of the intestinal viscera is of greater weight4 ,we sometimes meet with a case of the presence of this hollow in the horse4 ,but when in the latter1 the flank is well formed1 the hollow is scarcely visible1 and the cord but slightly prominent4 ,it is only in emaciated subjects that these details are found clearly marked4 ,transversalis ,abdominis4--,this muscle being deeply situated does not present any interest for us4 ,we will1 however1 point out1 in order to complete the series of muscles which form the abdominal wall1 that the direction of its fibres is transverse1 and that they extend from the internal surface of the cartilages of the false ribs1 and the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebrae to the linea alba4 ,the ,rectus ,abdominis 7,fig4 #fg1 #ac2 ,fig4 #fh1 #f74--,this muscle1 enclosed1 as it is in man1 in a fibrous sheath 7,fig4 #fg1 #i7 formed by the aponeuroses of the lateral muscles of the abdomen1 is a long and wide fleshy band1 which1 as in the human species1 reaches from the thorax to the pubis4 ,what distinguishes it in quadrupeds is that there are costal attachments which extend further on the sternal surface of the thorax1 and the number of its aponeurotic insertions1 which1 in general1 is more considerable4 ,these are1 indeed1 six or seven in number in the pig and in ruminants1 and about ten in the horse4 ,it is true that we may find but three in the cat and dog2 still1 we often find as many as six4 ,these intersections are not marked on their exterior by transverse grooves1 such as we find in the human species in individuals with delicate skin and whose adipose tissue is not very much developed4 ,the rectus abdominis is covered1 in its anterior portion1 by the sterno-trochinian muscle 7posterior segment of the small pectoral74 ,in contracting1 this muscle brings the chest nearer the pelvis1 and as a result flexes the vertebral column4 ,it also contributes to the compression of the abdominal viscera4 ,pyramidalis ,abdominis4--,this unimportant little muscle1 which in man is situated at the lower part of the abdomen1 extends from the pubis to the linea alba4 ,it is not present in the domestic animals4 ,we consider it interesting1 however1 to point out1 although the fact is not a very useful one as regards external form1 that this muscle is distinctly developed in marsupials4 ,we know that in the opossum1 the kangaroo1 and the phalanger fox1 the young are brought forth in an entirely incomplete state of development1 and that1 during a certain period1 they are obliged to lodge in a pouch which is placed at the lower part of the abdomen of the mother4 ,now1 this pouch contains the mammary glands2 but the young1 being too feeble to exercise the requisite suction1 the pyramidal muscles come to their assistance4 ,these muscles1 in contracting1 approximate to one another two bones which are placed above the pubis1 the 7so-called7 marsupial bones 7see ,fig4 #hj72 by their approximation the bones in question1 which are placed behind and on the outer side of the mammary glands1 compress the latter1 and thus is brought about the result which the little ones1 on account of their feebleness1 would1 without that intervention1 be incapable of obtaining for themselves4 ,muscles of the ,back ,trapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #fi1 #a1 #b2 ,fig4 #gj1 #a1 #b74--,this muscle1 more or less well developed1 according to the species1 is divided into two portions1 of which the names indicate the respective situations--a cervical and a dorsal4 ,these two parts1 considered in the order in which we find them1 take their origin from the superior cervical ligament and from the spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebrae4 ,from these different points the fibres are directed towards the shoulder2 the anterior are1 consequently1 oblique downwards and backwards1 and the posterior are directed downwards and forwards4 ,they are inserted into the scapula in the following manner3 the fibres of the dorsal portion are attached to the tuberosity of the spine2 those of the cervical region are also fixed into the same spine1 but into a considerably larger surface4 ,the cervical portion occupies1 in the region of the neck1 an area relatively smaller than the corresponding portion of the trapezius in man4 ,this diminished degree of development results from the absence1 complete1 or nearly so1 of the clavicle in the animals which we are now considering4 ,we remember1 that the trapezius of man is partly inserted into the clavicle1 and the disappearance of this latter cannot fail to bring modifications in the general disposition of the corresponding portion of the muscle4 ,there results a disconnection of this latter1 and it becomes united to other muscular fibres to form a muscle with which we shall soon have to deal--the mastoido-humeral 7see p4 #aej74 ,as specific differences we should add that the trapezius occupies a more or less extensive portion of the median and superior regions of the neck2 terminating at a considerable distance from the head in the dog and horse1 it1 on the contrary1 approaches it in the pig and in ruminants4 ,the cervical portion1 when it contracts1 draws the scapula upwards and forwards1 the dorsal portion draws it upwards and backwards4 ,when the trapezius acts as a whole the scapula is raised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 cervical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 superior outline of the scapula2 #d1 latissimus dorsi2 #e1 external oblique muscle2 #f1 rectus abdominis2 #g1 pectoralis major of the right side2 #h1 pectoralis minor 7sterno-trochinian72 #i1 #i1 mastoido humeral muscle2 #aj1 tendinous intersection1 at the level of which is found a rudimentary clavicle2 #aa1 sterno-mastoid muscle2 #ab1 infrahyoid muscles2 #ac1 omo-tracheal or acromio-tracheal muscle2 #ad1 splenius2 #ae1 levator anguli scapulae2 #af1 deltoid muscle1 spinal portion2 #ag1 deltoid1 acromial portion2 #ah1 superior extremity of the humerus2 #ai1 supraspinatus2 #bj1 infraspinatus2 #ba1 biceps cubiti2 #bb1 brachialis anticus2 #bc1 triceps cubiti1 long head2 #bd1 triceps cubiti1 external head2 #be1 olecranon process2 #bf1 radialis 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #bg1 iliac crest2 #bh1 gluteus maximus2 #bi1 gluteus medius2 #cj1 biceps cruris2 #ca1 semitendinosus2 #cb1 semi-membranosus2 #cc1 gastrocnemius2 #cd1 tensor of the fascia lata2 #ce1 sartorius2 #cf1 fascia lata drawn up by the triceps2 #cg1 the patella or knee-cap2 #ch1 ischio-coccygeal muscle2 #ci1 superior sacro-coccygeal2 #dj1 lateral sacro-coccygeal2 #da1 inferior sacro-coccygeal4 ,the ,latissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 #d2 ,fig4 #fi1 #e2 ,fig4 #gj1 #e74--,this muscle arises by an aponeurosis1 the so-called dorso-lumbar aponeurosis1 from the spinous processes of the last dorsal vertebrae 7the seven last in the dog1 fourteen or fifteen last in the horse71 from the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae1 and from the last ribs4 ,its fleshy fibres are directed downwards and forwards1 being more oblique in direction posteriorly1 and pass on the inner side of the posterior muscular mass of the arm1 to be inserted into the internal lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus1 or1 a little lower down1 on the median portion of the internal surface of the same bone4 ,this latter mode of insertion is met with in the horse and the ox4 ,the anterior fibres cover the posterior angle of the scapula 7as in man1 where the corresponding angle1 but in this case inferior1 is covered by the same muscle71 and1 a little higher up1 are in their turn concealed by a portion of the dorsal fibres of the trapezius4 ,it covers1 to a greater or less extent1 the great serratus muscle4 ,these relations are similar to those found in the human species4 ,we find that the fleshy fibres of the great dorsal are prolonged more or less backwards if we examine this muscle in the dog1 the ox1 the pig1 and the horse4 ,indeed1 the fibres reach to the thirteenth rib in the dog and the cat 7that is to say1 the last rib71 the eleventh in the ox1 tenth in the pig1 and twelfth only in the horse4 ,we say 'only' in connection with this last because it is necessary to remember that the ribs are eighteen in number on each side of the thorax of this animal1 and that1 accordingly1 the fleshy fibres of the great dorsal muscle are1 relatively1 of small extent4 ,when this muscle contracts it flexes the humerus upon the scapula1 and helps to draw the whole of the anterior limb backwards and upwards4 ,there is a muscular fasciculus which1 because of its relations with the muscle we have just been studying1 is known as the supplementary muscle of the latissimus dorsi4 ,but as1 on the other hand1 this fasciculus is in relation with the triceps1 we shall in preference consider it in relation with this latter 7see p4 #agc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 cervical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 outline of the scapula2 #d1 spine of the scapula2 #e1 latissimus dorsi2 #f1 small posterior serratus2 #g1 prominence caused by the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebrae2 #h1 serratus magnus2 #i1 external oblique2 #aj1 pectoralis major 7sterno-humeral72 #aa1 mastoido-humeralis2 #ab1 atlas2 #ac1 atlas2 #ad1 parotid gland2 #ae1 sterno-mastoid muscle2 #af1 infrahyoid muscles2 #ag1 omo-trachelian or acromio-trachelian muscle2 #ah1 deltoid2 #ai1 brachialis anticus2 #bj1 triceps1 long head2 #ba1 triceps1 external head2 #bb1 olecranon2 #bc1 radialis 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #bd1 anterior iliac spine2 #be1 gluteus maximus2 #bf1 gluteus medius2 #bg1 biceps cruris2 #bh1 semitendinosus2 #bi1 gastrocnemius2 #cj1 tensor of the fascia lata2 #ca1 fascia lata covering the triceps of the thigh2 #cb1 patella2 #cc1 ischio-coccygeal muscle2 #cd1 superior ischio-coccygeal2 #ce1 lateral ischio-coccygeal2 #cf1 inferior ischio-coccygeal4 ,the aponeurosis by which the great dorsal arises from the vertebral column covers1 as in man1 the muscles which occupy the grooves situated on each side of the spinous processes--the spinal muscles or common muscular mass1 if we regard them as a whole 7,fig4 #gj1 #g72 the sacro-lumbar and the long dorsal muscles covering the transverse spinal1 if we consider them as distinct4 ,it would be superfluous to enter here into a detailed examination of these muscles4 ,if they are but little developed the spinous processes become prominent under the skin2 if they are more so they may by their thickness project beyond the level of these processes1 and these latter thus come to lie in a groove more or less marked1 which1 on account of the division which is determined by its presence1 has caused the regions which it occupies to be designated by the names double back and double loins4 ,the muscles are extensors of the vertebral column4 ,under the aponeurosis of the great dorsal muscle there is found in man another muscle1 the serratus posticus inferior1 which1 on account of being deeply placed and its slight thickness1 offers nothing of interest in connection with the study of external form4 ,it arises from the spinous processes of the three last dorsal vertebrae and those of the three first lumbar2 it then passes upwards and outwards1 and divides into four digitations1 to be inserted into the inferior borders of the four last ribs4 ,we repeat that it is covered by the great dorsal muscle4 ,in the pig1 ox1 and horse1 which have this latter muscle less developed in its posterior portion1 the same small serratus muscle1 known as the posterior serratus1 is visible in the superficial layer of muscles 7,fig4 #fi1 #f2 ,fig4 #gj1 #f74 ,the number of its digitations is more or less considerable according to the species examined4 ,the ,rhomboid ,muscle 7,fig4 #gj1 #ba74--;,in order to make intelligible the position of the rhomboid in the superficial layer in quadrupeds1 it appears to us necessary to recall the anatomical characters of the muscle as found in man4 ,the rhomboid arises from the inferior portion of the posterior cervical ligament1 from the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebrae and the four or five upper dorsal2 thence passing obliquely downwards and outwards1 it is inserted into the spinal border of the scapula1 into the portion of this border which is situated below the spine2 it sometimes extends to the middle of the interval which separates this latter from the superior internal angle of the same bone4 ,the portion of the muscle which arises from the cervical ligament and the seventh cervical vertebra is often separated from the lower portion by a cellular interspace4 ,for this cause some anatomists have described the rhomboid as consisting of two parts--the superior or small rhomboid and the inferior or large rhomboid1 on account of the position occupied by each1 and of their difference in volume4 ,this muscle can only be seen in the region of the back1 in the space limited externally by the spinal border of the scapula1 below by the latissimus dorsi1 and internally by the trapezius1 which covers it in the rest of its extent4 ,it is not in this space that it is seen in certain quadrupeds4 ,as we pointed out in the section on osteology1 the spinal border of the scapula is short1 and it seems to be due to this limitation in length that the trapezius and the latissimus dorsi muscle are1 at this level1 in contact the one with the other in such a way that they fill up the interval in which the rhomboid is seen in man4 ,in the horse we can partly see it in the superficial muscular layer1 but in the region of the neck only1 at the superior border of the shoulder4 ,indeed1 as we have already pointed out1 the trapezius does not reach the occipital protuberance2 for this reason a part of the anterior portion of the rhomboid may be seen--that is1 the portion which corresponds to the superior part of the human muscle4 ,but whether it be covered by the trapezius1 or1 as we find in the cat and dog1 by the mastoido-humeral muscle 7see p4 #aej71 which is very broad in this region1 we do not the less recognise its presence2 and in the horse and ox1 in particular1 it forms an elongated prominence beginning at the level of the scapula1 and tapering as it ascends1 towards the posterior part of the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,superficial ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles4 #a1 ,trapezius1 cervical portion2 #b1 trapezius1 dorsal portion2 #c1 superior outline of the scapula2 #d1 spine of the scapula2 #e1 latissimus dorsi muscle2 #f1 small posterior serratus2 #g1 spinal muscles1 or common muscular mass2 #h1 ribs2 #i1 serratus magnus2 #aj1 external oblique2 #aa1 pectoralis major 7sterno-humeral72 #ab1 pectoralis minor 7sterno-trochinian72 #ac1 atlas2 #ad1 parotid gland2 #ae1 mastoido-humeralis2 #af1 point of the arm2 #ag1 sterno-mastoid1 or sterno-maxillary2 #ah1 jugular groove2 #ai1 infrahyoid muscles2 #bj1 omo-trachelian muscle2 #ba1 rhomboid2 #bb1 splenius2 #bc1 levator anguli scapulae2 #bd1 deltoid2 #be1 supraspinatus2 #bf1 terminal part of the sterno-prescapular1 a portion of the small pectoral muscle2 #bg1 brachialis anticus2 #bh1 triceps cubiti1 middle or long head2 #bi1 triceps cubiti1 external head2 #cj1 olecranon2 #ca1 radial extensor 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #cb1 anterior iliac spine2 #cc1 anterior portion of the gluteus maximus--the aponeurosis of the muscle has been divided in order to expose the gluteus medius2 #cd1 posterior portion of the gluteus maximus2 #ce1 gluteus medius2 #cf1 biceps cruris2 #cg1 semitendinosus2 #ch1 point of the buttock2 #ci1 gastrocnemius2 #dj1 tensor of the fascia lata2 #da1 triceps cruris2 #db1 ischio-coccygeal muscle2 #dc1 superior sacro-coccygeal2 #dd1 lateral sacro-coccygeal2 #de1 inferior sacro-coccygeal4 ,its origins are similar to those which we have already described in the human rhomboid4 ,it arises from the cervical ligament and the spinous processes of the foremost dorsal vertebrae2 its fibres converge and pass to the scapula1 to be inserted into its superior or spinal border1 or into the internal surface of the cartilage of prolongation4 ,it assists in keeping the scapula applied to the thoracic cage1 and when it contracts1 draws the scapula upwards and forwards4 ,taking its fixed point at the scapula1 it acts on the neck by its anterior fibres1 and extends it4 ,we shall soon have occasion to mention this muscle again1 in connection with the study of the muscles of the neck4 ,the ,cutaneous ,muscle of the ,trunk 7,fig4 #ga74--;,immediately beneath the skin which covers the neck1 shoulders1 and trunk is found a vast cutaneous muscle1 analogous to that which1 in the human species1 exists only in the cervical region4 ,this thin muscle1 whose function is to move the skin which strongly adheres to it1 and in this way to remove from it material causes of irritation 7insects1 for example71 is of considerable thickness in the region of the trunk2 where it constitutes what certain authors have designated by the name of panniculus carnosus4 ,in this region it extends from the posterior border of the shoulder to the thigh1 and1 in the vertical direction1 from the apices of the spinous process of the dorso-lumbar vertebrae to the median line of the abdomen4 ,arising above from the supraspinous ligament of the dorso-lumbar and sacral regions 7except in the carnivora2 see below7 by an aponeurosis which1 posteriorly1 covers the muscles of the hind-limbs1 its fibres are directed to the elbow1 on which they are arranged in two layers3 a superficial1 which becomes continuous with the panniculus muscle of the shoulder2 and a deep1 which passes on the inner side of the shoulder to be inserted into the internal surface of the humerus2 this latter exists only in the dog and cat4 ,the most inferior fibres1 behind1 at the level of the knee-cap form a triangular process which in the horse receives the name of the stifle fold1 from the name veterinarians give to the region of the articulation of the knee4 ,this fold of skin1 which commences on the antero-internal surface of this region1 is directed upwards1 and then forwards1 to end by gradually disappearing over the corresponding part of the abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,panniculus ,,muscle ,,of ,,the ,,trunk4 ,in the same animal the muscular fibres of the panniculus of the trunk arise along a line which connects the stifle-joint to the withers1 a line which is1 consequently1 oblique upwards and forwards4 ,now1 as the fleshy layer is thicker than the aponeurosis1 the result is that the mode of constitution of this muscle can be recognised under the skin4 ,indeed1 we can see in some animals1 occasionally very distinctly1 a slight elevation starting from the region of the abdomen in the neighbourhood of the knee1 and thence directed obliquely upwards and forwards4 ,this elevation is produced by the fleshy portion of the panniculus4 ,in the carnivora1 the panniculus of the trunk is not attached to the supraspinous ligament2 it is blended with the same muscle of the opposite side1 passing over the spinous region of the vertebral column4 ,from this arrangement results a great mobility of the skin which covers the back4 ,further1 it explains why it is possible to lift up this skin along with the panniculus which it covers1 and to which it adheres1 throughout the whole extent of the dorso-lumbar column4 ,as we pointed out above1 there is also a panniculus muscle of the shoulder and one of the neck4 ,we will deal with them when treating of the regions to which those muscles belong4 ,the ,coccygeal ,region ,as a sequel to the study of the muscles of the region of the trunk very naturally comes the description of those which1 belonging to the region of the coccyx1 are destined for the movements of the caudal appendix1 of which this latter constitutes the skeleton4 ,the muscles may not seem to be of much importance with regard to external form1 but1 as they form part of the superficial muscular layer1 and as the mass of each is seen in the form of the tail in some animals 7the lion1 for example71 they merit our attention for a moment4 ,a few lines will suffice to give an idea of them4 ,they are3 the ischio-coccygeal1 superior sacro-coccygeal1 lateral sacro-coccygeal1 and inferior sacro-coccygeal4 ,the ,ischio-coccygeal 7,fig4 #ah1 #ch2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cc2 ,fig4 #gj1 #db74--,this muscle1 triangular in shape1 better developed in the carnivora than in the horse1 arises from the spine of the ischium1 or from the supracotyloid crest1 which replaces this latter in the solipeds and the ruminants4 ,thence its fleshy mass is directed upwards1 expanding as it proceeds to be inserted into the transverse processes of the first two coccygeal vertebrae after insinuating itself between two of the following muscles1 the lateral and inferior sacro-coccygeal4 ,in the dog and cat1 the muscle is in great part covered by the great gluteal4 ,in the ox1 by a peculiar arrangement of the corresponding region of the muscles of the thigh--an arrangement which we will examine in connection with the study of the latter--it is more exposed than in the horse1 and gives origin to an outline which corresponds to its general form in the region situated immediately below the root of the tail4 ,it is a depressor of the whole caudal appendix4 ,the ,superior ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #ci2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cd2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dc74--,the fasciculi which form this muscle arise from the crest of the sacrum1 and proceed thence to end successively on the coccygeal vertebrae4 ,it is in contact in the middle line with the corresponding muscle of the opposite side4 ,it raises the tail and inclines it laterally2 if the muscle of one side contracts at the same time as that of the other the tail is elevated directly4 ,the ,lateral ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #dj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ce2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dd74--,situated on the lateral part of the caudal region1 this muscle arises1 in the dog1 from the internal border of the iliac bone and the external border of the sacrum2 in the horse1 it arises from the crest of the sacrum4 ,it is inserted into the coccygeal vertebrae4 ,it produces lateral movement of the tail4 ,the ,inferior ,sacro-coccygeal 7,fig4 #fh1 #da2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cf2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dc74--,this muscle1 which is fairly thick1 arises from the inferior surface of the sacrum and the corresponding surface of the sacro-sciatic ligament2 it is inserted into the coccygeal vertebrae4 ,it depresses the caudal appendix4 ,muscles of the ,neck ,mastoido-humeralis 7,fig4 #ff1 #c2 ,fig4 #fh1 #i1 #i1 #aj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ae74--,one of the most important muscles of the region of the neck in man is the sterno-cleido mastoid4 ,we recollect that1 in its inferior part1 it is divided into two bundles1 one of which arises from the manubrium of the sternum1 and the other from the inner third of the clavicle1 whence the denominations of the sternal portion and clavicular portion4 ,the muscle formed by the union of these two portions is then directed obliquely outwards1 backwards1 and upwards1 to be inserted into the mastoid process of the temporal bone and the two external thirds of the superior curved line of the occipital bone4 ,now1 the animals which we are here considering have but a rudimentary clavicle or are entirely without it4 ,from the absence of this item of the skeleton there necessarily result modifications in the arrangement of the muscles of this region1 which we must at the very outset explain1 before undertaking the special study of the muscle which is the subject of the present paragraph4 ,let us suppose1 for the more definite arrangement of our ideas1 that the clavicle is altogether absent1 although we do find it in a rudimentary state in some animals and completely developed in others 7marmot1 bat71 and we will proceed to indicate what this absence determines4 ,the great pectoral muscle in man arises in part from the clavicle2 this origin not being possible in animals which have no clavicle1 its attachments1 as we have already seen1 are concentrated on the sternum4 ,the trapezius in man similarly arises in part from the clavicle2 for the reasons above indicated its clavicular fasciculi cannot exist in distinct form in the animals which have no clavicle4 ,the sterno-cleido mastoid1 whose inferior attachments we mentioned above1 cannot have a clavicular portion4 ,it is the same in the case of the deltoid1 which1 we know1 arises in part from the anterior bone of the shoulder4 ,of the four muscles which have partial clavicular origins in man1 two are known to us in connection with animals--the great pectoral and the trapezius4 ,what has become of the other two1 the sterno-cleido mastoid and the deltoid8 ,it is this which we now proceed to investigate4 ,after a fashion simple enough1 but which it is necessary to describe1 the clavicular fasciculi of the trapezius and the corresponding fasciculi of the sterno-cleido mastoid are united the one to the other2 the portion of the deltoid which in man arises from the clavicle1 by reason of the absence of this latter1 is also combined with the fleshy mass formed by the preceding muscles4 ,from this fusion results the muscle known as the mastoido-humeral4 ,this muscle1 which consists of a long fleshy band situated on the lateral aspect of the neck1 takes its origin1 as a general rule1 from the posterior surface of the skull and the upper part of the neck1 from which it passes obliquely downwards and backwards1 covering the scapulo-humeral angle--that is1 the region known as the point of the shoulder or arm--and is inserted into the anterior border of the humerus1 the border which1 limiting anteriorly the musculo-spiral groove1 forms a continuation of the deltoid impression4 ,on account of the regions with which it is related1 ,bourgelat named this muscle the muscle common to the head1 neck1 and arm4 ,it is at the level of the scapulo-humeral angle that the vestiges of the clavicle are found4 ,this bone is represented in some animals--the pig1 ox1 and horse--by a single tendinous intersection1 more or less apparent1 which extends transversely from the scapula to the anterior extremity of the sternum4 ,in the dog and the cat1 we find1 besides1 on the deep surface of the muscle and at the level of this tendinous intersection1 the rudiment of the clavicle of which we made mention in the section on ,osteology 7see p4 #be74 ,it is beneath the intersection1 the existence of which we have just pointed out1 that is found that portion of the mastoido-humeral muscle which corresponds to the clavicular fasciculi of the deltoid2 that portion which is situated above the intersection corresponds to the clavicular fibres of the sterno-cleido-mastoid and of the trapezius4 ,the mastoido-humeral presents certain varieties in different animals4 ,in the dog and the cat1 this muscle1 which is blended above with the sterno-mastoid 7see p4 #aec71 to be inserted with it into the mastoid process and the mastoid crest1 covers the neck for a considerable extent from the superior curved line of the occipital bone to which it is attached1 to the trapezius with which it unites posteriorly1 but from which it separates below4 ,between these two extreme points of its superior portion it is attached to the cervical ligament4 ,in the pig and in ruminants1 in which the trapezius approaches more closely to the head1 the mastoido-humeral occupies1 in consequence1 a less extent of the cervical region4 ,in the horse1 the mastoido-humeral neither covers the neck nor joins the trapezius2 indeed1 we have already shown that it is separated by a considerable distance from the head4 ,in the limited interval between these two muscles a part of the rhomboid and parts of other muscles are seen with which we shall soon be occupied4 ,this muscle1 as regards the horse1 is described by some anatomists as consisting of two parts3 one anterior1 or superficial2 the other posterior1 or deep4 ,in reality1 the first only corresponds to the mastoido-humeral1 which we are considering2 the posterior may be more exactly regarded as representing a special muscle of quadrupeds1 but which is here a little deformed1 the omo-trachelian 7see p4 #aee74 ,when the mastoido-humeral contracts1 taking its fixed point above1 it acts as an extensor of the humerus1 and carries the entire fore-limb forwards4 ,if it takes its fixed point below--that is to say1 at the humerus--it inclines the head and neck to its own side4 ,if it contracts at the same time as the mastoido-humeral of the opposite side1 then the head and the neck are carried into the position of extension4 ,the ,sterno-mastoid 7,fig4 #ff1 #e2 ,fig4 #fh1 #aa2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ae2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ag74--;,having described the clavicular portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoid in connection with the mastoido-humeral1 because it forms a part of the latter1 we have1 in order to complete the homologies of this muscle1 to study now that which corresponds to its sternal portion4 ,this is the sterno-mastoid muscle4 ,in all the quadrupeds with which we are here concerned this muscle arises from the anterior extremity of the sternum2 narrow and elongated in form1 it passes towards the head in a direction parallel to the anterior border of the mastoido-humeral1 from which it is separated by an interspace which1 along its whole length1 lodges superficially the jugular vein2 hence the name of jugular groove1 which is given to this part of the neck 7,fig4 #aj1 #ah74 ,it is inserted1 in the case of the dog and cat1 into the mastoid process1 where it is united with the mastoido-humeral2 in the ox it is divided into two portions--one which goes to the base of the occipital bone1 the other passing in front of the masseter is by the medium of the aponeurosis of this latter attached to the zygomatic crest4 ,this latter part is considered by some writers as forming a portion of the panniculus muscle of the neck4 ,in the horse it is attached to the angle of the lower jaw by a tendon1 which an aponeurosis that passes under the parotid gland binds to the mastoido-humeral muscle and the mastoid process4 ,by reason of this insertion into the jaw1 in the case of the solipeds1 this muscle is further named the sterno-maxillary4 ,when it contracts1 it flexes the head1 and inclines it laterally4 ,this movement is changed to direct flexion when the two sterno-mastoid muscles contract simultaneously4 ,in man1 the sterno-cleido-mastoid and the trapezius leave a triangular space between them1 which1 being limited inferiorly by the middle third of the clavicle1 is known as the supraclavicular region2 this region1 being depressed1 especially in its inferior part1 has also been given the name of supraclavicular fossa--popularly called the 'salt-cellar4' ,the muscles which form the floor of this region1 passing from above downwards1 are3 a very small portion of the complexus1 splenius1 levator anguli scapulae1 posterior scalenus1 and anterior scalenus2 then1 crossing these latter1 and most superficial1 is the omo-hyoid muscle4 ,an analogous region1 but of only slight depth1 exists in quadrupeds2 its borders are formed by the mastoido-humeral and trapezius muscles4 ,it is not limited below by the clavicle--we know1 indeed1 that this1 or the intersection which represents it1 belongs to the mastoido-humeral muscle--but by the inferior portion of the spine of the scapula4 ,it is of greater or less extent according to the species considered4 ,in the dog1 cat1 pig1 and ox1 it is narrow1 for the muscles which bound it approach one another pretty closely4 ,it has1 as in man1 the form of a triangle1 with the apex above4 ,in the horse it is much broader1 and1 contrary to the arrangement which it presents in the human species1 the widest part is directed upwards4 ,the muscles which we find there are1 consequently1 more or less numerous4 ,in the dog and cat they are3 a portion of a muscle which we do not normally meet with in man--the omo-trachelian--then in a decreasing extent3 supraspinatus1 levator anguli scapulae and splenius4 ,in the pig3 the omo-trachelian1 supraspinatus1 and the terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular--the anterior part of the lesser or deep pectoral muscle4 ,in the ox3 the omo-trachelian only4 ,but in the horse we find the omo-trachelian1 the supraspinatus1 and the terminal extremity of the sterno-prescapular2 then in a larger extent of area the levator anguli scapulae and the splenius2 and1 finally1 the anterior portion of the rhomboid4 ,among the muscles which we have just enumerated are some that we have already studied2 these are the sterno-prescapular and the rhomboid4 ,we will examine the supraspinatus muscle in connection with the region of the shoulder4 ,as to the scaleni muscles and the complexus1 they are deeply situated1 whereas the omo-hyoid is visible in the anterior region of the neck only4 ,there remain for us1 accordingly1 to examine1 at the present juncture1 but the omo-trachelian1 levator anguli scapulae1 and splenius muscles4 ,the ,omo-trachelian ,muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 #ac2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ag2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bj74--;,also called the acromio-trachelian1 levator ventri scapulae1#ba the angulo-ventral muscle1 and the transverso-scapular1#bb etc41 this muscle is described by some hippotomists as belonging to the mastoido-humeral1 of which it then forms its posterior or deep portion 7see p4 #aec74 #ba ,ventri1 because inserted into the inferior part of the spine of the scapula1 towards the acromion--that is1 on the ventral side--by contrast with the trapezius1 which is attached higher up 7dorsal side7 on the same process4 #bb ,among the many names given to this muscle1 ,arloing and ,lesbre recommend the adoption of the name 'transverse scapular' given by ,straus-,durckheim1 or 'transverse of the shoulder' 7,arloing and ,lesbre1 ',suggestions for the ,reform of ,veterinarian ,muscular ,nomenclature1' ,lyons1 #ahih74 ,the omo-trachelian muscle is found in all mammalia1 man alone excepted4 ,it is1 however1 sometimes found in the human being2 but it then constitutes an anomaly4 ,in the dog1 pig1 and ox1 it arises from the inferior part of the spine of the scapula1 in the region of the acromion1 and terminates on the lateral portion of the atlas4 ,in the cat it is attached besides to the base of the occipital bone4 ,it is visible in the space limited by the trapezius and the mastoido-humeral1 the direction of which it crosses obliquely4 ,in the horse it appears to be blended in clearly defined fashion with the mastoido-humeral4 ,attached below1 like this latter1 to the anterior border of the humerus1 it covers the scapulo-humeral angle2 and is attached by its upper portion to the transverse processes of the first four cervical vertebrae4 ,we remember that the transverse processes are often1 from their relation with the trachea1 known as the tracheal processes4 ,hence the word 'trachelian1' which forms part of the name of the muscle with which we are now dealing4 ,by its contraction it helps to draw the anterior limb forwards4 ,when this muscle1 as an abnormality1 exists in man1 it arises from the clavicle or the acromion process1 traverses the supraclavicular fossa1 and is inserted into the transverse processes of the atlas or axis1 or of both these vertebrae1 or of the cervical vertebrae below these latter4 ,it is then known by the names of the elevator of the clavicle or elevator of the scapula1 and1 finally1 as the cleido-omo-transversalis 7,testut74#bc #bc ,l4 ,testut1 ',les anomalies musculaires chez l'homme expliquees par l'anatomie comparee1' ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #ig4 ,a4 ,f4 ,le ,double1 ',traite des variations du systeme musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au point de vue de l'anthropologie zoologique1' ,paris1 #ahig1 t4 i41 p4 #bce4 ,the ,levator ,anguli ,scapulae 7,fig4 #fh1 #ae2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bc74--;,as we have pointed out 7p4 #acf71 the levator anguli scapulae1 because of its connections with the great serratus1 is sometimes described with it4 ,but inasmuch as in human anatomy these two muscles are considered separately1 and that1 in the superficial layer of muscles1 they are seen in different regions--the great serratus in the thoracic1 and the levator anguli scapulae in the cervical--we prefer to study them separately4 ,we remember that in man this muscle arises from the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae and is inserted into the superior portion of the spinal border of the scapula1 into the portion of this border which is situated above the spine2 it also contributes to the formation of the floor of the supraclavicular region4 ,when it contracts1 it draws the superior portion of the scapula forwards and upwards1 and causes a see-saw movement1 for at the same time the inferior angle of the scapula is directed backwards4 ,taking its fixed point at the shoulder1 it directly extends the neck if the muscle of one side acts at the same time as that of the opposite2 but if only one muscle contracts it inclines the neck to the corresponding side4 ,it is to be noticed that during movements a little more active than the ordinary the levator anguli scapulae1 