,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters and ,pd for partial differential symbol4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,guadalquivir3 ,here it forms two subsidiary channels1 the western #ca m41 the eastern #ab m4 long1 which rejoin the main stream on the borders of the province of ,cadiz4 'm4' amended from ',m4'4 ,,article ,,guanajuato3 444 ,w4 of ,guanajuato in a rich mining district2 and ,acambaro 7#hcde71 a prosperous town of the plain1 #gf m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,guanajuato4 ',guanajuato' amended from ',guanaiuato'4 ,,article ,,guarantee3 ,the ,egyptian codes sanction guarantees expressly entered into 'in view of debtor's want of legal capacity' to contract a valid principal obligation 7,egyptian ,codes1 ,mixed ,suits1 #fje2 ,native ,tribunals1 #dif74 ',egyptian' amended from ',egyptain'4 ,,article ,,guinea ,,fowl3 ,allied to the genus ,numida1 but readily distinguished form among other characters by the possession of spurs and the absence of a helmet1 are two very rare forms 444 'form' amended from 'thereform'4 ,,article ,,guipuzcoa3 ,the principal industrial centres are ,irun1 ,renteria1 ,villabona1 ,vergara and ,azpeitia for cotton and linen stuffs2 ,zumarraga for osiers2 ,eibar1 ,plasencia and ,elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold incrustations2 444 'osiers' amended from 'osies'4 ,,article ,,gutzkow1 ,,karl ,,ferdinand3 ,the success of ,die ,ritter vom ,geiste suggested to ,gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model of ,dickens' ,household ,words1 entitled ,unterhaltungen am hauslichen ,herd1 which first appeared in #aheb and was continued till #ahfb4 ,dickens' amended from ,dicken's4 ,,article ,,guy ,,of ,,warwick3 444 ,the ,tragical ,history1 ,admirable ,achievements and ,curious ,events of ,guy1 ,earl of ,warwick 444 ',achievements' amended from ',atchievements'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xii1 ,,slice ,,vi ,groups1 ,theory of to ,gwyniad ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,groups1 ,,theory ,,of ,,guidiccioni1 ,,giovanni ,,grouse ,,guido ,,of ,,arezzo ,,grove1 ,,sir ,,george ,,guido ,,of ,,siena ,,grove1 ,,sir ,,william ,,robert ,,guido ,,reni ,,grove ,,guienne ,,groznyi ,,guignes1 ,,joseph ,,de ,,grub ,,guilbert1 ,,yvette ,,gruber1 ,,johann ,,gottfried ,,guildford ,,grumbach1 ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,guildhall ,,grumentum ,,guilford1 ,,barons ,,and ,,earls ,,of ,,grun ,,guilford ,,grunberg ,,guillaume1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,claude ,,eugene ,,grundtvig1 ,,nikolai ,,severin ,,guillaume ,,de ,,lorris ,,grundy1 ,,sydney ,,guillaume ,,de ,,palerme ,,grundy1 ,,mrs ,,guillaume ,d',,orange ,,gruner1 ,,gottlieb ,,sigmund ,,guillemot ,,grunewald1 ,,mathias ,,guilloche ,,gruter1 ,,jan ,,guillon1 ,,marie ,,nicolas ,,sylvestre ,,gruyere ,,guillotine ,,grynaeus1 ,,johann ,,jakob ,,guilt ,,grynaeus1 ,,simon ,,guimaraes ,,gryphius1 ,,andreas ,,guimard1 ,,marie ,,madeleine ,,guacharo ,,guimet1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,guaco ,,guinea 7,africa7 ,,guadalajara 7city of ,mexico7 ,,guinea 7gold coin7 ,,guadalajara 7province of ,spain7 ,,guinea ,,fowl ,,guadalajara 7city of ,spain7 ,,guinea-,,worm ,,guadalquivir ,,guines ,,guadeloupe ,,guingamp ,,guadet1 ,,marguerite ,,elie ,,guinness ,,guadiana ,,guinobatan ,,guadix ,,guipuzcoa ,,guaduas ,,guiraud1 ,,ernest ,,guaiacum ,,guisborough ,,gualdo ,,tadino ,,guise ,,gualeguay ,,guise1 ,,house ,,of ,,gualeguaychu ,,guitar ,,gualo1 ,,cardinal ,,guitar ,,fiddle ,,guam ,,guitry1 ,,lucien ,,germain ,,guan ,,guizot1 ,,francois ,,pierre ,,guillaume ,,guanabacoa ,,gujarat ,,guanaco ,,gujarati and ,,rajasthani ,,guanajay ,,gujranwala ,,guanajuato 7state of ,mexico7 ,,gujrat ,,guanajuato 7city of ,mexico7 ,,gula ,,guanches ,,gulbarga ,,guanidine ,,gulf ,,stream ,,guano ,,gulfweed ,,guanta ,,gull1 ,,sir ,,william ,,withey ,,guantanamo ,,gull ,,guarana ,,gully1 ,,john ,,guaranis ,,gulpaigan ,,guarantee ,,gum ,,guaratingueta ,,gumbel1 ,,karl ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,guarda ,,gumbinnen ,,guardi1 ,,francesco ,,gumbo ,,guardian ,,gumti ,,guards1 and ,,household ,,troops ,,gumuljina ,,guard-,,ship ,,gumus ,,guarico ,,gumush-,,khaneh ,,guariento ,,gun ,,guarini1 ,,camillo-,,guarino ,,guna ,,guarini1 ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,guncotton ,,guarino ,,gundulich1 ,,ivan ,,guarino ,,guarinus ,,da ,,verona ,,gung',l1 ,,josef ,,guarnieri ,,gunner ,,guastalla ,,gunning1 ,,peter ,,guatemala 7republic7 ,,gunny ,,guatemala 7city of ,guatemala7 ,,gunpowder ,,guatos ,,gunpowder ,,plot ,,guatusos ,,gun-,,room ,,guava ,,gunter1 ,,edmund ,,guayama ,,gunther1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,guayaquil ,,gunther ,,of ,,schwarzburg ,,guayas ,,guntram ,,guaycurus ,,guntur ,,guaymas ,,gupta ,,gubbio ,,gura1 ,,eugen ,,guben ,,gurdaspur ,,gubernatis1 ,,angelo ,,de ,,gurgaon ,,gudbrandsdal ,,gurkha ,,gude1 ,,marquard ,,gurnall1 ,,william ,,gudeman1 ,,alfred ,,gurnard ,,gudgeon ,,gurney ,,gudrun ,,gurney1 ,,edmund ,,guebriant1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,budes ,,gurwood1 ,,john ,,guelder ,,rose ,,gusla ,,guelph ,,gustavus ,i4 ,,eriksson ,,guelphs ,,and ,,ghibellines ,,gustavus ,,ii4 ,,adolphus ,,guenevere ,,gustavus ,,iii4 ,,guenon ,,gustavus ,,iv4 ,,gueret ,,gustavus ,v4 ,,guereza ,,gustavus ,,adolphus ,,union ,,guericke1 ,,heinrich ,,ferdinand ,,gustrow ,,guericke1 ,,otto ,,von ,,gutenberg1 ,,johann ,,gueridon ,,gutersloh ,,guerin1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,paulin ,,guthrie1 ,,sir ,,james ,,guerin1 ,,pierre ,,narcisse ,,guthrie1 ,,thomas ,,guerin ,,du ,,cayla1 ,,maurice ,,de ,,guthrie1 ,,thomas ,,anstey ,,guernieri ,,guthrie ,,guernsey ,,guthrum ,,guerrazzi1 ,,francesco ,,domenico ,,gutschmid1 ,,alfred ,,guerrero ,,guts-,,muths1 ,,johann ,,christoph ,,friedrich ,,guerrilla ,,gutta ,,guerrini1 ,,olindo ,,gutta ,,percha ,,guesde1 ,,jules ,,basile ,,gutter ,,guest1 ,,edwin ,,gutzkow1 ,,karl ,,ferdinand ,,guest ,,gutzlaff1 ,,karl ,,friedrich ,,august ,,guettard1 ,,jean ,,etienne ,,guy ,,of ,,warwick ,,gueux1 ,,les ,,guy1 ,,thomas ,,guevara1 ,,antonio ,,de ,,guyon1 ,,jeanne ,,bouvier ,,de ,,la ,,mothe ,,guevara1 ,,luis ,,velez ,,de ,,guyon1 ,,richard ,,debaufre ,,guglielmi1 ,,pietro ,,guyot1 ,,arnold ,,henry ,,guiana ,,guyot1 ,,yves ,,guiart1 ,,guillaume ,,guyton ,,de ,,morveau1 ,,louis ,,bernard ,,guibert 7of ,ravenna7 ,,guzmics1 ,,izidor ,,guibert 7of ,nogent7 ,,gwadar ,,guibert1 ,,jacques ,,hippolyte ,,gwalior ,,guicciardini1 ,,francesco ,,gweedore ,,guichard1 ,,karl ,,gottlieb ,,gwilt1 ,,joseph ,,guichen1 ,,luc ,,urbain ,,de ,,bouexic ,,gwyn1 ,,nell ,,guide ,,gwyniad ,,guidi1 ,,carlo ,,alessandro ,,groups1#a ,,theory ,,of4 ,the conception of an operation to be carried out on some object or set of objects underlies all mathematical science4 ,thus in elementary arithmetic there are the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication of integers2 in algebra a linear transformation is an operation which may be carried out on any set of variables2 while in geometry a translation1 a rotation1 or a projective transformation are operations which may be carried out on any figure4 ,in speaking of an operation1 an object or a set of objects to which it may be applied is postulated2 and the operation may1 and generally will1 have no meaning except in regard to such a set of objects4 ,if two operations1 which can be performed on the same set of objects1 are such that1 when carried out in succession on any possible object1 the result1 whichever operation is performed first1 is to produce no change in the object1 then each of the operations is spoken of as a definite operation1 and each of them is called the inverse of the other4 ,thus the operations which consist in replacing x by nx and by x_/n respectively1 in any rational function of x1 are definite inverse operations1 if n is any assigned number except zero4 ,on the contrary1 the operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational function of x is not1 in the present sense1 although it leads to a unique result1 a definite operation2 there is in fact no unique inverse operation corresponding to it4 ,it is to be noticed that the question whether an operation is a definite operation or no may depend on the range of the objects on which it operates4 ,for example1 the operations of squaring and extracting the square root are definite inverse operations if the objects are restricted to be real positive numbers1 but not otherwise4 ,if ,o1 ,o'1 ,o1 444 is the totality of the objects on which a definite operation ,s and its inverse ,s' may be carried out1 and if the result of carrying out ,s on ,o is represented by ,o4,s1 then ,o4,s4,s'1 ,o4,s'4,s1 and ,o are the same object whatever object of the set ,o may be4 ,this will be represented by the equations ,,ss' ,s',s #a4 ,now ,o4,s4,s' has a meaning only if ,o4,s is an object on which ,s' may be performed4 ,hence whatever object of the set ,o may be1 both ,o4,s and ,o4,s' belong to the set4 ,similarly ,o4,s4,s1 ,o4,s4,s4,s1 444 are objects of the set4 ,these will be represented by ,o4,s#b1 ,o4,s#c1 444 ,suppose now that ,t is another definite operation with the same set of objects as ,s1 and that ,t' is its inverse operation4 ,then ,o4,s4,t is a definite operation of the set1 and therefore the result of carrying out ,s and then ,t on the set of objects is some operation ,u with a unique result4 ,represent by ,u' the result of carrying out ,t' and then ,s'4 ,then ,o4,,uu' ,o4,s4,t4,t'4,s' ,o4,,ss' ,o1 and ,o4,u',u ,o4,t'4,s'4,s4,t ,o4,t',t ,o1 whatever object ,o may be4 ,hence ,,uu' ,u',u #a2 and ,u1 ,u' are definite inverse operations4 ,if ,s1 ,u1 ,v are definite operations1 and if ,s' is the inverse of ,s1 then ,,su ,,sv implies ,s',,su ,s',,sv1 or ,u ,v4 ,similarly ,,us ,,vs implies ,u ,v4 ,definition of a group4 ,let ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 444 be a set of definite operations1 capable of being carried out on a common object or set of objects1 and let the set contain-- 7i47 the operation ,,st1 ,s and ,t being any two operations of the set2 7ii47 the inverse operation of ,s1 ,s being any operation of the set2 the set of operations is then called a group4 ,the number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite4 ,when it is finite1 the number is called the order of the group1 and the group is spoken of as a group of finite order4 ,if the number of operations is infinite1 there are three possible cases4 ,when the group is represented by a set of geometrical operations1 for the specification of an individual operation a number of measurements will be necessary4 ,in more analytical language1 each operation will be specified by the values of a set of parameters4 ,if no one of these parameters is capable of continuous variation1 the group is called a discontinuous group4 ,if all the parameters are capable of continuous variation1 the group is called a continuous group4 ,if some of the parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not1 the group is called a mixed group4 ,if ,s' is the inverse operation of ,s1 a group which contains ,s must contain ,,ss'1 which produces no change on any possible object4 ,this is called the identical operation1 and will always be represented by ,i4 ,since ,sp,sq ,s7pq7 when p and q are positive integers1 and ,sp,s' ,s7p-#a7 while no meaning at present has been attached to ,sq when q is negative1 ,s' may be consistently represented by ,s7-#a74 ,the set of operations 4441 ,s7-#b71 ,s7-#a71 #a1 ,s1 ,s#b1 444 obviously constitute a group4 ,such a group is called a cyclical group4 ,subgroups1 conjugate operations1 isomorphism1 c4 ,it will be convenient1 before giving some illustrations of the general group idea1 to add a number of further definitions and explanations which apply to all groups alike4 ,if from among the set of operations ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 444 which constitute a group ,g1 a smaller set ,s'1 ,t'1 ,u'1 444 can be chosen which themselves constitute a group ,h1 the group ,h is called a subgroup of ,g4 ,thus1 in particular1 if ,s is an operation of ,g1 the cyclical group constituted by 4441 ,s7-#b71 ,s7-#a71 #a1 ,s1 ,s#b1 444 is a subgroup of ,g1 except in the special case when it coincides with ,g itself4 ,if ,s and ,t are any two operations of ,g1 the two operations ,s and ,t7-#a7,,st are called conjugate operations1 and ,t7-#a7,,st is spoken of as the result of transforming ,s by ,t4 ,it is to be noted that since ,,st ,t7-#a71 ,,ts1 ,t1 ,,st and ,,ts are always conjugate operations in any group containing both ,s and ,t4 ,if ,t transforms ,s into itself1 that is1 if ,s ,t7-#a7,,st or ,,ts ,,st1 ,s and ,t are called permutable operations4 ,a group whose operations are all permutable with each other is called an ,abelian group4 ,if ,s is transformed into itself by every operation of ,g1 or1 in other words1 if it is permutable with every operation of ,g1 it is called a self-conjugate operation of ,g4 ,the conception of operations being conjugate to each other is extended to subgroups4 ,if ,s'1 ,t'1 ,u'1 444 are the operations of a subgroup ,h1 and if ,r is any operation of ,g1 then the operations ,r7-#a7,s',r1 ,r7-#a7,t',r1 ,r7-#a7,u',r1 444 belong to ,g1 and constitute a subgroup of ,g4 ,for if ,s',t' ,u'1 then ,r7-#a7,s',r4,r7-#a7,t',r ,r7-#a7,s',t',r ,r7-#a7,u',r4 ,this subgroup may be identical with ,h4 ,in particular1 it is necessarily the same as ,h if ,r belongs to ,h4 ,if it is not identical with ,h1 it is said to be conjugate to ,h2 and it is in any case represented by the symbol ,r7-#a7;,,hr4 ,if ,h ,r7-#a7;,,hr1 the operation ,r is said to be permutable with the subgroup ,h4 7,it is to be noticed that this does not imply that ,r is permutable with each operation of ,h47 ,if ,h ,r7-#a7;,,hr1 when for ,r is taken in turn each of the operations of ,g1 then ,h is called a self-conjugate subgroup of ,g4 ,a group is spoken of as simple when it has no self-conjugate subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation alone4 ,a group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called composite4 ,let ,g be a group constituted of the operations ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 4441 and g a second group constituted of s1 t1 u1 4441 and suppose that to each operation of ,g there corresponds a single operation of g in such a way that if ,,st ,u1 then st u1 where s1 t1 u are the operations corresponding to ,s1 ,t1 ,u respectively4 ,the groups are then said to be isomorphic1 and the correspondence between their operations is spoken of as an isomorphism between the groups4 ,it is clear that there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism4 ,to a single operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of ,g or more than one4 ,in the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as simple1 in the second as multiple4 ,two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly--that is to say1 in regard only to the way in which their operations combine among themselves1 and apart from any concrete representation of the operations--are clearly indistinguishable4 ,if ,g is multiply isomorphic with g1 let ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 444 be the operations of ,g which correspond to the identical operation of g4 ,then to the operations ,a7-#a7 and ,,ab of ,g there corresponds the identical operation of g2 so that ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 444 constitute a subgroup ,h of ,g4 ,moreover1 if ,r is any operation of ,g1 the identical operation of g corresponds to every operation of ,r7-#a7;,,hr1 and therefore ,h is a self-conjugate subgroup of ,g4 ,since ,s corresponds to s1 and every operation of ,h to the identical operation of g1 therefore every operation of the set ,,sa1 ,,sb1 ,,sc1 4441 which is represented by ,,sh1 corresponds to s4 ,also these are the only operations that correspond to s4 ,the operations of ,g may therefore be divided into sets1 no two of which contain a common operation1 such that the correspondence between the operations of ,g and g connects each of the sets ,h1 ,,sh1 ,,th1 ,,uh1 444 with the single operations #a1 s1 t1 u1 444 written below them4 ,the sets into which the operations of ,g are thus divided combine among themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g4 ,for if st u1 then ,,sh4,,th ,,uh1 in the sense that any operation of the set ,,sh followed by any operation of the set ,,th gives an operation of the set ,,uh4 ,the group g1 abstractly considered1 is therefore completely defined by the division of the operations of ,g into sets in respect of the self-conjugate subgroup ,h4 ,from this point of view it is spoken of as the factor-group of ,g in respect of ,h1 and is represented by the symbol ,g_/,h4 ,any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups4 ,it follows from the definition of a group that it must always be possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set and their inverses4 ,if the set is such that no one of the operations belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others1 it is called a set of independent generating operations4 ,such a set of generating operations may be either finite or infinite in number4 ,if ,a1 ,b1 4441 ,e are the generating operations of a group1 the group generated by them is represented by the symbol ,a1 ,b1 4441 ,e4 ,an obvious extension of this symbol is used such that ,a1 ,h represents the group generated by combining an operation ,a with every operation of a group ,h2 ,h#a1 ,h#b represents the group obtained by combining in all possible ways the operations of the groups ,h#a and ,h#b2 and so on4 ,the independent generating operations of a group may be subject to certain relations connecting them1 but these must be such that it is impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one operation in terms of the others4 ,for instance1 ,,ab ,,ba is a relation conditioning the group ,a1 ,b2 it does not1 however1 enable ,a to be expressed in terms of ,b1 so that ,a and ,b are independent generating operations4 ,transitivity and primitivity4 ,let ,o1 ,o'1 ,o1 444 be a set of objects which are interchanged among themselves by the operations of a group ,g1 so that if ,s is any operation of the group1 and ,o any one of the objects1 then ,o4,s is an object occurring in the set4 ,if it is possible to find an operation ,s of the group such that ,o4,s is any assigned one of the set of objects1 the group is called transitive in respect of this set of objects4 ,when this is not possible the group is called intransitive in respect of the set4 ,if it is possible to find ,s so that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set1 ,o#a1 ,o#b1 4441 ,on are changed by ,s into ,o'#a1 ,o'#b1 4441 ,o'n respectively1 the latter being also arbitrarily chosen1 the group is said to be n-ply transitive4 ,if ,o1 ,o'1 ,o1 444 is a set of objects in respect of which a group ,g is transitive1 it may be possible to divide the set into a number of subsets1 no two of which contain a common object1 such that every operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset among themselves1 or changes them all into the objects of some other subset4 ,when this is the case the group is called imprimitive in respect of the set2 otherwise the group is called primitive4 ,a group which is doubly-transitive1 in respect of a set of objects1 obviously cannot be imprimitive4 ,illustrations of the group idea4 ,the foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups4 ,to begin with1 as the operations involved are of the most familiar nature1 the group of rational arithmetic may be considered4 ,the fundamental operations of elementary arithmetic consist in the addition and subtraction of integers1 and multiplication and division by integers1 division by zero alone omitted4 ,multiplication by zero is not a definite operation1 and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of elementary arithmetic which form a group4 ,the operation that results from carrying out additions1 subtractions1 multiplications and divisions1 of and by integers a finite number of times1 is represented by the relation x' ax b1 where a and b are rational numbers of which a is not zero1 x is the object of the operation1 and x' is the result4 ,the totality of operations of this form obviously constitutes a group4 ,if ,s and ,t represent respectively the operations x' ax b and x' cx d1 then ,t7-#a7,,st represents x' ax d - ad bc4 ,when a and b are given rational numbers1 c and d may be chosen in an infinite number of ways as rational numbers1 so that d - ad bc shall be any assigned rational number4 ,hence the operations given by x' ax b1 where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number1 are all conjugate2 and no two such operations for which the a's are different can be conjugate4 ,if a is unity and b zero1 ,s is the identical operation which is necessarily self-conjugate4 ,if a is unity and b different from zero1 the operation x' x b is an addition4 ,the totality of additions forms1 therefore1 a single conjugate set of operations4 ,moreover1 the totality of additions with the identical operation1 i4e4 the totality of operations of the form x' x b1 where b may be any rational number or zero1 obviously constitutes a group4 ,the operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when transformed by any operation of the original group4 ,it is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group4 ,the totality of multiplications1 with the identical operation1 i4e4 all operations of the form x' ax1 where a is any rational number other than zero1 again obviously constitutes a group4 ,this1 however1 is not a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group4 ,in fact1 if the operations x' ax are all transformed by x' cx d1 they give rise to the set x' ax d7#a - a74 ,when d is a given rational number1 the set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of multiplications4 ,it is to be noticed that the operations of this latter subgroup may be written in the form x' - d a7x - d74 ,the totality of rational numbers1 including zero1 forms a set of objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group4 ,if x#a and x#b are any pair of distinct rational numbers1 and y#a and y#b any other pair1 there is just one operation of the group which changes x#a and x#b into y#a and y#b respectively4 ,for the equations y#a ax#a b1 y#a ax#b b determine a and b uniquely4 ,the group is therefore doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers4 ,if ,h is the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x#a1 and ,s an operation changing x#a into x#b1 then every operation of ,s7-#a7;,,hs leaves x#b unchanged4 ,the subgroups1 each of which leaves a single rational number unchanged1 therefore form a single conjugate set4 ,the group of multiplications leaves zero unchanged2 and1 as has been seen1 this is conjugate with the subgroup formed of all operations x' - d a7x - d71 where d is a given rational number4 ,this subgroup leaves d unchanged4 ,the group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations x' px1 where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn4 ,every addition is obtained on transforming x' x #a by the different operations of the group of multiplications4 ,hence x' x #a1 and x' px1 7p -#a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 44471 form a set of independent generating operations of the group4 ,it is a discontinuous group4 ,as a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional space will be considered4 ,the totality of motions1 i4e4 of space displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points unaltered1 obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies the group definition4 ,from the elements of kinematics it is known that every motion is either 7i47 a translation which leaves no point unaltered1 but changes each of a set of parallel lines into itself2 or 7ii47 a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered and changes every other point and line2 or 7iii47 a twist which leaves no point and only one line 7its axis7 unaltered1 and may be regarded as a translation along1 combined with a rotation round1 the axis4 ,let ,s be any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation a round a line ,,ab1 and let ,t be any other motion4 ,there is some line ,,cd into which ,t changes ,,ab2 and therefore ,t7-#a7,,st leaves ,,cd unchanged4 ,moreover1 ,t7-#a7,,st clearly effects the same translation along and rotation round ,,cd that ,s effects for ,,ab4 ,two motions1 therefore1 are conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation and rotation components are respectively equal4 ,in particular1 all translations of equal amplitude are conjugate1 as also are all rotations of equal amplitude4 ,any two translations are permutable with each other1 and give when combined another translation4 ,the totality of translations constitutes1 therefore1 a subgroup of the general group of motions2 and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup1 since a translation is always conjugate to a translation4 ,all the points of space constitute a set of objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group of motions4 ,so also do all the lines of space and all the planes4 ,in respect of each of these sets the group is simply transitive4 ,in fact1 there is an infinite number of motions which change a point ,a to ,a'1 but no motion can change ,a and ,b to ,a' and ,b' respectively unless the distance ,,ab is equal to the distance ,a',b'4 ,the totality of motions which leave a point ,a unchanged forms a subgroup4 ,it is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all possible axes through ,a1 and is known as the group of rotations about a point4 ,every motion can be represented as a rotation about some axis through ,a followed by a translation4 ,hence if ,g is the group of motions and ,h the group of translations1 ,g_/,h is simply isomorphic with the group of rotations about a point4 ,the totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions4 ,this will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical operation above1 but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more extensive4 ,for a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered4 ,for a solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one of finite order4 ,in particular1 to each of the regular solids there corresponds such a group4 ,that for the tetrahedron has #ab for its order1 for the cube 7or octahedron7 #bd1 and for the icosahedron 7or dodecahedron7 #fj4 ,the determination of a particular operation of the group of motions involves six distinct measurements2 namely1 four to give the axis of the twist1 one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis1 and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it4 ,each of the six quantities involved may have any value whatever1 and the group of motions is therefore a continuous group4 ,on the other hand1 a subgroup of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered is a mixed group4 ,we shall now discuss 7i47 continuous groups1 7ii47 discontinuous groups whose order is not finite1 and 7iii47 groups of finite order4 ,for proofs of the statements1 and the general theorems1 the reader is referred to the bibliography4 ,continuous ,groups4 ,the determination of a particular operation of a given continuous group depends on assigning special values to each one of a set of parameters which are capable of continuous variation4 ,the first distinction regards the number of these parameters4 ,if this number is finite1 the group is called a finite continuous group2 if infinite1 it is called an infinite continuous group4 ,in the latter case arbitrary functions must appear in the equations defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to an analytical form4 ,the theory of infinite continuous groups is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous groups4 ,the latter theory will mainly occupy us here4 ,sophus ,lie1 to whom the foundation and a great part of the development of the theory of continuous groups are due1 undoubtedly approached the subject from a geometrical standpoint4 ,his conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical transformation1 by means of which each point of 7n-dimensional7 space is changed into some other definite point4 ,the representation of such a transformation in analytical form involves a system of equations1 x's fs7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 expressing x'#a1 x'#b1 4441 x'n1 the co-ordinates of the transformed point in terms of x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn1 the co-ordinates of the original point4 ,in these equations the functions fs are analytical functions of their arguments4 ,within a properly limited region they must be one-valued1 and the equations must admit a unique solution with respect to x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn1 since the operation would not otherwise be a definite one4 ,from this point of view the operations of a continuous group1 which depends on a set of r parameters1 will be defined analytically by a system of equations of the form x's fs7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn2 a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 7i47 where a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar represent the parameters4 ,if this operation be represented by ,a1 and that in which b#a1 b#b1 4441 br are the parameters by ,b1 then the operation ,,ab is represented by the elimination 7assumed to be possible7 of x'#a1 x'#b1 4441 x'n between the equations 7i47 and the equations xs fs7x'#a1 x'#b1 4441 x'n2 b#a1 b#b1 4441 br71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n74 ,since ,,ab belongs to the group1 the result of the elimination must be xs fs7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn2 c#a1 c#b1 4441 cr71 where c#a1 c#b1 4441 cr represent another definite set of values of the parameters4 ,moreover1 since ,a7-#a7 belongs to the group1 the result of solving equations 7i47 with respect to x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn must be xs fs7x'#a1 x'#b1 4441 x'n2 d#a1 d#b1 4441 dr71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n74 ,conversely1 if equations 7i47 are such that these two conditions are satisfied1 they do in fact define a finite continuous group4 ,infinitesimal operation of a continuous group4 ,it will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations 7i47 are independent1 i4e4 that it is impossible to choose r' 7 r7 quantities in terms of which a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar can be expressed4 ,where this is the case the group will be spoken of as a group of order r4 ,lie uses the term r-gliedrige ,gruppe4 ,it is to be noticed that the word order is used in quite a different sense from that given to it in connexion with groups of finite order4 ,in regard to equations 7i471 which define the general operation of the group1 it is to be noticed that1 since the group contains the identical operation1 these equations must for some definite set of values of the parameters reduce to x'#a x#a1 x'#b x#b1 4441 x'n xn4 ,this set of values may1 without loss of generality1 be assumed to be simultaneous zero values4 ,for if i#a1 i#b1 4441 ir be the values of the parameters which give the identical operation1 and if we write as is a1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 r71 then zero values of the new parameters a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar give the identical operation4 ,to infinitesimal values of the parameters1 thus chosen1 will correspond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the variables4 ,these are called infinitesimal operations4 ,the most general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the system ,pdfs ,pdfs ,pdfs x's - xs deltaxs --------- deltaa#a --------- deltaa#b 444 --------- deltaar1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 ,pda#a ,pda#b ,pdar where1 in ,pdfs_/,pdai1 zero values of the parameters are to be taken4 ,since a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar are independent1 the ratios of deltaa#a1 deltaa#b1 4441 deltaar are arbitrary4 ,hence the most general infinitesimal operation of the group may be written in the form _/ ,pdfs ,pdfs ,pdfs deltaxs 7 e#a--------- e#b--------- 444 er--------- 7 deltat1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 ,pda#a ,pda#b ,pdar _/ where e#a1 e#b1 4441 er are arbitrary constants1 and deltat is an infinitesimal4 ,if ,f7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn7 is any function of the variables1 and if an infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables in ,f1 the resulting increment of ,f will be ,pd,f ,pd,f ,pd,f ------deltax#a ------deltax#b 444 -------deltaxn4 ,pdx#a ,pdx#b ,pdxn ,if the differential operator ,pdf#a ,pd ,pdf#b ,pd ,pdfn ,pd -------- ------ -------- ------ 444 --------- ------- ,pdai ,pdx#a ,pdai ,pdx#b ,pdai ,pdxn be represented by ,xi1 7i #a1 #b1 4441 r71 then the increment of ,f is given by 7e#a,x#a e#b,x#b 444 er,xr7,fdeltat4 ,when the equations 7i47 defining the general operation of the group are given1 the coefficients ,pdfs_/,pdai1 which enter in these differential operators are functions of the variables which can be directly calculated4 ,the differential operator e#a,x#a e#b,x#b 444 er,xr may then be regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the group4 ,in fact1 if it be for a moment represented by ,x1 then 7#a deltat,x7,f is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation on ,f2 and by putting x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn in turn for ,f1 the actual infinitesimal operation is reproduced4 ,by a very convenient1 though perhaps hardly justifiable1 phraseology this differential operator is itself spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group4 ,the sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made clear by the foregoing explanations4 ,we suppose now that the constants e#a1 e#b1 4441 er have assigned values4 ,then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal operation e#a,x#a e#b,x#b 444 er,xr or ,x an infinite number of times is some finite operation of the group4 ,the effect of this finite operation on ,f may be directly calculated4 ,in fact1 if deltat is the infinitesimal already introduced1 then d,f d#b;,f -- ,x4,f1 ---- ,x4,x4,f1 444 dt dt#b ,hence d,f t#b d#b;,f ,f' ,f t-- --- ---- 444 dt #a4b dt#b t#b ,f t,x4,f --- ,x4,x4,f 444 #a4b ,it must1 of course1 be understood that in this analytical representation of the effect of the finite operation on ,f it is implied that t is taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence of the 7in general7 infinite series4 ,when x#a1 x#b1 444 are written in turn for ,f1 the system of equations t#b x's 7#a t,x --- ,x4,x 4447xs1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n7 7ii47 #a4b represent the finite operation completely4 ,if t is here regarded as a parameter1 this set of operations must in themselves constitute a group1 since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal operation4 ,that this is really the case results immediately from noticing that the result of eliminating ,f' between t#b ,f' ,f t,x4,f --- ,x4,x4,f 444 #a4b and t'#b ,f ,f' t',x4,f' ---- ,x4,x4,f' 444 #a4b is 7t t'7#b ,f ,f 7t t'7 ,x4,f ---------- ,x4,x4,f 444 #a4b ,the group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal operation is called a cyclical group2 so that a continuous group contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its infinitesimal operations4 ,the system of equations 7ii47 represents an operation of the group whatever the constants e#a1 e#b1 4441 er may be4 ,hence if e#at1 e#bt1 4441 ert be replaced by a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar the equations 7ii47 represent a set of operations1 depending on r parameters and belonging to the group4 ,they must therefore be a form of the general equations for any operation of the group1 and are equivalent to the equations 7i474 ,the determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group1 when the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given1 will always depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary differential equations4 ,as a very simple example we may consider the case in which the infinitesimal operation is given by ,x x#b,pd_/,pdx1 so that there is only a single variable4 ,the relation between x' and t is given by dx'_/dt x'#b1 with the condition that x' x when t #j4 ,this gives at once x' x_/7#a - tx71 which might also be obtained by the direct use of 7ii474 ,relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous group4 ,when the finite equations 7i47 of a continuous group of order r are known1 it has now been seen that the differential operator which defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the group can be directly constructed1 and that it contains r arbitrary constants4 ,this is equivalent to saying that the group contains r linearly independent infinitesimal operations2 and that the most general infinitesimal operation is obtained by combining these linearly with constant coefficients4 ,moreover1 when any r independent infinitesimal operations of the group are known1 it has been seen how the general finite operation of the group may be calculated4 ,this obviously suggests that it must be possible to define the group by means of its infinitesimal operations alone2 and it is clear that such a definition would lend itself more readily to some applications 7for instance1 to the theory of differential equations7 than the definition by means of the finite equations4 ,on the other hand1 r arbitrarily given linear differential operators will not1 in general1 give rise to a finite continuous group of order r2 and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of operators must satisfy in order that they may1 in fact1 be the independent infinitesimal operations of such a group4 ,if ,x1 ,y are two linear differential operators1 ,,xy - ,,yx is also a linear differential operator4 ,it is called the combinant of ,x and ,y 7,lie uses the expression ,klammerausdruck7 and is denoted by 7,,xy74 ,if ,x1 ,y1 ,z are any three linear differential operators the identity 7known as ,jacobi's7 7,x7,,yz77 7,y7,,zx77 7,z7,,xy77 #j holds between them4 ,now it may be shown that any continuous group of which ,x1 ,y are infinitesimal operations contains also 7,,xy7 among its infinitesimal operations4 ,hence if r linearly independent operations ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,xr give rise to a finite continuous group of order r1 the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in terms of the r operations themselves3 that is1 there must be a system of relations kr 7,xi,xj7 c7ijk7,xk1 _/k#a where the c's are constants4 ,moreover1 from ,jacobi's identity and the identity 7,,xy7 7,,yx7 #j it follows that the c's are subject to the relations c7ijt7 c7jit7 #j1 and ,sigmas7c7jks7c7ist7 c7kis7c7jst7 c7ijs7c7kst77 #j _/ 7iii47 for all values of i1 j1 k and t4 ,determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given order4 ,the fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups is now that these conditions1 which are necessary in order that ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,xr may generate1 as infinitesimal operations1 a continuous group of order r1 are also sufficient4 ,for the proof of this fundamental theorem see ,lie's works 7cf4 ,lie-,engel1 i4 chap4 #i2 iii4 chap4 #be74 ,if two continuous groups of order r are such that1 for each1 a set of linearly independent infinitesimal operations ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,xr and ,y#a1 ,y#b1 4441 ,yr can be chosen1 so that in the relations 7,xi,xj7 ,sigmac7ijs7,xs1 7,yi,yj7 ,sigmad7ijs7,ys1 the constants c7ijs7 and d7ijs7 are the same for all values of i1 j and s1 the two groups are simply isomorphic1 ,xs and ,ys being corresponding infinitesimal operations4 ,two continuous groups of order r1 whose infinitesimal operations obey the same system of equations 7iii471 may be of very different form2 for instance1 the number of variables for the one may be different from that for the other4 ,they are1 however1 said to be of the same type1 in the sense that the laws according to which their operations combine are the same for both4 ,the problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r is then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the systems of r#c quantities c7ijs7 which satisfy the relations c7ijt7 c7ijt7 #j1 ,sigma c7ijs7c7skt7 c7jks7c7sit7 c7kis7c7sjt7 #j4 s for all values of i1 j1 k and t4 ,to two distinct solutions of the algebraical problem1 however1 two distinct types of group will not necessarily correspond4 ,in fact1 ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,xr may be replaced by any r independent linear functions of themselves1 and the c's will then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r#b independent parameters4 ,this1 however1 does not alter the type of group considered4 ,for a single parameter there is1 of course1 only one type of group1 which has been called cyclical4 ,for a group of order two there is a single relation 7,x#a,x#b7 alpha,x#a beta,x#b4 ,if alpha and beta are not both zero1 let alpha be finite4 ,the relation may then be written 7alpha,x#a beta,x#b1 alpha7-#a7,x#b7 alpha,x#a beta,x#b4 ,hence if alpha,x#a beta,x#b ,x'#a1 and alpha7-#a7,x#b ,x'#b1 then 7,x'#a,x'#b7 ,x'#a4 ,there are1 therefore1 just two types of group of order two1 the one given by the relation last written1 and the other by 7,x#a,x#b7 #j4 ,lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of orders three or four2 and all types of non-integrable groups 7a term which will be explained immediately7 of orders five and six 7cf4 ,lie-,engel1 iii4 #gac-gdd74 ,self-conjugate subgroups4 ,integrable groups4 ,a problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate subgroups which it contains4 ,if ,x is an infinitesimal operation of a group1 and ,y any other1 the general form of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to ,x is t#b ,x t7,,xy7 --- 77,,xy7,y7 4444 #a4b ,any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to ,x must therefore contain all infinitesimal operations 7,,xy71 77,,xy7,y71 4441 where for ,y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in turn4 ,hence if ,x'#a1 ,x'#b1 4441 ,x's are s linearly independent operations of the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of order s1 then for every infinitesimal operation ,y of the group relations of the form e#a 7,x'i,y7 a7ie7,x'e1 7i #a1 #b1 4441 s7 _/es must be satisfied4 ,conversely1 if such a set of relations is satisfied1 ,x'#a1 ,x'#b1 4441 ,x's generate a subgroup of order s1 which contains every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal generating operations1 and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup4 ,a specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated by the combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations4 ,that these generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations 7iii474 ,in fact1 77,xi,xj7,xk7 ,sigma c7ijs77,xs,xk74 s ,of the #a_/br7r - #a7 combinants not more than r can be linearly independent4 ,when exactly r of them are linearly independent1 the self-conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original group4 ,if the number that are linearly independent is less than r1 the self-conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup2 i4e4 its order is less than that of the original group4 ,this subgroup is known as the derived group1 and ,lie has called a group perfect when it coincides with its derived group4 ,a simple group1 since it contains no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself1 is necessarily a perfect group4 ,if ,g is a given continuous group1 ,g#a the derived group of ,g1 ,g#b that of ,g#a1 and so on1 the series of groups ,g1 ,g#a1 ,g#b1 444 will terminate either with the identical operation or with a perfect group2 for the order of ,g7s#a7 is less than that of ,gs unless ,gs is a perfect group4 ,when the series terminates with the identical operation1 ,g is said to be an integrable group2 in the contrary case ,g is called non-integrable4 ,if ,g is an integrable group of order r1 the infinitesimal operations ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,xr which generate the group may be chosen so that ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,x7r#a71 7r#a r7 generate the first derived group1 ,x#a1 ,x#b1 4441 ,x7r#b71 7r#b r#a7 the second derived group1 and so on4 ,when they are so chosen the constants c7ijs7 are clearly such that if rp i r7p#a71 rq j r7q#a71 p q1 then c7ijs7 vanishes unless s r7p#a74 ,in particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c7ijs7 vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two numbers i1 j2 and conversely1 if the c's satisfy these relations1 the group is integrable4 ,simple groups4 ,a simple group1 as already defined1 is one which has no self-conjugate subgroup4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the determination of all distinct types of simple continuous groups has been made1 for in the case of discontinuous groups and groups of finite order this is far from being the case4 ,lie has demonstrated the existence of four great classes of simple groups3-- 7i47 ,the groups simply isomorphic with the general projective group in space of n dimensions4 ,such a group is defined analytically as the totality of the transformations of the form as1 #ax#a as1 #bx#b 444 as1 nxn a7s1 n #a7 x's ---------------------------------------- ----------------1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 a7n#a71 #ax#a a7n#a71 #bx#b 444 a7n#a71 nxn #a where the a's are parameters4 ,the order of this group is clearly n7n #b74 7ii47 ,the groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective transformations which transform a non-special linear complex in space of #bn - #a dimensions with itself4 ,the order of this group is n7#bn #a74 7iii47 and 7iv47 ,the groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing discriminant into itself4 ,these fall into two distinct classes of types according as n is even or odd4 ,in either case the order is #a_/bn7n #a74 ,the case n #c forms an exception in which the corresponding group is not simple4 ,it is also to be noticed that a cyclical group is a simple group1 since it has no continuous self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself4 ,w4 ,k4 ,j4 ,killing and ,e4 ,j4 ,cartan have separately proved that outside these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of simple groups1 whose orders are #ad1 #eb1 #gh1 #acc and #bdh2 thus completing the enumeration of all possible types4 ,to prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very general results1 it is well to point out explicitly that there are no limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been defined above4 ,they are to be regarded as taking in general complex values4 ,if in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary symbol does not explicitly occur1 the finite equations will usually define a group 7in the general sense of the original definition7 when both parameters and variables are limited to real values4 ,such a group is1 in a certain sense1 a continuous group2 and such groups have been considered shortly by ,lie 7cf4 ,lie-,engel1 iii4 #cfj-cib71 who calls them real continuous groups4 ,to these real continuous groups the above statement as to the totality of simple groups does not apply2 and indeed1 in all probability1 the number of types of real simple continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration4 ,the effect of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated by considering the groups of projective transformations which change x#b y#b z#b - #a #j and x#b y#b - z#b - #a #j respectively into themselves4 ,since one of these quadrics is changed into the other by the imaginary transformation x' x1 y' y1 z' zroot7-#a71 the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic4 ,this is not1 however1 the case for the real continuous groups4 ,in fact1 the second quadric has two real sets of generators2 and therefore the real group which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate subgroups1 either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators4 ,the first quadric having imaginary generators1 no such self-conjugate subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms it into itself2 and this real group is in fact simple4 ,the adjunct group4 ,among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there is one of special importance which is known as the adjunct group4 ,this is a homogeneous linear group in a number of variables equal to the order of the group1 whose infinitesimal operations are defined by the relations ,pd ,xi,sigma c7ijs7xi -------1 7j #a1 #b1 4441 r71 i1 s ,pdxs where c7ijs7 are the often-used constants1 which give the combinants of the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations themselves4 ,that the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their combinants4 ,it is thus found that 7,xp,xq7 ,sigmasc7pqs7,xs4 ,the ,x's1 however1 are not necessarily linearly independent4 ,in fact1 the sufficient condition that ,sigmajaj,xj should be identically zero is that ,sigmajajc7ijs7 should vanish for all values of i and s4 ,hence if the equations ,sigmajajc7ijs7 #j for all values of i and s have r' linearly independent solutions1 only r - r' of the ,x's are linearly independent1 and the isomorphism of the two groups is multiple4 ,if ,y#a1 ,y#b1 4441 ,yr are the infinitesimal operations of the given group1 the equations ,sigma ajc7ijs7 #j1 7s1 i #a1 #b1 4441 r7 j express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group generated by ,sigmajaj,yi should be permutable with every operation of the group2 in other words1 that they should be self-conjugate operations4 ,in the case supposed1 therefore1 the given group contains a subgroup of order r' each of whose operations is self-conjugate4 ,the adjunct group of a given group will therefore be simply isomorphic with the group1 unless the latter contains self-conjugate operations2 and when this is the case the order of the adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations4 ,continuous groups of the line of the plane1 and of three-dimensional space4 ,we have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of continuous groups1 in which no distinction is made between two simply isomorphic groups4 ,we proceed to discuss the classification and theory of groups when their form is regarded as essential2 and this is a return to a more geometrical point of view4 ,it is natural to begin with the projective groups1 which are the simplest in form and at the same time are of supreme importance in geometry4 ,the general projective group of the straight line is the group of order three given by ax b x' ------- cx d' where the parameters are the ratios of a1 b1 c1 d4 ,since x'#c - x'#b x' - x'#a x#c - x#b x - x#a --------- 4 -------- ------- 4 ------ x'#c - x'#a x' - x'#b x#c - x#a x - x#b is an operation of the above form1 the group is triply transitive4 ,every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged1 and all such subgroups are conjugate4 ,a cyclical subgroup leaves either two distinct points or two coincident points unchanged4 ,a subgroup which either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is an example of a mixed group4 ,the analysis of the general projective group must obviously increase very rapidly in complexity1 as the dimensions of the space to which it applies increase4 ,this analysis has been completely carried out for the projective group of the plane1 with the result of showing that there are thirty distinct types of subgroup4 ,excluding the general group itself1 every one of these leaves either a point1 a line1 or a conic section unaltered4 ,for space of three dimensions ,lie has also carried out a similar investigation1 but the results are extremely complicated4 ,one general result of great importance at which ,lie arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in space of three dimensions1 other than the general group1 leaves either a point1 a curve1 a surface or a linear complex unaltered4 ,returning now to the case of a single variable1 it can be shown that any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of order two or three1 and that by a suitable transformation any such group may be changed into a projective group4 ,the genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single variable4 ,the infinitesimal operations of the projective group in one variable are d_/dx1 x7d_/dx71 x#b7;d_/dx74 ,if these combined with x#c7;d_/dx7 be taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate a continuous group among the infinitesimal operations of the group1 there must occur the combinant of x#b7;d_/dx7 and x#c7;d_/dx74 ,this is x#d7;d_/dx74 ,the combinant of this and x#b7;d_/dx7 is #bx#e7;d_/dx7 and so on4 ,hence xr7d_/dx71 where r is any positive integer1 is an infinitesimal operation of the group4 ,the general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore f7x77d_/dx71 where f7x7 is an arbitrary integral function of x4 ,in the classification of the groups1 projective or non-projective of two or more variables1 the distinction between primitive and imprimitive groups immediately presents itself4 ,for groups of the plane the following question arises4 ,is there or is there not a singly-infinite family of curves f7x1 y7 ,c1 where ,c is an arbitrary constant such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the family among themselves8 ,in accordance with the previously given definition of imprimitivity1 the group is called imprimitive or primitive according as such a set exists or not4 ,in space of three dimensions there are two possibilities2 namely1 there may either be a singly infinite system of surfaces ,f7x1 y1 z7 ,c1 which are interchanged among themselves by the operations of the group2 or there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves ,g7x1 y1 z7 a1 ,h7x1 y1 z7 b1 which are so interchanged4 ,in regard to primitive groups ,lie has shown that any primitive group of the plane can1 by a suitably chosen transformation1 be transformed into one of three definite types of projective groups2 and that any primitive group of space of three dimensions can be transformed into one of eight definite types1 which1 however1 cannot all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions4 ,the results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in two and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement4 ,contact transformations4 ,we shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations and groups of contact-transformations4 ,this conception1 like that of continuous groups1 owes its origin to ,lie4 ,from a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation may be defined as a point-transformation in #bn #a variables1 z1 x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn1 p#a1 p#b1 4441 pn which leaves unaltered the equation dz - p#a;dx#a - p#b;dx#b - 444 - pndxn #j4 ,such a definition as this1 however1 gives no direct clue to the geometrical properties of the transformation1 nor does it explain the name given4 ,in dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves to space of two or of three dimensions2 and it will be necessary to begin with some purely geometrical considerations4 ,an infinitesimal surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified1 apart from its size1 by its position and orientation4 ,if x1 y1 z are the co-ordinates of some one point of the element1 and if p1 q1 -#a give the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal1 x1 y1 z1 p1 q are five quantities which completely specify the element4 ,there are1 therefore1 oo#e surface elements in three-dimensional space4 ,the surface-elements of a surface form a system of oo#b elements1 for there are oo#b points on the surface1 and at each a definite surface-element4 ,the surface-elements of a curve form1 again1 a system of oo#b elements1 for there are oo#a points on the curve1 and at each oo#a surface-elements containing the tangent to the curve at the point4 ,similarly the surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system of oo#b elements4 ,now each of these systems of oo#b surface-elements has the property that if 7x1 y1 z1 p1 q7 and 7x dx1 y dy1 z dz1 p dp1 q dq7 are consecutive elements from any one of them1 then dz - pdx - qdy #j4 ,in fact1 for a system of the first kind dx1 dy1 dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line at a point of the surface1 and p1 q1 -#a are proportional to the direction-cosines of the normal4 ,for a system of the second kind dx1 dy1 dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve1 and p1 q1 -#a give the direction-cosines of the normal to a plane touching the curve2 and for a system of the third kind dx1 dy1 dz are zero4 ,now the most general way in which a system of oo#b surface-elements can be given is by three independent equations between x1 y1 z1 p and q4 ,if these equations do not contain p1 q1 they determine one or more 7a finite number in any case7 points in space1 and the system of surface-elements consists of the elements containing these points2 i4e4 it consists of one or more systems of the third kind4 ,if the equations are such that two distinct equations independent of p and q can be derived from them1 the points of the system of surface-elements lie on a curve4 ,for such a system the equation dz - pdx - qdy #j will hold for each two consecutive elements only when the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point4 ,if the equations are such that only one equation independent of p and q can be derived from them1 the points of the system of surface-elements lie on a surface4 ,again1 for such a system the equation dz - pdx - qdy #j will hold for each two consecutive elements only when each element touches the surface at its own point4 ,hence1 when all possible systems of oo#b surface-elements in space are considered1 the equation dz - pdx - qdy #j is characteristic of the three special types in which the elements belong1 in the sense explained above1 to a point or a curve or a surface4 ,let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation x' f#a7x1 y1 z1 p1 q71 4441 q' f#e7x1 y1 z1 p1 q71 of the five variables4 ,it will interchange the surface-elements of space among themselves1 and will change any system of oo#b elements into another system of oo#b elements4 ,a special system1 i4e4 a system which belongs to a point1 curve or surface1 will not1 however1 in general be changed into another special system4 ,the necessary and sufficient condition that a special system should always be changed into a special system is that the equation dz' - p'dx' - q'dy' #j should be a consequence of the equation dz - pdx - qdy #j2 or1 in other words1 that this latter equation should be invariant for the transformation4 ,when this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to change the surface-elements of a surface in general into surface-elements of a surface1 though in particular cases they may become the surface-elements of a curve or point2 and similar statements may be made with respect to a curve or point4 ,the transformation is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of three dimensions4 ,moreover1 two special systems of surface-elements which have an element in common are transformed into two new special systems with an element in common4 ,hence two curves or surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves or surfaces which touch each other4 ,it is this property which leads to the transformations in question being called contact-transformations4 ,it will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is always a contact-transformation1 but that a contact-transformation 7in space of n dimensions7 is not in general a point-transformation 7in space of n dimensions71 though it may always be regarded as a point-transformation in space of #bn #a dimensions4 ,in the analogous theory for space of two dimensions a line-element1 defined by 7x1 y1 p71 where #a 3 p gives the direction-cosines of the line1 takes the place of the surface-element2 and a transformation of x1 y and p which leaves the equation dy - pdx #j unchanged transforms the oo#a line-elements1 which belong to a curve1 into oo#a line-elements which again belong to a curve2 while two curves which touch are transformed into two other curves which touch4 ,one of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can be given is the transformation by reciprocal polars4 ,by this transformation a point ,p and a plane p passing through it are changed into a plane p' and a point ,p' upon it2 i4e4 the surface-element defined by ,p1 p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by ,p'1 p'4 ,the totality of surface-elements which belong to a 7non-developable7 surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed into the totality which belongs to another 7non-developable7 surface4 ,on the other hand1 the totality of the surface-elements which belong to a curve is changed into another set which belong to a developable4 ,the analytical formulae for this transformation1 when the reciprocation is effected with respect to the paraboloid x#b y#b - #bz #j1 are x' p1 y' q1 z' px qy - z1 p' x1 q' y4 ,that this is1 in fact1 a contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that dz' - p'dx' - q'dy' -d7z - px - qy7 - xdp - ydq -7dz - pdx - qdy74 ,a second simple example is that in which every surface-element is displaced1 without change of orientation1 normal to itself through a constant distance t4 ,the analytical equations in this case are easily found in the form pt qt x' x ---------------------1 y' y --------------------1 root7#a p#b q#b7 root7#a p#b q#b7 t z' z - ---------------------1 root7#a p#b q#b7 p' q1 q' q4 ,that this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing that it changes a surface into a parallel surface4 ,every point is changed by it into a sphere of radius t1 and when t is regarded as a parameter the equations define a cyclical group of contact-transformations4 ,the formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations is1 of course1 in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous groups in general4 ,on what may be called the geometrical side1 the theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with very considerable detail in the second volume of ,lie-,engel4 ,applications of the theory of continuous groups4 ,to the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups in various branches of pure and applied mathematics it is impossible here to refer in any detail4 ,it must suffice to indicate a few of them very briefly4 ,in some of the older theories a new point of view is obtained which presents the results in a fresh light1 and suggests the natural generalization4 ,as an example1 the theory of the invariants of a binary form may be considered4 ,if in the form f a#jxn na#ax7n-#a7y 444 anyn1 the variables be subjected to a homogeneous substitution x' alphax betay1 y' gammax deltay1 7i47 and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the old coefficients1 then a'#j a#j;alphan a#analpha7n-#a7;gamma 444 angamman1 a'#a a#j;alpha7n-#a7;beta a#a7n-#a7;alpha7n-#b7;betagamma alpha7n-#a7;delta 444 angamma7n-#a7;delta1 7ii47 a'n a#j;betan a#anbeta7n-#a7;delta 444 andeltan2 _/ and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the coefficients4 ,the totality of the substitutions1 7i471 for which alphadelta - betagamma #a1 constitutes a continuous group of order #c1 which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations y7,pd_/,pdx7 and x7,pd_/,pdy74 ,hence with the same limitations on alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta the totality of the substitutions 7ii47 forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order #c1 which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations ,pd ,pd ,pd ,pd a#j ------ #b;a#a ------ #c;a#a ------ 444 na7n-#a7 -------1 ,pda#a ,pda#b ,pda#c ,pdan and ,pd ,pd ,pd ,pd na#a ------ 7n - #a7;a#b ------ 7n - #b7;a#c ------ 444 au ----------4 ,pda#j ,pda#a ,pda#b ,pda7u-#a7 ,the invariants of the binary form1 i4e4 those functions of the coefficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on x1 y of determinant unity1 are therefore identical with the functions of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written4 ,in other words1 they are given by the common solutions of the differential equations ,pdf ,pdf ,pdf a#j ------- #b;a#a ------- #c;a#b ------- 444 #j1 ,pda#a ,pda#b ,pda#c ,pdf ,pdf ,pdf na#a ------- 7n - #a7;a#b ------- 7n - #b7;a#c ------- 444 #j4 ,pda#j ,pda#a ,pda#b ,both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well known1 but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group of the coefficients1 and regard the invariants as invariants rather of the group than of the forms1 is a new and a fruitful one4 ,the general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group of motions4 ,that something more than a mere change of phraseology is here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves1 i4e4 with curves such that at every point of them dx#b dy#b dz#b #j4 ,for such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning1 but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the group of motions4 ,the curvature and torsion of a curve1 which are invariant for all transformations by the group of motions1 are special instances of what are known as differential invariants4 ,if xi7,pd_/,pdx7 eta7,pd_/,pdy7 is the general infinitesimal transformation of a group of point-transformations in the plane1 and if y#a1 y#b1 444 represent the successive differential coefficients of y1 the infinitesimal transformation may be written in the extended form ,pd ,pd ,pd ,pd xi ----- eta ----- eta#a ------ eta#b ------ 444 ,pdx ,pdy ,pdy#a ,pdy#b where eta#a;deltat1 eta#b;deltat1 444 are the increments of y#a1 y#b1 4444 ,by including a sufficient number of these variables the group must be intransitive in them1 and must therefore have one or more invariants4 ,such invariants are known as differential invariants of the original group1 being necessarily functions of the differential coefficients of the original variables4 ,for groups of the plane it may be shown that not more than two of these differential invariants are independent1 all others being formed from these by algebraical processes and differentiation4 ,for groups of point-transformations in more than two variables there will be more than one set of differential invariants4 ,for instance1 with three variables1 one may be regarded as independent and the other two as functions of it1 or two as independent and the remaining one as a function4 ,corresponding to these two points of view1 the differential invariants for a curve or for a surface will arise4 ,if a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be equated to zero1 the resulting differential equation remains unaltered when the variables undergo any transformation of the group4 ,conversely1 if an ordinary1 differential equation f7x1 y1 y#a1 y#b1 4447 #j admits the transformations of a continuous group1 i4e4 if the equation is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the group1 then f7x1 y1 y#a1 y#b1 4447 or some multiple of it must be a differential invariant of the group4 ,hence it must be possible to find two independent differential invariants alpha1 beta of the group1 such that when these are taken as variables the differential equation takes the form ,f7alpha1 beta1 dbeta_/dalpha1 d#b;beta_/dalpha#b1 4447 #j4 ,this equation in alpha1 beta will be of lower order than the original equation1 and in general simpler to deal with4 ,supposing it solved in the form beta phi7alpha71 where for alpha1 beta their values in terms of x1 y1 y#a1 y#b1 444 are written1 this new equation1 containing arbitrary constants1 is necessarily again of lower order than the original equation4 ,the integration of the original equation is thus divided into two steps4 ,this will show how1 in the case of an ordinary differential equation1 the fact that the equation admits a continuous group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its integration4 ,the most important of the applications of continuous groups are to the theory of systems of differential equations1 both ordinary and partial2 in fact1 ,lie states that it was with a view to systematizing and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he was led to the development of the theory of continuous groups4 ,it is quite impossible here to give any account of all that ,lie and his followers have done in this direction4 ,an entirely new mode of regarding the problem of the integration of a differential equation has been opened up1 and in the classification that arises from it all those apparently isolated types of equations which in the older sense are said to be integrable take their proper place4 ,it may1 for instance1 be mentioned that the question as to whether ,monge's method will apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the second order is shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation can be found which will reduce the equation to either ,pd#bz_/,pdx#b #j or ,pd#bz_/,pdx,pdy #j4 ,it is in this direction that further advance in the theory of partial differential equations must be looked for4 ,lastly1 it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions of the axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon the theory of continuous groups4 ,discontinuous ,groups4 ,we go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups4 ,although groups of finite order are necessarily contained under this general head1 it is convenient for many reasons to deal with them separately1 and it will therefore be assumed in the present section that the number of operations in the group is not finite4 ,many large classes of discontinuous groups have formed the subject of detailed investigation1 but a general formal theory of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet4 ,it will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups it is necessary to proceed on different lines from those followed with continuous groups1 and in fact to deal with the subject almost entirely by way of example4 ,generating operations4 ,the consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set of independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point of view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are indistinguishable4 ,the number of generating operations may be either finite or infinite1 but the former case alone will be here considered4 ,suppose then that ,s#a1 ,s#b1 4441 ,sn is a set of independent operations from which a group ,g is generated4 ,the general operation of the group will be represented by the symbol ,saalpha,sbbeta 444 ,sddelta1 or ,sigma1 where a1 b1 4441 d are chosen from #a1 #b1 4441 n1 and alpha1 beta1 4441 delta are any positive or negative integers4 ,it may be assumed that no two successive suffixes in ,sigma are the same1 for if b a1 then ,saalpha,sbbeta may be replaced by ,sa7alpha beta74 ,if there are no relations connecting the generating operations and the identical operation1 every distinct symbol ,sigma represents a distinct operation of the group4 ,for if ,sigma ,sigma#a1 or ,saalpha ,sbbeta 444 ,sddelta ,s7a#a77;alpha#a7 ,s7b#a77;beta#a7 444 ,s7d#a77;delta#a71 then ,s7d#a77-;delta#a7 444 ,s7b#a77-;beta#a7 ,s7a#a77-;alpha#a7 ,saalpha ,sbbeta 444 ,sddelta #a2 and unless a a#a1 b b#a1 4441 alpha alpha#a1 beta beta#a1 4441 this is a relation connecting the generating operations4 ,suppose now that ,t#a1 ,t#b1 444 are operations of ,g1 and that ,h is that self-conjugate subgroup of ,g which is generated by ,t#a1 ,t#b1 444 and the operations conjugate to them4 ,then1 of the operations that can be formed from ,s#a1 ,s#b1 4441 ,sn1 the set ,sigma,h1 and no others1 reduce to the same operation ,sigma when the conditions ,t#a #a1 ,t#b #a1 444 are satisfied by the generating operations4 ,hence the group which is generated by the given operations1 when subjected to the conditions just written1 is simply isomorphic with the factor-group ,g_/,h4 ,moreover1 this is obviously true even when the conditions are such that the generating operations are no longer independent4 ,hence any discontinuous group may be defined abstractly1 that is1 in regard to the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual form1 by a set of generating operations and a system of relations connecting them4 ,conversely1 when such a set of operations and system of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract form a single discontinuous group4 ,it may1 of course1 happen that the group so defined is a group of finite order1 or that it reduces to the identical operation only2 but in regard to the general statement these will be particular and exceptional cases4 ,properly and improperly discontinuous groups4 ,an operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified analytically by a system of equations of the form x's fs7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn2 a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 and the different operations of the group will be given by different sets of values of the parameters a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar4 ,no one of these parameters is susceptible of continuous variations1 but at least one must be capable of taking a number of values which is not finite1 if the group is not one of finite order4 ,among the sets of values of the parameters there must be one which gives the identical transformation4 ,no other transformation makes each of the differences x'#a - x#a1 x'#b - x#b1 4441 x'n - xn vanish4 ,let d be an arbitrary assigned positive quantity4 ,then if a transformation of the group can be found such that the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation1 however small d may be chosen1 the group is said to be improperly discontinuous4 ,in the contrary case the group is called properly discontinuous4 ,the range within which the variables are allowed to vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is properly or improperly discontinuous4 ,for instance1 the group defined by the equation x' ax b1 where a and b are any rational numbers1 is improperly discontinuous2 and the group defined by x' x a1 where a is an integer1 is properly discontinuous1 whatever the range of the variable4 ,on the other hand1 the group1 to be later