as moreover the other muscles of the neck do1 becomes very distinct4 ,we have1 indeed1 often remarked that1 apart from these movements1 each time the support of one of the fore-limbs is brought into requisition a brusque contraction of the muscles of this region accompanies it4 ,this contraction gives the impression that1 as on the one hand1 each support determines a momentary arrest of progression1 a jolt1 and on the other hand1 the head continues to be projected in the forward direction1 the latter should be retained4 ,but it cannot be so except by an effort in the opposite direction--that is to say1 by the brusque contraction which we have just pointed out4 ,analogous contractions also take place in a man while running at the beginning of each contact of the lower limbs with the ground4 ,we may add1 apropos of this latter1 that displacements of the head1 sometimes in very pronounced fashion1 take place during simple walking1 and that every time one of the lower limbs is carried forwards the head is projected in the same direction4 ,these displacements1 which we also find take place in the horse in pacing1 especially in the region of the neck and head1 seem then to have the effect of aiding the progression of the body forwards4 ,they occur especially in animals when drawing a heavy load1 and in individuals whose walking movements are executed with difficulty4 ,it is necessary to repeat that1 in these cases1 the individual appears to assist the movement of his body by the impetus which the projection of his head forward determines1 in order to add--and it is for this that we have referred to the subject--that during the intervals between each projection the head is carried backwards by a muscular contraction similar to that above discussed4 ,the ,splenius 7,fig4 #fh1 #ad2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bb74--;,in man1 this muscle is attached in the median line to the inferior half or two-thirds of the posterior cervical ligament1 to the spinous processes of the seventh cervical1 and four or five upper dorsal vertebrae2 it passes obliquely upwards and outwards1 becomes visible in the supraclavicular region1 passes under the sterno-cleido-mastoid1 and proceeds to duplicate the cranial insertions of this latter2 and1 further1 the most external fasciculi of this muscle are inserted into the transverse processes of the atlas and the axis4 ,these separate superior attachments1 and the division of the muscle which results1 have caused the splenius to be regarded as formed of two portions3 splenius of the head1 and splenius of the neck4 ,in the horse1 this muscle1 which is of voluminous dimensions1 arises from the superior cervical ligament1 and the spinous processes of the first four or five dorsal vertebrae2 thence it proceeds to be inserted into the mastoid crest1 and the transverse processes of the atlas and three or four vertebrae following4 ,the region occupied superficially by the splenius is remarkable for the prominence which this muscle1 with the deeply-seated complexus1 which is equally bulky1 determines at this level2 it is situated above that region of the neck1 in which are seen in part the fasciculi of the levator anguli scapulae4 ,it terminates above and in front in the ridge1 which is sometimes very pronounced1 which the transverse processes of the atlas make on each side of this part of the neck4 ,in the dog and the cat1 the superior and anterior region of the neck is thick and of rounded form1 on account of the development which the splenius presents in those animals2 but it is covered by the mastoido-humeral4 ,this latter relation is also found in the ox1 but the splenius in this case is but slightly developed4 ,when the splenius contracts it extends the head and neck1 while inclining them to its own side4 ,if the splenius of one side contracts at the same time as that of the opposite1 the extension takes place in a direct manner--that is to say1 without any modifying lateral movement4 ,infrahyoid ,muscles ,having studied the lateral surfaces of the neck1 we must now examine the anterior part of this region4 ,here1 between the two sterno-mastoid muscles1 we find a space broader above than below1 in which are situated the larynx and the trachea1 to the general arrangement of which is due the cylindrical form which this region presents4 ,this space corresponds to that which in the neck of man is limited laterally by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles1 below by the fourchette of the sternum1 and above by the hyoid bone4 ,in animals1 as in man1 it is called the infrahyoid region4 ,the hyoid bone in quadrupeds is situated between the two rami or branches of the lower jaw4 ,owing to this disposition1 the region above this bone1 instead of having its surface projecting a little beyond the inferior border of the maxillary bone1 is depressed4 ,this is especially so in the horse4 ,it is there that we find in this animal the region known as the trough 7auge72 the larynx corresponds to that part known as the gullet4 ,the muscles which occupy the infrahyoid region are3 the sterno-thyroid1 the sterno-hyoid1 and the omo-hyoid4 ,there is also a thyro-hyoid1 but because of its deep situation and its slight importance it offers no interest from our point of view4 ,sterno-thyroid and the ,sterno-hyoid ,muscles4--,these two muscles1 long1 narrow1 and flat1 arise from the anterior extremity of the sternum2 then1 covering the anterior surface of the trachea1 they proceed to terminate1 the one on the thyroid cartilage1 and the other on the hyoid bone4 ,the sterno-hyoid is superficial2 it covers the sterno-thyroid1 which1 however1 projects a little on its outer side4 ,omo-hyoid4--,this muscle does not exist in the dog or cat4 ,it arises1 in the horse1 from the cervical border of the scapula1 where it blends with the aponeurosis that envelops the subscapularis muscle1 but in the pig and the ox it arises from the deep surface of the mastoido-humeral muscle4 ,it is directed obliquely upwards and inwards1 becoming superficial at the internal border of the sterno-mastoid1 and is inserted into the hyoid bone4 ,the region in which are united the portion of the neck which we have just studied and the neighbouring part of the thorax--that is1 the breast--has certainly1 in our opinion1 a form less expressive than the corresponding region in man4 ,in the latter1 indeed1 the fourchette of the sternum1 with the hollow which it determines1 the heads of the clavicles1 and the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles1 by the elevations which they produce1 and the trachea1 by the situation which it occupies in the inferior part1 constitute a whole in which are admirably indicated1 not only the forms of the organs which constitute this region1 but also the relations which these organs have one with another2 and1 to a certain extent1 their respective functions4 ,in making an exception in the case of the ox1 in which a fold of skin1 the dewlap1 which passes from the neck to the breast1 constitutes an element of form which possesses some expressive value2 in the horse and in the dog1 which possess no sternal fourchette and no heads of clavicles1 the bones and the muscles are found nearly on the same plane4 ,this produces a uniformity which is evidently inferior1 from an aesthetic point of view1 to the modelling of the corresponding region of the human body4 ,such1 at least1 is our impression4 ,suprahyoid ,muscles ,as their name indicates1 these muscles are found above the hyoid bone2 amongst those which should arrest our attention for a moment are the mylo-hyoid and the digastric4 ,mylo-hyoid4--,this muscle1 forming a sort of fleshy sling which contributes in great measure to form the floor of the mouth1 is situated between the lateral halves of the inferior maxillary bone4 ,arising on each side from the internal oblique line of the mandible1 its fibres are directed towards the median line1 to be inserted posteriorly into the hyoid bone1 and1 between this bone and the anterior part of the mandible1 into a median raphe which unites these latter4 ,digastric4--,this muscle arises from the styloid process of the occipital bone and from the jugular process2 it thence passes downwards and forwards1 and terminates variously1 in different species4 ,in the ox and the horse it terminates in its anterior portion on the internal surface of the inferior maxillary bone1 close to the chin4 ,but in the horse a bundle of fibres is detached from the upper portion of the muscle1 to be inserted into the recurved portion of the jaw4 ,it is to this fasciculus that ,bourgelat has given the name of 'stylo-maxillary muscle4' ,in the pig1 dog1 and cat1 the digastric differs more from the corresponding muscle in man2 it is not1 as in the latter1 formed of two parts4 ,the anterior portion only exists4 ,this consists of a thick muscular mass1 which is inserted into the middle of the internal surface of the lower jaw4 ,in the dog and cat it is clearly recognisable in the superficial layer of muscles by the long and thick prominence which it produces below the masseter1 against the inferior border of the mandible 7see pp4 #bce and #bcg1 the two figures showing the myology of the head of the dog74 ,by its contraction1 it draws the lower jaw downwards and backwards4 ,panniculus of the ,neck4--,this very thin muscle1 which cannot be recognised on the exterior1 calls for little notice4 ,we shall merely point out that it duplicates the skin of the cervical region2 but as the latter is only slightly adherent to it1 the panniculus of this region seems rather destined to maintain in position the muscles which it covers than to displace the cutaneous covering4 ,we recall the fact that in man1 on the contrary1 the muscle is very evident at the instant of its contraction1 and1 for this reason1 it presents a very great interest with regard to external modelling1 and it plays an important part in the expression of the physiognomy4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,anterior ,,limbs ,muscles of the ,shoulder ,deltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 #af1 #ag2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ah2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bd74--,this is the first muscle we study in connection with the shoulder in human anatomy4 ,indeed1 its wholly superficial position1 and especially the manner in which it is separated from the surrounding muscles1 its volume1 and its characteristic modelling1 give it such an importance that1 from the didactic point of view1 there is every indication for commencing with this muscle in studying the region to which it belongs4 ,if1 in regard to quadrupeds1 we also commence with it1 it is merely in deference to the spirit of method1 and for the sake of symmetry2 for it is far from presenting1 in the latter1 characters so distinctive and so clearly defined4 ,it is necessary to remark1 at the outset1 that in quadrupeds1 on account of the absence or slight development of the clavicle1 the clavicular portion of this muscle is1 as we have shown1 united to bundles of the same kind belonging to the sterno-cleido-mastoid and trapezius to form the mastoido-humeral 7see p4 #aea74 ,there exists1 therefore1 in an independent form1 the scapular portion only4 ,it is this latter which1 by itself alone1 forms the deltoid of quadrupeds1 a muscle known1 in veterinary anatomy1 as the long abductor of the arm4 ,in the dog and the cat it consists of two parts1 one of which arises from the spine of the scapula2 the other from the acromion process4 ,thence it passes to the crest of the humerus1 which limits the musculo-spiral groove anteriorly1 to be attached at a point which is found1 as in other quadrupeds1 to be the homologue of the human deltoid impression1 or deltoid ,v1 of the human humerus4 ,in the ox1 in which the acromion process1 which is very rudimentary1 does not attain the level of the glenoid cavity1 the acromion portion is but slightly marked off from that which takes its origin from the spine of the scapula4 ,still1 in the horse1 which is completely deprived of an acromion process1 the deltoid muscle is correspondingly divided into two parts1 separated from one another by superficial interstices1 but of which the arrangement differs from that of the portions above indicated2 one part1 the posterior1 arises above from the superior part of the posterior border1 and the postero-superior angle of the scapula 7exactly as if1 in man1 certain fasciculi of the deltoid took their origin from the axillary border and inferior angle of the scapula72 the other1 anterior1 arises from the tuberosity of the spine of the same bone4 ,the two parts1 united inferiorly1 proceed to be inserted into the deltoid impression or infratrochiterian crest of the humerus4 ,it is necessary to add that the deltoid is inserted into the humerus1 above the insertion of the mastoido-humeral4 ,this muscle flexes and abducts the humerus1 and also rotates it outwards4 ,with regard to the other muscles of the human shoulder1 subscapularis1 supraspinatus1 infraspinatus1 teres minor and teres major1 they are also present in quadrupeds1 but in a form more elongated1 as the scapula has its dimensions more extended from below upwards--that is1 from the glenoid cavity towards the superior or spinal border4 ,subscapularis4--,this muscle occupies the subscapular fossa1 from which it takes its origin1 leaving free the superior part where the surface is found1 to which are attached the serratus magnus and the levator anguli scapulae4 ,it passes towards the arm1 to be inserted into the small tuberosity of the humerus4 ,it is an adductor of the arm4 ,the subscapularis does not offer any interest from the point of view of external form1 for it is completely covered by the scapula4 ,we speak of it1 however1 because we mention it in human anatomy1 and that it affords us here a new opportunity of bringing into prominence the differences which exist in connection with the mobility of the shoulder4 ,we remember that in man1 when the arm is abducted1 and then raised a little above the horizontal1 the scapula see-saws1 is separated1 to a certain extent1 from the thoracic cage inferiorly and externally1 and that1 on the superficial layer of muscles1 we are then able to see in the bottom of the armpit1 at the level of the deep portion of the posterior wall of the latter1 a small part of the subscapularis muscle4 ,in the animals with which we are here occupied it is not the same2 for they are incapable of performing with their fore-limbs a movement analogous to that to which we have just referred1 the humerus in their case being retained in contact with the trunk by the muscular masses which surround it4 ,supraspinatus 7,fig4 #fh1 #ai2 ,fig4 #gj1 #be2 ,fig4 #gb1 #g74--,this muscle1 as its name indicates1 occupies the supraspinous fossa--that is to say1 that which1 by reason of the direction of the scapula in quadrupeds1 is situated in front of rather than above the spine4 ,it arises from this fossa2 and1 further1 from the external surface of the cartilage which prolongs the scapula upwards in solipeds and ruminants4 ,it projects more or less beyond the supraspinous fossa in front4 ,after passing downwards towards the humerus1 it is inserted into the summit of the great tuberosity or trochiter--that is to say1 to a part of this osseous prominence which represents the anterior facet of the great tuberosity of the human humerus1 into which1 as we know1 the corresponding muscle is inserted4 ,in solipeds and ruminants it is inserted1 by a second fasciculus1 into the small tuberosity4 ,in the pig and the horse its anterior border is in relation with the terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular anterior portion of the small or deep pectoral4 ,the supraspinatus1 which in man is completely covered by the trapezius1 is partly visible in the superficial layer of the cat1 dog1 pig1 and horse1 in the lower part of the space limited by the mastoido-humeral and the trapezius4 ,it is crossed by the scapulo-trachelian4 ,it is1 in the ox1 completely covered by these muscles1 but its form1 notwithstanding this1 is easily discerned by the prominence which it produces4 ,when it contracts1 the supraspinatus muscle carries the humerus into the position of extension4 ,infraspinatus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bj2 ,fig4 #gb1 #h74--,this muscle1 which occupies the infraspinous fossa1 which1 in quadrupeds1 is situated behind the spine of the scapula1 arises from the whole extent of this fossa1 and in solipeds and ruminants encroaches on the cartilage of prolongation4 ,its fibres are directed downwards and forwards1 to be inserted into the great tuberosity of the humerus--the trochiter--below the insertion of the supraspinatus4 ,it is completely covered 7ox and horse71 or in part only 7cat and dog71 by the portion of the deltoid which arises from the spine of the scapula2 nevertheless1 its presence is revealed by the prominence which it produces4 ,it is an abductor and external rotator of the humerus4 ,in connection with this muscle1 which1 as we have just pointed out1 is less seen in the superficial muscular layer than the supraspinatus1 we will draw attention to the fact that this arrangement is exactly the reverse of that which is found in the human shoulder4 ,in this latter it is the supraspinatus which is not visible2 while1 on the contrary1 the infraspinatus is uncovered in a considerable part of its extent4 ,we further notice that it is accompanied by the teres minor1 and that the teres major1 situated inferiorly1 forms with these two muscles a fleshy mass which1 below1 ends on the superior border of the great dorsal muscle4 ,in quadrupeds1 in which the infraspinatus is so slightly visible1 the teres major and minor are not found at all in the superficial muscular layer4 ,accordingly1 we will say but few words about them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse--,,shoulder ,,and ,,arm3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,cartilage of prolongation of the scapula2 #b1 tuberosity of the spine of the scapula2 #c1 superior extremity of the humerus2 #d1 inferior extremity of the humerus2 #e1 radius2 #f1 ulna2 #g1 supraspinatus muscle2 #h1 infraspinatus2 #i1 teres minor2 #aj1 biceps2 #aa1 tendon of the biceps passing over the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the humerus2 #ab1 brachialis anticus2 #ac1 triceps1 long head2 #ad1 external head of the triceps divided2 #ae1 external head of the triceps reflected1 in order to expose the anconeus2 #af1 region normally occupied by the external head of the triceps2 #ag1 anconeus4 ,teres ,minor 7,fig4 #gb1 #i74--,this muscle1 also called in veterinary anatomy the short abductor of the arm1 arises from the posterior border of the scapula 7the external border in man71 and is inserted below the great tuberosity of the humerus1 between the attachments of the infraspinatus and deltoid4 ,it is covered by the deltoid and the infraspinatus4 ,teres ,major4--,this muscle is known to veterinarians as the abductor of the arm2 it arises from the postero-superior angle of the scapula 7the inferior angle of the human scapula71 from which it passes to be inserted into the internal surface of the humerus4 ,it is covered by the latissimus dorsi and the posterior muscular mass of the arm4 ,in brief1 for the better understanding of the relations of the teres major and minor muscles in quadrupeds1 we may fancy the corresponding muscles in man modified in the following manner3 ,the infraspinatus1 thicker1 covering the teres minor2 latissimus dorsi1 more extended in its superior part1 covering a large proportion of the teres major4 ,as to the relations of the teres minor with the deltoid1 they exist in man1 seeing1 in this case1 the same muscle is1 in its external portion1 covered by this latter4 ,with regard to the relations of the teres major with the posterior muscular mass of the arm1 they also exist in man1 since the external surface of this muscle is covered by the triceps4 ,these modifications are sufficient to render the small and large teres muscles completely invisible in the superficial layer4 ,the muscles of the shoulder which we have just been studying fulfil1 with regard to the articulation which they surround1 the function of active ligaments4 ,this role is made necessary by the laxity of the scapulo-humeral capsule--a laxity which renders it incapable by itself of maintaining the bones in contact at this joint4 ,the same condition exists in man4 ,panniculus ,muscle of the ,shoulder4--,this thin muscle covers1 as its name implies1 the region of the shoulder1 and is the continuation forward of the panniculus muscle of the trunk4 ,it arises1 by its superior part1 from the region of the withers and from the superior cervical ligament2 thence its fibres descend directly towards the elbow1 to terminate at the level of the region of the forearm4 ,the muscle is not found in the pig or in the carnivora4 ,muscles of the ,arm ,we should remember1 at the outset1 that in man the muscles of the arm are divided into two groups3 one anterior1 which contains the biceps1 brachialis anticus1 and the coraco-brachialis2 the other1 posterior1 which is constituted by a single muscle1 the triceps4 ,in animals1 we find them in the same number and arranged in analogous fashion--that is to say1 in two groups--with respect to the bone of the arm4 ,but then we find that they have undergone a transformation with regard to their length1 and it is the change of general aspect which results from this modification that we proceed to examine4 ,we know that in quadrupeds1 and especially in the domestic animals1 the humerus is relatively short in proportion to the forearm4 ,we have already seen1 in dealing with the bones1 that whilst in the human species the humerus is longer than the forearm1 in the dog and cat these two segments of the fore-limb are of equal length1 and that the humerus of the horse is1 on the contrary1 much shorter4 ,now1 let us suppose the human humerus to be shorter than it is in reality2 the anterior muscles undergoing1 very naturally1 the same reduction1 will be uncovered only slightly by those above--the deltoid and the great pectoral--or will remain completely hidden by them4 ,thus would be found realized the disposition which we meet with in quadrupeds of the muscles of this region4 ,with regard to the posterior muscular mass of the arm1 it does not undergo the same change4 ,the muscle which constitutes it--the triceps cubiti--occupies1 on the contrary1 a greater area4 ,let us suppose1 further--for it is the best method of comprehending the homologies which now occupy our attention--the humerus of man to be shortened as before1 and directed downwards and backwards 7as in quadrupeds71 this bone would form an acute angle with the axillary border of the scapula4 ,let us suppose also that the long portion of the triceps1 instead of arising solely from the superior part of this axillary border1 is attached to the whole length of the latter1 and that the triceps fills the whole interior of the angle formed by the arm and the shoulder4 ,we then shall have an idea of what the triceps is in quadrupeds4 ,it is necessary to add that the general resemblance would be still more complete if the arm were firmly supported by the side of the thorax1 because in quadrupeds it occupies an analogous position1 determined by the arrangement of the muscles which1 proceeding from the trunk and neck1 are attached to it4 ,anterior ,region ,biceps ,cubiti 7,fig4 #fh1 #ba2 ,fig4 #gb1 #aj1 #aa74--,this muscle1 also called the long flexor of the forearm1 does not merit the name except by its analogy with the corresponding muscle in man4 ,indeed1 in the domestic animals it is not divided into two parts2 it is represented by a single fasciculus1 long and fusiform1 situated on the front of the humerus1 and directed obliquely downwards and backwards1 as the latter1 on its part1 is also inclined4 ,it arises above from a tubercle at the base of the coracoid process1 which surmounts the glenoid cavity of the scapula4 ,its tendon1 which is highly developed in the solipeds1 occupies the bicipital groove4 ,we remember that in these latter the groove in question is divided into two channels by a median prominence4 ,the tendon in which the muscle ends is inserted into a tuberosity1 situated on the internal surface of the superior extremity of the radius--the bicipital tuberosity4 ,in the pig1 the cat1 and the dog1 there is detached from the tendon to which we have just referred a fasciculus of the same nature1 which1 after having wound round the radius1 is inserted into the internal surface of the ulna1 towards the base of the olecranon process4 ,from the inferior part of the muscle arises a fibrous band1 comparable to the aponeurotic expansion of the human biceps2 but1 instead of passing downwards and inwards1 as does the latter1 it terminates on the muscular mass which constitutes the antero-external part of the forearm4 ,the biceps is not seen in the superficial layer1 except in the dog and cat 7in which the humerus is1 in fact1 proportionately long72 and even in them only to the slightest extent4 ,it is covered partly in these latter1 and completely in other animals1 by the great pectoral and the inferior portion of the mastoido-humeral--that is to say1 that part of the latter which represents the whole of the clavicular fibres of the human deltoid4 ,the biceps is a flexor of the forearm on the arm4 ,it also contributes to the movement of extension of the humerus4 ,brachialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bb2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ai2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bg2 ,fig4 #gb1 #ab74--;,in veterinary anatomy further designated as the short flexor of the forearm1 this muscle1 which is thick1 occupies the musculo-spiral groove1 and arises from it1 reaching upwards to just below the head of the humerus4 ,but it does not1 as in man1 extend to the internal surface of the bone4 ,situated on the outside of the biceps1 it is directed towards the forearm1 and terminates by a flattened tendon1 which1 dividing into two slips1 passes below the bicipital tuberosity1 on the internal surface of the radius1 into which one of these slips is inserted1 while the other proceeds to terminate on the ulna4 ,the inferior half of this muscle is visible on the superficial layer1 in the space limited posteriorly by the triceps brachialis1 and below by the muscles of the forearm1 which correspond to the external muscles of the human forearm1 and in front by the great pectoral and the mastoido-humeral4 ,it is in the upper part of the interspace which separates these latter from the brachialis anticus that the deltoid insinuates itself to proceed to its insertion into the humerus4 ,these relations precisely recall those which we meet with when we examine the external surface of the human arm1 with this difference1 however--that in the latter the anterior brachialis anticus is extensively related1 in front1 to the biceps4 ,however1 in animals it is not absolutely the same1 since1 as we have shown above1 the biceps is covered1 more or less completely1 by the mastoido-humeral and the great pectoral4 ,the brachialis anticus flexes the forearm on the arm4 ,coraco-brachialis4--,in man this muscle1 which occupies the superior half1 or third1 of the internal surface of the humerus1 is visible only when the arm is abducted1 and then especially when it approaches the vertical position2 indeed1 it is only in this attitude that the region which it occupies is accessible to view4 ,but an analogous attitude not being possible in domestic animals1 in which the arm is fixed along the corresponding parts of the trunk1 the result is that the coraco-brachialis is always covered1 and that1 consequently1 it presents nothing of interest from our point of view4 ,we speak of it1 then1 merely in order to complete the series of the muscles of the anterior surface of the arm1 among which we rank it1 in spite of the fact that in veterinary anatomy it is described as a muscle of the shoulder4 ,it arises above from the coracoid process1 and thence passes downwards towards the internal surface of the humerus into which it is inserted1 more or less high up1 according to the species4 ,the coraco-brachialis is an adductor of the arm4 ,posterior ,region ,triceps ,cubiti 7,fig4 #fh1 #bc1 #bd2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bj1 #ba2 ,fig4 #gj1 #bh1 #bi2 ,fig4 #gb1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af74--,this muscle1 which is voluminous in the quadrupeds with which we are here concerned1 fits more or less completely the angular space between the scapula and the humerus4 ,its bulk forms a thick prominence1 which surmounts the elbow and the forearm4 ,we should say1 with regard to this mass1 that if the deltoid does not constitute in quadrupeds a prominence sufficient to remind one of that which this muscle produces in man1 the triceps1 in producing an analogous elevation1 seems to replace in the general form of the body the relief which the deltoid is incapable of producing4 ,the triceps is divided into three portions1 which1 as in man1 have the names middle1 or long head2 external and internal heads4 ,but that which renders the nomenclature a little complicated is that veterinary anatomists have given other names to these three parts3 that of great extensor of the forearm 7caput magnum7 to the long head2 the short extensor of the forearm 7caput parvum7 to the external head2 and of medium extensor of the forearm 7caput medium7 to the internal4#bd #bd ,other names given by certain authors to the parts of this muscle which we have just enumerated still further complicate this nomenclature4 ,the long head is further designated by them under the names of the long or great anconeus2 the external head under those of external anconeus1 or lateral or short anconeus2 whilst the internal head becomes the internal anconeus1 or median4 ,it is more especially the long portion and the external head which1 being visible on the external surface of the arm1 contribute to the external form4 ,the long portion1 which is triangular in shape and of considerable development1 arises in the cat and the dog from the inferior half or two-thirds of the posterior border of the scapula 7axillary border72 from the whole extent of that border as far as the superior posterior angle in the pig1 the ox1 and the horse2 it then passes downwards towards the articulation of the elbow1 to terminate in a tendon which is inserted into the olecranon process4 ,the portion of this muscle which is next the scapula is covered by the deltoid4 ,the external head1 situated below the long portion1 is directed obliquely downwards and backwards4 ,it arises from the curved crest which1 from the deltoid impression of the humerus1 is directed upward to meet the articular head of the same bone4 ,this crest limiting the musculo-spiral groove superiorly1 and the brachialis anticus arising from the whole extent of this groove1 the result is that at this level the external head is in relation with the brachialis anticus4 ,from this origin it is directed towards the elbow1 to be inserted into the olecranon1 either directly or by the medium of the tendon of the long portion4 ,the part of this muscle which arises from the humerus is covered by the deltoid4 ,as for the internal head 7,fig4 #gf1 #d71 which1 in the superficial layer1 is only visible in its inferior part1 on the internal aspect of the arm in those animals in which the elbow is free of the lateral wall of the thorax 7the dog and the cat1 for example71 it arises from the internal surface of the humerus1 and thence proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon4 ,the triceps extends the forearm on the arm4 ,a fourth muscle exists1 which veterinary anatomists include in the study of the three portions of the triceps which we have just been discussing1 in giving it the name of small extensor of the forearm4 ,but1 as this muscle is no other than the anconeus1 and as1 in human anatomy1 we describe the latter1 according to custom1 in connection with the forearm1 it is when on the subject of the latter that we will concern ourselves with it4 ,this grouping of muscles cannot fail to give greater clearness to the description of the muscles of these regions4 ,the ,supplemental or ,accessory ,muscle of the ,latissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #gf1 #b2 ,fig4 #gg1 #a74--;,because of the relations1 to which we have already referred 7see p4 #adb71 of this muscle with the triceps cubiti1 its description very naturally follows that of the latter4 ,indeed1 this supplementary muscle of the great dorsal is further designated in zoological anatomy under the name of long extensor of the forearm2 and this name indicates that its study may be united to that of the triceps4 ,situated on the internal surface of the arm1 it arises from the external aspect of the tendon of the latissimus dorsi2 it is very highly developed in the horse1 in which it also arises from the posterior border 7axillary7 of the scapula2 then1 covering in part the internal head of the triceps and also the long portion1 on the superior border of which it is folded1 it proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon process and the anti-brachial aponeurosis4 ,it extends the forearm on the arm4 ,further1 it makes tense the aponeurosis into which it is inserted2 this explains the name of tensor of the fascia of the forearm1 which is sometimes given to it4 ,it seems to us interesting to add that1 abnormally1 we sometimes find in man an analogue of this muscle4 ,it is given off from the latissimus dorsi1 near the insertion of the latter into the humerus2 it accompanies the long head of the triceps and becomes fused with it4 ,sometimes it is inserted into the olecranon process1 at other times into the antibrachial aponeurosis or the epitrochlea4 ,it is on account of its insertion into the last-mentioned1 in some cases1 that it is also designated by the name of dorso-epitrochlear muscle4#be #be ,l4 ,testut1 ',anomalies musculaires chez l'homme expliquees par l'anatomie comparee1' ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #aah4 ,a4 ,f4 ,le ,double1 ',traite des variations du systeme musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au point de vue de l'anthropologie zoologique1' ,paris1 #ahig1 t4 i41 p4 #bjc4 ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',anomalies musculaires' 7,bulletins de la ,societe ,anthropologique1 ,paris1 #ahic74 ,muscles of the ,forearm ,before commencing the special examination of each of the muscles of this region1 it is absolutely indispensable to consider their general arrangement1 and to determine very clearly how we should study them4 ,we are too well convinced of the importance of this preliminary examination to dismiss it without entering rather fully into it4 ,indeed1 the region on the myological study of which we are now entering is1 unquestionably1 one of the most complicated with which we have to deal4 ,we know besides1 in regard to the study of the forearm in man1 how much a definite method is necessary in order that the arrangement of the muscles of this region be fixed in the memory1 and that we are unable to obtain this result otherwise than by grouping the twenty muscles which constitute it in clearly defined regions4 ,we also know that these muscles are first studied with the forearm in the position of supination1 and that it is only when they are well known after having considered them in this position that we are able to analyze and comprehend their forms when it is in pronation4 ,now1 as we have pointed out in the section on osteology 7see p4 #cd71 the forearm in quadrupeds is always in the position of pronation4 ,should we1 then1 in order to maintain the symmetry with human anatomy1 first study the forearm in the position of supination8 ,evidently not4 ,besides the fact that this would in some cases be impossible since--as in the horse1 for example--the radius and ulna are fused together1 we should not gain any advantage2 this position being never completely realizable even in those quadrupeds which have the radius relatively movable--as1 for example1 in the cat4 ,accordingly1 it is pronation which here1 in connection with animals1 becomes the standard attitude from the point of view of description4 ,this is why1 supposing that the reader knows well the muscles of the human forearm in the position of supination1 we should recall what is the general arrangement occupied by these muscles when it is in pronation4 ,the fore-limb1 being viewed on its anterior surface1 presents above the anterior aspect of the region of the elbow2 but below1 it is the posterior surface of the wrist which is seen4 ,consequently1 in the superior part1 we see the external and anterior muscles limiting the hollow in front of the elbow2 interiorly are found the posterior muscles4 ,the long supinator1 passing obliquely downwards and inwards1 divides1 in fact1 the forearm into two parts3 one supero-internal1 the other infero-external4 ,in the first we see1 but to an extent less and less considerable1 the pronator teres1 the flexor carpi radialis1 the palmaris longus1 and the flexor ulnaris2 as to the flexors of the digits1 on account of the rotation of the radius1 they are only visible on the opposite surface--that is to say1 on the surface of the wrist1 which is now posterior4 ,in the second part we see the two radial extensors1 the common extensor of the fingers1 the proper extensor of the little finger1 and the ulnar extensor which1 inferiorly1 remains behind1 by reason of the position of the ulna being unchanged1 whilst the anconeus is wholly posterior1 since the direction of the elbow is not modified4 ,we also find1 in this region1 the long abductor of the thumb1 the short extensor of the thumb1 the long extensor of the thumb1 and the special extensor of the index-finger1 in the region where these deep muscles become superficial4 ,so that1 to summarize1 the external and posterior muscles occupy the anterior and external regions of the forearm1 whilst the anterior muscles occupy rather the internal and posterior4 ,it is in regarding them after this manner--that is to say1 arranged in these two regions--that we proceed to study these muscles in quadrupeds4 ,anterior and ,external ,region ,supinator ,longus4--,we know that this muscle1 which is especially a flexor of the forearm on the arm1 plays1 notwithstanding the name which has been given it1 a part of but little importance in the movement of supination4 ,it acts slightly1 however1 as a supinator1 for1 being very oblique downwards and inwards at the time of pronation1 it is able1 while tending to resume its vertical direction1 to carry the radius outwards2 it places1 in fact1 the forearm in a position midway between pronation and supination4 ,we have just recalled these details1 in order that it may be more easy to understand why it does not exist in animals in which the radius and ulna are fused together 7horse1 ox72 and why1 on the other hand1 we find traces of it in the cat and the dog1 in which the radius--to a slight extent1 it is true--is able to rotate on the ulna4 ,this displacement being a little more considerable in the felide1 the long supinator is a little further developed than it is in the canine species2 but1 notwithstanding1 it is only rudimentary4 ,the long supinator arises1 above1 from the external border of the humerus2 thence1 in the form of a very narrow fleshy band1 it passes obliquely downwards and inwards1 to be inserted into the inferior part of the internal surface of the radius4 ,it assists in turning the radius outwards and placing it in front of the ulna1 the movement of supination being capable of being but little further extended4 ,first and ,second ,external ,radial ,muscles3 ,extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior 7,fig4 #gc1 #h2 ,fig4 #gd1 #h1 #i2 ,fig4 #ge1 #h1 #i74--;,fused together1 these muscles form by their union what veterinary anatomists call the anterior extensor of the metacarpus4 ,but we should add that these two muscles are united so much the more intimately as we examine them in passing successively from the cat to the dog1 pig1 ox1 and horse4 ,thus1 in the cat they are often distinct2 in the dog1 they unite only at the level of the middle third of the radius1 and interiorly they have two tendons2 in the pig1 the ox1 and the horse they are completely united1 and there exists but a single tendon4 ,the anterior extensor of the metacarpus1 which is situated behind the long supinator when the latter exists1 occupies the external aspect of the forearm2 its well-defined form absolutely recalls the prominence on the superior part of the external margin of the human forearm4 ,it arises superiorly from the portion of the external border of the humerus which is situated above the epicondyle and behind the musculo-spiral groove4 ,its fleshy mass appears in the angular space bounded by the brachialis anticus and the triceps4 ,the superior portion is covered by the external head of the triceps2 yet1 in the dog1 the superior portion of its humeral attachment is the only part so covered4 ,this muscle is directed forward and downwards2 it is also inclined a little inwards in such manner as to proceed to occupy the anterior aspect of the forearm4 ,its fleshy belly is narrowed below1 and1 towards the inferior part of the forearm1 is continued by a tendinous portion which is situated on the anterior surface of the carpus1 after having traversed the median groove of the inferior extremity of the radius4 ,in the cat and the dog1 in which the union of the two radial extensors is incomplete1 the two tendons are inserted into the front of the base of the second and third metacarpal bones2 consequently1 as in man1 into the metacarpals of the index and middle fingers4 ,in the ox1 the tendon1 which is single1 is inserted into the internal and anterior half of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal4 ,in the pig1 this tendon is attached to the base of the large internal metacarpal4 ,in the horse1 the corresponding tendon is attached to a tubercle which is situated on the anterior surface of the base of the principal metacarpal1 a little internal to the median plane of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,mastoido-humeralis2 #b1 biceps2 #c1 brachialis anticus2 #d1 triceps1 long portion2 #e1 triceps1 external head2 #f1 olecranon process2 #g1 epicondyle2 #h1 radialis muscles 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #i1 extensor communis digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #aj1 extensor minimi digiti 7lateral extensor of the phalanges1 or common extensor of the three external digits72 #aa1 posterior ulnar 7external flexor of the metacarpus72 #ab1 pisiform bone2 #ac1 anconeus2 #ad1 extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis 7oblique extensor of the metacarpus72 #ae1 radius2 #af1 anterior ulnar 7oblique flexor of the metacarpus72 #ag1 external border of the hypothenar eminence 7abductor of the little finger74 ,in order to properly understand and remember the respective positions occupied by these inferior insertions1 it must be remembered that the human forearm being in the position of pronation1 the tendons of the radials are attached to the bases of the metacarpals nearest to the thumb--that is to say1 those occupying an internal position as regards the fourth and fifth metacarpals4 ,as its name indicates1 this muscle extends the metacarpus4 ,consequently it is1 in the horse1 an extensor of the canon-bone4 ,it is also an adductor of the hand in those animals 7cat1 dog7 in which the radio-carpal articulation1 analogous in form to the corresponding articulation in man1 permits lateral movements of the hand on the forearm4 ,the union of the fleshy bodies of the two radials is sometimes found in the human species4 ,supinator ,brevis4--,as in the case of the long supinator1 the short supinator is found only in animals in which the radius can be rotated to a greater or less extent around the ulna2 therefore this muscle is not found in the pig1 the ox1 or the horse2 but it forms part of the forearm of the cat and the dog4 ,deeply situated at the region of the elbow1 the short supinator has little interest for us4 ,all that we will say of it is that it goes from the external part of the inferior extremity of the humerus to the superior part of the radius2 and that it is1 in carnivora1 the essential agent in the production of the movement of supination4 ,extensor ,communis ,digitorum 7,fig4 #gc1 #i1 #aj1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gd1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab74--;,also named in veterinary anatomy the anterior extensor of the phalanges1 this muscle is situated external to and behind the anterior extensor of the metacarpus already described4 ,in the human being1 the common extensor of the fingers springs1 in its superior part1 from the bottom of a depression1 situated on the outer side of and behind the elbow1 and limited in front by the muscular prominence which the long supinator and the first radial extensor form at that level4 ,at the bottom of this hollow or fossette is found the epicondyle1 which gives origin1 amongst other muscles1 to the common extensor of the fingers4 ,it is necessary to add that it is most prominently visible during supination1 and that it tends to be effaced during pronation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,mastoido-humeralis2 #b1 pectoralis major2 #c1 deltoid2 #d1 brachialis anticus2 #e1 triceps2 #f1 triceps1 external head2 #g1 olecranon2 #h1 radial extensors 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #i1 insertion of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the metacarpus to the tubercle of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal2 #aj1 #aa1 extensor communis digitorum 7#aj1 proper extensor of the inner digits2 #aa1 common extensor of the two digits72 #ab1 tendon of the common extensor of the two digits2 #ac1 band of reinforcement from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #ad1 external tuberosity of the superior extremity of the radius2 #ae1 extensor minimi digiti 7proper extensor of the external digit72 #af1 tendon of the proper extensor of the external digit2 #ag1 posterior ulnar 7external flexor of the metacarpus72 #ah1 pisiform2 #ai1 extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis 7oblique extensor of the metacarpus72 #bj1 ulnar portion of the deep flexor of the toes2 #ba1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #bb1 tendon of the deep flexor of the toes 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #bc1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock4 ,an analogous arrangement is met with in animals4 ,but the muscular prominence is formed by the united radial extensors1 and the fossette1 because of the permanent pronation of the forearm1 is scarcely recognisable4 ,likewise1 with regard to the dog1 we may say that it does not exist1 on account of the prominence which the epicondyle forms in that animal 7,fig4 #gc1 #g74 ,in connection with this prominence of the epicondyle1 it is interesting to add that this detail recalls the relief which the same process produces on the external aspect of the human elbow when the forearm is flexed on the arm4 ,we know that1 in this case1 the epicondyle is exposed1 because the muscles which mask it in supination 7long supinator and long radial extensor7 are displaced and set it free during flexion4 ,but1 in the dog1 as in other quadrupeds besides1 the forearm is1 in the normal state1 flexed on the arm2 the latter being oblique downwards and backwards1 and the former being vertical4 ,further1 the epicondyle is well developed4 ,the muscle with which we are now occupied1 long and vertical in direction1 arises from the inferior part of the external border of the humerus 7there it is covered by the anterior extensor of the metacarpus1 from which it is freed a little lower down7 and from the external and superior tuberosity of the radius4 ,in the carnivora1 it arises from the epicondyle4 ,its fleshy body is fusiform in shape1 becomes tendinous in the lower half of the forearm1 and then divides into a number of slips1 varying in number according to the species2 this division is correlated to that of the hand--that is to say1 with the number of the digits4 ,before reaching this latter1 the common extensor of the digits passes through the most external groove on the anterior surface of the inferior extremity of the radius4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,mastoido-humeral2 #b1 pectoralis major2 #c1 deltoid2 #d1 brachialis anticus2 #e1 triceps1 long head2 #f1 triceps1 external head2 #g1 olecranon2 #h1 radial extensors 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #i1 insertion of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the metacarpus into the tubercle of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal2 #aj1 extensor communis digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #aa1 tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges2 #ab1 reinforcing band arising from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #ac1 external tuberosity of the superior extremity of the radius2 #ad1 extensor minimi digiti 7lateral extensor of the phalanges72 #ae1 tendon of the lateral extensor of the phalanges2 #af1 fibrous band which this latter receives from the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges2 #ag1 fibrous band which the same tendon receives from the carpal region2 #ah1 posterior ulnar 7external flexor of the metacarpus72 #ai1 pisiform2 #bj1 extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis 7oblique flexor of the metacarpus72 #ba1 ulnar portion of the deep flexor of the digits2 #bb1 flexor digitorum profundus2 #bc1 #bc1 tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #bd1 #bd1 tendon of the flexor digitorum profundus 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #be1 sesamoid prominence2 #bf1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #bg1 external rudimentary metacarpal4 ,in the cat and the dog1 the four tendons which result from the division of the principal tendon go to the four last digits1 and each of them is inserted1 as in the human species1 to the second and third phalanges4 ,in the pig1 the anterior extensor of the phalanges is rather complicated in its arrangement4 ,its fleshy body is divided into four bundles terminated by tendons1 which in turn divide and join certain digits2 whence the special names given to each of these fasciculi1 commencing with the most internal1 of3 proper extensor of the great inner toe2 common extensor of the two inner toes2 common extensor of the two outer toes2 and proper extensor of the great outer toe4 ,in the ox1 the same muscle is divided into two bundles3 the internal proceeds to the internal toe1 the external is common to the two toes4 ,in the horse1 the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges is divided into two parts of unequal bulk4 ,the smaller of these tendinous slips1 which is the more external1 unites at the level of the superior part of the metacarpus with the tendon of the muscle which we are about to study in the following paragraph 7,fig4 #ge1 #af74 ,the larger1 after having reached the anterior surface of the digit1 is attached to the anterior aspect of the first and second phalanges1 and then forms a terminal expansion which is inserted into the pyramidal eminence of the third4 ,at the level of the first phalanx this tendon receives on each of its lateral aspects a strengthening band1 which proceeds from the terminal extremity of the suspensory ligament of the fetlock1#bf and crosses obliquely downwards and forwards over the surface of the first phalanx to join the extensor tendon 7,fig4 #ge1 #ab74 #bf ,see p4 #bjj for a description of this ligament4 ,a similar arrangement is found in the ox4 ,this band is noticeable under the skin which covers the lateral aspects of the ham4 ,as the name indicates1 this muscle extends the phalanges1 one upon the other4 ,it also contributes to the extension of the hand1 as a whole1 on the forearm4 ,extensor ,minimi ,digiti 7,fig4 #gc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ae1 #af2 ,fig4 #ge1 #ad1 #ae74--,this muscle1 the lateral extensor of the phalanges of veterinary anatomy1 situated on the external surface of the forearm1 behind the common extensor of the digits1 arises1 as a rule1 from the epicondyle 7dog1 cat71 or from the external surface of the superior extremity of the radius 7horse74 ,the tendon succeeding to the fleshy body appears towards the lower third of the forearm1 and at the level of the wrist lies in a groove analogous to that which in man is hollowed out for the passage of the corresponding tendon at the level of the inferior radio-ulnar articulation4 ,this groove corresponds to the same articulation in animals in which the ulna is well developed1 such as the dog and the cat2 but it belongs to the radius when the inferior extremity of the ulna does not exist--for example1 in the horse4 ,indeed1 in this animal the groove in question is found on the external surface of the carpal extremity of the radius4 ,in the dog1 the tendon is divided into three parts1 which1 crossing obliquely the tendons of the common extensor of the digits1 pass to the three external digits1 to be inserted by blending with the corresponding tendons of the latter into the third phalanges of those digits4 ,thus is explained the name of common extensor of the three external digits which is sometimes given to this muscle4 ,in the cat1 there is a fourth tendon1 which passes to the index-finger1 so that the name common extensor of the four external digits is in this case legitimate1 and the lateral extensor of the phalanges is also a common extensor1 as is the anterior extensor of the phalanges1 or common extensor of the digits4 ,in the pig1 the tendon1 which is single1 is inserted into the external digit1 for which reason it has received the name of the proper extensor of the small external digit4 ,this muscle is1 then1 really the homologue of that which exists in the human species4 ,in the ox1 it is called the proper extensor of the external digit2 it is as thick as the common extensor4 ,finally1 in the horse1 the muscle is little developed4 ,its fleshy body1 thin and flattened from before backwards1 becomes distinctly visible only below the middle of the forearm4 ,above1 it is enclosed in a limited space1 bounded in front by the common extensor of the digits1 and behind by the posterior ulnar2 there these two muscles approach each other so closely that from the point of view of external form they seem to be nearly in contact4 ,the tendon1 after receiving the small fasciculus from the common extensor 7,fig4 #ge1 #af71 as well as a fibrous band emanating from the external surface of the carpus 7,fig4 #ge1 #ag71 is situated at the external side of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges1 and is inserted into the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the first phalanx4 ,this muscle extends the digit or digits into which it is inserted4 ,it also assists in the movement of extension of the hand as a whole4 ,posterior ,ulnar 7,extensor carpi ulnaris7 7,fig4 #gc1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ag2 ,fig4 #ge1 #ah74--;,designated by veterinary anatomists as the external flexor of the metacarpus1#bg or external cubital1 this muscle is situated in the posterior region of the external surface of the forearm1 behind the lateral extensor of the phalanges4 #bg ,certain authors give it the name of ulnar extensor of the wrist4 ,it is true that in the human being this is its action2 but in quadrupeds1 owing to its insertion into the pisiform1 it draws the hand into the position of flexion4 ,it arises from the epicondyle2 its fleshy body1 thick but flattened1 is directed vertically towards the carpus1 and its tendon is inserted into the external part of the superior extremity of the metacarpus1 after having given off a fibrous band1 which takes its attachment on the pisiform4 ,it is inserted1 in the cat and the dog1 into the superior extremity of the fifth metacarpal2 in the pig to the external metacarpal2 in the ox to the external side of the canon-bone2 in the horse to the superior extremity of the external rudimentary metacarpal4 ,this muscle flexes the hand on the forearm1 and in animals in which the radio-carpal articulation permits1 by its formation1 it inclines the hand slightly outwards--that is1 abducts it4 ,anconeus 7,fig4 #gb1 #ag2 ,fig4 #gc1 #ac74--,we have already stated 7p4 #agd7 that the anconeus is included with the triceps brachialis in zoological anatomy1 and that veterinary anatomists give it the name of small extensor of the forearm4#bh #bh ,it is also called by some authors1 the small anconeus4 ,in the dog it recalls1 as to position1 the human anconeus1 but with this difference--that1 in the latter1 the anconeus1 triangular in outline1 has one of its angles turned outwards 7the epicondyloid attachment7 and one of its sides turned towards the olecranon4 ,here it is entirely the opposite4 ,the anconeus1 similarly triangular1 is broader externally4 ,at this level it takes its origin from the external border of the humerus1 the epicondyle1 and the external lateral ligament of the articulation of the elbow2 thence its fibres converge towards the external surface of the olecranon1 to be there inserted4 ,it is in relation1 anteriorly and inferiorly1 with the posterior ulnar muscle4 ,it is covered superiorly by the external head of the triceps4 ,in the cat the disposition of the anconeus is analogous4 ,but in the other quadrupeds with which we are here concerned it is completely covered by the external head of the triceps4 ,it really participates in the formation of the triceps2 and seeing that it takes origin from the posterior surface of the humerus at the margin of the olecranon fossa 7,fig4 #gb71 and proceeds thence towards the olecranon to be inserted1 we can understand why veterinary anatomists have connected its study with that of the posterior muscular mass of the arm4 ,this muscle is an extensor of the forearm on the arm4 ,we proceed now to inquire what the deep muscles of the posterior region of the human forearm become in quadrupeds3 the long abductor of the thumb1 the short extensor of the thumb1 the long extensor of the thumb1 the proper extensor of the index4 ,we know that in every instance these muscles1 which are deeply seated at their origin1 become superficial afterwards4 ,in quadrupeds1 on account of the position in which the forearm is placed--viz41 pronation--the corresponding muscles occupy the anterior aspect of this region4 ,long ,abductor of the ,thumb 7,extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis7 and ,short ,extensor of the ,thumb 7,extensor primi internodii pollicis7 7,fig4 #gc1 #ad2 ,fig4 #gd1 #ai2 ,fig4 #ge1 #bj74--,united one to the other in man1 blended in quadrupeds1 they form in the latter the muscles to which veterinary anatomists give the name of oblique extensor of the metacarpus4 ,this muscle arises from the median portion of the skeleton of the forearm4 ,there it is covered by the common extensor of the digits and that of the small digit 7anterior extensor and lateral extensor of the phalanges74 ,then1 at the internal border of the first of these muscles1 it becomes superficial1 passes downwards and inwards1 crosses superficially the anterior extensor of the metacarpus1 reaches the inferior extremity of the radius1 and becomes lodged in the most internal of the grooves situated on the anterior surface of this extremity1 passes on the internal side of the carpus1 and is inserted into the superior extremity of the most internal metacarpal--that is1 to the first metacarpal1 or metacarpal of the thumb--in the dog and cat2 to the internal rudimentary metacarpal in the horse4 ,it is an extensor of the metacarpal into which it is inserted2 but as1 if we recall the extreme examples given above1 in the dog the first metacarpal is not very mobile1 and in the horse the internal rudimentary metacarpal is absolutely fixed to the bone which it accompanies1 it is more exact to add that this muscle is principally an extensor of the metacarpus as a whole4 ,and yet1 in the cat and the dog1 it is also able to adduct the first metacarpal bone4 ,it must be understood that this movement would be abduction1 if the hand could be placed in the position of complete supination1 as in the human species4 ,long ,extensor of the ,thumb 7,extensor secundi internodii pollicis7 and ,proper ,extensor of the ,index 7,extensor indicis74--,these two muscles are blended together by their fleshy bodies1 so that the single name of proper extensor of the thumb and index is preferable4 ,this muscle is but of slight importance from our point of view1 for it is extremely atrophied1 and so much the more as the number of the digits is lessened4 ,it arises1 as the preceding1 from the skeleton of the forearm1 and there it is deeply placed4 ,below1 towards the carpus1 its tendinous part becomes superficial1 to end in the following manner3 ,in the carnivora1 the tendon divides into two very slender parts1 which are inserted into the thumb and the index4 ,in the pig1 the tendon is blended with that of the common extensor of the internal digits4 ,finally1 in the ox and the horse1 it is sometimes regarded as being blended with the common or anterior extensor of the phalanges4 ,but to us it appears more rational to say that it does not exist1 which1 moreover1 is explained by the digital simplification of the hand4 ,internal and ,posterior ,region ,pronator ,teres 7,fig4 #gf1 #h74--,this muscle1 as may easily be understood1 undergoes1 as do the supinators1 a degree of degeneration in proportion to the loss of mobility of the radius on the ulna4 ,in animals in which the bones of the forearm are not fused it exists2 in those1 on the other hand1 in which this segment has become simply a supporting column1 it is not developed--at least1 in a normal manner4 ,it is1 consequently1 found best marked in the dog and the cat4 ,forming1 as in man1 the internal limit of the hollow of the elbow1 the pronator teres has a disposition analogous to that which characterizes the corresponding muscle in the human species4 ,it arises from the epitrochlea 7internal condyle71 proceeds downwards and outwards1 and is inserted into the middle portion of the body of the radius4 ,it is into the hollow in front of the elbow1 which this muscle contributes to limit1 that the biceps and the brachialis anticus dip4 ,in the pig and the ox it is atrophied4 ,in the horse it does not exist4 ,we may1 however1 sometimes find it1 but in an abnormal form4 ,we were able to demonstrate its presence in the form of a fleshy tongue situated on the internal side of the elbow 7,fig4 #gh7 in a horse which we dissected many years ago in the laboratory of the ,school of ,fine ,arts4 ,moreover--and the fact seemed to us an interesting one--the forearm to which the muscle belonged had an ulna of relatively considerable development 7,figs4 #gi and #hj74bi #bi ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',abnormal ,length of the ,ulna and ,presence of a ,pronator ,teres ,muscle in a ,horse' 7,bulletin de la ,societe d',anthropologie1 ,paris1 #ahhg74 ,this muscle is a pronator4 ,flexor ,carpi ,radialis 7,fig4 #gf1 #aj2 ,fig4 #gg1 #g74--;,called by veterinary anatomists the internal flexor of the metacarpus1 this muscle1 which is found on the internal aspect of the forearm1 is situated behind the pronator teres when this muscle exists1 whilst in the animals which are deprived of the latter the flexor carpi radialis has in front of it the internal border of the radius1 which separates it from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus4 ,it is necessary to add that the flexor carpi radialis is similarly separated from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus by the internal border of the radius in animals in which the pronator teres exists1 but then only in that part of the forearm which is situated below this latter4 ,the flexor carpi radialis arises from the epitrochlea4 ,its fleshy body1 fusiform in shape1 descends vertically1 and terminates in a tendon on the posterior surface of the bases of the second and third metacarpals in the dog and the cat1 on the metacarpal of the large internal digit in the pig1 on the internal side of the metacarpus in the ox1 and on the superior extremity of the internal rudimentary metacarpal in the horse4 ,we see clearly1 in this latter1 a superficial vein which1 in the shape of a strong cord1 passes along the anterior border of the flexor carpi radialis2 it is the subcutaneous median or internal vein1 which1 forming the continuation of the internal metacarpal vein1 joins the venous system of the arm1 after having crossed obliquely the corresponding part of the radius4 ,palmaris ,longus4--,this muscle1 which exists distinctly in some animals1 but whose absence is far from being rare in the human species1 is not developed as a distinct muscle in any of the domestic quadrupeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,internal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,biceps2 #b1 long extensor of the forearm 7supplementary or accessory muscle of the great dorsal72 #c1 triceps1 long head2 #d1 triceps1 internal head2 #e1 olecranon2 #f1 epitrochlea 7internal condyle72 #g1 radial extensors 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #h1 pronator teres2 #i1 radius2 #aj1 flexor carpi radialis 7internal flexor of the metacarpus72 #aa1 anterior ulnar 7oblique flexor of the metacarpus72 #ab1 superficial flexor of the digits2 #ac1 deep flexor of the digits2 #ad1 flexor longus pollicis 7radial fasciculus of the deep flexor of the digits72 #ae1 pisiform bone4 ,and yet some authors announce its presence in the dog1 and describe it as becoming detached1 in the form of a cylindrical bundle1 from the anterior surface of the fleshy mass of the deep flexor of the digits 7see p4 #aif7 to proceed then by a tendon which divides into two parts1 to terminate in the palm of the hand1 where it blends with the tendons of the superficial flexor1 which are destined for the third and fourth digits4 ,these authors give to this muscle the name of palmaris longus1 and attribute to it the action of flexing the hand4 ,anterior ,ulnar 7,flexor carpi ulnaris7 7,fig4 #gc1 #af2 ,fig4 #gf1 #aa2 ,fig4 #gg1 #h74--;,called by veterinary anatomists the oblique flexor of the metacarpus1 or internal ulnar1 this muscle occupies the internal part of the posterior aspect of the forearm in the ox and the horse1 while in the dog it occupies rather the external part4 ,this difference arises from the fact that in this latter1 as in man1 the anterior ulnar is separated from the flexor carpi radialis by an interval in which we see1 on the internal aspect of the forearm1 just at the level of the elbow1 the flexors of the digits4 ,this interval is so much the wider as there is no palmaris muscle to subdivide its extent 7,fig4 #ha74 ,in the horse1 the interval in question does not exist4 ,in this animal1 indeed1 the anterior ulnar is in contact with the radial flexor1 so that this muscle can occupy only a region belonging rather to the internal surface of the forearm 7,fig4 #hb74 ,in the dog the anterior ulnar is in contact with the posterior ulnar4 ,this relation recalls that which is found in man1 where the two muscles are merely separated by the crest of the ulna 7,fig4 #ha74 ,but in the horse1 in which the anterior ulnar has1 so to speak1 slid towards the internal aspect1 this muscle is separated above from the posterior ulnar1 and it is in the interval separating these two muscles that we are able to perceive1 but this time at the back of the forearm1 the muscular mass of the flexors of the digits 7,fig4 #hb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,left ,,side1 ,,internal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,long extensor of the forearm 7supplementary or accessory muscle of the latissimus dorsi72 #b1 radialis muscles 7anterior extensor of the metacarpus72 #c1 tendons of extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis extensor primi internodii pollicis united 7oblique extensor of the metacarpus72 #d1 tendon of extensor communis digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #e1 strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #f1 internal surface of the radius2 #g1 flexor carpi radialis 7internal flexor of the metacarpus72 #h1 anterior ulnar 7oblique flexor of the metacarpus72 #i1 pisiform bone2 #aj1 #aj1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the digits 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #aa1 #aa1 tendon of the deep flexor of the digits 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #ab1 sesamoid prominence2 #ac1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #ad1 internal rudimentary metacarpal4 ,the anterior ulnar arises above from the epitrochlea and the olecranon2 thence it is directed towards the carpus1 to be inserted into the pisiform bone4 ,it proceeds therefore from the inner side of the elbow to the outer side of the upper part of the hand2 it consequently crosses the posterior surface of the forearm obliquely4 ,this is why1 as we have pointed out above1 it receives the name of the oblique flexor of the metacarpus4 ,it is not unprofitable to recall in this connection that there is an internal flexor of the metacarpus1 which is the flexor carpi radialis2 and an external flexor of the metacarpus1 which is the posterior ulnar 7in human anatomy1 extensor carpi ulnaris74 ,it is between these two muscles that we find the oblique flexor--the anterior ulnar which we have just been studying4 ,this muscle flexes the hand on the forearm4 ,superficial ,flexor of the ,digits 7,flexor digitorum sublimis7 7,fig4 #gf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gg1 #aj1 #aj74--,this muscle arises from the epitrochlea2 thence it passes towards the hand1 becomes tendinous1 passes in a groove on the posterior aspect of the carpus1 and terminates on the palmar surface of the phalanges in furnishing a number of tendons proportioned to the digital division of the hand4 ,whatever the number1 to which we will again refer1 each tendon is attached to the second phalanx1 after bifurcating at the level of the first1 so as to form a sort of ring1 destined to give passage to the corresponding tendon of the deep flexor4 ,this ring and this passage have gained for the muscle the name of perforated flexor4 ,in the dog and the cat the principal tendon is divided into four parts1 which go to the four last digits4 ,in the ox it is divided into two parts only2 as1 moreover1 in the pig1 whose superficial flexor is destined for the two large digits only1 the lateral digits receiving no part of it4 ,finally1 in the horse the tendon is single4 ,we have previously pointed out that in the carnivora this muscle is visible on the internal and posterior aspects of the forearm1 in the interval which is limited in front by the flexor carpi radialis and behind and outside by the anterior ulnar4 ,certain details are still to be added to the description of this muscle4 ,we will enter on an analysis of them after we have given some indications relative to the following muscle3 ,deep ,flexor of the ,digits 7,flexor digitorum profundus7 7,fig4 #ge1 #ba1 #bb2 ,fig4 #gf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #gg1 #aa1 #aa74--,this muscle is covered by the superficial flexor4 ,it arises from the epitrochlea1 from the radius1 and from the ulna1 either from the olecranon process--as in the ox1 pig1 and horse--or from almost the whole extent of the shaft of the same bone1 as in the cat and dog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,internal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,internal flexor of the metacarpus or great palmar2 #b1 inferior part of the biceps2 #c1 inferior part of the brachialis anticus2 #d1 internal lateral ligament of the elbow2 #e1 pronato teres muscle4 ,the radial fasciculus represents in the domestic quadrupeds the long proper flexor muscle of the thumb in man4 ,for this reason we shall describe the muscle afresh in the following paragraph3 ,the fleshy bundles of which we have just spoken terminate in a tendon which afterwards divides into slips1 the number of which is in proportion to the digital division of the hand4 ,these slips then pass through the slit or buttonhole in the tendon of the superficial flexor1 and proceed to terminate on the third phalanx2 hence the name of perforating1 which is also given to the deep flexor of the digits4 ,in the dog and the cat the tendon is divided into five portions1 each of which proceeds to one of the digits4 ,the internal tendon1 which is destined for the thumb1 terminates on the second phalanx of this digit4 ,in the pig the tendon divides into four tendons destined for the four digits4 ,in the ox there are but two tendons4 ,in the horse the tendon is single4 ,as their names indicate1 these muscles1 both superficial and deep1 flex the digits4 ,in addition to this1 they flex the hand on the forearm4 ,we mentioned above that certain details relative to the superficial flexor must be analyzed in a special way4 ,we now add that this should also be done with regard to the deep flexor4 ,the point in question is the arrangement which the tendons of these muscles present at the level of the palmar region of the hand4 ,it is easy1 in the case of the dog or the cat1 to picture to one's self this arrangement1 especially if we recollect that which exists in the human species4 ,the tendons of the flexors are placed on a kind of muscular bed formed by the union of the muscles of the region1 but1 moreover1 from the point of view of external form1 these tendons are not of very great importance4 ,but in the ox and the horse it is quite otherwise4 ,from the simplification of the skeleton of the hand1 and the reduction of the number of movements which the bones that form it are able to execute1 there naturally results a diminution of its muscular apparatus4 ,apart from the existence of muscular vestiges of but little importance1 we can say that1 in reality1 the hand does not possess any muscles4 ,on its palmar aspect are found only the tendons of the flexors of the digits1 and as these tendons are large1 and the hand long1 they give origin to external forms which it is necessary to examine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,ulna of abnormal length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,left ,,anterior ,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,normal ulna4 ,in the horse1 which we take as a type1 the tendons of the flexors1 after being retained in position at the carpus by a fibrous band1 the carpal sheath1 which recalls the anterior annular ligament of the human carpus1 and having passed this region1 descend vertically1 remaining separated from the posterior surface of the metacarpus1 so that the skin sinks slightly on the lateral parts in front of the thick cord which these tendons form4 ,this cord is known by the name of tendon4 ,the flexors then reach the fetlock1 and occupy the groove formed by the peculiar arrangement of the two large sesamoid bones4 ,they are retained in position at this level by a