considered1 defined by the equation x' 7ax b7_/7cx d71 where a1 b1 c1 d are integers satisfying the relation ad - bc #a1 is properly discontinuous when x may take any complex value1 and improperly discontinuous when the range of x is limited to real values4 ,linear discontinuous groups4 ,among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis1 a large number may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the range of variation of the parameters of continuous groups4 ,if x's fs7x#a1 x#b1 4441 xn2 a#a1 a#b1 4441 ar71 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 are the finite equations of a continuous group1 and if ,c with parameters c#a1 c#b1 4441 cr is the operation which results from carrying out ,a and ,b with corresponding parameters in succession1 then the c's are determined uniquely by the a's and the b's4 ,if the c's are rational functions of the a's and b's1 and if the a's and b's are arbitrary rational numbers of a given corpus 7see ,,number71 the c's will be rational numbers of the same corpus4 ,if the c's are rational integral functions of the a's and b's1 and the latter are arbitrarily chosen integers of a corpus1 then the c's are integers of the same corpus4 ,hence in the first case the above equations1 when the a's are limited to be rational numbers of a given corpus1 will define a discontinuous group2 and in the second case they will define such a group when the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus4 ,a most important class of discontinuous groups are those that arise in this way from the general linear continuous group in a given set of variables4 ,for n variables the finite equations of this continuous group are x's a7s#a7x#a a7s#b7x#b 444 a7sn7xn1 7s #a1 #b1 4441 n71 where the determinant of the a's must not be zero4 ,in this case the c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and b's4 ,moreover1 the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant of the a's and the determinant of the b's4 ,hence equations 7ii471 where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus1 define a discontinuous group2 and if the determinant of the coefficients is limited to the value unity1 they define a discontinuous group which is a 7self-conjugate7 subgroup of the previous one4 ,the simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers4 ,this is the group defined by the equations x' ax by1 y' cx dy1 _/ where a1 b1 c1 d are integers such that ad - bc #a4 ,to every operation of this group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by az b z' ------1 cz d in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group there corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of the set4 ,the operations of the set 7iv471 where ad - bc #a1 therefore constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group4 ,the isomorphism is multiple1 since to a single operation of the second set there correspond the two operations of the first for which a1 b1 c1 d and -a1 -b1 -c1 -d are parameters4 ,these two groups1 which are of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in the theory of modular functions1 have been the object of very many investigations4 ,discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations4 ,another large class of discontinuous groups1 which have far-reaching applications in analysis1 are those which arise in the first instance from purely geometrical considerations4 ,by the combination and repetition of a finite number of geometrical operations such as displacements1 projective transformations1 inversions1 c41 a discontinuous group of such operations will arise4 ,such a group1 as regards the points of the plane 7or of space71 will in general be improperly discontinuous2 but when the generating operations are suitably chosen1 the group may be properly discontinuous4 ,in the latter case the group may be represented in a graphical form by the division of the plane 7or space7 into regions such that no point of one region can be transformed into another point of the same region by any operation of the group1 while any given region can be transformed into any other by a suitable transformation4 ,thus1 let ,,abc be a triangle bounded by three circular arcs ,,bc1 ,,ca1 ,,ab2 and consider the figure produced from ,,abc by inversions in the three circles of which ,,bc1 ,,ca1 ,,ab are part4 ,by inversion at ,,bc1 ,,abc becomes an equiangular triangle ,a',,bc4 ,an inversion in ,,ab changes ,,abc and ,a',,bc into equiangular triangles ,,abc' and ,a,,bc'4 ,successive inversions at ,,ab and ,,bc then will change ,,abc into a series of equiangular triangles with ,b for a common vertex4 ,these will not overlap and will just fill in the space round ,b if the angle ,,abc is a submultiple of two right angles4 ,if then the angles of ,,abc are submultiples of two right angles 7or zero71 the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never overlap1 and to each operation consisting of a definite series of inversions at ,,bc1 ,,ca and ,,ab will correspond a distinct triangle into which ,,abc is changed by the operation4 ,the network of triangles so formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from the three inversions in ,,bc1 ,,ca1 ,,ab4 ,the triangles may be divided into two sets1 those1 namely1 like ,a,,bc'1 which are derived from ,,abc by an even number of inversions1 and those like ,a',,bc or ,,abc' produced by an odd number4 ,each set are interchanged among themselves by any even number of inversions4 ,hence the operations consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by themselves4 ,for this group the quadrilateral formed by ,,abc and ,a',,bc constitutes a region1 which is changed by every operation of the group into a distinct region 7formed of two adjacent triangles71 and these regions clearly do not overlap4 ,their distribution presents in a graphical form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at ,,bc1 ,,ca1 ,,ab2 and this group is generated by the operation which consists of successive inversions at ,,ab1 ,,bc and that which consists of successive inversions at ,,bc1 ,,ca4 ,the group defined thus geometrically may be presented in many analytical forms4 ,if x1 y and x'1 y' are the rectangular co-ordinates of two points which are inverse to each other with respect to a given circle1 x' and y' are rational functions of x and y1 and conversely4 ,thus the group may be presented in a form in which each operation gives a birational transformation of two variables4 ,if x iy z1 x' iy' z'1 and if x'1 y' is the point to which x1 y is transformed by any even number of inversions1 then z' and z are connected by a linear relation z' 7alphaz beta7_/7gammaz delta71 where alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta are constants 7in general complex7 depending on the circles at which the inversions are taken4 ,hence the group may be presented in the form of a group of linear transformations of a single variable generated by the two linear transformations z' 7alpha#az beta#a7_/7;gamma#az delta#a71 z' 7alpha#bz beta#b7_/7;gamma#bz delta#b71 which correspond to pairs of inversions at ,,ab1 ,,bc and ,,bc1 ,,ca respectively4 ,in particular1 if the sides of the triangle are taken to be x #j1 x#b y#b -#a #j1 x#b y#b #bx #j1 the generating operations are found to be z' z #a1 z' -z7-#a72 and the group is that consisting of all transformations of the form z' 7az b7_/7cz d71 where ad - bc #a1 a1 b1 c1 d being integers4 ,this is the group already mentioned which underlies the theory of the elliptic modular functions2 a modular function being a function of z which is invariant for some subgroup of finite index of the group in question4 ,the triangle ,,abc from which the above geometrical construction started may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles4 ,if each angle is a submultiple of two right angles or zero1 the construction is still effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions1 which represent graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions in the sides of the polygon4 ,in their analytical form1 as groups of linear transformations of a single variable1 the groups are those on which the theory of automorphic functions depends4 ,a similar construction in space1 the polygons bounded by circular arcs being replaced by polyhedra bounded by spherical faces1 has been used by ,f4 ,klein and ,fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups which are improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of the plane4 ,group of a linear differential equation4 ,the special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical considerations4 ,as a final example we shall refer briefly to a class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical4 ,let dny d7n-#a7y dy ----- ,p#a -------- 444 ,p7n-#a7 -- ,pny #j dxn dx7n-#a7 dx be a linear differential equation1 the coefficients in which are rational functions of x1 and let y#a1 y#b1 4441 yn be a linearly independent set of integrals of the equation4 ,in the neighbourhood of a finite value x#j of x1 which is not a singularity of any of the coefficients in the equation1 these integrals are ordinary power-series in x - x#j4 ,if the analytical continuations of y#a1 y#b1 4441 yn be formed for any closed path starting from and returning to x#j1 the final values arrived at when x#j is again reached will be another set of linearly independent integrals4 ,when the closed path contains no singular point of the coefficients of the differential equation1 the new set of integrals is identical with the original set4 ,if1 however1 the closed path encloses one or more singular points1 this will not in general be the case4 ,let y'#a1 y'#b1 4441 y'n be the new integrals arrived at4 ,since in the neighbourhood of x#j every integral can be represented linearly in terms of y#a1 y#b1 4441 yn1 there must be a system of equations y'#a a#aay#a a#aby#b 444 a7#an7yn1 y'#b a#bay#a a#bby#b 444 a7#bn7yn1 4 4 4 4 4 y'n a7n#a7y#a a7n#b7y#b 444 a7nn7yn1 where the a's are constants1 expressing the new integrals in terms of the original ones4 ,to each closed path described by x#j there therefore corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's4 ,further1 if ,s#a and ,s#b are the substitutions that correspond to two closed paths ,l#a and ,l#b1 then to any closed path which can be continuously deformed1 without crossing a singular point1 into ,l#a followed by ,l#b1 there corresponds the substitution ,s#a,s#b4 ,let ,l#a1 ,l#b1 4441 ,lr be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and returning to the same point1 and each of them enclosing a single one of the 7r7 finite singular points of the equation4 ,every closed path in the plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken either in the positive or in the negative direction4 ,also a closed path which does not cut itself1 and encloses all the r singular points within it1 is equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite singular point4 ,if ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 4441 ,sr are the linear substitutions that correspond to these r paths1 then the substitution corresponding to every possible path can be obtained by combination and repetition of these r substitutions1 and they therefore generate a discontinuous group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed path4 ,the group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation4 ,for a given equation it is unique in type4 ,in fact1 the only effect of starting from another set of independent integrals is to transform every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution1 while choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new set of generating operations4 ,the great importance of the group of the equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here be dealt with1 but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of the equation are algebraic functions1 the group must be a group of finite order1 since the set of quantities y#a1 y#b 4441 yn can then only take a finite number of distinct values4 ,groups of ,finite ,order4 ,we shall now pass on to groups of finite order4 ,it is clear that here we must have to do with many properties which have no direct analogues in the theory of continuous groups or in that of discontinuous groups in general2 those properties1 namely1 which depend on the fact that the number of distinct operations in the group is finite4 ,let ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 4441 ,s,n denote the operations of a group ,g of finite order ,n1 ,s#a being the identical operation4 ,the tableau ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 4441 ,s,n1 ,s#a,s#b1 ,s#b,s#b1 ,s#c,s#c1 4441 ,s,,ns#b1 ,s#a,s#c1 ,s#b,s#c1 ,s#c,s#c1 4441 ,s,,ns#c1 4 4 4 4 4 ,s#a,s,n1 ,s#b,s,n1 ,s#c,s,n1 4441 ,s,,ns,n1 when in it each compound symbol ,sp,sq is replaced by the single symbol ,sr that is equivalent to it1 is called the multiplication table of the group4 ,it indicates directly the result of multiplying together in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the group4 ,in each line 7and in each column7 of the tableau every operation of the group occurs just once4 ,if the letters in the tableau are regarded as mere symbols1 the operation of replacing each symbol in the first line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line is a permutation performed on the set of ,n symbols4 ,thus to the ,n lines of the tableau there corresponds a set of ,n permutations performed on the ,n symbols1 which includes the identical permutation that leaves each unchanged4 ,moreover1 if ,sp,sq ,sr1 then the result of carrying out in succession the permutations which correspond to the pth and qth lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line4 ,hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is simply isomorphic with the given group4 ,every group of finite order ,n can therefore be represented in concrete form as a transitive group of permutations on ,n symbols4 ,properties of a group which depend on the order4 ,the order of any subgroup or operation of ,g is necessarily finite4 ,if ,t#a7 ,s#a71 ,t#b1 4441 ,tn are the operations of a subgroup ,h of ,g1 and if ,sigma is any operation of ,g which is not contained in ,h1 the set of operations ,sigma,t#a1 ,sigma,t#b1 4441 ,sigma,tn1 or ,sigma,h1 are all distinct from each other and from the operations of ,h4 ,if the sets ,h and ,sigma,h do not exhaust the operations of ,g1 and if ,sigma' is an operation not belonging to them1 then the operations of the set ,sigma',h are distinct from each other and from those of ,h and ,sigma,h4 ,this process may be continued till the operations of ,g are exhausted4 ,the order n of ,h must therefore be a factor of the order ,n of ,g4 ,the ratio ,n_/n is called the index of the subgroup ,h4 ,by taking for ,h the cyclical subgroup generated by any operation ,s of ,g1 it follows that the order of ,s must be a factor of the order of ,g4 ,every operation ,s is permutable with its own powers4 ,hence there must be some subgroup ,h of ,g of greatest possible order1 such that every operation of ,h is permutable with ,s4 ,every operation of ,h transforms ,s into itself1 and every operation of the set ,h,sigma transforms ,s into the same operation4 ,hence1 when ,s is transformed by every operation of ,g1 just ,n_/n distinct operations arise if n is the order of ,h4 ,these operations1 and no others1 are conjugate to ,s within ,g2 they are said to form a set of conjugate operations4 ,the number of operations in every conjugate set is therefore a factor of the order of ,g4 ,in the same way it may be shown that the number of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of the order of ,g4 ,an operation which is permutable with every operation of the group is called a self-conjugate operation4 ,the totality of the self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate ,abelian subgroup1 each of whose operations is permutable with every operation of the group4 ,sylow's theorem4 ,an ,abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given factors of the order of the group4 ,in fact1 since every subgroup ,h of an ,abelian group ,g and the corresponding factor groups ,g_/,h are ,abelian1 this result follows immediately by an induction from the case in which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it contains n #a4 ,for a group which is not ,abelian no general law can be stated as to the existence or non-existence of a subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily assigned factor of the order of the group4 ,in this connexion the most important general result1 which is independent of any supposition as to the order of the group1 is known as ,sylow's theorem1 which states that if pa is the highest power of a prime p which divides the order of a group ,g1 then ,g contains a single conjugate set of subgroups of order pa1 the number in the set being of the form #a kp4 ,sylow's theorem may be extended to show that if pa' is a factor of the order of a group1 the number of subgroups of order pa' is of the form #a kp4 ,if1 however1 pa' is not the highest power of p which divides the order1 these groups do not in general form a single conjugate set4 ,the importance of ,sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of a group of given order need hardly be insisted on4 ,thus1 as a very simple instance1 a group whose order is the product p#ap#b of two primes 7p#a p#b7 must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p#b1 since the order of the group contains no factor1 other than unity1 of the form #a kp#b4 ,the same again is true for a group of order p#abp#b1 unless p#a #b1 and p#b #c4 ,there is one other numerical property of a group connected with its order which is quite general4 ,if ,n is the order of ,g1 and n a factor of ,n1 the number of operations of ,g1 whose orders are equal to or are factors of n1 is a multiple of n4 ,composition-series of a group4 ,as already defined1 a composite group is a group which contains one or more self-conjugate subgroups1 whose orders are greater than unity4 ,if ,h is a self-conjugate subgroup of ,g1 the factor-group ,g_/,h may be either simple or composite4 ,in the former case ,g can contain no self-conjugate subgroup ,k1 which itself contains ,h2 for if it did ,k_/,h would be a self-conjugate subgroup of ,g_/,h4 ,when ,g_/,h is simple1 ,h is said to be a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of ,g4 ,suppose now that ,g being a given composite group1 ,g1 ,g#a1 ,g#b1 4441 ,gn1 #a is a series of subgroups of ,g1 such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of the preceding2 the last term of the series consisting of the identical operation only4 ,such a series is called a composition-series of ,g4 ,in general it is not unique1 since a group may have two or more maximum self-conjugate subgroups4 ,a composition-series of a group1 however it may be chosen1 has the property that the number of terms of which it consists is always the same1 while the factor-groups ,g_/,g#a1 ,g#a_/;,g#b1 4441 ,gn differ only in the sequence in which they occur4 ,it should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely the set of factor-groups that occur in its composition-series1 the set of factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of group4 ,when the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group is said to be soluble4 ,if the series of subgroups ,g1 ,h1 ,k1 4441 ,l1 #a is chosen so that each is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of ,g contained in the previous one1 the series is called a chief composition-series of ,g4 ,all such series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same number of terms1 and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups1 except as regards sequence4 ,the factor-groups of such a series will not1 however1 necessarily be simple groups4 ,from any chief composition-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating between any two terms ,h and ,k of the series for which ,h_/,k is not a simple group1 a number of terms h#a1 h#b1 4441 hr2 and it may be shown that the factor-groups ,h_/h#a1 h#a_/;h#b1 4441 hr_/,k are all simply isomorphic with each other4 ,isomorphism of a group with itself4 ,a group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming all its operations by any one of them4 ,in fact1 if ,sp,sq ,sr1 then ,s7-#a7,sp,s 4 ,s7-#a7,sq,s ,s7-#a7,sr,s4 ,an isomorphism of the group with itself1 established in this way1 is called an inner isomorphism4 ,it may be regarded as an operation carried out on the symbols of the operations1 being indeed a permutation performed on these symbols4 ,the totality of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic with the given group1 and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms4 ,a group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate operations other than identity4 ,it may be possible to establish a correspondence between the operations of a group other than those given by the inner isomorphisms1 such that if ,s' is the operation corresponding to ,s1 then ,s'p,s'q ,s'r is a consequence of ,sp,sq ,sr4 ,the substitution on the symbols of the operations of a group resulting from such a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism4 ,the totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of isomorphisms of the given group1 and within this the group of inner isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup4 ,every set of conjugate operations of a group is necessarily transformed into itself by an inner isomorphism1 but two or more sets may be interchanged by an outer isomorphism4 ,a subgroup of a group ,g1 which is transformed into itself by every isomorphism of ,g1 is called a characteristic subgroup4 ,a series of groups ,g1 ,g#a1 ,g#b1 4441 #a1 such that each is a maximum characteristic subgroup of ,g contained in the preceding1 may be shown to have the same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series4 ,a group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic simple groups4 ,permutation-groups4 ,it has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose number is equal to the order of the group4 ,in general such a representation is possible with a smaller number of symbols4 ,let ,h be a subgroup of ,g1 and let the operations of ,g be divided1 in respect of ,h1 into the sets ,h1 ,s#b;,h1 ,s#c;,h1 4441 ,sm,h4 ,if ,s is any operation of ,g1 the sets ,,sh1 ,,ss#b;,h1 ,,ss#c;,h1 4441 ,,ssm,h differ from the previous sets only in the sequence in which they occur4 ,in fact1 if ,,ssp belong to the set ,sq,h1 then since ,h is a group1 the set ,,ssp,h is identical with the set ,sq,h4 ,hence1 to each operation ,s of the group will correspond a permutation performed on the symbols of the m sets1 and to the product of two operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations4 ,the set of permutations1 therefore1 forms a group isomorphic with the given group4 ,moreover1 the isomorphism is simple unless for one or more operations1 other than identity1 the sets all remain unaltered4 ,this can only be the case for ,s1 when every operation conjugate to ,s belongs to ,h4 ,in this case ,h would contain a self-conjugate subgroup1 and the isomorphism is multiple4 ,the fact that every group of finite order can be represented1 generally in several ways1 as a group of permutations1 gives special importance to such groups4 ,the number of symbols involved in such a representation is called the degree of the group4 ,in accordance with the general definitions already given1 a permutation-group is called transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other4 ,it is called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or cannot be arranged in sets1 such that every permutation of the group changes the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into the symbols of another set4 ,when a group is imprimitive the number of symbols in each set must clearly be the same4 ,the total number of permutations that can be performed on n symbols is n61 and these necessarily constitute a group4 ,it is known as the symmetric group of degree n1 the only rational functions of the symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the symmetric functions4 ,when any permutation is carried out on the product of the n7n - #a7_/b1 differences of the n symbols1 it must either remain unaltered or its sign must be changed4 ,those permutations which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n6_/#b1 which is called the alternating group of degree n2 it is a self-conjugate subgroup of the symmetric group4 ,except when n #d the alternating group is a simple group4 ,a group of degree n1 which is not contained in the alternating group1 must necessarily have a self-conjugate subgroup of index #b1 consisting of those of its permutations which belong to the alternating group4 ,groups of linear substitutions4 ,among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order can be presented the most important is that of a group of linear substitutions4 ,such groups have already been referred to in connexion with discontinuous groups4 ,here the number of distinct substitutions is necessarily finite2 and to each operation ,s of a group ,g of finite order there will correspond a linear substitution s1 viz4 jm xi s7ij7xj7i1 j #a1 #b1 4441 m71 _/j#a on a set of m variables1 such that if ,,st ,u1 then st u4 ,the linear substitutions s1 t1 u1 444 then constitute a group g with which ,g is isomorphic2 and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is said to give a representation of ,g as a group of linear substitutions4 ,if all the substitutions of g are transformed by the same substitution on the m variables1 the 7in general7 new group of linear substitutions so constituted is said to be equivalent with g as a representation of ,g2 and two representations are called non-equivalent1 or distinct1 when one is not capable of being transformed into the other4 ,a group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be reducible when it is possible to choose m'7 m7 linear functions of the variables which are transformed among themselves by every substitution of the group4 ,when this cannot be done the group is called irreducible4 ,it can be shown that a group of linear substitutions1 of finite order1 is always either irreducible1 or such that the variables1 when suitably chosen1 may be divided into sets1 each set being irreducibly transformed among themselves4 ,this being so1 it is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group of finite order are known1 all representations may be built up4 ,it has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group of finite order ,n can be presented as a group of permutations 7i4e4 linear substitutions in a limited sense7 on ,n symbols4 ,this group is obviously reducible2 in fact1 the sum of the symbols remain unaltered by every substitution of the group4 ,the fundamental theorem in connexion with the representations1 as an irreducible group of linear substitutions1 of a group of finite order ,n is the following4 ,if r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the group1 then1 when the group of ,n permutations is completely reduced1 7i47 just r distinct irreducible representations occur3 7ii47 each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number of symbols on which it operates3 7iii47 these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct irreducible representations of the group4 ,among these representations what is called the identical representation necessarily occurs1 i4e4 that in which each operation of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged4 ,if these representations are denoted by ,gamma#a1 ,gamma#b1 4441 ,gammar1 then any representation of the group as a group of linear substitutions1 or in particular as a group of permutations1 may be uniquely represented by a symbol ,sigmaalphai,gammai1 in the sense that the representation when completely reduced will contain the representation ,gammai just alphai times for each suffix i4 ,group characteristics4 ,a representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group of linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite number of equivalent forms4 ,if x'i ,sigma s7ij7xj 7i1 j #a1 #b1 4441 m71 is the linear substitution which1 in a given irreducible representation of a group of finite order ,g1 corresponds to the operation ,s1 the determinant s#aa - lambda s#ab 444 s7#am7 s#ba s#bb-lambda 444 s7#bm7 4 4 444 4 4 4 444 4 4 4 444 4 sm#a s#bm 444 s7mm7 - lambda is invariant for all equivalent representations1 when written as a polynomial in lambda4 ,moreover1 it has the same value for ,s and ,s'1 if these are two conjugate operations in ,g4 ,of the various invariants that thus arise the most important is s#aa s#bb 444 s7mm71 which is called the characteristic of ,s4 ,if ,s is an operation of order p1 its characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity2 and in particular1 if ,s is the identical operation its characteristic is m4 ,if r is the number of sets of conjugate operations in ,g1 there is1 for each representation of ,g as an irreducible group1 a set of r characteristics3 ,x#a1 ,x#b1 444 ,xr1 one corresponding to each conjugate set2 so that for the r irreducible representations just r such sets of characteristics arise4 ,these are distinct1 in the sense that if ,psi#a1 ,psi#b1 4441 ,psir are the characteristics for a distinct representation from the above1 then ,xi and ,psii are not equal for all values of the suffix i4 ,it may be the case that the r characteristics for a given representation are all real4 ,if this is so the representation is said to be self-inverse4 ,in the contrary case there is always another representation1 called the inverse representation1 for which each characteristic is the conjugate imaginary of the corresponding one in the original representation4 ,the characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations4 ,if hp denotes the number of operations in the pth conjugate set1 while ,xip1 and ,xjp are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set in ,gammai and ,gammaj1 then pr hp ,xpi ,xpj #j or n1 _/p#a according to ,gammai and ,gammaj are not or are inverse representations1 n being the order of ,g4 ,again ir ,xpi ,xqi #j or n_/hp _/i#a according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse2 the qth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the inverses of the operations constituting the pth4 ,linear homogeneous groups4 ,another form in which every group of finite order can be represented is that known as a linear homogeneous group4 ,if in the equations x'r a7r#a7x#a a7r#b7x#b 444 a7rm7xm1 7r #a1 #b1 4441 m71 which define a linear homogeneous substitution1 the coefficients are integers1 and if the equations are replaced by congruences to a finite modulus n1 the system of congruences will give a definite operation1 provided that the determinant of the coefficients is relatively prime to n4 ,the product of two such operations is another operation of the same kind2 and the total number of distinct operations is finite1 since there is only a limited number of choices for the coefficients4 ,the totality of these operations1 therefore1 constitutes a group of finite order2 and such a group is known as a linear homogeneous group4 ,if n is a prime the order of the group is 7nm - #a77nm - n7 444 7nm - n7m-#a774 ,the totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms a subgroup4 ,other subgroups arise by considering those operations which leave a function of the variables unchanged 7mod4 n74 ,all such subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups4 ,when the ratios only of the variables are considered1 there arises a linear fractional group1 with which the corresponding linear homogeneous group is isomorphic4 ,thus1 if p is a prime the totality of the congruences az b z' equiv ------1 ad - bc _/ #j1 7mod4 p7 cz d constitutes a group of order p7p#b - #a74 ,this class of groups for various values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively analysed4 ,for all values of p except #c it contains a simple self-conjugate subgroup of index #b4 ,a great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has been made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of the form x'r equiv a7r#a7x#a a7r#b7x#b 444 a7rm7xm1 7r #a1 #b1 4441 m71 in which the coefficients a7rs71 are integral functions with real integral coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus4 ,such a system of congruences is obviously limited in numbers and defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group defined by the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients4 ,applications4 ,the chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to the theory of algebraic equations4 ,the analogy of equations of the second1 third and fourth degrees would give rise to the expectation that a root of an equation of any finite degree could be expressed in terms of the coefficients by a finite number of the operations of addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 division1 and the extraction of roots2 in other words1 that the equation could be solved by radicals4 ,this1 however1 as proved by ,abel and ,galois1 is not the case3 an equation of a higher degree than the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot be expressed by means of radicals1 and the cases in which such an equation can be solved by radicals must be regarded as exceptional4 ,the theory of groups gives the means of determining whether an equation comes under this exceptional case1 and of solving the equation when it does4 ,when it does not1 the theory provides the means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a normal form4 ,from this point of view the theory of equations of the fifth degree has been exhaustively treated1 and the problems presented by certain equations of the sixth and seventh degrees have actually been reduced to normal form4 ,galois 7see ,,equation7 showed that1 corresponding to every irreducible equation of the nth degree1 there exists a transitive substitution-group of degree n1 such that every function of the roots1 the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients1 while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions of the group4 ,this group is called the group of the equation4 ,in general1 if the equation is given arbitrarily1 the group will be the symmetric group4 ,the necessary and sufficient condition that the equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should be a soluble group4 ,when the coefficients in an equation are rational integers1 the determination of its group may be made by a finite number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical operations4 ,these processes consist in forming resolvents of the equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation4 ,each of the resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational roots4 ,the group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational root contains the group of the equation2 and the least of the groups so found is the group of the equation4 ,thus1 for an equation of the fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group of degree five have to be considered4 ,these are 7i47 the alternating group2 7ii47 a soluble group of order #bj2 7iii47 a group of order #aj1 self-conjugate in the preceding2 7iv47 a cyclical group of order #e1 self-conjugate in both the preceding4 ,if x#j1 x#a1 x#b1 x#c1 x#d are the roots of the equation1 the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be those which have for roots 7i47 the square root of the discriminant2 7ii47 the function 7x#jx#a x#ax#b x#bx#c x#cx#d x#dx#j77x#jx#b x#bx#d x#dx#a x#ax#c x#cx#j72 7iii47 the function x#jx#a x#ax#b x#bx#c x#cx#d x#dx#j2 and 7iv47 the function x#jbx#a x#abx#b x#bbx#c x#cbx#d x#dbx#j4 ,since the groups for which 7iii47 and 7iv47 are invariant are contained in that for which 7ii47 is invariant1 and since these are the only soluble groups of the set1 the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the function 7ii47 can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients4 ,if 7x#jx#a x#ax#b x#bx#c x#cx#d x#dx#j77x#jx#b x#bx#d x#dx#a x#ax#c x#cx#j7 is known1 then clearly x#jx#a x#ax#b x#bx#c x#cx#d x#dx#j can be determined by the solution of a quadratic equation4 ,moreover1 the sum and product 7x#j epsilonx#a epsilon#bx#b epsilon#cx#c epsilon#dx#d7e and 7x#j epsilon#dx#a;epsilon#cx#b epsilon#bx#c epsilonx#d7e can be expressed rationally in terms of x#jx#a x#ax#b x#bx#c x#cx#d x#dx#j1 epsilon1 and the symmetric functions2 epsilon being a fifth root of unity4 ,hence 7x#j epsilonx#a epsilon#bx#b epsilon#cx#c epsilon#d,x#d7e can be determined by the solution of a quadratic equation4 ,the roots of the original equation are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root4 ,the problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree1 when not soluble by radicals1 to a normal form1 forms the subject of ,klein's ,vorlesungen uber das ,ikosaeder4 ,another application of groups of finite order is to the theory of linear differential equations whose integrals are algebraic functions4 ,it has been already seen1 in the discussion of discontinuous groups in general1 that the groups of such equations must be groups of finite order4 ,to every group of finite order which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear substitutions on n variables will correspond a class of irreducible linear differential equations of the nth order whose integrals are algebraic4 ,the complete determination of the class of linear differential equations of the second order with all their integrals algebraic1 whose group has the greatest possible order1 viz4 #abj1 has been carried out by ,klein4 ,,authorities4--,continuous groups3 ,lie and ,engel1 ,theorie der ,transformationsgruppen 7,leipzig1 vol4 i41 #ahhh2 vol4 ii41 #ahij2 vol4 iii41 #ahic72 ,lie and ,scheffers1 ,vorlesungen uber gewohnliche ,differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen ,transformationen 7,leipzig1 #ahia72 ,idem1 ,vorlesungen uber continuierliche ,gruppen 7,leipzig1 #ahic72 ,idem1 ,geometrie der ,beruhrungstransformationen 7,leipzig1 #ahif72 ,klein and ,schilling1 ,hohere ,geometrie1 vol4 ii4 7lithographed7 7,gottingen1 #ahic1 for both continuous and discontinuous groups74 ,campbell1 ,introductory ,treatise on ,lie's ,theory of ,finite ,continuous ,transformation ,groups 7,oxford1 #aijc74 ,discontinuous groups3 ,klein and ,fricke1 ,vorlesungen uber die ,theorie der elliptischen ,modulfunktionen 7vol4 i41 ,leipzig1 #ahij7 7for a full discussion of the modular group72 ,idem1 ,vorlesungen uber die ,theorie der automorphen ,funktionen 7vol4 i41 ,leipzig1 #ahig2 vol4 ii4 pt4 i41 #aija7 7for the general theory of discontinuous groups72 ,schoenflies1 ,krystallsysteme und ,krystallstruktur 7,leipzig1 #ahia7 7for discontinuous groups of motions72 ,groups of finite order3 ,galois1 ,,oeuvres mathematiques 7,paris1 #ahig1 reprint72 ,jordan1 ,traite des substitutions et des equations algebriques 7,paris1 #ahgj72 ,netto1 ,substitutionentheorie und ihre ,anwendung auf die ,algebra 7,leipzig1 #ahhb2 ,eng4 trans4 by ,cole1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahib72 ,klein1 ,vorlesungen uber das ,ikosaeder 7,leipzig1 #ahhd2 ,eng4 trans4 by ,morrice1 ,london1 #ahhh72 ,h4 ,vogt1 ,lecons sur la resolution algebrique des equations 7,paris1 #ahie72 ,weber1 ,lehrbuch der ,algebra 7,braunschweig1 vol4 i41 #ahie2 vol4 ii41 #ahif2 a second edition appeared in #ahih72 ,burnside1 ,theory of ,groups of ,finite ,order 7,cambridge1 #ahig72 ,bianchi1 ,teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche 7,pisa1 #ahii72 ,dickson1 ,linear ,groups with an ,exposition of the ,galois ,field ,theory 7,leipzig1 #aija72 ,de ,seguier1 ,elements de la theorie des groupes abstraits 7,paris1 #aijd71 ,a summary with many references will be found in the ,encyklopadie der mathematischen ,wissenschaften 7,leipzig1 vol4 i41 #ahih1 #ahii74 7,w4 ,bu47 ,,footnote3 #a ,the word group1 which appears first in ,english in the sense of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design1 picture1 c41 is adapted from the ,fr4 groupe1 which is to be referred to the ,teutonic word meaning knot1 mass1 bunch1 represented in ,english by crop 7q4v474 ,the technical mathematical sense is not older than #ahgj4 ,,grouse1 a word of uncertain origin1#a now used generally by ornithologists to include all the rough-footed ,gallinaceous birds1 but in common speech applied almost exclusively1 when used alone1 to the ,tetrao scoticus of ,linnaeus1 the ,lagopus scoticus of modern systematists--more particularly called in ,english the red grouse1 but till the end of the #ahth century almost invariably spoken of as the ,moor-fowl or ,moor-game4 ,the effect which this species is supposed to have had on the ,british legislature1 and therefore on history1 is well known1 for it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the season for grouse-shooting began 7,august #abth72 while according to the ,orkneyinga ,saga 7ed4 ,jonaeus1 p4 #cef2 ed4 ,anderson1 p4 #afh7 events of some importance in the annals of ,north ,britain followed from its pursuit in ,caithness in the year #aaeg4 ,the red grouse is found on moors from ,monmouthshire and ,derbyshire northward to the ,orkneys1 as well as in most of the ,hebrides4 ,it inhabits similar situations throughout ,wales and ,ireland1 but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of the ,british ,islands1#b and is the only species among birds peculiar to them4 ,the word species may in this case be used advisedly 7since the red grouse invariably breeds true1 it admits of an easy diagnosis1 and it has a definite geographical range72 but scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the willow-grouse1 ,lagopus albus 7,l4 subalpinus or ,l4 saliceti of some authors71 that inhabits a subarctic zone from ,norway across the continents of ,europe and ,asia1 as well as ,north ,america from the ,aleutian ,islands to ,newfoundland4 ,the red grouse indeed is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly it subsists2 while the willow-grouse in many parts of the ,old ,world seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants 7,vaccinium and others7 that1 often thickly interspersed with willows and birches1 clothes the higher levels or the lower mountain-slopes1 and it flourishes in the ,new ,world where heather scarcely exists1 and a heath in its strict sense is unknown4 ,it is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in winter1 which the red grouse never does2 but in summer there is a considerable resemblance between the two species1 the cock willow-grouse having his head1 neck and breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown as his ,british representative1 and1 though his back be lighter in colour1 as is also the whole plumage of his mate1 than is found in the red grouse1 in other respects the two species are precisely alike4 ,no distinction can be discovered in their voice1 their eggs1 their build1 nor in their anatomical details1 so far as these have been investigated and compared4#c ,moreover1 the red grouse1 restricted as is its range1 varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality4 ,illustration3 ,red ,grouse4 ,though the red grouse does not1 after the manner of other members of the genus ,lagopus1 become white in winter1 ,scotland possesses a species of the genus which does4 ,this is the ptarmigan1 ,l4 mutus or ,l4 alpinus1 which differs far more in structure1 station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the willow-grouse1 and in ,scotland is far less abundant1 haunting only the highest and most barren mountains4 ,it is said to have formerly inhabited both ,wales and ,england1 but there is no evidence of its appearance in ,ireland4 ,on the continent of ,europe it is found most numerously in ,norway1 but at an elevation far above the growth of trees1 and it occurs on the ,pyrenees and on the ,alps4 ,it also inhabits northern ,russia4 ,in ,north ,america1 ,greenland and ,iceland it is represented by a very nearly allied form--so much so indeed that it is only at certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be detected4 ,this form is the ,l4 rupestris of authors1 and it would appear to be found also in ,siberia 7,ibis1 #ahgi1 p4 #adh74 ,spitzbergen is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition as ,l4 hemileucurus1 and the northern end of the chain of the ,rocky ,mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species1 the smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus1 ,l4 leucurus1 which has all the feathers of the tail white4 ,illustration3 ,ptarmigan4 ,illustration3 ,blackcock4 ,the bird1 however1 to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs is probably the ,tetrao tetrix of ,linnaeus--the blackcock and greyhen1 as the sexes are respectively called4 ,it is distributed over most of the heath-country of ,england1 except in ,east ,anglia1 where attempts to introduce it have been only partially successful4 ,it also occurs in ,north ,wales and very generally throughout ,scotland1 though not in ,orkney1 ,shetland or the ,outer ,hebrides1 nor in ,ireland4 ,on the continent of ,europe it has a very wide range1 and it extends into ,siberia4 ,in ,georgia its place is taken by a distinct species1 on which a ,polish naturalist 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahge1 p4 #bfg7 has conferred the name of ,t4 mlokosiewiczi4 ,both these birds have much in common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern representative4 ,the species of the genus ,bonasa1 of which the ,european ,b4 sylvestris is the type1 does not inhabit the ,british ,islands4 ,it is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table4 ,it is the gelinotte of the ,french1 the ,haselhuhn of ,germans1 and ,hjerpe of ,scandinavians4 ,like its transatlantic congener ,b4 umbellus1 the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge 7of which there are two other local forms1 ,b4 umbelloides and ,b4 sabinii71 it is purely a forest-bird4 ,the same may be said of the species of ,canace1 of which two forms are found in ,america1 ,c4 canadensis1 the spruce-partridge1 and ,c4 franklini1 and also of the ,siberian ,c4 falcipennis4 ,nearly allied to these birds is the group known as ,dendragapus1 containing three large and fine forms ,d4 obscurus1 ,d4 fuliginosus1 and ,d4 richardsoni--all peculiar to ,north ,america4 ,then there are ,centrocercus urophasianus1 the sage-cock of the plains of ,columbia and ,california1 and ,pedioecetes1 the sharp-tailed grouse1 with its two forms1 ,p4 phasianellus and ,p4 columbianus1 while finally ,cupidonia1 the prairie-hen1 also with two local forms1 ,c4 cupido and ,c4 pallidicincta1 is a bird that in the ,united ,states of ,america possesses considerable economic value1 enormous numbers being consumed there1 and also exported to ,europe4 ,the various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in ,elliot's ,monograph of the ,tetraoninae1 and an excellent account of the ,american species is given in ,baird1 ,brewer and ,ridgway's ,north ,american ,birds 7iii4 #dad-dfe74 ,see also ,,shooting4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it seems first to occur 7,o4 ,salusbury ,brereton1 ,archaeologia1 iii4 #aeg7 as grows in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal household dated apud ,eltham1 mens4 ,jan4 #bb ,hen4 ,,viii41 i4e4 #aeca1 and considering the locality must refer to black game4 ,it is found in an ,act of ,parliament #a ,jac4 ,i4 cap4 #bg1 ,s #b1 i4e4 #afjc1 and1 as reprinted in the ,statutes at ,large1 stands as now commonly spelt1 but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,in #afaa ,cotgrave had ,poule griesche4 ,a ,moore-henne2 the henne of the ,grice in ed4 #afgc ,griece or ,mooregame 7,dictionarie of the ,french and ,english ,tongues1 s4v4 ,poule74 ,the most likely derivation seems to be from the old ,french word griesche1 greoche or griais 7meaning speckled1 and cognate with griseus1 grisly or grey71 which was applied to some kind of partridge1 or according to ,brunetto ,latini 7,tres4 p4 #baa7 to a quail1 porce que ele fu premiers trovee en ,grece4 ,the ,oxford ,dictionary repudiates the possibility of grouse being a spurious singular of an alleged plural grice1 and1 with regard to the possibility of grows being a plural of grow1 refers to ,giraldus ,cambrensis 7c4 #abaj71 ,topogr4 ,hib4 opera 7,rolls7 v4 #dg3 gallinae campestres1 quas vulgariter grutas vocant4 #b ,it was successfully1 though with much trouble1 introduced by ,mr ,oscar ,dickson on a tract of land near ,gottenburg in ,sweden 7,svenska ,jagarforbundets ,nya ,tidskrift1 #ahfh1 p4 #fd et alibi74 #c ,a very interesting subject for discussion would be whether ,lagopus scoticus or ,l4 albus has varied most from the common stock of both4 ,looking to the fact that the former is the only species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter1 an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case2 but then it must be borne in mind that the species of ,lagopus which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the family ,tetraonidae4 ,furthermore every species of ,lagopus 7even ,l4 leucurus1 the whitest of all7 has its first set of remiges coloured brown4 ,these are dropped when the bird is about half-grown1 and in all the species but ,l4 scoticus white remiges are then produced4 ,if therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which the species has passed1 there may have been a time when all the species of ,lagopus wore a brown livery even when adult1 and the white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by causes that can be easily suggested4 ,the white plumage of the birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a protracted winter4 ,but the red grouse1 instead of perpetuating directly the more ancient properties of an original ,lagopus that underwent no great seasonal change of plumage1 may derive its ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse1 which in an epoch comparatively recent 7in the geological sense7 may have stocked ,britain1 and left descendants that1 under conditions in which the assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation of the species1 have reverted 7though doubtless with some modifications7 to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that of the primal ,lagopus4 ,,grove1 ,,sir ,,george 7#ahbj-aijj71 ,english writer on music1 was born at ,clapham on the #acth of ,august #ahbj4 ,he was articled to a civil engineer1 and worked for two years in a factory near ,glasgow4 ,in #ahda and #ahde he was employed in the ,west ,indies1 erecting lighthouses in ,jamaica and ,bermuda4 ,in #ahdi he became secretary to the ,society of ,arts1 and in #aheb to the ,crystal ,palace4 ,in this capacity his natural love of music and enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening1 and he threw all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at ,sydenham1 which had a long and honourable career under the direction of ,mr 7afterwards ,sir7 ,august ,manns4 ,without ,sir ,george ,grove that eminent conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young composers and to educate the ,british public in music4 ,grove's analyses of the ,beethoven symphonies1 and the other works presented at the concerts1 set the pattern of what such things should be2 and it was as a result of these1 and of the fact that he was editor of ,macmillan's ,magazine from #ahfh to #ahhc1 that the scheme of his famous ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 published from #ahgh to #ahhi 7new edition1 edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,fuller ,maitland1 #aijd-aijg71 was conceived and executed4 ,his own articles in that work on ,beethoven1 ,mendelssohn and ,schubert are monuments of a special kind of learning1 and that the rest of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly to be regretted4 ,long before this he had contributed to the ,dictionary of the ,bible1 and had promoted the foundation of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,on a journey to ,vienna1 undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend1 ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan1 the important discovery of a large number of compositions by ,schubert was made1 including the music to ,rosamunde4 ,when the ,royal ,college of ,music was founded in #ahhb he was appointed its first director1 receiving the honour of knighthood4 ,he brought the new institution into line with the most useful ,european conservatoriums4 ,on the completion of the new buildings in #ahid he resigned the directorship1 but retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his life4 ,he died at ,sydenham on the #bhth of ,may #aijj4 ,his life1 a most interesting one1 was written by ,mr ,charles ,graves4 7,j4 ,a4 ,f4 ,m47 ,,grove1 ,,sir ,,william ,,robert 7#ahaa-ahif71 ,english judge and man of science1 was born on the #aath of ,july #ahaa at ,swansea1 ,south ,wales4 ,after being educated by private tutors1 he went to ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford1 where he took an ordinary degree in #ahcb4 ,three years later he was called to the bar at ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,his health1 however1 did not allow him to devote himself strenuously to practice1 and he occupied his leisure with scientific studies4 ,about #ahci he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic cell that bears his name1 and with the aid of a number of these exhibited the electric arc light in the ,london ,institution1 ,finsbury ,circus4 ,the result was that in #ahdj the managers appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy1 an office which he held for seven years4 ,his researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell1 of which he invented several varieties4 ,one of these1 the ,grove gas-battery1 which is of special interest both intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the storage of electricity1 was based on his observation that a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in acidulated water and immersed1 the one in hydrogen1 the other in oxygen4 ,at one of his lectures at the ,institution he anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent electric lamps1 the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid cells4 ,in #ahdf he published his famous book on ,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 the leading ideas of which he had already put forward in his lectures3 its fundamental conception was that each of the forces of nature--light1 heat1 electricity1 c4--is definitely and equivalently convertible into any other1 and that where experiment does not give the full equivalent1 it is because the initial force has been dissipated1 not lost1 by conversion into other unrecognized forces4 ,in the same year he received a ,royal medal from the ,royal ,society for his ,bakerian lecture on ,certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases4 ,in #ahff he presided over the ,british ,association at its ,nottingham meeting and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena4 ,but while he was thus engaged in scientific research1 his legal work was not neglected1 and his practice increased so greatly that in #ahec he became a ,q4,c4 ,one of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate was that of ,william ,palmer1 the ,rugeley poisoner1 whom he defended4 ,in #ahga he was made a judge of the ,common ,pleas in succession to ,sir ,robert ,collier1 and remained on the bench till #ahhg4 ,he died in ,london on the #ast of ,august #ahif4 ,a selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of ,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 published in #ahgd4 ,,grove 7,o4,e4 graf1 cf4 ,o4,e4 groefa1 brushwood1 later greave2 the word does not appear in any other ,teutonic language1 and the ,new ,english ,dictionary finds no ,indo-,european root to which it can be referred2 ,skeat considers it connected with grave1 to cut1 and finds the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood71 a small group or cluster of trees1 growing naturally and forming something smaller than a wood1 or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes1 in a park1 c4 ,groves have been connected with religious worship from the earliest times1 and in many parts of ,india every village has its sacred group of trees4 ,for the connexion of religion with sacred groves see ,,tree-,,worship4 ,the word grove was used by the authors of the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible to translate two ,hebrew words3 7#a7 'eshel1 as in ,gen4 xxi4 #cc1 and #a ,sam4 xxii4 #f2 this is rightly given in the ,revised ,version as tamarisk2 7#b7 asherah in many places throughout the ,old ,testament4 ,here the translators followed the ,septuagint ,greek3 alsos and the ,vulgate lucus4 ,the '7asherah was a wooden post erected at the ,canaanitish places of worship1 and also by the altars of ,yahweh4 ,it may have represented a tree4 ,,groznyi1 a fortress and town of ,russia1 ,north ,caucasia1 in the province of ,terek1 on the ,zunzha river1 #hb m4 by rail ,n4,e4 of ,vladikavkaz1 on the railway to ,petrovsk4 ,there are naphtha wells close by4 ,the fortifications were constructed in #ahai4 ,pop4 7#ahig7 #ae1eii4 ,,grub1 the larva of an insect1 a caterpillar1 maggot4 ,the word is formed from the verb to grub1 to dig1 break up the surface of the ground1 and clear of stumps1 roots1 weeds1 c4 ,according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 grub may be referred to an ablaut variant of the ,old ,teutonic grab-1 to dig1 cf4 grave4 ,skeat 7,etym4 ,dict4 #ahih7 refers it rather to the root seen in grope1 grab1 c41 the original meaning to search for4 ,the earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the sense of food in the ,new ,english ,dictionary is dated #afei from ,ancient ,poems1 ,ballads1 c41 ,percy ,society ,publications4 ,grub-street1 as a collective term for needy hack-writers1 dates from the #agth century and is due to the name of a street near ,moorfields1 ,london1 now ,milton ,street1 which was as ,johnson says much inhabited by writers of small histories1 dictionaries and temporary poems4 ,,gruber1 ,,johann ,,gottfried 7#aggd-ahea71 ,german critic and literary historian1 was born at ,naumburg on the ,saale1 on the #bith of ,november #aggd4 ,he received his education at the town school of ,naumburg and the university of ,leipzig1 after which he resided successively at ,gottingen1 ,leipzig1 ,jena and ,weimar1 occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in various literary enterprises1 and enjoying in ,weimar the friendship of ,herder1 ,wieland and ,goethe4 ,in #ahaa he was appointed professor at the university of ,wittenberg1 and after the division of ,saxony he was sent by the senate to ,berlin to negotiate the union of the university of ,wittenberg with that of ,halle4 ,after the union was effected he became in #ahae professor of philosophy at ,halle4 ,he was associated with ,johann ,samuel ,ersch in the editorship of the great work ,allgemeine ,encyklopadie der ,wissenschaften und ,kunste2 and after the death of ,ersch he continued the first section from vol4 xviii4 to vol4 liv4 ,he also succeeded ,ersch in the editorship of the ,allgemeine ,literaturzeitung4 ,he died on the #gth of ,august #ahea4 ,gruber was the author of a large number of works1 the principal of which are ,charakteristik ,herders 7,leipzig1 #ahje71 in conjunction with ,johann ,t4 ,l4 ,danz 7#agfi-ahea71 afterwards professor of theology at ,jena2 ,geschichte des menschlichen ,geschlechts 7#b vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahjf72 ,worterbuch der altklassischen ,mythologie 7#c vols41 ,weimar1 #ahaj-ahae72 ,wielands ,leben 7#b parts1 ,weimar1 #ahae-ahaf71 and ,klopstocks ,leben 7,weimar1 #ahcb74 ,he also edited ,wieland's ,samtliche ,werke 7,leipzig1 #ahah-ahbh74 ,,grumbach1 ,,wilhelm ,,von 7#aejc-aefg71 ,german adventurer1 chiefly known through his connexion with the so-called ,grumbach feuds 7,grumbachsche ,handel71 the last attempt of the ,german knights to destroy the power of the territorial princes4 ,a member of an old ,franconian family1 he was born on the #ast of ,june #aejc1 and having passed some time at the court of ,casimir1 prince of ,bayreuth 7d4 #aebg71 fought against the peasants during the rising in #aebd and #aebe4 ,about #aedj ,grumbach became associated with ,albert ,alcibiades1 the turbulent prince of ,bayreuth1 whom he served both in peace and war4 ,after the conclusion of the peace of ,passau in #aeeb1 ,grumbach assisted ,albert in his career of plunder in ,franconia and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy1 ,melchior von ,zobel1 bishop of ,wurzburg4 ,as a landholder ,grumbach was a vassal of the bishops of ,wurzburg1 and had held office at the court of ,conrad of ,bibra1 who was bishop from #aedj to #aedd4 ,when1 however1 ,zobel was chosen to succeed ,conrad the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly disturbed4 ,unable to free himself and his associates from the suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he decided to adopt more violent measures1 and his friendship with ,albert was very serviceable in this connexion4 ,albert's career1 however1 was checked by his defeat at ,sievershausen in ,july #aeec and his subsequent flight into ,france1 and the bishop took advantage of this state of affairs to seize ,grumbach's lands4 ,the knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial court of justice 7,reichskammergericht71 but he was unable to carry this into effect2 and in ,april #aeeh some of his partisans seized and killed the bishop4 ,grumbach declared he was innocent of this crime1 but his story was not believed1 and he fled to ,france4 ,returning to ,germany he pleaded his cause in person before the diet at ,augsburg in #aeei1 but without success4 ,meanwhile he had found a new patron in ,john ,frederick1 duke of ,saxony1 whose father1 ,john ,frederick1 had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the ,albertine branch of his family4 ,chafing under this deprivation the duke listened readily to ,grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity1 including a general rising of the ,german knights and the deposition of ,frederick ,,ii41 king of ,denmark4 ,magical charms were employed against the duke's enemies1 and communications from angels were invented which helped to stir up the zeal of the people4 ,in #aefc ,grumbach attacked ,wurzburg1 seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the bishop to restore his lands4 ,he was consequently placed under the imperial ban1 but ,john ,frederick refused to obey the order of the emperor ,maximilian ,,ii4 to withdraw his protection from him4 ,meanwhile ,grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the ,saxon elector1 ,augustus2 proclamations were issued calling for assistance2 and alliances both without and within ,germany were concluded4 ,in ,november #aeff ,john ,frederick was placed under the ban1 which had been renewed against ,grumbach earlier in the year1 and ,augustus marched against ,gotha4 ,assistance was not forthcoming1 and a mutiny led to the capitulation of the town4 ,grumbach was delivered to his foes1 and1 after being tortured1 was executed at ,gotha on the #ahth of ,april #aefg4 ,see ,f4 ,ortloff1 ,geschichte der ,grumbachschen ,handel 7,jena1 #ahfh-ahgj71 and ,j4 ,voigt1 ,wilhelm von ,grumbach und seine ,handel 7,leipzig1 #ahdf-ahdg74 ,,grumentum1 an ancient town in the centre of ,lucania1 #cc m4 ,s4 of ,potentia by the direct road through ,anxia1 and #eb m4 by the ,via ,herculia1 at the point of divergence of a road eastward to ,heraclea4 ,it seems to have been a native ,lucanian town1 not a ,greek settlement4 ,in #bae ,b4,c4 the ,carthaginian general ,hanno was defeated under its walls1 and in #bjg ,b4,c4 ,hannibal made it his headquarters4 ,in the ,social ,war it appears as a strong fortress1 and seems to have been held by both sides at different times4 ,it became a colony1 perhaps in the time of ,sulla1 at latest under ,augustus1 and seems to have been of some importance4 ,its site1 identified by ,holste from the description of the martyrdom of ,st ,laverius1 is a ridge on the right bank of the ,aciris 7,agri7 about #aifj ft4 above sea-level1 #a_/b m4 below the modern ,saponara1 which lies much higher 7#becc ft474 ,its ruins 7all of the ,roman period7 include those of a large amphitheatre 7arena #bje by #aig ft471 the only one in ,lucania1 except that at ,paestum4 ,there are also remains of a theatre4 ,inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction of thermae 7of which remains were found7 in #eg-ea ,b4,c41 the construction in #dc ,b4,c41 of a portico1 remains of which may be seen along an ancient road1 at right angles to the main road1 which traversed ,grumentum from ,s4 to ,n4 ,see ,f4 ,p4 ,caputi in ,notizie degli scavi 7#ahgg71 #abi1 and ,g4 ,patroni1 ibid4 7#ahig7 #ahj4 7,t4 ,as47 ,,grun4 ,,hans ,,baldung 7c4 #adgj-aede71 commonly called ,grun1 a ,german painter of the age of ,durer1 was born at ,gmund in ,swabia1 and spent the greater part of his life at ,strassburg and ,freiburg in ,breisgau4 ,the earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram ,h4 ,b4 interlaced1 and the date of #adif1 in the monastery chapel of ,lichtenthal near ,baden4 ,another early work is a portrait of the emperor ,maximilian1 drawn in #aeja on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at ,carlsruhe4 ,the ,martyrdom of ,st ,sebastian and the ,epiphany 7,berlin ,museum71 fruits of his labour in #aejg1 were painted for the market-church of ,halle in ,saxony4 ,in #aeji ,grun purchased the freedom of the city of ,strassburg1 and resided there till #aeac1 when he moved to ,freiburg in ,breisgau4 ,there he began a series of large compositions1 which he finished in #aeaf1 and placed on the high altar of the ,freiburg cathedral4 ,he purchased anew the freedom of ,strassburg in #aeag1 resided in that city as his domicile1 and died a member of its great town council #aede4 ,though nothing is known of ,grun's youth and education1 it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which ,durer was the chief4 ,gmund is but #ej m4 distant on either side from ,augsburg and ,nuremberg4 ,grun prints were often mistaken for those of ,durer2 and ,durer himself was well acquainted with ,grun's woodcuts and copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the ,netherlands 7#aebj74 ,but ,grun's prints1 though ,dureresque1 are far below ,durer1 and his paintings are below his prints4 ,without absolute correctness as a draughtsman1 his conception of human form is often very unpleasant1 whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and baroque4 ,nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces1 unless we except the coarseness of the extremities4 ,no trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade4 ,though ,grun has been commonly called the ,correggio of the north1 his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours1 in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow1 dirty grey1 impure red and glowing green4 ,flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines4 ,his works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic strength which some of them display4 ,we may pass lightly over the ,epiphany of #aejg1 the ,crucifixion of #aeab1 or the ,stoning of ,stephen of #aebb1 in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,there is some force in the ,dance of ,death of #aeag1 in the museum of ,basel1 or the ,madonna of #aecj1 in the ,liechtenstein ,gallery at ,vienna4 ,grun's best effort is the altarpiece of ,freiburg1 where the ,coronation of the ,virgin1 and the ,twelve ,apostles1 the ,annunciation1 ,visitation1 ,nativity and ,flight into ,egypt1 and the ,crucifixion1 with portraits of donors1 are executed with some of that fanciful power which ,martin ,schon bequeathed to the ,swabian school4 ,as a portrait painter he is well known4 ,he drew the likeness of ,charles ,v41 as well as that of ,maximilian2 and his bust of ,margrave ,philip in the ,munich ,gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of ,baden as early as #aead4 ,at a later period he had sittings from ,margrave ,christopher of ,baden1 ,ottilia his wife1 and all their children1 and the picture containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at ,carlsruhe4 ,like ,durer and ,cranach1 ,grun became a hearty supporter of the ,reformation4 ,he was present at the diet of ,augsburg in #aeah1 and one of his woodcuts represents ,luther under the protection of the ,holy ,ghost1 which hovers over him in the shape of a dove4 ,,grunberg1 a town of ,germany1 in ,prussian ,silesia1 beautifully situated between two hills on an affluent of the ,oder1 and on the railway from ,breslau to ,stettin via ,kustrin1 #cf m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,glogau4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bj1ihg4 ,it has a ,roman ,catholic and two ,evangelical churches1 a modern school and a technical 7textiles7 school4 ,there are manufactures of cloth1 paper1 machinery1 straw hats1 leather and tobacco4 ,the prosperity of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood1 from which1 besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes1 about #gjj1jjj gallons of wine are manufactured annually4 ,,grundtvig1 ,,nikolai ,,frederik ,,severin 7#aghc-ahgb71 ,danish poet1 statesman and divine1 was born at the parsonage of ,udby in ,zealand on the #hth of ,september #aghc4 ,in #agia he was sent to live at the house of a priest in ,jutland1 and studied at the free school of ,aarhuus until he went up to the university of ,copenhagen in #ahjj4 ,at the close of his university life he made ,icelandic his special study1 until in #ahje he took the position of tutor in a house on the island of ,langeland4 ,the next three years were spent in the study of ,shakespeare1 ,schiller and ,fichte4 ,his cousin1 the philosopher ,henrik ,steffens1 had returned to ,copenhagen in #ahjb full of the teaching of ,schelling and his lectures and the early poetry of ,ohlenschlager opened the eyes of ,grundtvig to the new era in literature4 ,his first work1 ,on the ,songs in the ,edda1 attracted no attention4 ,returning to ,copenhagen in #ahjh he achieved greater success with his ,northern ,mythology1 and again in #ahji-ahaa with a long epic poem1 the ,decline of the ,heroic ,life in the ,north4 ,the boldness of the theological views expressed in his first sermon in #ahaj offended the ecclesiastical authorities1 and he retired to a country parish as his father's assistant for a while4 ,from #ahab to #ahag he published five or six works1 of which the ,rhyme of ,roskilde is the most remarkable4 ,from #ahaf to #ahai he was editor of a polemical journal entitled ,dannevirke1 and in #ahah to #ahbb appeared his ,danish paraphrases 7#f vols47 of ,saxo ,grammaticus and ,snorri4 ,during these years he was preaching against rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in ,copenhagen1 but he accepted in #ahba the country living of ,praesto1 only to return to the metropolis the year after4 ,in #ahbe he published a pamphlet1 ,the ,church's ,reply1 against ,h4 ,n4 ,clausen1 who was professor of theology in the university of ,copenhagen4 ,grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and fined1 and for seven years he was forbidden to preach1 years which he spent in publishing a collection of his theological works1 in paying two visits to ,england1 and in studying ,anglo-,saxon4 ,in #ahcb he obtained permission to preach again1 and in #ahci he became priest of the workhouse church of ,vartov hospital1 ,copenhagen1 a post he continued to hold until his death4 ,in #ahcg-ahda he published ,songs for the ,danish ,church1 a rich collection of sacred poetry2 in #ahch he brought out a selection of early ,scandinavian verse2 in #ahdj he edited the ,anglo-,saxon poem of the ,phoenix1 with a ,danish translation4 ,he visited ,england a third time in #ahdc4 ,from #ahdd until after the first ,german war ,grundtvig took a very prominent part in politics4 ,in #ahfa he received the titular rank of bishop1 but without a see4 ,he went on writing occasional poems till #ahff1 and preached in the ,vartov every ,sunday until a month before his death4 ,his preaching attracted large congregations1 and he soon had a following4 ,his hymn-book effected a great change in ,danish church services1 substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow measures of the orthodox ,lutherans4 ,the chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the authority of the living word for the apostolic commentaries1 and he desired to see each congregation a practically independent community4 ,his patriotism was almost a part of his religion1 and he established popular schools where the national poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction4 ,his followers are known as ,grundtvigians4 ,he was married three times1 the last time in his seventy-sixth year4 ,he died on the #bnd of ,september #ahgb4 ,grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his country2 he has been styled the ,danish ,carlyle4 ,he was above all things a man of action1 not an artist2 and the formless vehemence of his writings1 which have had a great influence over his own countrymen1 is hardly agreeable or intelligible to a foreigner4 ,the best of his poetical works were published in a selection 7#g vols41 #ahhj-ahhi7 by his eldest son1 ,svend ,hersleb ,grundtvig 7#ahbd-ahhc71 who was an authority on ,scandinavian antiquities1 and made an admirable collection of old ,danish poetry 7,danmarks gamle ,folkeviser1 #ahec-ahhc1 #e vols42 completed in #ahia by ,a4 ,olrik74 ,his correspondence with ,ingemann was edited by ,s4 ,grundtvig 7#ahhb72 his correspondence with ,christian ,molbech by ,l4 ,schroder 7#ahhh72 see also ,f4 ,winkel ,horn1 ,grundtvigs ,liv og ,gjerning 7#ahhc72 and an article by ,f4 ,nielsen in ,bricka's ,dansk ,biografisk ,lexikon4 ,,grundy1 ,,sydney 7#ahdh- 71 ,english dramatist1 was born at ,manchester on the #bcrd of ,march #ahdh1 son of ,alderman ,charles ,sydney ,grundy4 ,he was educated at ,owens ,college1 ,manchester1 and was called to the bar in #ahfi1 practising in ,manchester until #ahgf4 ,his farce1 ,a ,little ,change1 was produced at the ,haymarket ,theatre in #ahgb4 ,he became well known as an adapter of plays1 among his early successes in this direction being ,the ,snowball 7,strand ,theatre1 #ahgi7 from ,oscar1 ou le mari qui trompe sa femme by ,,mm4 ,scribe and ,duvergne1 and ,in ,honour ,bound 7#ahhj7 from ,scribe's ,une ,chaine4 ,in #ahhg he made a popular success