fibrous structure1 which forms the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath4 ,they then reach the phalanges1 being directed obliquely downwards and forwards1 as1 moreover1 the latter are also inclined4 ,then the tendon of the superficial flexor divides into two slips1 which are inserted into the second phalanx1 between which slips passes the tendon of the deep flexor1 which in its turn goes to be inserted1 in the form of an expansion1 into the semilunar crest1 by which the inferior surface of the third phalanx is divided into two parts4#cj #cj ,see1 as regards this crest1 in the paragraph relative to the hoof of the solipeds1 the figures which represent the third phalanx1 viewed on its inferior surface 7,figs4 #aja and #ajb1 p4 #beh74 ,the part which these tendons play is of great importance in the large quadrupeds4 ,these tendons1 in fact1 in addition to the action determined by the contraction of the fleshy fibres to which they succeed1 maintain the angle formed by the canon-bone and the phalangeal portion of the hand1 and prevent its effacement under the weight of the body during the time of standing4 ,their strong development1 and the position they occupy1 make this understood1 without it being necessary to insist on it further4 ,we mentioned above that the 'tendon' descends vertically from the carpus towards the fetlocks4 ,this is as it should be4 ,but1 in some horses1 it is oblique downwards and backwards1 so that the canon1 instead of being of equal depth from before backwards in its whole length1 is a little narrower in its upper part4 ,this results from the fact that the tendons of the flexors1 too firmly bound by the carpal sheath1 gradually separate as they pass from the metacarpus1 going to join the fetlock2 hence the obliquity pointed out above4 ,this abnormality producing a deleterious result1 in the sense that the tendinous apparatus acts with less strength as an organ of support1 it constitutes a defect of conformation which is expressed by saying that the tendon has 'failed4' ,long ,proper ,flexor of the ,thumb 7,flexor longus pollicis7 7,fig4 #gf1 #ad74--;,as we have already pointed out1 this muscle is represented in quadrupeds by the radial bundle of the deep flexor of the digits1 so that the two muscles are in reality blended the one to the other4 ,this union is sometimes found1 but only as an abnormality1 in the human species4 ,we have met some examples of this in the course of our dissections4 ,pronator ,quadratus4--,this muscle conforms to the general law which we have already pointed out in connection with those which have for their action the rotation of the radius around the ulna4 ,we remember1 indeed1 that when the bones of the forearm are fused with one another1 the muscles which are destined to produce a mobility which has then become impossible disappear at the same blow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,part ,,of ,a ,,transverse ,,section ,,passing ,,through ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,fore-,,limb ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,inferior ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,section4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 posterior ulnar2 #d1 anterior ulnar2 #e1 great palmar 7flexor carpi radialis72 #f1 flexors of the digits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,diagram ,,of ,a ,,horizontal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,forearm ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,leg ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,inferior ,,segment ,,of ,,the ,,section4 #a1 ,radius2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 posterior ulnar2 #d1 anterior ulnar2 #e1 great palmar 7flexor carpi radialis72 #f1 flexors of the digits4 ,for this cause we do not find the square pronator in either the ox or the horse1 but can demonstrate its presence in the dog and the cat4 ,it is very deeply situated4 ,this is why1 and also on account of the plan which we have traced for ourselves1 we will simply say that it is situated on the postero-internal aspect of the skeleton of the forearm1 and that it extends from the ulna to the radius4 ,it seems to us1 however1 sufficiently interesting to add that1 instead of occupying1 as in the human species1 the inferior fourth of the two bones1 it extends1 particularly in the dog1 over their whole length1 with the exception of their superior and inferior extremities4 ,muscles of the ,hand ,we will first recall that1 in man1 the palm of the hand is divided into three regions3 a median palmar region1 which is occupied by the tendons of the flexors of the digits1 the lumbricales1 and1 deeply1 by the interosseous muscles2 an external region1 or thenar eminence1 formed by the muscles destined for the movements of the thumb2 an internal region1 or hypothenar eminence1 which contains the muscles proper to the small digit and the palmar cutaneous muscle4 ,these muscles are found1 more or less developed1 in the dog and the cat4 ,in the ox and the horse we meet with no vestige of the muscles of the thenar or hypothenar eminences4 ,nevertheless1 in these animals we find the muscles which belong to the central region of the palm4 ,we refer to the lumbricales and the interosseous4 ,although this fact has no relation to the object of our study1 it appears to us interesting to announce that there are traces of the lumbricales found in the solipeds4 ,these muscles are represented by two fleshy bundles1 situated one on each side of the tendon of the deep flexor1 above the ring of the tendon of the superficial flexor4 ,these small muscles are continued as slender tendons1 which become lost in the fibrous tissue of the spur1 which is the horny process situated at the posterior part of the fetlock1 and which is covered by the hairs1 more or less abundant1 which constitute the wisp4 ,as for the interosseous muscles1 they are represented by the suspensory ligament of the fetlock1 and by two other small muscles1 tendinous throughout1 which are situated between the principal metacarpal and the rudimentary ones4 ,the suspensory ligament of the fetlock is considered an interosseous muscle1 on account of the red fleshy striations which it contains1 and from certain relations which it forms with the tendon of the common extensor of the digits or anterior extensor of the phalanges4 ,this ligament 7,fig4 #ge1 #bf2 ,fig4 #gg1 #ac71 which plays an important part in the standing position as a support of the foot1 is a fibrous band situated between the tendons of the flexors of the digits and the principal metacarpal4 ,it arises above1 from the second row of the carpals1 descends towards the fetlock1 where it divides into two branches1 which are inserted into the large sesamoid bones4 ,at the same level1 this ligament gives off two fibrous bands which1 passing downwards and forwards1 join the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges1 blending with it1 after having each crossed one of the lateral aspects of the pastern4 ,we have already referred to these bands 7p4 #ahc74 ,it is with these latter that are blended the long and slender tendons which form in a great measure the two other interosseous muscles previously described4 ,a ligament of the same kind is found in the ox 7,fig4 #gd1 #bc74 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,limbs ,muscles of the ,pelvis ,the muscles which specially interest us in this region1 because of their superficial position1 are the gluteus maximus and the gluteus medius4 ,as for the gluteus minimus1 it is deeply situated1 and more or less sharply marked off from the second of the preceding muscles4 ,inasmuch as the gluteus medius is more simple in arrangement than the maximus1 and will aid us in arranging our ideas in connection with the latter1 it is with the study of it that we will commence4 ,gluteus ,medius 7,fig4 #fh1 #bi2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bf2 ,fig4 #gj1 #ce74--,this muscle1 as in man1 occupies the external iliac fossa4 ,but this latter being directed differently in the digitigrades and the ungulates1 as we have pointed out in the section on osteology 7see pp4 #ia and #ii71 the muscle in question has consequently not the same direction in the two groups of animals1 being turned outwards in the first1 and upwards in the second4 ,it is the thickest of the glutei1 and gives to the region which it occupies a rounded form4 ,from the iliac fossa from which it arises the fleshy fibres are directed towards the femur1 to be inserted into the great trochanter4 ,it is covered by an aponeurosis1 and in part by the great gluteal4 ,it completely covers the small gluteal1 which veterinary anatomists designate by the name of the deep gluteal4 ,in the carnivora it does not pass in front of the iliac crest1 but1 in the ox1 and more particularly in the horse1 it is prolonged anteriorly1 and thus covers1 to a certain extent1 the muscles of the common mass4 ,when it contracts1 taking its fixed point at the pelvis1 the gluteus medius extends the thigh1 which it is also able to abduct4 ,if1 on the other hand1 its fixed point is on the femur1 it acts on the trunk1 which it raises1 producing oscillating movements of the pelvis4 ,it contributes in this way to the action of rearing4 ,we also see it distinctly appear by the prominence which it produces in the dog1 which1 according to the time-honoured phrase1 fait le beau4 ,gluteus ,maximus 7,fig4 #fh1 #bh2 ,fig4 #fi1 #be2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cc1 #cd74--,the great gluteal muscle1 further designated in veterinary anatomy the superficial gluteal1 is proportionately less developed in quadrupeds than in man4 ,indeed1 in the latter1 where it is of very great thickness1 its volume is due to the important function which it fulfils in maintaining the biped attitude4 ,in quadrupeds it contributes to form the superficial part of the crupper and the external surface of the thigh4 ,it is divided into two parts3 one anterior1 the other posterior4 ,with regard to this latter1 it will be necessary to indicate how it has been sometimes regarded1 and to what portion of the muscular system in man it corresponds4 ,but we believe that it is better to see beforehand1 without any preconceived idea1 how these two parts are arranged4 ,in the dog1 the anterior portion of the gluteus maximus arises from the sacrum1 while some fibres situated further forward arise from the surface of the gluteus medius1 near the iliac spine1 and from the tensor of the fascia lata with which these fibres are blended4 ,the posterior portion1 united to the preceding--that is to say1 to those of its fibres which arise from the sacrum--takes its origin from the first coccygeal vertebra4 ,these two portions are directed towards the femur1 to be inserted into the great trochanter1 and to the external branch of the superior bifurcation of the linea aspera4 ,in the cat1 the posterior bundle is less definitely blended with the anterior4 ,by a long and slender tendon which1 behind1 turns around the great trochanter1 and passes along the surface of the fascia lata1 it proceeds to join the knee-cap4 ,in the pig1 the posterior portion is much more developed4 ,in the horse1 the anterior portion arises from the internal iliac spine 7posterior in man71 from the external iliac spine 7anterior in man71 and1 between these two osseous points1 from the aponeurosis1 which covers the gluteus medius4 ,between these two origins the muscle is deeply grooved1 so that the tendency is to divide into two portions1 each of which is directed towards one of the iliac angles4 ,in this groove the gluteus medius is to be seen4 ,the fleshy bundles converge1 and are directed towards the external aspect of the femur1 to be inserted into the osseous prominence known as the third trochanter1 after passing beneath the fleshy fibres of the posterior portion4 ,the latter1 which is more considerable than the preceding portion1 arises above from the sacral crest1 from the aponeurosis which envelops the coccygeal muscles1 from the sacro-sciatic ligament1 and from the tuberosity of the ischium4 ,from this origin it passes downwards1 expands1 then1 describing a curve with the convexity behind1 it becomes narrowed1 and proceeds to be inserted by a deep fasciculus into the third trochanter1 to the fascia lata1 and1 lastly1 to the knee-cap by the inferior part of its tendon4 ,above1 its posterior border is covered by the semi-tendinosus2 interiorly1 the same border is in relation with the biceps femoris4 ,in the ox1 the two parts of the great gluteal muscle are blended together4 ,the long and broad fleshy band which they form arises in a manner corresponding to that which we have just indicated in connection with the horse1 except that it has no attachment to the femur4 ,the fascia lata adheres strongly to its anterior border for a considerable length4 ,the form of the superior border of the great gluteal muscle of this animal differs from that of the analogous portion in the horse4 ,this difference results from the peculiar aspect which the corresponding region of the pelvis presents1 and from the fact that1 in the ox1 as the semi-tendinosus does not cover the portion of the great gluteal which arises from the tuberosity of the ischium1 the attachments of this muscle to the sacro-sciatic ligament are uncovered4 ,its descending portion1 as a whole1 has a rectilinear form1 and does not form a curve such as we indicated in the case of the horse4 ,the anterior portion of the great gluteal flexes the thigh4 ,as regards the posterior portion1 it extends the thigh1 and abducts it4 ,the action of this latter portion is particularly interesting as regards the horse1 because of the great development of the muscular mass which this region presents in this animal4 ,if the muscle takes its fixed point above1 it acts1 in the extension of the thigh during walking1 by projecting the trunk forward during the whole time that the hind-limb to which it belongs is in contact with the ground4 ,if1 on the contrary1 it takes its fixed point below1 it makes the pelvis describe a see-saw movement1 upwards and backwards1 on the coxo-femoral articulation1 and so contributes to the action of rearing4 ,now that we have a knowledge of the disposition of the great gluteal muscle1 the moment has come to inquire what is the signification of its posterior portion4 ,the action of the anterior part being clearly comparable to the human great gluteal1 there can be no doubt as regards the homology of this portion1 so we will not insist on it further4 ,of the posterior portion it is wholly different1 for it is the homologue of a fleshy bundle annexed to the great gluteal of man1 but which is not developed except as an abnormality4 ,indeed1 we sometimes find1 placed along the inferior border of the great gluteal1 a fleshy fasciculus1 separated from this muscle by a slight interspace4 ,this fasciculus1 long and narrow1 takes origin from the summit of the sacrum1 or the coccyx1 and goes to partake of the femoral insertions of the muscle which it accompanies4 ,we further note a muscle of the same kind1 and presenting the same aspect1 which comes from the tuberosity of the ischium4 ,notwithstanding the difference which exists1 it is this abnormal fasciculus of man which in the quadrupeds here studied is considered as constituting the posterior portion of the great gluteal4 ,bourgelat1 considering this posterior portion as belonging to the biceps cruris1 to which1 it is true1 it adheres1 forms of them a muscle which he designates under the name of the long vastus4 ,the anterior fasciculus of this long vastus is none other than the posterior portion of the great gluteal which we have just been studying4 ,muscles of the ,thigh ,these muscles are divided into three regions3 posterior1 anterior1 and internal4 ,in a corresponding manner to that which we described in connection with the arm1 the thigh is applied to the side of the trunk1 and is free1 more or less1 only at the level of the inferior part4 ,further1 by reason of this shortening of the femur1 the great gluteal muscle1 which is elongated in the ox and the horse1 for example1 occupies in part the region corresponding to that which in man is occupied by the muscles of the thigh1 which here are reduced in length4 ,in other words1 they are not superposed1 as in the human species1 but juxtaposed4 ,this is what we will verify further on4 ,the thigh1 as a whole1 is flattened from without inwards1 its transverse diameter being less in extent than its antero-posterior4 ,its external surface is slightly rounded2 that is1 of course1 in quadrupeds with sufficiently well-developed muscles4 ,its internal surface is known as the flat of the thigh4 ,muscles of the ,posterior ,region ,it is not unprofitable to recall to mind what muscles form the superficial layer of this region in the human being4 ,they are the biceps cruris1 semi-tendinosus1 and semi-membranosus4 ,we now proceed to discover their analogues in quadrupeds4 ,biceps ,cruris 7,fig4 #fh1 #cj2 ,fig4 #fi1 #bg2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cf74--;,it is this which1 according to ,bourgelat1 forms the central and posterior portions of the long vastus muscle which we have mentioned above4 ,we know that the biceps of man is so named from the two portions which form its upper part4 ,in domestic quadrupeds1 and also in the majority of the mammals1 this muscle is reduced to a single portion1 that which comes from the pelvis4 ,it is therefore the portion which arises from the femur which does not exist4 ,this condition is sometimes found as an abnormality in the human species4 ,the biceps arises from the tuberosity of the ischium2 hence it is directed1 widening as it goes1 towards the leg1 where it terminates by an aponeurosis which blends with the fascia lata and the aponeurosis of the leg1 and then proceeds to be attached to the anterior border or crest of the tibia4 ,by its inferior portion it limits externally the posterior region of the knee--the popliteal space4 ,a fibrous intersection traverses the biceps in its whole length1 with the result that the muscle looks as if formed of two portions1 one of which is situated in front of the other4 ,in the dog and the cat it also arises from the sacro-sciatic ligament4 ,at this level its contour is distinguishable from that which corresponds to the gluteal muscles1 so that we there find two prominences one above the other4 ,the superior is formed by the gluteal muscles2 the inferior corresponds to the tuberosity of the ischium4 ,the two prominences are separated by a depression1 from which the biceps emerges4 ,we draw attention to this form1 the character of which is so expressive of energy in the carnivora4 ,in these animals the biceps is inserted1 by its anterior fibres1 into the articulation of the knee1 while in the rest of its extent it covers in great measure by its aponeurosis the external aspect of the leg4 ,in the pig1 the biceps is but slightly marked off from the posterior part of the great gluteal4 ,in the ox1 the division between these two muscles is a little more distinct4 ,in the horse1 the sciatic origin of the biceps is covered by the semi-tendinosus1 so that it only becomes free lower down1 to appear in the space limited behind by the semi-tendinosus1 and in front by the posterior part of the gluteus maximus4 ,when the biceps contracts1 taking its fixed point from above1 it flexes the leg and helps to extend the thigh4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it takes its fixed point from below1 it lowers the ischium1 makes the pelvis undergo a see-saw movement1 and acts thus in the movement of rearing4 ,it is sometimes called1 on account of one of its actions1 and the position which it occupies1 the 'external flexor1 or peroneal muscle of the leg4' ,semi-tendinosus 7,fig4 #fh1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #cg2 ,fig4 #hg1 #a2 ,fig4 #hh1 #a2 ,fig4 #hi1 #bh74--,this muscle forms the contour of the thigh posteriorly1 so that when the latter is viewed from the side1 it is the semi-tendinosus above all that forms the outline4 ,but1 as we shall soon see1 it is in this case more distinct above than below1 because of the deviation which it undergoes in order to occupy by its inferior part the internal side of the leg4 ,in the dog1 the cat1 and the ox1 the semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the ischium only1 as in the human species4 ,in the pig1 it also takes origin higher up from the sacro-sciatic ligament and the coccygeal aponeurosis4 ,in the horse1 it extends still further1 for it is also attached to the crest of the sacrum4 ,the indication of these origins is of importance from the point of view of external form1 and to convince ourselves of this it is sufficient to compare1 in the ox and the horse1 the region of the pelvis situated below the root of the tail4 ,in the ox1 whose semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the ischium only1 this region is depressed1 and the cavity which is formed at this level is limited behind by the tuberosity1 which we know is very thick and prominent above4 ,this causes the superior part of the crupper to be less oblique than in the horse4 ,this characteristic is more especially marked in the cow1 the bull having this region of a more rounded form4 ,in the horse1 on account of the semi-tendinosus ascending to the coccyx1 and even to the sacrum1 the depression in question does not exist1 and the presence of the tuberosity of the ischium is only slightly revealed4 ,descending from the origin indicated above1 and inclining more and more inwards1 the semi-tendinosus proceeds to blend with the aponeurosis of the leg1 to be inserted into the anterior border of the tibia1 after crossing over the internal surface of the latter4 ,it forms the internal boundary of the popliteal space4 ,when this muscle contracts1 taking its fixed point at the pelvis1 it flexes the leg4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it takes its fixed point at the tibia1 it makes the pelvis describe a see-saw movement1 and acts accordingly in the movement of rearing4 ,it is sometimes named the 'internal or tibial flexor of the leg1' in opposition to the crural biceps1 which1 as stated above1 is then the external flexor of the same region4 ,semi-membranosus 7,fig4 #fh1 #cb2 ,fig4 #hg1 #b2 ,fig4 #hh1 #b74--,this muscle1 situated on the inner side of the semi-tendinosus1 can be seen only when the thigh is regarded on its posterior aspect4 ,it is only by reason of the homology of situation with the corresponding muscle in man that we give the name under which we are studying it2 indeed1 its structure is different1 for it does not present the long1 broad1 aponeurotic tendon which1 in its superior part1 characterizes this muscle in the human species4 ,it arises above from the inferior surface of the ischium1 and from the tuberosity of the same bone4 ,in the pig1 and especially in the horse1 it passes further upwards1 to arise from the aponeurosis of the coccygeal muscles4 ,so that if we compare it with that of the ox1 which does not extend beyond the ischium1 we find that it is associated with the semi-tendinosus in determining the difference of aspect to which we have already called attention in connection with the region of the pelvis situated below the root of the tail4 ,the semi-membranosus is then directed downwards and forwards1 to take its place on the internal surface of the thigh1 where it is partly covered by the gracilis muscle4 ,it is inserted in the following manner3 ,in the dog and the cat it is divided into two parts1 anterior and posterior4 ,the first1 the more developed1 is attached to the internal surface of the inferior extremity of the femur2 the second to the internal tuberosity of the tibia4 ,the same arrangement occurs in the ox4 ,in the horse it is inserted into the internal surface of the internal condyle of the femur4 ,the semi-membranosus is an extensor of the thigh when it takes its fixed point at the pelvis2 it is also an adductor of the lower limb4 ,if it takes its fixed point below it assists in the action of rearing4 ,it is now necessary for us1 especially as regards the horse1 to add some indications relative to the exterior forms of the region constituted by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus4 ,these two muscles form1 by their union1 a surface contour1 slightly projecting and of elongated form1 which occupies the posterior border of the thigh1 the contour corresponding to the region known as the buttock1 in spite of the fact that none of the gluteal muscles take any part in the structure of this region4 ,but the appearances1 to a certain extent1 justify the preservation of this name4 ,indeed1 because of the groove which separates the gluteal region of one side from that of the opposite side1 and from the position of the anal orifice in the superior part of this groove1 we may admit the name which1 in hippology1 has been given to this part of the thigh4 ,in addition to the reasons just given1 and which are justified especially by the position occupied by the muscular mass formed by the union of the two muscles1 there is another which1 this time1 has a relation to a certain detail of form4 ,in the superior part of the convexity1 which the gluteal region describes in the greater part of its extent1 there is found a more salient point1 greatly accentuated in lean animals1 due to the presence of the tuberosity of the ischium2 it is the point or angle of the buttock4 ,at this level1 and near the median line1 the semi-membranosus1 not aponeurotic1 but fleshy1 and even thicker there than anywhere else1 sometimes produces a sharply localized prominence4 ,and as this prominence is situated on the outer side of the anal orifice1 the resemblance to a small 'buttock' is still more marked4 ,in lean horses a deep groove separates the mass formed by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus from that of the other muscles of the thigh situated more in front2 this groove is known by a name which in this case is remarkably expressive--that of the 'line of poverty4' ,if we examine the gluteal region as a whole by looking at the thigh from the side1 we plainly see the graceful curve produced by the general convexity above indicated4 ,we return to this point1 in order to add that1 in its lower part1 this curve alters its character2 that is to say1 it is replaced by a slight concavity4 ,this1 which is designated under the name of the fold of the buttock1 is situated close to the level of articulation of the leg with the thigh-bone4 ,muscles of the ,anterior ,region ,first we recall that in man the anterior muscles of the thigh are3 the triceps cruris1 the tensor of the fascia lata1 and the sartorius4 ,triceps ,cruris 7,fig4 #h1 #cf2 ,fig4 #fi1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #da2 ,fig4 #hd1 #b2 ,fig4 #hg1 #c2 ,fig4 #hh1 #c74--,this muscle1 which occupies the greater part of the space between the pelvis and the anterior aspect of the femur1 consists of three parts3 an external1 or vastus externus2 an internal1 or vastus internus2 and a median or long portion1 or rectus femoris4 ,this division accordingly recalls that which characterizes the human triceps cruris4 ,furthermore1 as in the case of the latter1 the vastus externus and the vastus internus take their origin from the shaft of the femur1 while the long portion arises from the pelvis4 ,the vastus externus arises from the external lip of the linea aspera of the femur 7or from the external border of the posterior surface of this bone in the ox and the horse1 in which the linea aspera1 considerably widened1 especially in the latter1 forms a surface71 and from the external surface of the shaft of the femur4 ,from this origin its fibres pass downwards and forwards1 to be inserted into the tendon of the long portion of the muscle and into the patella4 ,in the dog and the cat the vastus externus is the most voluminous of the three portions which constitute the triceps muscle4 ,it is covered by the fascia lata2 but notwithstanding this1 its presence is revealed by a prominence which occupies the external surface of the thigh1 and surmounts1 in the region of the knee1 the more slightly developed one which is produced by the knee-cap4 ,the vastus internus1 situated on the inner surface of the thigh1 takes its origin from the corresponding surface of the femur1 and proceeds towards the patella4 ,the rectus femoris arises from the iliac bone1 above the cotyloid cavity2 its fleshy body1 which is fusiform1 and situated in front of and between the two vasti muscles1 is directed towards the patella1 into which it is inserted by a tendon1 which receives the other two portions4 ,it is covered in front by the tensor of the fascia lata1 and contributes with the vastus externus to form the upper prominence of the knee4 ,the ligamentous fibres1 which1 as in man1 unite the knee-cap to the tibia1 transmit to this latter the action determined by the contraction of the triceps4 ,this muscle is an extensor of the leg4 ,furthermore1 the rectus femoris1 or long portion1 acts as a flexor of the thigh4 ,tensor ,fascia ,lata 7,fig4 #fh1 #cd1 #cf2 ,fig4 #fi1 #cj1 #ca2 ,fig4 #gj1 #dj74--,this muscle1 generally larger in quadrupeds than in man1 is flat and triangular1 and occupies the superior and anterior part of the thigh4 ,it arises from the anterior iliac spine 7inferior in carnivora1 external in the ox and the horse72 it is prolonged downwards by an aponeurosis 7fascia lata7 which occupies the external aspect of the thigh1 proceeds to be inserted into the patella and blend with the aponeurosis of the biceps muscle4 ,it covers the rectus and vastus externus portions of the triceps cruris2 it is also in relation with the gluteal muscles4 ,the tensor of the fascia lata flexes the thigh1 and serves to raise the lower limb as a whole4 ,sartorius 7,fig4 #fh1 #ce2 ,fig4 #hg1 #d1 #e2 ,fig4 #hh1 #e74--,this muscle1 long and flattened1 is called by veterinarians the long adductor of the leg4 ,before beginning the study of its position in quadrupeds1 it is necessary to remember that in man1 where the thigh has a form almost conical1 the sartorius commences on the anterior face of this latter1 and is directed downwards and inwards to reach the internal surface of the knee4 ,but now let us suppose the thigh flattened from without inwards2 there will evidently result from this a change in situation with regard to the muscle in question4 ,in fact1 when this supposition is admitted1 it is easy to imagine that in a great part of the extent in which the sartorius is normally anterior it will become internal4 ,this is why1 these conditions being realized in quadrupeds1 we shall find that1 in some of them1 the sartorius is situated on the aspect of the thigh which is turned to the side of the trunk4 ,in the dog and the cat it arises from the anterior iliac spine1 and from the half of the border of the bone situated immediately below it2 but the fibres from this second origin being hidden by the tensor of the fascia lata1 on the inner side of which they are situated1 viewing the external surface of the thigh1 the muscle seems to arise from the iliac spine only4 ,the sartorius in these animals is divided into two parts1 which1 in general1 are placed in contact4 ,one of these fasciculi is anterior2 the other is situated further back4 ,the first is visible on the anterior border of the thigh1 in front of the tensor of the fascia lata1 but below it inclines inwards2 in its superior part also1 a small extent of the internal surface is occupied by it4 ,the second1 which1 as we have said1 is situated further back1 belongs wholly to the inner surface of the thigh2 it is this portion which arises from the inferior border of the ilium 7this is the homologue of the anterior border of the human iliac bone74 ,the two fasciculi then pass towards the knee1 being in relation with the rectus and the vastus internus of the triceps4 ,the anterior fasciculus is inserted into the patella4 ,the posterior unites with the tendons of the gracilis 7see below7 and semi-tendinosus1 and then proceeds to be inserted into the superior part of the internal surface of the tibia4 ,on account of their different insertions these two parts receive the names of the patellar sartorius and tibial sartorius respectively4 ,in the ox and the horse the sartorius is still more definitely situated on the internal surface of the thigh4 ,consisting of a single fasciculus1 representing the tibial sartorius of the cat and the dog1 it arises in the abdominal cavity from the fascia covering the iliac muscle1 then passes under the crural arch1 and terminates1 by an aponeurosis which blends with that of the gracilis1 on the inner fibres of the patellar ligament4 ,in short1 the sartorius is of interest to us in the carnivora only1 and especially on account of its anterior or patellar fasciculus4 ,it is an adductor of the leg and a flexor of the thigh4 ,muscles of the ,internal ,region ,the ilio-psoas pectineus and the adductors which we study in man1 in connection with the internal aspect of the thigh1 offer little of interest from the point of view of external form in quadrupeds2 it is for this reason that we will disregard them4 ,the gracilis alone merits description4 ,gracilis 7,fig4 #hg1 #i2 ,fig4 #hh1 #f74--;,designated in veterinary anatomy under the name of the short adductor of the leg1 this muscle1 expanded in width1 occupies the greater part of the internal surface of the thigh1 or flat of the thigh1 as this region is also called4 ,let us imagine1 in man1 the internal surface of the thigh broader1 and the internal rectus more expanded1 and we shall have an idea of the same muscle as it exists in quadrupeds4 ,the gracilis arises from the ischio-pubic symphysis and from the neighbouring regions2 thence it is directed towards the leg to be inserted into the superior part of the internal surface of the tibia1 after being united to the tendons of the sartorius and semi-tendinosus4 ,we find1 accordingly1 at this level1 an arrangement which recalls the general appearance of what in man receives the name of the goose's foot 7pes anserinus74 ,it is between this muscle and the sartorius1 at the superior part of the internal surface of the thigh1 in the region which recalls the triangle of ,scarpa1 that we are able1 especially in the cat and the dog1 to see the adductor muscles of the thigh4 ,we also partly see there1 in these animals1 the vastus internus and the rectus of the triceps 7see ,fig4 #hg74 ,the gracilis is an adductor of the thigh4 ,muscles of the ,leg ,we will divide the leg into three regions3 anterior1 external1 and posterior4 ,with regard to the internal region1 there are no muscles which belong exclusively to it2 for it is in great measure formed by the internal surface of the tibia1 which1 as in man1 is subcutaneous4 ,muscles of the ,anterior ,region ,we first note that in the human species the tibialis anticus1 extensor proprius pollicis1 extensor longus digitorum and the peroneous tertius or anticus1 form the subcutaneous layer of this region4 ,we now proceed to study these muscles in quadrupeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,the ,,anterior ,,tibial ,,muscle 7,,flexor ,,of ,,the ,,metatarsus71 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,anterior ,,view4 #a1 ,femoral trochlea2 #b1 tibia2 #c1 tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus2 #d1 cuboid branch of same2 #e1 #e1 its metatarsal branch2 #f1 fleshy portion2 #g1 cuneiform branch of its tendon2 #h1 metatarsal branch of the same tendon2 #i1 extensor longus digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges turned outwards72 #aj1 peroneus brevis 7lateral extensor of the phalanges74 ,tibialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #hc2 ,fig4 #hd1 #f2 ,fig4 #he1 #d2 ,fig4 #hg1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hh1 #aj1 #aa74--;,it is further named by veterinarians the flexor of the metatarsus4 ,in the dog and the cat this muscle1 which is rather large1 arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia and from the crest of this bone4 ,in its superior part it is flat1 but lower down it is thick and produces a prominence in front of the tibia4 ,finally1 it becomes tendinous1 and passes towards the tarsus2 thence it is directed towards the inner side of the metatarsus1 and is inserted into the great-toe1 this latter being sometimes well developed1 but also often merely represented by a small bony nodule on which the muscle is then fixed4 ,in the other animals with which we here occupy ourselves1 the tibialis anticus presents a complexity which would be incomprehensible unless this muscle be first studied in the horse4 ,in this latter the tibialis anticus consists of two distinct portions1 placed one in front of the other3 a fleshy portion1 and a tendinous portion running parallel to it4 ,the muscle is covered1 except on its internal part and inferiorly1 by a muscle with which we will occupy ourselves later on--that is1 the common extensor of the toes4 ,the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus 7,fig4 #hc71 especially covered by the extensor of the toes1 arises from the inferior extremity of the femur1 from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle2 thence it descends towards a groove which is hollowed out on the external tuberosity of the tibia1 and is directed towards the tarsus1 where it divides into two branches1 which are inserted into the cuboid bone and the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal4 ,these two parts form a ring through which the terminal tendon of the fleshy portion of the same muscle passes4 ,this fleshy portion1 situated behind the preceding1 arises from the superior extremity of the tibia1 on the borders of the groove in which the tendinous portion lies2 thence it passes downwards for a short distance on the inner side of the common extensor of the toes1 which covers it in the rest of its extent4 ,it ends in a tendon which1 after passing through the tendinous ring above noticed1 divides into two branches4 ,one of these branches is inserted into the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal1 the other into the second cuneiform bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,biceps cruris and fascia lata1 divided in order to expose the upper part of the muscles of the leg2 #b1 inferior portion of the triceps cruris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 semi-tendinosus2 #e1 inferior extremity of the femur2 #f1 tibialis anticus 7flexor of the metatarsus72 #g1 extensor longus digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #h1 tibia2 #i1 peroneus longus2 #aj1 peroneus brevis2 #aa1 fifth metatarsal2 #ab1 fasciculus detached from the peroneus brevis and passing towards the fifth toe2 #ac1 external head of gastrocnemius2 #ad1 tendo-,achillis2 #ae1 calcaneum2 #af1 flexor digitorum sublimis2 #ag1 #ag1 tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis2 #ah1 flexor longus pollicis 7portion of the deep flexor of the toes72 #ai1 dorsal muscle of the foot 7short extensor of the toes74 ,in the ox the same two portions of the tibialis anticus exist1 but with this capital difference--that the anterior portion is fleshy1 superficial1 and blended for a great part of its length with the common extensor of the toes4 ,the portion which corresponds to that which is fleshy in the horse arises from the tibia2 below1 it ends on the inner surface of the superior extremity of the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones4 ,that which represents the tendinous part1 which is also fleshy1 as we have just pointed out1 arises above with the common extensor of the toes1 from the femur1 in the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle2 whilst below1 after having given passage to the tendon of the preceding portion1 as in the horse1 it is inserted into the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones4 ,in the pig1 the tibialis anticus presents an arrangement nearly similar to that which we have just described4 ,it seems to us of interest to add that it has been sought to ascertain to what muscle of the human leg the tendinous part of the tibialis of the horse corresponds--a part which has become fleshy in the pig and the ox4 ,according to some authors1 it represents the peroneus tertius2 but that muscle is situated on the outer side of the common extensor of the toes2 and here the portion with which it has been compared is placed on the inside4 ,it has also been likened to a portion of the common extensor of the toes1 but it does not pass to the latter4 ,lastly1 it has been considered as being the homologue of the proper extensor of the great-toe2 but why1 then1 in the ox1 which has no great-toe1 is it so highly developed8 ,nevertheless1 its position and its relations sufficiently warrant this method of comprehending it4 ,the tibialis anticus is a flexor of the foot4 ,it is also able1 in animals in which the tarsal articulations allow of the movement1 to rotate the foot inwards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,leg1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,gluteus maximus and biceps cruris2 #b1 semi-tendinosus2 #c1 patella2 #d1 tibialis anticus 7flexor of the metatarsus72 #e1 extensor longus digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #f1 fasciculus of the extensor longus digitorum1 which is considered as the representative of the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus in the horse2 #g1 peroneus longus2 #h1 peroneus brevis 7proper extensor of the external toe72 #i1 external head of gastrocnemius2 #aj1 soleus2 #aa1 tendo-,achillis2 #ab1 calcaneum2 #ac1 tendon of the extensor longus digitorum 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #ad1 flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #ae1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes2 #af1 tendon of the deep flexor of the toes2 #ag1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock4 ,with regard to the tendinous part1 called by veterinarians the cord of the flexor of the metatarsus1 it serves1 in the horse1 to produce the flexion of the metatarsus when the knee is already flexed2 it thus acts in a passive fashion1 which is explained by its resistance and the position which it occupies in relation to these two articulations4 ,extensor ,proprius ,pollicis4--,this muscle exists only in the dog and the cat1 and there in a rudimentary condition4 ,it is covered by the common extensor of the toes and the tibialis anticus1 and passes1 accompanied by the tendon of this latter muscle1 to terminate on the second metatarsal1 or the phalanx1 which articulates with it4 ,when the first toe exists in the dog1 it is inserted into this by a very slender tendon4 ,extensor ,longus ,digitorum 7,fig4 #hc1 #i2 ,fig4 #hd1 #g2 ,fig4 #he1 #e1 #f2 ,fig4 #hf1 #d2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hh1 #g74--;,it is also called by veterinarians the anterior extensor of the phalanges4 ,in the dog and the cat this muscle is to be seen in the space limited behind by the peroneus longus and in front by the tibialis anticus4 ,above it is covered by this latter4 ,in the lower half of the leg1 it is also in relation1 on the inner side1 with the tibialis anticus2 but behind it is separated from the peroneus longus by the external surface of the shaft and inferior extremity of the tibia4 ,this arrangement1 besides1 recalls that which is found in man1 the peroneus longus of the latter diverging in the same way1 at this level1 from the common extensor1 and leaving exposed the corresponding portion of the skeleton of the leg4 ,this muscle1 fusiform in shape1 arises at its upper part from the external surface of the inferior extremity of the femur1 then its tendon passes into a groove hollowed on the external tuberosity of the tibia4 ,the fleshy body which succeeds is directed towards the tarsus1 but before reaching it is replaced by a tendon4 ,this tendon1 at the level of the metatarsal bones1 divides into four slips1 which pass towards the toes1 and are inserted into the second and third phalanges of the latter4 ,in the horse it covers1 to a great extent1 the tibialis anticus1 so that it is the latter which forms the large fusiform prominence especially noticeable in the middle region1 to which the contour of the anterior surface of the leg is due4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-tendinosus2 #b1 biceps cruris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 extensor longus digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #e1 reinforcing band arising from the ligament of the fetlock2 #f1 peroneus brevis 7lateral extensor of the phalanges72 #g1 external head of gastrocnemius2 #h1 soleus2 #i1 tendo-,achillis2 #aj1 calcaneum2 #aa1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #ab1 flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #ac1 #ac1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges2 #ad1 #ad1 tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges2 #ae1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #af1 principal metatarsal3 #ag1 external rudimentary metatarsal4 ,it arises above from the inferior extremity of the femur1 from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle2 therefore1 it has a common origin with the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus1 or flexor of the metatarsus4 ,the tendon1 which at the level of the inferior part of the leg succeeds to the fleshy body1 passes in front of the tarsus1 the principal metatarsal1 and receives the tendon of the peroneus brevis which we will describe later on4 ,it then reaches the anterior surface of the fetlock4 ,there it presents an arrangement analogous to that which we have pointed out in connection with the anterior extensor of the phalanges--a muscle which1 in the fore-limbs1 corresponds to the common extensor of the digits2 that is to say1 it is inserted1 in form of an expansion1 into the pyramidal prominence of the third phalanx1 after having formed attachments to the first and second1 and having received on each side a strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock4 ,in the ox the long extensor of the toes is united above1 and for a great part of its length1 with the portion of the tibialis anticus1 which represents1 albeit in the fleshy state1 the tendinous cord of the latter in the horse4 ,in common with this portion1 it arises from the inferior extremity of the femur4 ,thence it passes towards the tarsus and divides into two fasciculi1 internal and external1 which are continued by tendons4 ,these pass towards the phalanges1 and1 in case of the common extensor of the digits belonging to the fore-limbs1 the internal is destined for the internal toe1 and the external is common to the two toes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,left ,,hind-,,limb1 ,,internal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-tendinosus2 #b1 semi-membranosus2 #c1 triceps cruris 7vastus internus72 #d1 sartorius 7patellar72 #e1 sartorius 7tibial72 #f1 patella2 #g1 first or middle adductor2 #h1 small and great adductor united2 #i1 gracilis2 #aj1 tibialis anticus 7flexor of the metatarsus72 #aa1 tibia2 #ab1 tendon of extensor longus digitorum 7anterior extensor of the phalanges73 #ac1 gastrocnemius1 inner head2 #ad1 tendo-,achillis2 #ae1 calcaneum2 #af1 popliteus2 #ag1 superficial flexor of the toes2 #ah1 flexor longus pollicis 7portion of the deep flexor of the toes72 #ai1 flexor longus digitorum 7portion of the deep flexor of the toes72 #bj1 tendon of the tibialis posticus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,hind-,,leg1 ,,internal ,,aspect4 #a1 ,semi-tendinosus2 #b1 semi-membranosus2 #c1 triceps cruris 7vastus internus72 #d1 patella2 #e1 sartorius2 #f1 gracilis2 #g1 extensor longus digitorum common extensor of the toes 7anterior extensor of the phalanges72 #h1 tendon of the preceding muscle2 #i1 reinforcing band given off by the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #aj1 tibialis anticus 7flexor of the metatarsus71 its tendinous portion2 #aa1 tibialis anticus 7flexor of the metatarsus71 its fleshy portion2 #ab1 cuneiform branch of the tendon of this fleshy portion2 #ac1 internal head of gastrocnemius2 #ad1 popliteus2 #ae1 tendon of the flexor brevis digitorum 7superficial flexor of the phalanges72 #af1 flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus 7deep flexor of the phalanges72 #ag1 flexor longus digitorum 7oblique flexor of the phalanges72 #ah1 #ah1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges2 #ai1 #ai1 tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges2 #bj1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #ba1 principal metatarsal2 #bb1 internal rudimentary metatarsal4 ,in the pig the general arrangement of the muscle is similar1 but the tendons end in a manner which is a little more complicated4 ,apart from the fasciculi which correspond to the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus 7fleshy here1 as in the ox71 the long extensor of the toes at the level of the tarsus divides into three tendons3 the internal goes to the great internal toe2 the middle bifurcates in the upper part of the digital portion of the foot1 and each of its branches goes towards one of the great-toes2 the external divides to pass towards each of the two small toes1 and towards the great ones2 but this latter disposition is not constant4 ,by its contraction the muscle which we have just studied extends the phalanges and flexes the foot4 ,peroneus ,tertius4--,this muscle is not found in domestic quadrupeds4 ,we should remember1 nevertheless1 that certain authors consider as representing it the tendinous portion of the anterior tibial of the horse1 or the corresponding portion now fleshy1 of the same muscle in the pig and the ox4 ,it is by reason of this fact that it is called the third peroneal1 notwithstanding that in the numerical order of the peroneals it is rather the first4 ,but that which still further complicates this question of nomenclature is that some authors give this name of third to a peroneal which1 in the carnivora1 is situated more definitely in the group of external muscles 7see below1 ,short ,lateral ,peroneal74 ,muscles of the ,external ,region ,in man1 two muscles constitute this region2 they are the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis4 ,peroneus ,longus 7,fig4 #hd1 #i2 ,fig4 #he1 #g74--,this muscle does not exist in the domestic animals2 only in the flesh-eaters1 the pig and the ox excepted4 ,it is in relation superiorly with the tibialis anticus1 and inferiorly with the common extensor of the toes2 in the ox1 it is in contact with this latter muscle throughout its whole length4 ,the peroneus longus arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia2 towards the middle of the leg it is replaced by a tendon4 ,this proceeds towards the tarsus1 but previously it passes between the tibia and fibula4 ,in the ox it is situated in front of the coronoid tarsal bone2 we recollect that this bone is regarded as representing the inferior extremity of the fibula 7see p4 #ig74 ,then it passes into a groove belonging to the cuboid bone or to the cuboido-scaphoid bone in the ox1 traverses obliquely the posterior aspect of the tarsus1 and is inserted into the rudimentary bone which represents the first toe2 or1 if this does not exist1 into the innermost of the metatarsal bones4 ,this muscle is an extensor of the foot4 ,it also rotates it outwards in the animals in which the articulation permits this latter movement4 ,peroneus ,brevis 7,fig4 #hc1 #h2 ,fig4 #hc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hd1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hf1 #f74--;,in the dog and the cat1 this muscle is covered in part by the peroneus longus1 and arises from the inferior half of the tibia and the fibula2 at the level of the tarsus it becomes tendinous1 passes into a groove hollowed out on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the fibula1 and terminates on the external aspect of the superior extremity of the fifth metatarsal4 ,a little before this insertion it crosses the tendon of the long peroneal in passing to the outer side of the latter4 ,to the short peroneal muscle is found annexed a very thin fasciculus which lies upon it4 ,this fasciculus arises from beneath the head of the fibula1 and is soon replaced by a thin tendon1 which1 accompanying that of the short peroneal1 proceeds towards the foot1 after having traversed the groove in the inferior extremity of the fibula2 passes along by the fifth metatarsal 7,fig4 #hd1 #ab72 blends at the level of the first phalanx of the fifth toe with the corresponding tendon of the long extensor of the toes1 and partakes of the insertions of this tendon4 ,this fasciculus is designated by some authors under the name of the peroneal of the fifth toe1 or the proper extensor of the same toe4 ,but what makes still further complications is that other authors regard it as an anterior1 or third1 peroneal4 ,now1 these names are those which other anatomists have applied to the fasciculus of the anterior tibial1 which1 in the pig and the ox1 is fused in part with the long extensor of the toes4 ,hence there results a confusion which is truly regrettable4 ,in brief1 we can1 without inconvenience1 consider it as a fasciculus of the short peroneal muscle4 ,we sometimes find in man1 but abnormally1 an arrangement which partly recalls that which we have just indicated4 ,it consists in a duplication of the tendon of the short peroneal1 one of the branches of which goes to the fifth metatarsal1 and the other to the fifth toe2 it is sometimes a single fasciculus which goes to the phalanges of this latter4 ,we have met with examples of these anomalies4#ca ,in the pig1 the short peroneal is situated on the same plane as the long4 ,it consists of two clearly distinct fasciculi1 which arise from the fibula4 ,the tendon of the anterior fasciculus proceeds to the great external toe--that is to say1 the fourth1 of which it is the proper extensor4 ,the posterior fasciculus terminates on the small external toe1 the fifth1 of which it is in like manner the extensor4 #ca ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',anomalies1 ,osseous and ,muscular' 7,bulletins de la ,societe d',anthropologie1 ,paris1 #ahia74 ,in the ox1 the fleshy fibres of the short peroneal arise from a fibrous band which replaces the fibula1 and from the external tuberosity of the tibia4 ,situated behind the long peroneal and on the same plane1 it terminates in a tendon which appears at the level of the inferior part of the leg2 it passes in front of the canon1 and is inserted into the external toe1 of which it is the proper extensor4 ,in the horse1 it is the sole representative of the peroneal muscles1 and veterinary anatomists have given it the name of the lateral extensor of the phalanges4 ,its fleshy body arises above from the external lateral ligament of the knee-joint1 and from the whole length of the fibula4 ,in the middle third of the leg it is narrowed2 lower down it is replaced by a tendon4 ,this is lodged in a groove hollowed on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the tibia2 then after passing along the external surface of the tarsus1 it is directed forward1 and proceeds to blend towards the middle of the canon-bone with the tendon of the long extensor of the toes1 or anterior extensor of the phalanges1 of which it shares the insertions4 ,it extends the phalanges into which it is inserted4 ,it also flexes the foot4 ,muscles of the ,posterior ,region ,it will not be unprofitable to recall to mind that1 in man1 the muscles of this region are arranged in two layers3 a superficial layer consisting of the gastrocnemius and soleus1 to which is added a muscle of little importance1 the plantaris1 and a deep layer formed by four muscles--the popliteus1 flexor longus digitorum1 tibialis posticus1 and flexor longus pollicis4 ,the gastrocnemius and soleus1 independent in their upper portion1 unite below in a common tendon2 they thus form also a triceps muscle1 which we designate under the name of the triceps of the leg1 or triceps suralis1 because it forms the elevation of the calf of the leg 7from sura1 calf74 ,gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #hc1 #i1 #aa2 ,fig4 #hd1 #ac1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #g1 #i2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ac74--,the external and internal heads of the gastrocnemius1 distinct from one another only in their upper portion1 arise from the shaft of the femur1 above the condyles1 on the borders of the popliteal surface1 to a relatively considerable extent in the great quadrupeds4 ,at this level they are situated in the popliteal region--that is to say1 in the space limited externally by the biceps1 and internally by the semi-tendinosus4 ,but as they descend to a rather low level on the leg in quadrupeds1 and especially in carnivora1 they do not1 properly speaking1 determine a projection of the calf of the leg4 ,however1 they pass from this region but to be soon continued by a tendon--the tendo-,achillis1 which is inserted into the calcaneum4 ,now1 the region of the tarsus is called by veterinarians the ham1 the posterior surface of which is angular1 because of the oblique direction of the leg with regard to the vertical direction of the metatarsus and the presence of the calcaneum2 the prominence which this surface presents has received the name of the point of the ham1 and the tendon which ends there that of the cord of the ham4 ,but the tendo-,achillis does not alone form this cord4 ,indeed1 as we will soon see1 the tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes takes part in its formation4 ,we may add1 with regard to the tendo-,achillis1 that it is more clearly perceived as an external feature1 because the skin sinks in front of it1 as it does in man1 over the lateral parts of the region which it occupies4 ,the gastrocnemius1 when it contracts1 extends the foot on the leg4 ,it serves to maintain the tibio-tarsal angle in the standing position1 and during walking1 to determine the steadying of the hind-limbs1 which then1 after the fashion of a spring1 project the body forward4 ,by an analogous movement they take part in the posterior projection of the hind-limbs in the act of kicking2 but they are not the only ones to act in this case1 the muscles of the buttock and thigh also being brought into play4 ,soleus 7,fig4 #hc1 #aj2 ,fig4 #hf1 #h74--,this muscle1 much less developed in quadrupeds than in man1 does not exist in the dog4 ,with regard to the soleus in the pig1 ,professor ,lesbre says3 ',meckel denied its existence2 we1 however1 believe that it is united to the external head of the gastrocnemius1 its origin being transferred to the femur4'#cb #cb ,f4 ,x4 ,lesbre1 ',essai de ,myologie comparee de l'homme et des mammiferes domestiques en vue d'etablir une nomenclature unique et rationelle1' ,lyon1 #ahig1 p4 #afi4 ,but in animals in which it exists1 this muscle1 of but little importance1 occupies the outer side of the leg4 ,it arises above from the external tuberosity of the tibia1 and terminates below in a tendon which is united with that of the gastrocnemius4 ,the soleus has the same action as these latter4 ,plantaris4--,in quadrupeds this muscle is blended with the superficial flexor of the toes1 which we will study afterwards4 ,popliteus 7,fig4 #hg1 #af2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ad74--;,in man1 this muscle1 which occupies the posterior surface of the tibia1 above the oblique line1 is completely covered by the gastrocnemius4 ,in quadrupeds1 where it is more voluminous1 it projects internally beyond the gastrocnemius1 so that it is seen in the internal and superior part of the region of the superficial layer of muscles1 immediately behind the internal surface of the tibia1 which1 as we know1 is subcutaneous4 ,the popliteus arises from the external surface of the external condyle of the femur4 ,thence its fibres which diverge pass to be inserted into the superior part of the posterior surface and of the internal border of the tibia4 ,it is in this latter region that it projects beyond the gastrocnemius1 but we may add that there it is more or less covered by the semi-tendinosus4 ,it flexes the leg1 and rotates it forwards4 ,superficial ,flexor of the ,toes 7,fig4 #hc1 #ac1 #ae2 ,fig4 #hd1 #ag2 ,fig4 #hf1 #aa1 #ac1 #ac2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ag2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ae1 #ah1 #ah74--;,in man1 the homologue of this muscle is found in the sole of the foot4 ,it is called the short flexor of the toes4 ,it arises from the calcaneum1 and passes to the four outer toes4 ,in quadrupeds1 it rises as high as the back of the knee1 and is found blended with the plantaris4 ,further designated by the name of the superficial flexor of the phalanges1 covered in part by the gastrocnemius1 with which it is in relation for a great part of the course which it traverses1 this muscle arises from the posterior surface of the femur1 on the external branch of the inferior bifurcation of the linea aspera4 ,in the horse1 this origin takes place in a depression situated above the external condyle1 in the supracondyloid fossa4 ,then it accompanies the gastrocnemius1 and becomes tendinous where the tendo-,achillis commences4 ,it then winds round the latter in placing itself on its inner side1 then on its posterior surface1 and reaches the calcaneum4 ,it accordingly contributes1 as we have already pointed out1 to form the cord of the ham4 ,after having become expanded1 and having covered as with a sort of fibrous cap the bone of the heel1 it descends behind the metatarsus1 and presents there an arrangement analogous to that which we pointed out in connection with the superficial flexor of the digits--that is1 it contributes to form the tendon4 ,this prominence1 in the form of a cord1 we see behind the canon-bone in solipeds and ruminants4 ,it finally terminates in the same way as the muscle with which we have compared it 7see p4 #aig74 ,in the horse1 its fleshy body is but slightly developed1 so that its tendon alone is specially visible in the superficial muscular layer1 but in the dog and the cat it is large4 ,hence it results that its fleshy body appears on each side of the inferior half of the gastrocnemius1 and produces an elevation which recalls that which the soleus produces on each side of the same muscles in the human species4 ,the muscles which follow form1 with the popliteus1 which we have already studied1 the deep layer of the posterior region of the leg4 ,flexor ,longus ,digitorum 7,fig4 #hg1 #ai2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ag74--,this muscle1 in man1 is the only common flexor of the toes belonging to the muscles of the leg4 ,in comparison with the preceding muscle1 it is a deep flexor4 ,veterinarians have given it the name of the oblique flexor of the phalanges4 ,visible on the internal aspect of the superficial layer of the muscles of the leg1 this muscle arises above from the posterior surface of the external tuberosity of the tibia1 becomes tendinous1 passes towards the metatarsus1 and blends with the tendons of the posterior tibial and the long proper flexor of the great-toe4 ,in the dog and the cat it is blended with this latter only4 ,tibialis ,posticus 7,fig4 #he1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hg1 #bj2 ,fig4 #hh1 #af74--,this muscle arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia1 and from the head of the fibula4 ,thence it passes to the tarsus1 and terminates in different fashion in carnivora and other quadrupeds4 ,in the dog and the cat1 it is inserted into the ligamentous apparatus of the tarsus1 or into the base of the second metatarsal4 ,in the other quadrupeds with which we are here occupied it is blended with the long proper flexor of the great-toe4 ,it is accordingly in the carnivora that the mode of termination of the tibialis posticus most nearly resembles that of this same muscle in the human species4 ,from this independence there results a special action4 ,it is an adductor and internal rotator of the foot4 ,flexor ,longus ,pollicis 7,fig4 #hd1 #ah2 ,fig4 #he1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ab2 ,fig4 #hg1 #ah2 ,fig4 #hh1 #af74--,this muscle1 as that in man1 is the most external of the deep layer of the leg4 ,it is on the external aspect of the latter we perceive it1 between the peroneals and the gastrocnemius or tendo-,achillis4 ,it arises from the fibula and tibia1 and is thence directed towards the tarsus4 ,it unites with the long common flexor of the toes to form with it the deep flexor of the phalanges1 of which it is the principal fasciculus4 ,we may add that in the dog and the cat the posterior tibial remains independent of this latter1 but that in the pig1 ox1 and horse the posterior tibial is united to the preceding to form with them the deep flexor muscle4 ,thus constituted1 the deep flexor goes towards the phalanges1 where it terminates as the deep flexor of the digits of the fore-limbs 7see p4 #aig74 ,in animals possessed of a canon it contributes to form the tendon 7,fig4 #he1 #af2 ,fig4 #hf1 #ad1 #ad2 ,fig4 #hh1 #ai1 #ai74 ,muscles of the ,foot ,we must remember that on the dorsal surface of the foot in man we find but a single muscle--the dorsalis pedis4 ,the remaining subcutaneous structures of this region consist of the tendons of the anterior muscles of the leg which occupy this dorsal aspect4 ,dorsalis ,pedis 7,fig4 #hd1 #ai74--;,also called the extensor brevis digitorum1 the dorsalis pedis muscle is found in all domestic quadrupeds2 but its development is so much the less as the number of digits is more reduced4 ,in the dog and the cat it arises from the calcaneum1 and is inserted into the three internal toes 7the first toe excepted7 by uniting with the corresponding tendons of the common extensor4 ,in the pig its disposition is analogous4 ,as for the dorsalis pedis of the ox and the horse1 it is extremely rudimentary1 and occupies the superior part of the canon4 ,it is a small1 fleshy body1 situated on the anterior surface of the metatarsus1 which arises from the calcaneum1 whence it passes to unite at its inferior extremity with the tendon of the extensor of the phalanges4 ,as regards the muscles of the sole of the foot1 we think it unnecessary to occupy ourselves at any length with them because of their slight importance with regard to external form4 ,we will only recall that in the median portion of this plantar surface we find in man the short flexor of the toes1 which in quadrupeds arises higher up1 from the posterior surface of the femur2 that it belongs to the muscles of the leg2 and that it forms the superficial flexor of the toes1 which we have already studied4 ,we may further add that the suspensory ligament of the fetlock in ruminants and solipeds represents1 as in the fore-limbs1 the interosseous muscles4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head ,we will divide these muscles into two categories3 masticatory and cutaneous4 ,masticatory ,muscles ,the muscles of this group which specially interest us are the masseter and the temporal4 ,as regards the pterygoids1 since they are situated within the borders of the inferior maxillary bone1 and consequently do not reach the surface1 we shall not require to occupy ourselves with them here4 ,masseter 7,fig4 #hi1 #b2 ,fig4 #ij1 #a2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,for those who have studied the masseter of man1 it is not difficult to recognise that of quadrupeds4 ,nevertheless1 the particular aspect which it presents in different species gives to its study a certain interest4 ,arising from the zygomatic arch1 and passing downwards and backwards1 it is inserted into the external surface of the ramus of the mandible and into its angle4 ,its posterior border is in relation with the parotid gland 7,fig4 #ij1 #ad2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib71 this gland being situated between the corresponding border of the lower jaw bone and the transverse process of the atlas4 ,such are the general characters2 the following are the particular ones3 ,in the carnivora it is thick and convex4 ,in the horse it is flat1 but more expanded2 it forms the flat of the cheek4 ,in the ox it is flat1 as in the latter2 but1 while being less thick1 it is more prolonged in the vertical direction4 ,the form of the osseous parts which give it origin is1 besides1 in relation with these differences1 and explains the peculiar characters which the masseter presents4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,masticatory ,,muscles 7,a ,,deeper ,,dissection ,,than ,,that ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #ij74 #a1 ,zygomatic arch2 #b1 masseter2 #c1 temporal exposed by the suppression of the auricular and occipital muscles and the pinna of the ear2 #d1 auditory canal2 #e1 inferior maxillary bone2 #f1 digastric4 ,indeed1 in the dog and the cat the zygomatic arch1 strongly convex1 springs up in a marked manner from the plane of the lateral aspects of the skull4 ,in the horse the same arch1 less prominent externally1 is prolonged by a rectilinear crest on the superior maxillary bone1 where it is continued in forming the zygomatic or maxillary spine4 ,in the ox the same crest ascends a good way towards the inferior margin of the orbit in a curved direction with the concavity inferior1 to redescend afterwards on the external surface of the superior maxilla4 ,the masseter is an elevator of the lower jaw4 ,it acts1 above all1 as in the human species1 in the process of mastication4 ,temporal ,muscle 7,fig4 #hi1 #c74--,the development of the temporal is in proportion to the energy of the movements of elevation which the lower jaw has to execute4 ,it arises from the temporal fossa1 and is inserted into the coronoid process of the inferior maxilla4 ,its development1 enormous in the carnivora1 is such that the muscle projects beyond its fossa4 ,it is less voluminous in the horse1 and still less so in the ox4 ,in the latter1 indeed1 the temporal fossa1 although deep1 is of small extent 7see ,fig4 #fb1 p4 #aai72 the frontal bone being large1 it is found to be thrown back on the lateral walls of the cranium1 below the osseous processes which support the horns and overhang the fossa in question1 as well as the muscle which it contains4 ,it is covered by the auricular muscles1 and by the base of the pinna of the ear4 ,like the masseter1 the temporal is an elevator of the lower jaw4 ,cutaneous ,muscles of the ,head ,occipito-,frontalis4--,the epicranial aponeurosis is extremely thin4 ,in the dog the occipital muscle occupies the superior part of the head2 it overlies the temporal muscle4 ,with regard to the frontal muscle1 which is of great extent in the ox 7,fig4 #ia1 ,f71 it is represented in the horse and the carnivora by a small fleshy fasciculus only1 the fronto-palpebral muscle1 similar to the superciliary muscle4 ,this1 occupying the superior and internal part of the border of the orbit1 ends by blending its fibres with those of the orbicular muscle of the eyelids at the region of the eyebrow4 ,orbicularis ,palpebrarum 7,fig4 #ij1 #b2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,this annular muscle surrounds the palpebral orifice1 and takes its origin on the internal part of the orbital region4 ,in the horse it arises1 by a small tendon1 from a tubercle which occupies the external surface of the os unguis1 or lachrymal bone4 ,this muscle determines the narrowing and closure of the palpebral orifice4 ,pyramidalis ,nasi4--,the pyramidal muscle is not found in the domestic animals4 ,it appears to be blended with the internal elevator of the upper lip and wing of the nose2 this is easy of comprehension if we bear in mind the relative position of these two muscles in the human species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 #a1 ,masseter2 #b1 orbicularis palpebrarum2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 lachrymal 7this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic72 #e1 levator labii superioris proprius2 #f1 levator labii superioris alaeque nasi2 #g1 caninus2 #i1 buccinator2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricularis2 #ab1 external temporo-auricularis2 #ad1 parotid gland2 #ae1 parotido-auricularis2 #af1 inferior maxillary bone2 #ag1 digastric4 ,corrugator ,supercilii4--,this muscle is represented by the fronto-palpebral muscle noticed above1 which is by some regarded as a vestige of the frontal4 ,zygomaticus ,major 7,fig4 #ij1 #c2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,this is the zygomatic-labial of veterinarians4 ,this muscle is of an elongated form1 and has a ribbon-like aspect4 ,in the dog and the cat it arises from the base of the pinna of the ear1 from the portion of this base which bears the name of scutiform cartilage4 7,with regard to this cartilage1 see p4 #bdb1 ,zygomatico-auricularis47 ,from this it is directed downwards and forwards1 to terminate1 after having crossed the masseter1 on the deep surface of the skin of the corresponding labial commissure4 ,this mode of termination is the same in the ox and the horse2 but where the muscle differs is at the level of its upper extremity4 ,there it ascends less than in the carnivora4 ,in the ox it arises from the zygomatic arch in the neighbourhood of the temporo-maxillary articulation2 in the pig and the horse its origin is still lower1 on the surface of the masseter1 close to the maxillary spine4 ,when it contracts1 it draws upwards the labial commissure4 ,now1 in man1 we remember1 it is the great zygomatic that1 by an action of the same kind1 determines the essential characters of the expression of laughing4 ,there is1 accordingly1 a connection to be established between those displacements which are similar and the analogy of facial expression which necessarily results from them4#cc #cc ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',the ,mimic1' ,paris1 #ahjb4 ,zygomaticus ,minor 7,fig4 #ij1 #d2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,the existence of this muscle has not been clearly demonstrated4 ,nevertheless1 ,straus-,durckheim noted its presence in the horse1 and described it as 'a muscle arising by two heads1 of which one1 the superior1 arises from the malar bone below the orbit1 and passes downwards and forwards over the fibro-adipose layer which supports the moustache4 ,the second1 the inferior1 arises from the alveolar border in front of the second molar tooth1 and passes forward to be inserted into the same fibro-adipose layer4'#cd #cd ,h4 ,straus-,durckheim1 ',anatomie descriptive et comparative du chat1' ,paris1 #ahde1 t4 ii41 p4 #baj4 ,in connection with other quadrupeds1 it is described by certain authors as a very thin muscle1 arising below the cavity of the orbit1 where it is blended with the fibres of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the ala of the nose2 thence it proceeds to terminate below by uniting with the subcutaneous muscle4 ,but this muscle is regarded by other authors as the lachrymal muscle1 which does not exist in this state in man1 but of which the development is particularly remarkable1 as to extent1 in the ox1 in which it descends as far as the buccinator4 ,according to other authors1 some of the fibres of this muscle constitute the small zygomatic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 #a1 ,masseter2 #b1 