with ,the ,bells of ,haslemere1 written with ,mr ,h4 ,pettitt and produced at the ,adelphi4 ,in #ahhi-ahij he produced two ingenious original comedies1 ,a ,white ,lie 7,court ,theatre7 and ,a ,fool's ,paradise 7,gaiety ,theatre71 which had been played two years earlier at ,greenwich as ,the ,mouse-,trap4 ,these were followed by ,sowing the ,wind 7,comedy1 #ahic71 ,an ,old ,jew 7,garrick1 #ahid71 and by an adaptation of ,octave ,feuillet's ,montjoye as ,a ,bunch of ,violets 7,haymarket1 #ahid74 ,in #ahid he produced ,the ,new ,woman and ,the ,slaves of the ,ring2 in #ahie1 ,the ,greatest of ,these1 played by ,mr and ,mrs ,kendal at the ,garrick ,theatre2 ,the ,degenerates 7,haymarket1 #ahii71 and ,a ,debt of ,honour 7,st ,james's #aijj74 ,among ,mr ,grundy's most successful adaptations were the charming ,pair of ,spectacles 7,garrick1 #ahij7 from ,les ,petits ,oiseaux of ,,mm4 ,labiche and ,delacour4 ,others were ,a ,village ,priest 7,haymarket1 #ahij7 from ,le ,secret de la terreuse1 a melodrama by ,,mm4 ,busnach and ,cauvin2 ,a ,marriage of ,convenience 7,haymarket1 #ahig7 from ,un ,mariage de ,louis ,,xv1 by ,alex4 ,dumas1 pere1 ,the ,silver ,key 7,her ,majesty's1 #ahig7 from his ,mlle de ,belle-isle1 and ,the ,musqueteers 7#ahii7 from the same author's novel2 ,frocks and ,frills 7,haymarket1 #aijb7 from the ,doigts de fees of ,,mm4 ,scribe and ,legouve2 ,the ,garden of ,lies 7,st ,james's ,theatre1 #aijd7 from ,mr ,justus ,miles ,forman's novel2 ,business is ,business 7,his ,majesty's ,theatre1 #aije71 a rather free adaptation from ,octave ,mirbeau's ,les ,affaires sont les affaires2 and ,the ,diplomatists 7,royalty ,theatre1 #aije7 from ,la ,poudre aux yeux1 by ,labiche4 ,,grundy1 ,,mrs1 the name of an imaginary ,english character1 who typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional proprieties of society over conduct1 the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on the acts of others4 ,the name appears in a play of ,thomas ,morton1 ,speed the ,plough 7#agih71 in which one of the characters1 ,dame ,ashfield1 continually refers to what her neighbour ,mrs ,grundy will say as the criterion of respectability4 ,mrs ,grundy is not a character in the play1 but is a kind of ,mrs ,harris to ,dame ,ashfield4 ,,gruner1 ,,gottlieb ,,sigmund 7#agag-aggh71 the author of the first connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of ,switzerland4 ,his father1 ,johann ,rudolf ,gruner 7#afhj-agfa71 was pastor of ,trachselwald1 in the ,bernese ,emmenthal 7#agje71 and later 7#agbe7 of ,burgdorf1 and a great collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters2 his great ,thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis ,bernensis 7#d vols4 folio1 #agbi-agcj7 still remains in ,,ms41 but in #agcb he published a small work entitled ,deliciae urbis ,bernae1 while he possessed an extensive cabinet of natural history objects4 ,naturally such tastes had a great influence on the mind of his son1 who was born at ,trachselwald1 and educated by his father and at the ,latin school at ,burgdorf1 not going to ,berne much before #agcf1 when he published a dissertation on the use of fire by the heathen4 ,in #agci he qualified as a notary1 in #agda became the archivist of ,hesse-,homburg1 and in #agdc accompanied ,prince ,christian of ,anhalt-,schaumburg to ,silesia and the university of ,halle4 ,he returned to his native land before #agdi1 when he obtained a post at ,thorberg1 being transferred in #agfd to ,landshut and ,fraubrunnen4 ,it was in #agfj that he published in #c vols4 at ,berne his chief work1 ,die ,eisgebirge des ,schweizerlandes 7bad ,french translation by ,m4 de ,keralio1 ,paris1 #aggj74 ,the first two volumes are filled by a detailed description of the snowy ,swiss mountains1 based not so much on personal experience as on older works1 and a very large number of communications received by ,gruner from numerous friends2 the third volume deals with glaciers in general1 and their various properties4 ,though in many respects imperfect1 ,gruner's book sums up all that was known on the subject in his day1 and forms the starting-point for later writers4 ,the illustrations are very curious and interesting4 ,in #aggh he republished 7nominally in ,london1 really at ,berne7 much of the information contained in his larger work1 but thrown into the form of letters1 supposed to be written in #aggf from various spots1 under the title of ,reisen durch die merkwurdigsten ,gegenden ,helvetiens 7#b vols474 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,grunewald1 ,,mathias4 ,the accounts which are given of this ,german painter1 a native of ,aschaffenburg1 are curiously contradictory4 ,between #aeah and #aecj1 according to statements adopted by ,waagen and ,passavant1 he was commissioned by ,albert of ,brandenburg1 elector and archbishop of ,mainz1 to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of ,st ,maurice and ,mary ,magdalen at ,halle on the ,saale2 and he acquitted himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years caused the picture to be rescued from the ,reformers and brought back to ,aschaffenburg4 ,from one of the churches of that city it was taken to the ,pinakothek of ,munich in #ahcf4 ,it represents ,st ,maurice and ,mary ,magdalen between four saints1 and displays a style so markedly characteristic1 and so like that of ,lucas ,cranach1 that ,waagen was induced to call ,grunewald ,cranach's master4 ,he also traced the same hand and technical execution in the great altarpieces of ,annaberg and ,heilbronn1 and in various panels exhibited in the museums of ,mainz1 ,darmstadt1 ,aschaffenburg1 ,vienna and ,berlin4 ,a later race of critics1 declining to accept the statements of ,waagen and ,passavant1 affirm that there is no documentary evidence to connect ,grunewald with the pictures of ,halle and ,annaberg1 and they quote ,sandrart and ,bernhard ,jobin of ,strassburg to show that ,grunewald is the painter of pictures of a different class4 ,they prove that he finished before #aeaf the large altarpiece of ,issenheim1 at present in the museum of ,colmar1 and starting from these premises they connect the artist with ,altdorfer and ,durer to the exclusion of ,cranach4 ,that a native of the ,palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures for a church in ,saxony can scarcely be accounted strange1 since we observe that ,hans ,baldung 7,grun7 was entrusted with a commission of this kind4 ,but that a painter of ,aschaffenburg should display the style of ,cranach is strange and indeed incredible1 unless vouched for by first-class evidence4 ,in this case documents are altogether wanting1 whilst on the other hand it is beyond the possibility of doubt1 even according to ,waagen1 that the altarpiece of ,issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures of ,halle and ,annaberg4 ,the altarpiece of ,issenheim is a fine and powerful work1 completed as local records show before #aeaf by a ,swabian1 whose distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of ,martin ,schongauer1 and came under the influence of ,altdorfer and ,durer4 ,as a work of art the altarpiece is important1 being a poliptych of eleven panels1 a carved central shrine covered with a double set of wings1 and two side pieces containing the ,temptation of ,st ,anthony1 the hermits ,anthony and ,paul in converse1 the ,virgin adored by ,angels1 the ,resurrection1 the ,annunciation1 the ,crucifixion1 ,st ,sebastian1 ,st ,anthony1 and the ,marys wailing over the dead body of ,christ4 ,the author of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes described by ,sandrart in the ,dominican convent1 and now in part in the ,saalhof at ,frankfort1 and a ,resurrection in the museum of ,basel1 registered in ,amerbach's inventory as the work of ,grunewald4 ,,gruter 7or ,,gruytere71 ,,jan 7#aefj-afbg71 a critic and scholar of ,dutch parentage by his father's side and ,english by his mother's1 was born at ,antwerp on the #crd of ,december #aefj4 ,to avoid religious persecution his parents while he was still young came to ,england2 and for some years he prosecuted his studies at ,cambridge1 after which he went to ,leiden1 where he graduated ,m4 ,a4 ,in #aehf he was appointed professor of history at ,wittenberg1 but as he refused to subscribe the formula concordiae he was unable to retain his office4 ,from #aehi to #aeib he taught at ,rostock1 after which he went to ,heidelberg1 where in #afjb he was appointed librarian to the university4 ,he died at ,heidelberg on the #bjth of ,september #afbg4 ,gruter's chief works were his ,inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis ,romani 7#b vols41 ,heidelberg1 #afjc71 and ,lampas1 sive fax artium liberalium 7#g vols41 ,frankfort1 #afjb-afcd74 ,,gruyere 7,ger4 ,greyerz71 a district in the south-eastern portion of the ,swiss canton of ,fribourg1 famed for its cattle and its cheese1 and the original home of the ,ranz des ,vaches1 the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at milking time4 ,it is composed of the middle reach 7from ,montbovon to beyond ,bulle7 of the ,sarine or ,saane valley1 with its tributary glens of the ,hongrin 7left71 the ,jogne 7right7 and the ,treme 7left71 and is a delightful pastoral region 7in #aija it contained #ag1cfd cattle74 ,it forms an administrative district of the canton of ,fribourg1 its population in #aijj being #bc1aaa1 mainly ,french-speaking and ,romanists4 ,from ,montbovon 7#aa m4 by rail from ,bulle7 there are mountain railways leading ,s4,w4 past ,les ,avants to ,montreux 7#ad m471 and ,e4 up the ,sarine valley past ,chateau d',oex to ,saanen or ,gessenay 7#ad m471 and by a tunnel below a low pass to the ,simme valley and ,spiez on the ,lake of ,thun4 ,the modern capital of the district is the small town of ,bulle ,ger4 ,boll1 with a #acth-century castle and in #aijj #cccj inhabitants1 ,french-speaking and ,romanists4 ,but the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of ,gruyeres 7which keeps its final s in order to distinguish it from the district71 perched on a steep hill 7,s4,e4 of ,bulle7 above the left bank of the ,sarine1 and at a height of #bgac ft4 above the sea-level4 ,it is only accessible by a rough carriage road1 and boasts of a very fine old castle1 at the foot of which is the solitary street of the town1 which in #aijj had #achi inhabitants4 ,the castle was the seat of the counts of the ,gruyere1 who are first mentioned in #ajgc4 ,the name is said to come from the word gruyer1 meaning the officer of woods and forests1 but the counts bore the canting arms of a crane 7grue71 which are seen all over the castle and the town4 ,that valiant family ended 7in the legitimate line7 with ,count ,michel 7d4 #aege7 whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness compelled him in #aeee to sell his domains to ,bern and ,fribourg4 ,bern took the upper ,sarine valley 7it still keeps ,saanen at its head1 but in #agih lost the ,pays d',en-,haut to the canton du ,leman1 which in #ahjc became the canton of ,vaud74 ,fribourg took the rest of the county1 which it added to ,bulle and ,albeuve 7taken in #aecg from the bishop of ,lausanne71 and to the lordship of ,jaun in the ,jaun or ,jogne valley 7bought in #aejb-aejd from its lords71 in order to form the present administrative district of ,gruyere1 which is not co-extensive with the historical county of that name4 ,see the materials collected by ,j4 ,j4 ,hisely and published in successive vols4 of the ,memoires et documents de la suisse romande 444 introa4 a l'hist4 7#ahea72 ,histoire 7#b vols41 #ahee-aheg72 and ,monuments de l'histoire 7#b vols41 #ahfg-ahfi72 ,k4 ,v4 von ,bonstetten1 ,briefe uber ein schweiz4 ,hirtenland 7#agha7 7,eng4 trans41 #aghd72 ,j4 ,reichlen1 ,la ,gruyere illustree 7#ahij71 seq42 ,h4 ,raemy1 ,la ,gruyere 7#ahfg72 and ,les ,alpes fribourgeoises1 by many authors 7,lausanne1 #aijh74 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,grynaeus 7or ,,gryner71 ,,johann ,,jakob 7#aedj-afag71 ,swiss ,protestant divine1 was born on the #ast of ,october #aedj at ,bern4 ,his father1 ,thomas 7#aeab-aefd71 was for a time professor of ancient languages at ,basel and ,bern1 but afterwards became pastor of ,roteln in ,baden4 ,he was nephew of the more eminent ,simon ,grynaeus 7q4v474 ,johann was educated at ,basel1 and in #aeei received an appointment as curate to his father4 ,in #aefc he proceeded to ,tubingen for the purpose of completing his theological studies1 and in #aefe he returned to ,roteln as successor to his father4 ,here he felt compelled to abjure the ,lutheran doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper1 and to renounce the formula concordiae4 ,called in #aege to the chair of ,old ,testament exegesis at ,basel1 he became involved in unpleasant controversy with ,simon ,sulzer and other champions of ,lutheran orthodoxy2 and in #aehd he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the restoration of the university of ,heidelberg4 ,returning to ,basel in #aehf1 after ,simon ,sulzer's death1 as antistes or superintendent of the church there and as professor of the ,new ,testament1 he exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence upon both the church and the state affairs of that community1 and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the school of ,ulrich ,zwingli4 ,amongst other labours he helped to reorganize the gymnasium in #aehh4 ,five years before his death he became totally blind1 but continued to preach and lecture till his death on the #acth of ,august #afag4 ,his many works include commentaries on various books of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 ,theologica theoremata el problemata 7#aehh71 and a collection of patristic literature entitled ,monumenta ,s4 patrum orthodoxographa 7#b vols41 fol41 #aefi74 ,,grynaeus1 ,,simon 7#adic-aeda71 ,german scholar and theologian of the ,reformation1 son of ,jacob ,gryner1 a ,swabian peasant1 was born in #adic at ,vehringen1 in ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen4 ,he adopted the name ,grynaeus from the epithet of ,apollo in ,virgil4 ,he was a schoolfellow with ,melanchthon at ,pforzheim1 whence he went to the university of ,vienna1 distinguishing himself there as a ,latinist and ,grecian4 ,his appointment as rector of a school at ,buda was of no long continuance2 his views excited the zeal of the ,dominicans and he was thrown into prison4 ,gaining his freedom at the instance of ,hungarian magnates1 he visited ,melanchthon at ,wittenberg1 and in #aebd became professor of ,greek at the university of ,heidelberg1 being in addition professor of ,latin from #aebf4 ,his ,zwinglian view of the ,eucharist disturbed his relations with his ,catholic colleagues4 ,from #aebf he had corresponded with ,oecolampadius1 who in #aebi invited him to ,basel1 which ,erasmus had just left4 ,the university being disorganized1 ,grynaeus pursued his studies1 and in #aeca visited ,england for research in libraries4 ,a commendatory letter from ,erasmus gained him the good offices of ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,he returned to ,basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental reformers on the subject of ,henry ,,viii4's divorce1 and was present at the death of ,oecolampadius 7,nov4 #bd1 #aeca74 ,he now1 while holding the chair of ,greek1 was appointed extraordinary professor of theology1 and gave exegetical lectures on the ,new ,testament4 ,in #aecd ,duke ,ulrich called him to ,wurttemberg in aid of the reformation there1 as well as for the reconstitution of the university of ,tubingen1 which he carried out in concert with ,ambrosius ,blarer of ,constanz4 ,two years later he had an active hand in the so-called ,first ,helvetic ,confession 7the work of ,swiss divines at ,basel in ,january #aecf72 also in the conferences which urged the ,swiss acceptance of the ,wittenberg ,concord 7#aecf74 ,at the ,worms conference 7#aedj7 between ,catholics and ,protestants he was the sole representative of the ,swiss churches1 being deputed by the authorities of ,basel4 ,he was carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at ,basel on the #ast of ,august #aeda4 ,a brilliant scholar1 a mediating theologian1 and personally of lovable temperament1 his influence was great and wisely exercised4 ,erasmus and ,calvin were among his correspondents4 ,his chief works were ,latin versions of ,plutarch1 ,aristotle and ,chrysostom4 ,his son ,,samuel 7#aeci-aeii7 was professor of jurisprudence at ,basel4 ,his nephew ,,thomas 7#aeab8-aefd7 was professor at ,basel and minister in ,baden1 and left four distinguished sons of whom ,,johann ,,jakob 7#aedj-afag7 was a leader in the religious affairs of ,basel4 ,the last of the direct descendants of ,simon ,grynaeus was his namesake ,,simon 7#agbe-agii71 translator into ,german of ,french and ,english anti-deistical works1 and author of a version of the ,bible in modern ,german 7#aggf74 ,see ,bayle's ,dictionnaire2 ,w4 ,t4 ,streuber in ,hauck's ,realencyklopadie 7#ahii72 and for bibliography1 ,streuber's ,s4 ,grynaei epistolae 7#ahdg74 7,a4 ,go4997 ,,gryphius1 ,,andreas 7#afaf-affd71 ,german lyric poet and dramatist1 was born on the #aath of ,october #afaf1 at ,grossglogau in ,silesia1 where his father was a clergyman4 ,the family name was ,greif1 latinized1 according to the prevailing fashion1 as ,gryphius4 ,left early an orphan and driven from his native town by the troubles of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 he received his schooling in various places1 but notably at ,fraustadt1 where he enjoyed an excellent classical education4 ,in #afcd he became tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist ,georg von ,schonborn 7#aegi-afcg71 a man of wide culture and considerable wealth1 who1 after filling various administrative posts and writing many erudite volumes on law1 had been rewarded by the emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii4 with the title and office of imperial count-palatine 7,pfalzgraf74 ,schonborn1 who recognized ,gryphius's genius1 crowned him poeta laureatus1 gave him the diploma of master of philosophy1 and bestowed on him a patent of nobility1 though ,gryphius never used the title4 ,a month later1 on the #bcrd of ,december #afcg1 ,schonborn died2 and next year ,gryphius went to continue his studies at ,leiden1 where he remained six years1 both hearing and delivering lectures4 ,here he fell under the influence of the great ,dutch dramatists1 ,pieter ,cornelissen ,hooft 7#aeha-afdg7 and ,joost van den ,vondel 7#aehg-afgi71 who largely determined the character of his later dramatic works4 ,after travelling in ,france1 ,italy and ,south ,germany1 ,gryphius settled in #afdg at ,fraustadt1 where he began his dramatic work1 and in #afej was appointed syndic of ,glogau1 a post he held until his death on the #afth of ,july #affd4 ,a short time previously he had been admitted under the title of ,the ,immortal into the ,fruchtbringende ,gesellschaft1 a literary society1 founded in #afag by ,ludwig1 prince of ,anhalt-,kothen on the model of the ,italian academies4 ,gryphius was a man of morbid disposition1 and his melancholy temperament1 fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood1 is largely reflected in his lyrics1 of which the most famous are the ,kirchhofsgedanken 7#afef74 ,his best works are his comedies1 one of which1 ,absurda ,comica1 oder ,herr ,peter ,squentz 7#affc71 is evidently based on the comic episode of ,pyramus and ,thisbe in ,the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream4 ,die geliebte ,dornrose 7#affj71 which is written in a ,silesian dialect1 contains many touches of natural simplicity and grace1 and ranks high among the comparatively small number of ,german dramas of the #agth century4 ,horribilicribrifax 7#affc71 founded on the ,miles gloriosus of ,plautus1 is a rather laboured attack on pedantry4 ,besides these three comedies1 ,gryphius wrote five tragedies4 ,in all of them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic1 but he had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically conceived plans1 and there are occasional flashes both of passion and of imagination4 ,his models seem to have been ,seneca and ,vondel4 ,he had the courage1 in ,carolus ,stuardus 7#afdi7 to deal with events of his own day2 his other tragedies are ,leo ,armenius 7#afdf72 ,katharina von ,georgien 7#afeg71 ,cardenio und ,celinde 7#afeg7 and ,papinianus 7#affc74 ,no ,german dramatic writer before him had risen to so high a level1 nor had he worthy successors until about the middle of the #ahth century4 ,a complete edition of ,gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has been published by ,h4 ,palm in the series of the ,stuttgart ,literarische ,verein 7#c vols41 #ahgh1 #ahhb1 #ahhd74 ,volumes of selected works will be found in ,w4 ,muller's ,bibliothek der deutschen ,dichter des #agten ,jahrhunderts 7#ahbb7 and in ,j4 ,tittmann's ,deutsche ,dichter des #agten ,jahrhunderts 7#ahgj74 ,there is also a good selection by ,h4 ,palm in ,kurschner's ,deutsche ,nationalliteratur4 ,see ,o4 ,klopp1 ,andreas ,gryphius als ,dramatiker 7#ahea72 ,j4 ,hermann1 ,uber ,andreas ,gryphius 7#ahea72 ,t4 ,wissowa1 ,beitrage zur ,kenntnis von ,andreas ,gryphius' ,leben und ,schriften 7#ahgf72 ,j4 ,wysocki1 ,andreas ,gryphius et la tragedie allemande au ,,xviie siecle2 and ,v4 ,mannheimer1 ,die ,lyrik des ,andreas ,gryphius 7#aijd74 ,,guacharo 7said to be an obsolete ,spanish word signifying one that cries1 moans or laments loudly71 the ,spanish-,american name of what ,english writers call the oil-bird1 the ,steatornis caripensis of ornithologists1 a very remarkable bird1 first described by ,alexander von ,humboldt 7,voy4 aux reg4 equinoxiales i4 #dac1 ,eng4 trans4 iii4 #aai2 ,obs4 ,zoologie ii4 #ada1 pl4 xliv47 from his own observation and from examples obtained by ,aime ,j4 ,a4 ,bonpland1 on the visit of those two travellers1 in ,september #agii1 to a cave near ,caripe 7at that time a monastery of ,aragonese ,capuchins7 some forty miles ,s4,e4 of ,cumana on the northern coast of ,south ,america4 ,a few years later it was discovered1 says ,latham 7,gen4 ,hist4 ,birds1 #ahbc1 vii4 #cfe71 to inhabit ,trinidad1 where it appears to bear the name of ,diablotin2#a but by the receipt of specimens procured at ,sarayacu in ,peru1 ,cajamarca in the ,peruvian ,andes1 and ,antioquia in ,colombia 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahgh1 pp4 #aci1 #adj2 #ahgi1 p4 #ecb71 its range has been shown to be much greater than had been supposed4 ,the singularity of its structure1 its curious habits1 and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little attention from zoologists4 ,first referring it to the genus ,caprimulgus1 its original describer soon saw that it was no true goatsucker4 ,it was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily1 and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct family1 ,steatornithidae--a view which1 though not put forth till #ahgj 7,zool4 ,record1 vi4 #fg71 seems now to be generally deemed correct4 ,its systematic position1 however1 can scarcely be considered settled1 for though on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the ,caprimulgidae1 nearly as much affinity may be traced to the ,strigidae1 while it possesses some characters in which it differs from both 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahgc1 pp4 #ebf-ece74 ,about as big as a crow1 its plumage exhibits the blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey1 barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black1 and spotted in places with white1 that prevail in the two families just named4 ,the beak is hard1 strong and deeply notched1 the nostrils are prominent1 and the gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side4 ,the legs and toes are comparatively feeble1 but the wings are large4 ,in habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal1 slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers4 ,towards evening it arouses itself1 and1 with croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of castanets1 it approaches the exit of its retreat1 whence at nightfall it issues in search of its food1 which1 so far as is known1 consists entirely of oily nuts or fruits1 belonging especially to the genera ,achras1 ,aiphanas1 ,laurus and ,psichotria1 some of them sought1 it would seem1 at a very great distance1 for ,funck 7,bull4 ,acad4 ,sc4 ,bruxelles xi4 pt4 #b1 pp4 #cga-cgg7 states that in the stomach of one he obtained at ,caripe he found the seed of a tree which he believed did not grow nearer than #hj leagues4 ,the hard1 indigestible seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents1 where many of them for a time vegetate1 the plants thus growing being etiolated from want of light1 and1 according to travellers1 forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present4 ,the guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay1 in which it lays from two to four white eggs1 with a smooth but lustreless surface1 resembling those of some owls4 ,the young soon after they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat1 and while yet in the nest are sought by the ,indians1 who at ,caripe1 and perhaps elsewhere1 make a special business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain4 ,this is done about midsummer1 when by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the young birds are slaughtered1 while their parents in alarm and rage hover over the destroyers' heads1 uttering harsh and deafening cries4 ,the grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern's mouth1 run into earthen pots1 and preserved for use in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps4 ,it is said to be pure and limpid1 free from any disagreeable taste or smell1 and capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid4 ,in ,trinidad the young are esteemed s great delicacy for the table by many1 though some persons object to their peculiar scent1 which resembles that of a cockroach 7,blatta71 and consequently refuse to eat them4 ,the old birds also1 according to ,e4 ,c4 ,taylor 7,ibis1 #ahfd1 p4 #ij71 have a strong crow-like odour4 ,but one species of the genus ,steatornis is known4 ,in addition to the works above quoted valuable information about this curious bird may be found under the following references3 ,l',herminier1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat4 7#ahcf71 p4 #fj1 and ,nouv4 ,ann4 ,mus4 7#ahch71 p4 #cba2 ,hautessier1 ,rev4 ,zool4 7#ahch71 p4 #afd2 ,j4 ,muller1 ,monatsb4 ,berl4 ,acad4 7#ahda71 p4 #agb1 and ,archiv fur ,anat4 7#ahfb71 pp4 #a-aa2 des ,murs1 ,rev4 zool4 7#ahdc71 p4 #cb1 and ,ool4 ,orn4 pp4 #bfj-bfc2 ,blanchard1 ,ann4 ,mus4 7#ahei71 xi4 pl4 #d1 fig4 #cj2 ,konig-,warthausen1 ,journ4 fur ,orn4 7#ahfh71 pp4 #chd-chg2 ,goering1 ,vargasia 7#ahfi71 pp4 #abd-abh2 ,murie1 ,ibis 7#ahgc71 pp4 #ha-hf4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnote3 #a ,not to be confounded with the bird so called in the ,french ,antilles1 which is a petrel 7,oestrelata74 ,,guaco1 ,,huaco or ,,guao1 also ,vejuco and ,bejuco1 terms applied to various ,central and ,south ,american and ,west ,indian plants1 in repute for curative virtues4 ,the ,indians and negroes of ,colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite1 thus designated in imitation of its cry1 which they say attracts to it the snakes that serve it principally for food2 they further hold the tradition that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the observation that the bird eats of their leaves1 and even spreads the juice of the same on its wings1 during contests with its prey4 ,the disputes that have arisen as to what is the true guaco are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the ,american ,indians for all natural objects are generic1 and their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists4 ,thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf1 white and green above and purple beneath1 is called by them guaco 7,r4 ,spruce1 in ,howard's ,neueva ,quinologia1 ,cinchona succirubra1 p4 #bb1 note74 ,what is most commonly recognized in ,colombia as guaco1 or ,vejuco del guaco1 would appear to be ,mikania ,guaco 7,humboldt and ,bonpland1 ,pl4 equinox1 ii4 #hd1 pl4 #aje1 #ahji71 a climbing ,composite plant of the tribe ,eupatoriaceae1 affecting moist and shady situations1 and having a much-branched and deep-growing root1 variegated1 serrate1 opposite leaves and dull-white flowers1 in axillary clusters4 ,the whole plant emits a disagreeable odour4 ,it is stated that the ,indians of ,central ,america1 after having guaconized themselves1 i4e4 taken guaco1 catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes1 which writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron 7,b4 ,seemann1 ,hooker's ,journ4 of ,bot4 v4 #gf1 #ahec74 ,the odour alone of guaco has been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity2 and ,humboldt1 who observed that the near approach of a rod steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous ,coluber corallinus1 was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite4 ,the drug is not used in modern therapeutics4 ,,guadalajara1 an inland city of ,mexico and capital of the state of ,jalisco1 #bge m4 7direct7 ,w4,n4,w4 of the ,federal capital1 in lat4 #bj deg4 #da' #aj ,n41 long4 #ajc deg4 #ba' #ae ,w4 ,pop4 7#ahie7 #hc1icd2 7#aijj7 #aja1bjh4 ,guadalajara is served by a short branch of the ,mexican ,central railway from ,irapuato4 ,the city is in the ,antemarac valley near the ,rio ,grande de ,santiago1 #ejib ft4 above sea-level4 ,its climate is dry1 mild and healthy1 though subject to sudden changes4 ,the city is well built1 with straight and well-paved streets1 numerous plazas1 public gardens and shady promenades4 ,its public services include tramways and electric lighting1 the ,juanacatlan falls of the ,rio ,grande near the city furnishing the electric power4 ,guadalajara is an episcopal see1 and its cathedral1 built between #aega and #afah1 is one of the largest and most elaborately decorated churches in ,mexico4 ,the government palace1 which like the cathedral faces upon the plaza mayor1 is generally considered one of the finest specimens of ,spanish architecture in ,mexico4 ,other important edifices and institutions are the university1 with its schools of law and medicine1 the mint1 built in #ahaa1 the modern national college and high schools1 a public library of over #bh1jjj volumes1 an episcopal seminary1 an academy of fine arts1 the ,teatro ,degollado1 and the large modern granite building of the penitentiary4 ,there are many interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city4 ,charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent1 among which are the ,hospicio1 which includes an asylum for the aged1 infirm1 blind1 deaf and dumb1 foundlings and orphans1 a primary school for both sexes1 and a girls' training school1 and the ,hospital de ,san ,miguel de ,belen1 which is a hospital1 an insane asylum1 and a school for little children4 ,one of the most popular public resorts of the city is the ,paseo1 a beautiful drive and promenade extending along both banks of the ,rio ,san ,juan de ,dios for #a-a_/d m4 and terminating in the alameda1 or public garden4 ,the city has a good water-supply1 derived from springs and brought in through an aqueduct #h m4 long4 ,guadalajara is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important commercial town1 but the city is chiefly distinguished as the centre of the iron1 steel and glass industries of ,mexico4 ,it is also widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the ,indians of the city and of its suburb1 ,san ,pedro4 ,among other prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods1 leather1 furniture1 hats and sweetmeats4 ,guadalajara was founded in #aeca by ,nuno de ,guzman1 and became the seat of a bishop in #aedi4 ,the ,calderon bridge near the city was the scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under ,hidalgo in ,january #ahaa4 ,the severe earthquake of the #cast of ,may #ahah partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples2 and that of the #aath of ,march #ahge damaged many of the larger buildings4 ,the population includes large ,indian and mestizo elements4 ,,guadalajara1 a province of central ,spain1 formed in #ahcc of districts taken from ,new ,castile2 bounded on the ,n4 by ,segovia1 ,soria and ,saragossa1 ,e4 by ,saragossa and ,teruel1 ,s4 by ,cuenca and ,w4 by ,madrid4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bjj1ahf2 area1 #dfgf sq4 m4 ,along the northern frontier of ,guadalajara rise the lofty ,guadarrama mountains1 culminating in the peaks of ,la ,cebollera 7#fiee ft47 and ,ocejon 7#fgge ft472 the rest of the province1 apart from several lower ranges in the east1 belongs to the elevated plateau of ,new ,castile1 and has a level or slightly undulating surface1 which forms the upper basin of the river ,tagus1 and is watered by its tributaries the ,tajuna1 ,henares1 ,jarama and ,gallo4 ,the climate of this region1 as of ,castile generally1 is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold and summer heat2 the soil varies very much in quality1 but is fertile enough in many districts1 notably the cornlands of the ,alcarria1 towards the south4 ,few of the cork and oak forests which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction2 and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry4 ,grain1 olive oil1 wine1 saffron1 silk and flax are produced1 but agriculture makes little progress1 owing to defective communications and unscientific farming4 ,in #aijc1 the only minerals worked were common salt and silver1 and the total output of the mines was valued at ,l#be1jjj4 ,deposits of iron1 lead and gold also exist and were worked by the ,romans2 but their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the #aith century4 ,trade is stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all ,spanish towns and villages1 such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery4 ,the ,madrid-,saragossa railway traverses the province for #gj m42 the roads are ill-kept and insufficient4 ,guadalajara 7#aa1add7 is the capital1 and the only town with more than #ejjj inhabitants2 ,molina de ,aragon1 a fortified town built at the foot of the ,parameras de ,molina 7#bejj-cejj ft471 and on the right bank of the ,gallo1 a tributary of the ,tagus1 is of some importance as an agricultural centre4 ,siguenza1 on the railway1 is an episcopal city1 with a fine ,romanesque cathedral dating from the #aath century4 ,it is probably the ancient ,segontia1 founded in #bah ,b4,c4 by refugees from ,saguntum4 ,the population of the province1 which numbers only #db per sq4 m41 decreased slightly between #ahgj and #aijj1 and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate 7see also ,,castile74 ,,guadalajara1 the capital of the ,spanish province of ,guadalajara1 on the left bank of the river ,henares1 and on the ,madrid-,saragossa railway1 #ce m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,madrid4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #aa1add4 ,guadalajara is a picturesque town1 occupying a somewhat sterile plain1 #bajj ft4 above the sea4 ,a ,roman aqueduct and the ,roman foundations of the bridge built in #ageh across the ,henares bear witness to its antiquity4 ,under ,roman and ,visigothic rule it was known as ,arriaca or ,caraca2 its present name1 which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles as ,godelfare1 represents the ,wad-al-hajarah1 or ,valley of ,stones1 of the ,moors1 who occupied the town from #gad until #ajha1 when it was captured by ,alvar ,yanez de ,minaya1 a comrade of the more famous ,cid4 ,the church of ,santa ,maria contains the image of the ,virgin of ,battles1 which accompanied ,alphonso ,,vi4 of ,castile 7#ajgb-aaji7 on his campaigns against the ,moors2 and there are several other ancient and interesting churches in ,guadalajara1 besides two palaces1 dating from the #aeth century1 and built with that blend of ,christian and ,moorish architecture which ,spaniards call the ,mudejar style4 ,the more important of these is the palace of the ducal house del ,infantado1 formerly owned by the ,mendoza family1 whose panteon1 or mausoleum1 added between #afif and #agbj to the #acth-century church of ,san ,francisco1 is remarkable for the rich sculpture of its tombs4 ,the town and provincial halls date from #aehe1 and the college of engineers was originally built by ,philip ,v41 early in the #ahth century1 as a cloth factory4 ,manufactures of soap1 leather1 woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving industry for which ,guadalajara was long celebrated2 there is also a considerable trade in agricultural produce4 ,,guadalquivir 7ancient ,baetis1 ,moorish ,wadi al ,kebir1 the ,great ,river71 a river of southern ,spain4 ,what is regarded as the main stream rises #ddge ft4 above sea-level between the ,sierra de ,cazorla and ,sierra del ,pozo1 in the province of ,jaen4 ,it does not become a large river until it is joined by the ,guadiana ,menor 7,guadianamenor7 on the left1 and the ,guadalimar on the right4 ,lower down it receives many tributaries1 the chief being the ,genil or ,jenil1 from the left4 ,the general direction of the river is west by south1 but a few miles above ,seville it changes to south by west4 ,below ,coria it traverses the series of broad fens known as ,las ,marismas1 the greatest area of swamp in the ,iberian ,peninsula4 ,here it forms two subsidiary channels1 the western #ca m41 the eastern #ab m4 long1 which rejoin the main stream on the borders of the province of ,cadiz4 ,below ,sanlucar the river enters the ,atlantic after a total course of #cfj m4 ,it drains an area of #ba1hfe sq4 m4 ,though the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula1 it is the only one which flows at all seasons with a full stream1 being fed in winter by the rains1 in summer by the melted snows of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,in the time of the ,moors it was navigable up to ,cordova1 but owing to the accumulation of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to ,seville by vessels of #abjj to #aejj tons4 ,,guadeloupe1 a ,french colony in the ,west ,indies1 lying between the ,british islands of ,montserrat on the ,n41 and ,dominica on the ,s41 between #ae deg4 #ei' and #af deg4 #bj' ,n4 and #fa deg4 #ca' and #fa deg4 #ej' ,w4 ,it consists of two entirely distinct islands1 separated by a narrow arm of the sea1 ,riviere ,salee 7,salt river71 varying from #ajj ft4 to #djj ft4 in width and navigable for small vessels4 ,the western island1 a rugged mass of ridges1 peaks and lofty uplands1 is called ,basse-,terre1 while the eastern and smaller island1 the real low-land1 is known as ,grande-,terre4 ,a sinuous ridge runs through ,basse-,terre from ,n4 to ,s4 ,in the north-west rises the peak of ,grosse ,montagne 7#bcgj ft471 from which sharp spurs radiate in all directions2 near the middle of the west coast are the twin heights of ,les ,mamelles 7#becf ft4 and #bcfh ft474 ,farther south the highest elevation is attained in ,la ,soufriere 7#dijj ft474 ,in #agig this volcano was active1 and in #ahdc its convulsions laid several towns in ruins2 but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity4 ,the range terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of ,caraibe 7#bcjj ft474 ,basse-,terre is supremely beautiful1 its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation4 ,on ,grande-,terre the highest elevation is only #dej ft41 and this island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations4 ,it consists of a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand and broken shells known as maconne de bon dieu1 much used for building4 ,the bay between the two sections of ,guadeloupe on the north is called ,grand ,cul-de-,sac ,marin1 that on the south being ,petit ,cul-de-,sac ,marin4 ,basse-,terre 7#cfd sq4 m47 is #bh m4 long by #ab m4 to #ae m4 wide2 ,grande-,terre 7#bee sq4 m47 is #bb m4 long from ,n4 to ,s41 of irregular shape1 with a long peninsula1 ,chateaux ,point1 stretching from the south-eastern extremity4 ,basse-,terre is watered by a considerable number of streams1 most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden floods 7locally called galions71 but ,grande-,terre is practically destitute of springs1 and the water-supply is derived almost entirely from ponds and cisterns4 ,the west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic cones1 together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of the older rocks4 ,grande-,terre on the other hand1 consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes1 the whole belonging to the early part of the ,tertiary system 7probably ,eocene and ,oligocene74 ,occasional deposits of marl and limestone of late ,pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds2 and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date4 ,the mean annual temperature is #gh deg4 ,f41 and the minimum #fa deg4 ,f41 and the maximum #aja deg4 ,f4 ,from ,july to ,november heavy rains fall1 the annual average on the coast being #hf in41 while in the interior it is much greater4 ,guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms4 ,in #ahbe a hurricane destroyed the town of ,basse-,terre1 and ,grand ,bourg in ,marie ,galante suffered a like fate in #ahfe4 ,the soil is rich and fruitful1 sugar having long been its staple product4 ,the other crops include cereals1 cocoa1 cotton1 manioc1 yams and rubber2 tobacco1 vanilla1 coffee and bananas are grown1 but in smaller quantities4 ,over #cj of the total area is under cultivation1 and of this more than #ej is under sugar4 ,the centres of this industry are ,st ,anne1 ,pointe-a-,pitre and ,le ,moule1 where there are well-equipped usines1 and there is also a large usine at ,basse-,terre4 ,the forests1 confined to the island of ,basse-,terre1 are extensive and rich in valuable woods1 but1 being difficult of access1 are not worked4 ,salt and sulphur are the only minerals extracted1 and in addition to the sugar usines1 there are factories for the making of rum1 liqueurs1 chocolate1 besides fruit-canning works and tanneries4 ,france takes most of the exports2 and next to ,france1 the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain and ,india are the countries most interested in the import trade4 ,the inhabitants of ,guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and planters1 a few ,east ,indian immigrants from the ,french possessions in ,india1 and the rest negroes and mulattoes4 ,these mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form and feature4 ,the women greatly outnumber the men1 and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate births4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ahb1aab4 ,the governor is assisted by a privy council1 a director of the interior1 a procurator-general and a paymaster1 and there is also an elected legislative council of #cj members4 ,the colony forms a department of ,france and is represented in the ,french parliament by a senator and two deputies4 ,political elections are very eagerly contested1 the mulatto element always striving to gain the preponderance of power4 ,the seat of government1 of the ,apostolic administration and of the court of appeal is at ,basse-,terre 7#ggfb71 which is situated on the south-west coast of the island of that name4 ,it is a picturesque1 healthy town standing on an open roadstead4 ,pointe-a-,pitre 7#ag1bdb71 the largest town1 lies in ,grande-,terre near the mouth of the ,riviere ,salee4 ,its excellent harbour has made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony4 ,le ,moule 7#aj1cgh7 on the east coast of ,grande-,terre does a considerable export trade in sugar1 despite its poor harbour4 ,of the other towns1 ,st ,anne 7#idig71 ,morne a l',eau 7#hddb71 ,petit ,canal 7#fgdh71 ,st ,francois 7#ebfe71 ,petit ,bourg 7#eaaj7 and ,trois ,rivieres 7#ejaf71 are the most important4 ,round ,guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies1 namely1 ,la ,desirade1 #f m4 ,e41 a narrow rugged island #aj sq4 m4 in area2 ,marie ,galante #af m4 ,s4,e4 ,les ,saintes1 a group of seven small islands1 #g m4 ,s41 one of the strategic points of the ,antilles1 with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour2 ,st ,martin1 #adb m4 ,n4,n4,w42 and ,st ,bartholomew1 #acj m4 ,n4,n4,w4 ,history4--,guadeloupe was discovered by ,columbus in #adic1 and received its name in honour of the monastery of ,s4 ,maria de ,guadalupe at ,estremadura in ,spain4 ,in #afce l',olive and ,duplessis took possession of it in the name of the ,french ,company of the ,islands of ,america1 and l',olive exterminated the ,caribs with great cruelty4 ,four chartered companies were ruined in their attempts to colonize the island1 and in #afgd it passed into the possession of the ,french crown and long remained a dependency of ,martinique4 ,after unsuccessful attempts in #afff1 #afia and #agjc1 the ,british captured the island in #agei1 and held it for four years4 ,guadeloupe was finally separated from ,martinique in #agge1 but it remained under the governor of the ,french ,windward ,islands4 ,in #aghb ,rodney defeated the ,french fleet near the island1 and the ,british again obtained possession in ,april #agid1 but in the following summer they were driven out by ,victor ,hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had liberated for the purpose4 ,in #ahjb ,bonaparte1 then first consul1 sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery1 but1 after a heroic defence1 many of the negroes preferred suicide to submission4 ,during the ,hundred ,days in #ahaj1 the ,british once more occupied the island1 but1 in spite of its cession to ,sweden by the treaty of #ahac and a ,french invasion in #ahad1 they did not withdraw till #ahaf4 ,between #ahaf and #ahbe the code of laws peculiar to the island was introduced4 ,municipal institutions were established in #ahcg2 and slavery was finally abolished in #ahdh4 ,,guadet1 ,,marguerite ,,elie 7#ageh-agid71 ,french ,revolutionist1 was born at ,st ,emilion near ,bordeaux on the #bjth of ,july #ageh4 ,when the ,revolution broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at ,bordeaux4 ,in #agij he was made administrator of the ,gironde and in #agia president of the criminal tribunal4 ,in this year he was elected to the ,legislative ,assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known subsequently as ,girondins or ,girondists4 ,as a supporter of the constitution of #agia he joined the ,jacobin club1 and here and in the ,assembly became an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to the constitution4 ,he bitterly attacked the ministers of ,louis ,,xvi41 and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept the ,girondist ministry of the #aeth of ,march #agib4 ,he was an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing ,louis ,,xvi4 into harmony with the ,revolution2 moved 7,may #c7 for the dismissal of the king's non-juring confessor1 for the banishment of all non-juring priests 7,may #af71 for the disbandment of the royal guard 7,may #cj71 and the formation in ,paris of a camp of federes 7,june #d74 ,he remained a royalist1 however1 and with ,gensonne and ,vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a private interview4 ,whatever negotiations may have resulted1 however1 were cut short by the insurrection of the #ajth of ,august4 ,guadet1 who presided over the ,assembly during part of this fateful day1 put himself into vigorous opposition to the insurrectionary ,commune of ,paris1 and it was on his motion that on the #cjth of ,august the ,assembly voted its dissolution--a decision reversed on the following day4 ,in ,september ,guadet was returned by a large majority as deputy to the ,convention4 ,at the trial of ,louis ,,xvi4 he voted for an appeal to the people and for the death sentence1 but with a respite pending appeal4 ,in ,march #agic he had several conferences with ,danton1 who was anxious to bring about a rapprochement between the ,girondists and the ,mountain during the war in ,la ,vendee1 but he unconditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held responsible for the massacres of ,september4 ,involved in the fall of the ,girondists1 and his arrest being decreed on the #bnd of ,june #agic1 he fled to ,caen1 and afterwards hid in his father's house at ,st ,emilion4 ,he was discovered and taken to ,bordeaux1 where1 after his identity had been established1 he was guillotined on the #agth of ,june #agid4 ,see ,j4 ,guadet1 ,les ,girondins 7,paris1 #ahhi72 and ,f4 ,a4 ,aulard1 ,les ,orateurs de la legislative et de la convention 7,paris1 #bnd ed41 #aijf74 ,,guadiana 7anc4 ,anas1 ,moorish ,wadi ,ana71 a river of ,spain and ,portugal4 ,the ,guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as the ,campo de ,montiel1 where a chain of small lakes1 the ,lagunas de ,ruidera 7partly in ,ciudad ,real1 partly in ,albacete71 are linked together by the ,guadiana ,alto or ,upper ,guadiana4 ,this stream flows north-westward from the last lake and vanishes underground within #c m4 of the river ,zancara or ,giguela4 ,about #bb m4 ,s4,w4 of the point of disappearance1 the ,guadiana ,alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large springs1 which form numerous lakes near the ,zancara and are known as the eyes of the ,guadiana 7los ojos de ,guadiana74 ,the stream which connects them with the ,zancara is called the ,guadiana ,bajo or ,lower ,guadiana4 ,it is now known that the ,guadiana ,alto has no such course1 but flows underground to the ,zancara itself1 which is the true ,upper ,guadiana4 ,the ,zancara rises near the source of the ,jucar1 in the east of the tableland of ,la ,mancha2 thence it flows westward1 assuming the name of ,guadiana near ,ciudad ,real1 and reaching the ,portuguese frontier #f m4 ,s4,w4 of ,badajoz4 ,in piercing the ,sierra ,morena it forms a series of foaming rapids1 and only begins to be navigable at ,mertola1 #db m4 from its mouth4 ,from the neighbourhood of ,badajoz it forms the boundary between ,spain and ,portugal as far as a point near ,monsaraz1 where it receives the small river ,priega ,munoz on the left1 and passes into ,portuguese territory1 with a southerly direction4 ,at ,pomarao it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a broad estuary #be m4 long4 ,it enters the ,gulf of ,cadiz between the ,portuguese town of ,villa ,real de ,santo ,antonio and the ,spanish ,ayamonte1 after a total course of #eaj m4 ,its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many channels4 ,the ,guadiana drains an area of #ca1idj sq4 m4 ,its principal tributaries are the ,zujar1 ,jabalon1 ,matachel and ,ardila from the left2 the ,bullaque1 ,ruecas1 ,botoa1 ,degebe and ,cobres from the right4 ,the ,,guadiana ,,menor 7or ,guadianamenor1 i4e4 ,lesser ,guadiana7 rises in the ,sierra ,nevada1 receives two large tributaries1 the ,fardes from the right and ,barbata from the left1 and enters the ,guadalquivir near ,ubeda1 after a course of #ie m4 ,,guadix1 a city of southern ,spain1 in the province of ,granada2 on the left bank of the river ,guadix1 a subtributary of the ,guadiana ,menor1 and on the ,madrid-,valdepenas-,almeria railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ab1feb4 ,guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,it is surrounded by ancient walls1 and was formerly dominated by a ,moorish castle1 now in ruins4 ,it is an episcopal see of great antiquity1 but its cathedral1 built in the #ahth century on the site of a mosque1 possesses little architectural merit4 ,the city was once famous for its cutlery2 but its modern manufactures 7chiefly earthenware1 hempen goods1 and hats7 are inconsiderable4 ,it has some trade in wool1 cotton1 flax1 corn and liqueurs4 ,the warm mineral springs of ,graena1 much frequented during the summer1 are #f m4 ,w4 ,guadix el ,viejo1 #e m4 ,n4,w41 was the ,roman ,acci1 and1 according to tradition1 the seat of the first ,iberian bishopric1 in the #bnd century4 ,after #gaa it rose to some importance as a ,moorish fortress and trading station1 and was renamed ,wad ,ash1 ,water of ,life4 ,it was surrendered without a siege to the ,spaniards1 under ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 in #adhi4 ,,guaduas1 a town of the department of ,cundinamarca1 ,colombia1 #ec m4 ,n4,w4 of ,bogota on the old road between that city and the ,magdalena river port of ,honda4 ,pop4 7#aijj1 estimate7 #ijjj1 chiefly ,indians or of mixed blood4 ,it stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the ,eastern ,cordillera1 and on a small stream bearing the same name1 which is that of the ,south ,american bamboo 7guaduas71 found in great abundance along its banks4 ,sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the vicinity1 and fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance4 ,the elevation of the town is #ccec ft4 above the sea1 and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout the whole year4 ,guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its plaza1 and an old monastery now used for secular purposes4 ,the importance of the town sprang from its position on the old camino real between ,bogota and ,honda1 an importance that has passed away with the completion of the railway from ,girardot to the ,bogota plateau4 ,guaduas was founded in #afad4 ,,guaiacum1 a genus of trees of the natural order ,zygophyllaceae4 ,the guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree 7,ger4 ,guajakbaum1 ,franzosenbaum1 ,pockenholzbaum2 ,fr4 ,gayac1 ,gaiac71 ,g4 officinale1 is a native of the ,west ,indies and the north coast of ,south ,america1 where it attains a height of #bj to #cj ft4 ,its branches are numerous1 flexuous and knotted2 the leaves opposite and pinnate1 with caducous 7falling early7 stipules1 and entire1 glabrous1 obovate or oval leaflets1 arranged in #b or1 more rarely1 #c pairs2 the flowers are in axillary clusters 7cymes71 and have #e oval pubescent sepals1 #e distinct pale-blue petals three times the length of the sepals1 #aj stamens1 and a #b-;celled superior ovary4 ,the fruit is about #c_/d in4 long1 with a leathery pericarp1 and contains in each of its two cells a single seed 7see fig474 ,g4 sanctum grows in the ,bahamas and ,cuba1 and at ,key ,west in ,florida4 ,it is distinguished from ,g4 officinale by its smaller and narrow leaflets1 which are in #d to #e pairs1 by its shorter and glabrous sepals1 and #e-;celled and #e-winged fruit4 ,g4 arboreum1 the guaiacum tree of ,colombia1 is found in the valley of the ,magdalena up to altitudes #hjj metres 7#bfbe ft47 above sea-level1 and reaches considerable dimensions4 ,its wood is of a yellow colour merging into green1 and has an almost pulverulent fracture2 the flowers are yellow and conspicuous2 and the fruit is dry and #d-winged4 ,the lignum vitae of commerce1 so named on account of its high repute as a medicinal agent in past times1 when also it was known as lignum sanctum and lignum ,indicum1 lignum guaycanum1 or simply guayacan1 is procured from ,g4 officinale1 and in smaller amount from ,g4 sanctum4 ,it is exported in large logs or blocks1 generally divested of bark1 and presents in transverse section very slightly marked concentric rings of growth1 and scarcely any traces of pith2 with the aid of a magnifying glass the medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous4 ,the outer wood1 the sapwood or alburnum1 is of a pale yellow hue1 and devoid of resin2 the inner1 the heartwood or duramen1 which is by far the larger proportion1 is of a dark greenish-brown1 contains in its pores #bf of resin1 and has a specific gravity of #a4ccc1 and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats4 ,owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of its fibres1 the wood cannot be split2 and on account of its hardness1 density and durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships' pulleys1 rulers1 skittle-balls1 mallets and other articles4 ,illustration3 ,from ,bentley ,trimen's ,medicinal ,plants1 by permission of ,j4 ,a4 ,churchill4 ,guaiacum or ,lignum ,vitae1 ,guaiacum officinale shoot-bearing leaves and flowers4 #a1 ,fruit2 #b1 ,vertical section of fruit1 showing the solitary pendulous seed in each chamber4 ,all about #a_/b natural size4 ,chips or turnings of the heartwood of ,g4 officinale 7guaiaci lignum7 are employed in the preparation of the liquor sarsae compositus concentratus of ,british pharmacy4 ,they may be recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour1 and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid1 or when heated with corrosive sublimate1 and green with solution of chloride of lime4 ,they are occasionally adulterated with boxwood shavings4 ,lignum vitae is imported chiefly from ,st ,domingo1 the ,bahamas and ,jamaica4 ,the bark was formerly used in medicine2 it contains much calcium oxalate1 and yields on incineration #bc of ash4 ,guaiacum resin1 the guaiaci resina of pharmacopoeias1 is obtained from the wood as an exudation from natural fissures or from incisions2 by heating billets about #c ft4 in length1 bored to permit of the outflow of the resin2 or by boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to raise the temperature of ebullition4 ,it occurs in rounded or oval tears1 commonly coated with a greyish-green dust1 and supposed to be the produce of ,g4 sanctum1 or in large brownish or greenish-brown masses1 translucent at the edges2 fuses at #he deg4 ,c42 is brittle1 and has a vitreous fracture1 and a slightly balsamic odour1 increased by pulverization and by heat2 and is at first tasteless when chewed1 but produces subsequently a sense of heat in the throat4 ,it is readily soluble in alcohol1 ether1 chloroform1 creosote1 oil of cloves and solutions of caustic alkalies2 and its solution gives a blue colour with gluten1 raw potato parings and the roots of horse-radish1 carrot and various other plants4 ,the alcoholic tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite1 and with nitric acid turns in succession green1 blue and brown4 ,with glycerin it gives a clear solution1 and with nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous mass4 ,it is blued by various oxidizing agents1 e4g4 ozone1 and1 as ,schonbein discovered1 by the juice of certain fungi4 ,the chief constituents are three distinct resins1 guaiaconic acid1 ,c#ai;,h#bj,o#e 7#gj71 guaiac acid1 which is closely allied to benzoic acid1 and guaiaretic acid4 ,like all resins1 these are insoluble in water1 soluble in alkalies1 but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution4 ,guaiacum wood was first introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards in #aejh1 and ,nicolaus ,poll1 writing in #aeag 7see ,luisinus1 ,de morbo gallico1 p4 #baj1 ,ven41 #aeff71 states that some three thousand persons in ,spain had already been restored to health by it4 ,the virtues of the resin1 however1 were not known until a later period1 and in ,thomas ,paynel's translation 7,of the ,wood called ,guaiacum1 c41 p4 #i1 ed4 of #aedj7 of ,ulrich von ,hutten's treatise ,de morbi gallici curatione per administrationem ligni guaiaci 7#aeai7 we read of the wood3 ,there followeth fro it1 whan it bourneth a gomme1 which we yet knowe not1 for what pourpose it serueth4 ,fluckiger and ,hanbury 7,pharmacographia1 p4 #ie7 state that the first edition of the ,london ,pharmacopoeia in which they find the resin mentioned is that of #afgg4 ,the decoction of the wood was administered in gout1 the stone1 palsy1 leprosy1 dropsy1 epilepsy1 and other diseases1 but principally in the morbus gallicus1 or syphilis1 for which it was reckoned a certain specific1 insomuch that at first the physitions wolde not allowe it1 perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby 7,paynel1 op4 cit4 p4 #h74 ,minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of administering guaiacum4 ,the patient was confined in a closed and heated chamber1 was placed on the lowest possible diet1 and1 after liberal purgation1 was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction of the wood4 ,the use of salt was specially to be avoided4 ,a decoction of #a lb4 of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days of the treatment4 ,the earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum came to be much modified in the course of time1 and ,dr ,pearson 7,observations on the ,effects of ,various ,articles of the ,mat4 ,med4 in the ,cure of ,lues ,venerea1 c4 i41 #bnd ed41 #ahjg7 says3--,i never saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated the venereal virus4 ,he found its beneficial effects to be most marked in cases of secondary symptoms4 ,guaiacum resin is given medicinally in doses of #e-ae grains4 ,its important preparations in the ,british ,pharmacopoeia are the mistura guiaci 7dose #a_/b-a oz471 the ammoniated tincture of guaiacum 7dose #a_/b-a drachm71 in which the resin is dissolved by means of ammonia1 and the trochiscus or lozenge1 containing #c grains of the resin4 ,this lozenge is undoubtedly of value when given early in cases of sore throat1 especially of rheumatic origin4 ,powdered guaiacum is also used4 ,guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being less irritant1 so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote stimulant actions1 notably upon the skin and kidneys4 ,it affects the bronchi but slightly1 since it contains no volatile oil4 ,the drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat1 the mixture1 according to ,sir ,lauder ,brunton1 being more effective than the tincture4 ,the aperient action1 which it exerts less markedly than other members of its class1 renders it useful in the treatment of chronic constipation4 ,sir ,alfred ,garrod has urged the claims of this drug in the treatment of chronic gout4 ,both in this disease and in other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination with iodides1 which it often enables the patient to tolerate4 ,guaiacum is not now used in the treatment of syphilis4 ,the tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the presence of blood1 or rather of haemoglobin1 the red colouring matter of the blood1 in urine or other secretions4 ,this test was first suggested by ,dr ,john ,day of ,geelong1 ,australia4 ,a single drop of the tincture should be added to1 say1 an inch of urine in a test-tube4 ,the resin is at once precipitated1 yielding a milky fluid4 ,if ozonic ether--an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide--be now poured gently into the test-tube1 a deep blue coloration is produced along the line of contact if haemoglobin be present4 ,the reaction is due to the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen--such oxidation occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier4 ,,gualdo ,,tadino 7anc4 ,tadinum1 #a m4 to the ,w471 a town and episcopal see of ,umbria1 ,italy1 #agee ft4 above sea-level1 in the province of ,perugia1 #bb m4 ,n4 of ,foligno by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija71 town1 #dddj2 commune1 #aj1gef4 ,the suffix ,tadino distinguishes it from ,gualdo in the province of ,macerata1 and ,gualdo ,cattaneo1 ,s4,w4 of ,foligno4 ,the cathedral has a good rose-window and possesses1 like several of the other churches1 #aeth-century paintings by ,umbrian artists1 especially works by ,niccolo ,alunno4 ,the town is still surrounded by walls4 ,the ancient ,tadinum lay #a m4 to the ,w4 of the modern town4 ,it is mentioned in the ,eugubine tablets 7see ,,iguvium7 as a hostile city against which imprecations are directed4 ,in its neighbourhood ,narses defeated and slew ,totila in #eeb4 ,no ruins are now visible1 though they seem to have been extant in the #agth century4 ,the new town seems to have been founded in #abcg4 ,it was at first independent1 but passed under ,perugia in #abib1 and later became dependent on the duchy of ,spoleto4 ,,gualeguay1 a flourishing town and river port of the province of ,entre ,rios1 ,argentine ,republic1 on the ,gualeguay river1 #cb m4 above its confluence with the ,ibicuy branch of the ,parana1 and about #abj m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,buenos ,aires4 ,pop4 7#ahie7 #ghaj4 ,the ,gualeguay is the largest of the ,entre ,rios rivers1 traversing almost the whole length of the province from ,n4 to ,s41 but it is of but slight service in the transportation of produce except the few miles below ,gualeguay1 whose port1 known as ,puerto ,ruiz1 is #g m4 lower down stream4 ,a steam tramway connects the town and port1 and a branch line connects with ,entre ,rios railways at the station of ,tala4 ,the principal industry in this region is that of stock-raising1 and there is a large exportation of cattle1 jerked beef1 hides1 tallow1 mutton1 wool and sheep-skins4 ,wood and charcoal are also exported to ,buenos ,aires4 ,the town was founded in #aghc4 ,,gualeguaychu1 a prosperous commercial and industrial town and port of the province of ,entre ,rios1 ,argentine ,republic1 on the left bank of the ,gualeguaychu river1 #aa m4 above its confluence with the ,uruguay1 and #abj m4 ,n4 of ,buenos ,aires4 ,pop4 7#ahib1 est47 #ad1jjj4 ,it is the chief town of a department of the same name1 the largest in the province4 ,a bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and compels the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters4 ,the town is surrounded by a rich grazing country1 and exports cattle1 jerked beef1 mutton1 hides1 pelts1 tallow1 wool and various by-products4 ,a branch line running ,n4 connects with the ,entre ,rios railways at ,basavilbaso4 ,the town was founded in #aghc4 ,,gualo1 ,,cardinal 7fl4 #abaf71 was sent to ,england by ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 in #abaf4 ,he supported ,john with all the weight of papal authority4 ,after ,john's death he crowned the infant ,henry ,,iii4 and played an active part in organizing resistance to the rebels led by ,louis of ,france1 afterwards king ,louis ,,viii4 ,as representing the pope1 the suzerain of ,henry1 he claimed the regency and actually divided the chief power with ,william ,marshal1 earl of ,pembroke4 ,he proclaimed a crusade against ,louis and the ,french1 and1 after the peace of ,lambeth1 he forced ,louis to make a public and humiliating profession of penitence 7#abag74 ,he punished the rebellious clergy severely1 and ruled the church with an absolute hand till his departure from ,england in #abah4 ,gualo's character has been severely criticized by ,english writers2 but his chief offence seems to have been that of representing unpopular papal claims4 ,,guam 7,span4 ,guajan2 ,guahan1 in the native ,chamorro71 the largest and most populous of the ,ladrone or ,mariana ,islands1 in the ,north ,pacific1 in #ac deg4 #bf' ,n4 lat4 and #add deg4 #ci' ,e4 long41 about #ahbc m4 ,e4 by ,s4 of ,hong ,kong1 and about #adej m4 ,e4 of ,manila4 ,pop4 7#aijh7 about #aa1cfj1 of whom #cfc were foreigners1 #adj being members of the ,u4,s4 naval force4 ,guam extends about #cj m4 from ,n4,n4,e4 to ,s4,s4,w41 has an average width of about #f-a_/b m41 and has an area of #bjg sq4 m4 ,the ,n4 portion is a plateau from #cjj to #fjj ft4 above the sea1 lowest in the interior and highest along the ,e4 and ,w4 coast1 where it terminates abruptly in bluffs and headlands2 ,mt ,santa ,rosa1 toward the ,n4 extremity1 has an elevation of #hdj ft4 ,a range of hills from #gjj to nearly #acjj ft4 in height traverses the ,s4 portion from ,n4 to ,s4 a little ,w4 of the middle--,mt ,jumullong ,mangloc1 the highest peak1 has an elevation of #abgd ft4 ,between the foot of the steep ,w4 slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling lowlands and to the ,e4 the surface is broken by the valleys of five rivers with a number of tributaries1 has a general slope toward the sea1 and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs4 ,apra 7formerly ,san ,luis d',apra7 on the middle ,w4 coast is the only good harbour2 it is about #c-a_/b m4 across1 has a depth of #d-bg fathoms1 and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula and an island4 ,it serves as a naval station and as a port of transit between ,america and the ,philippines1 at which army transports call monthly4 ,deer1 wild hog1 duck1 curlew1 snipe and pigeon are abundant game1 and several varieties of fish are caught4 ,some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegetation1 and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with sword grass1 but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the plateaus there is valuable timber4 ,the lowlands have a rich soil2 in lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone with a light covering of soil appears1 and in the higher parts the soil is entirely of clay and silt4 ,the climate is agreeable and healthy4 ,from ,december to ,june the ,n4,e4 trade winds prevail and the rainfall is relatively light2 during the other six months the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season4 ,destructive typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit ,guam4 ,the island is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth1 with the possible exception of coal4 ,only a small part of ,guam is under cultivation1 and most of this lies along the ,s4,w4 coast1 its chief products being cocoanuts1 rice1 sugar1 coffee and cacao4 ,a ,united ,states ,agricultural ,experiment ,station in ,guam 7at ,agana7 was provided for in #aijh4 ,the inhabitants are of the ,chamorro 7,indonesian7 stock1 strongly intermixed with ,philippine ,tagals and ,spaniards2 their speech is a dialect of ,malay1 corrupted by ,tagal and ,spanish4 ,there are very few full-blood ,chamorros4 ,the aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or chocolate colour4 ,a majority of the total number of natives live in ,agana4 ,the natives are nearly all farmers1 and most of them are poor1 but their condition has been improved under ,american rule4 ,public schools have been established2 in #aijh the enrolment was #agjj4 ,on the island there is a small colony of lepers1 segregated only after ,american occupation4 ,gangrosa is a disease said to be peculiar to ,guam and the neighbouring islands2 it is due to a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum4 ,the victims of this disease also are segregated4 ,there is a good general hospital4 ,agana 7or ,san ,ignacio de ,agana7 is the capital and principal town2 under the ,spanish regime it was the capital of the ,ladrones4 ,it is about #e m4 ,n4,e4 of ,piti1 the landing-place of ,apra harbour and port of entry1 with which it is connected by an excellent road4 ,agana has paved streets and sewer and water systems4 ,other villages1 all small1 are ,asan1 ,piti1 ,sumay1 ,umata1 ,merizo and ,inarajan4 ,guam is governed by a naval governor1 an officer of the ,u4,s4 navy who is commandant of the naval station4 ,the island is divided into four administrative districts1 each with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo 7commissioner71 and there are a court of appeals1 a court of first instance and courts of justices of the peace4 ,peonage was abolished in the island by the ,united ,states in ,february #aijj4 ,telegraphic communication with the ,caroline ,islands was established in #aije2 in #aijh there were four cables ending at the relay station at ,sumay on the ,shore of ,apra harbour4 ,guam was discovered by ,magellan in #aeba1 was occupied by ,spain in #afhh1 was captured by the ,united ,states cruiser ,charleston in ,june #ahii1 and was ceded to the ,united ,states by the ,treaty of ,paris on the #ajth of ,december #ahih4 ,see ,a ,list of ,books 7with ,references to ,periodicals7 on ,samoa and ,guam 7#aija2 issued by the ,library of ,congress72 ,l4 ,m4 ,cox1 ,the ,island of ,guam1 in ,bulletin of the ,american ,geographical ,society1 vol4 #cf 7,new ,york1 #aijd72 ,gen4 ,joseph ,wheeler1 ,report on the ,island of ,guam1 ,june #aijj 7,war ,department1 ,document ,no4 #abc72 ,f4 ,w4 ,christian1 ,the ,caroline ,islands 7,london1 #ahii72 an account of the flora of ,guam by ,w4 ,e4 ,safford in the publications of the ,national ,herbarium 7,smithsonian ,institution72 and the reports of the naval governor4 ,,guan1 a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist's vocabulary about #agdc by ,edwards1#a who said that a bird he figured 7,nat4 ,hist4 ,uncommon ,birds1 pl4 xiii47 was so called in the ,west ,indies1 and the name has hence been generally applied to all the members of the subfamily ,penelopinae1 which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily ,cracinae or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis as pointed out by ,huxley 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahfh1 p4 #big7 as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high1 with its culmen depressed1 the crown feathered1 and the nostrils bare--the last two characters separating the ,penelopinae from the ,oreophasinae1 which form the third subfamily of the ,cracidae1#b a family belonging to that taxonomer's division ,peristeropodes of the order ,gallinae4 ,the ,penelopinae have been separated into seven genera1 of which ,penelope and ,ortalis1 containing respectively about sixteen and nineteen species1 are the largest1 the others numbering from one to three only4 ,into their minute differences it would be useless to enter3 nearly all have the throat bare of feathers1 and from that of many of them hangs a wattle2 but one form1 ,chamaepetes1 has neither of these features1 and ,stegnolaema1 though wattled1 has the throat clothed4 ,with few exceptions the guans are confined to the ,south-,american continent2 one species of ,penelope is however found in ,mexico 7e4g4 at ,mazatlan71 ,pipile cumanensis inhabits ,trinidad as well as the mainland1 while three species of ,ortalis occur in ,mexico or ,texas1 and one1 which is also common to ,venezuela1 in ,tobago4 ,like curassows1 guans are in great measure of arboreal habit4 ,they also readily become tame1 but all attempts to domesticate them in the full sense of the word have wholly failed1 and the cases in which they have even been induced to breed and the young have been reared in confinement are very few4 ,yet it would seem that guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry 7,ibis1 #ahff1 p4 #bd2 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimatation1 #ahfh1 p4 #eei2 #ahfi1 p4 #ceg71 and what is more extraordinary is that in ,texas the hybrids between the chiacalacca 7,ortalis vetula7 and the domestic fowl are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for fighting purposes4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,edwards also gives quan as an alternative spelling1 and this may be nearer the original form1 since we find ,dampier in #afgf writing 7,voy4 ii4 pt4 #b1 p4 #ff7 of what was doubtless an allied if not the same bird as the quam4 ,the species represented by ,edwards does not seem to have been identified4 #b ,see the excellent ,synopsis by ,sclater and ,salvin in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society for #ahgj 7pp4 #ejd-edd71 while further information on the ,cracinae was given by ,sclater in the ,transactions of the same society 7ix4 pp4 #bgc-bhh1 pls4 xl4-liii474 ,some additions have since been made to the knowledge of the family1 but none of very great importance4 ,,guanabacoa 7an ,indian name meaning site of the waters71 a town of ,cuba1 in ,havana province1 about #f m4 ,e4 of ,havana4 ,pop4 7#aijg7 #ad1cfh4 ,guanabacoa is served by railway to ,havana1 with which it is connected by the ,regla ferry across the bay4 ,it is picturesquely situated amid woods1 on high hills which furnish a fine view4 ,there are medicinal springs in the town1 and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills4 ,the town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital1 and has some rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting churches 7including ,nuestra ,senora de la ,asuncion1 #agad-agba74 ,just outside the city is the church of ,potosi with a famous wonder-working shrine and image4 ,an ,indian pueblo of the same name existed here before #aeee1 and a church was established in #aegf4 ,already at the end of the #agth century ,guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of ,havana4 ,it enjoyed its greatest popularity in this respect from the end of the #ahth to the middle of the #aith century4 ,it was created a villa with an ayuntamiento 7city council7 in #agdc4 ,in #agfb its fort1 the ,little ,morro1 on the ,n4 shore near ,cojimar 7a bathing beach1 where the ,key ,west cable now lands71 was taken by the ,english4 ,,guanaco1 sometimes spelt ,huanaca1 the larger of the two wild representatives in ,south ,america of the camel tribe2 the other being the vicugna4 ,the guanaco 7,lama huanacus71 which stands nearly #d ft4 at the shoulder1 is an elegant creature1 with gracefully curved neck and long slender legs1 the hind-pair of the latter bearing two naked patches or callosities4 ,the head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and almost pure white beneath4 ,guanaco are found throughout the southern half of ,south ,america1 from ,peru in the north to ,cape ,horn in the south1 but occur in greatest abundance in ,patagonia4 ,they live in herds usually of from six to thirty1 although these occasionally contain several hundreds1 while solitary individuals are sometimes met4 ,they are exceedingly timid1 and therefore wary and difficult of approach2 like many other ruminants1 however1 their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity1 so as to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle4 ,their cry is peculiar1 being something between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a horse4 ,the chief enemies of the guanaco are the ,patagonian ,indians and the puma1 as it forms the principal food of both4 ,its flesh is palatable although wanting in fat1 while its skin forms the chief clothing material of the ,patagonians4 ,guanaco are readily domesticated1 and in this state become very bold and will attack man1 striking him from behind with both knees4 ,in the wild state they never defend themselves1 and if approached from different points1 according to the ,indian fashion of hunting1 get completely bewildered and fall an easy prey4 ,they take readily to the water1 and have been observed swimming from one island to another1 while they have been seen drinking salt-water4 ,they have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive days on the same spot--a habit appreciated by the ,peruvian ,indians1 who use those deposits for fuel4 ,guanaco also have favourite localities in which to die1 as appears from the great heaps of their bones found in particular spots4 ,illustration3 ,head of ,guanaco4 ,,guanajay1 a town of western ,cuba1 in ,pinar del ,rio province1 about #cf m4 7by rail7 ,s4,w4 of ,havana4 ,pop4 7#aijg7 #fdjj4 ,guanajay is served by the ,w4 branch of the ,united railways of ,havana1 of which it is the ,w4 terminus4 ,the town lies among hills1 has an excellent climate1 and in colonial times was 7like ,holguin7 an acclimatization station for troops fresh from ,spain2 it now has considerable repute as a health resort4 ,the surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region4 ,guanajay has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the western end of the island4 ,it was an ancient pueblo1 of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the #ahth century4 ,,guanajuato1 or ,,guanaxuato1 an inland state of ,mexico1 bounded ,n4 by ,zacatecas and ,san ,luis ,potosi1 ,e4 by ,queretaro1 ,s4 by ,michoacan and ,w4 by ,jalisco4 ,area1 #aa1cgj sq4 m4 ,it is one of the most densely populated states of the republic2 pop4 7#ahie7 #a1jdg1hag2 7#aijj7 #a1jfa1gbd4 ,the state lies wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of ,mexico1 and has an average elevation of about #fjjj ft4 ,the surface of its northern half is broken by the ,sierra ,gorda and ,sierra de ,guanajuato1 but its southern half is covered by fertile plains largely devoted to agriculture4 ,it is drained by the ,rio ,grande de ,lerma and its tributaries1 which in places flow through deeply eroded valleys4 ,the climate is semi-tropical and healthy1 and the rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture and stock-raising4 ,in the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown1 and at higher elevations ,indian corn1 beans1 barley and wheat4 ,the southern plains are largely devoted to stock-raising4 ,guanajuato has suffered much from the destruction of its forests1 but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of the north4 ,the principal industry of the state is mining1 the mineral wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being enormous4 ,among its mineral products are silver1 gold1 tin1 lead1 mercury1 copper and opals4 ,silver has been extracted since the early days of the ,spanish conquest1 over #hjj1jjj1jjj having been taken from the mines during the subsequent three and a half centuries4 ,some of the more productive of these mines1 or groups of mines1 are the ,veta ,madre 7mother lode71 the ,san ,bernabe lode1 and the ,rayas mines of ,guanajuato1 and the ,la ,valenciana mine1 the output of which is said to have been #bbf1jjj1jjj between #agff and #ahbf4 ,the manufacturing establishments include flour mills1 tanneries and manufactories of leather1 cotton and woollen mills1 distilleries1 foundries and potteries4 ,the ,mexican ,central and the ,mexican ,national railway lines cross the state from ,n4 to ,s41 and the former operates a short branch from ,silao to the state capital and another westward from ,irapuato to ,guadalajara4 ,the capital is ,guanajuato1 and other important cities and towns are ,leon1 or ,leon de las ,aldamas2 ,celaya 7pop4 #be1efe in #aijj71 an important railway junction #bb m4 by rail ,w4 from ,queretaro1 and known for its manufactures of broadcloth1 saddlery1 soap and sweetmeats2 ,irapuato 7#ah1eic in #aijj71 a railway junction and commercial centre1 #ba m4 ,s4 by ,w4 of ,guanajuato2 ,silao 7#ae1cee71 a railway junction and manufacturing town 7woollens and cottons71 #ad m4 ,s4,w4 of ,guanajuato2 ,salamanca 7#ac1ehc74 on the ,mexican ,central railway and ,lerma river1 #be m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,guanajuato1 with manufactures of cottons and porcelain2 ,allende 7#aj1edg71 a commercial town #cj m4 ,e4 by ,s4 of ,guanajuato1 with mineral springs2 ,valle de ,santiago 7#ab1ffj74 #ej m4 ,w4 by ,s4 of ,queretaro2 ,salvatierra 7#aj1cic71 #fj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,guanajuato2 ,cortazar 7#hfcc72 ,la ,luz 7#hcah71 in a rich mining district2 ,penjamo 7#hbfb72 ,santa ,cruz 7#gbci72 ,san ,francisco del ,rincon 7#aj1ijd71 #ci m4 ,w4 of ,guanajuato in a rich mining district2 and ,acambaro 7#hcde71 a prosperous town of the plain1 #gf m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,guanajuato4 ,,guanajuato1 or ,,santa ,,fe ,,de ,,guanajuato1 a city of ,mexico and capital of the above state1 #aee m4 7direct7 ,n4,w4 of the ,federal capital1 on a small tributary of the ,rio ,grande de ,lerma or ,santiago4 ,pop4 7#ahie7 #ci1djd2 7#aijj7 #da1dhf4 ,the city is built in the ,canada de ,marfil at the junction of three ravines about #fejj ft4 above the sea1 and its narrow1 tortuous streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides4 ,guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages2 but in addition there is the central city with its crowded winding streets1 its substantial old ,spanish buildings1 its fifty ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial life4 ,enclosing the city are the steep1 barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines4 ,the climate is semi-tropical and is considered healthy4 ,the noteworthy public buildings and institutions are an interesting old ,jesuit church with arches of pink stone and delicate carving1 eight monasteries1 the government palace1 a mint dating from #ahab1 a national college1 the fine ,teatro ,juarez1 and the ,pantheon1 or public cemetery1 with catacombs below4 ,the ,alhondiga de ,granaditas1 originally a public granary1 was used as a fort during the ,war of ,independence1 and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle 7#ahaj7 in that long struggle4 ,among the manufactures are cottons1 prints1 soaps1 chemicals1 pottery and silverware1 but mining is the principal interest and occupation of the population4 ,the silver mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in ,mexico1 the celebrated ,veta ,madre 7mother lode7 even being described as the richest in the world2 and ,guanajuato has the largest reduction works in ,mexico4 ,the railway outlet for the city consists of a short branch of the ,mexican ,central1 which joins the trunk line at ,silao4 ,guanajuato was founded in #aeed4 ,it attained the dignity of a city in #agda4 ,it was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 and was repeatedly sacked during that war4 ,,guanches1 ,,guanchis or ,,guanchos 7native ,guanchinet2 ,guanperson1 ,chinet ,teneriffe1--man of ,teneriffe1 corrupted1 according to ,nunez de la ,pena1 by ,spaniards into ,guanchos71 the aboriginal inhabitants of the ,canary ,islands4 ,strictly the ,guanches were the primitive inhabitants of ,teneriffe1 where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of the ,spanish conquest1 but the name came to be applied to the indigenous populations of all the islands4 ,the ,guanches1 now extinct as a distinct people1 appear1 from the study of skulls and bones discovered1 to have resembled the ,cro-,magnon race of the ,quaternary age1 and no real doubt is now entertained that they were an offshoot of the great race of ,berbers which from the dawn of history has occupied northern ,africa from ,egypt to the ,atlantic4 ,pliny the ,elder1 deriving his knowledge from the accounts of ,juba1 king of ,mauretania1 states that when visited by the ,carthaginians under ,hanno the archipelago was found by them to be uninhabited1 but that they saw ruins of great buildings4 ,this would suggest that the ,guanches were not the first inhabitants1 and from the absence of any trace of ,mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago by the ,spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly migration of ,berbers took place between the time of which ,pliny wrote and the conquest of northern ,africa by the ,arabs4 ,many of the ,guanches fell in resisting the ,spaniards1 many were sold as slaves1 and many conformed to the ,roman ,catholic faith and married ,spaniards4 ,such remains as there are of their language1 a few expressions and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families1 connect it with the ,berber dialects4 ,in many of the islands signs are engraved on rocks4 ,domingo ,vandewalle1 a military governor of ,las ,palmas1 was the first1 in #ageb1 to investigate these2 and it is due to the perseverance of ,d4 ,aquilino ,padran1 a priest of ,las ,palmas1 that anything about the inscription on the island ,hierro has been brought to light4 ,in #ahgh ,dr ,r4 ,verneau discovered in the ravines of ,las ,balos some genuine ,libyan inscriptions4 ,without exception the rock inscriptions have proved to be ,numidic4 ,in two of the islands 7,teneriffe and ,gomera7 the ,guanche type has been retained with more purity than in the others4 ,no inscriptions have been found in these two islands1 and therefore it would seem that the true ,guanches did not know how to write4 ,in the other islands numerous ,semitic traces are found1 and in all of them are the rock-signs4 ,from these facts it would seem that the ,numidians1 travelling from the neighbourhood of ,carthage and intermixing with the dominant ,semitic race1 landed in the ,canary ,islands1 and that it is they who have written the inscriptions at ,hierro and ,grand ,canary4 ,the political and social institutions of the ,guanches varied4 ,in some islands hereditary autocracy prevailed2 in others the government was elective4 ,in ,teneriffe all the land belonged to the chiefs who leased it to their subjects4 ,in ,grand ,canary suicide was regarded as honourable1 and on a chief inheriting1 one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throwing himself over a precipice4 ,in some islands polyandry was practised2 in others the natives were monogamous4 ,but everywhere the women appear to have been respected1 an insult offered any woman by an armed man being a capital offence4 ,almost all the ,guanches used to wear garments of goat-skins1 and others of vegetable fibres1 which have been found in the tombs of ,grand ,canary4 ,they had a taste for ornaments1 necklaces of wood1 bone and shells1 worked in different designs4 ,beads of baked earth1 cylindrical and of all shapes1 with smooth or polished surfaces1 mostly black and red in colour1 were chiefly in use4 ,they painted their bodies2 the pintaderas1 baked clay objects like seals in shape1 have been explained by ,dr ,verneau as having been used solely for painting the body in various colours4 ,they manufactured rough pottery1 mostly without decorations1 or ornamented by means of the finger-nail4 ,the ,guanches' weapons were those of the ancient races of south ,europe4 ,the polished battle-axe was more used in ,grand ,canary1 while stone and obsidian1 roughly cut1 were commoner in ,teneriffe4 ,they had1 besides1 the lance1 the club1 sometimes studded with pebbles1 and the javelin1 and they seem to have known the shield4 ,they lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains4 ,in districts where cave-dwellings were impossible1 they built small round houses and1 according to the ,spaniards1 they even practised rude fortification4 ,in ,palma the old people were at their own wish left to die alone4 ,after bidding their family farewell they were carried to the sepulchral cave1 nothing but a bowl of milk being left them4 ,the ,guanches embalmed their dead2 many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation1 each weighing not more than #f or #g lb4 ,two almost inaccessible caves in a vertical rock by the shore #c m4 from ,santa ,cruz 7,teneriffe7 are said still to contain bones4 ,the process of embalming seems to have varied4 ,in ,teneriffe and ,grand ,canary the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins1 while in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the body1 which was then placed in a cave difficult of access1 or buried under a tumulus4 ,the work of embalming was reserved for a special class1 women for female corpses1 men for male4 ,embalming seems not to have been universal1 and bodies were often simply hidden in caves or buried4 ,little is known of the religion of the ,guanches4 ,they appear to have been a distinctly religious race4 ,there was a general belief in a supreme being1 called ,acoran1 in ,grand ,canary1 ,achihuran in ,teneriffe1 ,eraoranhan in ,hierro1 and ,abora in ,palma4 ,the women of ,hierro worshipped a goddess called ,moneiba4 ,according to tradition the male and female gods lived in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the people4 ,in other islands the natives venerated the sun1 moon1 earth and stars4 ,a belief in an evil spirit was general4 ,the demon of ,teneriffe was called ,guayota and lived in the peak of ,teyde1 which was the hell called ,echeyde4 ,in times of drought the ,guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds1 where the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the ,great ,spirit4 ,during the religious feasts all war and even personal quarrels were stayed4 ,,bibliography4--,s4 ,berthelot1 ,antiquites canariennes 7,paris1 #ahci72 ,baker ,webb and ,s4 ,berthelot1 ,histoire naturelle des iles ,canaries 7,paris1 #ahci72 ,paul ,broca1 ,revue d'anthropologie1 iv4 7#ahgd72 ,general ,l4 ,l4 ,c4 ,faidherbe1 ,quelque mots sur l'ethnologie de l'archipel canarien 7,paris1 #ahge72 ,chil y ,naranjo1 ,estudios historicos1 climatologicos y ,patologicos de las ,islas ,canarias 7,las ,palmas1 #ahgf-ahhi72 ,de la pluralite des races humaines de l'archipel canarien1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,anthrop4 ,paris1 #ahgh2 ,habitations et sepultures des anciens habitants des iles ,canaries1 ,revue d'anthrop41 #ahgi2 ,r4 ,verneau1 ,sur les ,semites aux iles ,canaries1 and ,sur les anciens habitants de la ,isleta1 ,grande ,canarie1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,anthrop4 ,paris1 #ahha2 ,rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l'archipel canarien 7,paris1 #ahhg72 ,cinq annees de sejour aux iles ,canaries 7,paris1 #ahia72 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,die ,insel ,tenerife 7,leipzig1 #ahif71 ,uber die ,urbewohner der canarischen ,inseln1 in ,adolf ,bastian ,festschrift 7,berlin1 #ahif72 ,f4 von ,luschan1 ,anhang uber eine ,schadelsammlung von den canarischen ,inseln2 ,r4 ,virchow1 ,schadel mit ,carionecrosis der ,sagittalgegend1 ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,anthrop4 ,gesellschaft 7#ahif72 ,g4 ,sergi1 ,the ,mediterranean ,race 7,london1 #aija72 ,the ,guanches of ,tenerife 4441 by ,alonso de ,espinosa1 translated by ,sir ,clements ,markham1 with bibliography 7,hakluyt ,society1 #aijg74 ,,guanidine1 ,,cn#c;,h#e or ,,hn3,c7,,nh#b7b1 the amidine of amidocarbonic acid4 ,it occurs in beet juice4 ,it was first prepared in #ahfa by ,a4 ,strecker1 who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate4 ,it may be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide1 ,,cn4,,nh#b ,,nh#d;,i,,cn#c;,h#e4;,,hi42 by heating ortho-carbonic esters with ammonia to #aej deg4 ,c42 but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate to #ahj deg4-#aij deg4 ,c41 when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine thiocyanate1 #b;,,cs7,,nh#b7b;,,hn3,c7,,nh#b7b4;,,hcn s,h#b,s4 ,it is a colourless crystalline solid1 readily soluble in water and alcohol2 it deliquesces on exposure to air4 ,it has strong basic properties1 absorbs carbon dioxide readily1 and forms well-defined crystalline salts4 ,baryta water hydrolyses it to urea4 ,by direct union with glycocoll acid1 it yields glycocyamine1 ,,nh#b47;,,hn73,c4,,nh4,,ch#b4;,,co#b;,h 1 whilst with methyl glycocoll 7sarcosine7 it forms creatine1 ,,nh#b47,,nh73,c4,n7,,ch#c74;,,ch#b4;,,c o#b;,h4 ,many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by ,j4 ,thiele 7,ann41 #ahib1 #bgj1 p4 #a2 #ahic1 #bgc1 p4 #acc2 ,ber41 #ahic1 #bf1 pp4 #beih1 #bfde74 ,by the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric acid1 nitroguanidine1 ,,hn3,c7,,nh#b74,,nh4,,no#b 7a substance possessing acid properties7 is obtained2 from which1 by reduction with zinc dust1 amidoguanidine1 ,,hn3,c7,,nh#b74,,nh4,,nh#b1 is formed4 ,this amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of semicarbazide1 ,,nh#b4;,,co4,,nh4,,nh#b1 which1 in its turn1 breaks down into carbon dioxide1 ammonia and hydrazine4 ,amidoguanidine is a body of hydrazine type1 for it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a benzylidine derivative4 ,on oxidation with potassium permanganate1 it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate1 ,,nh#b47;,,hn73,c4,n3,n4,c37,,nh74,,nh#b 4b;,,hno#c1 which1 when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen1 is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine1 ,,nh#b47;,,hn73,c4,,nh4,,nh4,c37,,nh74,, nh#b4 ,by the action of nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine1 diazoguanidine nitrate1 ,,nh#b47;,,hn73,c4,,nh4,n#b4,,no#c1 is obtained4 ,this diazo compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid1 ,,ch#d,n#e4,,no#c,n#c;,h,,cn4,,nh#b;,,hn o#c1 whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetrazotic acid1 ,n--,n4 _/_/ ,h#b,n4,c 4 ,,nh--,n ,amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with amines1 and by the further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive derivative1 diazotetrazol1 ,,cn#f4 ,by fusing guanidine with urea1 dicyandiamidine ,h#b,n47,,hn73,c4,,nh4,,co4,,nh#b1 is formed4 ,,guano 7a ,spanish word from the ,peruvian huanu1 dung71 the excrement of birds1 found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast of ,peru1 and on others situated in the ,southern ocean and off the west coast of ,africa4 ,the large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer4 ,bat's guano1 composed of the excrement of bats1 is found in certain caves in ,new ,zealand and elsewhere2 it is similar in composition to ,peruvian guano4 7,see ,,manures ,,and ,,manuring47 ,,guanta1 a port on the ,caribbean coast of the state of ,bermudez1 ,venezuela1 #ab m4 ,n4,e4 of ,barcelona1 with which it is connected by rail4 ,it dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of ,naricual and ,capiricual nearly #ab m4 beyond ,barcelona1 and was created for the shipment of coal4 ,the harbour is horseshoe-shaped1 with its entrance1 #aiih ft4 wide1 protected by an island less than #a m4 off the shore4 ,the entrance is easy and safe1 and the harbour affords secure anchorage for large vessels1 with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf4 ,these advantages have made ,guanta the best port on this part of the coast1 and the trade of ,barcelona and that of a large inland district have been transferred to it4 ,a prominent feature in its trade is the shipment of live cattle4 ,among its exports are sugar1 coffee1 cacao1 tobacco and fruit4 ,,guantanamo1 the easternmost important town of the ,s4 coast of ,cuba1 in the province of ,santiago1 about #dj m4 ,e4 of ,santiago4 ,pop4 7#aijg7 #ad1eei4 ,it is situated by the ,guazo 7or ,guaso7 river1 on a little open plain between the mountains4 ,the beautiful1 land-locked harbour1 #aj m4 long from ,n4 to ,s4 and #d m4 wide in places1 has an outer and an inner basin4 ,the latter has a very narrow entrance1 and #b to #b4e fathoms depth of water4 ,from the port of ,caimanera to the city of ,guantanamo1 #ac m4 ,n41 there is a railway1 and the city has railway connexion with ,santiago4 ,guantanamo is one of the two ports leased by ,cuba to the ,united ,states for a naval station4 ,it is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding coffee-1 sugar- and lime-growing district4 ,in #agda an ,english force under ,admiral ,edward ,vernon and ,general ,thomas ,wentworth landed here to attack ,santiago4 ,they named the harbour ,cumberland bay4 ,after their retreat fortifications were begun4 ,the history of the region practically dates1 however1 from the end of the #ahth century1 when it gained prosperity from the settlement of ,french refugees from ,santo ,domingo2 the town1 as such1 dates only from #ahbb4 ,almost all the old families are of ,french descent1 and ,french was the language locally most used as late as the last third of the #aith century4 ,in recent years1 especially since the ,spanish-,american ,war of #ahih1 the region has greatly changed socially and economically4 ,guantanamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy ,cubans4 ,,guarana 7so called from the ,guaranis1 an aboriginal ,american tribe71 the plant ,paullinia ,cupana 7or ,p4 sorbilis7 of the natural order ,sapindaceae1 indigenous to the north and west of ,brazil4 ,it has a smooth erect stem2 large pinnate alternate leaves1 composed of #e oblong-oval leaflets2 narrow panicles of short-stalked flowers2 and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape1 and containing usually one seed only1 which is shaped like a minute horse-chestnut4 ,what is commonly known as guarana1 guarana bread or ,brazilian cocoa1 is prepared from the seeds as follows4 ,in ,october and ,november1 at which time they become ripe1 the seeds are removed from their capsules and sun-dried1 so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the white aril2 they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard sandstone2 the powder1 moistened by the addition of a small quantity of water1 or by exposure to the dews1 is then made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken seeds1 and worked up sometimes into balls1 but usually into rolls not unlike ,german sausages1 #e to #h in4 in length1 and #ab to #af oz4 in weight4 ,after drying by artificial or solar heat1 the guarana is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets4 ,thus prepared1 it is of extreme hardness1 and has a brown hue1 a bitter astringent taste1 and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted coffee4 ,an inferior kind1 softer and of a lighter colour1 is manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava4 ,rasped or grated into sugar and water1 guarana forms a beverage largely consumed in ,s4 ,america4 ,its manufacture1 originally confined to the ,mauhes ,indians1 has spread into various parts of ,brazil4 ,the properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new principle and termed guaranine1 but is now known to be identical with caffeine or theine4 ,besides this substance1 which is stated to exist in it in the form of tannate1 guarana yields on analysis the glucoside saponin1 with tannin1 starch1 gum1 three volatile oils1 and an acrid green fixed oil 7,fournier1 ,journ4 de ,pharm4 vol4 xxxix41 #ahfa1 p4 #bia74 ,,guaranis1 a tribe and stock of ,south ,american ,indians1 having their home in ,paraguay1 ,uruguay and on the ,brazilian coast4 ,the ,guaranis had developed some civilization before the arrival of the ,spaniards1 and being a peaceable people quickly submitted4 ,they form to-day the chief element in the populations of ,paraguay and ,uruguay4 ,owing to its patronage by the ,jesuit missionaries the ,guarani language became a widespread medium of communication1 and in a corrupted form is still the common language in ,paraguay4 ,,guarantee 7sometimes spelt guarantie or guaranty2 an ,o4 ,fr4 form of warrant1 from the ,teutonic word which appears in ,german as wahren1 to defend or make safe and binding71 a term more comprehensive and of higher import than either warrant or security1 and designating either some international treaty whereby claims1 rights or possessions are secured1 or more commonly a mere private transaction1 by means of which one person1 to obtain some trust1 confidence or credit for another1 engages to be answerable for him4 ,in ,english law1 a guarantee is a contract to answer for the payment of some debt1 or the performance of some duty1 by a third person who is primarily liable to such payment or performance4 ,it is a collateral contract1 which does not extinguish the original liability or obligation to which it is accessory1 but on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the latter fail1 as without a principal there can be no accessory4 ,the liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those of the principal debtor1 and when the latter cease the former do so likewise 7per ,collins1 ,l4,j41 in ,stacey v4 ,hill1 #aija1 #a ,k4,b41 at p4 #fff2 see per ,willes1 ,j41 in ,bateson v4 ,gosling1 #ahga1 ,l4,r4 #g ,c4,p41 at p4 #ad71 except in certain cases where the discharge of the principal debtor is by operation of law 7see ,in re ,fitzgeorge--ex parte ,robson1 #aije1 #a ,k4,b4 p4 #dfb74 ,if1 therefore1 persons wrongly suppose that a third person is liable to one of them1 and a guarantee is given on that erroneous supposition1 it is invalid ab initio1 by virtue of the lex contractus1 because its foundation 7which was that another was taken to be liable7 has failed 7per ,willes1 ,j41 in ,mountstephen v4 ,lakeman1 ,l4,r4 #g ,q4,b4 p4 #bjb74 ,according to various existing codes civil1 a suretyship1 in respect of an obligation non-valable1 is null and void save where the invalidity is the result of personal incapacity of the principal debtor 7,codes ,civil1 ,france and ,belgium1 #bjab2 ,spain1 #ahbd2 ,portugal1 #hbb2 ,italy1 #ahii2 ,holland1 #aheh2 ,lower ,canada1 #aicb74 ,in some countries1 however1 the mere personal incapacity of a son under age to borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him 7,spain1 #ahbd2 ,portugal1 #hbb1 s4 #b1 #aece1 #aecf74 ,the ,egyptian codes sanction guarantees expressly entered into in view of debtor's want of legal capacity to contract a valid principal obligation 7,egyptian ,codes1 ,mixed ,suits1 #fje2 ,native ,tribunals1 #dif74 ,the ,portuguese code 7art4 #hbb1 s4 #a7 retains the surety's liability1 in respect of an invalid principal obligation1 until the latter has been legally rescinded4 ,the giver of a guarantee is called the surety1 or the guarantor2 the person to whom it is given the creditor1 or the guarantee2 while the person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed the principal debtor1 or simply the principal4 ,in ,america1 but not apparently elsewhere1 there is a recognized distinction between a surety and a guarantor2 the former being usually bound with the principal1 at the same time and on the same consideration1 while the contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking1 in which the principal does not join1 and in respect of which he is not to be held liable1 until due diligence has been exerted to compel the principal debtor to make good his default4 ,there is no privity of contract between the surety and the principal debtor1 for the surety contracts with the creditor1 and they do not constitute in law one person1 and are not jointly liable to the creditor 7per ,baron ,parke in ,bain v4 ,cooper1 #a ,dowl4 ,r4 7,n4,s47 #aa1 #ad74 ,no special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a guarantee2 and what really distinguishes such a contract from one of insurance is not any essential difference between the two forms of words insurance and guarantee1 but the substance of the contract entered into by the parties in each particular case 7per ,romer1 ,l4,j41 in ,seaton v4 ,heath--,seaton v4 ,burnand1 #ahii1 #a ,q4,b4 #ghb1 #gib1 ,c4,a42 per ,vaughan ,williams1 ,l4,j41 in ,in re ,denton's ,estate ,licenses ,insurance ,corporation and ,guarantee ,fund ,ltd4 v4 ,denton1 #aijd1 #b ,ch41 at p4 #ahh2 and see ,dane v4 ,mortgage ,insurance ,corporation1 #ahid1 #a ,q4,b4 #ed ,c4,a47 ,in this connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of suretyships have been classified as follows3 7#a7 ,those in which there is an agreement to constitute1 for a particular purpose1 the relation of principal and surety1 to which agreement the creditor thereby secured is a party2 7#b7 those in which there is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only1 to which the creditor is a stranger2 and 7#c7 those in which1 without any such contract of suretyship1 there is a primary and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt1 the debt being1 as between the two1 that of one of those persons only1 and not equally of both1 so that the other1 if he should be compelled to pay it1 would be entitled to reimbursement from the person by whom 7as between the two7 it ought to have been paid 7per ,earl of ,selborne1 ,l4,c41 in ,duncan ,fox and ,co4 v4 ,north and ,south ,wales ,bank1 #f ,app4 ,cas41 at p4 #aa74 ,according to several codes civil sureties are made divisible into conventional1 legal and judicial 7,fr4 and ,bel41 #bjae1 #bjdj et seq42 ,spain1 #ahbc2 ,lower ,canada1 #aicj71 while the ,spanish code further divides them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration 7art4 #a1 #hbc74 ,in ,england the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no way differ from those essential to the formation of any other contract4 ,that is to say1 they comprise the mutual assent of two or more parties1 competency to contract1 and1 unless the guarantee be under seal1 valuable consideration4 ,an offer to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted1 being revocable till then by the party making it4 ,unless1 however1 as sometimes happens1 the offer contemplates an express acceptance1 one may be implied1 and it may be a question for a jury whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted4 ,where the surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud of the person to whom it is given1 there is no binding contract4 ,such fraud may consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation4 ,there is some conflict of authorities as to what facts must be spontaneously disclosed to the surety by the creditor1 but it may be taken that the rule on the subject is less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine1 life and other risks 7,the ,north ,british ,insurance ,co4 v4 ,lloyd1 #aj ,exch4 #ebc71 though formerly this was denied 7,owen v4 ,homan1 #c ,mac4 ,g4 #cgh1 #cig74 ,moreover1 even where the contract relied upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency of a surety for another's debt1 and is therefore governed by the doctrine of uberrima fides1 only such facts as are really material to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed 7,seaton v4 ,burnand--,burnand v4 ,seaton1 #aijj1 ,a4,c4 #ace74 ,as regards the competency of the parties to enter into a contract of guarantee1 this may be affected by insanity or intoxication of the surety1 if known to the creditor1 or by disability of any kind4 ,the ordinary disabilities are those of infants and married women--now in ,england greatly mitigated as regards the latter by the ,married ,women's ,property ,acts1 #ahgj to #ahic1 which enable a married woman to contract1 as a feme sole1 to the extent of her separate property4 ,every guarantee not under seal must according to ,english law have a consideration to support it1 though the least spark of one suffices 7per ,wilmot1 ,j41 in ,pillan v4 van ,mierop and ,hopkins1 #c ,burr41 at p4 #afff2 ,haigh v4 ,brooks1 #aj ,a4 ,e4 #cji2 ,barrell v4 ,trussell1 #d ,taunt4 #aag71 which1 as in other cases1 may consist either of some right1 interest1 profit or benefit accruing to the one party1 or some forbearance1 detriment1 loss or responsibility given1 suffered or undertaken by the other4 ,in some guarantees the consideration is entire--as where1 in consideration of a lease being granted1 the surety becomes answerable for the performance of the covenants2 in other cases it is fragmentary1 i4e4 supplied from time to time--as where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running account at a banker's1 or a balance of a running account for goods supplied 7per ,lush1 ,l4,j41 in ,lloyd's v4 ,harper1 #af ,ch4 ,div41 at p4 #cai74 ,in the former case1 the moment the lease is granted there is nothing more for the lessor to do1 and such a guarantee as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the lease and is irrevocable4 ,in the latter case1 however1 unless the guarantee stipulates to the contrary1 the surety may at any time terminate his liability under the guarantee as to future advances1 c4 ,the consideration for a guarantee must not be past or executed1 but on the other hand it need not comprise a direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor1 but may solely consist of anything done1 or any promise made1 for the benefit of the principal debtor4 ,it is more frequently executory than concurrent1 taking the form either of forbearance to sue the principal debtor1 or of a future advance of money or supply of goods to him4 ,by the ,indian ,contract ,act #ahgb1 sect4 #abg1 it is provided that the consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done or any promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by the creditor4 ,total failure of the consideration stipulated for by the party giving a guarantee will prevent its being enforced1 as will also the existence of an illegal consideration4 ,though in all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential to the formation of any contract 7see e4g4 ,codes ,civil1 ,fr4 and ,bel4 #aajh2 ,port4 #fdc1 #fdg et seq42 ,spain1 #abeh1 #abfa2 ,italy1 #aajd2 ,holl4 #acef2 ,lower ,canada1 #ihd71 a consideration is not everywhere regarded as a necessary element 7see ,pothier's ,law of ,obligations1 ,evans's edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ai74 ,thus in ,scotland a contract may be binding without a consideration to support it 7,stair i4 #aj4 #g74 ,the statutory requisites of a guarantee are1 in ,england1 prescribed by 7#a7 the ,statute of ,frauds1 which1 with reference to guarantees1 provides that no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer for the debt1 default or miscarriages of another person1 unless the agreement upon which such action shall be brought1 or some memorandum or note thereof1 shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith1 or some other person thereunto by him lawfully authorized1 and 7#b7 ,lord ,tenterden's ,act 7#i ,geo4 ,,iv4 c4 #ad71 which by ,s #f enacts that no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any representation or assurance made or given concerning or relating to the character1 conduct1 credit1 ability1 trade or dealings of any other person1 to the intent or purpose that such other person may obtain credit1 money or goods upon 7i4e4 upon credit1 see per ,parke1 ,b41 in ,lyde v4 ,barnard1 #a ,m4 ,w41 at p4 #ajd71 unless such representation or assurance be made in writing signed by the party to be charged therewith4 ,this latter enactment1 which applies to incorporated companies as well as to individual persons 7,hirst v4 ,west ,riding ,union ,banking ,co41 #aija1 #b ,k4,b4 #efj ,c4,a471 was rendered necessary by an evasion of the #dth section of the ,statute of ,frauds1 accomplished by treating the special promise to answer for another's debt1 default or miscarriage1 when not in writing1 as required by that section1 as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another's credit1 solvency or honesty1 in respect of which damages1 as for a tort1 were held to be recoverable 7,pasley v4 ,freeman1 #c ,t4,r4 #ea74 ,in ,scotland1 where1 it should be stated1 a guarantee is called a cautionary obligation1 similar enactments to those just specified are contained in ,s #f of the ,mercantile ,law ,amendment ,act 7,scotland7 #ahef1 while in the ,irish ,statute of ,frauds 7#g ,will4 ,,iii4 c4 #ab7 there is a provision 7,s #b7 identical with that found in the ,english ,statute of ,frauds4 ,in ,india a guarantee may be either oral or written 7,indian ,contract ,act1 ,s #abf71 while in the ,australian colonies1 ,jamaica and ,ceylon it must be in writing4 ,the ,german code civil requires the surety's promise to be verified by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation 7art4 #gff71 and the ,portuguese code renders a guarantee provable by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal contract 7art4 #hbf74 ,according to most codes civil now in force a guarantee like any other contract can usually be made verbally in the presence of witnesses and in certain cases 7where for instance considerable sums of money are involved7 sous signature privee or else by judicial or notarial instrument 7see ,codes ,civil1 ,fr4 and ,bel4 #acda2 ,spain1 #abdd2 ,port4 #bejf1 #beac2 ,italy1 #acda et seq42 ,pothier's ,law of ,obligations1 ,evans's ed4 i4 #beg2 ,burge on ,suretyship1 p4 #ai2 van der ,linden's ,institutes of ,holland1 p4 #abj72 the ,french and ,belgian ,codes1 moreover1 provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always be expressed 7art4 #bjae74 ,the ,statute of ,frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee1 but renders it unenforceable by action4 ,it may therefore be available in support of a defence to an action1 and money paid under it cannot be recovered4 ,an indemnity is not a guarantee within the statute1 unless it contemplates the primary liability of a third person4 ,it need not1 therefore1 be in writing when it is a mere promise to become liable for a debt1 whenever the person to whom the promise is made should become liable 7,wildes v4 ,dudlow1 ,l4,r4 #ai ,eq4 #aih2 per ,vaughan ,williams1 ,l4,j4 in ,harburg ,india-,rubber ,co4 v4 ,martin1 #aijb1 #a ,k4,b4 p4 #ghf2 ,guild v4 ,conrad1 #ahid1 #b ,q4,b4 #hhe ,c4,a474 ,neither does the statute apply to the promise of a del credere agent1 which binds him1 in consideration of the higher commission he receives1 to make no sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are absolutely solvent1 and renders him liable for any loss that may result from the non-fulfilment of his promise4 ,a promise to give a guarantee is1 however1 within the statute1 though not one to procure a guarantee4 ,the general principles which determine what are guarantees within the ,statute of ,frauds1 as deduced from a multitude of decided cases1 are briefly as follows3 7#a7 the primary liability of a third person must exist or be contemplated as the foundation of the contract 7,birkmyr v4 ,darnell1 #a ,sm4 ,l4,c4 #aath ed4 p4 #bii2 ,mountstephen v4 ,lakeman1 ,l4,r4 #g ,q4,b4 #aif2 ,l4,r4 #g ,h4,l4 #ag72 7#b7 the promise must be made to the creditor2 7#c7 there must be an absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently of his express promise of guarantee2 7#d7 the main object of the transaction between the parties to the guarantee must be the fulfilment of a third party's obligation 7see ,harburg ,india-rubber ,comb ,co4 v4 ,martin1 #aijb1 #a ,k4,b4 #ggh1 #ghf72 and 7#e7 the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the creditor to the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt itself 7see de ,colyar's ,law of ,guarantees and of ,principal and ,surety1 #crd ed4 pp4 #fe-afa1 where these principles are discussed in detail by the light of decided cases there cited74 ,as regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee that will satisfy the ,statute of ,frauds1 it is now provided by ,s #c of the ,mercantile ,law ,amendment ,act #ahef1 that no special promise to be made1 by any person after the passing of this act1 to answer for the debt1 default or miscarriage of another person1 being in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith1 or some other person by him thereunto lawfully authorized1 shall be deemed invalid to support an action1 suit or other proceeding1 to charge the person by whom such promise shall have been made1 by reason only that the consideration for such promise does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from a written document4 ,prior to this enactment1 which is not retrospective in its operation1 it was held in many cases that as the ,statute of ,frauds requires the agreement to be in writing1 all parts thereof were required so to be1 including the consideration moving to1 as well as the promise by1 the party to be charged 7,wain v4 ,walters1 #e ,east1 #aj2 ,sounders v4 ,wakefield1 #d ,b4 ,ald4 #eie74 ,these decisions1 however1 proved to be burdensome to the mercantile community1 especially in ,scotland and the north of ,england1 and ultimately led to the alteration of the law1 so far as guarantees are concerned1 by means of the enactment already specified4 ,any writing embodying the terms of the agreement between the parties1 and signed by the party to be charged1 is sufficient2 and the idea of agreement need not be present to the mind of the person signing 7per ,lindley1 ,l4,j41 in ,in re ,hoyle--,hoyle v4 ,hoyle1 #ahic1 #a ,ch41 at p4 #ih74 ,it is1 however1 necessary that the names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere in writing2 that the party to be charged1 or his agent1 should sign the memorandum or note of agreement1 or else should sign another paper referring thereto2 and that1 when the note or memorandum is made1 a complete agreement shall exist4 ,moreover1 the memorandum must have been made before action brought1 though it need not be contemporaneous with the agreement itself4 ,as regards the stamping of the memorandum or note of agreement1 a guarantee cannot1 in ,england1 be given in evidence unless properly stamped 7,stamp ,act #ahia74 ,a guarantee for the payment of goods1 however1 requires no stamp1 being within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act4 ,nor is it necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance as to character within #i ,geo4 ,,iv4 c4 #ad1 supra4 ,if under seal1 a guarantee requires sometimes an ad valorem stamp and sometimes a ten-shilling stamp2 in other cases a sixpenny stamp generally suffices2 and1 on certain prescribed terms1 the stamps can be affixed any time after execution 7,stamp ,act #ahia1 ,s #ae1 amended by ,s #ae of the ,finance ,act #ahie74 ,extent of surety's liability4 ,the liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends upon its terms1 and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of the principal debtor4 ,it is1 however1 obvious that as the surety's obligation is merely accessory to that of the principal it cannot as such exceed it 7de ,colyar1 ,law of ,guarantees1 #crd ed4 p4 #bcc2 ,burge1 ,suretyship1 p4 #e74 ,by the ,roman law1 if there were any such excess the surety's obligation was rendered wholly void and not merely void pro tanto4 ,by many existing codes civil1 however1 a guarantee which imposes on the surety a greater liability than that of the principal is not thereby invalidated1 but the liability is merely reducible to that of the principal 7,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjac2 ,port4 #hbc2 ,spain1 #ahbf2 ,italy1 #aijj2 ,holland1 #ahei2 ,lower ,canada1 #aicc74 ,by sec4 #abh of the ,indian ,contract ,act #ahgb the liability of the surety is1 unless otherwise provided by contract1 coextensive with that of the principal4 ,where the liability of the surety is less extensive in amount than that of the principal debtor1 difficult questions have arisen in ,england and ,america as to whether the surety is liable only for part of the debt equal to the limit of his liability1 or1 up to such limit1 for the whole debt 7,ellis v4 ,emmanuel1 #a ,ex4 ,div4 #aeg2 ,hobson v4 ,bass1 #f ,ch4 ,app4 #gib2 ,brandt1 ,suretyship1 sec4 #bai74 ,the surety cannot be made liable except for a loss sustained by reason of the default guaranteed against4 ,moreover1 in the case of a joint and several guarantee by several sureties1 unless all sign it none are liable thereunder 7,national ,pro4 ,bk4 of ,england v4 ,brackenbury1 #aijf1 #bb ,times ,l4,r4 #gig74 ,it was formerly considered in ,england to be the duty of the party taking a guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the party giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was binding himself 7,nicholson v4 ,paget1 #a ,c4 ,m4 #dh1 #eb74 ,this view1 however1 can no longer be sustained1 it being now recognized that a guarantee1 like any other contract1 must1 in cases of ambiguity1 be construed against the party bound thereby and in favour of the party receiving it 7,mayer v4 ,isaac1 #f ,m4 ,w4 #fje1 #fab2 ,wood v4 ,priestner1 ,l4,r4 #b ,exch4 #ff1 #ga74 ,the surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his contract1 which must be construed so as to give effect to what may fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties1 from what they themselves have expressed in writing4 ,in cases of doubtful import1 recourse to parol evidence is permissible1 to explain1 but not to contradict1 the written evidence of the guarantee4 ,as a general rule1 the surety is not liable if the principal debt cannot be enforced1 because1 as already explained1 the obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the principal debtor4 ,it has never been actually decided in ,england whether this rule holds good in cases where the principal debtor is an infant1 and on that account is not liable to the creditor4 ,probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by estoppel 7see ,kimball v4 ,newell1 #g ,hill 7,n4,y47 #aaf74 ,when directors guarantee the performance by their company of a contract which is ultra vires1 and therefore not binding on the latter1 the directors' suretyship liability is1 nevertheless1 enforceable against them 7,yorkshire ,railway ,waggon ,co4 v4 ,maclure1 #ba ,ch4 ,d4 #cji ,c4,a474 ,it is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability under a guarantee endures4 ,sometimes a guarantee is limited to a single transaction1 and is obviously intended to be security against one specific default only4 ,on the other hand1 it as often happens that it is not exhausted by one transaction on the faith of it1 but extends to a series of transactions1 and remains a standing security until it is revoked1 either by the act of the parties or else by the death of the surety4 ,it is then termed a continuing guarantee4 ,no fixed rules of interpretation determine whether a guarantee is a continuing one or not1 but each case must be judged on its individual merits2 and frequently1 in order to achieve a correct construction1 it becomes necessary to examine the surrounding circumstances1 which often reveal what was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when the guarantee was given1 and likewise what was the scope and object of the transaction between them4 ,most continuing guarantees are either ordinary mercantile securities1 in respect of advances made or goods supplied to the principal debtor or else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or private offices or employments4 ,with regard to the latter class of continuing guarantees1 the surety's liability is1 generally speaking1 revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons to or for whom the guarantee is given4 ,on this subject it is now provided by section #ah of the ,partnership ,act #ahij1 which applies to ,scotland as well as ,england1 that a continuing guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to a third person in respect of the transactions of a firm1 is1 in the absence of agreement to the contrary1 revoked as to future transactions by any change in the constitution of the firm to which1 or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which the guaranty or obligation was given4 ,this section1 like the enactment it replaces1 namely1 sec4 #d of the ,mercantile ,law ,amendment ,act #ahef1 is mainly declaratory of the ,english common law1 as embodied in decided cases1 which indicate that the changes in the persons to or for whom a guarantee is given may consist either of an increase in their number1 of a diminution thereof caused by death or retirement from business1 or of the incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the guarantee is given4 ,in this connexion it may be stated that the ,government ,offices 7,security7 ,act #ahge1 which has been amended by the ,statute ,law ,revision ,act #ahhc1 contains certain provisions with regard to the acceptance by the heads of public departments of guarantees given by companies for the due performance of the duties of an office or employment in the public service1 and enables the ,commissioners of ,his ,majesty's ,treasury to vary the character of any security1 for good behaviour by public servants1 given after the passing of the act4 ,before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee1 the principal debtor must have made default4 ,when1 however1 this has occurred1 the creditor1 in the absence of express agreement to the contrary1 may sue the surety1 without even informing him of such default having taken place1 or requiring him to pay1 and before proceeding against the principal debtor or resorting to securities for the debt received from the latter4 ,in those countries where the municipal law is based on the ,roman civil law1 sureties usually possess the right 7which may1 however1 be renounced by them7 originally conferred by the ,roman law1 of compelling the creditor to insist on the goods1 c4 7if any7 of the principal debtor being first discussed1 i4e4 appraised and sold1 and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt guaranteed 7see ,codes ,civil1 ,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjba et seq42 ,spain1 #ahcj1 #ahca2 ,port4 #hcj2 ,germany1 #gga1 #ggb1 #ggc2 ,holland1 #ahfh2 ,italy1 #aijg2 ,lower ,canada1 #aida-aidb2 ,egypt mixed suits #fab2 ibid4 native tribunals #ejb71 before having recourse to the sureties4 ,this right1 according to a great ,american jurist 7,chancellor ,kent in ,hayes v4 ,ward1 #d ,johns4 ,new ,york1 ,ch4 ,cas4 p4 #acb71 accords with a common sense of justice and the natural equity of mankind4 ,in ,england this right has never been fully recognized4 ,neither does it prevail in ,america nor1 since the passing of the ,mercantile ,law ,amendment ,act 7,scotland7 #ahef1 s4 #h1 is it any longer available in ,scotland where1 prior to the last-named enactment1 the benefit of discussion1 as it is termed1 existed4 ,in ,england1 however1 before any demand for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety1 the latter can1 as soon as the principal debtor has made default1 compel the creditor1 on giving him an indemnity against costs and expenses1 to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent and able to pay 7per ,a4 ,l4 ,smith1 ,l4,j41 in ,rouse v4 ,bradford ,banking ,company1 #ahid1 #b ,ch4 #ge2 per ,lord ,eldon in ,wright v4 ,simpson1 #f ,ves41 at p4 #gcc71 and a similar remedy is also open to the surety in ,america 7see ,brandt on ,suretyship1 par4 #bje1 p4 #bij7 though in neither of these countries nor in ,scotland can one of several sureties1 when sued for the whole guaranteed debt by the creditor1 compel the latter to divide his claim amongst all the solvent sureties1 and reduce it to the share and proportion of each surety4 ,however1 this beneficium divisionis1 as it is called in ,roman law1 is recognized by many existing codes 7,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjbe-bjbg2 ,spain1 #ahcg2 ,portugal1 #hce-hcf2 ,germany1 #dbf2 ,holland1 #ahgc-ahgd2 ,italy1 #aiaa-aiab2 ,lower ,canada1 #aidf2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fae1 #faf74 ,the usual mode in ,england of enforcing liability under a guarantee is by action in the ,high ,court or in the county court4 ,it is also permissible for the creditor to obtain redress by means of a set-off or counter-claim1 in an action brought against him by the surety4 ,on the other hand1 the surety may now1 in any court in which the action on the guarantee is pending1 avail himself of any set-off which may exist between the principal debtor and the creditor4 ,moreover1 if one of several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his guarantee1 he can1 by means of a proceeding termed a third-party notice1 claim contribution from his co-surety towards the common liability4 ,independent proof of the surety's liability under his guarantee must always be given at the trial2 as the creditor cannot rely either on admissions made by the principal debtor1 or on a judgment or award obtained against him 7,ex parte ,young ,in re ,kitchin1 #ag ,ch4 ,div4 #ffh74 ,should the surety become bankrupt either before or after default has been made by the principal debtor1 the creditor will have to prove against his estate4 ,this right of proof is now in ,england regulated by the #cgth section of the ,bankruptcy ,act1 #ahhc1 which is most comprehensive in its terms4 ,rights of sureties4 ,a person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee possesses various rights against him1 against the person to whom the guarantee is given1 and also against those who may have become co-sureties in respect of the same debt1 default or miscarriage4 ,as regards the surety's rights against the principal debtor1 the latter may1 where the guarantee was made with his consent but not otherwise 7see ,hodgson v4 ,shaw1 #c ,myl4 ,k4 at p4 #aij71 after he has made default1 be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from liability by payment of the guaranteed debt 7per ,sir ,w4 ,grant1 ,m4,r41 in ,antrobus v4 ,davidson1 #c ,meriv4 #efi1 #egi2 per ,lindley1 ,l4,j41 in ,johnston v4 ,salvage ,association1 #ai ,q4,b4,d4 #dfj1 #dfa2 and see ,wolmershausen v4 ,gullick1 #ahic1 #b ,ch4 #ead74 ,the moment1 moreover1 the surety has himself paid any portion of the guaranteed debt1 he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the amount so paid1 and to compel repayment thereof4 ,in the event of the principal debtor's bankruptcy1 the surety can in ,england1 if the creditor has not already proved in respect of the guaranteed debt1 prove against the bankrupt's estate1 not only in respect of payments made before the bankruptcy of the principal debtor1 but also1 it seems1 in respect of the contingent liability to pay under the guarantee 7see ,ex parte ,delmar re ,herepath1 #ahhi1 #ch ,w4,r4 #geb71 while if the creditor has already proved1 the surety who has paid the guaranteed debt has a right to all dividends received by the creditor from the bankrupt in respect thereof1 and to stand in the creditor's place as to future dividends4 ,this right is1 however1 often waived by the guarantee stipulating that1 until the creditor has received full payment of all sums over and above the guaranteed debt1 due to him from the principal debtor1 the surety shall not participate in any dividends distributed from the bankrupt's estate amongst his creditors4 ,as regards the rights of the surety against the creditor1 they are in ,england exercisable even by one who in the first instance was a principal debtor1 but has since become a surety1 by arrangement with his creditor1 duly notified to the creditor1 though not even sanctioned by him4 ,this was decided by the ,house of ,lords in the case of ,rouse v4 ,the ,bradford ,banking ,co41 #ahid1 ,a4,c4 #ehf1 removing a doubt created by the previous case of ,swire v4 ,redman1 #a ,q4,b4,d4 #ecf1 which must now be treated as overruled4 ,the surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him1 after payment of the guaranteed debt1 to the benefit of all securities1 whether known to him 7the surety7 or not1 which the creditor held against the principal debtor2 and where1 by default or laches of the creditor1 such securities have been lost1 or rendered otherwise unavailable1 the surety is discharged pro tanto4 ,this right1 which is not in abeyance till the surety is called on to pay 7,dixon v4 ,steel1 #aija1 #b ,ch4 #fjb71 extends to all securities1 whether satisfied or not1 given before or after the contract of suretyship was entered into4 ,on this subject the ,mercantile ,law ,amendment ,act1 #ahef1 ,s #e1 provides that every person who being surety for the debt or duty of another1 or being liable with another for any debt or duty1 shall pay such debt or perform such duty1 shall be entitled to have assigned to him1 or to a trustee for him1 every judgment1 specialty1 or other security1 which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such debt or duty1 whether such judgment1 specialty1 or other security shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the payment of the debt or performance of the duty1 and such person shall be entitled to stand in the place of the creditor1 and to use all the remedies1 and1 if need be1 and upon a proper indemnity1 to use the name of the creditor1 in any action or other proceeding at law or in equity1 in order to obtain from the principal debtor1 or any co-surety1 co-contractor1 or co-debtor1 as the case may be1 indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such duty2 and such payment or performance so made by such surety shall not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other proceeding by him1 provided always that no co-surety1 co-contractor1 or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from any other co-surety1 co-contractor1 or co-debtor1 by the means aforesaid1 more than the just proportion to which1 as between those parties themselves1 such last-mentioned person shall be justly liable4 ,this enactment is so far retrospective that it applies to a contract made before the act1 where the breach thereof1 and the payment by the surety1 have taken place subsequently4 ,the right of the surety to be subrogated1 on payment by him of the guaranteed debt1 to all the rights of the creditor against the principal debtor is recognized in ,america 7,tobin v4 ,kirk1 #hj ,new ,york ,s4,c4,r4 #bbi71 and many other countries 7,codes ,civil1 ,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjbi2 ,spain1 #ahci2 ,port4 #hci2 ,germany1 #ggd2 ,holland1 #ahgg2 ,italy1 #aiaf2 ,lower ,canada1 #biei2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fag2 ibid4 native tribunals1 #eje74 ,as regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety1 he is entitled to contribution from him in respect of their common liability4 ,this particular right is not the result of any contract1 but is derived from a general equity1 on the ground of equality of burden and benefit1 and exists whether the sureties be bound jointly1 or jointly and severally1 and by the same1 or different1 instruments4 ,there is1 however1 no right of contribution where each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the guaranteed debt2 nor in the case of a surety for a surety2 7see ,in re ,denton's ,estate1 #aijd1 #b ,ch4 #agh ,c4,a472 nor where a person becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's request4 ,contribution may be enforced1 either before payment1 or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the common debt 7,wolmershausen v4 ,gullick1 #ahjc1 #b ,ch4 #ead72 and the amount recoverable is now always regulated by the number of solvent sureties1 though formerly this rule only prevailed in equity4 ,in the event of the bankruptcy of a surety1 proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any excess over the latter's contributive share4 ,the right of contribution is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against each other1 but they are also entitled to the benefit of all securities which have been taken by any one of them as an indemnity against the liability incurred for the principal debtor4 ,the ,roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst sureties4 ,it is1 however1 sanctioned by many existing codes 7,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjcc2 ,germany1 #dbf1 #dgd2 ,italy1 #aibj2 ,holland1 #ahha2 ,spain1 #ahdd2 ,port4 #hde2 ,lower ,canada1 #aiee2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fah1 ibid4 native tribunals1 #ejf71 and also by the ,indian ,contract ,act #ahgb1 ss4 #adf-adg4 ,the discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee may be accomplished ,in various ways1 he being regarded1 especially in ,england and ,america1 as a favoured debtor 7per ,turner1 ,l4,j41 in ,wheatley v4 ,bastow1 #g ,de ,g4 ,m4 ,g4 #bgi1 #bhj2 per ,earl of ,selborne1 ,l4,c41 in ,in re ,sherry--,london and ,county ,banking ,co4 v4 ,terry1 #be ,ch4 ,d41 at p4 #gjc2 and see ,brandt on ,suretyship1 secs4 #gi1 #hj74 ,thus1 fraud subsequent to the execution of the guarantee 7as where1 for example1 the creditor connives at the principal debtor's default7 will certainly discharge the surety4 ,again1 a material alteration made by the creditor in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may also have this effect4 ,the most prolific ground of discharge1 however1 is usually traceable to causes originating in the creditor's laches or conduct1 the governing principle being that if the creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he entered into the suretyship1 even though the damage be nominal only1 the guarantee cannot be enforced4 ,on this subject it suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be accomplished 7#a7 by a variation of the terms of the contract between the creditor and the principal debtor1 or of that subsisting between the creditor and the surety 7see ,rickaby v4 ,lewis1 #bb ,t4,l4,r4 #acj72 7#b7 by the creditor taking a new security from the principal debtor in lieu of the original one2 7#c7 by the creditor discharging the principal debtor from liability2 7#d7 by the creditor binding himself to give time to the principal debtor for payment of the guaranteed debt2 or 7#e7 by loss of securities received by the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt4 ,in this connexion ,it may be stated in general terms that whatever extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines that of the surety 7which is accessory thereto71 not only in ,england but elsewhere also 7,codes ,civil1 ,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjcd1 #bjch2 ,spain1 #ahdg2 ,port4 #hdh2 ,lower ,canada1 #aief2 #aifj2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fbb1 ibid4 native tribunals1 #eji2 ,indian ,contract ,act #ahgb1 sec4 #acd71 and that1 by most of the codes civil now in force1 the surety is discharged by laches or conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights 7see ,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjcg2 ,spain1 #aheb2 ,port4 #hec2 ,germany1 #ggf2 ,italy1 #aibh2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fbc71 though it may be mentioned that the rule prevailing in ,england1 ,scotland1 ,america and ,india which releases the surety from liability where the creditor1 by binding contract with the principal1 extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the principal obligation1 while recognized by two existing codes civil 7,spain1 #ahea2 ,port4 #heb71 is rejected by the majority of them 7,fr4 and ,bel4 #bjci2 ,holland1 #ahhg2 ,italy1 #aicj2 ,lower ,canada1 #aifa2 ,egypt mixed suits1 #fac2 ib4 native tribunals1 #ejc72 7and see ,morice1 ,english and ,dutch ,law1 p4 #if2 van der ,linden1 ,institutes of ,holland1 pp4 #abj-aba74 ,a revocation of the contract of suretyship by act of the parties1 or in certain cases by the death of the surety1 may also operate to discharge the surety4 ,the death of a surety does not per se determine the guarantee1 but1 save where from its nature the guarantee is irrevocable by the surety himself1 it can be revoked by express notice after his death1 or1 it would appear1 by the creditor becoming affected with constructive notice thereof2 except where1 under the testator's will1 the executor has the option of continuing the guarantee1 in which case the executor should1 it seems1 specifically withdraw the guarantee in order to determine it4 ,where one of a number of joint and several sureties dies1 the future liability of the survivors under the guarantee continues1 at all events until it has been determined by express notice4 ,moreover1 when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank1 and their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several1 it was held that the death of one surety did not determine the liability of the survivors4 ,in such a case1 however1 the estate of the deceased surety would be relieved from liability4 ,the ,statutes of ,limitation bar the right of action on guarantees under seal after twenty years1 and on other guarantees after six years1 from the date when the creditor might have sued the surety4 ,,authorities4--,de ,colyar1 ,law of ,guarantees and of ,principal and ,surety 7#crd ed41 #ahig72 ,american edition1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,morgan 7#ahge72 ,throop1 ,validity of ,verbal ,agreements2 ,fell1 ,guarantees 7#bnd ed472 ,theobald1 ,law of ,principal and ,surety2 ,brandt1 ,law of ,suretyships and ,guarantee2 article by de ,colyar in ,journal of ,comparative ,legislation 7#aije71 on ,suretyship from the ,standpoint of ,comparative ,jurisprudence4 7,h4 ,a4 de ,c47 ,,guaratingueta1 a city of ,brazil ,in the eastern part of the state of ,sao ,paulo1 #abd m4 ,n4,e4 of the city of ,sao ,paulo4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 of the municipality1 which includes a large rural district and the villages of ,apparecida and ,roseira1 #cj1fij4 ,the city1 which was founded in #afea1 stands on a fertile plain #c m4 from the ,parahyba river1 and is the commercial centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state4 ,the district produces large quantities of coffee1 and some sugar1 ,indian corn and beans4 ,cattle and pigs are raised4 ,the city dwellings are for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered with mud1 called taipa by the natives1 and roofed with curved tiles4 ,the ,sao ,paulo branch of the ,brazilian ,central railway passes through the city1 by which it is connected with ,rio de ,janeiro on one side and ,sao ,paulo and ,santos on the other4 ,,guarda1 an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district bearing the same name1 and formerly in the province of ,beira1 ,portugal2 on the ,guarda-,abrantes and ,lisbon-,villar ,formoso railways4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #fabd4 ,guarda is situated #ccgj ft4 above sea-level1 at the north-eastern extremity of the ,serra da ,estrella1 overlooking the fertile valley of the river ,coa4 ,it is surrounded by ancient walls1 and contains a ruined castle1 a fine #afth-century cathedral and a sanatorium for consumptives4 ,its industries comprise the manufacture of coarse cloth and the sale of grain1 wine and live stock4 ,in #aaii ,guarda was founded1 on the site of the ,roman ,lencia ,oppidana1 by ,sancho ,i4 of ,portugal1 who intended it1 as its name implies1 to be a guard against ,moorish invasion4 ,the administrative district of ,guarda coincides with north-eastern ,beira2 pop4 7#aijj71 #bfa1fcj2 area1 #ajfe sq4 m4 ,,guardi1 ,,francesco 7#agab-agic71 ,venetian painter1 was a pupil of ,canaletto1 and followed his style so closely that his pictures are very frequently attributed to his more celebrated master4 ,nevertheless1 the diversity1 when once perceived1 is sufficiently marked--,canaletto being more firm1 solid1 distinct1 well-grounded1 and on the whole the higher master1 while ,guardi is noticeable for spirited touch1 sparkling colour and picturesquely sketched figures--in these respects being fully equal to ,canaletto4 ,guardi sometimes coloured ,canaletto's designs4 ,he had extraordinary facility1 three or four days being enough for producing an entire work4 ,the number of his performances is large in proportion to this facility and to the love of gain which characterized him4 ,many of his works are to be found in ,england and seven in the ,louvre4 ,,guardian1 one who guards or defends another1 a protector4 ,the ,o4 ,fr4 guarden1 garden1 mod4 gardien1 from guarder1 garder1 is of ,teutonic origin1 from the base war-1 to protect1 cf4 ,o4,h4 ,ger4 warten1 and ,eng4 ward2 thus guardian and warden are etymologically identical1 as are guard and ward2 cf4 the use of the correlatives guardian and ward1 i4e4 a minor1 or person incapable of managing his affairs1 under the protection or in the custody of a guardian4 ,for the position of guardians of the poor see ,,poor ,,law1 and for the legal relations between a guardian and his ward see ,,infant1 ,,marriage and ,,roman ,,law4 ,,guards1 ,,and ,,household ,,troops4 ,the word guard is an adaptation of the ,fr4 guarde1 mod4 garde1 ,o4 ,ger4 ward2 see ,,guardian4 ,the practice of maintaining bodyguards is of great antiquity1 and may indeed be considered the beginning of organized armies4 ,thus there is often no clear distinction between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire disposal4 ,famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these headings are the ,immortals of ,xerxes1 the ,mamelukes1 ,janissaries1 the ,huscarles of the ,anglo-,saxon kings1 and the ,russian ,strelitz 7,stryeltsi74 ,in modern times the distinction of function is better marked1 and the fighting men who are more intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of the army can be classified as to duties into ,household ,troops1 who are in a sense personal retainers1 and ,guards1 who are a corps d'elite of combatants4 ,but the dividing line is not so clear as to any given body of troops4 ,thus the ,british ,household ,cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign's escort4 ,the oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the ,united ,kingdom is the ,king's ,bodyguard of the ,yeomen of the ,guard 7q4v471 formed at his accession by ,henry ,,vii4 ,the nearest guard1 the personal escort of the sovereign1 is the ,king's ,bodyguard of the ,honourable ,corps of ,gentlemen-at-,arms1 created by ,henry ,,viii4 at his accession in #aeji4 ,formed possibly on the pattern of the ,pensionnaires of the ,french kings--retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of the ,maison du ,roi 7see below7--the new corps was originally called the ,pensioners4 ,the importance of such guards regiments in the general development of organized armies is illustrated by a declaration of the ,house of ,commons1 made in #afgd1 that the militia1 the pensioners and the ,yeomen of the ,guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm4 ,but with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding disuse of arms by the nobles and gentry1 the ,gentlemen-at-,arms 7a title which came into use in ,james ,,ii4's time1 though it did not become that of the corps until ,william ,,iv4's7 retaining their noble character1 became less and less military4 ,burke attempted without success in #aghb to restrict membership to officers of the army and navy1 but the necessity of giving the corps an effective military character became obvious when1 on the occasion of a threatened ,chartist riot1 it was called upon to do duty as an armed body at ,st ,james's ,palace4 ,the corps was reconstituted on a purely military basis in #ahfb1 and from that date only military officers of the regular services who have received a war decoration are eligible for appointment4 ,the office of captain1 however1 is political1 the holder 7who is always a peer7 vacating it on the resignation of the government of which he is a member4 ,the corps consists at present of captain1 lieutenant1 standard bearer1 clerk of the cheque 7adjutant71 sub-officer and #ci gentlemen-at-arms4 ,the uniform consists of a scarlet swallow-tailed coat and blue overalls1 with gold epaulettes1 brass dragoon helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs1 these last contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan1 an essentially infantry weapon1 that they carry4 ,the ,royal ,company of ,archers4--,the king's bodyguard for ,scotland was constituted in its present form in the year #afgj1 by an act of the privy council of ,scotland4 ,an earlier origin has been claimed for the company1 some connecting it with a supposed archer guard of the kings of ,scotland4 ,in