orbicularis palpebrarum2 ,f1 frontalis2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 lachrymal 7this muscle is sometimes described under the name of small zygomatic72 #e1 levator labii superioris proprius2 #f1 levator labii superioris alaeque nasi2 #g1 levator anguli oris or caninus2 #h1 orbicularis oris2 #i1 buccinator2 #aj1 maxillo-labial2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricularis2 #ab1 external temporo-auricularis2 #ad1 parotid gland2 #ae1 parotido-auricularis2 #af1 inferior maxillary bone4 ,levator ,labii ,superioris ,proprius 7,fig4 #ij1 #e2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,also named by veterinarians the supramaxillo-labial1 or again1 the proper elevator of the upper lip1 this muscle arises from the external surface of the superior maxillary bone1 passes under the superficial elevator1 which we shall study in the succeeding paragraph1 and goes to be inserted into the thickness of the lip1 to which its name indicates that it belongs4 ,the peculiarities of this muscle in different animals are the following3 ,in the dog and the cat it arises behind the infra-orbital foramen4 ,in the pig it arises from a depression below the orbital cavity1 and its fleshy body is terminated in front by a strong tendon in the upper part of the snout1 in which it divides into fasciculi4 ,in the ox it arises from the maxillary spine4 ,in the horse it arises below the orbital cavity2 then1 after having crossed the superficial elevator1 it ends in a tendinous expansion1 situated in the median line between the nasal fossae4 ,this expansion divides into fasciculi1 which end in the thickness of the upper lip4 ,by the contraction of this muscle1 the lip is raised1 on one side only1 if a single muscle contracts1 or in its whole extent1 if the two muscles act simultaneously4 ,internal ,elevator 7or ,superficial7 of the ,upper ,lip and the ,wing of the ,nose 7levator labii superioris alaeque nasi7 7,fig4 #ij1 #f2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--,this is the muscle veterinarians designate the supranaso-labial4 ,arising from the frontal and nasal bones1 it thence passes towards the upper lip1 where it is inserted as well as into the wing of the nose4 ,in the ox it is united above with the frontal muscle1 and below is divided into two fasciculi1 between which pass the elevator described above and the canine muscle4 ,in the horse it is also divided into two fasciculi2 but the arrangement is the opposite as regards1 their relations with neighbouring muscles1 in this animal and in the preceding4 ,in the ox the external fasciculus is covered by the external elevator and the canine1 which pass under the internal fasciculus2 in the horse the deep elevator passes under the two fasciculi1 and the canine passes under the external bundle1 and afterwards covers the internal4 ,in the pig1 the internal elevator is wanting4 ,as its name indicates1 it raises the upper lip and the wing of the nose4 ,transversus ,nasi4--,in the horse this muscle1 which is very thin1 is situated on the dorsum of the nose1 and proceeds to be inserted into the cartilaginous skeleton of the nostrils4 ,in the pig1 it occupies an analogous situation4 ,it does not exist in the ox or in carnivora4 ,the transversus nasi is a dilator of the nostrils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,myology ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 #a1 ,masseter2 #b1 orbicularis palpebrarum2 #c1 zygomaticus major2 #d1 lachrymal 7this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic72 #e1 external elevator 7or deep7 of the upper lip and ala of the nose2 #f1 internal elevator 7or superficial7 of the upper lip and of the ala of the nose2 #g1 levator anguli oris or caninus2 #h1 orbicularis oris2 #i1 buccinator2 #aj1 maxillo-labialis2 #aa1 zygomatico-auricularis2 #ab1 temporo-auricularis externus2 #ac1 cervico-auricularis2 #ad1 parotid gland2 #ae1 parotido-auricularis2 #af1 inferior maxillary bone4 ,caninus 7,fig4 #ij2 ,figs4 #g1 #ia1 #ib74--,this is the muscle called by veterinarians the great supramaxillo-nasal4 ,in the dog and the cat it is situated below the inferior border of the external elevator of the upper lip1 of which it follows the direction4 ,it arises1 as does this latter1 from the external surface of the maxilla1 and goes also to terminate in the upper lip by blending with the internal elevator of this lip and of the alae of the nose4 ,it raises the upper lip4 ,in the ox1 it arises from the maxillary spine1 and then divides into three parts2 the superior passes under the internal portion of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the alae of the nose1 and goes into the nostril2 whilst the two others1 situated lower down1 terminate in the upper lip4 ,in the pig1 it is formed of two superimposed fasciculi1 which arise from the spine of the maxilla and the impressions in front of it4 ,these two fasciculi terminate in the snout1 which they move laterally4 ,in the horse1 it is situated at a certain distance from the external elevator2 in the preceding animals it is in contact with the latter4 ,arising behind from the external surface of the maxilla1 in front of the maxillary spine1 it is directed towards the anterior part of the face1 passes under the external portion of the internal elevator 7it is the opposite of this in the ox71 and proceeds1 on expanding1 to terminate in the skin of the nostril4 ,by its contraction it dilates the latter4 ,orbicularis ,oris 7,fig4 #ia1 #h2 ,fig4 #ib74--,this muscle1 very fleshy in the solipeds and the ruminants1 is arranged as a ring round the buccal orifice1 in the thickness of the lips1 where it is blended with the other muscles of this region4 ,having for its function the narrowing of the orifice it surrounds1 it acts during suction and in the prehension of food4 ,triangularis ,oris4--,this muscle does not exist in domestic quadrupeds4 ,quadratus ,menti4--,in the pig and the carnivora1 it arises from the anterior part of the body of the inferior maxillary bone1 and passes at the other end to terminate in the corresponding portion of the lower lip1 which it depresses by its contraction4 ,in the ox and the horse this muscle does not exist2 it is replaced for the depression of the lower lip1 which it affects in other animals1 by supplemental fibres of the buccinator4 ,the ,prominence of the ,chin4--,below the lower lip in the horse is situated the so-called prominence of the chin1 limited posteriorly by the beard1 a depressed region which gives point to the curb of the bridle4 ,the prominence1 which also exists in the ox1 is a fibro-muscular pad which blends with the orbicular muscle of the lips1 and receives on its superior aspect the insertion of the two muscles 7levator menti7 by which it is suspended4 ,these arise1 above1 on each side of the symphysis of the inferior maxillary bone4 ,they raise the lower lip with force1 and they are the agents which1 as we can sometimes observe in the horse1 make it click against the upper lip1 suddenly projecting it upwards4 ,this action sometimes becomes a habit1 and its continuance constitutes a vice4 ,a corresponding structure is found in the pig and in the carnivora1 but in them it does not produce an external prominence such as we have described4 ,buccinator 7,fig4 #ij1 #i2 ,figs4 #ia1 #ib74--;,further designated by the name of alveolo-labial1 this muscle is situated on the lateral portions of the face1 in the thickness of the cheeks4 ,it consists of two layers1 one superficial and the other deep4 ,the deep portion arises from the portion of the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone which corresponds to the molar teeth1 and from the anterior border of the ramus of the mandible4 ,thence it is directed forwards1 passes under the superficial layer1 and blends with the fibres of the orbicular muscle of the lips4 ,to this part of the buccinator some authors give the name of molar muscle4 ,the superficial portion is formed by fibres which pass from the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone to the corresponding border of the opposite bone4 ,it is very highly developed in the herbivora4 ,this muscle acts especially during mastication2 it serves to press back again under the molar teeth the portions of food which fall outside the dental arch4 ,in the pig1 the ox1 and the horse1 a muscle which is considered as supplemental to the buccinator is placed along the inferior border of the latter4 ,this muscle1 which we describe separately under the names of maxillo-labialis 7,fig4 #ia1 #aj2 ,fig4 #ib7 and depressor of the lower lip1 is clearly distinct from the buccinator1 especially in the horse4 ,it arises1 behind1 with the deep layer of the muscle to which it is annexed1 from the anterior border of the ramus of the lower jaw2 in front it terminates in the thickness of the lower lip4 ,in the ox1 it is more intimately united with the buccinator4 ,it depresses the lip to which it is attached1 and displaces it laterally when it acts on one side only4 ,in the human species1 the pinna of the ear being generally immobile1 the muscles which belong to it are1 very naturally1 considerably atrophied4 ,accordingly1 the auricular muscles1 anterior1 superior1 and posterior1 are reduced to pale and thin fleshy lamellae1 whose action is revealed in certain individuals1 only in a way which may be said to be abnormal4 ,it is not the same in quadrupeds4 ,the pinna of the ear is extremely mobile1 and its displacements have a real value from the point of view of physiognomical expression4 ,it is therefore necessary to review the muscles which move this pinna without giving them1 at the same time1 more importance than they merit1 since in themselves they do not determine the formation of surface reliefs1 which are sufficiently apparent4 ,notwithstanding that for certain of these muscles it is possible to trace their analogy with those of the auricular region of man1 it is very difficult1 because of their complexity1 to trace this analogy for all4 ,this is why we shall not be able here1 as we have done for the other muscles of the subcutaneous layer1 to give at the head of each paragraph the name of a human muscle1 and then to group in the same paragraph the muscles which correspond to it in different quadrupeds4 ,therefore the nomenclature and the divisions adopted for these latter must serve us as a base or starting-point4 ,because the pinna of the horse's ear is so very mobile1 we will first begin with a study of its auricular muscles4 ,zygomatico-auricularis 7,fig4 #ib1 #aa74--,this muscle1 which is formed of two small bands of fleshy fibres1 arises from the zygomatic arch in blending with the orbicular muscle of the eyelids2 thence it is directed towards the base of the pinna of the ear1 and is inserted into this base1 and also into the cartilaginous plate situated in front of and internal to this1 and resting on the surface of the temporal muscle2 this is the scutiform cartilage4 ,the zygomatico-auricularis1 which we look on as the homologue of the anterior auricular of man1 draws the pinna of the ear forwards4 ,temporo-auricularis ,externus 7,fig4 #ib1 #ab74--,this1 which is thin and very broad1 covers the temporal muscle4 ,it arises from the whole extent of the parietal crest1 blending in this plane1 in its posterior half1 with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,thence it is directed outwards towards the pinna of the ear1 and is inserted into the internal border of the scutiform cartilage and on the inner side of the concha--that is to say1 of the conchinian cartilage--which forms the principal part of the pinna4 ,we are supposing1 in the description of the muscles which move it1 that this pinna has its opening directed outwards4 ,the external temporo-auricular1 which recalls1 from its situation1 the superior auricular of man1 is an adductor of the ear2 besides1 it causes it to describe a movement of rotation from without inwards1 so as to direct its opening forwards4 ,scuto-auricularis ,externus4--,this muscle may be considered as supplementary to the external temporo-auricular2 the concha fasciculus of this latter partly covers it4 ,extending from the scutiform cartilage to the inner side of the concha1 it contributes to the movement of rotation by which the opening of the pinna of the ear is directed forwards4 ,cervico-auricular ,muscles 7,fig4 #ib1 #ac74--,these muscles1 three in number1 are situated behind the pinna of the ear2 they are called1 from their mode of superposition1 the superficial1 middle1 and deep4 ,these arise1 all three1 from the superior cervical ligament1 and pass from there towards the cartilage of the concha4 ,they recall1 as regards situation1 the posterior auricular muscle of man4 ,superficial ,cervico-auricular 7,cervico-auricularis superioris74--,this muscle1 inserted into the posterior surface of the concha1 draws this cartilage backwards and downwards4 ,middle ,cervico-auricular 7,cervico-auricularis medius74--,situated between the two other muscles of the same group1 it proceeds1 after having covered the superior extremity of the parotid gland1 to be inserted into the external part of the base of the concha4 ,it determines the rotation of this concha in such a way as to direct the opening of the ear backwards4 ,deep ,cervico-auricular 7,cervico-auricularis inferioris74--,covered by the preceding muscle and the superior portion of the parotid1 it is inserted into the base of the pinna of the ear1 and has the same action as the middle cervico-auricular4 ,parotido-auricularis 7,fig4 #ib1 #ae74--,this is a long and thin fleshy band which arises from the external surface of the parotid gland1 and tapering as it passes upwards towards the pinna of the ear1 is inserted into the external surface of the base of the concha1 below the inferior part of the angle of reunion of the two borders which limit its opening4 ,it inclines the pinna outwards2 it is1 accordingly1 an abductor of the pinna4 ,temporo-auricularis ,internus4--,this muscle is covered by the external temporo-auricular and the superior cervico-auricular4 ,it arises from the parietal crest1 and is inserted into the internal surface of the concha4 ,it is an adductor of the pinna of the ear4 ,there are1 finally1 an internal scuto-auricular muscle and a tympano-auricular2 but they do not present any interest for us2 we can simply confine ourselves to making mention of them4 ,in the ox1 because of the situation of the temporal fossa and the fact that the external temporo-auricular muscle is applied1 as in the horse1 over the muscle which this fossa contains1 this temporo-auricular muscle does not reach the middle line 7,fig4 #ia1 #ab74 ,but in the cat and the dog this muscle covers all the upper part of the head 7,fig4 #ij1 #ab74 ,it is divided into two parts3 the interscutellar and the fronto-scutellar4 ,the interscutellar is a single muscle1 thin and broad1 covering the temporal muscle and a portion of the occipital1 extending from the scutiform cartilage of the pinna of one side to the same cartilage of the pinna belonging to the side opposite4 ,it approximates the two pinnae to one another by bringing them each into the position of adduction4 ,the fronto-scutellar arises from the orbital process of the frontal bone1 and from the orbital ligament1 which at this level completes the interrupted osseous boundary of the orbital cavity4 ,thence it is directed1 widening as it proceeds1 towards the scutiform cartilage1 and is there inserted by blending with the corresponding part of the great zygomatic4 ,its action is analogous to that of the preceding muscle2 but1 further1 it directs the opening of the pinna forwards4 ,these are the muscles which act1 for example1 when the dog1 having his attention strongly attracted by any cause1 pricks up his ears and turns the openings forward1 in order the better to understand every sound which proceeds1 or may possibly proceed1 from that which he observes4 ,from this1 which may be extremely well seen in some individuals1 results the appearance of vertical wrinkles of the skin in the interval between the pinnae of the ears1 these being caused by the folding of the integument1 whilst the pinnae approach one another4 ,these movements1 with which are associated fixation of look and a widening of the palpebral fissure1 produce a peculiarly expressive look2 this is why they merit our attention4 ,zygomatico-auricularis 7,fig4 #ij1 #aa74--;,arises from the internal surface of the great zygomatic1 passes towards the pinna of the ear1 and goes to be inserted into the external part of the base of the pinna1 below its opening1 to a prominence which corresponds to the antitragus of the human ear4 ,it is to this antitragus1 but proceeding from another direction1 that the parotido-auricular muscle is inserted 7,fig4 #ij1 #ae74 ,with regard to the cervico-auriculars1 they are all three present4 ,the superior1 or superficial1 situated behind the interscutellar portion of the external temporo-auricular1 has its origin on the median line of the neck2 thence it passes towards the pinna of the ear1 blending its fibres with those of the interscutellar muscle1 and is inserted into the scutiform cartilage and the internal surface of the pinna4 ,such are the principal muscles of the ear in the carnivora2 it would seem to us superfluous to dwell on the others of this region1 so that we will here conclude the study of the muscles in general1 and that of the myology of the head in particular4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,epidermic ,,products ,,of ,,the ,,terminal ,,extremities ,,of ,,the ,,fore ,,and ,,hind ,,limbs ,we will first recall to mind that among the quadrupeds some are found of which the fingers and toes have their third phalanges terminated by claws--these are the unguiculates2 and that in others the terminal extremity of each limb is completely encased in a horny envelope1 the hoof--these are the ungulates4 ,in the first group1 the claws remind us to a certain extent of the arrangement of the nails in man2 the inferior aspect of the paws is covered by an epidermic layer1 thick and protective1 which may be likened to the skin1 correspondingly thick1 which covers in the greater part of its extent the plantar surface of the foot in the human species4 ,in the second group1 the surface by which the third phalanx rests on the ground is correspondingly protected1 but this time by a layer of horn which belongs to the hoof4 ,after the preceding remarks1 our study will be found to fall into a natural division1 and it is in the order which we have just followed for the purpose of indicating its existence that we now proceed to study the nature and form of the different elements which complete or protect the digital extremities of the thoracic and abdominal limbs4 ,claws4--,these horny coverings of the third phalanges1 which we have to consider only in the dog and cat1 may be compared with the nails of man1 with which1 however1 they present1 as is well understood1 characteristic differences4 ,the claws are compressed laterally1 curved on themselves1 and are terminated in front by a sharp point in the felide1 but more blunted in the dog4 ,their superior border is convex and thick4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that a claw is a sort of hollow tube1 in the form of a cone flattened in the transverse direction1 in which the third phalanx is set1 and which is itself set in a groove formed by a kind of osseous hood which occupies the base of this third phalanx 7see ,fig4 #cg1 p4 #eg74 ,this definition is exact1 as regards the general appearance2 but1 when more closely scrutinized1 it is not sufficient4 ,the tube in question is not formed of a single piece2 each of the claws is formed by a lamina laterally folded1 but of which the borders are not exactly joined together inferiorly2 they leave between them a small interval1 and this is filled by a layer of more friable horny substance1 to which has been given the name of plantar nail4 ,this arrangement1 which is clearly defined in the dog 7,fig4 #ic71 is comparable to that which we shall afterwards meet with in connection with the sole of the hoof of the horse 7see ,fig4 #ajj1 p4 #beg74 ,in the dog and the cat1 the weight of the limb resting on the inferior surface of the phalanges1 it was necessary that the region of the plantar surface of the foot corresponding to these latter should be protected2 this is the function of certain fibro-adipose pads1 which are situated there1 and which are designated by the name of plantar tubercles4 ,plantar ,tubercles 7,fig4 #id74--,these tubercles1 or dermic cushions1 are divided1 in each paw1 into tubercles of the digits 7or of the toes71 a plantar tubercle1 and1 on the fore-limbs1 a tubercle of the carpus4 ,the tubercles of the fingers 7or of the toes7 are of the same number as the latter4 ,that which belongs to the thumb is but little developed1 but the others are more so4 ,they are in relation with the plantar surfaces of the second and third phalanges1 so that when the paw is in contact with the ground the articulation which1 in each of the fingers or toes1 joins these phalanges1 rests on the corresponding pad4 ,the plantar tubercle is larger than the preceding4 ,it is of a more or less rounded form2 sometimes it is triangular1 and then comparable in outline to the ace of hearts1 the point of which is1 in this case1 turned towards the claws2 its margin being sometimes strongly indented1 it may also have a trilobate form4 ,it is on it that rest the metacarpo-phalangeal or metatarso-phalangeal articulations1 according to the limb studied4 ,the tubercle of the carpus1 situated at the level of the posterior surface of this latter1 is less important than the preceding1 the region which it occupies not reaching the ground during walking4 ,but it is not to be neglected from the point of view of external form1 because of the prominence which it produces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,,claw ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,inferior ,,surface4 #a1 ,horny lamina of the claw2 #b1 plantar nail2 #c1 tubercle of the corresponding digit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,left ,,hand ,,of ,,the ,,dog3 ,,inferior ,,surface1 ,,plantar ,,tubercles4 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,tubercles of the fingers2 #b1 plantar tubercle2 #c1 tubercle of the carpus4 ,in the ungulates the terminal extremity of the limb is1 as we have above pointed out1 enclosed in a horny envelope which is no other than the hoof4 ,we will first study the hoof of the horse--a hoof which is single for each of the limbs1 inasmuch as in this animal each of these has but a single digit4 ,hoofs of the ,solipeds4--,we will first study the hoof as regarded in a general way--that is1 without taking into account the limb to which it belongs4 ,we will afterwards point out the differences presented when the hoofs of the fore and hind limbs are compared4 ,in connection with the external forms of the horse1 the study which we are now commencing is of great importance4 ,but1 before entering upon it1 it appears to us necessary to rapidly examine what the hoof contains 7,fig4 #ie74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,vertical ,,antero-,,posterior ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,horse4 #a1 ,third phalanx2 #b1 fibro-cartilage2 #c1 podophyllous tissue2 #d1 inferior part of the wall2 #e1 section of the wall of the hoof2 #f1 cutigerous cavity2 #g1 tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges2 #h1 reinforcing band coming from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 #i1 tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges2 #aj1 tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges4 ,in the interior of this horny box we find the third phalanx1 a small sesamoid bone placed opposite to the posterior border of the latter1 a portion of the inferior extremity of the second phalanx1 and the tendons1 which terminate at this region4 ,to the third phalanx are added two fibro-cartilaginous plates1 flattened laterally1 which prolong backwards the bone to which they are annexed4 ,the inferior border of each of these fibro-cartilages is fixed by its anterior part to two osseous prominences situated at each of the angles which terminate the small phalanx behind2 these prominences are3 the basilar process and the retrorsal process 7,fig4 #if72 by its posterior part1 this border is continuous with a structure known as the plantar cushion 7see further on74 ,the posterior border is directed obliquely upwards and forwards4 ,the superior border1 which is convex or rectilinear1 is thin1 and is separated from the posterior border by an obtuse angle4 ,finally1 the anterior border1 which is directed obliquely downwards and backwards1 is united to the ligamentous apparatus1 which keeps the second and third phalanges in contact4 ,these fibro-cartilages1 at their upper extremities1 project beyond the hoof1 and therefore assist in the formation of the lateral regions of the foot1#ce at the part which is called the crown4 ,they project less above the hoof in the posterior limbs4 #ce ,here1 for the first time1 apropos of the hoof1 we use the word 'foot4' ,as in osteology and in myology we have1 for the sake of clearness of comparison1 designated under this name the region limited above by the tarsus1 it is necessary to point out here that we employ the same word for a more restricted region4 ,this we did in conformity with the usage of veterinarians1 who so designate the region of the hoof4 ,it is necessary to explain this double employment of the word1 and1 further1 to show the particular meaning ascribed to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,external ,,surface4 #a1 ,pyramidal eminence2 #b1 surface1 for articulation with the inferior extremity of the second phalanx2 #c1 basilar process2 #d1 retrorsal process4 ,the posterior and inferior borders of these cartilages meet at an acute angle4 ,the angle so formed1 or cartilaginous bulb1 constitutes the base of the region1 which is commonly called the heel--a part of the foot which1 as its name implies1 is situated posteriorly1 but which we must not confound1 as we might be led to do1 with the region occupied by the calcaneum4 ,we know from our previous studies of comparative osteology that this latter is situated much higher up4 ,the plantar cushion is a sort of fibrous wedge which occupies the interval bounded by the fibro-cartilaginous plates which we have just been studying4 ,its inferior surface1 the form of which we shall find to be reproduced by a portion of the corresponding surface of the hoof1 is prolonged anteriorly into a point1 while behind it is divided into two branches1 which1 diverging from one another1 join the posterior angles of the fibro-cartilages4 ,these two branches are separated by a median excavation4 ,the different constituent elements which we have just been discussing give elasticity to the foot4 ,to finish the examination of the parts contained in the hoof1 we will add that among them is also found what is called the fleshy envelope1 or flesh of the foot4 ,we divide the latter into three regions3 the podophyllous tissue1 striated or laminated flesh which is spread out over the anterior surface of the third phalanx2 the pad1 or the hardened skin which corresponds to the upper border of the hoof1 and forms a prominence above the podophyllous tissue2 and the villous flesh1 or velvety tissue which covers the plantar surface of the third phalanx and the plantar cushion4 ,these three tissues form as a whole the keratogenic membrane--that is to say1 that which produces horny tissue1 and consequently regenerates the hoof4 ,it is this latter that we now proceed to study4 ,when we examine its anterior surface or the opposite one1 the hoof of the horse has the shape of a truncated cone with the base below and the summit cut off obliquely downwards and backwards 7,fig4 #ig74 ,viewed on one of its lateral aspects1 it may be compared to a truncated cylinder placed on the surface of the section 7,fig4 #ih74 ,we particularly call attention to this latter comparison1 for it singularly aids us in making a representation of the foot of the horse when viewed laterally4 ,notwithstanding that the hoof forms apparently a homogeneous whole1 it consists of three parts1 which may be separated from one another by maceration4 ,the indication of such disunion1 artificially produced1 may seem useless4 ,it is not so1 however1 for this division of the hoof will permit us to carry out the study of the latter in a clearer1 and consequently a more satisfactory1 way4 ,the three parts in question are the wall1 or crust1 the sole1 and the frog4 ,the wall is that portion of the hoof which we see when the foot rests on the ground4 ,it is a plate of horn which1 applied to the anterior and lateral surfaces of the foot1 diminishes in height as it approaches the posterior part of the region4 ,posteriorly and at each side the wall is folded on itself1 and is then directed forwards to terminate in a point1 after having enclosed the frog1 which we will soon study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,left ,,anterior ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,anterior ,,aspect4 #a1 ,outer side2 #b1 inner side4 ,although the wall forms a continuous whole1 it has been divided into regions to which special names are given4 ,the anterior part1 from the superior border to the inferior1 is called the pince or toe for a width of #d to #e centimetres4 ,external to the toe1 and on each side of it1 for a distance of #c or #d centimetres1 is the nipple4 ,behind the nipples are the quarters4 ,still further back1 where the wall folds on itself1 forming the buttress1 is found the region of the heels4 ,finally1 the portions of the wall which form its continuation in passing forward are called the bars4#cf ,these are only visible on the inferior surface of the hoof 7see ,fig4 #ajj74 #cf ,it is to the angle of inflexion or heel that some authors give the name of buttress2 it is the bars which other authors designate in this fashion4 ,the wall1 convex transversely1 is1 in its anterior part 7viz41 the toe7 inclined strongly downwards and forwards4 ,this obliquity tends to become gradually effaced on the lateral parts to such a degree that at the quarters it becomes almost perpendicular to the surface of the ground4 ,the internal quarter is less rounded than the external2 in addition to this 7,fig4 #ig71 it approaches more nearly to the vertical direction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,left ,,anterior ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect4 #a1 ,fetlock2 #b1 spur or beard2 #c1 pastern2 #d1 outline determined by the external fibro-cartilage2 #e1 acute angle2 #f1 nipple2 #g1 quarter2 #h1 heel4 ,in our opinion1 this latter difference clearly recalls certain characters of the general form of the human foot4 ,in fact1 the latter has its dorsal surface inclined downwards and outwards1 whereas its internal border may be said rather to be vertical4 ,a transverse section of the foot 7,fig4 #ii7 justifies this comparison1 which to us appears interesting1 not only as regards the resemblance which exists between these organs of support1 but1 further1 because it constitutes a mnemonic which enables us1 on condition that we remember the form of the human foot1 to recall the above-described character of that of the horse4 ,the greater convexity of the outer portion of the hoof is found equally on the human foot2 the external border of this foot is more convex than the opposite one4 ,the inferior border of the wall 7,fig4 #ajj7 is1 in the case of unshod horses1 always in wear when in contact with the ground4 ,it is intimately united to the circumference of the sole 7see further on74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,vertical ,,and ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,a ,,left ,,human ,,foot3 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,divided ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,segment ,,of ,,this ,,section 7,,diagrammatic ,,figure74 ,,aa'1 ,vertical axis passing through the middle of the leg and the second toe2 #a1 outer side2 #b1 inner side4 ,the superior border is hollowed on its internal surface by a groove1 the cutigerous cavity or basil1 which lodges the cushion 7see ,fig4 #ie74 ,we have described this latter above1 in connection with the flesh of the foot4 ,the substance of the wall presents a fibrous appearance which is pretty strongly pronounced4 ,the constituent fibres from which this appearance results are directed from the superior border towards the inferior in parallel and regular lines4 ,the sole is a horny plate which occupies the inferior surface of the hoof 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,it is situated between the inferior border of the wall and the bars2 and1 on account of the oblique direction of these latter1 it presents a strongly-marked groove of a ,v-form1 with the opening directed backwards4 ,in this depression is lodged the frog4 ,the inferior surface is concave1 and thus forms a sort of vault1 more or less deep1 according to the individual4 ,the sole has a scaly1 laminated aspect4 ,we have seen 7,fig4 #ic1 and p4 #bdi7 that on the inferior surface of the claws of carnivora is found a small interval which is filled by a plate of a more friable horny substance1 to which has been given the name of the plantar nail4 ,it seems to us that there is an interesting relationship between the said plantar nail and the sole which we have just been studying4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,inferior ,,surface ,,of ,a ,,fore-,,hoof ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,internal border of the wall 7toe72 #b1 wall2 #c1 quarter2 #d1 heel2 #e1 bar2 #f1 sole2 #g1 frog2 #h1 median cavity2 #i1 prominence of the frog2 #aj1 lateral cavity4 ,indeed1 these two horny structures appear to be homologous4 ,is not the lamina of the claw comparable to the wall of the hoof8 ,and does not the interval which occurs at the inferior part of this latter1 and is filled by the sole1 recall that which1 in extremely reduced form1 is filled by the plantar portion of the claws8 ,the frog 7,fig4 #ajj7 is a mass of horn1 in form of a wedge1 with its apex in front1 which occupies the space limited laterally by the recurved portions of the wall 7the bars7 and the posterior border of the sole4 ,it covers the plantar cushion previously described 7p4 #beb7 and reproduces its form4 ,its inferior surface is hollowed out in the middle by an excavation1 which is known as the median lacuna4 ,this cavity separates the branches of the frog1 which terminate posteriorly by two swellings which are known as the prominences of the frog1 forming two rounded elevations situated above the claws4 ,these same branches unite in front of the median lacuna to form the body of the frog4 ,this latter1 in its anterior part1 gradually narrows1 and terminates in a point which occupies the bottom of the hollow limited laterally by the bars of the wall and the posterior border of the sole4 ,between the lateral surfaces of the frog and the bars are found two angular cavities--the lateral lacunae1 or the commissures of the frog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,anterior ,,limb1 ,,inferior ,,view4 #a1 ,external border2 #b1 internal border2 #c1 semilunar crest2 #d1 #d1 re-entrant processes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,third ,,phalanx ,,of ,,the ,,horse3 ,,left ,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,inferior ,,view4 #a1 ,external border2 #b1 internal border2 #c1 semilunar crest2 #d1 #d1 re-entrant processes4 ,as an indispensable complement to the study which we have just made1 it is necessary to add that the hoofs of the fore-limbs and those of the hind ones present differences of form which cannot be ignored--differences which we are already able to conjecture by looking at the respective third phalanges which terminate those limbs1 and especially at their inferior surfaces 7,figs4 #aja1 #ajb74 ,the hoofs of the fore-limbs 7see ,fig4 #ajj71 viewed on their plantar surface1 are more rounded than those of the hind-limbs 7,fig4 #ajc7--so that their external contour may be compared to a semicircle--whilst the hind-hoofs1 which are narrow and of more oval shape1 rather recall by their form the aspect of an ogive4 ,this seems to result from the fact that the fore-limbs support the more considerable part of the weight of the animal4 ,the best proof which can be given of this overweighting is the eagerness with which very often1 when a horse is stopped near the edge of a footpath1 for example1 he places his fore-feet on the latter4 ,in thus raising his fore-quarters1 he throws part of his weight backwards1 and in this way relieves his fore-limbs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,,inferior ,,surface ,,of ,a ,,hind-,,hoof ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,left ,,side4 #a1 ,external border2 #b1 internal border4 ,with regard to the difference of form which we have just pointed out1 we have sometimes heard the following comparison made3 the contour of the hoofs of the fore-limbs1 viewed from below1 recalls that of an apple2 that of the hoofs of the hind-limbs recalls the outline of a pear4 ,as a mnemonic this comparison is insufficient1 for nothing connects either of the forms indicated with the region to which the hoofs belong4 ,we much prefer one made for us this very year by one of the students of our course at the ,school of ,fine ,arts1 after the lecture in which we had just pointed out the differences in question4 ,giving the idea of a semicircle and an ogive1 which we described above1 he remarked to us that the idea would