the above-mentioned year1 #afgf1 the minutes of the ,royal ,company begin by stating1 that owing to the noble and usefull recreation of archery being for many years much neglected1 several noblemen and gentlemen did associate themselves in a company for encouragement thereof 444 and did apply to the privy council for their approbation 444 which was granted4 ,for about twenty years at the end of the #agth century1 perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to the ,stuart cause1 its existence seems to have been suspended4 ,but in #agjc a new captain-general1 ,sir ,george ,mackenzie1 ,viscount ,tarbat1 afterwards earl of ,cromarty 7#afcj-agad71 was elected1 and he procured for the company a new charter from ,queen ,anne4 ,the rights and privileges renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the crown for the reddendo of a pair of barbed arrows4 ,this reddendo was paid to ,george ,,iv4 at ,holyrood in #ahbb1 to ,queen ,victoria in #ahdb and to ,king ,edward ,,vii4 in #aijc4 ,the history of the ,royal ,company since #agjc has been one of great prosperity4 ,large parades were frequently held1 and many distinguished men marched in the ranks4 ,several of the leading insurgents in #agde were members1 but the company was not at that time suspended in any way4 ,in #ahbb when ,king ,george ,,iv4 visited ,scotland1 it was thought appropriate that the ,royal ,company should act as his majesty's bodyguard during his stay1 especially as there was a tradition of a former archer bodyguard4 ,they therefore performed the duties usually assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms4 ,when ,queen ,victoria visited the ,scottish capital in #ahdb1 the ,royal ,company again did duty2 the last time they were called out in her reign in their capacity of royal bodyguard was in #ahfj on the occasion of the great volunteer review in the ,queen's ,park1 ,edinburgh4 ,they acted in the same capacity when ,king ,edward ,,vii4 reviewed the ,scottish ,volunteers there on the #ahth of ,september #aije4 ,king ,george ,,iv4 authorized the company to take1 in addition to their former name1 that of ,the ,king's ,body ,guard for ,scotland1 and presented to the captain-general a gold stick1 thus constituting the company part of the royal household4 ,in virtue of this stick the captain-general of the ,royal ,company takes his place at a coronation or similar pageant immediately behind the gold stick of ,england4 ,the lieutenants-general of the company have silver sticks2 and the council1 which is the executive body of the company1 possess seven ebony ones4 ,george ,,iv4 further appointed a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the company at court1 when not on duty as guards1 in which latter case the ordinary field dress is used4 ,the court dress is green with green velvet facings1 gold epaulettes and lace1 crimson silk sash1 and cocked hat with green plume4 ,the officers wear a gold sash in place of a crimson one1 and an aiguillette on the left shoulder4 ,all ranks wear swords4 ,the field dress at present consists of a dark-green tunic1 shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and trousers trimmed with black and crimson2 a bow-case worn as a sash1 of the same colour as the coat1 black waistbelt with sword1 and ,balmoral bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather4 ,the officers of the company are the captain-general1 #d captains1 #d lieutenants1 #d ensigns1 #ab brigadiers and adjutant4 ,corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of course count as combatant troops--if for no other reason at least because they are armed with the weapons of bygone times4 ,colonel ,clifford ,walton states in his ,history of the ,british ,standing ,army that neither the ,yeomen of the ,guard nor the ,pensioners were ever subject to martial law4 ,the ,british guards and household troops that are armed1 trained and organized as part of the army are the ,household ,cavalry and the ,foot ,guards4 ,the ,household ,cavalry consists at the present day of three regiments1 and has its origin1 as have certain of the ,foot guard regiments1 in the ashes of the ,new ,model army disbanded at the restoration of ,charles ,,ii4 in #affj4 ,in that year the #ast or ,his ,majesty's ,own ,troop of ,guards formed during the king's exile of his cavalier followers1 was taken on the strength of the army4 ,the #bnd troop was formerly in the ,spanish service as the ,duke of ,york's ,guards1 and was also a cavalier unit4 ,in #afgj1 on ,monk's death1 the original #crd troop 7,monk's ,life ,guards1 renamed in #affj the ,lord ,general's ,troop of ,guards7 became the #bnd 7the queen's7 troop1 and the duke of ,york's troop the #crd4 ,in #afhe the #ast and #bnd troops were styled ,life ,guards of ,horse1 and two years later the blue-uniformed ,royal ,regiment of ,horse1 a ,new ,model regiment that had been disbanded and at once re-raised in #affj1 was made a household cavalry corps4 ,later under the colonelcy of the earl of ,oxford it was popularly called ,the ,oxford ,blues4 ,there were also from time to time other troops 7e4g4 ,scots troops #agjj-agdf7 that have now disappeared4 ,in #agdf the #bnd troop was disbanded1 but it was revived in #aghh1 when the two senior corps were given their present title of #ast and #bnd ,life ,guards4 ,from #agej to #ahai the ,blues bore the name of ,royal ,horse ,guards ,blue1 which in #ahai was changed to ,royal ,horse ,guards 7,the ,blues74 ,the general distinction between the uniforms of the red ,life ,guard and the blue ,horse ,guard still exists4 ,the #ast and the #bnd regiments of ,life ,guards wear scarlet tunics with blue collars and cuffs1 and the ,royal ,horse ,guards blue tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs4 ,all three wear steel cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty4 ,the head-dress is a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume 7white for ,life ,guards1 red for ,horse ,guards74 ,in full dress white buckskin pantaloons and long knee boots are worn4 ,amongst the peculiarities of these corps d'elite is the survival of the old custom of calling non-commissioned officers corporal of horse instead of sergeant1 and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major1 the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of a black velvet cap1 a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to the wearer's knees and long white gaiters4 ,there is little distinction between the two ,life ,guards regiments' uniforms1 the most obvious point being that the cord running through the white leather pouch belt is red for the #ast and blue for the #bnd4 ,the ,foot ,guards comprise the ,grenadier ,guards1 the ,coldstream ,guards1 the ,scots ,guards and the ,irish ,guards1 each 7except the last7 of three battalions4 ,the ,grenadiers1 originally the ,first ,foot ,guards1 represent a royalist infantry regiment which served with the exiled princes in the ,spanish army and returned at the ,restoration in #affj4 ,the ,coldstream ,guards are a ,new ,model regiment1 and were originally called the ,lord ,general's 7,monk's7 regiment of ,foot ,guards4 ,their popular title1 which became their official designation in #afgj1 is derived from the fact that the army with which ,monk restored the monarchy crossed the ,tweed into ,england at the village of ,coldstream1 and that his troops 7which were afterwards1 except the two units of horse and foot of which ,monk himself was colonel1 disbanded7 were called the ,coldstreamers4 ,the two battalions of ,scots ,foot ,guards1 which regiment was separately raised and maintained in ,scotland after the ,restoration1 marched to ,london in #afhf and #afhh and were brought on to the ,english ,establishment in #agjg4 ,in ,george ,,iii4's reign they were known as the ,third ,guards1 and from #ahca to #ahgg 7when the present title was adopted7 as the ,scots ,fusilier ,guards4 ,the ,irish ,guards 7one battalion7 were formed in #aijb1 after the ,south ,african ,war1 as a mark of ,queen ,victoria's appreciation of the services rendered by the various ,irish regiments of the line4#a ,the dress of the ,foot ,guards is generally similar in all four regiments1 scarlet tunic with blue collars1 cuffs and shoulder-straps1 blue trousers and high1 rounded bearskin cap4 ,the regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these4 ,the ,grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin1 the ,coldstreams a similar red one1 the ,scots none1 the ,irish a blue-green one4 ,the buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the ,grenadiers1 by twos for the ,coldstreams1 by threes for the ,scots and by fours for the ,irish4 ,the band of the modern cap is red for the ,grenadiers1 white for the ,coldstreams1 diced red and white 7chequers7 for the ,scots and green for the ,irish4 ,former privileges of foot guard regiments1 such as higher brevet rank in the army for their regimental officers1 are now abolished1 but ,guards are still subject exclusively to the command of their own officers1 and the officers of the ,foot ,guards1 like those of the ,household ,cavalry1 have special duties at court4 ,neither the cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as a rule1 but in #aijg a battalion of the ,guards1 which it was at that time proposed to disband1 was sent to ,egypt4 ,guards' ,brigades served in the ,napoleonic ,wars1 in the ,crimea1 in ,egypt at various times from #ahhg to #ahih and in ,south ,africa #ahii-aijb4 ,the last employment of the ,household ,cavalry as a brigade in war was at ,waterloo1 but composite regiments made up from officers and men of the ,life ,guards and ,blues were employed in ,egypt and in ,s4 ,africa4 ,the sovereigns of ,france had guards in their service in ,merovingian times1 and their household forces appear from time to time in the history of medieval wars4 ,louis ,,xi4 was1 however1 the first to regularize their somewhat loose organization1 and he did so to such good purpose that ,francis ,i4 had no less than #hjjj guardsmen organized1 subdivided and permanently under arms4 ,the senior unit of the ,gardes du ,corps was the famous company of ,scottish archers 7,compagnie ecossaise de la ,garde du ,corps du ,roi71 which was originally formed 7#adah7 from the ,scottish contingents that assisted the ,french in the ,hundred ,years' ,war4 ,scott's ,quentin ,durward gives a picture of life in the corps as it was under ,louis ,,xi4 ,in the following century1 however1 its regimental history becomes somewhat confused4 ,two ,french companies were added by ,louis ,,xi4 and ,francis ,i4 and the ,gardes du ,corps came to consist exclusively of cavalry4 ,about #afcd nearly all the ,scots then serving went into the regiment d',hebron and thence later into the ,british regular army 7see ,,hepburn1 ,,sir ,,john74 ,thereafter1 though the titles1 distinctions and privileges of the original ,archer ,guard were continued1 it was recruited from native ,frenchmen1 preference being 7at any rate at first7 given to those of ,scottish descent4 ,at its disbandment in #agia along with the rest of the ,gardes du ,corps1 it contained few1 if any1 native ,scots4 ,there was also1 for a short time 7#afdc-affj71 an infantry regiment of ,gardes ecossaises4 ,in #afga the title of ,maison ,militaire du ,roi was applied to that portion of the household that was distinctively military4 ,it came to consist of #d companies of the ,gardes du ,corps1 #b companies of ,mousquetaires 7cavalry7 7formed #afbb and #affj71 #a company of ,chevaux legers 7#aegj71 #a of ,gendarmes de la ,maison ,rouge1 and #a of ,grenadiers a ,cheval 7#afgf71 with #a company of ,gardes de la ,porte and one called the ,cent-,suisses1 the last two being semi-military4 ,this large establishment1 which did not include all the guard regiments1 was considerably reduced by the ,count of ,st ,germain's reforms in #agge1 all except the ,gardes du ,corps and the ,cent-,suisses being disbanded4 ,the whole of the ,maison du ,roi1 with the exception of the semi-military bodies referred to1 was cavalry4 ,the ,gardes francaises1 formed in #aefc1 did not form part of the ,maison4 ,they were an infantry regiment1 as were the famous ,gardes suisses1 originally a ,swiss mercenary regiment in the ,wars of ,religion1 which was1 for good conduct at the combat of ,arques1 incorporated in the permanent establishment by ,henry ,,iv4 in #aehi and in the guards in #afae4 ,at the ,revolution1 contrary to expectation1 the ,french ,guards sided openly with the ,constitutional movement and were disbanded4 ,the ,swiss ,guards1 however1 being foreigners1 and therefore unaffected by civil troubles1 retained their exact discipline and devotion to the court to the day on which they were sacrificed by their master to the bullets of the ,marseillais and the pikes of the mob 7,august #aj1 #agib74 ,their tragic fate is commemorated by the well-known monument called the ,lion of ,lucerne1 the work of ,thorvaldsen1 erected near ,lucerne in #ahba4 ,the ,constitutional1 ,revolutionary and other guards that were created after the abolition of the ,maison and the slaughter of the ,swiss are unimportant1 but through the ,directory ,guards they form a nominal link between the household troops of the monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous ,guard in history4 ,the ,imperial ,guard of ,napoleon had its beginnings in an escort squadron called the ,corps of ,guides1 which accompanied him in the ,italian campaign of #agif-agig and in ,egypt4 ,on becoming ,first ,consul in #agii he built up out of this and of the guard of the ,directory a small corps of horse and foot1 called the ,consular ,guard1 and this1 which was more of a fighting unit than a personal bodyguard1 took part in the battle of ,marengo4 ,the ,imperial ,guard1 into which it was converted on the establishment of the ,empire1 was at first of about the strength of a division4 ,as such it took part in the ,austerlitz and ,jena campaigns1 but after the conquest of ,prussia ,napoleon augmented it1 and divided it into the ,old ,guard and the ,young ,guard4 ,subsequently the ,middle ,guard was created1 and by successive augmentations the corps of the guard had grown to be #eg1jjj strong in #ahaa-ahab and #ha1jjj in #ahac4 ,it preserved its general character as a corps d'elite of veterans to the last1 but from about #ahac the ,young ,guard was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript contingent4 ,the officers held a higher rank in the army than their regimental rank in the ,guards4 ,at the first ,restoration an attempt was made to revive the ,maison du ,roi1 but in the constitutional regime of the second ,restoration this semi-medieval form of bodyguard was given up and replaced by the ,garde ,royale1 a selected fighting corps4 ,this took part in the short war with ,spain and a portion of it fought in ,algeria1 but it was disbanded at the ,july ,revolution4 ,louis ,philippe had no real guard troops1 but the memories of the ,imperial ,guard were revived by ,napoleon ,,iii41 who formed a large guard corps in #ahec-ahed4 ,this1 however1 was open to an even greater degree than ,napoleon ,i4's guard to the objection that it took away the best soldiers from the line4 ,since the fall of the ,empire in #ahgj there have been no guard troops in ,france4 ,the duty of watching over the safety of the president is taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed in the capital4 ,the ,republican ,guard is the ,paris gendarmerie1 recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body4 ,in ,austria-,hungary there are only small bodies of household troops 7,archer ,body ,guard1 ,trabant ,guard1 ,hungarian ,crown ,guards1 c47 analogous to the ,british ,gentlemen at ,arms or ,yeomen of the ,guard4 ,similar forces1 the ,noble ,guard and the ,swiss ,guard1 are maintained in the ,vatican4 ,the court troops of ,spain are called halberdiers and armed with the halbert4 ,in ,russia the ,guard is organized as an army corps4 ,it possesses special privileges1 particularly as regards officers' advancement4 ,in ,germany the distinction between armed retainers and ,guards is well marked4 ,the army is for practical purposes a unit under imperial control1 while household troops 7castle-guards as they are usually called7 belong individually to the various sovereigns within the empire4 ,the ,guards1 as a combatant force in the army are those of the king of ,prussia and constitute a strong army corps4 ,this has grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers1 and1 as in ,great ,britain1 the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments of the ,guard preserve to some extent the name and character of a body guard 7,gardes du ,corps74 ,the senior foot guard regiment is also personally connected with the royal family4 ,the conversion of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to ,frederick ,william ,i41 to whom drill was a ruling passion1 and who substituted effective regiments for the ornamental ,trabant ,guards of his father4 ,a further move was made by ,frederick the ,great in substituting for ,frederick ,william's expensive giant regiment of guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers1 whom he subjected to the same rigorous training and made a corps d'elite4 ,frederick the ,great also formed the ,body ,guard alluded to above4 ,nevertheless in #ahjf the ,guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments and four infantry regiments1 and it was the example of ,napoleon's imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of all arms4 ,in #ahac its strength was that of a weak division1 but in #ahfj by slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an army corps1 complete with all auxiliary services4 ,a few guard regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the line of the ,german army4 ,in war the ,guard is employed as a unit1 like other army corps4 ,it is recruited by the assignment of selected young men of each annual contingent1 and is thus free from the reproach of the ,french ,imperial ,guard1 which took the best-trained soldiers from the regiments of the line4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the ,irish ,guards of the ,stuarts took the side of ,james ,,ii41 fought against ,william ,,iii4 in ,ireland and lost their regimental identity in the ,french service to which the officers and soldiers transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle4 ,,guard-,,ship1 a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a guard1 and in former times in the ,british navy to receive the men impressed for service4 ,she usually was the flagship of the admiral commanding on the coast4 ,a guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see that due watch is kept at night4 ,,guarico1 a large inland state of ,venezuela created by the territorial redivision of #aijd1 bounded by ,aragua and ,miranda on the ,n41 ,bermudez on the ,e41 ,bolivar on the ,s41 and ,zamora on the ,w4 ,pop4 7#aije estimate71 #gh1aag4 ,it extends across the northern llanos to the ,orinoco and ,apure rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits1 exporting cattle1 horses and mules1 hides and skins1 cheese and some other products4 ,the capital is ,calabozo1 and the other principal towns are ,camaguan 7pop4 #cfdh7 on the ,portugueza river1 ,guayabal 7pop4 #cadf71 on a small tributary of the ,guarico river1 and ,zaraza 7pop4 #ad1edf7 on the ,unare river1 nearly #aej m4 ,s4,e4 of ,caracas4 ,,guariento1 sometimes incorrectly named ,,guerriero1 the first ,paduan painter who distinguished himself4 ,the only date distinctly known in his career is #acfe1 when1 having already acquired high renown in his native city1 he was invited by the ,venetian authorities to paint a ,paradise1 and some incidents of the war of ,spoleto1 in the great council-hall of ,venice4 ,these works were greatly admired at the time1 but have long ago disappeared under repaintings4 ,his works in ,padua have suffered much4 ,in the church of the ,eremitani are allegories of the ,planets1 and1 in its choir1 some small sacred histories in dead colour1 such as an ,ecce ,homo2 also1 on the upper walls1 the life of ,st ,augustine1 with some other subjects4 ,a few fragments of other paintings by ,guariento are still extant in ,padua4 ,in the gallery of ,bassano is a ,crucifixion1 carefully executed1 and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method of handling1 although on the whole ,guariento must rather be classed in that school of art which preceded ,cimabue than as having advanced in his vestiges2 likewise two other works in ,bassano1 ascribed to the same hand4 ,the painter is buried in the church of ,s4 ,bernardino1 ,padua4 ,,guarini1 ,,camillo-,,guarino 7#afbd-afhc71 ,italian monk1 writer and architect1 was born at ,modena in #afbd4 ,he was at once a learned mathematician1 professor of literature and philosophy at ,messina1 and1 from the age of seventeen1 was architect to ,duke ,philibert of ,savoy4 ,he designed a very large number of public and private buildings at ,turin1 including the palaces of the duke of ,savoy and the prince of ,cacignan1 and many public buildings at ,modena1 ,verona1 ,vienna1 ,prague1 ,lisbon and ,paris4 ,he died at ,milan in #afhc4 ,,guarini1 ,,giovanni ,,battista 7#aecg-afab71 ,italian poet1 author of the ,pastor fido1 was born at ,ferrara on the #ajth of ,december #aecg1 just seven years before the birth of ,tasso4 ,he was descended from ,guarino da ,verona4 ,the young ,battista studied both at ,pisa and ,padua1 whence he was called1 when not yet twenty1 to profess moral philosophy in the schools of his native city4 ,he inherited considerable wealth1 and was able early in life to marry ,taddea de' ,bendedei1 a lady of good birth4 ,in #aefg he entered the service of ,alphonso ,,ii41 duke of ,ferrara1 thus beginning the court career which was destined to prove a constant source of disappointment and annoyance to him4 ,though he cultivated poetry for pastime1 ,guarini aimed at state employment as the serious business of his life1 and managed to be sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master4 ,there was1 however1 at the end of the #afth century no opportunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish himself in the petty sphere of ,italian diplomacy4 ,the time too had passed when the profession of a courtier1 painted in such glowing terms by ,castiglione1 could confer either profit or honour4 ,it is true that the court of ,alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to ,europe1 with ,tasso for titular poet1 and an attractive circle of accomplished ladies4 ,but the last duke of ,ferrara was an illiberal patron1 feeding his servants with promises1 and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that condemned the author of the ,gerusalemme liberata to a madhouse4 ,guarini spent his time and money to little purpose1 suffered from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries1--,pigna and ,montecatini1--quarrelled with his old friend ,tasso1 and at the end of fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined1 with a large family and no prospects4 ,when ,tasso was condemned to ,s4 ,anna1 the duke promoted ,guarini to the vacant post of court poet4 ,there is an interesting letter extant from the latter to his friend ,cornelio ,bentivoglio1 describing the efforts he made to fill this place appropriately4 ,i strove to transform myself into another person1 and1 like a player1 reassumed the character1 costume and feelings of my youth4 ,advanced in manhood1 ,i forced myself to look young2 ,i turned my natural melancholy into artificial gaiety1 affected loves ,i did not feel1 exchanged wisdom for folly1 and1 in a word1 passed from a philosopher into a poet4 ,how ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered from the following sentence3 ,i am already in my forty-fourth year1 the father of eight children1 two of whom are old enough to be my censors1 while my daughters are of an age to marry4 ,abandoning so uncongenial a strain upon his faculties1 ,guarini retired in #aehb to his ancestral farm1 the ,villa ,guarina1 in the lovely country that lies between the ,adige and ,po1 where he gave himself up to the cares of his family1 the nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the ,pastor fido4 ,he was not happy in his domestic lot2 for he had lost his wife young1 and quarrelled with his elder sons about the division of his estate4 ,litigation seems to have been an inveterate vice with ,guarini2 nor was he ever free from legal troubles4 ,after studying his biography1 the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally a man of robust and virile intellect1 ambitious of greatness1 confident in his own powers1 and well qualified for serious affairs1 whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise4 ,literary work offered but a poor sphere for such a character1 while the enforced inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper4 ,of poetry he spoke with a certain tone of condescension1 professing to practise it only in his leisure moments2 nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to secure for their author a very lasting reputation4 ,it is therefore not a little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement--a disappointed courtier past the prime of early manhood--should have been a dramatic masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of ,italian literature4 ,deferring a further account of the ,pastor fido for the present1 the remaining incidents of ,guarini's restless life may be briefly told4 ,in #aehe he was at ,turin superintending the first public performance of his drama1 whence ,alphonso recalled him to ,ferrara1 and gave him the office of secretary of state4 ,this reconciliation between the poet and his patron did not last long4 ,guarini moved to ,florence1 then to ,rome1 and back again to ,florence1 where he established himself as the courtier of ,ferdinand de' ,medici4 ,a dishonourable marriage1 pressed upon his son ,guarino by the grand-duke1 roused the natural resentment of ,guarini1 always scrupulous upon the point of honour4 ,he abandoned the ,medicean court1 and took refuge with ,francesco ,maria of ,urbino1 the last scion of the ,montefeltro-della-,rovere house4 ,yet he found no satisfaction at ,urbino4 ,the old court is a dead institution1 he writes to a friend2 one may see a shadow of it1 but not the substance in ,italy of to-day4 ,ours is an age of appearances1 and one goes a-masquerading all the year4 ,this was true enough4 ,those dwindling deadly-lively little residence towns of ,italian ducal families1 whose day of glory was over1 and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of ,austria1 were no fit places for a man of energy and independence4 ,guarini finally took refuge in his native ,ferrara1 which1 since the death of ,alphonso1 had now devolved to the papal see4 ,here1 and at the ,villa ,guarina1 his last years were passed in study1 law-suits1 and polemical disputes with his contemporary critics1 until #afab1 when he died at ,venice in his seventy-fifth year4 ,the ,pastor fido 7first published in #aeij7 is a pastoral drama composed not without reminiscences of ,tasso's ,aminta4 ,the scene is laid in ,arcadia1 where ,guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice a maiden yearly to ,diana4 ,but an oracle has declared that when two scions of divine lineage are united in marriage1 and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the ancient error of a faithless woman1 this inhuman rite shall cease4 ,the plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy1 contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for bringing it to accomplishment1 and in despite of apparent improbabilities of divers kinds4 ,it is extremely elaborate1 and1 regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism1 leaves nothing to be desired4 ,each motive has been carefully prepared1 each situation amply developed4 ,yet1 considered as a play1 the ,pastor fido disappoints a reader trained in the school of ,sophocles or ,shakespeare4 ,the action itself seems to take place off the stage1 and only the results of action1 stationary tableaux representing the movement of the drama1 are put before us in the scenes4 ,the art is lyrical1 not merely in form but in spirit1 and in adaptation to the requirements of music which demands stationary expressions of emotion for development4 ,the characters have been well considered1 and are exhibited with great truth and vividness2 the cold and eager hunter ,silvio contrasting with the tender and romantic ,mirtillo1 and ,corisca's meretricious arts enhancing the pure affection of ,amarilli4 ,dorinda presents another type of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of shame1 while the courtier ,carino brings the corruption of towns into comparison with the innocence of the country4 ,in ,carino the poet painted his own experience1 and here his satire upon the court of ,ferrara is none the less biting because it is gravely measured4 ,in ,corisca he delineated a woman vitiated by the same town life1 and a very hideous portrait has he drawn4 ,though a satirical element was thus introduced into the ,pastor fido in order to relieve its ideal picture of ,arcadia1 the whole play is but a study of contemporary feeling in ,italian society4 ,there is no true rusticity whatever in the drama4 ,this correspondence with the spirit of the age secured its success during ,guarini's lifetime2 this made it so dangerously seductive that ,cardinal ,bellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to ,christendom by his blandishments than ,luther by his heresy4 ,without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum1 the ,pastor fido is steeped in sensuousness2 and the immodesty of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more provocative than nudity4 ,moreover1 the love described is effeminate and wanton1 felt less as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil of sentiment4 ,we divine the coming age of cicisbei and castrati4 ,of ,guarini's style it would be difficult to speak in terms of too high praise4 ,the thought and experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts1 and have found expression in language brilliant1 classical1 chiselled to perfection4 ,here and there the taste of the #agth century makes itself felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses2 nor does ,guarini abstain from sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet4 ,yet these are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction1 glittering and faultless like a polished bas-relief of hard ,corinthian bronze4 ,that a single pastoral should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature seems astonishing1 until we reflect that ,italy1 upon the close of the #afth century1 expressed itself in the ,pastor fido1 and that the influence of this drama was felt through all the art of ,europe till the epoch of the ,revolution4 ,it is not a mere play4 ,the sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found in it the most exact embodiment1 and made it the code of gallantry for the next two centuries4 ,the best edition of the ,pastor fido is the #bjth1 published at ,venice 7,ciotti7 in #afjb4 ,the most convenient is that of ,barbera 7,florence1 #ahff74 ,for ,guarini's miscellaneous ,rime1 the ,ferrara edition1 in #d vols41 #agcg1 may be consulted4 ,his polemical writings1 ,verato primo and secondo1 and his prose comedy called ,idropica1 were published at ,venice1 ,florence and ,rome1 between #aehh and #afad4 7,j4 ,a4 ,s47 ,,guarino1 also known as ,,varinus1 and surnamed from his birthplace ,,favorinus1 ,,phavorinus or ,,camers 7c4 #adej-aecg71 ,italian lexicographer and scholar1 was born at ,favera near ,camerino1 studied ,greek and ,latin at ,florence under ,politian1 and afterwards became for a time the pupil of ,lascaris4 ,having entered the ,benedictine order1 he now gave himself with great zeal to ,greek lexicography2 and in #adif published his ,thesaurus cornucopiae et horti ,adonidis1 a collection of thirty-four grammatical tracts in ,greek4 ,he for some time acted as tutor to ,giovanni dei ,medici 7afterwards ,leo ,x471 and also held the appointment of keeper of the ,medicean library at ,florence4 ,in #aead ,leo appointed him bishop of ,nocera4 ,in #aeag he published a translation of the ,apophthegmata of ,joannes ,stobaeus1 and in #aebc appeared his ,etymologicum magnum1 sive thesaurus universae linguae ,graecae ex multis variisque autoribus collectus1 a compilation which has been frequently reprinted1 and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged obligations4 ,,guarino ,,guarinus ,,da ,,verona 7#acgj-adfj71 one of the ,italian restorers of classical learning1 was born in #acgj at ,verona1 and studied ,greek at ,constantinople1 where for five years he was the pupil of ,manuel ,chrysoloras4 ,when he set out on his return to ,italy he was the happy possessor of two cases of precious ,greek ,,mss4 which he had been at great pains to collect2 it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night4 ,he supported himself as a teacher of ,greek1 first at ,verona and afterwards in ,venice and ,florence2 in #adcf he became1 through the patronage of ,lionel1 marquis of ,este1 professor of ,greek at ,ferrara2 and in #adch and following years he acted as interpreter for the ,greeks at the councils of ,ferrara and ,florence4 ,he died at ,ferrara on the #adth of ,december #adfj4 ,his principal works are translations of ,strabo and of some of the ,lives of ,plutarch1 a compendium of the ,greek grammar of ,chrysoloras1 and a series of commentaries on ,persius1 ,juvenal1 ,martial and on some of the writings of ,aristotle and ,cicero4 ,see ,rosmini1 ,vita e disciplina di ,guarino 7#ahje-ahjf72 ,sabbadini1 ,guarino ,veronese 7#ahhe72 ,sandys1 ,hist4 ,class4 ,schol4 ii4 7#aijh74 ,,guarnieri1 or ,,guarnerius1 a celebrated family of violin-makers of ,cremona4 ,the first was ,andreas 7c4 #afbf-afih71 who worked with ,antonio ,stradivari in the workshop of ,nicolo ,amati 7son of ,geronimo74 ,violins of a model original to him are dated from the sign of ,st ,theresa in ,cremona4 ,his son ,joseph 7#afff-;c4 #agci7 made instruments at first like his father's1 but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist2 his son1 ,peter of ,venice 7b4 #afie71 was also a fine maker4 ,another son of ,andreas1 ,peter 7,pietro ,giovanni71 commonly known as ,peter of ,cremona 7b4 #afee71 moved from ,cremona and settled at ,mantua1 where he too worked sub signo ,sanctae ,teresae4 ,peter's violins again showed considerable variations from those of the other ,guarnieri4 ,hart1 in his work on the violin1 says1 ,there is increased breadth between the sound-holes2 the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular2 the middle bouts are more contracted1 and the model is more raised4 ,the greatest of all the ,guarnieri1 however1 was a nephew of ,andreas1 ,joseph del ,gesu 7#afhg-agde71 whose title originates in the ,i4,h4,s4 inscribed on his tickets4 ,his master was ,gaspar di ,salo4 ,his conception follows that of the early ,brescian makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection of form4 ,the great variety of his work in size1 model1 c41 represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering this tone4 ,a stain or sap-mark1 parallel with the finger-board on both sides1 appears on the bellies of most of his instruments4 ,since the middle of the #ahth century a great many spurious instruments ascribed to this master have poured over ,europe4 ,it was not until ,paganini played on a ,joseph that the taste of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the ,amati and the ,stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the ,joseph ,guarnerius4 ,see ,,violin4 ,,guastalla1 a town and episcopal see of ,emilia1 ,italy1 in the province of ,reggio1 from which it is #ah m4 ,n4 by road1 on the ,s4 bank of the ,po1 #gi ft4 above sea-level4 ,it is also connected by rail with ,parma and ,mantua 7via ,suzzara74 ,pop4 7#aija71 #bfeh 7town72 #aa1jia 7commune74 ,it has #afth-century fortifications4 ,the cathedral1 dating from the #ajth century1 has been frequently restored4 ,guastalla was founded by the ,lombards in the #gth century2 in the church of the ,pieve ,pope ,paschal ,,ii4 held a council in #aajf4 ,in #acjg it was seized by ,giberto da ,correggio of ,parma4 ,in #adjc it passed to ,guido ,torello1 cousin of ,filippo ,maria ,visconti of ,milan4 ,in #aeci it was sold by the last female descendant of the ,torelli to ,ferrante ,gonzaga4 ,in #afba it was made the seat of a duchy1 but in #agdh it was added to those of ,parma and ,piacenza1 whose history it subsequently followed4 ,,guatemala 7sometimes incorrectly written ,,guatimala71 a name now restricted to the republic of ,guatemala and to its chief city1 but formerly given to a captaincy-general of ,spanish ,america1 which included the fifteen provinces of ,chiapas1 ,suchitepeques1 ,escuintla1 ,sonsonate1 ,san ,salvador1 ,vera ,paz and ,peten1 ,chiquimula1 ,honduras1 ,nicaragua1 ,costa ,rica1 ,totonicapam1 ,quezaltenango1 ,solola1 ,chimaltenango and ,sacatepeques1--or1 in other words1 the whole of ,central ,america 7except ,panama7 and part of ,mexico4 ,the name is probably of ,aztec origin1 and is said by some authorities to mean in its native form ,quauhtematlan1 ,land of the ,eagle1 or ,land of ,forest2 others1 writing it ,u-ha-tez-ma-la1 connect it with the volcano of ,agua 7i4e4 water71 and interpret it as mountain vomiting water4 ,the republic of ,guatemala is situated between #ac deg4 #db' and #ag deg4 #di' ,n41 and #hh deg4 #aj' and #ib deg4 #cj' ,w4 7,for map1 see ,,central ,,america47 ,pop4 7#aijc71 #a1hdb1acd2 area about #dh1bej sq4 m4 ,guatemala is bounded on the ,w4 and ,n4 by ,mexico1 ,n4,e4 by ,british ,honduras1 ,e4 by the ,gulf of ,honduras1 and the republic of ,honduras1 ,s4,e4 by ,salvador and ,s4 by the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the frontier towards ,mexico was determined by conventions of the #bgth of ,september #ahhb1 the #agth of ,october #ahhc1 the #ast of ,april #ahie1 and the #hth of ,may #ahii4 ,starting from the ,pacific1 it ascends the river ,suchiate1 then follows an irregular line towards the north-east1 till it reaches the parallel of #ag deg4 #dimin ,n41 along which it runs to the frontier of ,british ,honduras4 ,this frontier1 by the convention of the #ith of ,july #ahic1 coincides with the meridian of #hi deg4 #bjmin ,w41 till it meets the river ,sarstoon or ,sarstun1 which it follows eastwards to the ,gulf of ,honduras4 ,physical ,description4--,guatemala is naturally divided into five regions--the lowlands of the ,pacific coast1 the volcanic mountains of the ,sierra ,madre1 the so-called plateaus immediately north of these1 the mountains of the ,atlantic versant and the plain of ,peten4 7#a7 ,the coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard1 with a mean breadth of #ej m41 and link together the belts of similar territory in ,salvador and the district of ,soconusco in ,chiapas4 ,owing to their tropical heat1 low elevation above sea-level1 and marshy soil1 they are thinly peopled1 and contain few important towns except the seaports4 7#b7 ,the precipitous barrier of the ,sierra ,madre1 which closes in the coastal plains on the north1 is similarly prolonged into ,salvador and ,mexico4 ,it is known near ,guatemala city as the ,sierra de las ,nubes1 and enters ,mexico as the ,sierra de ,istatan4 ,it forms the main watershed between the ,pacific and ,atlantic river systems4 ,its summit is not a well-defined crest1 but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land4 ,the direction of the great volcanic cones1 which rise in an irregular line above it1 is not identical with the main axis of the ,sierra itself1 except near the ,mexican frontier1 but has a more southerly trend1 especially towards ,salvador2 here the base of many of the igneous peaks rests among the southern foothills of the range4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to subdivide the ,sierra ,madre into a northern and a volcanic chain2 for the volcanoes are isolated by stretches of comparatively low country2 at least thirteen considerable streams flow down between them1 from the main watershed to the sea4 ,viewed from the coast1 the volcanic cones seem to rise directly from the central heights of the ,sierra ,madre1 above which they tower2 but in reality their bases are1 as a rule1 farther south4 ,east of ,tacana1 which marks the ,mexican frontier1 and is variously estimated at #ac1igf ft4 and #ac1jij ft41 and if the higher estimate be correct is the loftiest peak in ,central ,america1 the principal volcanoes are--,tajamulco or ,tajumulco 7#ac1eag ft472 ,santa ,maria 7#ab1dfg ft471 which was in eruption during #aijb1 after centuries of quiescence1 in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests2 ,atitlan 7#aa1gai71 overlooking the lake of that name2 ,acatenango 7#ac1fae74 which shares the claim of ,tacana to be the highest mountain of ,central ,america2 ,fuego 7i4e4 fire1 variously estimated at #ab1gie ft4 and #ab1ehb ft471 which received its name from its activity at the time of the ,spanish conquest2 ,agua 7i4e4 water1 #ab1aci ft471 so named in #aeda because it destroyed the former capital of ,guatemala with a deluge of water from its flooded crater2 and ,pacaya 7#hcij71 a group of igneous peaks which were in eruption in #ahgj4 7#c7 ,the so-called plateaus which extend north of the ,sierra ,madre are in fact high valleys1 rather than table-lands1 enclosed by mountains4 ,a better idea of this region is conveyed by the native name ,altos1 or highlands1 although that term includes the northern declivity of the ,sierra ,madre4 ,the mean elevation is greatest in the west 7,altos of ,quezaltenango7 and least in the east 7,altos of ,guatemala74 ,a few of the streams of the ,pacific slope actually rise in the ,altos1 and force a way through the ,sierra ,madre at the bottom of deep ravines4 ,one large river1 the ,chixoy1 escapes northwards towards the ,atlantic4 7#d7 ,the relief of the mountainous country which lies north of the ,altos and drains into the ,atlantic is varied by innumerable terraces1 ridges and underfalls2 but its general configuration is admirably compared by ,e4 ,reclus with the appearance of a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows 7,universal ,geography1 ed4 ,e4 ,g4 ,ravenstein1 div4 xxxiii41 p4 #bab74 ,the parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight southerly curve towards their centres4 ,a range called the ,sierra de ,chama1 which1 however1 changes its name frequently from place to place1 strikes eastward towards ,british ,honduras1 and is connected by low hills with the ,cockscomb ,mountains2 another similar range1 the ,sierra de ,santa ,cruz1 continues east to ,cape ,cocoli between the ,polochic and the ,sarstoon2 and a third1 the ,sierra de las ,minas or1 in its eastern portion1 ,sierra del ,mico1 stretches between the ,polochic and the ,motagua4 ,between ,honduras and ,guatemala the frontier is formed by the ,sierra de ,merendon4 7#e7 ,the great plain of ,peten1 which comprises about one-third of the whole area of ,guatemala1 belongs geographically to the ,yucatan ,peninsula1 and consists of level or undulating country1 covered with grass or forest4 ,its population numbers less than two per sq4 m41 although many districts have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water4 ,the greater part of this region is uncultivated1 and only utilized as pasture by the ,indians1 who form the majority of its inhabitants4 ,guatemala is richly watered4 ,on the western side of the sierras the versant is short1 and the streams1 while very numerous1 are consequently small and rapid2 but on the eastern side a number of the rivers attain a very considerable development4 ,the ,motagua1 whose principal head stream is called the ,rio ,grande1 has a course of about #bej m41 and is navigable to within #ij m4 of the capital1 which is situated on one of its confluents1 the ,rio de las ,vacas4 ,it forms a delta on the south of the ,gulf of ,honduras4 ,of similar importance is the ,polochic1 which is about #ahj m4 in length1 and navigable about #bj m4 above the river-port of ,teleman4 ,before reaching the ,golfo ,amatique it passes through the ,golfo ,dulce1 or ,izabal ,lake1 and the ,golfete ,dulce4 ,a vast number of streams1 among which are the ,chixoy1 the ,guadalupe1 and the ,rio de la ,pasion1 unite to form the ,usumacinta1 whose noble current passes along the ,mexican frontier1 and flowing on through ,chiapas and ,tabasco1 falls into the ,bay of ,campeche4 ,the ,chiapas follows a similar course4 ,there are several extensive lakes in ,guatemala4 ,the ,lake of ,peten or ,laguna de ,flores1 in the centre of the department of ,peten1 is an irregular basin about #bg m4 long1 with an extreme breadth of #ac m4 ,in an island in the western portion stands ,flores1 a town well known to ,american antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been recovered from its soil4 ,on the shore of the lake is the stalactite cave of ,jobitsinal1 of great local celebrity2 and in its depths1 according to the popular legend1 may still be discerned the stone image of a horse that belonged to ,cortes4 ,the ,golfo ,dulce is1 as its name implies1 a fresh-water lake1 although so near the ,atlantic4 ,it is about #cf m4 long1 and would be of considerable value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of the ,rio ,dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels4 ,as a contrast the ,lake of ,atitlan 7q4v47 is a land-locked basin encompassed with lofty mountains4 ,about #i m4 ,s4 of the capital lies the ,lake of ,amatitlan 7q4v47 with the town of the same name4 ,on the borders of ,salvador and ,guatemala there is the ,lake of ,guija1 about #bj m4 long and #ab broad1 at a height of #bajj ft4 above the sea4 ,it is connected by the river ,ostuma with the ,lake of ,ayarza which lies about #ajjj ft4 higher at the foot of the ,sierra ,madre4 ,the geology1 fauna and flora of ,guatemala are discussed under ,,central ,,america4 ,the bird-life of the country is remarkably rich2 one bird of magnificent plumage1 the quetzal1 quijal or quesal 7,trogon resplendens71 has been chosen as the national emblem4 ,climate4--,the climate is healthy1 except on the coasts1 where malarial fever is prevalent4 ,the rainy season in the interior lasts from ,may to ,october1 but on the coast sometimes continues till ,december4 ,the coldest month is ,january1 and the warmest is ,may4 ,the average temperatures for these months at places of different altitudes1 as given by ,dr ,karl ,sapper1 are shown on the following page4 ,the average rainfall is very heavy1 especially on the ,atlantic slope1 where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the ,gulf of ,mexico or the ,caribbean ,sea2 at ,tual1 a high station on the ,atlantic slope1 it reaches #aie in42 in central ,guatemala it is only #bg in4 ,towards the ,atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season1 and there is a local saying near the ,golfo ,dulce that it rains thirteen months in the year4 ,fogs are not rare4 ,in ,guatemala1 as in other parts of ,central ,america 7q4v471 each of the three climatic zones1 cold1 temperate and hot 7tierra fria1 tierra templada1 tierra caliente7 has its special characteristics1 and it is not easy to generalize about the climate of the country as a whole4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,altitude ,fahrenheit ,degrees4 ,locality4 7,feet74 -------------------- ,january4 ,may4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,puerto ,barrios #f #gd #ha ,salama #cjbj #fh #gg ,campur #cjej #fd #gc ,chimax #dbhj #fa #fh ,guatemala #dhgj #fj #fg ,quezaltenango #ggaj #ej #fb ---------------------------------------- ----- ,natural ,products4--,the minerals discovered in ,guatemala include gold1 silver1 lead1 tin1 copper1 mercury1 antimony1 coal1 salt and sulphur2 but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities sufficient to repay exploitation4 ,gold is obtained at ,las ,quebradas near ,izabal1 silver in the departments of ,santa ,rosa and ,chiquimula1 salt in those of ,santa ,rosa and ,alta ,vera ,paz4 ,during the #agth century gold-washing was carried on by ,english miners in the ,motagua valley1 and is said to have yielded rich profits2 hence the name of ,gold ,coast was not infrequently given to the ,atlantic littoral near the mouth of the ,motagua4 ,the area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west1 and amounted to #bjcj sq4 m4 in #aijd4 ,besides rubber1 it yields many valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods1 such as cedar1 mahogany and logwood4 ,fruits1 grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great abundance1 especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin1 as in the ,altos and ,sierra ,madre4 ,parts of the ,peten district are equally fertile1 maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured soil4 ,the vegetable products of ,guatemala include coffee1 cocoa1 sugar-cane1 bananas1 oranges1 vanilla1 aloes1 agave1 ipecacuanha1 castor-oil1 sarsaparilla1 cinchona1 tobacco1 indigo and the wax-plant 7,myrica cerifera74 ,inhabitants4--,the inhabitants of ,guatemala1 who tend to increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate1 low mortality1 and low rate of emigration1 numbered in #aijc #a1hdb1acd1 or more than one-third of the entire population of ,central ,america4 ,fully #fj are pure ,indians1 and the remainder1 classed as ,ladinos or ,latins 7i4e4 ,spaniards in speech and mode of life71 comprise a large majority of half-castes 7mestizos7 and civilized ,indians and a smaller proportion of whites4 ,it includes a foreign population of about #ab1jjj ,europeans and ,north ,americans1 among them being many ,jews from the west of the ,united ,states4 ,there are important ,german agricultural settlements1 and many colonists from north ,italy who are locally called ,tiroleses1 and despised by the ,indians for their industry and thrift4 ,about half the births among the ,indians and one-third among the whites are illegitimate4 ,no part of ,central ,america contains a greater diversity of tribes1 and in #ahhc ,otto ,stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen1 although east of the meridian of ,lake ,amatitlan the native speech has almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by ,spanish4 ,the ,indians belong chiefly to the ,maya stock1 which predominates throughout ,peten1 or to the allied ,quiche race which is well represented in the ,altos and central districts4 ,the ,itzas1 ,mopans1 ,lacandons1 ,chols1 ,pokonchi and the ,pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of ,mixco near the capital1 all belong to the ,maya family2 but parts of central and eastern ,guatemala are peopled by tribes distinct from the ,mayas and not found in ,mexico4 ,in the #afth century the ,mayas and ,quiches had attained a high level of civilization 7see ,,central ,,america1 ,archaeology71 and at least two of the ,guatemalan languages1 ,quiche and ,cakchiquel1 possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature4 ,the ,quiche ,popol ,vuh1 or ,book of ,history1 which was translated into ,spanish by the ,dominican friar ,ximenes1 and edited with a ,french version by ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 is an important document for students of the local myths4 ,in appearance the various ,guatemalan tribes differ very little2 in almost all the characteristic type of ,indian is short but muscular1 with low forehead1 prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair4 ,in character the ,indians are1 as a rule1 peaceable1 though conscious of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics2 they are often intensely religious1 but with a few exceptions are thriftless1 indolent and inveterate gamblers4 ,their confradias1 or brotherhoods1 each with its patron saint and male and female chiefs1 exist largely to organize public festivals1 and to purchase wooden masks1 costumes and decorations for the dances and dramas in which the ,indians delight4 ,these dramas1 which deal with religious and historical subjects1 are of ,indian origin1 and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval ,europe1 a resemblance heightened by the introduction1 due to ,spanish missionaries1 of ,christian saints and heroes such as ,charlemagne4 ,the ,indians are devoted to bull-fighting and cock-fighting4 ,choral singing is a popular amusement1 and is accompanied by the ,spanish guitar and native wind-instruments4 ,the ,indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth containing sulphur2 on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit1 and eat the images as a prophylactic against disease4 ,maize1 beans and bananas1 varied occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork1 form their staple diet2 drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals1 when large quantities of a fiery brandy called chicha are consumed4 ,chief ,towns4--,the capital of the republic1 ,guatemala or ,guatemala la ,nueva 7pop4 #aije about #ig1jjj7 and the cities of ,quezaltenango 7#ca1jjj71 ,totonicapam 7#bh1jjj71 ,coban 7#be1jjj71 ,solola 7#ag1jjj71 ,escuintla 7#ab1jjj71 ,huehuetanango 7#ab1jjj71 ,amatitlan 7#aj1jjj7 and ,atitlan 7#ijjj7 are described under separate headings4 ,all the chief towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region where the climate is temperate4 ,retalhuleu1 among the southern foothills of the ,sierra ,madre1 is one of the centres of coffee production1 and is connected by rail with the ,pacific port of ,champerico1 a very unhealthy place in the wet season4 ,both ,retalhuleu and ,champerico were1 like ,quezaltenango1 ,solola1 and other towns1 temporarily ruined by the earthquake of the #ahth of ,april #aijb4 ,santa ,cruz ,quiche1 #be m4 ,n4,e4 of ,totonicapam1 was formerly the capital of the ,quiche kings1 but has now a ,ladino population4 ,livingston1 a seaport at the mouth of the ,polochic 7here called the ,rio ,dulce71 was founded in #ahjf1 and subsequently named after the author of a code of ,guatemalan laws2 few vestiges remain of the ,spanish settlement of ,sevilla la ,nueva1 founded in #ahdd1 and of the ,english colony of ,abbotsville1 founded in #ahbe1--;both near ,livingston4 ,la ,libertad1 also called by its ,indian name of ,sacluc1 is the principal town of ,peten4 ,shipping and ,communications4--,the republic is in regular steam communication on the ,atlantic side with ,new ,orleans1 ,new ,york and ,hamburg1 by vessels which visit the ports of ,barrios 7,santo ,tomas7 and ,livingston4 ,on the southern side the ports of ,san ,jose1 ,champerico and ,ocos are visited by the ,pacific mail steamers1 by the vessels of a ,hamburg company and by those of the ,south ,american 7,chilean7 and the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,companies4 ,iztapa1 formerly the principal harbour on the south coast1 has been almost entirely abandoned since #ahec4 ,gualan1 on the ,motagua1 and ,panzos1 on the ,polochic1 are small river-ports4 ,the principal towns are connected by wagon roads1 towards the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is required to pay two pesos or give four days' work a year4 ,there are coach routes between the capital and ,quezaltenango1 but over a great portion of the country transport is still on mule-back4 ,all the railway lines have been built since #ahge4 ,the main lines are the ,southern1 belonging to an ,american company and running from ,san ,jose to the capital2 the ,northern1 a government line from the capital to ,puerto ,barrios1 which completes the interoceanic railroad2 and the ,western1 from ,champerico to ,quezaltenango1 belonging to a ,guatemalan company1 but largely under ,german management4 ,for local traffic there are several lines2 one from ,iztapa1 near ,san ,jose1 to ,naranjo1 and another from ,ocos to the western coffee plantations4 ,on the ,atlantic slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from ,livingston along the ,golfo ,dulce and other lakes1 and the ,polochic river as far as ,panzos4 ,the narrow-gauge railway that serves the ,german plantations in the ,vera ,paz region is largely owned by ,germans4 ,guatemala joined the ,postal ,union in #ahha2 but its postal and telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties4 ,the telephonic systems of ,guatemala la ,nueva1 ,quezaltenango and other cities are owned by private companies4 ,commerce and ,industry4--,the natural resources of ,guatemala are rich but undeveloped2 and the capital necessary for their development is not easily obtained in a country where war1 revolution and economic crises recur at frequent intervals1 where the premium on gold has varied by no less than #ejj in a single year1 and where many of the wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by earthquake in one day 7#ahth of ,april #aijb74 ,at the beginning of the #aith century1 ,guatemala had practically no export trade2 but between #ahbe and #ahej cochineal was largely exported1 the centre of production being the ,amatitlan district4 ,this industry was ruined by the competition of chemical dyes1 and a substitute was found in the cultivation of coffee4 ,guatemala is surpassed only by ,brazil and the ,east ,indies in the quantity of coffee it exports4 ,the chief plantations are owned and managed by ,germans2 more than half of the crop is sent to ,germany1 while three-fifths of the remainder go to the ,united ,states and one-fifth to ,great ,britain4 ,the average yearly product is about #gj1jjj1jjj lb41 worth approximately ,l#a1cjj1jjj1 and subject to an export duty of one gold dollar 7#ds47 per quintal 7#aja lb474 ,sugar1 bananas1 tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated2 but much of the sugar and bananas1 most of the cocoa1 and all the tobacco are consumed in the country4 ,during the colonial period1 the cocoa of western ,guatemala and ,soconusco was reserved on account of its fine flavour for the ,spanish court4 ,the indigo and cotton plantations yield little profit1 owing to foreign competition1 and have in most cases been converted to other uses4 ,the cultivation of bananas tends to increase1 though more slowly than in other ,central ,american countries4 ,grain1 sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption4 ,cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains of ,peten2 but the whole number of sheep 7#gg1jjj in #aijj7 and pigs 7#cj1jjj7 in the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single ,english counties4 ,much of the wool is sold1 like the native cotton1 to ,indian and ,ladino women1 who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their homes4 ,by the ,land ,act of #ahid the state domains1 except on the coasts and frontiers1 were divided into lots for sale4 ,the largest holding tenable by one person under this act was fixed at #ej caballerias1 or #efbe acres2 the price varies from ,l#dj to ,l#hj per caballeria of #aab-a_/b acres4 ,free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to immigrants 7including foreign companies71 to persons who undertake to build roads or railways through their allotments1 to towns1 villages and schools4 ,the condition of the ,indians on the plantations is often akin to slavery1 owing to the system adopted by some planters of making payments in advance2 for the ,indians soon spend their earnings1 and thus contract debts which can only be repaid by long service4 ,in addition to the breweries1 rum and brandy distilleries1 sugar mills and tobacco factories1 which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the plantations1 there are many purely urban industries1 such as the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale1 and manufactures of building material and furniture2 but these industries are far less important than agriculture4 ,during the five years #aijj to #aijd inclusive1 the average value of ,guatemalan imports1 which consisted chiefly of textiles1 iron and machinery1 sacks1 provisions1 flour1 beer1 wine and spirits1 amounted to ,l#ggf1jjj2 about one-half came from the ,united ,states1 and nearly one-fourth from the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the exports during the same period had an average value of ,l#a1ebh1jjj1 and ranked as follows in order of value3 coffee 7,l#a1cjj1jjj71 timber1 hides1 rubber1 sugar1 bananas1 cocoa4 ,finance4--,within the republic there are six banks of issue1 to which the government is deeply indebted4 ,there is practically neither gold nor silver in circulation1 and the value of the bank-notes is so fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered4 ,on the #beth of ,june #aijc1 the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted2 and thenceforward all banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the value of #aj of the notes issued in #aijd1 #bj in #aije and #cj in #aijf4 ,this reform has not1 to any appreciable extent1 rendered more stable the value of the notes issued4 ,the silver peso1 or dollar1 of #ajj centavas is the monetary unit1 weighs #be grammes 4#ijj fine1 and has a nominal value of #ds4 ,being no longer current it has been replaced by the paper peso4 ,the nickel coins include the real 7nominal value #f;d471 half-real and quarter-real4 ,the metric system of weights and measures has been adopted1 but the old ,spanish standards remain in general use4 ,of the revenue1 about #fd is derived from customs and excise2 #i from property1 road1 military1 slaughter and salt taxes2 #a4g from the gunpowder monopoly2 and the remainder from various taxes1 stamps1 government lands1 and postal and telegraph services4 ,the estimated revenue for #aije-aijf was #bc1jjj1jjj pesos 7about ,l#cbh1ejj72 the estimated expenditure was #bg1cag1fei pesos 7,l#cij1bjj71 of which ,l#bdb1hjj were allotted to the public debt1 ,l#db1jjj to internal development and justice1 ,l#bi1jjj to the army and the remainder largely to education4 ,the gold value of the currency peso 7#ge ,l#a in #aijc1 #gj ,l#a in #aijd1 #eh ,l#a in #aije7 fluctuates between limits so wide that conversion into sterling 7especially for a series of years71 with any pretension to accuracy1 is impracticable4 ,in #ahii the rate of exchange moved between #gaj and #bjf premium on gold4 ,according to the official statement1 the gold debt1 which runs chiefly at #d and is held in ,germany and ,england1 amounted to ,l#a1ihg1ije on the #ast of ,january #aije2 the currency debt 7note issues1 internal loans1 c47 amounted to ,l#gjd1gcj2 total ,l#b1fib1fce1 a decrease since #aijj of about ,l#cjj1jjj4 ,government4--,according to the constitution of ,december #ahgi 7modified in #ahhe1 #ahhg1 #ahhi and #aijc7 the legislative power is vested in a national assembly of #fi deputies 7#a for every #bj1jjj inhabitants7 chosen for #d years by direct popular vote1 under universal manhood suffrage4 ,the president of the republic is elected in a similar manner1 but for #f years1 and he is theoretically not eligible for the following term4 ,he is assisted by #f ministers1 heads of government departments1 and by a council of state of #ac members1 partly appointed by himself and partly by the national assembly4 ,local ,government4--,each of the twenty-two departments is administered by an official called a jefe politico1 or political chief1 appointed by the president1 and each is subdivided into municipal districts4 ,these districts are administered by one or more alcaldes or mayors1 assisted by municipal councils1 both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people4 ,justice4--,the judicial power is vested in a supreme court1 consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people2 six appeal courts1 each with three judges1 also elected by the people2 and twenty-six courts of first instance1 each consisting of one judge appointed by the president and two by the chief justice of the supreme court4 ,religion and ,instruction4--,the prevailing form of religion is the ,roman ,catholic1 but the state recognizes no distinction of creed4 ,the establishment of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited4 ,of the population in #ahic1 #ij could neither read nor write1 #b could only read1 and #h could read and write4 ,primary instruction is nominally compulsory1 and1 in government schools1 is provided at the cost of the state4 ,in #aijc there were #ajfd government primary schools4 ,there are besides about #abh private 7occasionally aided7 schools of similar character1 owners of plantations on which there are more than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation4 ,higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the capital1 one for men with #ejj pupils and one for women with #cjj4 ,at ,quezaltenango there are two similar institutes1 and at ,chiquimula there are other two4 ,to each of the six there is a school for teachers attached1 and within the republic there are four other schools for teachers4 ,for professional instruction 7law1 medicine1 engineering7 there are schools supported by private funds1 but aided occasionally by the government4 ,other educational establishments are a school of art1 a national conservatory of music1 a commercial college1 four trades' schools with more than #fjj pupils and a national library4 ,there is a ,german school1 endowed by the ,german government4 ,defence4--,for the white and mixed population military service is compulsory2 from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the active army1 and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve4 ,the effective force of the active army is #ef1ijj1 of the reserve #bi1djj4 ,about #gjjj officers and men are kept in regular service4 ,military training is given in all public and most private schools4 ,history4--,guatemala was conquered by the ,spaniards under ,pedro de ,alvarado between #aebb and #aebd4 ,up to the years #ahcg-ahci its history differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of ,central ,america 7q4v474 ,the colonial period was marked by the destruction of the ancient ,indian civilization1 the extermination of many entire tribes1 and the enslavement of the survivors1 who were exploited to the utmost for the benefit of ,spanish officials and adventurers4 ,but although the administration was weak1 corrupt and cruel1 it succeeded in establishing the ,roman ,catholic religion1 and in introducing the ,spanish language among the ,indians and ,ladinos1 who thus obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for more liberal institutions4 ,the ,central ,american provinces revolted in #ahba1 were annexed to the ,mexican empire of ,iturbide from #ahbb to #ahbc1 and united to form a federal republic from #ahbc to #ahci4 ,in ,guatemala the ,clerical1 ,conservative or anti-,federal party was supreme2 after a protracted struggle it overthrew the ,liberals or ,federalists1 and declared the country an independent republic1 with ,rafael ,carrera 7#ahad-ahfe7 as president4 ,in #ahde an attempt to restore the federal union failed2 in #ahea ,carrera defeated the ,federalist forces of ,honduras and ,salvador at ,la ,arada near ,chiquimula1 and was recognized as the pacificator of the republic4 ,in #ahea a new constitution was promulgated1 and ,carrera was appointed president till #ahef1 a dignity which was in #ahed bestowed upon him for life4 ,his rivalry with ,gerardo ,barrios 7d4 #ahfe71 president of ,salvador1 resulted in open war in #ahfc4 ,at ,coatepeque the ,guatemalans suffered a severe defeat1 which was followed by a truce4 ,honduras now joined with ,salvador1 and ,nicaragua and ,costa ,rica with ,guatemala4 ,the contest was finally settled in favour of ,carrera1 who besieged and occupied ,san ,salvador and made himself dominant also in ,honduras and ,nicaragua4 ,during the rest of his rule1 which lasted till his death in ,april #ahfe1 he continued to act in concert with the ,clerical party1 and endeavoured to maintain friendly relations with the ,european governments4 ,carrera's successor was ,general ,cerna1 who had been recommended by him for election4 ,the ,liberal party began to rise in influence about #ahgj1 and in ,may #ahga ,cerna was deposed4 ,the archbishop of ,guatemala and the ,jesuits were driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the ,clericals4 ,pres4 ,rufino ,barrios 7#ahce-ahhe71 elected in #ahgc1 governed the country after the manner of a dictator2 he expelled the ,jesuits1 confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed the church4 ,but though he encouraged education1 promoted railway and other enterprises1 and succeeded in settling difficulties as to the ,mexican boundary1 the general result of his policy was baneful4 ,conspiracies against him were rife1 and in #ahhd he narrowly escaped assassination4 ,his ambition was to be the restorer of the federal union of the ,central ,american states1 and when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had recourse to the sword4 ,counting on the support of ,honduras and ,salvador1 he proclaimed himself1 in ,february #ahhe1 the supreme military chief of ,central ,america1 and claimed the command of all the forces within the five states4 ,president ,zaldivar1 of ,salvador1 had been his friend1 but after the issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with ,costa ,rica and ,nicaragua4 ,in ,march ,barrios invaded ,salvador1 and on the #bnd of ,april a battle was fought1 in which the ,guatemalan president was killed4 ,he was succeeded by ,general ,manuel ,barillas4 ,no further effort was made to force on the union1 and on the #afth of ,april the war was formally ended4 ,peace1 however1 only provided opportunity for domestic conspiracy1 with assassination and revolution in view4 ,in #ahib ,general ,jose ,maria ,reina ,barrios was elected president1 and in #ahig he was re-elected2 but on the #hth of ,february #ahih he was assassinated4 ,senor ,morales1 vice-president1 succeeded him2 but in the same year ,don ,manuel ,estrada ,cabrera 7b4 #aheg7 was elected president for the term ending #aije4 ,cabrera promoted education1 commerce and the improvement of communications1 but his re-election for the term #aije-aiaa caused widespread discontent4 ,he was charged with aiming at a dictatorship1 with permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment1 torture and execution without trial of political opponents1 with maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the neighbouring states4 ,a well-armed force1 which included a body of adventurers from ,san ,francisco 7,u4,s4,a47 was organized by ,general ,barillas1 the ex-president1 and invaded ,guatemala in ,march #aijf from ,mexico1 ,british ,honduras and ,salvador4 ,barillas 7#ahde-aijg7 proclaimed his intention of establishing a silver currency1 and gained1 to a great extent1 the sympathy of the ,german and ,british residents2 he had been the sole ,guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure of office4 ,ocos was captured by his lieutenant1 ,general ,castillo1 and the revolution speedily became a war1 in which ,honduras1 ,costa ,rica and ,salvador were openly involved against ,guatemala1 while ,nicaragua was hostile4 ,but ,cabrera held his ground1 and even gained several indecisive victories4 ,the intervention of ,president ,roosevelt and of ,president ,diaz of ,mexico brought about an armistice on the #aith of ,july1 and the so-called ,marblehead ,pact was signed on the following day on board the ,united ,states cruiser ,marblehead4 ,its terms were embodied in a treaty signed 7#bhth of ,september7 by representatives of the four belligerent states1 ,nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations4 ,the treaty included regulations for the improvement of commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war1 and provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the arbitration of the ,united ,states and ,mexico4 ,,bibliography4--,besides the works cited under ,,central ,,america see the interesting narrative of ,thomas ,gage1 the ,english missionary1 in ,juarros1 ,compendio de la historia de ,guatemala 7#ahjh-ahah1 #b vols42 new ed41 #aheg71 which in ,bailly's ,english translation 7,london1 #ahbc7 long formed the chief authority4 ,see also ,c4 ,juan ,anino1 ,la ,republica de ,guatemala 7,guatemala1 #ahid72 ,t4 ,brigham1 ,guatemala1 ,the ,land of the ,quetzal 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,j4 ,m4 ,caceres1 ,geografia de ,centro-,america 7,paris1 #ahhb72 ,g4 ,lemale1 ,guia geografica de los centros de poblacion de la republica de ,guatemala 7,guatemala1 #ahhb72 ,f4 ,a4 de ,fuentes y ,guzman1 ,historia de ,guatemala o ,recordacion ,florida 7,madrid1 #ahhb72 ,a4 ,c4 and ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay1 ,a ,glimpse at ,guatemala1 and some ,notes on the ,ancient ,monuments of ,central ,america 7,london1 #ahii72 ,gustavo ,niederlein1 ,the ,republic of ,guatemala 7,philadelphia1 #ahih72 ,ramon ,a4 ,salazar1 ,historia del disenvolvimiento intelectual de ,guatemala1 vol4 i4 7,guatemala1 #ahig72 ,otto ,stoll1 ,reisen und ,schilderungen aus den ,jahren #ahgh-ahhc 7,leipzig1 #ahhf72 ,j4 ,mendez1 ,guia del immigrante en la republica de ,guatemala 7,guatemala1 #ahie72 ,karl ,sapper1 ,grundzuge der physikalischen ,geographie von ,guatemala1 ,erganzungsheft ,no4 #aae1 ,petermann's ,mitteilungen 7,gotha1 #ahid72 ,anuario de estadistica de la republica de ,guatemala 7,guatemala72 ,memoria de la ,secretaria de ,instruccion ,publica 7,guatemala1 #ahii72 ,handbook of ,guatemala1 revised 7,bureau of the ,american ,republics1 ,washington1 #ahig72 ,united ,states ,consular ,reports 7,washington72 ,british ,foreign ,office ,diplomatic and ,consular ,reports 7,london74 ,,guatemala1 or ,,guatemala ,,la ,,nueva 7i4e4 ,new ,guatemala1 sometimes written ,nueva ,guatemala1 and formerly ,santiago de los ,caballeros de ,guatemala71 the capital of the republic of ,guatemala1 and until #ahba of the ,spanish captaincy-general of ,guatemala1 which comprised ,chiapas in ,mexico and all ,central ,america except ,panama4 ,pop4 7#aije7 about #ig1jjj4 ,guatemala is built more than #ejjj ft4 above sea-level1 in a wide table-land traversed by the ,rio de las ,vacas1 or ,cow ,river1 so called from the cattle introduced here by ,spanish colonists in the #afth century4 ,deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land1 and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side1 the highest peaks being on the south1 where the volcanic summits of the ,sierra ,madre exceed #ab1jjj ft4 ,guatemala has a station on the transcontinental railway from ,puerto ,barrios on the ,atlantic 7#aij m4 ,n4,e47 to ,san ,jose on the ,pacific 7#ge m4 ,s4 by ,w474 ,it is thrice the size of any other city in the republic1 and has a corresponding commercial superiority4 ,its archbishop is the primate of ,central ,america 7excluding ,panama74 ,like most ,spanish-,american towns ,guatemala is laid out in wide and regular streets1 often planted with avenues of trees1 and it has extensive suburbs4 ,the houses1 though usually of only one storey1 are solidly and comfortably constructed2 many of them are surrounded by large gardens and courts4 ,among the open spaces the chief are the ,plaza ,mayor1 which contains the cathedral1 erected in #agcj1 the archiepiscopal palace1 the government buildings1 the mint and other public offices2 and the more modern ,reforma ,park and ,plaza de la ,concordia1 now the favourite resorts of the inhabitants4 ,there are many large schools for both sexes1 besides hospitals and an orphanage4 ,many of the principal buildings1 such as the military academy1 were originally convents4 ,the theatre1 founded in #aheh1 is one of the best in ,central ,america4 ,a museum1 founded in #ahca1 is maintained by the ,sociedad ,economica1 which in various ways has done great service to the city and the country4 ,there are two fortresses1 the ,castello ,matamoros1 built by ,rafael ,carrera 7see ,,guatemala republic under ,history71 and the ,castello de ,san ,jose4 ,water is brought from a distance of about #h m4 by two old aqueducts from the towns of ,mixco and ,pinula2 fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the ,pokoman ,indians of ,mixco4 ,the general prosperity1 and to some extent the appearance1 of ,guatemala have procured it the name of the ,paris of ,central ,america4 ,it is lighted by electricity and has a good telephone service4 ,its trade is chiefly in coffee1 but it also possesses cigar factories1 wool and cotton factories1 breweries1 tanneries and other industrial establishments4 ,the foreign trade is chiefly controlled by ,germans4 ,the first city named ,guatemala1 now called ,ciudad ,vieja or ,old ,city1 was founded in #aebg by ,pedro de ,alvarado1 the conqueror of the country1 on the banks of the ,rio ,pensativo1 and at the foot of the volcano of ,agua 7i4e4 ,water74 ,in #aeda it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded crater of ,agua2 and in #aedb ,alvarado founded ,santiago de los ,caballeros la ,nueva1 now ,antigua4 ,this city flourished greatly1 and by the middle of the #ahth century had become the most populous place in ,central ,america1 with #fj1jjj inhabitants and more than #ajj churches and convents4 ,but in #aggc it was ruined by an earthquake4 ,it was rebuilt1 and ultimately became capital of the department of ,sacatepeques1 and a health-resort locally celebrated for its thermal springs4 ,but the ,guatemalans determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the hamlet of ,ermita1 #bg m4 ,n4,e4 ,here the third and last city of ,guatemala was built1 and became the seat of government in #aggi4 ,the remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the construction of the city on a uniform plan4 ,the wide area covered1 and the lowness of the houses1 were similarly due to an ordinance which1 in order to minimize the danger from earthquakes1 forbade the erection of any building more than #bj ft4 high4 ,many of the belfries of convents or churches1 added after the ordinance had fallen into abeyance1 were overthrown by the earthquake of #ahgd1 which also destroyed a large part of ,antigua4 ,,guatos1 a tribe of ,south ,american ,indians of the upper ,paraguay4 ,they are of a ,european fairness and wear beards4 ,they live almost entirely in canoes1 building rough shelters in the swamps4 ,they aided the ,brazilians in the war with ,paraguay #ahfe-gj4 ,very few survive4 ,,guatusos1 a tribe of ,american ,indians of ,costa ,rica4 ,they are an active1 hardy people1 who have always maintained hostility towards the ,spaniards and retain their independence4 ,from their language they appear to be a distinct stock4 ,they were described by old writers as being very fair1 with flaxen hair1 and these reports led to a belief1 since exploded1 that they were ,european hybrids4 ,there are very few surviving4 ,,guava 7from the ,mexican guayaba71 the name applied to the fruits of species of ,psidium1 a genus belonging to the natural order ,myrtaceae4 ,the species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of commerce is ,psidium ,guajava1 a small tree from #ae to #bj ft4 high1 a native of the tropical parts of ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,it bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves1 with strongly marked veins1 and covered with a soft tomentum or down4 ,the flowers are borne on axillary stalks1 and the fruits vary much in size1 shape and colour1 numerous forms and varieties being known and cultivated4 ,the variety of which the fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the white guava 7,p4 ,guajava1 var4 pyriferum74 ,the fruits are pear-shaped1 about the size of a hen's egg1 covered with a thin bright yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp1 also of a light yellowish tinge1 and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour4 ,p4 ,guajava1 var4 pomiferum1 produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit1 sometimes called the red guava4 ,the pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour1 therefore the first named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state2 both1 however1 are used in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly and guava cheese1 which are made in the ,west ,indies and imported thence to ,england2 the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural state4 ,both varieties have been introduced into various parts of ,india1 as well as in other countries of the ,east1 where they have become perfectly naturalized4 ,though of course much too tender for outdoor planting in ,england1 the guava thrives there in hothouses or stoves4 ,psidium variabile 7also known as ,p4 ,cattleyanum71 a tree of from #aj to #bj ft4 high1 a native of ,brazil 7the ,araca or ,araca de ,praya71 is known as the purple guava4 ,the fruit1 which is very abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves1 is large1 spherical1 of a fine deep claret colour2 the rind is pitted1 and the pulp is soft1 fleshy1 purplish1 reddish next the skin1 but becoming paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white4 ,it has a very agreeable acid-sweet flavour1 which has been likened to that of a strawberry4 ,,guayama1 a small city and the capital of a municipal district and department of the same name1 on the southern coast of ,porto ,rico1 #ec m4 ,s4 of ,san ,juan4 ,pop4 7#ahii7 of the city1 #eccd2 7#aiaj7 #hcba2 7#ahii7 of the district1 #ab1gdi4 ,the district 7#aef sq4 m47 includes ,arroyo and ,salinas4 ,the city stands about #bcj ft4 above the sea and has a mild1 healthy climate4 ,it is connected with ,ponce by railway 7#aiaj71 and with the port of ,arroyo by an excellent road1 part of the military road extending to ,cayey1 and it exports sugar1 rum1 tobacco1 coffee1 cattle1 fruit and other products of the department1 which is very fertile4 ,the city was founded in #agcf1 but was completely destroyed by fire in #ahcb4 ,it was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses several buildings of note4 ,drinking-water is brought in through an aqueduct4 ,,guayaquil1 or ,,santiago ,,de ,,guayaquil1 a city and port of ,ecuador1 capital of the province of ,guayas1 on the right bank of the ,guayas river1 #cc m4 above its entrance into the ,gulf of ,guayaquil1 in #b deg4 #ab' ,s41 #gi deg4 #ea' ,w4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dd1ggb2 7#ahig1 estimate7 #ea1jjj1 mostly half-breeds4 ,the city is built on a comparatively level pajonal or savanna1 extending southward from the base of three low hills1 called ,los ,cerros de la ,cruz1 between the river and the partially filled waters of the ,estero ,salado4 ,it is about #cj ft4 above sea-level1 and the lower parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season4 ,the old town is the upper or northern part1 and is inhabited by the poorer classes1 its streets being badly paved1 crooked1 undrained1 dirty and pestilential4 ,the great fire of #ahif destroyed a large part of the old town1 and some of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding4 ,the new town1 or southern part1 is the business and residential quarter of the better classes1 but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are provided with surface drainage only4 ,among the public buildings are the governor's and bishop's palaces1 town-hall1 cathedral and #i churches1 national college1 episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine1 theatre1 two hospitals1 custom-house1 and several asylums and charitable institutions4 ,guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with faculties of law and medicine4 ,a peculiarity of ,guayaquil is that the upper floors in the business streets project over the walks1 forming covered arcades4 ,the year is divided into a wet and dry season1 the former from ,january to ,june1 when the hot days are followed by nights of drenching rain4 ,the mean annual temperature is about #hb deg4 to #hc deg4 ,f42 malarial and bilious fevers are common1 the latter being known as ,guayaquil fever1 and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent4 ,the dry or summer season is considered pleasant and healthy4 ,the water-supply is now brought in through iron mains from the ,cordilleras #ec m4 distant4 ,the mains pass under the ,guayas river and discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills ,n4 of the city4 ,the city is provided with tramway and telephone services1 the streets are lighted with gas and electricity1 and telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained by means of the ,west ,coast cable1 which lands at the small port of ,santa ,elena1 on the ,pacific coast1 about #fe m4 ,w4 of ,guayaquil4 ,railway connexion with ,quito 7#bij m47 was established in ,june #aijh4 ,there is also steamboat connexion with the producing districts of the province on the ,guayas river and its tributaries1 on which boats run regularly as far up as ,bodegas 7#hj m47 in the dry season1 and for a distance of #dj m4 on the ,daule4 ,for smaller boats there are about #bjj m4 of navigation on this system of rivers4 ,the exports of the province are almost wholly transported on these rivers1 and are shipped either at ,guayaquil1 or at ,puna1 its deep-water port1 #f-a_/b m4 outside the ,guayas bar1 on the ,e4 end of ,puna ,island4 ,the ,guayas river is navigable up to ,guayaquil for steamers drawing #bb ft4 of water2 larger vessels anchor at ,puna1 #dj m4 from ,guayaquil1 where cargoes and passengers are transferred to lighters and tenders4 ,there is a quay on the river front1 but the depth alongside does not exceed #ah ft4 ,the principal exports are cacao1 rubber1 coffee1 tobacco1 hides1 cotton1 ,panama hats1 cinchona bark and ivory nuts1 the value of all exports for the year #aije being #ad1adh1hgg sucres1 in a total of #ah1efe1ffh sucres for the whole republic4 ,in #aijh the exports were3 cacao1 about #fd1jjj1jjj lb41 valued at #f1djj1jjj2 hides1 valued at #ace1jjj2 rubber1 valued at #bce1jjj2 coffee1 valued at #bgc1jjj2 and vegetable ivory1 valued at #ajb1jjj4 ,there are some small industries in the city1 including a shipyard1 saw-mills1 foundry1 sugar refineries1 cotton and woollen mills1 brewery1 and manufactures of soap1 cigars1 chocolate1 ice1 soda-water and liqueurs4 ,santiago de ,guayaquil was founded on ,st ,james's day1 the #beth of ,july #aece1 by ,sebastian de ,benalcazar1 but was twice abandoned before its permanent settlement in #aecg by ,francesco de ,orellana4 ,it was captured and sacked several times in the #agth and #ahth centuries by pirates and freebooters--by ,jacob ,clark in #afbd1 by ,french pirates in #afhf1 by ,english freebooters under ,edward ,david in #afhg1 by ,william ,dampier in #agjg and by ,clapperton in #agji4 ,defensive works were erected in #agcj1 and in #agfc1 when the town was made a governor's residence1 a castle and other fortifications were constructed4 ,owing to the flimsy construction of its buildings ,guayaquil has been repeatedly burned1 the greater fires occurring in #agjg1 #agfd1 #ahfe1 #ahif and #ahii4 ,the city was made the see of a bishopric in #ahcg4 ,,guayas1 or ,,el ,,guayas1 a coast province of ,ecuador1 bounded ,n4 by ,manabi and ,pichincha1 ,e4 by ,los ,rios1 ,canar and ,azuay1 ,s4 by ,el ,oro and the ,gulf of ,guayaquil1 and ,w4 by the same gulf1 the ,pacific ,ocean and the province of ,manabi4 ,pop4 7#ahic1 estimate7 #ih1ajj2 area1 #aa1ejd sq4 m4 ,it is very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts surrounding the ,gulf of ,guayaquil between the ,western ,cordilleras and the coast4 ,it includes 7since #ahhe7 the ,galapagos ,islands1 lying #fjj m4 off the coast4 ,the province of ,guayas is heavily forested and traversed by numerous rivers1 for the most part tributaries of the ,guayas river1 which enters the gulf from the ,n4 ,this river system has a drainage area of about #ad1jjj sq4 m4 and an aggregate of #bjj m4 of navigable channels in the rainy season4 ,its principal tributaries are the ,daule and ,babahoyo or ,chimbo 7also called ,bodegas71 and of the latter the ,vinces and ,yaguachi4 ,the climate is hot1 humid and unhealthy1 bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent4 ,the rainfall is abundant and the soil is deep and fertile4 ,agriculture and the collection of forest products are the chief industries4 ,the staple products are cacao1 coffee1 sugar-cane1 cotton1 tobacco and rice4 ,the cultivation of cacao is the principal industry1 the exports forming about one-third the world's supply4 ,stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent4 ,among forest products are rubber1 cinchona bark1 toquilla fibre and ivory nuts4 ,the manufacture of so-called ,panama hats from the fibre of the toquilla palm 7commonly called jipijapa1 after a town in ,manabi famous for this industry7 is a long-established domestic industry among the natives of this and other coast provinces1 the humidity of the climate greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate straws1 which would be broken in a dry atmosphere4 ,guayas is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic1 about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of ,ecuador passing through the port of its capital1 ,guayaquil4 ,there are no land transport routes in the province except the ,quito ,guayaquil railway1 which traverses its eastern half4 ,the sluggish river channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford excellent facilities for transporting produce1 and a large number of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic4 ,there are no large towns in ,guayas other than ,guayaquil4 ,duran1 on the ,guayas river opposite ,guayaquil1 is the starting point of the ,quito railway and contains the shops and offices of that line4 ,the port of ,santa ,elena on a bay of the same name1 about #fe m4 ,w4 of ,guayaquil1 is a landing-point of the ,west ,coast cable1 and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines4 ,its exports are chiefly ,panama hats and salt4 ,,guaycurus1 a tribe of ,south ,american ,indians on the ,paraguay4 ,the name has been used generally of all the mounted ,indians of ,gran ,chaco4 ,the ,guaycurus are a wild1 fierce people1 who paint their bodies and go naked4 ,they are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle rearing4 ,,guaymas1 or ,,san ,,jose ,,de ,,guaymas1 a seaport of ,mexico1 in the state of ,sonora1 on a small bay opening into the ,gulf of ,california a few miles ,w4 of the mouth of the ,yaqui river1 in lat4 #bg deg4 #eh' ,n41 long4 #aaj deg4 #eh' ,w4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #hfdh4 ,the harbour is one of the best on the ,w4 coast of ,mexico1 and the port is a principal outlet for the products of the large state of ,sonora4 ,the town stands on a small1 arid plain1 nearly shut in by mountains1 and has a very hot1 dry climate4 ,it is connected with the railways of the ,united ,states by a branch of the ,southern ,pacific from ,benson1 ,arizona1 and is #bcj m4 ,s4 by ,w4 of the frontier town of ,nogales1 where that line enters ,mexico4 ,the exports include gold1 silver1 hides and pearls4 ,,gubbio 7anc4 ,iguvium1 q4v42 med4 ,eugubium71 a town and episcopal see of ,umbria1 ,italy1 in the province of ,perugia1 from which it is #bc m4 ,n4,n4,e4 by road2 by rail it is #ac m4 ,n4,w4 of ,fossato di ,vico 7on the line between ,foligno and ,ancona7 and #gj m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,arezzo4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #eghc 7town72 #bf1gah 7commune74 ,gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep slopes of ,monte ,calvo1 from #aefh to #agce ft4 above sea-level1 at the entrance to the gorge which ascends to ,scheggia1 probably on the site of the ancient ,umbrian town4 ,it presents a markedly medieval appearance4 ,the most prominent building is the ,palazzo dei ,consoli1 on the ,n4 side of the ,piazza della ,signoria2 it is a huge ,gothic edifice with a tower1 erected in #accb-acdf1 according to tradition1 by ,matteo di ,giovanello of ,gubbio1 the name of ,angelo da ,orvieto occurs on the arch of the main door1 but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this arch4 ,it has two stories above the ground floor1 and1 being on the slope of the hill1 is1 like the whole piazza1 raised on arched substructures4 ,on the ,s4 side of the piazza is the ,palazzo ,pretorio1 or della ,podesta1 begun in #acdi and now the municipal palace4 ,it contains the famous ,tabulae ,iguvinae1 and a collection of paintings of the ,umbrian school1 of furniture and of majolica4 ,on the ,e4 side is the modern ,palazzo ,ranghiasci-,brancaleone1 which until #ahhb contained fine collections1 now dispersed4 ,above the ,piazza della ,signoria1 at the highest point of the town1 is the ,palazzo ,ducale1 erected by the dukes of ,urbino in #adgd-adhj2 the architect was1 in all probability1 ,lucio da ,laurana1 to whom is due the palace at ,urbino1 which this palace resembles1 especially in its fine colonnaded court4 ,the ,palazzo ,beni1 lower down1 belongs to a somewhat earlier period of the #aeth century4 ,pope ,martin ,v4 lodged here for a few days in #adbj4 ,the ,palazzo ,accoramboni1 on the other hand1 is a ,renaissance structure1 with a fine entrance arch4 ,here ,vittoria ,accoramboni was born in #aeeg4 ,opposite the ,palazzo ,ducale is the cathedral1 dedicated to ,,ss4 ,mariano e ,jacopo1 a structure of the #abth century1 with a facade1 adorned with contemporary sculptures1 partly restored in #aead-aeej4 ,the interior contains some good pictures by ,umbrian artists1 a fine episcopal throne in carved wood1 and a fine ,flemish cope given by ,pope ,marcellus ,,ii4 7#aeee7 in the sacristy4 ,the exterior of the ,gothic church of ,s4 ,francesco1 in the lower part of the town1 built in #abei1 preserves its original style1 but the interior has been modernized2 and the same fate has overtaken the ,gothic churches of ,s4 ,maria ,nuova and ,s4 ,pietro4 ,s4 ,agostino1 on the other hand1 has its ,gothic interior better preserved4 ,the whole town is full of specimens of medieval architecture1 the pointed arch of the #acth century being especially prevalent4 ,a remarkable procession takes place in ,gubbio on the #aeth of ,may in each year1 in honour of ,s4 ,ubaldo1 when three colossal wooden pedestals1 each over #cj ft4 high1 and crowned by statues of ,,ss4 ,ubaldo1 ,antonio and ,giorgio1 are carried through the town1 and then1 in a wild race1 up to the church of ,s4 ,ubaldo on the mountain-side 7#bfij ft474 ,see ,h4 ,m4 ,bower1 ,the ,elevation and ,procession of the ,ceri at ,gubbio 7,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahig74 ,after its reconstruction with the help of ,narses 7see ,,iguvium7 the town remained subject to the exarchs of ,ravenna1 and1 after the destruction of the ,lombard kingdom in #ggd1 formed part of the donation of ,charlemagne to the pope4 ,in the #aath century the beginnings of its independence may be traced4 ,in the struggles of that time it was generally on the ,ghibelline side4 ,in #aaea it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities1 and formed from this time a republic governed by consuls4 ,in #aaee it was besieged by the emperor ,frederick ,i41 but saved by the intervention of its bishop1 ,s4 ,ubaldo1 and was granted privileges by the emperor4 ,in #abjc it had its first podesta1 and from this period dates the rise of its importance4 ,in #achg1 after various political changes1 it surrendered to ,antonio da ,montefeltro of ,urbino1 and remained under the dominion of the dukes of ,urbino until1 in #afbd1 the whole duchy was ceded to the pope4 ,gubbio was the birthplace of ,oderisio1 a famous miniature painter 7#abdj-abii71 mentioned by ,dante as the honour of his native town 7,purg4 xi4 #hj l'onor d',agobbio71 but no authentic works by him exist4 ,in the #adth and #aeth centuries a branch of the ,umbrian school of painting flourished here1 the most famous masters of which were ,guido ,palmerucci 7#abhj-acde87 and several members of the ,nelli family1 particularly ,ottaviano 7d4 #addd71 whose best work is the ,madonna del ,belvedere in ,s4 ,maria ,nuova at ,gubbio 7#adjd71 extremely well preserved1 with bright colouring and fine details4 ,another work by him is the group of frescoes including a large ,last ,judgment1 and scenes from the life of ,st ,augustine1 in the church of ,s4 ,agostino1 discovered in #aijb under a coating of whitewash4 ,these painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary masters of the ,sienese school4 ,gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica4 ,in a decree of #adch a vasarius vasorum pictorum is mentioned1 who probably was not the first of his trade4 ,the art was brought to perfection by ,giorgio ,andreoli1 whose father had emigrated hither from ,pavia1 and who in #adih became a citizen of ,gubbio4 ,the works by his hand are remarkable for their ruby tint1 with a beautiful metallic lustre2 but only one small tazza remains in ,gubbio itself4 ,his art was carried on by his sons1 ,cencio and ,ubaldo1 but was afterwards lost1 and only recovered in #ahec by ,angelico ,fabbri and ,luigi ,carocci4 ,two miles outside ,porta ,metauro to the ,n4,e4 is the ,bottaccione1 a large water reservoir1 constructed in the #abth or #adth century2 the water is collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam4 ,see ,a4 ,colasanti1 ,gubbio 7,bergamo1 #aije72 ,l4 ,mc,cracken1 ,gubbio 7,london1 #aije74 7,t4 ,as47 ,,guben1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,prussia1 at the confluence of the ,lubis with the ,neisse1 #bh m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,frankfort-on-,oder1 at the junction of railways to ,breslau1 ,halle and ,forst4 ,pop4 7#ahge7 #bc1gjd2 7#aije7 #cf1fff4 ,it possesses three ,evangelical churches1 a ,roman ,catholic church1 a synagogue1 a gymnasium1 a modern school1 a museum and a theatre4 ,the principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool1 dyeing1 tanning1 and the manufacture of pottery ware1 hats1 cloth1 paper and machinery4 ,the vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some extent1 and there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables4 ,guben is of ,wendish origin4 ,it is mentioned in #abjg and received civic rights in #abce4 ,it was surrounded by walls in #acaa1 about which time it came into the possession of the margrave of ,brandenburg1 from whom it passed to ,bohemia in #acfh4 ,it was twice devastated by the ,hussites1 and in #afca and #afdb it was occupied by the ,swedes4 ,by the peace of ,prague in #afce it came into the possession of the elector of ,saxony1 and in #ahae it was1 with the rest of ,lower ,lusatia1 united to ,prussia4 ,,gubernatis1 ,,angelo ,,de1 ,,count 7#ahdj- 71 ,italian man of letters1 was born at ,turin and educated there and at ,berlin1 where he studied philology4 ,in #ahfb he was appointed professor of ,sanskrit at ,florence1 but having married a cousin of the ,socialist ,bakunin and become interested in his views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel4 ,he was reappointed1 however1 in #ahfg2 and in #ahia he was transferred to the university of ,rome4 ,he became prominent both as an orientalist1 a publicist and a poet4 ,he founded the ,italia letteraria 7#ahfb71 the ,rivista orientale 7#ahfg71 the ,civitta italiana and ,rivista europea 7#ahfi71 the ,bollettino italiano degli studii orientali 7#ahgf7 and the ,revue internationale 7#ahhc71 and in #ahhg became director of the ,giornale della societa asiatica4 ,in #ahgh he started the ,dizionario biografico degli scrittori contemporanei4 ,his ,oriental and mythological works include the ,piccola enciclopedia indiana 7#ahfg71 the ,fonti vediche 7#ahfh71 a famous work on zoological mythology 7#ahgb71 and another on plant mythology 7#ahgh74 ,he also edited the encyclopaedic ,storia universale della letteratura 7#ahhb-ahhe74 ,his work in verse includes the dramas ,cato1 ,romolo1 ,il re ,nala1 ,don ,rodrigo1 ,savitri1 c4 ,,gudbrandsdal1 a district in the midlands of southern ,norway1 comprising the upper course of the river ,lougen or ,laagen from ,lillehammer at the head of ,lake ,mjosen to its source in ,lake ,lesjekogen and tributary valleys4 ,lillehammer1 the centre of a rich timber district1 is #aad m4 ,n4 of ,christiania by rail4 ,the railway continues through the well-wooded and cultivated valley to ,otta 7#gj m474 ,several tracks run westward into the wild district of the ,jotunheim4 ,from ,otto good driving routes run across the watershed and descend the western slope1 where the scenery is incomparably finer than in ,gudbrandsdal itself--7a7 past ,sorum1 with the #acth-century churches of ,vaagen and ,lom 7a fine specimen of the ,stavekirke or timber-built church71 ,aanstad and ,polfos1 with beautiful falls of the ,otta river1 to ,grotlid1 whence roads diverge to ,stryn on the ,nordfjord1 and to ,marok on the ,geirangerfjord2 7b7 past ,domaas 7with branch road north to ,storen near ,trondhjem1 skirting the ,dovrefjeld71 over the watershed formed by ,lesjekogen ,lake1 which drains in both directions1 and down through the magnificent ,romsdal4 ,,gude 7,,gudius71 ,,marquard 7#afce-afhi71 ,german archaeologist and classical scholar1 was born at ,rendsburg in ,holstein on the #ast of ,february #afce4 ,he was originally intended for the law1 but from an early age showed a decided preference for classical studies4 ,in #afeh he went to ,holland in the hope of finding work as a teacher of classics1 and in the following year1 through the influence of ,j4 ,f4 ,gronovius1 he obtained the post of tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young ,dutchman1 ,samuel ,schars4 ,during his travels ,gude seized the opportunity of copying inscriptions and ,,mss4 ,at the earnest request of his pupil1 who had become greatly attached to him1 ,gude refused more than one professional appointment1 and it was not until #afga that he accepted the post of librarian to ,duke ,christian ,albert of ,holstein-,gottorp4 ,schars1 who had accompanied ,gude1 died in #afge1 and left him the greater part of his property4 ,in #afgh ,gude1 having quarrelled with the duke1 retired into private life2 but in #afhb he entered the service of ,christian ,v4 of ,denmark as counsellor of the ,schleswig-,holstein chancellery1 and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the #bfth of ,november #afhi4 ,gude's great life-work1 the collection of ,greek and ,latin inscriptions1 was not published till #agca4 ,mention may also be made of his editio princeps 7#affa7 of the treatise of ,hippolytus the ,martyr on ,antichrist1 and of his notes on ,phaedrus 7with four new fables discovered by him7 published in ,p4 ,burmann's edition 7#afih74 ,his correspondence 7ed4 ,p4 ,burmann1 #afig7 is the most important authority for the events of ,gude's life1 besides containing valuable information on the learning of the times4 ,see also ,j4 ,moller1 ,cimbria literata1 iii41 and ,c4 ,bursian in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 x4 ,,gudeman1 ,,alfred 7#ahfb- 71 ,american classical scholar1 was born in ,atlanta1 ,georgia1 on the #bfth of ,august #ahfb4 ,he graduated at ,columbia ,university in #ahhc and studied under ,hermann ,diels at the ,university of ,berlin4 ,from #ahij to #ahic he was reader in classical philology at ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 from #ahic to #aijb professor in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and from #aijb to #aijd professor in ,cornell ,university4 ,in #aijd he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the ,wolfflin ,thesaurus linguae ,latinae--a unique distinction for an ,american ,latinist1 as was the publication of his critical edition1 with ,german commentary1 of ,tacitus' ,agricola in #aijb by the ,weidmannsche ,buchhandlung of ,berlin4 ,he wrote ,latin ,literature of the ,empire 7#b vols41 ,prose and ,poetry1 #ahih-ahii71 a ,history of ,classical ,philology 7#aijb7 and ,sources of ,plutarch's ,life of ,cicero 7#aijb72 and edited ,tacitus' ,dialogus de oratoribus 7text with commentary1 #ahid and #ahih7 and ,agricola 7#ahii2 with ,germania1 #aijj71 and ,sallust's ,catiline 7#aijc74 ,,gudgeon 7,gobio fluviatilis71 a small fish of the ,cyprinid family4 ,it is nearly related to the barbel1 and has a small barbel or fleshy appendage at each corner of the mouth4 ,it is the gobione of ,italy1 goujon of ,france 7whence adapted in ,m4 ,english as gojon71 and ,grassling or ,grundling of ,germany4 ,gudgeons thrive in streams and lakes1 keeping to the bottom1 and seldom exceeding #h in4 in length4 ,in ,china and ,japan there are varieties differing only slightly from the common ,european type4 ,,gudrun 7,,kudrun71 a ,middle ,high ,german epic1 written probably in the early years of the #acth century1 not long after the ,nibelungenlied1 the influence of which may be traced upon it4 ,it is preserved in a single ,,ms4 which was prepared at the command of ,maximilian ,i41 and was discovered as late as #ahbj in the ,castle of ,ambras in ,tirol4 ,the author was an unnamed ,austrian poet1 but the story itself belongs to the cycle of sagas1 which originated on the shores of the ,north ,sea4 ,the epic falls into three easily distinguishable parts--the adventures of ,king ,hagen of ,ireland1 the romance of ,hettel1 king of the ,hegelingen1 who woos and wins ,hagen's daughter ,hilde1 and lastly1 the more or less parallel story of how ,herwig1 king of ,seeland1 wins1 in opposition to her father's wishes1 ,gudrun1 the daughter of ,hettel and ,hilde4 ,gudrun is carried off by a king of ,normandy1 and her kinsfolk1 who are in pursuit1 are defeated in a great battle on the island of ,wulpensand off the ,dutch coast4 ,the finest parts of the epic are those in which ,gudrun1 a prisoner in the ,norman castle1 refuses to become the wife of her captor1 and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household4 ,here1 thirteen years later1 ,herwig and her brother ,ortwin find her washing clothes by the sea2 on the following day they attack the ,norman castle with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution4 ,the epic of ,gudrun is not unworthy to stand beside the greater ,nibelungenlied1 and it has been aptly compared with it as the ,odyssey to the ,iliad4 ,like the ,odyssey1 ,gudrun is an epic of the sea1 a story of adventure2 it does not turn solely round the conflict of human passions2 nor is it built up round one all-absorbing1 all-dominating idea like the ,nibelungenlied4 ,scenery and incident are more varied1 and the poet has an opportunity for a more lyric interpretation of motive and character4 ,gudrun is composed in stanzas similar to those of the ,nibelungenlied1 but with the essential difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the others1 and does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the ,nibelungen metre4 ,gudrun was first edited by von der ,hagen in vol4 i4 of his ,heldenbuch 7#ahbj74 ,subsequent editions by ,a4 ,ziemann and ,a4 ,j4 ,vollmer followed in #ahcg and #ahde4 ,the best editions are those by ,k4 ,bartsch 7#dth ed41 #ahhj71 who has also edited the poem for ,kurschner's ,deutsche ,nationalliteratur 7vol4 #f1 #ahhe71 by ,b4 ,symons 7#ahhc7 and by ,e4 ,martin 7#bnd ed41 #aija74 ,l4 ,ettmuller first applied ,lachmann's ballad-theory to the poem 7#ahda71 and ,k4 ,mullenhoff 7,kudrun1 die echten ,teile des ,gedichts1 #ahde7 rejected more than three-quarters of the whole as not genuine4 ,there are many translations of the epic into modern ,german1 the best known being that of ,k4 ,simrock 7#aeth ed41 #ahhd74 ,a translation into ,english by ,m4 ,p4 ,nichols appeared at ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 in #ahhi4 ,see ,k4 ,bartsch1 ,beitrage zur ,geschichte und ,kritik der ,kudrun 7#ahfe72 ,h4 ,keck1 ,die ,gudrunsage 7#ahfg72 ,w4 ,wilmanns1 ,die ,entwickelung der ,kudrundichtung 7#ahgc72 ,a4 ,fecamp1 ,le ,poeme de ,gudrun1 ses origines1 sa formation et son histoire 7#ahib72 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,hilde-,gudrun 7#aija74 ,for later versions and adaptations of the saga see ,o4 ,benedict1 ,die ,gudrunsage in der neueren ,literatur 7#aijb47 ,,guebriant1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,budes1 ,,comte ,,de 7#afjb-afdc71 marshal of ,france1 was born at ,plessis-,budes1 near ,st ,brieuc1 of an old ,breton family4 ,he served first in ,holland1 and in the ,thirty ,years' ,war he commanded from #afch to #afci the ,french contingent in the army of his friend ,bernard of ,saxe-,weimar1 distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of ,breisach in #afch4 ,upon the death of ,bernard he received the command of his army1 and tried1 in conjunction with ,j4 ,baner 7#aeif-afda71 the ,swedish general1 a bold attack upon ,regensburg 7#afdj74 ,his victories of ,wolfenbuttel on the #bith of ,june #afda and of ,kempen in #afdb won for him the marshal's baton4 ,having failed in an attempt to invade ,bavaria in concert with ,torstensson he seized ,rottweil1 but was mortally wounded there on the #agth of ,november #afdc4 ,a biography was published by ,le ,laboureur1 ,histoire du mareschal de ,guebriant1 in #afef4 ,see ,a4 ,brinzinger in ,wurttembergische ,vierteljahrschrift fur ,landesgeschichte 7#aijb74 ,,guelder ,,rose1 so called from ,guelderland1 its supposed source1 termed also marsh elder1 rose elder1 water elder 7,ger4 ,wasserholder1 ,schneeball2 ,fr4 viorne-obier1 l'obier d',europe71 known botanically as ,viburnum ,opulus1 a shrub or small tree of the natural order ,caprifoliaceae1 a native of ,britain1 and widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts of ,europe1 ,asia and ,north ,america4 ,it is common in ,ireland1 but rare in ,scotland4 ,in height it is from #f to #ab ft41 and it thrives best in moist situations4 ,the leaves are smooth1 #b to #c in4 broad1 with #c to #e unequal serrate lobes1 and glandular stipules adnate to the stalk4 ,in autumn the leaves change their normal bright green for a pink or crimson hue4 ,the flowers1 which appear in ,june and ,july1 are small1 white1 and arranged in cymes #b to #d in4 in diameter4 ,the outer blossoms in the wild plant have an enlarged corolla1 #c_/d in4 in diameter1 and are devoid of stamens or pistils2 in the common cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the inflorescence is globular1 hence the term snowball tree applied to the plant1 the appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily described by ,cowper in his ,winter ,walk at ,noon4 ,the guelder rose bears juicy1 red1 elliptical berries1 #a_/c in4 long1 which ripen in ,september1 and contain each a single compressed seed4 ,in northern ,europe these are eaten1 and in ,siberia1 after fermentation with flour1 they are distilled for spirit4 ,the plant has1 however1 emetic1 purgative and narcotic properties2 and ,taylor 7,med4 ,jurisp4 i4 #ddh1 #bnd ed41 #ahgc7 has recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by the berries4 ,both they and the bark contain valerianic acid4 ,the woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into various small articles in ,sweden and ,russia4 ,another member of the genus1 ,viburnum1 ,lantana1 wayfaring tree1 is found in dry copses and hedges in ,england1 except in the north4 ,,guelph1 a city of ,ontario1 ,canada1 #de m4 ,w4 of ,toronto1 on the river ,speed and the ,grand ,trunk and ,canadian ,pacific railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aa1dif4 ,it is the centre of a fine agricultural district1 and exports grain1 fruit and live-stock in large quantities4 ,it contains1 in addition to the county and municipal buildings1 the ,ontario ,agricultural ,college1 which draws students from all parts of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the river affords abundant water-power for flour-mills1 saw-mills1 woollen-mills and numerous factories1 of which agricultural implements1 sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief4 ,,guelphs ,,and ,,ghibellines4 ,these names are doubtless ,italianized forms of the ,german words ,welf and ,waiblingen1 although one tradition says that they are derived from ,guelph and ,gibel1 two rival brothers of ,pistoia4 ,another theory derives ,ghibelline from ,gibello1 a word used by the ,sicilian ,arabs to translate ,hohenstaufen4 ,however1 a more popular story tells how1 during a fight around ,weinsberg in ,december #aadj between the ,german king ,conrad ,,iii4 and ,welf1 count of ,bavaria1 a member of the powerful family to which ,henry the ,lion1 duke of ,saxony and ,bavaria1 belonged1 the soldiers of the latter raised the cry ,hie ,welf6 to which the king's troops replied with ,hie ,waiblingen6 this being the name of one of ,conrad's castles4 ,but the rivalry between ,welf and ,hohenstaufen1 of which family ,conrad was a member1 was anterior to this event1 and had been for some years a prominent fact in the history of ,swabia and ,bavaria1 although its introduction into ,italy--in a slightly modified form1 however--only dates from the time of the ,italian expeditions of the emperor ,frederick ,i4 ,it is about this time that the ,german chronicler1 ,otto of ,freising1 says1 ,duae in ,romano orbe apud ,galliae ,germaniaeve fines famosae familiae actenus fuere1 una ,heinricorum de ,gueibelinga1 alia ,guelforum de ,aldorfo1 altera imperatores1 altera magnos duces producere solita4 ,chosen ,german king in #aaeb1 ,frederick was not only the nephew and the heir of ,conrad1 he was related also to the ,welfs2 yet1 although his election abated to some extent the rivalry between ,welf and ,hohenstaufen in ,germany1 it opened it upon a larger and fiercer scale in ,italy4 ,during the long and interesting period covered by ,frederick's ,italian campaigns1 his enemies1 prominent among whom were the cities of the ,lombard ,league1 became known as ,welfs1 or ,guelphs1 while his partisans seized upon the rival term of ,waiblingen1 or ,ghibelline1 and the contest between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to the inhabitants of southern ,germany4 ,the distracted state of northern ,italy1 the jealousies between various pairs of towns1 the savage hatred between family and family1 were some of the causes which fed this feud1 and it reached its height during the momentous struggle between ,frederick ,,ii4 and the ,papacy in the #acth century4 ,the story of the contest between ,guelph and ,ghibelline1 however1 is little less than the history of ,italy in the middle ages4 ,at the opening of the #acth century it was intensified by the fight for the ,german and imperial thrones between ,philip1 duke of ,swabia1 a son of ,frederick ,i41 and the ,welf1 ,otto of ,brunswick1 afterwards the emperor ,otto ,,iv41 a fight waged in ,italy as well as in ,germany4 ,then1 as the heir of ,philip of ,swabia and the rival of ,otto of ,brunswick1 ,frederick ,,ii4 was forced to throw himself into the arms of the ,ghibellines1 while his enemies1 the popes1 ranged themselves definitely among the ,guelphs1 and soon ,guelph and ,ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor4 ,after the death of ,frederick ,,ii4 in #abej the ,ghibellines looked for leadership to his son and successor1 the ,german king1 ,conrad ,,iv41 and then to his natural son1 ,manfred1 while the ,guelphs called the ,french prince1 ,charles of ,anjou1 to their aid4 ,but the combatants were nearing exhaustion1 and after the execution of ,conradin1 the last of the ,hohenstaufen1 in #abfh1 this great struggle began to lose force and interest4 ,guelph and ,ghibelline were soon found representing local and family rather than papal and imperial interests2 the names were taken with little or no regard for their original significance1 and in the #aeth century they began to die out of current politics4 ,however1 when ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france conquered ,milan at the beginning of the #afth century the old names were revived2 the ,french king's supporters were called ,guelphs and the friends of the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 were referred to as ,ghibellines4 ,the feud of ,guelph and ,ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost every city of northern ,italy1 and the contest between the parties1 which practically makes the history of ,florence during the #acth century1 is specially noteworthy4 ,first one side and then the other was driven into exile2 the ,guelph defeat at the battle of ,monte ,aperto in #abfj was followed by the expulsion of the ,ghibellines by ,charles of ,anjou in #abff1 and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other cities 7see ,,florence74 ,the ,guelph cause was buttressed by an idea1 yet very nebulous1 of ,italian patriotism4 ,dislike of the ,german and the foreigner rather than any strong affection for the ,papacy was the feeling which bound the ,guelph to the pope1 and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of ,frederick ,,ii4 ,the ,ghibelline cause1 on the other hand1 was aided by the dislike of the temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority4 ,this made ,dante a ,ghibelline1 but the hopes of this party1 kindled anew by the journey of ,henry ,,vii4 to ,italy in #acaj1 were extinguished by his departure4 ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds thus describes the constituents of the two parties3 ,the ,guelph party meant the burghers of the consular ,communes1 the men of industry and commerce1 the upholders of civil liberty1 the friends of democratic expansion4 ,the ,ghibelline party included the naturalized nobles1 the men of arms and idleness1 the advocates of feudalism1 the politicians who regarded constitutional progress with disfavour4 ,that the banner of the church floated over the one camp1 while the standard of the empire rallied to itself the hostile party1 was a matter of comparatively superficial moment4 ,in another passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and universal division between ,guelph and ,ghibelline3 ,ghibellines wore the feathers in their caps upon one side1 ,guelphs upon the other4 ,ghibellines cut fruit at table crosswise1 ,guelphs straight down 444 ,ghibellines drank out of smooth and ,guelphs out of chased goblets4 ,ghibellines wore white and ,guelphs red roses4 ,it is interesting to note that while ,dante was a ,ghibelline1 ,petrarch was a ,guelph4 ,see ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy1 vol4 i4 7#ahge74 ,,guenevere 7,lat4 ,guanhumara2 ,welsh1 ,gwenhwyfar2 ,o4 ,eng4 ,gaynore71 in ,arthurian romance the wife of ,king ,arthur4 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 who calls her ,guanhumara1 makes her a ,roman lady1 but the general tradition is that she was of ,cornish birth and daughter to ,king ,leodegrance4 ,wace1 who1 while translating ,geoffrey1 evidently knew1 and used1 popular tradition1 combines these two1 asserting that she was of ,roman parentage on the mother's side1 but cousin to ,cador of ,cornwall by whom she was brought up4 ,the tradition relating to ,guenevere is decidedly confused and demands further study4 ,the ,welsh triads know no fewer than three ,gwenhwyfars2 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 relating the discovery of the royal tombs at ,glastonbury1 speaks of the body found as that of ,arthur's second wife2 the prose ,merlin gives ,guenevere a bastard half-sister of the same name1 who strongly resembles her2 and the ,lancelot relates how this lady1 trading on the likeness1 persuaded ,arthur that she was the true daughter of ,leodegrance1 and the queen the bastard interloper4 ,this episode of the false ,guenevere is very perplexing4 ,to the majority of ,english readers ,guenevere is best known in connexion with her liaison with ,lancelot1 a story which1 in the hands of ,malory and ,tennyson1 has assumed a form widely different from the original conception1 and at once more picturesque and more convincing4 ,in the ,french romances ,lancelot is a late addition to the ,arthurian cycle1 his birth is not recorded till long after the marriage of ,arthur and ,guenevere1 and he is at least twenty years the junior of the queen4 ,the relations between them are of the most conventional and courtly character1 and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion which marks the love story of ,tristan and ,iseult4 ,the ,lancelot-,guenevere romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere encouraged by such patronesses of literature as ,eleanor of ,aquitaine and her daughter ,marie1 ,comtesse de ,champagne 7for whom ,chretien de ,troyes wrote his ,chevalier de la ,charrette71 and reflects the low social morality of a time when love between husband and wife was declared impossible4 ,but though ,guenevere has changed her lover1 the tradition of her infidelity is of much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive ,arthurian legend4 ,who the original lover was is doubtful2 the ,vita ,gildae relates how she was carried off by ,melwas1 king of ,aestiva ,regis1 to ,glastonbury1 whither ,arthur1 at the head of an army1 pursued the ravisher4 ,a fragment of a ,welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition1 which certainly lies at the root of her later abduction by ,meleagaunt4 ,in the ,lanzelet of ,ulrich von ,zatzikhoven the abductor is ,falerin4 ,the story in these forms represents an other-world abduction4 ,a curious fragment of ,welsh dialogues1 printed by ,professor ,rhys in his ,studies on the ,arthurian ,legend1 appears to represent ,kay as the abductor4 ,in the pseudo-,chronicles and the romances based upon them the abductor is ,mordred1 and in the chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no unwilling victim4 ,on the final defeat of ,mordred she retires to a nunnery1 takes the veil1 and is no more heard of4 ,wace says emphatically-- ,ne fu oie ne veue1 ,ne fu trovee1 ne seue ,por la vergogne del mesfait ,et del pecie qu ele avoit fait 7#aa4 #acfbg-cj74 ,layamon1 who in his translation of ,wace treats his original much as ,wace treated ,geoffrey1 says that there was a tradition that she had drowned herself1 and that her memory and that of ,mordred were hateful in every land1 so that none would offer prayer for their souls4 ,on the other hand certain romances1 e4g4 the ,perceval1 give her an excellent character4 ,the truth is probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and treachery was a genuine part of the ,arthurian story1 which1 neglected for a time1 was brought again into prominence by the social conditions of the courts for which the later romances were composed2 and it is in this later and conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar to us 7see also ,,lancelot74 ,see ,studies on the ,arthurian ,legend by ,professor ,rhys2 ,the ,legend of ,sir ,lancelot1 ,grimm ,library1 xii41 ,jessie ,l4 ,weston2 ,der ,karrenritter1 ed4 ,professor ,foerster4 7,j4 ,l4 ,w47 ,,guenon 7from the ,french1 one who grimaces1 hence an ape71 the name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the ,african genus ,cercopithecus1 the ,ethiopian representative of the ,asiatic macaques1 from which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last molar in the lower jaw4 ,,gueret1 a town of central ,france1 capital of the department of ,creuse1 situated on a mountain declivity #dh m4 ,n4,e4 of ,limoges on the ,orleans railway4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 town1 #fjdb2 commune 7including troops1 c471 #hjeh4 ,apart from the ,hotel des ,monneyroux 7used as prefecture71 a picturesque mansion of the #aeth and #afth centuries1 with mansard roofs and mullioned windows1 ,gueret has little architectural interest4 ,it is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes1 and has a tribunal of first instance1 a chamber of commerce and lycees and training colleges1 for both sexes4 ,the industries include brewing1 saw-milling1 leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes1 and there is trade in agricultural produce and cattle4 ,gueret grew up round an abbey founded in the #gth century1 and in later times became the capital of the district of ,marche4 ,,guereza1 the native name of a long-tailed1 black and white ,abyssinian monkey1 ,colobus guereza 7or ,c4 abyssinicus71 characterized by the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle4 ,other east ,african monkeys with a similar type of colouring1 which1 together with the wholly black west ,african ,c4 satanas1 collectively constitute the subgenus ,guereza1 may be included under the same title2 and the name may be further extended to embrace all the ,african thumbless monkeys of the genus ,colobus4 ,these monkeys are the ,african representatives of the ,indo-,malay langurs 7,semnopithecus71 with which they agree in their slender build1 long limbs and tail1 and complex stomachs1 although differing by the rudimentary thumb4 ,the members of the subgenus ,guereza present a transition from a wholly black animal 7,c4 satanas7 to one 7,c4 caudatus7 in which the sides of the face are white1 and the whole flanks1 as well as the tail1 clothed with a long fringe of pure white hairs4 ,,guericke1 ,,heinrich ,,ernst ,,ferdinand 7#ahjc-ahgh71 ,german theologian1 was born at ,wettin in ,saxony on the #beth of ,february #ahjc and studied theology at ,halle1 where he was appointed professor in #ahbi4 ,he greatly disliked the union between the ,lutheran and the ,reformed churches1 which had been accomplished by the ,prussian government in #ahag1 and in #ahcc he definitely threw in his lot with the ,old ,lutherans4 ,in #ahce he lost his professorship1 but he regained it in #ahdj4 ,among his works were a ,life of ,august ,hermann ,francke 7#ahbg1 ,eng4 trans4 #ahcg71 ,church ,history 7#ahcc1 ,eng4 trans4 by ,w4 ,t4 ,shedd1 ,new ,york1 #aheg-ahfc71 ,allgemeine christliche ,symbolik 7#ahci74 ,in #ahdj he helped to found the ,zeitschrift fur die gesammte lutherische ,theologie und ,kirche1 and he died at ,halle on the #dth of ,february #ahgh4 ,,guericke1 ,,otto ,,von 7#afjb-afhf71 ,german experimental philosopher1 was born at ,magdeburg1 in ,prussian ,saxony1 on the #bjth of ,november #afjb4 ,having studied law at ,leipzig1 ,helmstadt and ,jena1 and mathematics1 especially geometry and mechanics1 at ,leiden1 he visited ,france and ,england1 and in #afcf became engineer-in-chief at ,erfurt4 ,in #afbg he was elected alderman of ,magdeburg1 and in #afdf mayor of that city and a magistrate of ,brandenburg4 ,his leisure was devoted to scientific pursuits1 especially in pneumatics4 ,incited by the discoveries of ,galileo1 ,pascal and ,torricelli1 he attempted the creation of a vacuum4 ,he began by experimenting with a pump on water placed in a barrel1 but found that when the water was drawn off the air permeated the wood4 ,he then took a globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock1 and discovered that he could pump out air as well as water4 ,thus he became the inventor of the air-pump 7#afej74 ,he illustrated his discovery before the emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii4 at the imperial diet which assembled at ,regensburg in #afed1 by the experiment of the ,magdeburg hemispheres4 ,taking two hollow hemispheres of copper1 the edges of which fitted nicely together1 he exhausted the air from between them by means of his pump1 and it is recorded that thirty horses1 fifteen back to back1 were unable to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted4 ,besides investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum1 he constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excitation of a rotating ball of sulphur2 and he made successful researches in astronomy1 predicting the periodicity of the return of comets4 ,in #afha he gave up office1 and retired to ,hamburg1 where he died on the #aath of ,may #afhf4 ,his principal observations are given in his work1 ,experimenta nova1 ut vocant1 ,magdeburgica de vacuo spatio 7,amsterdam1 #afgb74 ,he is also the author of a ,geschichte der ,belagerung und ,eroberung von ,magdeburg4 ,see ,f4 ,w4 ,hoffmann1 ,otto von ,guericke 7,magdeburg1 #ahgd74 ,,gueridon1 a small table to hold a lamp or vase1 supported by a tall column or a human or mythological figure4 ,this piece of furniture1 often very graceful and elegant1 originated in ,france towards the middle of the #agth century4 ,in the beginning the table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure1 and there is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic appellation of the young ,african groom or tiger1 who was generally called ,gueridon1 or as we should say in ,english ,sambo4 ,the swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the ,moor when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours produced a very striking effect1 and when a small table was supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive service was suggested with completeness4 ,the gueridon is still occasionally seen in something approaching its original form2 but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct of the ,french designer and artificer converted it into a far worthier object4 ,by the death of ,louis ,,xiv4 there were several hundreds of them at ,versailles1 and within a generation or two they had taken an infinity of forms--columns1 tripods1 termini and mythological figures4 ,some of the simpler and more artistic forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded4 ,silver1 enamel1 and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made1 have been used for their construction4 ,a variety of small occasional tables are now called in ,french gueridons4 ,,guerin1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,paulin 7#aghc-ahee71 ,french painter1 was born at ,toulon1 on the #beth of ,march #aghc1 of poor parents4 ,he learnt1 as a lad1 his father's trade of a locksmith1 whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school of art4 ,having sold some copies to a local amateur1 ,guerin started for ,paris1 where he came under the notice of ,vincent1 whose counsels were of material service4 ,in #ahaj ,guerin made his first appearance at the ,salon with some portraits1 which had a certain success4 ,in #ahab he exhibited ,cain after the murder of ,abel 7formerly in ,luxembourg71 and1 on the return of the ,bourbons1 was much employed in works of restoration and decoration at ,versailles4 ,his ,dead ,christ 7,cathedral1 ,baltimore7 obtained a medal in #ahag1 and this success was followed up by a long series of works1 of which the following are the more noteworthy3 ,christ on the knees of the ,virgin 7#ahai72 ,anchises and ,venus 7#ahbb7 7formerly in ,luxembourg72 ,ulysses and ,minerva 7#ahbd7 7,musee de ,rennes72 the ,holy ,family 7#ahbi7 7,cathedral1 ,toulon72 and ,saint ,catherine 7#ahch7 7,st ,roch74 ,in his treatment of subject1 ,guerin attempted to realize rococo graces of conception1 the liveliness of which was lost in the strenuous effort to be correct4 ,his chief successes were attained by portraits1 and those of ,charles ,nodier and the ,abbe ,lamennais became widely popular4 ,he died on the #aith of ,january #ahee4 ,,guerin1 ,,pierre ,,narcisse1 ,,baron 7#aggd-ahcc71 ,french painter1 was born at ,paris on the #acth of ,may #aggd4 ,becoming a pupil of ,jean ,baptiste ,regnault1 he carried off one of the three grands prix offered in #agif1 in consequence of the competition not having taken place since #agic4 ,the pension was not indeed re-established1 but ,guerin fulfilled at ,paris the conditions imposed upon a pensionnaire1 and produced various works1 one of which brought him prominently before the public4 ,this work1 ,marcus ,sextus 7,louvre71 exhibited at the ,salon of #agii1 excited wild enthusiasm1 partly due to the subject1--a victim of ,sulla's proscription returning to ,rome to find his wife dead and his house in mourning--in which an allusion was found to the actual situation of the emigres4 ,guerin on this occasion was publicly crowned by the president of the ,institute1 and before his departure for ,rome 7on the re-establishment of the ,ecole under ,suvee7 a banquet was given to him by the most distinguished artists of ,paris4 ,in #ahjj1 unable to remain in ,rome on account of his health1 he went to ,naples1 where he painted the ,grave of ,amyntas4 ,in #ahjb ,guerin produced ,phaedra and ,hippolytus 7,louvre72 in #ahaj1 after his return to ,paris1 he again achieved a great success with ,andromache and ,pyrrhus 7,louvre72 and in the same year also exhibited ,cephalus and ,aurora 7,collection ,sommariva7 and ,bonaparte and the ,rebels of ,cairo 7,versailles74 ,the ,restoration brought to ,guerin fresh honours2 he had received from the first consul in #ahjc the cross of the ,legion of ,honour1 and in #ahae ,louis ,,xviii4 named him ,academician4 ,the success of ,guerin's ,hippolytus of ,andromache1 of ,phaedra and of ,clytaemnestra 7,louvre7 had been ensured by the skilful selection of highly melodramatic situations1 treated with the strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the first empire2 in ,aeneas relating to ,dido the disasters of ,troy 7,louvre71 which appeared side by side with ,clytaemnestra at the ,salon of #ahag1 the influence of the ,restoration is plainly to be traced4 ,in this work ,guerin sought to captivate the public by an appeal to those sensuous charms which he had previously rejected1 and by the introduction of picturesque elements of interest4 ,but with this work ,guerin's public successes came to a close4 ,he was1 indeed1 commissioned to paint for the ,madeleine a scene from the history of ,st ,louis1 but his health prevented him from accomplishing what he had begun1 and in #ahbb he accepted the post of director of the ,ecole de ,rome1 which in #ahaf he had refused4 ,on returning to ,paris in #ahbh1 ,guerin1 who had previously been made chevalier of the order of ,st ,michel1 was ennobled4 ,he now attempted to complete ,pyrrhus and ,priam1 a work which he had begun at ,rome1 but in vain2 his health had finally broken down1 and in the hope of improvement he returned to ,italy with ,horace ,vernet4 ,shortly after his arrival at ,rome ,baron ,guerin died1 on the #fth of ,july #ahcc1 and was buried in the church of ,la ,trinita de' ,monti by the side of ,claude ,lorraine4 ,a careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be found in ,meyer's ,geschichte der franzosischen ,malerei4 ,,guerin ,,du ,,cayla1 ,,georges ,,maurice ,,de 7#ahaj-ahci71 ,french poet1 descended from a noble but poor family1 was born at the chateau of ,le ,cayla in ,languedoc1 on the #dth of ,august #ahaj4 ,he was educated for the church at a religious seminary at ,toulouse1 and then at the ,college ,stanislas1 ,paris1 after which he entered the society at ,la ,chesnaye in ,brittany1 founded by ,lamennais4 ,it was only after great hesitation1 and without being satisfied as to his religious vocation1 that under the influence of ,lamennais he joined the new religious order in the autumn of #ahcb2 and when1 in ,september of the next year1 ,lamennais1 who had come under the displeasure of ,rome1 severed connexion with the society1 ,maurice de ,guerin soon followed his example4 ,early in the following year he went to ,paris1 where he was for a short time a teacher at the ,college ,stanislas4 ,in ,november #ahch he married a ,creole lady of some fortune2 but a few months afterwards he was attacked by consumption and died on the #aith of ,july #ahci4 ,in the ,revue des deux mondes for ,may #aeth1 #ahdj1 there appeared a notice of ,maurice de ,guerin by ,george ,sand1 to which she added two fragments of his writings--one a composition in prose entitled the ,centaur1 and the other a short poem4 ,his ,reliquiae 7#b vols41 #ahfa71 including the ,centaur1 his journal1 a number of his letters and several poems1 was edited by ,g4 ,s4 ,trebutien1 and accompanied with a biographical and critical notice by ,sainte-,beuve2 a new edition1 with the title ,journal1 lettres et poemes1 followed in #ahfb2 and an ,english translation of it was published at ,new ,york in #ahfg4 ,though he was essentially a poet1 his prose is more striking and original than his poetry4 ,its peculiar and unique charm arises from his strong and absorbing passion for nature1 a passion whose intensity reached almost to adoration and worship1 but in which the pagan was more prominent than the moral element4 ,according to ,sainte-,beuve1 no ,french poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature--the feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine universality1 the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle of life4 ,the name of ,,eugenie ,,de ,,guerin 7#ahje-ahdh71 the sister of ,maurice1 cannot be omitted from any notice of him4 ,her ,journals 7#ahfa1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahfe7 and her ,lettres 7#ahfd1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahfe7 indicated the possession of gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother1 though of a somewhat different kind4 ,in her case mysticism assumed a form more strictly religious1 and she continued to mourn her brother's loss of his early ,catholic faith4 ,five years older than he1 she cherished a love for him which was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety4 ,after his death she began the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his writings4 ,she died1 however1 on the #cast of ,may #ahdh1 before her task was completed4 ,see the notices by ,george ,sand and ,sainte-,beuve referred to above2 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,causeries du lundi 7vol4 xii47 and ,nouveaux ,lundis 7vol4 iii472 ,g4 ,merlet1 ,causeries sur les femmes et les livres 7,paris1 #ahfe72 ,selden1 ,l',esprit des femmes de notre temps 7,paris1 #ahfd72 ,marelle1 ,eugenie et ,maurice de ,guerin 7,berlin1 #ahfi72 ,harriet ,parr1 ,m4 and ,e4 de ,guerin1 a monograph 7,london1 #ahgj72 and ,matthew ,arnold's essays on ,maurice and ,eugenie de ,guerin1 in his ,essays in ,criticism4 ,,guernieri1 or ,,werner1 a celebrated mercenary captain who lived about the middle of the #adth century4 ,he was a member of the family of the dukes of ,urslingen1 and probably a descendant of the dukes of ,spoleto4 ,from #acdj to #acdc he was in the service of the citizens of ,pisa1 but afterwards he collected a troop of adventurers which he called the ,great ,company1 and with which he plundered ,tuscany and ,lombardy4 ,he then entered the service of ,louis ,i4 the ,great1 king of ,hungary and ,poland1 whom he assisted to obtain possession of ,naples2 but when dismissed from this service his ravages became more terrible than ever1 culminating in the dreadful sack of ,anagni in #aceh1 shortly after which ,guernieri disappeared from history4 ,he is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription1 ,the enemy of ,god1 of pity and of mercy4 ,,guernsey 7,fr4 ,guernesey71 one of the ,channel ,islands1 belonging to ,britain1 the second in size and westernmost of the important members of the group4 ,its chief town1 ,st ,peter ,port1 on the east coast1 is in #b deg4 #cc' ,w41 #di deg4 #bg' ,n41 #gd m4 ,s4 of ,portland ,bill on the ,english coast1 and #cj m4 from the nearest ,french coast to the east4 ,the island1 roughly triangular in form1 is #i-a_/d m4 long from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 and has an extreme breadth of #e-a_/d m4 and an area of #ae1fia acres or #bd4e sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #dj1ddf1 the density being thus #afb per sq4 m4 ,the surface of the island rises gradually from north to south1 and reaches its greatest elevation at ,haut ,nez 7#cdi ft47 above ,point ,icart on the south coast4 ,the coast scenery1 which forms one of the principal attractions to the numerous summer visitors to the island1 is finest on the south4 ,this coast1 between ,jerbourg and ,pleinmont ,points1 respectively at the south-eastern and south-western corners of the island1 is bold1 rocky and indented with many exquisite little bays4 ,of these the most notable are ,moulin ,huet1 ,saint's1 and ,petit ,bot1 all in the eastern half of the south coast4 ,the cliffs1 however1 culminate in the neighbourhood of ,pleinmont4 ,picturesque caves occur at several points1 such as the ,creux ,mahie4 ,on the west coast there is a succession of larger bays--,rocquaine ,perelle1 ,vazon1 and ,cobo4 ,off the first lies ,lihou ,island1 the ,hanois and other islets1 and all three bays are sown with rocks4 ,the coast1 however1 diminishes in height1 until at the north-eastern extremity of the island the land is so low across the ,vale or ,braye du ,val1 from shore to shore1 that the projection of ,l',ancresse is within a few feet of being isolated4 ,the east coast1 on which1 besides the town and harbour of ,st ,peter ,port1 is that of ,st ,sampson1 presents no physical feature of note4 ,the interior of the island is generally undulating1 and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation4 ,picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern bays 7the two converging upon ,petit ,bot are notable71 and the high-banked paths1 arched with foliage1 which follow the small rills down to ,moulin ,huet ,bay1 are much admired under the name of water-lanes4 ,the soil is generally light sandy loam1 overlying an angular gravel which rests upon the weathered granite4 ,this soil requires much manure1 and a large proportion of the total area 7about three-fifths7 is under careful cultivation1 producing a considerable amount of grain1 but more famous for market-gardening4 ,vegetables and potatoes are exported1 with much fruit1 including grapes and flowers4 ,granite is quarried and exported from ,st ,sampson1 and the fisheries form an important industry4 ,for administrative purposes ,guernsey is united with ,alderney1 ,sark1 ,herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of ,guernsey1 separate from ,jersey4 ,the peculiar constitution1 machinery of administration and justice1 finance1 c41 are considered under the heading ,,channel ,,islands4 ,guernsey is divided into the ten parishes of ,st ,peter ,port1 ,st ,sampson1 ,vale1 ,catel1 ,st ,saviour1 ,st ,andrew1 ,st ,martin1 ,forest1 ,st ,peter du ,bois and ,torteval4 ,the population of ,st ,peter ,port in #aija was #ah1bfd2 of the other parishes that of ,st ,sampson was #efad and that of ,vale #ejhb4 ,the population of the bailiwick of ,guernsey nearly doubled between #ahba and #aija1 and that of the island increased from #ce1bdc in #ahia to #dj1ddf in #aija4 ,the island roads are excellent1 ,guernsey owing much in this respect to ,sir ,john ,doyle 7d4 #ahcd71 the governor whose monument stands on the promontory of ,jerbourg4 ,like ,jersey and the neighbouring part of ,france1 ,guernsey retains considerable traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs1 of which the most notable is the cromlech in the north at ,l',ancresse4 ,as regards ecclesiastical architecture1 all the parish churches retain some archaeological interest4 ,there is good ,norman work in the church of ,st ,michael1 ,vale1 and the church of ,st ,peter ,port is a notable building of various periods from the early #adth century4 ,small remains of monastic buildings are seen at ,vale and on ,lihou ,island4 ,,guerrazzi1 ,,francesco ,,domenico 7#ahjd-ahgc71 ,italian publicist1 born at ,leghorn1 was educated for the law at ,pisa1 and began to practise in his native place4 ,but he soon took to politics and literature1 under the influence of ,byron1 and his novel1 the ,battagli di ,benevento 7#ahbg71 brought him into notice4 ,mazzini made his acquaintance1 and with ,carlo ,bini they started a paper1 the ,indicatore1 at ,leghorn in #ahbi1 which was quickly suppressed4 ,guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of imprisonment for his activity in the cause of ,young ,italy1 and it was in ,portoferrato in #ahcd that he wrote his most famous novel ,assidio di ,firenze4 ,he was the most powerful ,liberal leader at ,leghorn1 and in #ahdh became a minister1 with some idea of exercising a moderating influence in the difficulties with the grand-duke of ,tuscany4 ,in #ahdi1 when the latter fled1 he was first one of the triumvirate with ,mazzini and ,montanelli1 and then dictator1 but on the restoration he was arrested and imprisoned for three years4 ,his ,apologia was published in #aheb4 ,released from prison1 he was exiled to ,corsica1 but subsequently was restored and was for some time a deputy at ,turin 7#ahfb-ahgj71 dying of apoplexy at ,leghorn on the #beth of ,september #ahgc4 ,he wrote a number of other works besides the novels already mentioned1 notably ,isabella ,orsini 7#ahde7 and ,beatrice ,cenci 7#ahed71 and his ,opere were collected at ,milan 7#ahfh74 ,see the ,life and ,works by ,bosio 7#ahgg71 and ,carducci's edition of his letters 7#ahhj74 ,,guerrero1 a ,pacific coast state of ,mexico1 bounded ,n4,w4 by ,michoacan1 ,n4 by ,mexico 7state7 and ,morelos1 ,n4,e4 and ,e4 by ,puebla and ,oaxaca1 and ,s4 and ,w4 by the ,pacific4 ,area1 #bd1iif sq4 m4 ,pop41 largely composed of ,indians and mestizos 7#ahie71 #dag1hhf2 7#aijj7 #dgi1bje4 ,the state is roughly broken by the ,sierra ,madre and its spurs1 which cover its entire surface with the exception of the low coastal plain 7averaging about #bj m4 in width7 on the ,pacific4 ,the valleys are usually narrow1 fertile and heavily forested1 but difficult of access4 ,the state is divided into two distinct zones--the tierras calientes of the coast and lower river courses where tropical conditions prevail1 and the tierras templadas of the mountain region where the conditions are subtropical4 ,the latter is celebrated for its agreeable and healthy climate1 and for the variety and character of its products4 ,the principal river of the state is the ,rio de las ,balsas or ,mescala1 which1 having its source in ,tlaxcala1 flows entirely across the state from ,w4 to ,e41 and then southward to the ,pacific on the frontier of ,michoacan4 ,this river is #dbi m4 long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region through which it passes1 but its course is very precipitous and its mouth obstructed by sand bars4 ,the agricultural products include cotton1 coffee1 tobacco and cereals1 and the forests produce rubber1 vanilla and various textile fibres4 ,mining is undeveloped1 although the mineral resources of the state include silver1 gold1 mercury1 lead1 iron1 coal1 sulphur and precious stones4 ,the capital1 ,chilpancingo1 or ,chilpancingo de los ,bravos 7pop4 #gdig in #aijj71 is a small town in the ,sierra ,madre about #aaj m4 from the coast and #bjj m4 ,s4 of the ,federal capital4 ,it is a healthy well-built town on the old ,acapulco road1 is lighted by electricity and is temporarily the western terminus of the ,interoceanic railway from ,vera ,cruz4 ,it is celebrated in the history of ,mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of #ahac1 which issued a declaration of independence4 ,chilpancingo was badly damaged by an earthquake in ,january #aijb1 and again on the #afth of ,april #aijg4 ,other important towns of the state are ,tixtla1 or ,tixtla de ,guerrero1 formerly the capital 7pop4 #fcaf in #aijj71 #c m4 ,n4,e4 of ,chilpancingo2 ,chilapa 7#hbef in #ahie71 the most populous town of the state1 partially destroyed by a hurricane in #ahhi1 and again by the earthquake of #aijg2 ,iguala 7#ffca in #ahie72 and ,acapulco4 ,guerrero was organized as a state in #ahdi1 its territory being taken from the states of ,mexico1 ,michoacan and ,puebla4 ,,guerrilla 7erroneously written guerilla1 being the diminutive of the ,span4 guerra1 war71 a term currently used to denote war carried on by bands in any irregular and unorganized manner4 ,at the ,hague ,conference of #ahii the position of irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with1 and the rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the ,conference of #aijg4 ,they provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition as belligerent forces shall 7a7 have at their head a person responsible for his subordinates1 7b7 wear some fixed distinctive badge recognizable at a distance1 7c7 carry arms openly1 and 7d7 conform in their operations to the laws and customs of war4 ,the rules1 however1 also provide that in case of invasion the inhabitants of a territory who on the approach of the invading enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist it1 shall be regarded as belligerent troops if they carry arms openly and respect the laws and customs of war1 although they may not have had time to become organized in accordance with the above provisions4 ,these rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project drawn up at the ,brussels international conference of #ahgd1 which1 though never ratified1 was practically incorporated in the army regulations issued by the ,russian government in connexion with the war of #ahgg-gh4 7,t4 ,ba47 ,,guerrini1 ,,olindo 7#ahde- 71 ,italian poet1 was born at ,sant' ,alberto1 ,ravenna1 and after studying law took to a life of letters1 becoming eventually librarian at ,bologna ,university4 ,in #ahgg he published ,postuma1 a volume of canzoniere1 under the name of ,lorenzo ,stechetti1 following this with ,polemica 7#ahgh71 ,canti popolari romagnoli 7#ahhj7 and other poetical works1 and becoming known as the leader of the verist school among ,italian lyrical writers4 ,,guesde1 ,,jules ,,basile 7#ahde- 71 ,french socialist1 was born in ,paris on the #aath of ,november #ahde4 ,he had begun his career as a clerk in the ,french ,home ,office1 but at the outbreak of the ,franco-,german ,war he was editing ,les ,droits de l'homme at ,montpellier1 and had to take refuge at ,geneva in #ahga from a prosecution instituted on account of articles which had appeared in his paper in defence of the ,commune4 ,in #ahgf he returned to ,france to become one of the chief ,french apostles of ,marxian collectivism1 and was imprisoned for six months in #ahgh for taking part in the first ,parisian ,international ,congress4 ,he edited at different times ,les ,droits