perhaps be more easily fixed in the memory if we associated with it the idea of the chronological order in which the ,roman and ogival art succeeded4 ,indeed1 as the ,roman art preceded the ogival art1 so the hoofs which have the semicircular form precede those which have the form of an ogive4 ,this interpretation appeared to us ingenious2 this is why we wished to give it here a place which seems to us to be merited4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,left ,,posterior ,,foot ,,of ,a ,,horse3 ,,external ,,aspect4 ,the wall of the hoof of a fore-limb1 viewed on one of its lateral surfaces 7see ,fig4 #ih71 is more oblique than that of one of the hind-hoofs looked at in the same way 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,this difference1 very marked especially at the region of the toe1 is correlated with that of the direction of the pastern4 ,in fact1 in the anterior limbs this is a little more oblique than in the opposite ones4 ,we have still to describe1 in connection with the horse1 some epidermic tissues1 which are known as chestnuts4 ,the chestnut is a small1 horny plate which is found on the internal surface of each of the limbs1 at a level differing on the anterior from that of the posterior ones4 ,on the anterior limbs the chestnut is situated on the internal surface of the forearm1 towards the middle part1 or the inferior third of this region4 ,on the posterior limbs it is developed on the back of the superior extremity of the internal surface of the canon1 towards the inferior part of the ham--that is1 the tarsus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,ox3 ,,left ,,side1 ,,antero-,,external ,,view4 #a1 ,internal hoof2 #b1 external hoof2 #c1 internal surface of this latter2 #d1 internal spur4 ,inasmuch as some authors consider the chestnuts as being vestiges of the thumb and the great-toe1 we propose giving a mnemonic which will enable us to remember their situation1 or1 rather1 their difference of level4 ,if we consider that the thumb1 in the human species1 is longer than the first toe1 we may easily remember that the chestnut is placed higher in the anterior limbs than in the posterior ones4 ,indeed1 if we suppose a digit taking its origin at these points1 it will be longer in front 7the thumb7 than behind 7the first toe74 ,hoofs of the ,ox and the ,pig4--,the ox has four hoofs on each foot--two which contain the third phalanges1 and two others1 rudimentary1 situated at the posterior aspect of the limb1 at the level of the inferior part of the canon2 these latter bear the name of spurs4 ,we will occupy ourselves especially with the former 7,fig4 #aje74 ,each of the hoofs presents three faces which1 if we consider them in relation to the median axis of the limb to which they belong1 are3 external1 internal1 and inferior4 ,the external surface resembles the wall of the hoof of the horse4 ,the internal surface is slightly concave from before backwards1 so that the external and internal hoofs of the same foot are not in contact with each other1 except by the extremities of this surface1 and that an interval separates them between these two points4 ,the inferior surface1 slightly depressed1 ends behind in a swelling produced by the plantar cushion1 which covers a thin lamina of horn4 ,at the anterior part of the hoof these three surfaces unite in forming a well-marked angle which1 on account of the concavity of the internal surface1 is slightly curved towards the axis of the foot4 ,the pig has also four hoofs--two for the great digits and two for the lateral digits4 ,they recall those of the ox4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,proportions ,inasmuch as we have taken for granted1 in connection with the present volume1 that before entering on the study of the anatomy of quadrupeds the reader was prepared for it by a sufficient knowledge of human anatomy1 it is quite natural that we should extend the same supposition to the study of proportions4 ,for this reason1 the definition of proportions1 considered from a general point of view1 their signification1 their function and their utility1 are questions which it would be superfluous to enter upon here4 ,we will content ourselves by calling to mind that the common measure chosen by preference is the length of the head1 and that1 ordinarily1 it is with it that we compare the dimensions of other parts4 ,among the animals whose structure we have examined1 there is one of which the proportions deserve to be marked in preference to every other3 this is the horse4 ,wherefore this preference8 ,in the first place1 it is because of the overwhelming position which this animal occupies in the artistic representation of quadrupeds2 that it is more frequently associated with man2 that1 notwithstanding its division into different races1 its general proportions may be referred to a special type4 ,it is also because the indications relative to these proportions will suffice to show the way which the artist must follow in order to find for himself1 at the time when the necessity for it arises1 the proportions which characterize the other animals4 ,our intention is not1 in connection with the subject which now occupies us1 to enter into a deep discussion on the various opinions which have been set forth4 ,we desire1 above all1 to give some indications which1 from the practical point of view1 can be utilized in the representation of the horse1 and at the beginning to demonstrate the advantages of these indications4 ,now1 there is a fact which we have had occasion to note2 it is the following3 almost invariably1 when a person who is little accustomed to represent the horse1 or not previously informed of certain proportions of lengths1 begins to draw from nature1 the error generally committed is that of making the head too small and the body too long4 ,is it a preconceived idea which is the cause that one regards them in this manner8 ,perhaps4 ,at all events1 certain artists who have made the representation of horses their special study have even had this habit4 ,it is therefore necessary to be informed of the proportions2 this is the object of the study which we are now undertaking4 ,bourgelat1#cg in the eighteenth century1 fixed for the first time and in complete fashion the proportions of the horse2 it is he1 consequently1 who created the aesthetics of the horse4 ,it is but justice to recall the fact4 ,his system has a point of analogy with that which is employed to determine the human proportions4 ,indeed1 ,bourgelat chose the length of the head as a standard of measurement1 and the subdivisions of the head for measures of less extent4 ',since beauty1' said he1#ch 'resides in the congruity and proportion of the parts1 it is absolutely necessary to observe the dimensions1 individual and relative1 and in order to acquire a knowledge of the proportions1 to assume a kind of measure which can be indiscriminately common for all horses4 ,the part which can serve as a standard of proportion for all the others is the head4 ,take a measurement between two parallel lines--one tangent to the nape of the neck or the summit of the forelock1 the other tangent to the extremity of the anterior lip--a line perpendicular to these two tangents will give you its geometrical length4 ,divide this length into three portions1 and give to these three parts a special name1 which may be applied indefinitely to all heads--as1 for example1 that of prime4 ,any head whatsoever will1 accordingly1 in its geometrical length1 always have three primes2 but all the parts which you will have to consider1 whether in their length1 in their height1 or in their width1 cannot constantly have either one prime1 or a prime and a half1 or three primes2 subdivide1 then1 each prime into three equal parts1 which you will name seconds1 and as this subdivision will not suffice to give you a just measure of all the parts1 subdivide anew each second into twenty-four points1 so that a head divided into three primes will have1 by the second division1 nine seconds1 and two hundred and sixteen points by the last4' #cg ,claude ,bourgelat1 founder of the veterinary schools in ,france4 ,he was born at ,lyons in #agab1 and died at ,paris in #aggi4 #ch ,bourgelat1 ',elements de l'art veterinaire4 ,traite de la conformation exterieure du cheval1' ,paris1 edition of #aghe1 p4 #acc4 ,but where this system appears to us to have lost somewhat of its unity is when the author transforms it1 in pointing out the following mode of procedure3 ',but the head itself may err by default of proportion4 ,this part is not1 indeed1 considered as either too short or too long1 too thin or too thick1 but by comparison with the body of the animal4 ,now1 the body1 being required to have--whether in length1 reckoning from the point of the arm to the prominence of the buttock1 or in height1 reckoning from the summit of the withers to the ground--two heads and a half2 whenever the head1 by its geometrical length1 shall give1 in length or in height1 to the body measured more than two and a half times its own length1 it will be too short2 and if it gives less1 it will be too long4 ',in the case in which one of these faults exists there would be no further question of establishing by its geometrical length the proportions of the other parts4 ,give up this common measure1 and measure the height or the length of the body2 divide the length or the height into five equal portions2 take1 then1 two of these divisions1 divide them into primes1 seconds1 and points1 corresponding to the divisions and subdivisions which you would have made of the head1 and you will have a common measure1 such as the head would have given you if it had been proportionate4'#ci #ci ,bourgelat1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,bourgelat74 ,to face p4 #bfe4 ,we understand1 up to a certain point1 that ,bourgelat may have been able to give this advice which1 generally speaking1 is sufficiently practical1 since1 in certain cases1 he was able to pronounce that such a head was too small or too large4 ,but it is always mischievous1 with regard to the effect produced on the reader1 to propose to him1 in the application of a rule1 to suppress the foundation on which this rule is established4 ,besides1 even if all the measurements compared with the two-fifths of the length of the body are proportionate with regard to one another1 the animal1 in spite of this1 since the head must be taken into consideration1 will1 in a strict sense1 be none the less disproportioned4 ,the proportions given by ,bourgelat are as follows#dj 7,fig4 #ajf73 #dj ,ibid41 p4 #acf1 and onward4 #a4 ,three geometrical lengths of the head give3 ,the full height of the horse1 reckoned from the forelock to the ground on which he rests1 provided that the head be well placed4#da #da ,by 'the head being well placed1' ,bourgelat means 'vertically posed1' the outline of the forehead then coinciding with a vertical line1 which at the other end touches the anterior portion of the nose4 #b4 ,two heads and a half 7,b7#db equals3 #db ,the letters in parentheses relate to the corresponding measures marked by the same letters on the third diagram of ,fig4 #ajf4 ,the height of the body from the summit of the withers to the ground4 ,the length of the same body1 those of the forehand and of the hind-quarter taken as a whole from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock inclusive4 #c4 ,an entire head 7,a7 gives3 ,the length of the forepart from the summit of the withers to the termination of the neck4 ,the height of the shoulders from the summit of the elbow to the top of the withers4 ,the thickness of the body from the middle of the belly to the middle of the back4 ,the width from one side to the other4 #d4 ,a head measured from the top of the forelock to the commissure of the lips 7,c74 ,this measurement slightly curtailed1 unless the mouth is very deeply cleft1 equals3 ,the length of the crupper1 taken from the superior point of the anterior angle of the ilium to the tuberosity of the ischium1 forming the point of the buttock4 ,the width of the crupper or of the haunches1 taken from the inferior points of the angles of the ilia4 ,the height of the crupper1 viewed laterally1 taken from the summit of the posterior angles of the ilia to the point of the patella1 the leg being in a state of rest4 ,the lateral measure of the posterior limb1 from the point of the patella1 to the lateral and salient part of the ham1 to the right of the articulation of the tibia with the trochlea4 ,the perpendicular height of the articulation above named above the ground4 ,the distance from the point of the arm to the angle formed by the junction of the head and neck4 ,the distance from the summit of the withers to the junction of the neck with the thorax4 #e4 ,twice this last measure 7,c7#dc gives almost3 #dc ,the proportions given in the two paragraphs #f and #g are1 under another form1 the same as those pointed out in paragraph #b1 with this difference1 that in this latter they are more clearly expressed4 ,the distance of the summit of the withers to the tip of the patella4 ,the distance of the point of the elbow to the summit of the crupper or the posterior angles of the ilia4 #f4 ,three times this measure1 plus a half-width of the pastern1 the equivalent of two heads and a half1 will give3 ,the height of the body1 taken from the top of the withers to the ground4 ,its length1 taken from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock inclusive4 #g4 ,this same measure1 plus the entire width of the pastern1 gives3 ,the total length of the body1 taken accurately4 #h4 ,two-thirds the length of the head 7,d7 will equal3 ,the width of the chest1 from the tip of one arm to that of the other1 from outside to outside4 ,the horizontal measurement of the crupper taken between two verticals1 of which one forms a tangent to the buttock1 and the other passes through the summit of the crupper and touches the tip of the patella4 ,the third of the length of the hind-quarter and of the body taken together1 as far as the vertical from the withers1 touching the elbow4 ,the anterior length of the hind-limb1 taken from the tuberosity of the tibia to the fold of the ham4 #i4 ,one-half of the length of the head 7,e7 is the same as3 ,the horizontal distance from the tip of the arm to the vertical line from the summit of the withers and touching the elbow4 ,the width of the neck1 viewed laterally1 taken from its insertion in the trough of the jaw to the roots of the first hairs of the mane1 on a line which forms with the superior contour two equal angles4 #aj4 ,one-third of the entire length of the head 7,f7 gives3 ,the height of its superior part from the summit of the forelock to a line which passes through the most salient points of the orbits4 ,the width of the head below the lower eyelids4 ,the lateral width of the forearm1 taken from its anterior origin to the point of the elbow4 #aa4 ,two-thirds of this length#dd 7,g7 gives3 #dd ,that is to say1 two-ninths of the whole length of the head4 ,the distance of the point of the elbow above the plane of the lower surface of the sternum4 ,the depression of the back in relation to the summit of the withers4 ,the lateral width of the posterior limbs near the hams4 ,the space or distance of the forearms from one ars#de to the opposite4 #de ,we call the region where the superior and internal part of the forearm is joined to the trunk the 'ars4' ,the space between the ars of one side and the ars of the opposite side is called the 'inter-ars4' #ab4 ,one-half of the third of the entire length of the head#df 7,h7 equals3 #df ,that is to say1 one-sixth of the total length of the head4 ,the thickness of the forearm1 viewed from the front1 and taken horizontally from the ars to its external surface4 ,the width of the crown of the fore-feet whether from one side to the other1 or from before backwards4 ,the width of the crown of the hind-feet1 from one side to the other only4 ,the width of the posterior fetlocks1 taken from the front to the origin of the spur4 ,the width of the knee seen from the front4 ,note3 this measure is a little too large4 ,the thickness of the ham4 ,note3 this measure is a little under the mark4 #ac4 ,one-fourth of the third of the length of the head#dg 7,i7 gives3 #dg ,that is1 one-twelfth of the length of the head4 ,the thickness of the canon of the fore-limb3 that of the hind-quarter is a little thicker4 #ad4 ,one-third of this same measure#dh 7,k7 equals3 #dh ,that is1 a ninth of the length of the head4 ,the thickness of the fore-limb close to the knee in its narrowest part4 ,the thickness of the posterior pasterns1 viewed laterally4 #ae4 ,the height from the elbow to the fold of the knee 7,l7 is the same as3 ,the height from this same fold to the earth4 ,the height from the patella to the fold of the ham4 ,the height from the fold of the ham to the crown4 #af4 ,the sixth part of this measure 7,m7 gives3 ,the width of the canon of the fore-limb1 viewed laterally1 in the middle of its length4 ,the fetlock1 viewed from the front4 #ag4 ,the third of this same measure 7,n7 is very nearly equal to3 ,the width of the ham1 from the fold to the point4 #ah4 ,a fourth of this measure 7,o7 gives3 ,the width of the knee1 measured laterally4 ,the length of the knee4 #ai4 ,the interval between the eyes from one great angle to the other 7,p7 equals3 ,the width of the hind-leg1 viewed laterally1 from the cleft of the buttocks to the inferior part of the tuberosity of the tibia4 #bj4 ,one-half of this interval between the eyes 7#a_/b ,p7 gives3 ,the width of the posterior canon-bone1 viewed laterally4 ,the width of the fetlock of the fore-limb1 from its anterior summit to the root of the spur4 ,finally1 the difference of the height of the crupper with respect to the summit of the withers4 ,it is certain that the multiplicity of these proportions1 and above all the exaggeration of details into which ,bourgelat fell in indicating certain of the measures which constitute the bases of some of them1 may repel the reader4 ,for this cause we desire to add to the preceding1 and also because the question which we are treating would be incomplete without it1 the results obtained and published by other more modern authors1 and in particular by ,colonel ,duhousset4#di #di ,e4 ,duhousset1 ',le ,cheval1' ,paris1 #ahha4 ,this author1 one of whose constant occupations is the measurement of the different regions of the horse1 has the incontestable merit of having drawn attention to this question1 and of having strained all his energies in the propagation of the knowledge which until then was little diffused4 ,among the proportions which he recommends1 there are some which are the result of his own observations2 whilst others1 which he has verified and adopted1 are the result of a judicious selection of those given by ,bourgelat1 which we have just reproduced in the preceding pages4 ,we join thereto also certain indications furnished by ,,mm4 ,a4 ,goubeaux and ,g4 ,barrier1#ej distinguishing these latter by the initials 7,g4 and ,b47 of their authors 7,fig4 #ajg74 #ej ,armand ,goubeaux and ,gustave ,barrier1 ',de l'exterieure du ,cheval1' ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,the length of the head almost exactly equals3 #a4 ,depth from the back to the belly1 ,n1 ,o1#ea the thickness of the body4#eb #ea ,look for the points indicated by these letters on ,fig4 #ajg1 which is related to the proportions which are here discussed4 #eb ,the proportion previously indicated by ,bourgelat 7see p4 #bfe1 paragraph #c74 #b4 ,from the summit of the withers to the point of the arm1 ,h1 ,e4 #c4 ,from the superior fold of the stifle to the point of the ham1 ,j'1 ,j4 #d4 ,from the point of the ham to the ground1 ,j1 ,k4 #e4 ,from the dorsal angle of the scapula to the point of the haunch1 ,d1 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset74 #f4 ,from the passage of the girth to the fetlock1 ,m1 ,i1 or higher in large horses and racers2 to the middle of the fetlock or lower for small ones and those of medium size4 #g4 ,from the superior fold of the stifle to the summit of the crupper in those specimens whose coxo-femoral angle is very open4 ,this distance is always much less in others 7,g4 and ,b474#ec #ec ,a proportion relative to the same region1 and which at the outset might appear similar1 is pointed out by ,bourgelat 7see p4 #bff1 paragraph #d74 ,but there exists a difference1 for ,bourgelat compared the length of the head1 measured from the forelock to the commissure of the lips1 and not that of the entire head1 to the distance which separates the summit of the rump and the tip of the patella4 ,two and a half times the length of the head gives3 #a4 ,the height of the withers1 ,h1 above the ground4#ed #ed ,this proportion is that given by ,bourgelat 7see p4 #bfe1 paragraph #b74 #b4 ,the height of the summit of the crupper above the ground4#ee #ee ,consequently the withers and the crupper1 being the same height1 are situated on the same horizontal plane4 ,bourgelat1 on the contrary1 points out a difference of level in connection with these regions4 ,according to him the summit of the crupper is situated below the horizontal plane passing the withers1 and this distance equals half of the space which separates the great angle of one eye from that of the other 7see p4 #bfi1 paragraph #bj74 #c4 ,very often the length of the body1 from the point of the arm to that of the buttock1 although for a long time the type of ,bourgelat had been set aside as a conventional model1 short and massive4#ef #ef ,see p4 #bfe1 paragraph #b4 ,and ,m4 ,duhousset adds to this3 ',the drawing that we offer1 which has two heads and a half in height and length1 is that of a horse which we frequently meet with' 7see ,fig4 #ajg2 see also p4 #bgi1 where we again consider this question of the length of the body of the horse74 ',the crupper1 from the point of the haunch to that of the buttock1 ,d1 ,f1 is always less than that of the head4 ,this difference varies from #e to #aj centimetres4 ,the width of the crupper1 from one haunch to the other1 often very slightly exceeds its length4' ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier add that frequently it equals it4#eg #eg ,if we refer to the proportions indicated by ,bourgelat1 we shall find that the proportions relative to the crupper are also indicated there 7see p4 #bff1 paragraph #d74 ',the crupper1 such as we have just defined it1 ,d1 ,h1 may also be found to a fair degree of exactness1 as regards length1 four times on the same horse4' #a4 ,from the point of the buttock to the inferior part of the stifle1 ,f1 ,p4 #b4 ,the width of the neck1 a little in front of the withers to a little above the point of the arm1 ,s1 ,x4#eh #eh ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier replace this by the following3 ',the width of neck at its inferior attachment from its insertion into the chest to the origin of the withers1 ,s1 ,x4' ,bourgelat discovered the same proportion 7see p4 #bff1 last line of paragraph #d74 #c4 ,from this latter point to below the lower jaw1 ,x1 ,q1 when the head is naturally placed parallel to the shoulders1 ,e1 ,h4#ei #ei ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier replace this by the following3 ',from the insertion of the neck into the chest to the lower border of the lower jaw1 ,x1 ,q1 when the head is parallel to the shoulder4' #d4 ,from the nape to the nostrils1 n1 n'4#fj #fj ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier add3 ',or to the commissure of the lips4' ,it is thus1 besides1 that ,bourgelat measured the head for comparison with the crupper 7see p4 #bff1 paragraph #d74 ,the measure of half of the head also acts as a good guide for the construction of the horse1 when we know that it frequently applies to many of the parts--to wit3 #a4 ,from the forehead above the eyes1 perpendicular to the line which is tangent to the lower jaw1 ,p1 ,q4 #b4 ,outline of the neck at the level of the base of the head1 ,q1 ,l4#fa #fa ,proportion indicated by ,bourgelat 7see p4 #bfg1 paragraph #i74 #c4 ,from the crown of the fore-foot to below the knee1 ,t1 ,t'4 #d4 ,in the legs1 from the base of the fetlock to that of the ham1 ,u1 ,v4 #e4 ,finally1 it is nearly of the length of the humerus from the point ,e to the radius4#fb #fb ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier replace these by the following3 #a4 ',from the most prominent part of the lower jaw to the profile of the forehead above the eye1 ,p1 ,q 7thickness of the head74 #b4 ',from the throat to the superior border of the neck behind the nape1 ,q1 ,l 7attachment of the head74 #c4 ',from the inferior part of the knee to the crown1 ,t1 ,t'4 #d4 ',from the base of the ham to the fetlock1 ,u1 ,v4 #e4 ',finally1 from the point of the arm to the articulation of the elbow 7approximate length of the arm74' ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse#fc #fc ,extract from the work of ,,mm4 ,goubeaux and ,barrier on the exterior of the horse4 ,as before1 the initials ,g4 and ,b4 of these authors are added4 ,although it is very difficult1 says ,m4 ,duhousset1 when we speak of measurements taken on the living animal1 to formulate other than approximations1 we believe we have determined with sufficient accuracy the following results1 which are the outcome of our numerous observations4 ,the head which we present is that of a horse which we have frequently come across as a mean term between the highly bred and the draught horse4 ,under this heading1 it will not be devoid of interest to accompany with dimensions the two drawings to which are consigned the measurements in question4 ,head viewed in ,profile 7,fig4 #ajh74--,length1 ,a1 ,b1 from the nape to the margin of the lips1 #j4fj metre4 ,thickness1 ,c1 ,d1 from the angle of the lower jaw to the anterior surface 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,this line passes through the middle of the eye1 taken perpendicularly1 to the profile of the anterior surface4 ,many common horses present it1 especially the heavier draught horses2 in finely-bred subjects it is a little shorter 7,g4 and ,b474 ,depth1 ,i1 ,h1 of the neck in its narrowest part 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,it is frequently greater2 this is noticeable in all instances where the superior parts of the neck are deficient in fineness4 ,it is this which we see in draught horses1 and in those which become too fleshy 7,g4 and ,b474 ,distance1 ,o1 ,r1 of the internal commissure of the eye from the superior border of the commissure of the nostril 7,g4 and ,b47 7a half-head71 #j4cj metre4 ,it is more considerable on the common head1 and on that which is too long4 ,distance1 ,a1 ,o1 from the nape to the internal angle of the eye1 #j4bb metre4 ,this distance is equivalent to the thickness of the head1 ,p1 ,q1 taken perpendicularly from the profile of the anterior surface1 and passing at the level of the maxillary fissure and spine4 ,it is1 again1 equal to ,q1 ,o1 from the internal angle of the eye to the maxillary fissure2 and to ,p1 ,g1 from the middle of the face to the commissure of the lips 7,g4 and ,b474 ,the distance1 ,p1 ,e1 from the middle of the face to the maxillary spine is about the sixth of the total length of the head--#j4aj metre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,viewed ,,in ,,profile 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset74 ,the line ,b1 ,e1 reckoned from the extremity of the lips to the maxillary spine1 is equal3 ,to ,e1 ,f1 from the maxillary spine to the external auditory meatus1 to be seen only on the skull2 ,to ,h1 ,g1 from the insertion of the neck in the trough to the commissure of the lips 7,g4 and ,b472 ,to ,q1 ,r1 from the maxillary fissure to the superior commissure of the nostril 7,g4 and ,b472 ,to ,q1 ,b1 from the fissure of the maxilla to the border of the lips 7,g4 and ,b472 ,to ,o1 ,d1 from the internal angle of the eye to the angle of the lower jaw1 provided that the line ,c1 ,d be in proportion 7,g4 and ,b474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,the ,,same ,,design ,,as ,,that ,,of ,,fig4 #ajh1 ,,on ,,which ,,we ,,have ,,indicated1 ,,by ,,similar ,,lines1 ,,the ,,principal ,,corresponding ,,measurements4 ,half the length of the head1 and the dimensions which equal it2 distance which separate the nape from the internal angle of the eye1 and the dimensions which equal it2 distance which separates the internal angle of the eye from the border of the lips1 and the dimensions which equal it4#fd #fd ,it is thus that in our teaching1 but by means of lines of different colours1 we present the proportions reproduced in ,fig4 #ajh4 ,experience has demonstrated to us that this replacement of letters by conventional lines renders the proportions more easily appreciable1 and that these lines1 striking the eye more forcibly1 then impress themselves better on the memory4 ,fig4 #aaa bears the same relation to ,fig4 #aaj4 ,finally1 very frequently to ,o1 ,h1 from the internal angle of the eye to the insertion of the throat into the maxillary trough 7,g4 and ,b474 ,an equality still more frequent is that which exists between the distances3 ,o1 ,b1 from the internal angle of the eye to the margin of the lips2 ,a1 ,h1 from the nape to the insertion of the throat into the maxillary trough2 ,and ,h1 ,b1 from this latter point to the margins of the lips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,front 7,,after ,,colonel ,,duhousset74 ,the ,head1 ,front ,view 7,fig4 #aaj74--;,if1 to continue our examination1 adds ,m4 ,duhousset1 we regard the head from the front1 we find its greatest width at ,a1 ,b1 the extreme points of the orbital arches4 ,this width is #bb centimetres4 ,it is again equal to3 ,a1 ,c1 from one arch to the nape2 ,a1 ,d1 from one arch to the middle of the face4 ,d1 ,e1 from the middle of the face to the margin of the lips4 ,from the auditory canal1 ,g1 to the maxillary spine1 ,f1 is the same distance as from this point to the margins of the lips1 ,e1 or1 better1 to the end of the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,the ,,same ,,figure ,,as ,,fig4 #aaj1 ,,on ,,which ,,we ,,have ,,marked ,,by ,,similar ,,lines ,,the ,,principal ,,measurements ,,which ,,correspond ,,thereto4 ,distance which separates one of the orbital arches from that of the opposite side1 and the dimensions which equal it2 distance which separates the auditory meatus from the maxillary spine1 and the dimensions which equal it2 distance which separates one maxillary spine from that of the opposite side1 and the dimensions which equal it2 distance which separates the lip of one side from that of the opposite1 and the dimensions which equal it4#fe #fe ,see the note relative to ,fig4 #aji4 ,the line ,g1 ,c1 from the auditory meatus to the nape1 is equal to the sixth of the head1 #aj centimetres2 the line ,a1 ,g1 from the orbital arch to the auditory meatus1 is a little longer1 and measures #ab centimetres4 ,the distance ,f1 ,i1 comprised between the maxillary spines1 is #ah centimetres4 ,it is equal to3 ,o1 ,o1 the distance between the internal angles of the eyes 7,g4 and ,b472 ,f1 ,r1 the distance from the maxillary spine to the superior commissure of the corresponding nostril 7,g4 and4 ,b472 ,f1 ,p1 from the maxillary spine to the salt-cellar4#ff #ff ,we designate under the name salt-cellar a depression situated external to the frontal region and above the eye4 ,from the nape to the internal angle of the eye1 ,c1 ,o1 is the same distance as from this latter point to the commissure of the lips1 ,o1 ,t2 and from the maxillary spine to the upper lip ,f1 ,s 7,g4 and ,b474 ,the distance apart1 ,t1 ,t1 of the two commissures of the lips gives1 very nearly1 the distance from the superior border of the orbital arch to the base of the ear or the auditory meatus4 ,in the state of rest1 the outer limit of the separation of the nostrils does not exceed the width of the knee2#fg we frequently find the same distance intercepted above the nape by the tranquil ears4 ,in the figure 7,fig4 #aaj7 we have intentionally represented them directed in a different plane1 in order to show that when the pinna is turned backward1 it none the less preserves the contour of bracket form1 more or less pronounced according to the breeding of the subject1 and characterizing in repose the interior curves of the ear4 #fg ,we remind our readers that the name 'knee' is given by veterinarians to the region occupied by the carpus4 ,the extreme limit of the lips1 ,m1 ,n1 but very slightly exceeds that of the nostrils2 on many heads of harmonious proportions this distance is found to be the half of ,a1 ,b4 ,in order not to interrupt the course of the preceding exposition1 we decided to withhold till afterwards some reflections which have been suggested to us by certain of the proportions which are there indicated4 ,the proportions in question are important--we may even say that they are fundamental1 for they have for object the relation which exists between the length of the head1 the height of the body1 and the length of the latter4 ,we have already seen that1 according to ,bourgelat1 the length of the head is contained two and a half times in the length of the body1 from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock2 and1 also1 two and a half times in the height measured from the apex of the withers to the ground 7see p4 #bfe74 ,we saw afterwards that ,m4 ,duhousset1 having adopted these proportions1 pointed out1 further1 that the same dimension was again found equally to exist from the summit of the crupper to the ground--a height which ,bourgelat considered as being of less extent4 ,there results1 then1 from the latter proportions1 which we have just recalled1 this interesting fact3 that they simplify very much1 from the point of view of design1 the placing in position of the horse1 on the condition always that this latter be always viewed directly on one of its lateral aspects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exceeds ,,the ,,height4 ,indeed1 in this case1 if we except the neck and the head1 the body1 inasmuch as its height and its length are equal1 may be inscribed in a square1 of which one of the sides corresponds to the withers and to the summit of the crupper1 two of the other sides to the point of the arm and to that of the buttock the fourth being represented by the ground4 ,this is simple1 but this simplicity even has its inconveniences4 ,it follows that this proportion1 thus expressed1 seems to exclude from every artistic representation certain categories of horses1 which upon the whole might be regarded as beautiful1 and the existence of which in any case it would be a pity not to indicate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,exceeds ,,the ,,height4 ,let us examine at the outset that which is relative to the length of the body1 equal to two and a half times the length of the head4 ,this proportion is sometimes met with1 and therefore may be considered exact2 but it is necessary to add that its existence is not discoverable in the majority of cases4 ,that for some authors it constitutes a perfect model we will not gainsay1 but it is our impression that1 when it exists1 the head appears a little large1 or1 more exactly1 the body a little short4 ,without attaining exactly to three times the length of the head1 as some authors 7,saint-,bel1 ,vallon7 have announced1 the body of the horse1 nevertheless1 measured as is stated above1 frequently contains it more than two and a half times4 ,we give in support of this some outline reproductions1 executed after photographs 7,figs4 #aab1 #aac1 #aad74 ,there still remains the question regarding the equality of the height and of the length of the body of the horse4 ,this equality1 after the proportions previously indicated1 would seem bound to appear in all the cases observed4 ,now1 if we measure the examples reproduced in ,figs4 #aab1 #aac1 and #aad1 we shall see that sometimes the two dimensions are unequal1 the height being greater than the length1 or inversely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,,horse ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,length ,,contains ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,and ,a ,,half ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,head1 ,,and ,,of ,,which ,,this ,,dimension 7,a1 ,b7 ,,is ,,inferior ,,to ,,the ,,height4 ,it is the same1 if we examine a certain number of specimens2 we are able to determine that the proportion chosen in preference by authors is not exactly that which is oftenest met with4 ,it will1 very probably1 be objected that it is so for the most beautiful types1 and that the indifferent ones are generally the more numerous4 ,the essential thing would be to know1 above all1 if the type of two heads and a half of length and of height is really the only beautiful one4 ,however that may be1 of the fifty ,african horses measured by ,m4 ,duhousset1 only fourteen possessed the equality indicated2 twenty-six were less long than high1 and ten more long than high4#fh #fh ,e4 ,duhousset1 ',the ,horse1' ,paris1 #ahha4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,paces ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,as a completion of the studies we have just been making1 some notions relative to the paces of the horse seem to us to be absolutely indicated4 ,let it be permitted to us to remind the reader in this connection that we have already been for twenty-one years occupied with this question1 and that by means of an articulated figure1 a sort of movable mannikin1 we have endeavoured to demonstrate to artists the differences which characterize the various paces of the horse4#fi ,the arrangement then employed cannot1 evidently1 be used in the present volume1 but we will inspire ourselves1 in the preparation of the present chapter1 with the elements of demonstration which we have employed1 and which1 in the course of our teaching1 we have had the satisfaction of seeing favourably received4 #fi ,edouard ,cuyer1 ',les ,allures du ,cheval1' demonstrated with the aid of a coloured1 separable1 and articulated table1 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,this table was the subject of a note communicated to the ,academy of ,sciences by ,professor ,marey 7',comptes rendus de l',academie de ,sciences'7 at the meeting of ,june #bf1 #ahhb4 ,on the other hand1 it has been the subject of a presentation which we have had the honour of being permitted to make to the ,academy of ,fine ,arts at the meeting of ,november #d1 #ahhb4 ,the fasciculus in question has been since united with a more complete whole as regards the study of the horse4 ,e4 ,cuyer and ,e4 ,alex1 ',le ,cheval3 ,exterieur1 ,structure et ,fonctions1 ,races1' avec #bf planches coloriees1 decoupees et superposees1 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,the progressive movements by which an individual transports himself from one place to another do not operate according to a unique method and with a constantly uniform velocity4 ,these various modes of progression are designated under the name of paces4 ,it is extremely difficult to analyze1 by simple observation1 the movements which characterize these gaits4 ,let us1 for example1 examine the displacements made by the limbs of a horse during that of walking2 if we have no notion of these displacements1 it will be1 so to speak1 impossible to determine in what order they are executed4 ,the sight of the imprints left on the ground by the hoofs is not a sufficient means of demonstration1 especially for artists4 ,the noise made by the blows of these limbs1 or by the little bells of different timbre suspended from them1 are absolutely in the same case4 ,processes enabling us to fix or to register the paces are in every way preferable4 ,such really exist2 they are3 instantaneous photography and those which constitute the graphic method of ,professor ,marey4 ,the results given by the photograph are certainly appreciable2 but1 from the didactic point of view1 we give the preference to the graphic method1 the general characters and the mode of application of which we now proceed to analyze4#gj #gj ,we cannot too strongly recommend the reading of the excellent works which ,professor ,marey has published1 and which have for their object the study of movements1 as well as the exhibition of the procedures which he has employed4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 ',la ,machine ,animale1' ,paris1 #ahgc2 ',la ,methode graphique dans les ,sciences experimentales1' ,paris1 #ahhd2 ',le ,vol des ,oiseaux1' ,paris1 #ahij2 ',le ,mouvement1' ,paris1 #ahid4 ,it is necessary to understand first of all1 in this connection1 that which relates to a man's walking pace4 ,the method of ,professor ,marey rests on the following principle3 ,suppose two rubber globes connected with one another by a tube4 ,if we compress one of these globes1 the air which it contains will be driven into the other1 and will afterwards return when the pressure has ceased4 ,nothing more simple1 evidently2 but it is necessary to describe it in detail in order the better to comprehend that which follows3 ,the walker who is the subject of experiment is furnished with special shoes 7,fig4 #aae71 having thick indiarubber soles1 hollowed in the interior1 so that the whole thus constituted forms a sort of hollow cushion which is compressed under the influence of the pressure of the foot on the ground4 ,a tube which is attached to a registering apparatus1 which the person who is walking carries in his hand1 communicates with this cavity 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,this apparatus is formed of a metal drum1 which is closed at its upper part by a flexible membrane4 ,each time that one of the man's feet presses on the ground1 the air contained in the cavity of the sole of the shoe is driven into the drum1 which we have just mentioned1 and the flexible membrane of this drum is elevated4 ,to this membrane is attached a vertical rod which supports a horizontal style4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,experimental ,,shoes1 ,,intended ,,to ,,record ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,on ,,the ,,ground4 ,when the membrane1 as we have just seen1 is elevated1 the style is lifted1 and then descends when the pressure of the foot ceases4 ,it traces these displacements on a leaf of paper1 the surface of which is covered with a thin layer of lamp-black1 which it removes by its contact2 different parts of this surface are successively presented to it1 the paper being rolled round a cylinder which is turned on its axis by means of a clockwork movement4 ,it is necessary to add that the inscription is made1 in the study of the walk of man1 by means of two styles1 each corresponding to one of the feet4 ,the tracings thus obtained1 which are read from left to right1 are sufficiently simple2 but to understand them properly1 it is necessary to remember that the style undergoes a movement of ascensional displacement during each pressure of a foot1 and that1 on the other hand1 it descends when the latter is separated from the ground4 ,we also see1 on the tracing which it leaves1 a line which ascends and then descends2 the meaning of this is that first the foot presses on the ground1 and is afterwards raised from it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,,runner ,,furnished ,,with ,,the ,,exploratory ,,and ,,registering ,,apparatus ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,paces4 ,on the tracing 7,fig4 #aag71 the line ,d relates to the right foot2 the line ,g1 which is dotted so that it may not be confused with the preceding1 corresponds to the left foot4 ,the line ,g first ascends2 the meaning of which is that the left foot presses on the ground2 afterwards it descends3 this indicates that the pressure of the foot has ceased4 ,it is the same for the right foot4 ,as we see1 the pressures succeed each other2 when the left foot touches the ground1 the right is separated from it2 when the latter presses the ground1 it is the left which no longer rests there4 ,the line ,o is related to the movements of the body1 as indicated by the oscillations of the head4 ,we will neglect these4 ,but this tracing1 which serves us for an example1 is not1 it must indeed be said1 of very easy reading2 it would be still less so if the paces of a horse were registered1 for there would then be four lines1 the entanglement of which would cause greater complication4 ,these difficulties of reading need be no longer feared1 if we transform the tracing into a notation by means of the following diagram4 ,there are drawn 7,fig4 #aah7 below the graphic tracing two horizontal lines 7#a1 #b74 ,from the point where the line ,d rises 7commencement of the pressure of the right foot71 and from the point where this same line descends 7end of the same pressure71 we let fall two vertical lines joining the two horizontal ones mentioned above4 ,at this plane1 and between the two vertical lines1 we mark a broad white one 7a1 b74 ,this expresses1 by its length1 the duration of the period of pressure of the right foot4 ,in doing the same for the line ,g1 we obtain for the indication of a pressure of the left foot an interval of the same kind1 in which are marked cross-lines1 or which is tinted gray1 in order to avoid all confusion with the preceding tracing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,tracing ,,of ,,the ,,running ,,of ,a ,,man 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey47 ,d1 ,pressures and elevations of the right foot2 ,g1 pressures and elevations of the left foot4 ,this notation can1 with sufficient exactitude1 be compared to that which is employed in the musical scale4 ,the horizontal lines #a and #b represent the compass4 ,we there also see notes2 these are the bars indicating the pressure1 of which the value--that is to say1 the duration--is represented by the length of these bars4 ,it is the same with regard to the intervals of silence3 these are expressed by the intervals which separate the pressures1 and correspond to the moments in which1 during certain paces1 such as running1 the body is raised from the ground4 ,besides1 we see intervals of this kind on the notation reproduced 7,fig4 #aah7 relative to the running of man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,in order to make the signification of these tracings still better understood1 we reproduce four varieties of them 7,fig4 #aai74 ,the first notation is that of ordinary walking4 ,the pressures succeed each other regularly4 ,the second shows what takes place during the ascent of a staircase4 ,at a certain moment1 the weight of the body is upon both feet at the same time1 one of them not quitting the lower step1 until the other is already in contact with the step above4 ,accordingly1 there is thus produced an overriding of the pressures4 ,the third is relative to running1 and has already been represented in ,fig4 #aah4 ,the pressures of the feet are separated by the times of suspension4 ,the fourth also represents running1 but in this case more rapid and characterized by the shorter pressures1 the slightly longer periods of suspension intervals1 and the quicker succession of movements4 ,before putting aside the indications relating to the walking movements of man--indications which it was necessary to give in order to render intelligible those which are connected with the paces of the horse--we have yet to fix the value of that which we call 'a step4' ,it is generally admitted that a step is constituted by the series of movements which are produced between the corresponding phases of the action of one foot and that of the other--for example1 between the moment at which the right foot commences its pressure on the ground and that at which the left foot commences its own4 ,it is necessary to adopt here another method of looking at it1 and to regard the preceding as being but a half-step4 ,the step should then be defined as being constituted by the series of movements which are executed between two similar positions of the same foot--as1 for example1 between the commencement of a pressure of the right foot and the similar phase of the following pressure of the same foot4 ,we shall soon understand the importance of this definition4 ,before entering on the details of the paces of the horse1 it is necessary to see how the limbs of the latter oscillate during the period of a complete step2 or1 which is the same thing1 to determine what the displacements are which a limb executes between two similar positions of its foot4 ,if we examine one of the limbs during a forward movement of the animal1 we see that this limb passes through two principal phases3 7#a7 ,it is raised from the ground2 7#b7 it resumes contact with the ground4 ,each of these phases is divided into three periods of time1 which we proceed to analyze in connection with the anterior limb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,swing ,,of ,,the ,,raised ,,anterior ,,limb 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin74#ga ,c1 ,lifting2 ,b1 suspension2 ,a1 placing4 #ga ,g4 ,colin1 ',traite de ,physiologie ,comparee des ,animaux1' third edition1 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,the foot quits the ground 7,fig4 #abj1 ,c72 this may be called lifting2 the limb is oblique in direction downwards and backwards4 ,this same limb is flexed and carried forward 7,fig4 #abj1 ,b71 and1 as it is supported by the action of its flexors1 this is the period named suspension2 the hoof is vertical4 ,then the limb is carried still further forward1 becoming extended 7,fig4 #abj1 ,a72 the heel is lowered1 and the foot1 being oblique1 is directed towards the ground2 this is the placing4 ,then takes place pressure 7,fig4 #aba74 ,the foot has just been placed on the ground2 the limb is oblique in direction downwards and forwards2 this we call commencement of the pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,a74 ,then the body1 being carried forward1 whilst the hoof1 ,d1 is fixed on the ground1 the limb becomes vertical3 this stage is mid-pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,b74 ,finally1 the progression of the body continuing1 the limb becomes oblique downwards and backwards2 it is now at the termination of pressure 7,fig4 #aba1 ,c71 and proceeds to lift itself anew if another step is to be made4 ,in conclusion1 the inferior extremity of the limb describes1 from its elevation to its being placed on the ground1 an arc of a circle around its superior extremity 7,fig4 #aba1 ,d72 whilst1 during the pressure1 it is its superior extremity which describes one around its inferior extremity1 then fixed on the ground 7,fig4 #aba1 ,d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,swing ,,of ,,the ,,anterior ,,limb ,,on ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,pressure 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin74 ,a1 ,commencement of the pressure2 ,b1 centre of the pressure2 ,c1 termination of the pressure4 ,if we simultaneously examine the two fore-limbs1 we remark that when one of them begins its pressure the other ends it1 and vice versa4 ,as to the hind-limbs1 the oscillations are similar to those of the fore ones4 ,in the second half of the pressure--that is1 when they are passing from the vertical direction 7,fig4 #abb1 ,a7 to extreme obliquity backwards 7,fig4 #abb1 ,c7--the effect of their action is to give propulsion to the body4 ,the fore and hind limbs make the same number of steps1 and the steps have the same length4 ,the limbs of any quadruped--but we make special allusion to those of the horse--are divided into groups in the following manner3 ,the anterior pair constitutes the anterior biped4 ,the posterior biped is that formed by the posterior limbs4 ,the name of lateral biped serves to designate the whole formed by the two limbs of the same side4 ,the right fore-limb and the right hind-limb form the right lateral biped4 ,the two others form the left lateral biped4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,posterior ,,limb1 ,,giving ,,the ,,impulse 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin74 ,a1 ,commencement of pressure2 ,b1 centre of pressure2 ,c1 termination of pressure4 ,a fore-limb and hind-limb belonging to the opposite side form a diagonal biped1 which also takes the name of the fore-limb which forms a part of it4 ,thus1 the right diagonal biped is formed by the association of the right fore-limb and the left hind one4 ,the left diagonal biped is1 consequently1 the inverse4 ,it is necessary to remember well these preliminary indications2 it is the only means of comprehending with facility that which is about to follow4 ,let us first return to the grouping of the limbs4 ,the denominations anterior and posterior bipeds render clearly perceptible the comparison which consists in regarding a horse when walking as capable of being represented by two men marching one behind the other1 and making the same number of steps4 ,according as they move the legs of the same side at the same time in 'covering the step1' or march in contretemps step1 we find reproduced all the rhythms which characterize the different paces of the horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,ambling ,,gait ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey74 ,professor ,marey has studied these paces by a similar method to that which he adopted for the walking of man1 and which we have already described4 ,he employed hollow balls fixed under the hoofs1 and a registering apparatus with four styles1 each corresponding to one of the limbs4 ,the tracing obtained is rather complicated1 since two sets of lines are found marked4 ,but a notation similar to that of which we have spoken can be discovered1 and its exact signification should now be determined4 ,for this purpose1 we have selected the most simple 7see ,fig4 #abc74 ,we there see1 placed in two superimposed lines1 the pressure markings of the right feet 7white bands71 and of the left feet 7gray bands74 ,on the upper line are found those related to the fore-legs2 the lower lines contain those associated with the hind-legs4 ,it is1 in brief1 the superposition of two notations of the human walking movements4 ,and seeing that1 as we have previously pointed out1 we may make a comparison between a quadruped and two men placed one behind the other1 it is easy to understand the significance of the superimposed notations1 if we accustom ourselves to look on them as the notations of two bipeds4 ,to read these notations--that is1 to learn to know what occurs at each of the movements of the pace--it is necessary1 indeed1 to remember that they should be examined in vertical sections2 it is to each of these sections--of these vertical divisions--that each of the movements which we more particularly wish to analyze corresponds4 ,we proceed to study first the pace of ambling1 because it is the most simple2 we shall then consider the trot1 and1 finally1 we shall examine that which is the most complicated1 viz41 the step4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,the ,,amble3 ,,right ,,lateral ,,pressure4#gb #gb ,the figures which1 in the present study1 reproduce the different paces1 have been made from our articulated horse 7see the note on p4 #bhb74 ,the ,amble4--,to give an exact idea of the general character of the amble1 let us fancy the two men whom we discussed above marching one behind the other and walking in step--that is1 moving the legs of the same side simultaneously4 ,they will thus represent the amble1 which1 indeed1 results from the alternate displacements of the lateral bipeds2 the limbs of the same side 7right or left7 execute the same movements in the same time4 ,this is what the notation indicates 7,fig4 #abc74 ,we there see that the pressures of the right fore-foot1 marked by the white bands in the upper range1 are exactly superposed on those of the right hind one1 which are marked by a similar band on the lower line2 this means that the pressures took place in the same time4 ,we there see also a similar arrangement of the gray bands1 which has a similar significance for the left fore and hind feet4 ,and if we recollect the three phases of pressure 7see p4 #bhi1 and ,figs4 #aba1 #abb71 we shall comprehend1 in looking at the diagrams1 that1 at the initial stage 7,a71 the limbs are commencing their pressure1 and are oblique downwards and forwards2 that afterwards 7,b7 the two limbs are vertical1 since they are at the middle of the pressure stage2 and that finally 7,c7 they are oblique downwards and backwards1 for it is then the termination of their pressure 7,fig4 #abd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gait ,,of ,,the ,,trot ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey74 ,during the time that the right limbs are pressing 7notation1 white bands7 the left limbs are raised2 afterwards these latter take up the pressure 7gray bands71 and then the right limbs are raised in their turn4 ,during the pace of ambling the weight of the body1 which is wholly sustained by the limbs of one side only1 is not in equilibrium1 so that the limbs which are raised return by a brisk movement to the position of support in order to re-establish it4 ,the ,trot4--,we have just seen that1 in order to represent the amble1 the two marchers moved their right limbs simultaneously1 and then their left ones4 ,let us suppose now that the hinder man anticipated by half a pace the movement of the front one1 then will be found realized the association and the nature of the displacements of the limbs during the pace of the trot4 ,by this anticipation of a half-step 7we have defined1 p4 #bhh1 what is to be understood by the word step71 it follows that when the marcher who is in front advances his right leg it is the left leg of the marcher who follows him that is carried in the same direction4 ,we should thus conclude from this that the trot is characterized by a succession of displacements of the diagonal bipeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,the ,,trot2 ,,right ,,diagonal ,,pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,the ,,trot2 ,,time ,,of ,,suspension4 ,indeed1 if we examine the notation of this gait 7,fig4 #abe71 we see that with the pressure of the right fore-foot is found associated the pressure of the left hind-foot4 ,it is1 accordingly1 a typical diagonal biped 7,fig4 #abf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,pace ,,of ,,stepping ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey74 ,l1 ,right lateral pressure2 ,d1 right diagonal pressure2 ,l'1 left lateral pressure2 ,d'1 left diagonal pressure4 ,but it is necessary to add that these groups of pressures do not succeed one another without interruption1 except in the slow trot4 ,in the ordinary trot1 or in that in which the animal's strides are very long1 the body between each of the double pressures which we have just been considering is projected forward with such force that it remains for an instant separated from the ground4 ,this is what we designate by the name of time of suspension 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the notation in this case would be slightly different from that which we reproduce above1 in this sense3 that between the diagonal pressures there then would be found an interval1 since during the time the body is suspended none of the feet can produce a pressure-mark 7see1 with regard to these intervals1 the notations of the running of a man1 ,fig4 #aah1 and ,fig4 #aai1 #c1 #d74 ,the ,walk4--,although slow1 a feature which would seem to make it possible to permit its analysis in a horse when walking1 this pace is difficult to comprehend without sufficient preliminary study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,the ,,step3 ,,right ,,lateral ,,pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,,the ,,step3 ,,right ,,diagonal ,,pressure4 ,we saw above that in order to represent the amble the marchers had to move the legs of the same side simultaneously4 ,we have also just seen that in order to represent the trot the marcher at the back had to anticipate by a half-step4 ,suppose1 now1 that this same marcher anticipates the man in front by a quarter-step only1 or by a half-pressure period1 and thus will be found realized the order of succession of the limbs in the gait or pace called the walk4 ,the feet meet the ground one after the other1 since they are each in advance by half the duration of a pressure4 ,the strokes are four in number during the period of a step of this pace2 in the amble and in the trot they do not exceed two1 for then the limbs strike the ground in lateral diagonal pairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,the ,,gallop3 ,,first ,,period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,the ,,gallop3 ,,second ,,period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,,the ,,gallop3 ,,third ,,period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,the ,,gallop3 ,,time ,,of ,,suspension4 ,if we examine the notation of the pace of walking 7,fig4 #abh71 we see that the right fore-foot commences its pressure when the right hind-foot is in the middle of its own1 and that the hinder left begins in the middle of that of the right fore-foot1 and that it is itself at the midst of its pressure when the left fore-foot touches the ground1 etc4 ,in a word1 the foot-fallings occur in the following order and at regular intervals--the fore right foot is here considered as acting first3 right fore1 left hind1 left fore1 right hind1 and so on in succession4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gallop ,,divided ,,into ,,three ,,periods ,,of ,,time 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey74 #a1 ,first period2 #b1 second period2 #c1 third period4 ,as to the nature of the bipeds which succeed one another1 it is easy to understand them by means of the notation4 ,in reading this from left to right1 we see that the associations of pressure are first made by the two right feet1 then by a right foot and a left one1 then by two left feet1 and1 finally1 by a left and right4 ,it is1 accordingly1 a succession this time of lateral and diagonal pressures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,notation ,,of ,,the ,,gallop ,,of ,,four ,,periods ,,in ,,the ,,horse 7,,after ,,professor ,,marey74 #a1 ,first period2 #b1 second period2 #c1 third period2 #d1 fourth period4 ,thus1 we find at the start a right lateral pressure 7,fig4 #abi71 next a right diagonal 7,fig4 #acj71 then a left lateral2 finally1 a left diagonal pressure4 ,it is thus that the initial letters ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d' further indicate the notations represented in ,fig4 #abh4 ,the ,gallop4--,the ordinary gallop is a pace of three phases4 ,the first is characterized by the fact that one hind-limb alone rests on the ground 7,fig4 #aca72 in the second the animal is on a diagonal support 7,fig4 #acb72 in the third it comes down on a fore-limb 7,fig4 #acc74 ,the body is then raised 7,fig4 #acd71 and to this period of suspension succeed anew the three modes of pressure indicated above4 ,the gallop is said to be from either right or left4 ,in the gallop from the right1 the right fore-leg is the more frequently in advance of its neighbour2 it is the last to be placed on the ground4 ,the left foot of the posterior biped is the one which commences the action4 ,an entirely opposite arrangement characterizes the gallop from the left4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,,leap ,,of ,,the ,,hare 7,,after ,g4 ,,colin74 ,the notation reproduced in ,fig4 #ace corresponds to the gallop from the right4 ,it is there seen1 as we pointed out above1 that in the first phase the exclusive support of the left hind-foot takes place 7#a72 that afterwards1 in the second1 commence simultaneously1 the pressures of the left fore and the right hind foot 7#b72 this is the left diagonal support2 and that finally1 in the third1 the body comes down on a fore-limb1 which is then the right 7#c72 and that for a moment it is on this limb alone that the animal rests4 ,to these three phases on the notation succeeds an interval2 this is the period of suspension4 ,the gallop of four phases only differs from the preceding in that the foot-fallings of each diagonal biped occur at slight intervals1 and give distinct sounds4 ,the notation is reproduced in ,fig4 #acf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,,the ,,leap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,,the ,,leap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,the ,,leap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,the ,,leap4 ,the ,leap4--,the leap is an act by which the body is wholly raised from the ground and projected upwards and forwards to a greater or less distance4 ,it is prepared for by the flexing of the hind-limbs1 which1 by being suddenly extended1 project the body1 and thus enable it to pass over an obstacle4 ,this preparatory arrangement is very remarkable in the leap of the lion1 the cat1 and the panther1 which execute springs of great length2 in the horse1 in which the leap is not an habitual mode of progression1 this flexion of the hinder limbs is less marked4 ,with this animal the leap is generally associated with the gallop2 nevertheless1 it is sometimes made from a stationary position4 ,in observing the hare or the rabbit1 in which the leap is habitual1 we notice 7,fig4 #acg7 that the hind-limbs1 being extremely flexed1 rest on the ground as far as the calcaneum1 are then straightened by the action of their extensors1 become vertical and then oblique backwards at the moment the body is thrown forward into space by the sudden extension of these limbs4 ,the action of the extensors is energetic and instantaneous1 and their energy is greater than in ordinary progression1 for it is required to lift the body and to project it forcibly a more or less considerable distance4 ,it is the extreme rapidity of this action which enables the animal to clear an obstacle1 for without this condition the body would be raised1 but not separated from the ground4 ,first of all1 in reaching the obstacle to be cleared1 the horse prepares to leap by taking the attitude of rearing2 the hind-limbs are flexed and carried under the body1 the fore-quarters are raised1 and the different segments of the fore-limbs are flexed 7,fig4 #ach74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,the ,,leap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,the ,,leap4 ,one sudden trigger action produced by the violent contraction of the extensors of the hind-legs then takes place1 and the animal is projected forwards1 while he flexes the fore-legs more and more 7,fig4 #aci74 ,he has then risen above the obstacle 7,fig4 #adj74 ,then while he makes the downward and forward balancing movement1 and points his fore-limbs in the same direction1 he flexes the hind ones 7,fig4 #ada74 ,whilst the latter are further flexed1 in order to pass the obstacle in their turn1 the fore-limbs which are extended come into contact with the ground 7,fig4 #adb74 ,finally1 in the last phase of the leap1 the animal1 raising himself in front1 after the impact of his hind-feet has taken place 7,fig4 #adc71 prepares to continue the pace at which he progressed before meeting the obstacle which he had to clear4 ,,the ,,end ,london3 ,bailliere1 ,tindall and ,cox1 #h1 ,henrietta ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,w4,c4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,anatomy ,,of ,,animals ,illustration ,,sectional ,,index ,,page ,generalities of ,comparative ,anatomy #a ,,osteology ,,and ,,arthrology ,the ,trunk3 ,vertebral ,column #d ,sacrum #aj ,coccygeal vertebrae #aa ,direction and form of the vertebral column #aa ,thorax #ab ,sternum #ad ,ribs and costal cartilages #ad ,the ,anterior ,limbs3 ,shoulder #bj ,scapula #ba ,clavicle #be ,arm #bh ,humerus #bh ,general view of the form of the forearm and hand #cd ,forearm #ch ,hand #dd ,the ,anterior ,limbs in ,certain ,animals3 ,plantigrades3 ,bear #di ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 dog #ea ,unguligrades3 ,pig #eg ,sheep1 ,ox #fj ,horse #fd ,proportions of the arm1 the forearm1 and metacarpus #gj ,articulations of the anterior limbs #ga ,scapulo-humeral articulation #gb ,humero-ulnar articulation1 or elbow #gd ,radio-ulnar articulation #ge ,articulation of the wrist #ge ,metacarpo-phalangeal articulations #gf ,interphalangeal articulations #gg ,the ,posterior ,limbs3 ,pelvis #gh ,iliac bone #gh ,the ,thigh #hc ,femur #hc ,knee-cap #he ,the ,leg #he ,tibia #hf ,fibula #hg ,the ,foot #hg ,the ,posterior ,limbs in ,some ,animals3 ,plantigrades3 ,bear #ij ,digitigrades3 ,cat1 dog #ia ,unguligrades3 ,pig #id ,sheep1 ox #ie ,horse #ii ,articulations of the posterior limbs #aje ,coxo-femoral articulation #aje ,femoro-tibial articulation1 or knee #ajf ,tibio-tarsal articulation1 and of the bones of the tarsus #ajg ,the ,head in ,general1 and in ,some ,animals in ,particular3 ,direction of the head #aji ,the skull #aab ,the face #aah ,the skull of birds #abg ,,myology ,muscles of the ,trunk3 ,pectoralis major #aca ,pectoralis minor #acc ,serratus magnus #acd ,muscles of the ,abdomen3 ,external oblique #acf ,internal oblique #acg ,transversalis abdominis #ach ,rectus abdominis #ach ,pyramidalis abdominis #aci ,muscles of the ,back3 ,trapezius #adj ,latissimus dorsi #adb ,rhomboid #add ,the ,cutaneous ,muscle of the ,trunk #adg ,the ,coccygeal ,region3 ,ischio-coccygeal muscle #adi ,superior sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,lateral sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,inferior sacro-coccygeal muscle #aej ,muscles of the ,neck3 ,mastoido-humeralis #aej ,sterno-mastoid #aec ,omo-trachelian #aee ,levator anguli scapulae #aef ,splenius #aeh ,infrahyoid ,muscles3 ,sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid #afj ,omo-hyoid #afj ,suprahyoid ,muscles3 ,mylo-hyoid #afa ,digastric #afa ,panniculus of the ,neck #afb ,muscles of the ,anterior ,limbs3 ,muscles of the ,shoulder #afb ,deltoid #afb ,subscapularis #afc ,supraspinatus #afd ,infraspinatus #afe ,teres minor #aff ,teres major #aff ,panniculus muscle of the shoulder #afg ,muscles of the ,arm #afh ,anterior region #afi ,biceps #afi ,brachialis anticus #agj ,coraco-brachialis #agj ,posterior region #aga ,triceps #aga ,supplemental or ,accessory ,muscle of the ,latissimus ,dorsi #agc ,muscles of the ,forearm #agd ,anterior and external region #agf ,supinator longus #agf ,first and second external radial #agf ,supinator brevis #agi ,extensor communis digitorum #agi ,extensor minimi digiti #ahc ,posterior ulnar #ahe ,anconeus #ahe ,long abductor of the thumb #ahf ,short extensor of the thumb #ahg ,long extensor of the thumb #ahg ,proper extensor of the index #ahg ,internal and posterior region #ahh ,pronator teres #ahh ,flexor carpi radialis #ahi ,palmaris longus #ahi ,anterior ulnar #aia ,superficial flexor of the digits #aic ,long proper flexor of the thumb #aig ,pronator quadratus #aih ,muscles of the ,hand #aii ,muscles of the ,posterior ,limbs3 ,muscles of the ,pelvis #bjj ,gluteus medius #bjj ,gluteus maximus #bja ,muscles of the ,thigh #bjd ,muscles of the posterior region #bje ,biceps #bje ,semi-tendinosus #bjf ,semi-membranosus #bjg ,muscles of the anterior region #baj ,triceps #baj ,tensor fascia lata #baa ,sartorius #baa ,muscles of the internal region #bac ,gracilis #bac ,muscles of the ,leg #bac ,muscles of the anterior region #bad ,tibialis anticus #bad ,extensor proprius pollicis #bai ,extensor longus digitorum #bai ,peroneus tertius #bbd ,muscles of the external region #bbd ,peroneus longus #bbd ,peroneus brevis #bbe ,muscles of the posterior region #bbg ,gastrocnemius #bbg ,soleus #bbh ,plantaris #bbh ,popliteus #bbh ,superficial flexor of the toes #bbi ,flexor longus digitorum #bcj ,tibialis posticus #bcj ,flexor longus pollicis #bca ,muscles of the ,foot #bca ,dorsalis pedis #bca ,muscles of the ,head #bcb ,masticatory muscles #bcb ,masseter #bcb ,temporal muscle #bcd ,cutaneous muscles of the head #bcd ,occipito-frontalis #bcd ,orbicularis palpebrarum #bcd ,pyramidalis nasi #bce ,corrugator supercilii #bce ,zygomaticus major #bce ,zygomaticus minor #bcf ,levator labii superioris proprius #bcg ,levator labii superioris alaeque nasi #bch ,transversus nasi #bci ,caninus #bci ,orbicularis oris #bdj ,triangularis oris #bdj ,quadratus menti #bdj ,prominence of the chin #bdj ,buccinator #bda ,maxillo-labialis #bdb ,zygomatico-auricularis #bdb ,temporo-auricularis externus #bdc ,scuto-auricularis externus #bdc ,cervico-auricular muscles #bdc ,cervico-auricularis superioris #bdd ,cervico-auricularis medius #bdd ,cervico-auricularis inferioris #bdd ,parotido-auricularis #bdd ,temporo-auricularis internus #bdd ,zygomatico-auricularis #bde ,,epidermic ,,products ,,of ,,the ,,terminal ,,extremities ,,of ,,the ,,fore ,,and ,,hind ,,limbs ,claws #bdg ,plantar tubercles #bdh ,hoofs of the solipeds #bej ,hoofs of ox and pig #bfa 99 99 99 99 99 ,proportions #bfb ,proportions of head of horse #bgc 7front view7 #bgf ,paces of the horse #bhb ,amble #bic ,trot #bid ,walk #bif ,gallop #cjj ,leap #cfd ,,errata ,p4 #aje1 ,articulations of the ,posterior ,limbs4 ,p4 #ajg1 ,tibio-tarsal ,articulation4 ,,the ,,end ,london3 ,bailliere1 ,tindall and ,cox1 #h1 ,henrietta ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,w4,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,footnotes have been moved to underneath the paragraph1 table or illustration they refer to4 ,illustrations have been moved so as to not disrupt the flow of the text4 ,page numbers in the ,list of ,illustrations and in references have not been changed1 and are therefore not always correct4 ,the ,table of ,contents and the ,sectional ,index are not complete and contain slightly different wording than the names of sections in the text4 ,this has been left as in the original work4 ,the ,errata have already been changed in the text4 ,the author uses the terms chromophotograph and chronophotograph 7and derivations of these words72 these words have not been changed4 ,the correct term in these cases is chronophotograph4 ,page #adc1 ,fig4 #fi3 atlas is mentioned twice 7nrs4 #ab and #ac72 only nr4 #ac indicates the atlas4 ,the text used is that of the original work1 including inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation and lay-out1 and differences between main text1 footnotes and captions1 except when mentioned below4 ,changes made to the text3 ,some minor obvious typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,periods have been removed from some section headings for consistency4 ,page #b1 footnote #b3 ,mathias-,duval changed to ,mathias ,duval 7full name3 ,mathias-,marie ,duval74 ,page #bc3 see replaced with see for consistency4 ,page #dd 7footnote #ab73 ,edward ,cuyer changed to ,edouard ,cuyer as elsewhere4 ,page #ec1 captions 7#bx73 ,,aa#a changed to ,,aa' as in drawing and text4 ,page #abj1 ,fig4 #fc1 caption3 #ad'1 malar bone added1 #ad changed to anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossae 7as in previous figures74 ,page #baf3 tendo-,achilles changed to tendo-,achillis as elsewhere4 ,page #bcd3 ,fig4 #j1 #ib changed to ,fig4 #ij1 #b4 ,page #bed1 ,fig4 #ih3 epternal changed to external4 ,page #bfi1 last paragraph3 one anchor to same footnote deleted4 ,page #cbe3 ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d' changed to ,l1 ,d1 ,l'1 ,d'4 ,footnotes #ac1 #ag3 ,la ,natura changed to ,la ,nature4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------