de l'homme1 ,le ,cri du peuple1 ,le ,socialiste1 but his best-known organ was the weekly ,egalite4 ,he had been in close association with ,paul ,lafargue1 and through him with ,karl ,marx1 whose daughter he married4 ,it was in conjunction with ,marx and ,lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the national congress of the ,labour party at ,havre in #ahhj1 which laid stress on the formation of an international labour party working by revolutionary methods4 ,next year at the ,reims congress the orthodox ,marxian programme of ,guesde was opposed by the possibilists1 who rejected the intransigeant attitude of ,guesde for the opportunist policy of ,benoit ,malon4 ,at the congress of ,st-,etienne the difference developed into separation1 those who refused all compromise with a capitalist government following ,guesde1 while the opportunists formed several groups4 ,guesde took his full share in the consequent discussion between the ,guesdists1 the ,blanquists1 the possibilists1 c4 ,in #ahic he was returned to the ,chamber of ,deputies for ,lille 7#gth circonscription7 with a large majority over the ,christian ,socialist and ,radical candidates4 ,he brought forward various proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the ,labour party1 without reference to the divisions among the ,socialists1 and on the #bjth of ,november #ahid succeeded in raising a two days' discussion of the collectivist principle in the ,chamber4 ,in #aijb he was not re-elected1 but resumed his seat in #aijf4 ,in #aijc there was a formal reconciliation at the ,reims congress of the sections of the party1 which then took the name of the ,socialist party of ,france4 ,guesde1 nevertheless1 continued to oppose the opportunist policy of ,jaures1 whom he denounced for supporting one bourgeois party against another4 ,his defence of the principle of freedom of association led him1 incongruously enough1 to support the religious ,congregations against ,emile ,combes4 ,besides his numerous political and socialist pamphlets he published in #aija two volumes of his speeches in the ,chamber of ,deputies entitled ,quatre ans de lutte de classe #ahic-ahih4 ,,guest1 ,,edwin 7#ahjj-ahhj71 ,english antiquary1 was born in #ahjj4 ,he was educated at ,king ,edward's school1 ,birmingham1 and at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he graduated as eleventh wrangler1 subsequently becoming a fellow of his college4 ,called to the bar in #ahbh1 he devoted himself1 after some years of legal practice1 to antiquarian and literary research4 ,in #ahch he published his exhaustive ,history of ,english ,rhythms4 ,he also wrote a very large number of papers on ,roman-,british history1 which1 together with a mass of fresh material for a history of early ,britain1 were published posthumously under the editorship of ,dr ,stubbs under the title ,origines ,celticae 7#ahhc74 ,in #aheb ,guest was elected master of ,caius ,college1 becoming ,,ll4,d4 in the following year1 and in #ahed-ahee he was vice-chancellor of ,cambridge ,university4 ,guest was a fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and an honorary member of the ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,he died on the #bcrd of ,november #ahhj4 ,,guest 7a word common to ,teutonic languages2 cf4 ,ger4 ,gast1 and ,swed4 gast2 cognate with ,lat4 hostis1 originally a stranger1 hence enemy2 cf4 host71 one who receives hospitality in the house of another1 his host2 hence applied to a parasite4 ,,guettard1 ,,jean ,,etienne 7#agae-aghf71 ,french naturalist and mineralogist1 was born at ,etampes1 on the #bbnd of ,september #agae4 ,in boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his grandfather1 who was an apothecary1 and later he qualified as a doctor in medicine4 ,pursuing the study of botany in various parts of ,france and other countries1 he began to take notice of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and subsoils4 ,in this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and rocks4 ,in #agdf he communicated to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and rocks1 and this was accompanied by a map on which he had recorded his observations4 ,he thus1 as remarked by ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare1 first carried into execution the idea1 proposed by ,martin ,lister years before1 of geological maps4 ,in the course of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured many of them1 but he had no clear ideas about the sequence of strata4 ,he made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain1 rivers and sea2 and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of ,auvergne4 ,he died in ,paris on the #gth of ,january #aghf4 ,his publications include3 ,observations sur les plantes 7#b vols41 #agdg72 ,histoire de la decouverte faite en ,france de matieres semblables a celles dont la porcelaine de la ,chine est composee 7#agfe72 ,memoires sur differentes parties des sciences et arts 7#e vols41 #agfh-aghc72 ,memoire sur la mineralogie du ,dauphine 7#b vols41 #aggi74 ,see ,the ,founders of ,geology1 by ,sir ,a4 ,geikie 7#ahig74 ,,gueux1 ,,les1 or ,,the ,,beggars1 a name assumed by the confederacy of nobles and other malcontents1 who in #aeff opposed ,spanish tyranny in the ,netherlands4 ,the leaders of the nobles1 who signed a solemn league known as the ,compromise1 by which they bound themselves to assist in defending the rights and liberties of the ,netherlands against the civil and religious despotism of ,philip ,,ii41 were ,louis1 count of ,nassau1 and ,henry1 count of ,brederode4 ,on the #eth of ,april #aeff permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition of grievances1 called the ,request1 to the regent1 ,margaret1 duchess of ,parma4 ,about #bej nobles marched to the palace accompanied by ,louis of ,nassau and ,brederode4 ,the regent was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body1 but one of her councillors1 ,berlaymont by name1 was heard to exclaim1 ,what1 madam1 is your highness afraid of these beggars 7ces gueux78 ,the appellation was not forgotten4 ,at a great feast held by some #cjj confederates at the ,hotel ,culemburg three days later1 ,brederode in a speech declared that if need be they were all ready to become beggars in their country's cause4 ,the words caught on1 and the hall resounded with loud cries of ,vivent les gueux6 ,the name became henceforward a party appellation4 ,the patriot party adopted the emblems of beggarhood1 the wallet and the bowl1 as trinkets to be worn on their hats or their girdles1 and a medal was struck having on one side the head of ,philip ,,ii41 on the other two clasped hands with the motto ,fidele au roy1 jusques a porter la besace4 ,the original league of ,beggars was short-lived1 crushed by the iron hand of ,alva1 but its principles survived and were to be ultimately triumphant4 ,in the year #aefi the prince of ,orange1 who had now openly placed himself at the head of the party of revolt1 granted letters of marque to a number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes drawn from all nationalities4 ,these fierce corsairs under the command of a succession of daring and reckless leaders--the best-known of whom is ,william de la ,marek1 lord of ,lumey--were called ,gueux de mer1 or ,sea ,beggars4 ,at first they were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying their booty to the ,english ports where they were able to refit and replenish their stores4 ,this went on till #aegb1 when ,queen ,elizabeth suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours4 ,having no longer any refuge1 the ,sea ,beggars in desperation made an attack upon ,brill1 which they seized by surprise in the absence of the ,spanish garrison on the #ast of ,april #aegb4 ,encouraged by their unhoped-for success1 they now sailed to ,flushing1 which was also taken by a coup de main4 ,the capture of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the northern ,netherlands1 and is regarded as the real beginning oi the ,war of ,dutch ,independence4 ,,guevara1 ,,antonio ,,de 7c4 #adij-aedd71 ,spanish chronicler and moralist1 was a native of the province of ,alava1 and passed some of his earlier years at the court of ,isabella1 queen of ,castile4 ,in #aebh he entered the ,franciscan order1 and afterwards accompanied the emperor ,charles ,v4 during his journeys to ,italy and other parts of ,europe4 ,after having held successively the offices of court preacher1 court historiographer1 bishop of ,guadix and bishop of ,mondonedo1 he died in #aedd4 ,his earliest work1 entitled ,reloj de principes1 published at ,valladolid in #aebi1 and1 according to its author1 the fruit of eleven years' labour1 is a didactic novel1 designed1 after the manner of ,xenophon's ,cyropaedia1 to delineate1 in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit of modern sovereigns1 the life and character of an ancient prince1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 distinguished for wisdom and virtue4 ,it was often reprinted in ,spanish2 and before the close of the century had also been translated into ,latin1 ,italian1 ,french and ,english1 an ,english translation being by ,j4 ,bourchier 7,london1 #aedf7 and another being by ,t4 ,north4 ,it is difficult now to account for its extraordinary popularity1 its thought being neither just nor profound1 while its style is stiff and affected4 ,it gave rise to a literary controversy1 however1 of great bitterness and violence1 the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an historical character1 appealing to an imaginary manuscript in ,florence4 ,other works of ,guevara are the ,decada de los ,cesares 7,valladolid1 #aeci71 or ,lives of the ,ten ,roman ,emperors1 in imitation of the manner of ,plutarch and ,suetonius2 and the ,epistolas familiares 7,valladolid1 #aeci-aede71 sometimes called ,the ,golden ,letters1 often printed in ,spain1 and translated into all the principal languages of ,europe4 ,they are in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays which have long ago fallen into merited oblivion4 ,guevara1 whose influence upon the ,spanish prose of the #afth century was considerable1 also wrote ,libro de los inventores del arte de marear 7,valladolid1 #aeci1 and ,madrid1 #ahie74 ,,guevara1 ,,luis ,,velez ,,de 7#aegi-afdd71 ,spanish dramatist and novelist1 was born at ,ecija on the #ast of ,august #aegi4 ,after graduating as a sizar at the university of ,osuna in #aeif1 he joined the household of ,rodrigo de ,castro1 cardinal-archbishop of ,seville1 and celebrated the marriage of ,philip ,,ii4 in a poem signed ,velez de ,santander1 a name which he continued to use till some years later4 ,he appears to have served as a soldier in ,italy and ,algiers1 returning to ,spain in #afjb when he entered the service of the count de ,saldana1 and dedicated himself to writing for the stage4 ,he died at ,madrid on the #ajth of ,november #afdd4 ,he was the author of over four hundred plays1 of which the best are ,reinar despues de morir1 ,mas pesa el rey que la sangre1 ,la ,luna de la ,sierra and ,el ,diablo esta en ,cantillana2 but he is most widely known as the author of ,el ,diablo cojuelo 7#afda71 a fantastic novel which suggested to ,le ,sage the idea of his ,diable boiteux4 ,,guglielmi1 ,,pietro 7#agbg-ahjd71 ,italian composer1 was born at ,massa ,carrara in ,may #agbg1 and died in ,rome on the #aith of ,november #ahjd4 ,he received his first musical education from his father1 and afterwards studied under ,durante at the ,conservatorio di ,santa ,maria di ,loreto at ,naples4 ,his first operatic work1 produced at ,turin in #agee1 established his reputation1 and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own country1 so that in #agfb he was called to ,dresden to conduct the opera there4 ,he remained for some years in ,germany1 where his works met with much success1 but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in ,england4 ,he went to ,london1 according to ,burney1 in #agfh1 but according to ,florimo in #aggb1 returning to ,naples in #aggg4 ,he still continued to produce operas at an astounding rate1 but was unable to compete successfully with the younger masters of the day4 ,in #agic he became maestro di cappella at ,st ,peter's1 ,rome4 ,he was a very prolific composer of ,italian comic opera1 and there is in most of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by ,cimarosa himself4 ,in serious opera he was less successful4 ,but here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent musician4 ,considering the enormous number of his works1 his unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us4 ,the following are among the most celebrated of his operas3 ,i ,due ,gemelli1 ,la ,serva inamorata1 ,la ,pastorella nobile1 ,la ,bella ,peccatrice1 ,rinaldo1 ,artaserse1 ,didone and ,enea e ,lavinia4 ,he also wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music4 ,of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as musicians--,pietro ,carlo 7#agfc-ahbg71 a successful imitator of his father's operatic style1 and ,giacomo1 an excellent singer4 ,,guiana 7,guyana1 ,guayana#a71 the general name given in its widest acceptation to the part of ,south ,america lying to the north-east from #h deg4 #dj' ,n4 to #c deg4 #cj' ,s4 and from #ej deg4 ,w4 to #fh deg4 #cj' ,w4 ,its greatest length1 from ,cabo do ,norte to the confluence of the ,rio ,xie and ,rio ,negro1 is about #abej m41 its greatest breadth1 from ,barima ,point in the mouth of the ,orinoco to the confluence of the ,rio ,negro and ,amazon1 #hjj m4 ,its area is roughly #fij1jjj sq4 m4 ,comprised in this vast territory are ,venezuelan 7formerly ,spanish7 ,guiana1 lying on both sides of the ,orinoco and extending ,s4 and ,s4,w4 to the ,rio ,negro and ,brazilian settlements2 ,british ,guiana1 extending from ,venezuela to the left bank of the ,corentyn river2 ,dutch ,guiana 7or ,surinam71 from the ,corentyn to the ,maroni river2 ,french ,guiana 7or ,cayenne71 from the ,maroni to the ,oyapock river2#b ,brazilian 7formerly ,portuguese7 ,guiana1 extending from the southern boundaries of ,french1 ,dutch1 ,british and part of ,venezuelan ,guiana1 to the ,amazon and the ,negro4 ,of these divisions the first and last are now included in ,venezuela and ,brazil respectively2 ,british1 ,dutch and ,french ,guiana are described in order below1 and are alone considered here4 ,illiustration3 ,map of ,guiana4 ,in their physical geography the three ,guianas present certain common characteristics4 ,in each the principal features are the rivers and their branch streams4 ,in each colony the northern portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height of #aj to #ae ft4 above the sea4 ,this alluvial plain varies in width from #ej m4 to #ah m4 and is traversed by ridges of sand and shells1 roughly parallel to what is now the coast1 indicating the trend of former shore lines4 ,by the draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been formed along the coast and up the rivers4 ,these low lands are attached to a somewhat higher plateau1 which towards the coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by ranges of hills rising in places to as much as #bjjj ft4 ,the greater part of this belt of country1 in which the auriferous districts principally occur1 is covered with a dense growth of jungle and high forest1 but savannahs1 growing only a long wiry grass and poor shrubs1 intrude here and there1 being in the ,s4,e4 much nearer to the coast than in the ,n4,w4 ,the hinterlands consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains1 some grass-covered1 some in dense forest4 ,geology#c4--;,guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite1 diabase1 c4 ,the gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived1 not from quartz reefs1 but from the schists and intrusive rocks1 the selvages of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as #e oz4 of gold to the ton4 ,in ,british ,guiana a series of conglomerates1 red and white sandstone and red shale1 rests upon the gneiss and forms the remarkable table-topped mountains ,roraima1 ,kukenaam1 c4 ,the beds are horizontal1 and according to ,brown and ,sawkins1 three layers of greenstone1 partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous1 are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits4 ,the age of these beds is uncertain1 but they evidently correspond with the similar series which occurs in ,brazil1 partly ,palaeozoic and partly ,cretaceous4 ,in ,dutch ,guiana there are a few small patches supposed to belong to the ,cretaceous period4 ,along the coast1 and in the lower parts of the river valleys1 are deposits which are mainly ,quaternary but may also include beds of ,tertiary age4 ,history4--,the coast of ,guiana was sighted by ,columbus in #adih when he discovered the island of ,trinidad and the peninsula of ,paria1 and in the following year by ,alonzo de ,ojeda and ,amerigo ,vespucci2 and in #aejj ,vincente ,yanez ,pinzon ventured south of the equator1 and sailing north-west along the coast discovered the ,amazon2 he is believed to have also entered some of the other rivers of ,guiana1 one of which1 now called ,oyapock1 is marked on early maps as ,rio ,pinzon4 ,little1 however1 was known of ,guiana until the fame of the fabled golden city ,manoa or ,el ,dorado tempted adventurers to explore its rivers and forests4 ,from letters of these explorers found in captured ships1 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh was induced to ascend the ,orinoco in search of ,el ,dorado in #aeie1 to send ,lawrence ,keymis on the same quest in the following year1 and in #afag to try once again1 with the same intrepid lieutenant1 an expedition fraught with disaster for both of them4 ,as early as #aehj the ,dutch had established a systematic trade with the ,spanish main1 but so far as is known their first voyage to ,guiana was in #aeih4 ,by #afac they had three or four settlements on the coast of ,demerara and ,essequibo1 and in about #afaf some ,zeelanders settled on a small island1 called by them ,kyk ober al 7see over all71 in the confluence of the ,cuyuni and ,mazaruni rivers4 ,while the ,dutch traders were struggling for a footing in ,essequibo and ,demerara1 ,english and ,french traders were endeavouring to form settlements on the ,oyapock river1 in ,cayenne and in ,surinam1 and by #afeb the ,english had large interests in the latter and the ,french in ,cayenne4 ,in #affc ,charles ,,ii4 issued letters patent to ,lord ,willoughby of ,parham and ,lawrence ,hyde1 second son of the earl of ,clarendon1 granting them the district between the ,copenam and ,maroni rivers1 a province described as extending from ,e4 to ,w4 some #abj m4 ,this colony was1 however1 formally ceded to the ,netherlands in #affg by the peace of ,breda1 ,great ,britain taking possession of ,new ,york4 ,meanwhile the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company1 formed in #afba1 had taken possession of ,essequibo1 over which colony it exercised sovereign rights until #agia4 ,in #afbd a ,dutch settlement was effected in the ,berbice river1 and from this grew ,berbice1 for a long time a separate and independent colony4 ,in #afeg the ,zeelanders firmly established themselves in the ,pomeroon1 ,moruca and ,demerara rivers1 and by #afgd the ,dutch were colonizing all the territory now known as ,british and ,dutch ,guiana4 ,the ,new ,dutch ,west ,indian ,company1 founded in that year to replace the older company which had failed1 received ,guiana by charter from the states-general in #afhb4 ,in the following year the company sold one-third of their territory to the city of ,amsterdam1 and another third to ,cornelis van ,aerssens1 lord of ,sommelsdijk4 ,the new owners and the company incorporated themselves as the ,chartered ,society of ,surinam1 and ,sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of the colony at his own expense4 ,the lucrative trade in slaves was retained by the ,west ,indian ,company1 but the society could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the company4 ,sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic4 ,he repressed and pacified the ,indian tribes1 erected forts and disciplined the soldiery1 constructed the canal which bears his name1 established a high court of justice and introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut4 ,but on the #agth of ,june #afhh he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers4 ,the third which ,sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to ,william ,,iii4 of ,england1 but it was ultimately purchased by the city of ,amsterdam for #gjj1jjj fl4 ,the settlements in ,essequibo progressed somewhat slowly1 and it was not until immigration was attracted in #agdj by offers to newcomers of free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony could be said to exist there4 ,in #agcb ,berbice placed itself under the protection of the states-general of ,holland and was granted a constitution1 and in #aggc ,demerara1 till then a dependency of ,essequibo1 was constituted as a separate colony4 ,in #agha the three colonies1 ,demerara1 ,essequibo and ,berbice1 were captured by ,british privateers1 and were placed by ,rodney under the governor of ,barbados1 but in #aghb they were taken by ,france1 then an ally of the ,netherlands1 and retained until the peace of #aghc1 when they were restored to ,holland4 ,in #aghd ,essequibo and ,demerara were placed under one governor1 and ,georgetown--then called ,stabroek--was fixed on as the seat of government4 ,the next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies and the ,dutch ,west ,india company1 which ended in the company being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly by the states-general4 ,in #agif the ,british again took possession1 and retained the three colonies until the peace of ,amiens in #ahjb1 when they were once again restored to ,holland1 only to be recaptured by ,great ,britain in #ahjc1 in which year the history proper of ,british ,guiana began4 ,british ,guiana4 ,i4 ,,british ,,guiana1 the only ,british possession in ,s4 ,america1 was formally ceded in #ahad-ahae4 ,the three colonies were in #ahca consolidated into one colony divided into three counties1 ,berbice extending from the ,corentyn river to the ,abary creek1 ,demerara from the ,abary to the ,boerasirie creek1 ,essequibo from the ,boerasirie to the ,venezuelan frontier4 ,this boundary-line between ,british ,guiana and ,venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute4 ,the ,dutch1 while ,british ,guiana was in their possession1 claimed the whole watershed of the ,essequibo river1 while the ,venezuelans asserted that the ,spanish province of ,guayana had extended up to the left bank of the ,essequibo4 ,in #ahdj ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk had suggested a demarcation1 afterwards known as the ,schomburgk line2 and subsequently1 though no agreement was arrived at1 certain modifications were made in this ,british claim4 ,in #ahhf the government of ,great ,britain declared that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as the modified ,schomburgk line4 ,outposts were located at points on this line1 and for some years ,guianese police and ,venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the ,amacura creek in the ,orinoco mouth and at ,yuruan up the ,cuyuni river4 ,in #ahig the dispute formed the subject of a message to congress from the president of the ,united ,states1 and in consequence of this intervention the matter was submitted to an international commission1 whose award was issued at ,paris in #ahii 7see ,,venezuela74 ,by this decision neither party gained its extreme claim1 the line laid down differing but little from the original ,schomburgk line4 ,the demarcation was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by ,venezuela and ,british ,guiana and was completed in #aijd4 ,it was not found practicable1 owing to the impassable nature of the country1 to lay down on earth that part of the boundary fixed by the ,paris award between the head of the ,wenamu creek and the summit of ,mt4 ,roraima1 and the boundary commissioners suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the ,caroni1 ,cuyuni and ,mazaruni rivers1 a suggestion accepted by the two governments4 ,in #aijb the delimitation of the boundary between ,british ,guiana and ,brazil was referred to the arbitration of the king of ,italy1 and by his reward1 issued in ,june #aijd1 the substantial area in dispute was conceded to ,british ,guiana4 ,the work of demarcation has since been carried out4 ,towns1 c4--,the capital of ,british ,guiana is ,georgetown1 at the mouth of the ,demerara river1 on its right bank1 with a population of about #ej1jjj4 ,new ,amsterdam1 on the right bank of the ,berbice river1 has a population of about #gejj4 ,each possesses a mayor and town council1 with statutory powers to impose rates4 ,there are nineteen incorporated villages1 and ten other locally governed areas known as country districts1 the affairs of which are controlled by local authorities1 known as village councils and country authorities respectively4 ,population4--,the census of #ahia gave the population of ,british ,guiana as #bgh1cbh4 ,there was no census taken in #aija4 ,by official estimates the population at the end of #aijd was #cja1ibc4 ,of these some #abj1jjj were negroes and #abd1jjj ,east ,indians2 #dcjj were ,europeans1 other than ,portuguese1 estimated at about #aa1fjj1 and some #cj1jjj of mixed race4 ,the aborigines--,arawaks1 ,caribs1 ,wapisianas1 ,warraws1 c4--who numbered about #aj1jjj in #ahia1 are now estimated at about #fejj4 ,in #aijd the birth-rate for the whole colony was #cj4c per #ajjj and the death-rate #bh4h4 ,physical ,geography4--,the surface features of ,british ,guiana may be divided roughly into four regions3 first1 the alluvial seaboard1 flat and below the level of high-water2 secondly1 the forest belt1 swampy along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and hills between them2 thirdly1 the savannahs in and inland of the forest belt1 elevated table-lands1 grass-covered and practically treeless2 and fourthly1 the mountain ranges4 ,the eastern portion of the colony1 from the source of its two largest rivers1 the ,corentyn and ,essequibo1 is a rough inclined plain1 starting at some #ijj ft4 above sea-level at the source of the ,takutu in the west1 but only some #djj at that of the ,corentyn in the west1 and sloping down gradually to the low alluvial flats about #c ft4 below high-water line4 ,the eastern part is generally forested2 the western is an almost level savannah1 with woodlands along the rivers4 ,the northern portion of ,british ,guiana1 the alluvial flats alluded to already1 consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland from #be m4 to #cj m41 gradually rising to about #ab ft4 above high-water mark and ending against beds of sandy clay1 the residua of igneous rocks decomposed in situ1 which form an extensive undulating region rising to #aej ft4 above the sea and stretching back to the forest-covered hills4 ,roughly parallel to the existing coast-line are narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells1 which are dunes indicating the trend of former limits of the sea1 and still farther back are the higher sand hills1 hills of granite or diabase with a thick stratum of coarse white sand superimposed4 ,from the coast-line seawards the ocean deepens very gradually1 and at low tide extensive flats of sand and of mixed clay and sand 7called locally caddy7 are left bare1 these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin drift mud4 ,two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from ,w4 to ,e41 the greater being that of the ,pacaraima and ,merume ,mts41 and the lesser including the ,kanuku ,mts4 7#bjjj ft471 while the ,acarai ,mts41 a densely-wooded range rising to #bejj ft41 form the southern boundary of ,british ,guiana and the watershed between the ,essequibo and the ,amazon4 ,these mountains rise generally in a succession of terraces and broad plateaus1 with steep or even sheer sandstone escarpments4 ,they are mostly flat-topped1 and their average height is about #cejj ft4 ,the ,pacaraima ,mts41 however1 reach #hfce ft4 at ,roraima1 and the latter remarkable mountain rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock #aejj ft4 in height springing out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit1 and was considered inaccessible until in ,december #ahhd ,messrs im ,thurn and ,perkins found a ledge by which the top could be reached4 ,the summit is a table-land some #ab sq4 m4 in area4 ,mt4 ,kukenaam is of similar structure and also rises above #hejj ft4 ,other conspicuous summits 7about #gjjj ft47 are ,iwalkarima1 ,eluwarima1 ,ilutipu and ,waiakapiapu4 ,the southern portion of the ,pacaraima range comprises rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys1 but to the ,n41 where the sandstone assumes the table-shaped form1 there are dense forests1 and the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur4 ,waterfalls frequently descend the cliffs from a great height 7nearly #bjjj ft4 sheer at ,roraima and ,kukenaam74 ,the sandstone formation can be traced from the northern ,pacaraima range on the ,n4,w4 to the ,corentyn in the ,s4,e4 ,it is traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or dolerite1 while bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it4 ,the surface of a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss1 and of gneissose granite1 which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the river beds4 ,intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence2 where found1 it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to cataracts in the rivers4 ,extensive areas of the country consist of quartz-porphyry1 porphyrites and felstone1 and of more or less schistose rocks derived from them4 ,these rocks are closely connected with the gneissose granites and gneiss1 and there are reasons for believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them and are only visible where they have been exposed by denudation4 ,long ranges of hills1 varying in elevation from a few hundreds to from #bjjj ft4 to #cjjj ft41 traverse the plains of the gneissose districts4 ,these are caused either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro which have undergone modifications1 or by later ones of dolerite4 ,these ranges are of high importance1 as the rocks comprising them are the main source of gold in ,british ,guiana4 ,rivers4--,the principal physical features of ,british ,guiana are its rivers and their branches1 which form one vast network of waterways all over it1 and are the principal1 indeed practically the only1 highways inland from the coast4 ,chief among them are the ,waini1 the ,essequibo1 and its tributaries the ,mazaruni and ,cuyuni1 the ,demerara1 the ,berbice and the ,corentyn4 ,the ,essequibo rises in the ,acarai ,mts41 in #j deg4 #da' ,n4 and about #hej ft4 above the sea1 and flows northwards for about #fjj m4 until it discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary nearly #ae m4 in width4 ,in this estuary are several large and fertile islands1 on four of which sugar used to be grown4 ,now but one1 ,wakenaam1 can boast of a factory4 ,the ,essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than #bj ft4 and is navigable for these vessels for not more than #ej m41 its subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts and rapids4 ,some #g m4 below the first series of rapids it is joined by the ,mazaruni1 itself joined by the ,cuyuni some #d m4 farther up4 ,it has a remarkable course from its source in the ,merume ,mountains1 about #bdjj ft4 above the sea4 ,it flows first south1 then west1 north-west1 north1 and finally south-east to within #bj m4 of its own source1 forming many fine falls1 and its course thereafter is still very tortuous4 ,in #d deg4 ,n4 and #eh deg4 ,w41 the ,essequibo is joined by the ,rupununi1 which1 rising in a savannah at the foot of the ,karawaimento ,mts41 has a northerly and easterly course of fully #bjj m4 ,in #c deg4 #cg' ,n4 the ,awaricura joins the ,rupununi1 and by this tributary the ,pirara1 a tributary of the ,amazon1 may be reached1--an example of the interesting series of itabos connecting nearly all ,s4 ,american rivers with one another4 ,another large tributary of the ,essequibo is the ,potaro1 on which1 at #aacj ft4 above sea-level and in #e deg4 #h' ,n4 and #ei deg4 #ai' ,w41 is the celebrated ,kaieteur fall1 discovered in #ahgj by ,mr ,c4 ,barrington ,brown while engaged on a geological survey4 ,this fall is produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone and conglomerate into a deep valley #hbb ft4 below4 ,for the first #gda ft4 the water falls as a perpendicular column1 thence as a sloping cataract to the still reach below4 ,the river #bjj yds4 above the fall is about #djj ft4 wide1 while the actual waterway of the fall itself varies from #abj ft4 in dry weather to nearly #djj ft4 in rainy seasons4 ,the ,kaieteur1 which it took ,mr ,brown a fortnight to reach from the coast1 can now be reached on the fifth day from ,georgetown4 ,among other considerable tributaries of the ,essequibo are the ,siparuni1 ,burro-,burro1 ,rewa1 ,kuyuwini and ,kassi-,kudji4 ,the ,demerara river1 the head-waters of which are known only to ,indians1 rises probably near #e deg4 ,n41 and after a winding northerly course of some #bjj m4 enters the ocean in #f deg4 #ej' ,n4 and #eh deg4 #bj' ,w4 ,a bar of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more than #ai ft4 ,the river is from its mouth1 which is nearly #b m4 wide1 navigable for #gj m4 to all vessels which can enter4 ,the ,berbice river rises in about #c deg4 #dj' ,n41 and in #c deg4 #ec' ,n4 is within #i m4 of the ,essequibo4 ,at its mouth it is about #b-a_/b m4 wide1 and is navigable for vessels drawing not more than #ab ft4 for about #aje m4 and for vessels drawing not more than #g ft4 for fully #age m4 ,thence upwards it is broken by great cataracts4 ,the ,canje creek joins the ,berbice river close to the sea4 ,the ,corentyn river rises in #a deg4 #dh' #cj ,n41 about #adj m4 ,e4 of the ,essequibo1 and flowing northwards enters the ,atlantic by an estuary some #ad m4 wide4 ,the divide between its head-waters and those of streams belonging to the ,amazon system is only some #djj ft4 in elevation4 ,it is navigable for about #aej m41 some of the reaches being of great width and beauty4 ,the upper reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts1 some of which1 until the discovery of ,kaieteur1 were believed to be the grandest in ,british ,guiana4 ,among other rivers are the ,pomeroon1 ,moruca and ,barima1 while several large streams or creeks fall directly into the ,atlantic1 the largest being the ,abary1 ,mahaicony and ,mahaica1 between ,berbice and ,demerara1 and the ,boerasirie between ,demerara and ,essequibo4 ,the colour of the water of the rivers and creeks is in general a dark brown1 caused by the infusion of vegetable matter1 but where the streams run for a long distance through savannahs they are of a milky colour4 ,climate4--,the climate is1 as tropical countries go1 not unhealthy4 ,malarial fevers are common but preventible2 and phthisis is prevalent1 not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from pulmonary complaints1 but because of the ignorance of the common people of the elementary principles of hygiene1 an ignorance which the state is endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of hygiene in the syllabus of the primary schools4 ,the temperature is uniform on the coast for the ten months from ,october to ,july1 the regular ,n4,e4 trade winds keeping it down to an average of #hj deg4 ,f4 ,in ,august and ,september the trades die away and the heat becomes oppressive4 ,in the interior the nights are cold and damp4 ,hurricanes1 indeed even strong gales1 are unknown2 a tidal wave is an impossibility2 and the nature of the soil of the coast lands renders earthquakes practically harmless4 ,occasionally there are severe droughts1 and the rains are sometimes unduly prolonged1 but usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two dry seasons4 ,the long wet season begins in mid-,april and lasts until mid-,august4 ,the long dry season is from ,september to the last week in ,november4 ,december and ,january constitute the short rainy season1 and ,february and ,march the short dry season4 ,the rainfall varies greatly in different parts of the colony2 on the coast it averages about #hj in4 annually4 ,flora4--,the vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual4 ,indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety1 while many exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions4 ,along the coast is a belt of courida and mangrove--the bark of the latter being used for tanning--forming a natural barrier to the inroads of the sea1 but one which--very unwisely--has been in parts almost ruined to allow of direct drainage4 ,the vast forests afford an almost inexhaustible supply of valuable timbers2 greenheart and mora1 largely used in shipbuilding and for wharves and dock and lock gates2 silverbally1 yielding magnificent planks for all kinds of boats2 and cabinet woods1 such as cedar and crabwood4 ,there may be seen great trees1 struggling for life one with the other1 covered with orchids--some of great beauty and value--and draped with falling lianas and vines4 ,giant palms fringe the river-banks and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage4 ,many of the trees yield gums1 oils and febrifuges1 the bullet tree being bled extensively for balata1 a gum used largely in the manufacture of belting4 ,valuable varieties of rubber have also been found in several districts1 and since early in #aije have attracted the attention of experts from abroad4 ,on the coast plantains1 bananas and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for food1 while several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of limes4 ,oranges1 pineapples1 star-apples1 granadillas1 guavas are among the fruits2 ,indian corn1 cassava1 yams1 eddoes1 tannias1 sweet potatoes and ochroes are among the vegetables1 while innumerable varieties of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all classes4 ,the dainty avocado pear1 purple and green1 grows readily4 ,in the lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild1 the largest being the famous ,victoria regia4 ,fauna4--,guiana is full of wild animals1 birds1 insects and reptiles4 ,among the wild animals1 one and all nocturnal1 are the mipourrie or tapir1 manatee1 acouri and labba 7both excellent eating71 sloth1 ant-eater1 armadillo1 several kinds of deer1 baboons1 monkeys and the puma and jaguar4 ,the last is seen frequently down on the coast1 attracted from the forest by the cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the estates4 ,among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow 7an invaluable scavenger71 vicissi and muscovy ducks1 snipe1 teal1 plover1 pigeon1 the ubiquitous kiskadee or qu'est que dit1 a species of shrike--his name derived from his shrill call--the canary and the twa-twa1 both charming whistlers4 ,these are all found on the coast4 ,in the forest are maam 7partridge71 maroudi 7wild turkey71 the beautiful bell-bird with note like a silver gong1 the quadrille bird with its tuneful oft-repeated bar1 great flocks of macaws and parrots1 and other birds of plumage of almost indescribable richness and variety4 ,on the coast the trenches and canals are full of alligators1 but the great cayman is found only in the rivers of the interior4 ,among the many varieties of snakes are huge constricting camoudies1 deadly bushmasters1 labarrias and rattlesnakes4 ,among other reptiles are the two large lizards1 the salumpenta 7an active enemy of the barn-door fowl71 and the iguana1 whose flesh when cooked resembles tender chicken4 ,the rivers1 streams and trenches abound with fishes1 crabs and shrimps1 the amount of the latter consumed being enormous1 running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their curries and the blacks in their foo-foo4 ,government and ,administration4--,executive power is vested in a governor1 who is advised in all administrative matters by an executive council1 consisting of five official and three unofficial members nominated by the crown4 ,legislative authority is vested in the ,court of ,policy1 consisting of the governor1 who presides and without whose permission no legislation can be initiated1 seven other official members and eight elected members4 ,this body has1 however1 no financial authority1 all taxation and expenditure being dealt with by the ,combined ,court1 consisting of the ,court of ,policy combined with six financial representatives4 ,the elected members of the ,court of ,policy and the financial representatives are elected by their several constituencies for five years4 ,qualification for the ,court of ,policy is the ownership1 or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years1 of eighty acres of land1 of which at least forty acres are under cultivation1 or of house property to the value of #gejj4 ,a financial representative must be similarly qualified or be in receipt of a clear income of not less than ,l#cjj per annum4 ,every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who 7in addition to the usual formal qualifications7 owns 7during six months prior to registration7 three acres of land in cultivation or a house of the annual rental or value of ,l#bj2 or is a secured tenant for not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or for one year of a house of ,l#dj rental2 or has an income of not less than ,l#ajj per annum2 or has during the previous twelve months paid ,l#d1 #cs4 #d;d4 in direct taxation4 ,residence in the electoral district for six months prior to registration is coupled with the last two alternative qualifications4 ,plural voting is legal but no plumping is allowed4 ,the combined court is by this constitution1 which was granted in #ahia1 allowed the use of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted for a term now fixed at three years4 ,english is the official and common language4 ,the ,roman-,dutch law1 modified by orders-in-council and local statutes1 governs actions in the civil courts1 but the criminal law is founded on that of ,england4 ,magistrates have in civil cases jurisdiction up to ,l#bj1 while an appeal lies from their decisions in any criminal or civil case4 ,the supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges1 and has various jurisdictions4 ,the full court1 consisting of the three judges or any two of them1 has jurisdiction over all civil matters1 but an appeal lies to ,his ,majesty in privy council in cases involving ,l#ejj and upwards4 ,a single judge sits in insolvency1 in actions involving not over ,l#ebj1 and in appeals from magistrates' decisions4 ,the appeal full court1 consisting of three judges1 sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge in the limited civil1 appellate and insolvency courts4 ,criminal courts are held four times a year in each county1 a single judge presiding in each court4 ,a court of crown cases reserved is formed by the three judges1 of whom two form a quorum provided the chief-justice is one of the two4 ,there are no imperial troops now stationed in ,british ,guiana1 but there is a semi-military police force1 a small militia and two companies of volunteers4 ,the ,church of ,england and the ,church of ,scotland are both established1 and grants-in-aid are also given to the ,roman ,catholic and ,wesleyan churches and to several other denominations4 ,the revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an average of a little over ,l#ejj1jjj4 ,about one-half of the revenue is produced by import duties1 and about ,l#ij1jjj by excise4 ,the public debt on the #cast of ,march #aije stood at ,l#ihi1fbj4 ,the system of primary education is denominational and is mainly supported from the general revenue4 ,during #aijd-aije1 #bac schools received grants-in-aid amounting to ,l#bc1ejj1 the average cost per scholar being a little over ,l#a4 ,these grants are calculated on the results of examinations held annually1 an allowance varying from #ds4 #d-a_/b;d4 to #as4 #j-a_/b;d4 being made for each pass in reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 school-garden work1 nature study1 singing and drill1 ,english1 geography1 elementary hygiene and sewing4 ,secondary education is provided in ,georgetown at some private establishments1 and for boys at ,queen's ,college1 an undenominational government institution where the course of instruction is the same as at a public school in ,england1 and the boys are prepared for the ,cambridge local examinations1 on the result of which annually depend the ,guiana scholarship--open to boys and girls1 and carrying a university or professional training in ,england--and two scholarships at ,queen's ,college4 ,industries and ,trade4--,at the end of the third decade of the #aith century the principal exports were sugar1 rum1 molasses1 cotton and coffee4 ,in #ahcj1 #i1ejj1jjj lb4 of coffee were sent abroad1 but after the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export1 and the little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed in the colony4 ,the cultivation of cotton ceased in #ahdd1 and1 but for a short revival during the ,american civil war1 has never prospered since4 ,efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth1 but the experiments of the ,board of ,agriculture have only shown that ,sea ,island cotton is not adaptable to local conditions1 and that no other known variety can as yet be recommended4 ,to-day the principal exports are sugar1 rum1 molasses1 molascuit--a cattle food made from molasses--gold1 timber1 balata1 shingles and cattle4 ,the annual value of the total exports is just under ,l#b1jjj1jjj1 of which about two-thirds go to ,great ,britain and ,british possessions4 ,the cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent years1 and1 where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be economically overcome1 promises to increase rapidly4 ,in #ahgc1 #cb1jjj1jjj lb4 of rice were imported1 whereas in #aijd-aije1 the quantity imported having fallen to #bj1ejj1jjj lb41 there were over #ah1jjj acres under rice cultivation1 and exportation1 principally to the ,british ,west ,indies1 had commenced4 ,the cultivation of the sugar-cane1 and its manufacture into sugar and its by-products1 still remains1 in spite of numerous fluctuations1 the staple industry4 ,the provision of a trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance1 and local scarcity has made it necessary since #ahdj to import it under a system of indenture4 ,in that year and until #ahfg1 liberated ,africans were brought from ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,havana1 ,sierra ,leone and ,st ,helena1 and in #ahde systematic immigration from ,india commenced and has since been carried on annually--save in #ahdi-ahej4 ,in #ahec immigration from ,china was tried1 and was carried on by the government from #ahei to #ahff1 when it ceased owing to a convention arranged at ,peking1 stipulating that all immigrants should on the expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent back at the expense of the colony1 a liability it could not afford to incur4 ,to reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses1 and consequently of the cane and its manufacture into sugar1 the policy of centralization has been universally adopted1 and forty-six estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number did in #ahge4 ,during recent years ,canada has come forward as a large buyer of ,guiana's sugar1 and in #aijd-aije the same amount went there as to the ,united ,states1 in each case over #dd1jjj tons1 whereas in #aija-aijb the ,united ,states took #he1jjj tons and ,canada under #hjjj tons4 ,practically all the rum and molascuit go to ,england1 and the molasses to ,holland and ,portuguese possessions4 ,the lands on the coast and on the river banks up to the sand hills are of marked fertility1 and can produce almost any tropical vegetable or fruit4 ,cultivation1 however1 save on the sugar1 coffee and cocoa estates1 and by a few exceptional small farmers1 is carried on in a haphazard and half-hearted manner1 and the problem of agricultural development is one of great difficulty for the government4 ,much of the privately-owned land is not beneficially occupied1 and in many cases it is not possible even to learn to whom it belongs1 and though there are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land where a large farm or a small homestead can be easily and cheaply acquired1 the difficulties involved in clearing1 draining1 and in some cases of protecting it by dams1 are prohibitive to all but the exceptionally determined4 ,prospecting for gold began in #ahhj1 and from #ahhd to #ahic-ahid the output1 chiefly from alluvial workings1 increased from #bej oz4 to nearly #adj1jjj oz4 annually4 ,the industry then received a serious check by the failure of several mines1 and for nearly a decade was almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor1 known locally as a pork-knocker4 ,there has been some revival1 chiefly due to foreign enterprise4 ,at ,omai on the ,essequibo river a ,german syndicate worked a large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining with considerable success1 and more recently took to dredging on its flats4 ,in the ,puruni 7a tributary of the ,mazaruni7 ,american capitalists1 working the ,peters' mine1 have established their workings to a considerable depth1 besides constructing a road1 #fj m4 in length1 from ,kartabo point1 at the confluence of the ,guyuni and ,mazaruni1 to the ,puruni river opposite the mine4 ,an ,english syndicate started dredging in the ,conawarook1 a tributary of the ,essequibo4 ,the principal gold districts are on the ,essequibo and its tributaries--the chief being the ,cuyuni1 ,mazaruni1 ,potaro and ,conawarook--and on the ,barima1 ,barama and ,waini rivers in the north-west district4 ,there have been smaller workings1 mostly unsuccessful1 in the ,demerara and ,berbice rivers4 ,diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small quantities1 and since #aijj efforts have been made to extend the output1 nearly #aa1jjj carats weight of diamonds being exported in #aijd4 ,but though the small stones found were of good water1 the cost of transport to the diamond fields1 on the ,mazaruni river1 was heavy1 and after #aijd the industry declined4 ,laws dealing with gold and precious stones passed in #ahhj1 #ahhf and #ahhg1 and regulations in #ahii1 were codified in #aijb and amended in #aije4 ,timber is cut1 and balata and rubber collected1 from crown lands by licences issued from the department of ,lands and ,mines4 ,wood-cutting1 save on concessions held by a local company owning an up-country line of railway connecting the ,demerara and ,essequibo rivers1 is limited to those parts of the forest which are close to the lower stretches of the rivers and creeks1 the overland haulage of the heavy logs being both difficult and costly1 while transport through the upper reaches of the rivers is impossible on account of the many cataracts and rapids4 ,the average annual value of imports is ,l#a1ejj1jjj1 of which about two-thirds are from ,great ,britain and ,british possessions4 ,of the vessels trading with the colony1 most are under the ,british flag1 the remainder being principally ,american and ,norwegian4 ,the money of account is dollars and cents1 but1 with the exception of the notes of the two local banks1 the currency is ,british sterling4 ,the unit of land measure is the ,rhynland rood1 roughly equal to #ab ft4 #d in4 ,a ,rhynland acre contains #cjj square roods4 ,inland ,communication1 c4--,the public roads extend along the coast from the ,corentyn river to some #bj m4 ,n4 of the ,essequibo mouth on the ,aroabisci coast1 and for a short distance up each of the principal rivers and creeks entering the sea between these points4 ,a line of railway #fj-a_/b m4 in length runs from ,georgetown to ,rosignol on the left bank of the ,berbice river opposite ,new ,amsterdam2 and another line #ae m4 long starts from ,vreed-en-hoop1 on the left bank of the ,demerara river opposite ,georgetown1 and runs to ,greenwich ,park on the right bank of the ,essequibo river some #c m4 from its mouth4 ,a light railway1 metre gauge1 #ah-a_/b m4 in length1 connects ,wismar 7on the left bank of the ,demerara river some #gj m4 from its mouth7 with ,rockstone 7on the right bank of the ,essequibo1 and above the first series of cataracts in that river74 ,steamers run daily to and from ,georgetown and ,wismar1 and launches to and from ,rockstone and ,tumatumari ,fall on the ,potaro1 and all expeditions for the goldfields of the ,essequibo and its tributaries above ,rockstone travel by this route4 ,another steamer goes twice a week to ,bartica at the confluence of the ,essequibo and ,mazaruni1 and another weekly to ,mt4 ,everard on the ,barima1 from which termini expeditions start to the other gold and diamond fields4 ,steamers also run from ,georgetown to ,new ,amsterdam and up the ,berbice river for about #ajj m4 ,above the termini of these steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless bateaux1 propelled by paddlers and steered when coming through the rapids at both bow and stern by certificated bowmen and steersmen4 ,owing to the extreme dangers of this inland travelling1 stringent regulations have been framed as to the loading of boats1 supply of ropes and qualifications of men in charge1 and the shooting of certain falls is prohibited4 ,voyages up-country are of necessity slow1 but the return journey is made with comparatively great rapidity1 distances laboriously covered on the up-trip in three days being done easily in seven hours when coming back4 ,from ,england ,british ,guiana is reached in sixteen days by the steamers of the ,royal ,mail ,steam ,packet ,company1 and in nineteen days by those of the direct line from ,london and ,glasgow4 ,there are also regular services from ,canada1 the ,united ,states1 ,france and ,holland4 ,history4--,when taken over in #ahjc the prospects of three ,british colonies were by no means promising1 and during the next decade the situation became very critical4 ,owing to the increased output of sugar by conquered ,dutch and ,french colonies the ,english market was glutted and the markets of the continent of ,europe were not available1 ,bonaparte having closed the ports4 ,the years #ahaa and #ahab were peculiarly disastrous1 especially to those engaged in the manufacture of sugar1 and at a public meeting held in ,georgetown early in the latter year it was stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily worth ,l#a1hfj1jjj had on account of deteriorated value decreased by fully one-third4 ,at this meeting it was resolved to petition the imperial parliament to allow the interchange of produce with the ,united ,states2 a resolution which was unfortunately rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between ,england and the ,states in #ahab1 the trade of ,british ,guiana being instead actually harried by ,american privateers4 ,in his address to the ,combined ,court on the #bjth of ,october #ahab the governor 7,general ,carmichael7 stated that a vessel with government stores had been captured by an ,american privateer1 and in ,february #ahac the imperial government sent ,h4,m4,s4 ,peacock to protect the coast4 ,on the #bcrd of that month in cruising along the east coast of ,demerara the ,peacock met the ,american privateer ,hornet1 and though1 after a gallant struggle1 in which ,captain ,peake1 ,r4,n41 was killed1 the ,english ship was sunk with nearly all her crew1 the colony did not suffer from any further depredations4 ,in the following years news of the agitation in ,england in favour of emancipation gradually became known to the slaves and caused considerable unrest among them1 culminating in #ahbc in a serious outbreak on the estates on the east coast of ,demerara4 ,negroes1 demanding their freedom1 attacked the houses of several managers1 and although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but little loss on either side1 the situation was so serious as to necessitate the calling out of the military4 ,the ringleaders were arrested and promptly and vigorously dealt with1 while a special court-martial was appointed to try the ,rev4 ,john ,smith1 of the ,london ,missionary ,society1 who it was alleged had fostered the rising by his teachings to the slave congregation at his chapel in ,le ,ressouvenir4 ,this trial was stigmatized as unfair by the missionary party in ,england1 but on the whole appears to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed court4 ,it is difficult now to form any very definite conclusion4 ,mr ,smith certainly had great influence over the slaves1 and while his teaching prior to the outbreak was at least ill-advised1 he made no efforts while the disturbances were going on to use his influence on the side of law and order2 indeed all he could say in his own defence was that he was ignorant of what was going on1 a statement it is impossible to believe to have been strictly veracious4 ,he was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged4 ,it is obvious that it was never intended to carry out this sentence1 and on the #bith of ,november the governor announced that he felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings of the court for ,his ,majesty's consideration4 ,the question of ,smith's guilt or innocence created a great deal of feeling in ,england1 the anti-slavery and missionary societies making it a basis for increased agitation in favour of the slaves2 but the imperial government evidently agreed with the colonial executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave responsibility1 as the order of the king was that while the sentence of death was remitted ,mr ,smith was to be dismissed from the colony and to enter into a recognizance in ,l#bjjj not to return to ,british ,guiana or to reside in any other ,west ,indian colony4 ,this order reached ,georgetown in ,april #ahbd1 but ,mr ,smith had died in the city jail on the #fth of ,february of a pulmonary complaint from which he had been suffering for some time4 ,sir ,benjamin d',urban was governor from ,april #ahbd to ,may #ahcc1 the principal event of his administration being the consolidation in #ahca of the three colonies into one colony divided into three counties1 ,berbice1 ,demerara and ,essequibo4 ,governor d',urban was succeeded in ,june #ahcc by ,sir ,james ,carmichael ,smyth1 who began his administration by a proclamation to the slaves stating that while the king intended to improve their condition1 the details of his plans were not as yet completed1 and warning them against impatience or insubordination4 ,when the resolutions foreshadowing emancipation1 passed by the ,house of ,commons on the #abth of ,june #ahcc1 reached the colony1 the planters1 to whom the governor's proclamation had been most distasteful1 were thunderstruck and even the government was surprised4 ,naturally the slaves were wildly jubilant4 ,emancipation brought troublous times through which the governor steered the colony with great tact and firmness1 serious troubles being nipped in the bud solely by his great personality1 and the subsequent conflicts with the apprentices might have been obviated had he lived longer4 ,he died at ,camp ,house on the #dth of ,march #ahch4 ,in the years following emancipation the colony was in a serious condition4 ,the report of a commission in #ahej proved that it was virtually ruined1 and only by the introduction of immigrants to provide a reliable labour supply were the sugar estates saved from total extinction4 ,by #ahec the colony had begun to make headway1 and ,sir ,henry ,barkly1 the then governor1 was able to state in his speech to the ,combined ,court in ,january that its progress was in every way satisfactory4 ,during ,governor ,barkly's administration the long series of struggles between the legislature and the executive terminated1 and when he left in ,may #ahec he did so with the respect and good-will of all classes4 ,the strengthening of the labour supply was not effected without troubles4 ,in #ahdg the negroes in ,berbice attacked the persons and property of the ,portuguese immigrants1 the riots spreading to ,demerara and ,essequibo1 and not until the military were called out were the disturbances quelled4 ,similar riots in #ahfb were only stopped by the prompt and firm action of the new governor1 ,mr 7afterwards ,sir7 ,francis ,hincks1 while rows between negroes and ,chinese and negroes and ,east ,indians were frequent4 ,gradually1 however1 things quieted down1 and until #ahhc the estates as a whole did well4 ,in #ahhd the price of sugar fell so seriously as to make the prospects of the colony very gloomy1 and for nearly two decades proprietors had to be content with a price kept artificially low by bounty-fed beet-sugar1 many estates being ruined1 while those that survived only did so by the application of every economy1 and by their owners availing themselves of every new discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture4 ,the year #ahhi was marked by an outbreak on the part of a section of the negro population in ,georgetown directed against the ,portuguese residents there4 ,a ,portuguese had murdered his black paramour and had been convicted and sentenced to death4 ,the governor commuted the sentence to penal servitude for life4 ,shortly after this a ,portuguese stall-holder in the market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of pilfering1 the latter having to be taken to a hospital1 while the former1 after being taken to a police station was1 through some misunderstanding or informality1 at once released4 ,almost immediately excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing about loudly proclaiming that the boy was dead1 that the ,portuguese were allowed to kill black people and to go free1 and calling on one another to take their own revenge4 ,mobs gathered quickly1 attacked individual ,portuguese and wrecked their shops and houses1 and not until the city had been given up for two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances4 ,the damage done amounted to several thousands of dollars1 the ,portuguese owners being eventually compensated from general revenue4 ,in #ahhd the dispute as to the boundary with ,venezuela became acute4 ,it was reported to the colonial government that the government of ,venezuela had granted to an ,american syndicate a concession which covered much of the territory claimed by ,great ,britain1 and although prompt investigation by an agent despatched by the governor did not then disclose any trace of interference with ,british claims1 a further visit in ,january #ahhe1 made in consequence of reports that servants of the ,manoa ,company had torn down notices posted by ,mr ,mc,turk on his former visit1 discovered that the ,british notices had been covered over by ,venezuelan ones and resulted in the government of ,great ,britain declaring that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as the modified ,schomburgk line4 ,outposts were located at points on this line1 and for some years ,guianese police and ,venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the ,amacura creek in the ,orinoco mouth and at ,yuruan up the ,cuyuni river4 ,guianese officers were1 however1 presumably instructed not actively to oppose acts of aggression by the ,venezuelan government1 for in ,january #ahie ,venezuelan soldiers arrested ,messrs ,d4 ,d4 ,barnes and ,a4 ,h4 ,baker1 inspectors of police in charge at ,yuruan station1 conveyed them through ,venezuela to ,caracas1 eventually allowing them to take steamer to ,trinidad4 ,for this act compensation was demanded and was eventually paid by ,venezuela4 ,the diplomatic question as to the boundary--the results of which are stated above--was passed out of the hands of the colony2 see the account of the arbitration under ,,venezuela4 ,the last two months of #aije were marked by serious disturbances in ,georgetown1 and in a lesser degree on the east and west banks of the ,demerara river4 ,on the #bith of ,november the dock labourers employed on the wharves in ,georgetown struck for higher wages1 and large crowds invaded the principal stores in the city1 compelling men willing to work to desist and in some cases assaulting those who opposed them4 ,by the evening of the #cjth of ,november they had got so far out of hand as to necessitate the reading of the ,riot ,act and a proclamation by the governor 7,sir ,f4 ,m4 ,hodgson7 forbidding all assemblies4 ,on the morning of the #ast of ,december serious disturbances broke out at ,ruimvelt1 a sugar estate directly south of ,georgetown1 where the cane-cutters had suddenly struck for higher pay1 and the police were compelled to fire on the mob1 killing some and wounding others4 ,all through that day mobs in all parts of the city assaulted any white man they met1 houses were invaded and windows smashed1 and on two further occasions the police had to fire4 ,at night torrential rains forced the rioters to shelter1 and enabled the police to get rest1 their places being taken by pickets of militiamen and special constables4 ,on ,saturday1 the #bnd of ,december1 the police had got the upper hand1 and the arrival that night of ,h4,m4,s4 ,sappho and on ,sunday of ,h4,m4,s4 ,diamond gave the government complete control of the situation4 ,threatened troubles on the sugar estates on the west bank were suppressed by the prompt action of the governor1 and the arrest of large numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by special courts restored thorough order4 ,,authorities4--,see ,raleigh's ,voyages for the ,discovery of ,guiana #aeie-aeif1 7,hakluyt series72 ,laurence ,keymis' ,relation of the second ,voyage to ,guiana 7#aeif71 7,hakluyt series72 ,sir ,r4 ,h4 ,schomburgk1 ,description of ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahdj72 ,c4 ,waterton1 ,wanderings in ,south ,america1 #ahab-ahbe 7,london1 #ahbh72 ,j4 ,rodway1 ,history of ,british ,guiana 7,georgetown1 #ahia-ahid72 ,h4 ,g4 ,dalton1 ,history of ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahee72 ,j4 ,w4 ,boddam ,whetham1 ,roraima and ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,c4 ,p4 ,lucas1 ,historical ,geography of ,british ,colonies2 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,british ,guiana ,directory 7,georgetown1 #aijf72 ,g4 ,d4 ,bayley1 ,handbook of ,british ,guiana 7,georgetown1 #aiji74 7,a4 ,g4 ,b4997 ,dutch ,guiana4 ,,ii4 ,,dutch ,,guiana1 or ,surinam1 has an area of about #eg1ijj sq4 m4 ,british ,guiana bounds it on the west and ,french on the east 7the long unsettled question of the ,french boundary is dealt with in section ,,iii41 ,,french ,,guiana74 ,the various peoples inhabiting ,surinam are distributed according to the soil and the products4 ,the ,indians 7,caribs1 ,arawaks1 ,warrous7 live on the savannahs1 or on the upper ,nickerie1 ,coppename and ,maroni1 far from the plantations1 cultivating their fields of manioc or cassava1 and for the rest living by fishing and hunting4 ,they number about #bjjj4 ,the bush negroes 7,marrons7 dwell between #c deg4 and #d deg4 ,n41 near the isles and cataracts4 ,they are estimated at #aj1jjj1 and are employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields1 the navigation of the rivers in trade with the ,indians1 and in the transport of wood to ,paramaribo and the plantations4 ,they are the descendants of runaway slaves1 and before missionaries had worked among them their paganism retained curious traces of their former connexion with ,christianity4 ,their chief god was ,gran ,gado 7grand-god71 his wife ,maria1 and his son ,jesi ,kist4 ,various minor deities were also worshipped1 ,ampuka the bush-god1 ,toni the water-god1 c4 ,their language was based on a bastard ,english1 mingled with many ,dutch1 ,portuguese and native elements4 ,their chiefs are called gramman or grand man2 but the authority of these men1 and the peculiarities of language and religion1 have in great measure died out owing to modern intercourse with the ,dutch and others4 ,the inhabitants of ,paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety of races1 represented by ,chinese1 ,javanese1 coolies from ,india and the ,west ,indies1 negroes and about #bjjj whites4 ,of non-,christian immigrants there are about #fjjj ,mahommedans and #ab1jjj ,hindus2 and ,jews number about #abjj4 ,the total population was given in #aijg as #hd1ajc1 exclusive of ,indians1 c41 in the forests4 ,nearly one-half of this total are in ,paramaribo and one-half in the districts4 ,the population has shown a tendency to move from the districts to the town2 thus in #aheb there were #fjjj persons in the town and #cb1jjj in the districts4 ,the principal settlements have been made in the lower valley of the ,surinam1 or between that river and the ,saramacca on the ,w4 and the ,commewyne on the ,e4 ,the ,surinam is the chief of a number of large rivers which rise in the ,tumuc ,humac range or the low hills between it and the sea1 which they enter on the ,dutch seaboard1 between the ,corentyn and the ,maroni 7,dutch ,corantijn and ,marowijne71 which form the boundaries with ,british and ,french territories respectively4 ,between the rivers of ,dutch ,guiana there are remarkable cross channels available during the floods at least4 ,as the ,maroni communicates with the ,cottica1 which is in turn a tributary of the ,commewyne1 a boat can pass from the ,maroni to ,paramaribo2 thence by the ,sommelsdijk canal it can reach the ,saramacca2 and from the ,saramacca it can proceed up the ,coppename1 and by means of the ,nickerie find its way to the ,corentyn4 ,the rivers are not navigable inland to any considerable extent1 as their courses are interrupted by rapids4 ,the interior of the country consists for the most part of low hills1 though an extreme height of #chjj ft4 is known in the ,wilhelmina ,kette1 in the west of the colony1 about #c deg4 #ej' to #d deg4 ,n4 ,the hinterland south of this latitude1 and that part of the ,tumuc ,humac range along which the ,dutch frontier runs1 are1 however1 practically unexplored4 ,like the other territories of ,guiana the ,dutch colony is divided physically into a low coast-land1 savannahs and almost impenetrable forest4 ,meteorological observations have been carried on at five stations 7,paramaribo1 ,coronie1 ,sommelsdijk1 ,nieuw-,nickerie and ,groningen74 ,the mean range of temperature for the day1 month and year shows little variation1 being respectively #gg4ed deg4-#hh4ch deg4 ,f41 #gf4a deg4-#gh4fb deg4 ,f4 and #gj4eb deg4-#ij4ad deg4 ,f4 ,the north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year1 but the rainfall varies considerably2 for ,december and ,january the mean is respectively #h4eh and #i4eg in41 for ,may and ,june #aa4bf and #aj4ca in41 but for ,february and ,march #g4b and #f4ha in41 and for ,september #b4dh and #b4j in4 ,the seasons comprise a long and a short dry season1 and a period of heavy and of slight rainfall4 ,products and ,trade4--,it has been found exceedingly difficult to exploit the produce of the forests4 ,the most important crops and those supplying the chief exports are cocoa1 coffee and sugar1 all cultivated on the larger plantations1 with rice1 maize and bananas on the smaller or coast lands4 ,most of the larger plantations are situated on the lower courses of the ,surinam1 ,commewyne1 ,nickerie and ,cottica1 and on the coast lands1 rarely in the upper parts4 ,goldfields lie in the older rocks 7especially the slate7 of the upper ,surinam1 ,saramacca and ,maroni4 ,the first section of a railway designed to connect the goldfields with ,paramaribo was opened in #aijf4 ,the annual production of gold amounts in value to about ,l#ajj1jjj1 but has shown considerable fluctuation4 ,agriculture is the chief means of subsistence4 ,about #db1jjj acres are under cultivation4 ,of #cj1jjj1 persons whose occupation is given in official statistics1 close upon #ba1jjj are engaged in agriculture or on the plantations1 #bdjj in gold-mining and only #ajjj in trade4 ,the exports increased in value from ,l#bjj1hjj in #ahge to ,l#dei1hjj in #ahii1 and imports from ,l#bfj1dej in #ahge to ,l#eaj1ahj in #ahii2 but the average value of exports over five years subsequently was only ,l#dad1jjj1 while that of imports was ,l#eca1jjj4 ,administration4--,the colony is under a governor1 who is president of an executive council1 which also includes a vice-president and three members nominated by the crown4 ,the legislative body is the states1 the members of which are elected for six years by electors1 of whom there is one for every #bjj holders of the franchise4 ,the colony is divided into sixteen districts4 ,for the administration of justice there are three cantonal courts1 two district courts1 and the supreme court at ,paramaribo1 whose president and permanent members are nominated by the crown4 ,the average local revenue 7#aija-aijf7 was about ,l#bgf1jjj and the expenditure about ,l#cag1jjj2 both fluctuated considerably1 and a varying subvention is necessary from the home government 7,l#af1jjj in #aijb1 ,l#fj1djj in #aijf2 the annual average is about ,l#cg1jjj74 ,there are a civic guard of about #ahjj men and a militia of #ejj1 with a small garrison4 ,history4--,the history of the ,dutch in ,guiana1 and the compression of their influence within its present limits1 belongs to the general history of ,guiana 7above74 ,surinam and the ,dutch islands of the ,west ,indies were placed under a common government in #ahbh1 the governor residing at ,paramaribo1 but in #ahde they were separated4 ,slavery was abolished in #ahfc4 ,labour then became difficult to obtain1 and in #ahgj a convention was signed between ,holland and ,england for the regulation of the coolie traffic1 and a ,dutch government agent for ,surinam was appointed at ,calcutta4 ,the problem was never satisfactorily solved1 but the interest of the mother-country in the colony greatly increased during the last twenty years of the #aith century1 as shown by the establishment of the ,surinam ,association1 of the ,steam ,navigation ,company's service to ,paramaribo1 and by the formation of a botanical garden for experimental culture at that town1 as also by geological and other scientific expeditions1 and the exhibition at ,haarlem in #ahih4 ,,authorities4--,among the older works on ,surinam the first rank is held by ,jan ,jacob ,hartsinck's masterly ,beschryving van ,guiana1 of de ,wilde ,kust1 in ,zuid ,amerika 7#b vols41 ,amsterdam1 #aggj74 ,extracts from this work1 selected for their bearing upon ,british boundary questions1 were translated and annotated by ,j4 ,a4 ,j4 de ,villiers 7,london1 #ahig74 ,a valuable ,geschiedenis der ,kolonie van ,suriname1 by a number of learned ,jews1 was published at ,amsterdam in #agia and it was supplemented and so far superseded by ,wolbers1 ,geschiedenis van ,suriname 7,amsterdam1 #ahfa74 ,see further ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 ,dutch ,guiana 7,london1 #ahgf72 ,a4 ,kappler1 ,surinam1 sein ,land1 c4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhg72 ,prince ,roland ,bonaparte1 ,les ,habitants de ,surinam 7,paris1 #ahhd72 ,k4 ,martin1 ,bericht uber eine ,reise ins ,gebiet des ,oberen-,surinam1 ,bijdragen v4 h4 ,inst4 voor ,taal ,land en ,volkenkunde1 i4 #a4 7,the ,hague72 ,westerouen van ,meeteren1 ,la ,guyane neerlandaise 7,leiden1 #ahhd72 ,h4 ,ten ,kate1 ,een en ander over ,suriname1 ,gids 7#ahhh72 ,g4 ,verschuur1 ,voyages aux trois ,guyanes1 ,tour du monde 7#ahic74 pp4 #a1 #di1 #fe2 ,w4 ,l4 ,loth1 ,beknopte ,aardrijkskundige beschrijving van ,suriname 7,amsterdam1 #ahih71 and ,tijdschrift van het ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap 7#ahgh71 #gi1 #ic2 ,asch van ,wyck1 ,la ,colonie de ,surinam1 ,les ,pays-,bas 7#ahih72 ,l4 ,thompson1 ,overzicht der ,geschiedenis van ,suriname 7,the ,hague1 #aija72 ,catalogus der ,nederl4 ,w4 ,i4 ten ,toonstelling te ,haarlem 7#ahii72 ,guide a travers la section des ,indes neerlandaises1 p4 #cbc 7,amsterdam1 #ahii72 ,surinaamsche ,almanak 7,paramaribo1 annually74 ,for the language of the bush-negroes see ,wullschlaegel1 ,kurzgefasste neger-englische ,grammatik 7,bautzen1 #ahed71 and ,deutsch neger-englisches ,worterbuch 7,lobau1 #ahfe74 ,french ,guiana4 ,,iii4 ,,french ,,guiana 7,guyane74--,this colony is situated between ,dutch ,guiana and ,brazil4 ,a delimitation of the territory belonging to ,france and the ,netherlands was arrived at in #ahia1 by decision of the emperor of ,russia4 ,this question originated in the arrangement of #ahcf1 that the river ,maroni should form the frontier4 ,it turned on the claim of the ,awa or the ,tapanahoni to be recognized as the main head-stream of the ,maroni1 and the final decision1 in indicating the ,awa1 favoured the ,dutch4 ,in #aije certain territory lying between the upper ,maroni and the ,itany1 the possession of which had not then been settled1 was acquired by ,france by agreement between the ,french and ,dutch governments4 ,the question of the exploitation of gold in the ,maroni was settled by attributing alternate reaches of the river to ,france and ,holland2 while ,france obtained the principal islands in the lower ,maroni4 ,the additional territory thus attached to the ,french colony amounted to #ife sq4 m4 ,in ,december #aijj the ,swiss government as arbitrators fixed the boundary between ,french ,guiana and ,brazil as the river ,oyapock and the watershed on the ,tumuc ,humac mountains1 thus awarding to ,france about #cjjj of the #ajj1jjj sq4 m4 which she claimed4 ,this dispute was of earlier origin than that with the ,dutch2 dissensions between the ,french and the ,portuguese relative to territory north of the ,amazon occurred in the #agth century4 ,in #agjj the ,treaty of ,lisbon made the contested area 7known as the ,terres du ,cap du ,nord7 neutral ground4 ,the treaty of ,utrecht in #agac indicated as the ,french boundary a river which the ,french afterwards claimed to be the ,araguary1 but the ,portuguese asserted that the ,oyapock was intended4 ,after ,brazil had become independent the question dragged on until in #ahij-ahie there were collisions in the contested territory between ,french and ,brazilian adventurers4 ,this compelled serious action1 and a treaty of arbitration1 preliminary to the settlement1 was signed at ,rio de ,janeiro in #ahig4 ,french ,guiana1 according to official estimate1 has an area of about #ea1jjj sq4 m4 ,the population is estimated at about #cj1jjj2 its movement is not rapid4 ,of this total #ab1cej live at ,cayenne1 #aj1ajj were in the communes1 #egjj formed the penal population1 #aejj were native ,indians 7,galibi1 ,emerillon1 ,oyampi7 and #ejj near ,maroni were negroes4 ,apart from ,cayenne1 which was rebuilt after the great fire of #ahhh1 the centres of population are unimportant3 ,sinnamarie with #aejj inhabitants1 ,mana with #agej1 ,roura with #abjj and ,approuague with #aaej4 ,in #ahib ,french ,guiana was divided into fourteen communes1 exclusive of the ,maroni district4 ,belonging to the colony are also the three ,safety ,islands 7,royale1 ,joseph and ,du ,diable--the last notable as the island where ,captain ,dreyfus was imprisoned71 the ,enfant ,perdu ,island and the five ,remire ,islands4 ,a considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by marshes1 with a dense growth of mangroves or1 in the drier parts1 with the pinot or wassay palm 7,euterpe oleracea74 ,settlements are confined almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts4 ,the forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed #aejj ft4 in elevation2 that part of the ,tumuc ,humac range which forms the southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of #bfjj ft4 ,but the dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the ocean winds that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number of rivers which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes of water4 ,not less than #ae are counted between the ,maroni and the ,oyapock4 ,south-eastward from the ,maroni the first of importance is the ,mana1 which is navigable for large vessels #aj m4 from its mouth1 and for smaller vessels #bg m4 farther4 ,passing the ,sinnamary and the ,kourou1 the ,oyock is next reached1 near the mouth of which is ,cayenne1 the capital of the colony1 and thereafter the ,approuage4 ,all these rivers take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about the middle of the colony2 those streams which rise farther south1 in the ,tumuc ,humac hills1 are tributaries of the two frontier rivers1 the ,maroni on the one hand or the ,oyapock on the other4 ,climate and ,products4--,the rainy season begins in ,november or ,december1 and lasts till the latter part of ,june2 but there are usually three or four weeks of good weather in ,march4 ,during the rest of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months1 but the air is always very moist4 ,at ,cayenne the average annual rainfall amounts to fully #acj in41 and it is naturally heavier in the interior4 ,during the hotter part of the year--,august1 ,september1 ,october--the temperature usually rises to about #hf deg4 ,f41 but it hardly ever exceeds #hh deg42 in the colder season the mean is #gi deg4 and it seldom sinks so low as #gj deg4 ,between day and night there is very little thermometric difference4 ,the prevailing winds are the ,n4,n4,e4 and the ,s4,e42 and the most violent are those of the ,n4,e4 ,during the rainy season the winds keep between ,n4 and ,e41 and during the dry season between ,s4 and ,e4 ,hurricanes are unknown4 ,in flora and fauna ,french ,guiana resembles the rest of the ,guianese region4 ,vegetation is excessively rich4 ,among leguminous trees1 which are abundantly represented1 the wacapou is the finest of many hardwood trees4 ,caoutchouc and various palms are also common4 ,the manioc is a principal source of food2 rice is an important object of cultivation2 and maize1 yams1 arrowroot1 bananas and the bread-fruit are also to be mentioned4 ,vanilla is one of the common wild plants of the country4 ,the clove tree has been acclimatized1 and in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of wealth2 the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in #aggb1 but like that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation is neglected4 ,a very small portion of the territory indeed is devoted to agriculture1 although ,france has paid some attention to the development of this branch of activity4 ,in #ahhj a colonial garden was created near ,cayenne2 since #ahid an experimental garden has been laid out at ,baduel4 ,about #hbjj acres are cultivated1 of which #edjj acres are under cereals and rice1 the remaining being under coffee 7introduced in #agaf71 cacao1 cane and other cultures4 ,the low lands between ,cayenne and ,oyapock are capable of bearing colonial produce1 and the savannahs might support large herds2 cereals1 root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the high grounds1 and timber working in the interior should be profitable4 ,gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony4 ,placers of great wealth have been discovered on the ,awa1 on the ,dutch frontier and at ,carsevenne in the territory which formed the subject of the ,franco-,brazilian dispute4 ,but wages are high and transport is costly1 and the amount of gold declared at ,cayenne did not average more than #acj1eej oz4 annually in #aijj-aije4 ,silver and iron have been found in various districts2 kaolin is extracted in the plains of ,montsinery2 and phosphates have been discovered at several places4 ,besides gold-workings1 the industrial establishments comprise saw-mills1 distilleries1 brick-works and sugar-works4 ,trade and ,communications4--,the commerce in #ahhe amounted to ,l#ccf1jjj for imports and to ,l#add1jjj for exports2 in #ahig the values were respectively ,l#cgc1cej and ,l#bhf1djj1 but in #aijc1 while imports had increased in value only to ,l#dah1gbj1 exports had risen to ,l#dic1bac4 ,the imports consist of wines1 flour1 clothes1 c42 the chief are gold1 phosphates1 timber1 cocoa and rosewood essence4 ,cayenne is the only considerable port4 ,one of the drawbacks to the development of the colony is the lack of labour4 ,native labour is most difficult to obtain1 and attempts to utilize convict labour have not proved very successful4 ,efforts to supply the need by immigration have not done so completely4 ,the land routes are not numerous4 ,the most important are that from ,cayenne to ,mana by way of ,kourou1 ,sinnamarie and ,iracoubo1 and that from ,cayenne along the coast to ,kaw and the mouth of the ,approuague4 ,towards the interior there are only foot-paths1 badly made4 ,by water1 ,cayenne is in regular communication with the ,safety ,islands 7#ce m471 and the mouth of the ,maroni 7#hj m471 with ,fort de ,france in the island of ,martinique1 where travellers meet the mail packet for ,france1 and with ,boston 7,u4,s4,a474 ,there is a ,french cable between ,cayenne and ,brest4 ,administration4--,the colony is administered by a commissioner-general assisted by a privy council1 including the secretary general and chief of the judicial service1 the military1 penitentiary and administrative departments4 ,in #ahgi an elective general council of sixteen members was constituted4 ,there are a tribunal of first instance and a higher tribunal at ,cayenne1 besides four justices of peace1 one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in other places4 ,of the ,l#bef1jjj demanded for the colony in the colonial budget for #aijf1 ,l#bce1jjj represented the estimated expenditure on the penal settlement1 so that the cost of the colony was only about ,l#ba1jjj4 ,the local budget for #aija balanced at ,l#ii1jjj and in #aije at ,l#aaf1dej4 ,instruction is given in the college of ,cayenne and in six primary schools4 ,at the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect4 ,the armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry1 half a battery of artillery1 and a detachment of gendarmerie1 and comprises about #chj men4 ,the penal settlement was established by a decree of #aheb4 ,from that year until #ahfg1 #ah1jjj exiles had been sent to ,guiana1 but for the next twenty years ,new ,caledonia became the chief penal settlement in the ,french colonies4 ,but in #ahhe-ahhg ,french ,guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for confirmed criminals and for convicts sentenced to more than eight years' hard labour4 ,a large proportion of these men have been found unfit for employment upon public works4 ,history4--,the ,sieur ,la ,revardiere1 sent out in #afjd by ,henry ,,iv4 to reconnoitre the country1 brought back a favourable report2 but the death of the king put a stop to the projects of formal colonization4 ,in #afbf a small body of traders from ,rouen settled on the ,sinnamary1 and in #afce a similar band founded ,cayenne4 ,the ,compagnie du ,cap ,nord1 founded by the people of ,rouen in #afdc and conducted by ,poncet de ,bretigny1 the ,compagnie de la ,france ,equinoxiale1 established in #afde1 and the second ,compagnie de la ,france ,equinoxiale1 or ,compagnie des ,douze ,seigneurs1 established in #afeb1 were failures1 the result of incompetence1 mismanagement and misfortune4 ,from #afed the ,dutch held the colony for a few years4 ,the ,french ,compagnie des ,indes ,occidentales1 chartered in #affd with a monopoly of ,guiana commerce for forty years1 proved hardly more successful than its predecessors2 but in #afgd the colony passed under the direct control of the crown1 and the able administration of ,colbert began to tell favourably on its progress1 although in #afhf an unsuccessful expedition against the ,dutch in ,surinam set back the advance of the ,french colony until the close of the century4 ,the year #agfc was marked by a terrible disaster4 ,choiseul1 the prime minister1 having obtained for himself and his cousin ,praslin a concession of the country between the ,kourou and the ,maroni1 sent out about #ab1jjj volunteer colonists1 mainly from ,alsace and ,lorraine4 ,they were landed at the mouth of the ,kourou1 where no preparation had been made for their reception1 and where even water was not to be obtained4 ,mismanagement was complete2 there was 7for example7 a shop for skates1 whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting4 ,by #agfe no more than #iah colonists remained alive1 and these were a famished fever-stricken band4 ,a long investigation in ,paris resulted in the imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of the expedition4 ,several minor attempts at colonization in ,guiana were made in the latter part of the century2 but they all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure4 ,during the revolution band after band of political prisoners were transported to ,guiana4 ,the fate of the royalists1 nearly #fjj in number1 who were exiled on the #ahth ,fructidor 7#agig71 was especially sad4 ,landed on the ,sinnamary without shelter or food1 two-thirds of them perished miserably4 ,in #ahjj ,victor ,hugues was appointed governor1 and he managed to put the colony in a better state2 but in #ahji his work was brought to a close by the invasion of the ,portuguese and ,british4 ,though ,french ,guiana was nominally restored to the ,french in #ahad1 it was not really surrendered by the ,portuguese till #ahag4 ,numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony firmly1 although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public mind in ,france against it4 ,in #ahbb the first steam sugar mills were introduced2 in #ahbd an agricultural colony 7,nouvelle ,angouleme7 was attempted in the ,mana district1 which1 after failure at first1 became comparatively successful4 ,the emancipation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost ruined the development of agricultural resources about the middle of the century1 but in #ahec a large body of ,african immigrants was introduced4 ,the discovery of gold on the ,approuague in #ahee caused feverish excitement1 and seriously disturbed the economic condition of the country4 ,,authorities4--,a detailed bibliography of ,french ,guiana will be found in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,notice historique de la ,guyane francaise 7,paris1 #ahdc74 ,among more recent works1 see ,e4 ,bassieres1 ,notice sur la ,guyane1 issued on the occasion of the ,paris ,exhibition 7#aijj72 ,publications de la societe d'etudes pour la colonisation de la ,guyane francaise 7,paris1 #ahdc-ahdd72 ,h4 ,a4 ,coudreau1 ,la ,france equinoxiale 7#ahhg71 ,dialectes indiens de ,guyane 7#ahia71 ,dix ans de ,guyane 7#ahib71 and ,chez nos ,indiens 7#ahic71 all at ,paris2 ,g4 ,brousseau1 ,les ,richesses de la ,guyane francaise 7,paris1 #aija72 ,l4 ,f4 ,viala1 ,les ,trois ,guyanes 7,montpellier1 #ahic74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the origin of the name is somewhat obscure1 and has been variously interpreted4 ,but the late ,col4 ,g4 ,e4 ,church supplies the following note1 which has the weight of his great authority3 ,i cannot confirm the suggestion of ,schomburgk that ,guayana 'received its name from a small river1 a tributary of the ,orinoco'1 supposed to be the ,waini or ,guainia4 ,in ,south ,america1 east of the ,andes1 it was the common custom of any tribe occupying a length of river to call it simply 'the river'2 but the other tribes designated any section of it by the name of the people living on its banks4 ,many streams1 therefore1 had more than a dozen names4 ,it is probable that no important river had one name alone throughout its course1 prior to the time of the ,conquest4 ,the radical wini1 waini1 wayni1 is found as a prefix1 and very frequently as a termination1 to the names of numerous rivers1 not only throughout ,guayana but all over the ,orinoco and ,amazon valleys4 ,for instance1 ,paymary ,indians called the portion of the ,purus river which they occupied the ,waini4 ,it simply means water1 or a fountain of water1 or a river4 ,the alternative suggestion that ,guayana is an ,indian word signifying 'wild coast1' ,i also think untenable4 ,this term1 applied to the north-east frontage of ,south ,america between the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 is found on the old ,dutch map of ,hartsinck1 who calls it ',guiana ,caribania of de ,wilde ,kust1' a name which must have well described it when1 in #aehj1 some ,zealanders1 of the ,netherlands1 sent a ship to cruise along it1 from the mouth of the ,amazon to that of the ,orinoco1 and formed the first settlement near the river ,pomeroon4 ,the map of ,firnao ,vaz ,dourado1 #aefd1 calls the northern part of ,south ,america1 including the present ,british ,guiana1 ',east ,peru4' ,an anonymous ,spanish map1 about #aeff1 gives ,guayana as lying on the east side of the ,orinoco just above its mouth4 ,about #affj1 ,sebastien de ,ruesta1 cosmographer of the ,casa de ,contractacion de ,seville1 shows ,guayana covering the ,british1 ,french and ,dutch ,guayanas4 ,according to the map of ,nicolas de ,fer1 #agai1 a tribe of ,guayazis 7,guyanas7 occupied the south side of the ,amazon river1 front of the island of ,tupinambara1 east of the mouth of the ,madeira4 ,aristides ,rojas1 an eminent ,venezuelan scholar1 says that the ,mariches ,indians1 near ,caracas1 inhabited a site called ,guayana long before the discovery of ,south ,america by the ,spaniards4 ,coudreau in his ,chez nos ,indiens mentions that the ,roucouyennes of ,guayana take their name from a large tree in their forests1 'which appears to be the origin of the name ,guayane4' ,according to ,michelana y ,rojas1 in their report to the ,venezuelan government on their voyages in the basin of the ,orinoco1 ',guyana derives its name from the ,indians who live between the ,caroni river and the ,sierra de ,imataca1 called ,guayanos4' ,my own studies of aboriginal ,south ,america lead me to support the statement of ,michelana y ,rojas1 but with the following enlargement of it3 ,the ,portuguese1 in the early part of the #afth century1 found that the coast and mountain district of ,rio de ,janeiro1 between ,cape ,sao ,thome and ,angra dos ,reis1 belonged to the formidable ,tamoyos4 ,south of these1 for a distance of about #cjj m4 of the ocean slope of the coast range1 were the ,guayana tribes1 called by the early writers ,guianas1 ,goyana1 ,guayana1 ,goana and1 plural1 ,goaynazes1 ,goayanazes and ,guayanazes4 ,they were constantly at feud with the ,tamoyos and with their neighbours on the south1 the ,carijos1 as well as with the vast ,tapuya hordes of the ,sertao of the interior4 ,long before the discovery1 they had been forced to abandon their beautiful lands1 but had recuperated their strength1 returned and reconquered their ancient habitat4 ,meanwhile1 however1 many of them had migrated northward1 some had settled in the ,sertao back of ,bahia and ,pernambuco1 others on the middle ,amazon and in the valley of the ,orinoco1 but a large number had crossed the lower ,amazon and occupied an extensive area of country to the north of it1 about the size of ,belgium1 along the ,tumuchumac range of highlands1 and the upper ,paron and ,maroni rivers1 as well as a large district on the northern slope of the above-named range4 ,in their new home they became known as ,roucouyennes1 because1 like the ,mundurucus of the middle ,amazon1 they rubbed and painted themselves with roucou or urucu 7,bixa ,orellana72 but other surrounding tribes called them ,ouayanas1 that is ,guayanas--the ,gua1 so common to the ,guarani-,tupi tongue1 having become corrupted into ,oua4 ,porto ,seguro says of the so-called ,tupis1 'at other times they gave themselves the name of ,guaya or ,guayana1 which probably means brothers1 from which comes ,guayazes and ,guayanazes4444 ,the latter occupied the country just south of ,rio de ,janeiro4444 ,the masters of the ,capitania of ,st ,vincente called themselves ,guianas4' ,guinila1 referring to north-eastern ,south ,america 7#agde71 speaks of five missions being formed to civilize the ',nacion ,guayana4' ,in view of the above1 it may be thought reasonable to assume that the vast territory now known as ,guayana 7,british1 ,dutch1 ,french1 ,brazilian and ,venezuelan7 derives its name from its aborigines who were found there at the time of the discovery1 and whose original home was the region ,i have indicated4 #b ,this is the boundary generally accepted2 but it is in dispute4 #c ,see ,c4 ,b4 ,brown and ,j4 ,g4 ,sawkins1 ,reports on the ,physical1 ,descriptive and ,economic ,geology of ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahge72 ,c4 ,velain1 ,esquisse geologique de la ,guyane francaise et des bassins du ,parou et du ,yari 7affluents de l',amazone7 d'apres les explorations du ,dr ,crevaux1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,geogr4 ser4 #g1 vol4 vi4 7,paris1 #ahhe71 pp4 #dec-dib 7with geological map72 ,e4 ,martin1 ,geologische ,studien uber ,niederlandisch-,west-,indien1 auf ,grund eigener ,untersuchungsreisen 7,leiden1 #ahhh72 ,w4 ,bergt1 ,zur ,geologie des ,coppename- und ,nickerietales in ,surinam 7,hollandisch-,guyana71 ,samml4 d4 ,geol4 ,reichsmus4 7,leiden71 ser4 #b1 ,bd4 ii4 ,heft #b1 pp4 #ic-afc 7with #c maps72 and for ,british ,guiana1 the official reports on the geology of various districts1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,harrison1 ,c4 ,w4 ,anderson1 ,h4 ,i4 ,perkins1 published at ,georgetown4 ,,guiart 7or ,,guiard71 ,,guillaume 7d4 c4 #acaf71 ,french chronicler and poet1 was probably born at ,orleans1 and served in the ,french army in ,flanders in #acjd4 ,having been disabled by a wound he began to write1 lived at ,arras and then in ,paris1 thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the abbey of ,st ,denis1 including the ,grandes chroniques de ,france4 ,afterwards he appears as a menestrel de bouche4 ,guiart's poem ,branche des royaulx lignages1 was written and then rewritten between #acjd and #acjg1 in honour of the ,french king ,philip ,,iv41 and in answer to the aspersions of a ,flemish poet4 ,comprising over #ba1jjj verses it deals with the history of the ,french kings from the time of ,louis ,,viii42 but it is only really important for the period after #abif and for the war in ,flanders from #acja to #acjd1 of which it gives a graphic account1 and for which it is a high authority4 ,it was first published by ,j4 ,a4 ,buchon 7,paris1 #ahbh71 and again in tome xxii4 of the ,recueil des historiens des ,gaules et de la ,france 7,paris1 #ahfe74 ,see ,a4 ,molinier1 ,les ,sources de l'histoire de ,france1 tome iii4 7,paris1 #aijc74 ,,guibert1 or ,,wibert 7c4 #ajcj-aajj71 of ,ravenna1 antipope under the title of ,clement ,,iii4 from the #beth of ,june #ajhj until ,september #aajj1 was born at ,parma between #ajbj and #ajcj of the noble imperialist family1 ,corregio4 ,he entered the priesthood and was appointed by the empress ,agnes1 chancellor and1 after the death of ,pope ,victor ,,ii4 7#ajeg71 imperial vicar in ,italy4 ,he strove to uphold the imperial authority during ,henry ,,iv4's minority1 and presided over the synod at ,basel 7#ajfa7 which annulled the election of ,alexander ,,ii4 and created in the person of ,cadalous1 bishop of ,parma1 the antipope ,honorius ,,ii4 ,guibert lost the chancellorship in #ajfb4 ,in #ajgc1 through the influence of ,empress ,agnes and the support of ,cardinal ,hildebrand1 he obtained the archbishopric of ,ravenna and swore fealty to ,alexander ,,ii4 and his successors4 ,he seems to have been at first on friendly terms with ,gregory ,,vii41 but soon quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of ,imola1 and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction in the investiture contest4 ,he allied himself with ,cencius1 ,cardinal ,candidus and other opponents of ,gregory at ,rome1 and1 on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the ,lenten synod of #ajge1 he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope4 ,he was probably excommunicated at the synod of ,worms 7#ajgf7 with other ,lombard bishops who sided with ,henry ,,iv41 and at the ,lenten synod of #ajgh he was banned by name4 ,the emperor1 having been excommunicated for the second time in ,march #ajhj1 convened nineteen bishops of his party at ,mainz on the #cast of ,may1 who pronounced the deposition of ,gregory2 and on the #beth of ,june he caused ,guibert to be elected pope by thirty bishops assembled at ,brixen4 ,guibert1 whilst retaining possession of his archbishopric1 accompanied his imperial master on most of the latter's military expeditions4 ,having gained ,rome1 he was installed in the ,lateran and consecrated as ,clement ,,iii4 on the #bdth of ,march #ajhd4 ,one week later1 on ,easter ,sunday1 he crowned ,henry ,,iv4 and ,bertha in ,st ,peter's4 ,clement survived not only ,gregory ,,vii4 but also ,victor ,,iii4 and ,urban ,,ii41 maintaining his title to the end and in great measure his power over ,rome and the adjoining regions4 ,excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals4 ,he was driven out of ,rome finally by crusaders in #ajig1 and sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates4 ,st ,angelo1 the last ,guibertist stronghold in ,rome1 fell to ,urban ,,ii4 on the #bdth of ,august #ajih4 ,clement1 on the accession of ,paschal ,,ii4 in #ajii1 prepared to renew his struggle but was driven from ,albano by ,norman troops and died at ,civita ,castellana in ,september #aajj4 ,his ashes1 which were said by his followers to have worked miracles1 were thrown into the water by ,paschal ,,ii4 ,see ,j4 ,langen1 ,geschichte der romischen ,kirche von ,gregor ,,vii4 bis ,innocenz ,,iii4 7,bonn1 #ahic72 ,jaffe-,wattenbach1 ,regesta pontif4 ,roman4 7#bnd ed41 #ahhe-ahhh72 ,k4 ,j4 von ,hefele1 ,conciliengeschichte1 vol4 v4 7#bnd ed472 ,f4 ,gregorovius1 ,rome in the ,middle ,ages1 vol4 iv41 trans4 by ,mrs ,g4 ,w4 ,hamilton 7,london1 #aijj-aijb72 and ,o4 ,kohncke1 ,wibert von ,ravenna 7,leipzig1 #ahhh74 7,c4 ,h4 ,ha47 ,,guibert 7#ajec-aabd71 of ,nogent1 historian and theologian1 was born of noble parents at ,clermont-en-,beauvoisis1 and dedicated from infancy to the church4 ,he received his early education at the ,benedictine abbey of ,flavigny 7,flaviacum7 or ,st ,germer1 where he studied with great zeal1 devoting himself at first to the secular poets1 an experience which left its imprint on his works2 later changing to theology1 through the influence of ,anselm of ,bec1 afterwards of ,canterbury4 ,in #aajd1 he was chosen to be head of the abbey of ,notre ,dame de ,nogent and henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs4 ,his autobiography 7,de vita sua1 sive monodiarum71 written towards the close of his life1 gives many picturesque glimpses of his time and the customs of his country4 ,the description of the commune of ,laon is an historical document of the first order4 ,the same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade 7,gesta ,dei per ,francos7 written about #aaaj4 ,but the history is largely a paraphrase1 in ornate style1 of the ,gesta ,francorum of an anonymous ,norman author 7see ,,crusades72 and when he comes to the end of his authority1 he allows his book to degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes4 ,at the same time his high birth and his position in the church give his work an occasional value4 ,,bibliography4--,guibert's works1 edited by d',achery1 were first published in #afea1 in #a vol4 folio1 at ,paris 7,venerabilis ,guiberti abbatis ,b4 ,mariae de ,novigento opera omnia71 and republished in ,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 vols4 clvi4 and clxxxiv4 ,they include1 besides minor works1 a treatise on homiletics 7,liber quo ordine sermo fieri debeat72 ten books of ,moralia on ,genesis1 begun in #ajhd1 but not completed until #aaaf1 composed on the model of ,gregory the ,great's ,moralia in ,jobum2 five books of ,tropologiae on ,hosea1 ,amos and the ,lamentations2 a treatise on the ,incarnation1 against the ,jews2 four books ,de pignoribus sanctorum1 a remarkably free criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship2 three books of autobiography1 ,de vita sua1 sive monodiarum2 and eight books of the ,historia quae dicitur ,gesta ,dei per ,francos1 sive historia ,hierosolymitana 7the ninth book is by another author74 ,separate editions exist of the last named1 in ,j4 ,bongars1 ,gesta ,dei per ,francos1 i41 and ,recueil des historiens des croisades1 hist4 ,occid41 iv4 #aae-bfc4 ,it has been translated into ,french in ,guizot's ,collection1 ix4 #a-cch4 ,see ,h4 von ,sybel1 ,geschichte des ersten ,kreuzzuges 7,leipzig1 #ahha72 ,b4 ,monod1 ,le ,moine ,guibert et son temps 7,paris1 #aije72 and ,guibert de ,nogent2 histoire de sa vie1 edited by ,g4 ,bourgin 7,paris1 #aijg74 ,,guibert1 ,,jacques ,,antoine ,,hippolyte1 ,,comte ,,de 7#agdc-agij71 ,french general and military writer1 was born at ,montauban1 and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father1 ,charles ,benoit1 comte de ,guibert 7#agae-aghf71 chief of staff to ,marshal de ,broglie1 throughout the war in ,germany1 and won the cross of ,st ,louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition to ,corsica 7#agfg74 ,in #aggj he published his ,essai general de tactique in ,london1 and this celebrated work appeared in numerous subsequent editions and in ,english1 ,german and even ,persian translations 7extracts also in ,liskenne and ,sauvan1 ,bibl4 historique et militaire1 ,paris1 #ahde74 ,of this work 7for a detailed critique of which see ,max ,jahns1 ,gesch4 d4 ,kriegswissenschaften1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bjeh-bjgj and references therein7 it may be said that it was the best essay on war produced by a soldier during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the salon and military literature was more abundant than at any time up to #ahga4 ,apart from technical questions1 in which ,guibert's enlightened conservatism stands in marked contrast to the doctrinaire progressiveness of ,menil ,durand1 ,folard and others1 the book is chiefly valued for its broad outlook on the state of ,europe1 especially of military ,europe in the period #agfc-agib4 ,one quotation may be given as being a most remarkable prophecy of the impending revolution in the art of war1 a revolution which the advanced tacticians themselves scarcely foresaw4 ,the standing armies1 while a burden on the people1 are inadequate for the achievement of great and decisive results in war1 and meanwhile the mass of the people1 untrained in arms1 degenerates4444 ,the hegemony over ,europe will fall to that nation which 444 becomes possessed of manly virtues and creates a national army--a prediction fulfilled almost to the letter within twenty years of ,guibert's death4 ,in #aggc he visited ,germany and was present at the ,prussian regimental drills and army manoeuvres2 ,frederick the ,great1 recognizing ,guibert's ability1 showed great favour to the young colonel and freely discussed military questions with him4 ,guibert's ,journal d'un voyage en ,allemagne was published1 with a memoir1 by ,toulongeon 7,paris1 #ahjc74 ,his ,defense du systeme de guerre moderne1 a reply to his many critics 7,neuchatel1 #aggi7 is a reasoned and scientific defence of the ,prussian method of tactics1 which formed the basis of his work when in #agge he began to co-operate with the count de ,st ,germain in a series of much-needed and successful reforms in the ,french army4 ,in #aggg1 however1 ,st ,germain fell into disgrace1 and his fall involved that of ,guibert who was promoted to the rank of marechal de camp and relegated to a provincial staff appointment4 ,in his semi-retirement he vigorously defended his old chief ,st ,germain against his detractors4 ,on the eve of the ,revolution he was recalled to the ,war ,office1 but in his turn he became the object of attack and he died1 practically of disappointment1 on the #fth of ,may #agij4 ,other works of ,guibert1 besides those mentioned1 are3 ,observations sur la constitution politique et militaire des armees de ,s4 ,m4 ,prussienne 7,amsterdam1 #aggh71 ,eloges of ,marshal ,catinat 7#agge71 of ,michel de l',hopital 7#aggh71 and of ,frederick the ,great 7#aghg74 ,guibert was a member of the ,academy from #aghf1 and he also wrote a tragedy1 ,le ,connetable de ,bourbon 7#agge7 and a journal of travels in ,france and ,switzerland4 ,see ,toulongeon1 ,eloge veridique de ,guibert 7,paris1 #agij72 ,madame de ,stael1 ,eloge de ,guibert2 ,bardin1 ,notice historique du general ,guibert 7,paris1 #ahcf72 ,flavian d',aldeguier1 ,discours sur la vie et les ecrits du comte de ,guibert 7,toulouse1 #ahee72 ,count ,forestie1 ,biographie du comte de ,guibert 7,montauban1 #ahee72 ,count zur ,lippe1 ,friedr4 der ,grosse und ,oberst ,guibert 7,militar-,wochenblatt1 #ahgc1 #i and #aj74 ,,guicciardini1 ,,francesco 7#adhc-aedj71 the celebrated ,italian historian and statesman1 was born at ,florence in the year #adhc1 when ,marsilio ,ficino held him at the font of baptism4 ,his family was illustrious and noble2 and his ancestors for many generations had held the highest posts of honour in the state1 as may be seen in his own genealogical ,ricordi autobiografici e di famiglia 7,op4 ined4 vol4 x474 ,after the usual education of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies1 his father1 ,piero1 sent him to the universities of ,ferrara and ,padua1 where he stayed until the year #aeje4 ,the death of an uncle1 who had occupied the see of ,cortona with great pomp1 induced the young ,guicciardini to hanker after an ecclesiastical career4 ,he already saw the scarlet of a cardinal awaiting him1 and to this eminence he would assuredly have risen4 ,his father1 however1 checked this ambition1 declaring that1 though he had five sons1 he would not suffer one of them to enter the church in its then state of corruption and debasement4 ,guicciardini1 whose motives were confessedly ambitious 7see ,ricordi1 ,op4 ined4 x4 #fh71 turned his attention to law1 and at the age of twenty-three was appointed by the ,signoria of ,florence to read the ,institutes in public4 ,shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage to ,maria1 daughter of ,alamanno ,salviati1 prompted1 as he frankly tells us1 by the political support which an alliance with that great family would bring him 7ib4 x4 #ga74 ,he was then practising at the bar1 where he won so much distinction that the ,signoria1 in #aeab1 entrusted him with an embassy to the court of ,ferdinand the ,catholic4 ,thus he entered on the real work of his life as a diplomatist and statesman4 ,his conduct upon that legation was afterwards severely criticized2 for his political antagonists accused him of betraying the true interests of the commonwealth1 and using his influence for the restoration of the exiled house of ,medici to power4 ,his ,spanish correspondence with the ,signoria 7,op4 ined4 vol4 vi47 reveals the extraordinary power of observation and analysis which was a chief quality of his mind2 and in ,ferdinand1 hypocritical and profoundly dissimulative1 he found a proper object for his scientific study4 ,to suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid statecraft in ,spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of the problem offered by his character1 and scarcely fair to the ,italian proficients in perfidy4 ,it is clear from ,guicciardini's autobiographical memoirs that he was ambitious1 calculating1 avaricious and power-loving from his earliest years2 and in ,spain he had no more than an opportunity of studying on a large scale those political vices which already ruled the minor potentates of ,italy4 ,still the school was pregnant with instructions for so apt a pupil4 ,guicciardini issued from this first trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability1 as that was understood in ,italy4 ,to unravel plots and weave counterplots2 to meet treachery with fraud2 to parry force with sleights of hand2 to credit human nature with the basest motives1 while the blackest crimes were contemplated with cold enthusiasm for their cleverness1 was reckoned then the height of political sagacity4 ,guicciardini could play the game to perfection4 ,in #aeae ,leo ,x4 took him into service1 and made him governor of ,reggio and ,modena4 ,in #aeba ,parma was added to his rule1 and in #aebc he was appointed viceregent of ,romagna by ,clement ,,vii4 ,these high offices rendered ,guicciardini the virtual master of the papal states beyond the ,apennines1 during a period of great bewilderment and difficulty4 ,the copious correspondence relating to his administration has recently been published 7,op4 ined4 vols4 vii41 viii474 ,in #aebf ,clement gave him still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal army4 ,while holding this commission1 he had the humiliation of witnessing from a distance the sack of ,rome and the imprisonment of ,clement1 without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of ,urbino into activity4 ,the blame of ,clement's downfall did not rest with him2 for it was merely his duty to attend the camp1 and keep his master informed of the proceedings of the generals 7see the ,correspondence1 ,op4 ined4 vols4 iv41 v474 ,yet ,guicciardini's conscience accused him1 for he had previously counselled the pope to declare war1 as he notes in a curious letter to himself written in #aebg 7,op4 ined41 x4 #ajd74 ,clement did not1 however1 withdraw his confidence1 and in #aeca ,guicciardini was advanced to the governorship of ,bologna1 the most important of all the papallord-lieutenancies 7,correspondence1 ,op4 ined4 vol4 ix474 ,this post he resigned in #aecd on the election of ,paul ,,iii41 preferring to follow the fortunes of the ,medicean princes4 ,it may here be noticed that though ,guicciardini served three popes through a period of twenty years1 or perhaps because of this1 he hated the papacy with a deep and frozen bitterness1 attributing the woes of ,italy to the ambition of the church1 and declaring he had seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him a ,lutheran 7see ,op4 ined4 i4 #bg1 #ajd1 #if1 and ,ist4 d' ,it41 ed4 ,ros41 ii4 #bah74 ,the same discord between his private opinions and his public actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to #aecd4 ,as a political theorist1 ,guicciardini believed that the best form of government was a commonwealth administered upon the type of the ,venetian constitution 7,op4 ined4 i4 #f2 ii4 #acj sq472 and we have ample evidence to prove that he had judged the tyranny of the ,medici at its true worth 7,op4 ined4 i4 #aga1 on the tyrant2 the whole ,storia ,fiorentina and ,reggimento di ,firenze1 ib4 i4 and iii41 on the ,medici74 ,yet he did not hesitate to place his powers at the disposal of the most vicious members of that house for the enslavement of ,florence4 ,in #aebg he had been declared a rebel by the ,signoria on account of his well-known ,medicean prejudices2 and in #aecj1 deputed by ,clement to punish the citizens after their revolt1 he revenged himself with a cruelty and an avarice that were long and bitterly remembered4 ,when1 therefore1 he returned to inhabit ,florence in #aecd1 he did so as the creature of the dissolute ,alessandro de' ,medici4 ,guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to defend this infamous despot at ,naples in #aece1 before the bar of ,charles ,v41 from the accusations brought against him by the ,florentine exiles 7,op4 ined4 vol4 ix474 ,he won his cause2 but in the eyes of all posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries1 who describe him as a cruel1 venal1 grasping seeker after power1 eager to support a despotism for the sake of honours1 offices and emoluments secured for himself by a bargain with the oppressors of his country4 ,varchi1 ,nardi1 ,jacopo ,pitti and ,bernardo ,segni are unanimous upon this point2 but it is only the recent publication of ,guicciardini's private ,,mss4 that has made us understand the force of their invectives4 ,to plead loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his ,medicean partianship is now impossible1 face to face with the opinions expressed in the ,ricordi politici and the ,storia ,fiorentina4 ,like ,machiavelli1 but on a lower level1 ,guicciardini was willing to roll stones1 or to do any dirty work for masters whom1 in the depth of his soul1 he detested and despised4 ,after the murder of ,duke ,alessandro in #aecg1 ,guicciardini espoused the cause of ,cosimo de' ,medici1 a boy addicted to field sports1 and unused to the game of statecraft4 ,the wily old diplomatist hoped to rule ,florence as grand vizier under this inexperienced princeling4 ,he was mistaken1 however1 in his schemes1 for ,cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics1 and coldly dismissed his would-be lord-protector4 ,guicciardini retired in disgrace to his villa1 where he spent his last years in the composition of the ,storia d',italia4 ,he died in #aedj without male heirs4 ,guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age1 and his life illustrated its sordid influences4 ,of a cold and worldly temperament1 devoid of passion1 blameless in his conduct as the father of a family1 faithful as the servant of his papal patrons1 severe in the administration of the provinces committed to his charge1 and indisputably able in his conduct of affairs1 he was at the same time1 and in spite of these qualities1 a man whose moral nature inspires a sentiment of liveliest repugnance4 ,it is not merely that he was ambitious1 cruel1 revengeful and avaricious1 for these vices have existed in men far less antipathetic than ,guicciardini4 ,over and above those faults1 which made him odious to his fellow-citizens1 we trace in him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone4 ,his phlegmatic and persistent egotism1 his sacrifice of truth and honour to self-interest1 his acquiescence in the worst conditions of the world1 if only he could use them for his own advantage1 combined with the glaring discord between his opinions and his practice1 form a character which would be contemptible in our eyes were it not so sinister4 ,the social and political decrepitude of ,italy1 where patriotism was unknown1 and only selfishness survived of all the motives that rouse men to action1 found its representative and exponent in ,guicciardini4 ,when we turn from the man to the author1 the decadence of the age and race that could develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical despair of any good in human nature forces itself vividly upon our notice4 ,guicciardini seems to glory in his disillusionment1 and uses his vast intellectual ability for the analysis of the corruption he had helped to make incurable4 ,if one single treatise of that century should be chosen to represent the spirit of the ,italian people in the last phase of the ,renaissance1 the historian might hesitate between the ,principe of ,machiavelli and the ,ricordi politici of ,guicciardini4 ,the latter is perhaps preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness4 ,it is1 moreover1 more exactly adequate to the actual situation1 for the ,principe has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering in the cinders of its frigid science1 an idealistic enthusiasm surviving in its moral aberrations2 whereas a great ,italian critic of this decade has justly described the ,ricordi as ,italian corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life4 ,guicciardini is1 however1 better known as the author of the ,storia d',italia1 that vast and detailed picture of his country's sufferings between the years #adid and #aecb4 ,judging him by this masterpiece of scientific history1 he deserves less commendation as a writer than as a thinker and an analyst4 ,the style is wearisome and prolix1 attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution1 and setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness as the main features of the narrative4 ,the whole tangled skein of ,italian politics1 in that involved and stormy period1 is unravelled with a patience and an insight that are above praise4 ,it is the crowning merit of the author that he never ceases to be an impartial spectator--a cold and curious critic4 ,we might compare him to an anatomist1 with knife and scalpel dissecting the dead body of ,italy1 and pointing out the symptoms of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis of one who has no moral sensibility4 ,this want of feeling1 while it renders ,guicciardini a model for the scientific student1 has impaired the interest of his history4 ,though he lived through that agony of the ,italian people1 he does not seem to be aware that he is writing a great historical tragedy4 ,he takes as much pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war with ,pisa as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy4 ,nor is he capable of painting the events in which he took a part1 in their totality as a drama4 ,whatever he touches1 lies already dead on the dissecting table1 and his skill is that of the analytical pathologist4 ,consequently1 he fails to understand the essential magnitude of the task1 or to appreciate the vital vigour of the forces contending in ,europe for mastery4 ,this is very noticeable in what he writes about the ,reformation4 ,notwithstanding these defects1 inevitable in a writer of ,guicciardini's temperament1 the ,storia d',italia was undoubtedly the greatest historical work that had appeared since the beginning of the modern era4 ,it remains the most solid monument of the ,italian reason in the #afth century1 the final triumph of that ,florentine school of philosophical historians which included ,machiavelli1 ,segni1 ,pitti1 ,nardi1 ,varchi1 ,francesco ,vettori and ,donato ,giannotti4 ,up to the year #aheg the fame of ,guicciardini as a writer1 and the estimation of him as a man1 depended almost entirely upon the ,history of ,italy1 and on a few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms4 ,at that date his representatives1 the counts ,piero and ,luigi ,guicciardini1 opened their family archives1 and committed to ,signor ,giuseppe ,canestrini the publication of his hitherto inedited ,,mss4 in ten important volumes4 ,the vast mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to the world has thrown a flood of light upon ,guicciardini1 whether we consider him as author or as citizen4 ,it has raised his reputation as a political philosopher into the first rank1 where he now disputes the place of intellectual supremacy with his friend ,machiavelli2 but it has coloured our moral judgment of his character and conduct with darker dyes4 ,from the stores of valuable materials contained in those ten volumes1 it will be enough here to cite 7#a7 the ,ricordi politici1 already noticed1 consisting of about #djj aphorisms on political and social topics2 7#b7 the observations on ,machiavelli's ,discorsi1 which bring into remarkable relief the views of ,italy's two great theorists on statecraft in the #afth century1 and show that ,guicciardini regarded ,machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or political enthusiast2 7#c7 the ,storia ,fiorentina1 an early work of the author1 distinguished by its animation of style1 brilliancy of portraiture1 and liberality of judgment2 and 7#d7 the ,dialogo del reggimento di ,firenze1 also in all probability an early work1 in which the various forms of government suited to an ,italian commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety1 contrasted1 and illustrated from the vicissitudes of ,florence up to the year #adid4 ,to these may be added a series of short essays1 entitled ,discorsi politici1 composed during ,guicciardini's ,spanish legation4 ,it is only after a careful perusal of these minor works that the student of history may claim to have comprehended ,guicciardini1 and may feel that he brings with him to the consideration of the ,storia d' ,italia the requisite knowledge of the author's private thoughts and jealously guarded opinions4 ,indeed1 it may be confidently affirmed that those who desire to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the men who made and wrote history in the #afth century will find it here far more than in the work designed for publication by the writer4 ,taken in combination with ,machiavelli's treatises1 the ,opere inedite furnish a comprehensive body of ,italian political philosophy anterior to the date of ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi4 7,j4 ,a4 ,s47 ,see ,rosini's edition oi the ,storia d' ,italia 7#aj vols41 ,pisa1 #ahai71 and the ,opere inedite1 in #aj vols41 published at ,florence1 #aheg4 ,a complete and initial edition of ,guicciardini's works is now in preparation in the hands of ,alessandro ,gherardi of the ,florence archives4 ,among the many studies on ,guicciardini we may mention ,agostino ,rossi's ,francesco ,guicciardini e il governo ,fiorentino 7#b vols41 ,bologna1 #ahif71 based on many new documents2 ,f4 de ,sanctis's essay ,l',uomo del ,guicciardini1 in his ,nuovi ,saggi critici 7,naples1 #ahgi71 and many passages in ,professor ,p4 ,villari's ,machiavelli 7,eng4 trans41 #ahib72 ,e4 ,benoist's ,guichardin1 historien et homme d'etat italien an ,,xvie siecle 7,paris1 #ahfb71 and ,c4 ,gioda's ,francesco ,guicciardini e le sue opere inedite 7,bologna1 #ahhj7 are not without value1 but the authors had not had access to many important documents since published4 ,see also ,geoffrey's article ,une ,autobiographie de ,guichardin d'apres ses oeuvres inedites1 in the ,revue des deux mondes 7#ast of ,february #ahgd74 ,,guichard1 ,,karl ,,gottlieb 7#agbd-agge71 soldier and military writer1 known as ,,quintus ,,icilius1 was born at ,magdeburg in #agbd1 of a family of ,french refugees4 ,he was educated for the ,church1 and at ,leiden actually preached a sermon as a candidate for the pastorate4 ,but he abandoned theology for more secular studies1 especially that of ancient history1 in which his learning attracted the notice of the prince of ,orange1 who promised him a vacant professorship at ,utrecht4 ,on his arrival1 however1 he found that another scholar had been elected by the local authorities1 and he thereupon sought and obtained a commission in the ,dutch army4 ,he made the campaigns of #agdg-dh in the ,low ,countries4 ,in the peace which followed1 his combined military and classical training turned his thoughts in the direction of ancient military history4 ,his notes on this subject grew into a treatise1 and in #aged he went over to ,england in order to consult various libraries4 ,in #ageg his ,memoires militaires sur les ,grecs et les ,romains appeared at the ,hague1 and when ,carlyle wrote his ,frederick the ,great it had reached its fifth edition4 ,coming back1 with ,english introductions1 to the ,continent1 he sought service with ,ferdinand of ,brunswick1 who sent him on to ,frederick the ,great1 whom he joined in ,january #ageh at ,breslau4 ,the king was very favourably impressed with ,guichard and his works1 and he remained for nearly #ah months in the royal suite4 ,his ,prussian official name of ,quintus ,icilius was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king 7see ,nikolai1 ,anekdoten1 vi4 #abi-ade2 ,carlyle1 ,frederick the ,great1 viii4 #aac-aad74 ,frederick in discussing the battle of ,pharsalia spoke of a centurion ,quintus ,caecilius as ,q4 ,icilius4 ,guichard ventured to correct him1 whereupon the king said1 ,you shall be ,quintus ,icilius1 and as ,major ,quintus ,icilius he was forthwith gazetted to the command of a free battalion4 ,this corps he commanded throughout the later stages of the ,seven ,years' ,war1 his battalion1 as time went on1 becoming a regiment of three battalions1 and ,quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of the same kind of troops4 ,his command was almost always with the king's own army in these campaigns1 but for a short time it fought in the western theatre under ,prince ,henry4 ,when not on the march he was always at the royal headquarters1 and it was he who brought about the famous interview between the king and ,gellert 7see ,carlyle1 ,frederick the ,great1 ix4 #aji2 ,gellert1 ,briefwechsel mit ,demoiselle ,lucius1 ed4 ,ebert1 ,leipzig1 #ahbc1 pp4 #fbi-fca7 on the subject of national ,german literature4 ,on #bbnd ,january #agfa ,quintus was ordered to sack the castle of ,hubertusburg 7a task which ,major-,general ,saldern had point-blank refused to undertake1 from motives of conscience71 and carried out his task1 it is said1 to his own very considerable profit4 ,the place cannot have been seriously injured1 as it was soon afterwards the meeting-place of the diplomatists whose work ended in the peace of ,hubertusburg1 but the king never ceased to banter ,quintus on his supposed depredations4 ,the very day of ,frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the disbanding of most of the free battalions1 including that of ,quintus1 but the major to the end of his life remained with the king4 ,he was made lieutenant-colonel in #agfe1 and in #aggc1 in recognition of his work ,memoires critiques et historiques sur plusieurs points d'antiquites militaires1 dealing mainly with ,caesar's campaigns in ,spain 7,berlin1 #aggc71 was promoted colonel4 ,he died at ,potsdam1 #agge4 ,,guichen1 ,,luc ,,urbain ,,de ,,bouexic1 ,,comte ,,de 7#agab-agij71 ,french admiral1 entered the navy in #agcj as garde de la ,marine1 the first rank in the corps of royal officers4 ,his promotion was not rapid4 ,it was not till #agdh that he became lieutenant de vaisseau1 which was1 however1 a somewhat higher rank than the lieutenant in the ,british navy1 since it carried with it the right to command a frigate4 ,he was capitaine de vaisseau1 or post captain1 in #agef4 ,but his reputation must have been good1 for he was made chevalier de ,saint ,louis in #agdh4 ,in #agge he was appointed to the frigate ,terpsichore1 attached to the training squadron1 in which the duc de ,chartres1 afterwards notorious as the duc d',orleans and as ,philippe ,egalite1 was entered as volunteer4 ,in the next year he was promoted chef d'escadre1 or rear-admiral4 ,when ,france had become the ally of the ,americans in the ,war of ,independence1 he hoisted his flag in the ,channel fleet1 and was present at the battle of ,ushant on the #bgth of ,july #aggi4 ,in ,march of the following year he was sent to the ,west ,indies with a strong squadron and was there opposed to ,sir ,george ,rodney4 ,in the first meeting between them on the #agth of ,april to leeward of ,martinique1 ,guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy manner in which ,sir ,george's orders were executed by his captains4 ,seeing that he had to deal with a formidable opponent1 ,guichen acted with extreme caution1 and by keeping the weather gauge afforded the ,british admiral no chance of bringing him to close action4 ,when the hurricane months approached 7,july to ,september7 he left the ,west ,indies1 and his squadron1 being in a bad state from want of repairs1 returned home1 reaching ,brest in ,september4 ,throughout all this campaign ,guichen had shown himself very skilful in handling a fleet1 and if he had not gained any marked success1 he had prevented the ,british admiral from doing any harm to the ,french islands in the ,antilles4 ,in ,december #agha the comte de ,guichen was chosen to command the force which was entrusted with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements to the ,west ,indies4 ,on the #abth ,admiral ,kempenfelt1 who had been sent out by the ,british ,government with an unduly weak force to intercept him1 sighted the ,french admiral in the ,bay of ,biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog1 at a moment when ,guichen's warships were to leeward of the convoy1 and attacked the transports at once4 ,the ,french admiral could not prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of the transports1 and driving the others into a panic-stricken flight4 ,they returned to port1 and the mission entrusted to ,guichen was entirely defeated4 ,he therefore returned to port also4 ,he had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing success during the short remainder of the war1 but he was present at the final relief of ,gibraltar by ,lord ,howe4 ,his death occurred on the #acth of ,january #agij4 ,the comte de ,guichen was1 by the testimony of his contemporaries1 a most accomplished and high-minded gentleman4 ,it is probable that he had more scientific knowledge than any of his ,english contemporaries and opponents4 ,but as a commander in war he was notable chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements of a fleet1 and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations1 which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial result4 ,he had none of the combative instincts of his countryman ,suffren1 or of the average ,british admiral4 ,see vicomte de ,noailles1 ,marins et soldats francais en ,amerique 7#aijc72 and ,e4 ,chevalier1 ,histoire de la marine francaise pendant la guerre de l'independence americaine 7#ahgg74 7,d4 ,h47 ,,guide 7in ,mid4 ,eng4 gyde1 from the ,fr4 guide2 the earlier ,french form was guie1 ,english guy1 the d was due to the ,italian form guida2 the ultimate origin is probably ,teutonic1 the word being connected with the base seen in ,o4 ,eng4 witan1 to know71 an agency for directing or showing the way1 specifically a person who leads or directs a stranger over unknown or unmapped country1 or conducts travellers and tourists through a town1 or over buildings of interest4 ,in ,european wars up to the time of the ,french ,revolution1 the absence of large scale detailed maps made local guides almost essential to the direction of military operations1 and in the #ahth century the general tendency to the stricter organization of military resources led in various countries to the special training of guide officers 7called ,feldjager1 and considered as general staff officers in the ,prussian army71 whose chief duty it was to find1 and if necessary establish1 routes across country for those parts of the army that had to move parallel to the main road and as nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other1 for in those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the use of two or more made roads4 ,but the necessity for such precautions died away when adequate surveys 7in which guide officers were1 at any rate in ,prussia1 freely employed7 were carried out1 and1 as a definite term of military organization to-day1 guide possesses no more essential peculiarity than fusilier1 grenadier or rifleman4 ,the genesis of the modern ,guide regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived ,corps of ,guides formed by ,napoleon in ,italy in #agif1 which appears to have been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who knew the country4 ,in the ,belgian army of to-day the ,guide regiments correspond almost to the ,guard cavalry of other nations2 in the ,swiss army the squadrons of ,guides act as divisional cavalry1 and in this role doubtless are called upon on occasion to lead columns4 ,the ,queen's own ,corps of ,guides of the ,indian army consists of infantry companies and cavalry squadrons4 ,in drill1 a guide is an officer or non-commissioned officer told off to regulate the direction and pace of movements1 the remainder of the unit maintaining their alignment and distances by him4 ,a particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering2 these are not merely to show the way but stand in the position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of rock and snowcraft1 which they impart to the amateur1 at the same time assuring the safety of the climbing party in dangerous expeditions4 ,this professional class of guides arose in the middle of the #aith century when ,alpine climbing became recognized as a sport 7see ,,mountaineering74 ,it is thus natural to find that the ,alpine guides have been requisitioned for mountaineering expeditions all over the world4 ,in climbing in ,switzerland1 the central committee of the ,swiss ,alpine ,club issues a guides' tariff which fixes the charges for guides and porters2 there are three sections1 for the ,valais and ,vaudois ,alps1 for the ,bernese ,oberland1 and for central and eastern ,switzerland4 ,the names of many of the great guides have become historical4 ,in ,chamonix a statue has been raised to ,jacques ,balmat1 who was the first to climb ,mont ,blanc in #aghf4 ,of the more famous guides since the beginning of ,alpine climbing may be mentioned ,auguste ,balmat1 ,michel ,cros1 ,maquignay1 ,j4 ,a4 ,carrel1 who went with ,e4 ,whymper to the ,andes1 the brothers ,lauener1 ,christian ,almer and ,jakob and ,melchior ,anderegg4 ,guide is also applied to a book1 in the sense of an elementary primer on some subject1 or of one giving full information for travellers of a country1 district or town4 ,in mechanical usage1 the term guide is of wide application1 being used of anything which steadies or directs the motion of an object1 as of the leading screw of a screw-cutting lathe1 of a loose pulley used to steady a driving-belt1 or of the bars or rods in a steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight line4 ,the doublet guy is thus used of a rope which steadies a sail when it is being raised or lowered1 or of a rope1 chain or stay supporting a funnel1 mast1 derrick1 c4 ,,guidi1 ,,carlo ,,alessandro 7#afej-agab71 ,italian lyric poet1 was born at ,pavia in #afej4 ,as chief founder of the well-known ,roman academy called ,l',arcadia1 he had a considerable share in the reform of ,italian poetry1 corrupted at that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the poets ,marini and ,achillini and their school4 ,the poet ,guidi and the critic and jurisconsult ,gravina checked this evil by their influence and example4 ,the genius of ,guidi was lyric in the highest degree2 his songs are written with singular force1 and charm the reader1 in spite of touches of bombast4 ,his most celebrated song is that entitled ,alla ,fortuna 7,to ,fortune71 which certainly is one of the most beautiful pieces of poetry of the #agth century4 ,guidi was squint-eyed1 humpbacked1 and of a delicate constitution1 but possessed undoubted literary ability4 ,his poems were printed at ,parma in #afga1 and at ,rome in #agjd4 ,in #afha he published at ,parma his lyric tragedy ,amalasunta in ,italy1 and two pastoral dramas ,daphne and ,endymion4 ,the last had the honour of being mentioned as a model by the critic ,gravina1 in his treatise on poetry4 ,less fortunate was ,guidi's poetical version of the six homilies of ,pope ,clement ,,xi41 first as having been severely criticized by the satirist ,settano1 and next as having proved to be the indirect cause of the author's death4 ,a splendid edition of this version had been printed in #agab1 and1 the pope being then in ,san ,gandolfo1 ,guidi went there to present him with a copy4 ,on the way he found out a serious typographical error1 which he took so much to heart that he was seized with an apoplectic fit at ,frascati and died on the spot4 ,guidi was honoured with the special protection of ,ranuccio ,,ii41 duke of ,parma1 and of ,queen ,christina of ,sweden4 ,,guidiccioni1 ,,giovanni 7#adhj-aeda71 ,italian poet1 was born at ,lucca in #adhj1 and died at ,macerata in #aeda4 ,he occupied a high position1 being bishop of ,fossombrone and president of ,romagna4 ,the latter office nearly cost him his life2 a murderer attempted to kill him1 and had already touched his breast with his dagger when1 conquered by the resolute calmness of the prelate1 he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet1 asking forgiveness4 ,the ,rime and ,letters of ,guidiccioni are models of elegant and natural ,italian style4 ,the best editions are those of ,genoa 7#agdi71 ,bergamo 7#agec7 and ,florence 7#ahgh74 ,,guido ,,of ,,arezzo 7possibly to be identified with ,guido de ,st ,maur des ,fosses71 a musician who lived in the #aath century4 ,he has by many been called the father of modern music1 and a portrait of him in the refectory of the monastery of ,avellana bears the inscription ,beatus ,guido1 inventor musicae4 ,of his life little is known1 and that little is chiefly derived from the dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his treatises and addressed respectively to ,bishop ,theodald 7not ,theobald1 as ,burney writes the name7 of ,arezzo1 and ,michael1 a monk of ,pomposa and ,guido's pupil and friend4 ,occasional references to the celebrated musician in the works of his contemporaries are1 however1 by no means rare1 and from these it may be conjectured with all but absolute certainty that ,guido was born in the last decade of the #ajth century4 ,the place of his birth is uncertain in spite of some evidence pointing to ,arezzo2 on the title-page of all his works he is styled ,guido ,aretinus1 or simply ,aretinus4 ,at his first appearance in history ,guido was a monk in the ,benedictine monastery of ,pomposa1 and it was there that he taught singing and invented his educational method1 by means of which1 according to his own statement1 a pupil might learn within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten years to acquire4 ,envy and jealousy1 however1 were his only reward1 and by these he was compelled to leave his monastery--inde est1 quod me vides prolixis finibus exulatum1 as he says himself in the second of the letters above referred to4 ,according to one account1 he travelled as far as ,bremen1 called there by ,archbishop ,hermann in order to reform the musical service4 ,but this statement has been doubted4 ,certain it is that not long after his flight from ,pomposa ,guido was living at ,arezzo1 and it was here that1 about #ajcj1 he received an invitation to ,rome from ,pope ,john ,,xiv4 ,he obeyed the summons1 and the pope himself became his first and apparently one of his most proficient pupils4 ,but in spite of his success ,guido could not be induced to remain in ,rome1 the insalubrious air of which seems to have affected his health4 ,in ,rome he met again his former superior1 the abbot of ,pomposa1 who seems to have repented of his conduct1 and to have induced ,guido to return to ,pomposa2 and here all authentic records of ,guido's life cease4 ,we only know that he died1 on the #agth of ,may #ajej1 as prior of ,avellana1 a monastery of the ,camaldulians2 such at least is the statement of the chroniclers of that order4 ,it ought1 however1 to be added that the ,camaldulians claim the celebrated musician as wholly their own1 and altogether deny his connexion with the ,benedictines4 ,the documents discovered by ,dom ,germain ,morin1 the ,belgian ,benedictine1 about #ahhh1 point to the conclusion that ,guido was a ,frenchman and lived from his youth upwards in the ,benedictine monastery of ,st ,maur des ,fosses where he invented his novel system of notation and taught the brothers to sing by it4 ,in codex #gfc of the ,british ,museum the composer of the ,micrologus and other works by ,guido of ,arezzo is always described as ,guido de ,sancto ,mauro4 ,there is no doubt that ,guido's method shows considerable progress in the evolution of modern notation4 ,it was he who for the first time systematically used the lines of the staff1 and the intervals or spatia between them4 ,there is also little doubt that the names of the first six notes of the scale1 ut1 re1 mi1 fa1 sol1 la1 still in use among ,romance nations1 were introduced by ,guido1 although he seems to have used them in a relative rather than in an absolute sense4 ,it is well known that these words are the first syllables of six lines of a hymn addressed to ,st ,john the ,baptist1 which may be given here3-- ,ut queant laxis resonare fibris ,mira gestorum famuli tuorum1 ,solve polluti labii reatum1 ,sancte ,joannes4 ,in addition to this ,guido is generally credited with the introduction of the ,f clef4 ,but more important than all this1 perhaps1 is the thoroughly practical tone which ,guido assumes in his theoretical writings1 and which differs greatly from the clumsy scholasticism of his contemporaries and predecessors4 ,the most important of ,guido's treatises1 and those which are generally acknowledged to be authentic1 are ,micrologus ,guidonis de disciplina artis musicae1 dedicated to ,bishop ,theodald of ,arezzo1 and comprising a complete theory of music1 in #bj chapters2 ,musicae ,guidonis regulae rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae1 written in trochaic decasyllabics of anything but classical structure2 ,aliae ,guidonis regulae de ignoto cantu1 identidem in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae2 and the ,epistola ,guidonis ,michaeli monacho de ignoto cantu1 already referred to4 ,these are published in the second volume of ,gerbert's ,scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra4 ,a very important manuscript unknown to ,gerbert 7the ,codex bibliothecae ,uticensis1 in the ,paris library7 contains1 besides minor treatises1 an antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to ,guido4 ,see also ,l4 ,angeloni1 ,g4 d',arezzo 7#ahaa72 ,kiesewetter1 ,guido von ,arezzo 7#ahdj72 ,kornmuller1 ,leben und ,werken ,guidos von ,arezzo1 in ,habert's ,jahrb4 7#ahgf72 ,antonio ,brandi1 ,g4 ,aretino 7#ahhb72 ,g4 ,b4 ,ristori1 ,biografia di ,guido monaco d',arezzo 7#ahfh74 ,,guido ,,of ,,siena4 ,the name of this ,italian painter is of considerable interest in the history of art1 on the ground that1 if certain assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true1 he would be entitled to share with ,cimabue1 or rather indeed to supersede him in1 the honour of having given the first onward impulse to the art of painting4 ,the case stands thus4 ,in the church of ,s4 ,domenico in ,siena is a large painting of the ,virgin and ,child ,enthroned1 with six angels above1 and in the ,benedictine convent of the same city is a triangular pinnacle1 once a portion of the same composition1 representing the ,saviour in benediction1 with two angels2 the entire work was originally a triptych1 but is not so now4 ,the principal section of this picture has a rhymed ,latin inscription1 giving the painter's name as ,gu 444 o de ,senis1 with the date #abba3 the genuineness of the inscription is not1 however1 free from doubt1 and especially it is maintained that the date really reads as #abha4 ,in the general treatment of the picture there is nothing to distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early period2 but the heads of the ,virgin and ,child are indisputably very superior1 in natural character and graceful dignity1 to anything to be found anterior to ,cimabue4 ,the question therefore arises1 ,are these heads really the work of a man who painted in #abba8 ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative1 concluding that the heads are repainted1 and are1 as they now stand1 due to some artist of the #adth century1 perhaps ,ugolino da ,siena2 thus the claims of ,cimabue would remain undisturbed and in their pristine vigour4 ,beyond this1 little is known of ,guido da ,siena4 ,there is in the ,academy of ,siena a picture assigned to him1 a half-figure of the ,virgin and ,child1 with two angels1 dating probably between #abej and #acjj2 also in the church of ,s4 ,bernardino in the same city a ,madonna dated #abfb4 ,milanesi thinks that the work in ,s4 ,domenico is due to ,guido ,graziani1 of whom no other record remains earlier than #abgh1 when he is mentioned as the painter of a banner4 ,guido da ,siena appears always to have painted on panel1 not in fresco on the wall4 ,he has been termed1 very dubiously1 a pupil of ,pietrolino1 and the master of ,diotisalvi1 ,mino da ,turrita and ,berlinghieri da ,lucca4 ,,guido ,,reni 7#aege-afdb71 a prime master in the ,bolognese school of painting1 and one of the most admired artists of the period of incipient decadence in ,italy1 was born at ,calvenzano near ,bologna on the #dth of ,november #aege4 ,his father was a musician of repute1 a player on the flageolet2 he wished to bring the lad up to perform on the harpsichord4 ,at a very childish age1 however1 ,guido displayed a determined bent towards the art of form1 scribbling some attempt at a drawing here1 there and everywhere4 ,he was only nine years of age when ,denis ,calvart took notice of him1 received him into his academy of design by the father's permission1 and rapidly brought him forward1 so that by the age of thirteen ,guido had already attained marked proficiency4 ,albani and ,domenichino became soon afterwards pupils in the same academy4 ,with ,albani ,guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood1 but they afterwards became rivals1 both as painters and as heads of ateliers1 with a good deal of asperity on ,albani's part2 ,domenichino was also pitted against ,reni by the policy of ,annibale ,caracci4 ,guido was still in the academy of ,calvart when he began frequenting the opposition school kept by ,lodovico ,caracci1 whose style1 far in advance of that of the ,flemish painter1 he dallied with4 ,this exasperated ,calvart4 ,him ,guido1 not yet twenty years of age1 cheerfully quitted1 transferring himself openly to the ,caracci academy1 in which he soon became prominent1 being equally skilful and ambitious4 ,he had not been a year with the ,caracci when a work of his excited the wonder of ,agostino and the jealousy of ,annibale4 ,lodovico cherished him1 and frequently painted him as an angel1 for the youthful ,reni was extremely handsome4 ,after a while1 however1 ,lodovico also felt himself nettled1 and he patronized the competing talents of ,giovanni ,barbiere4 ,on one occasion ,guido had made a copy of ,annibale's ,descent from the ,cross2 ,annibale was asked to retouch it1 and1 finding nothing to do1 exclaimed pettishly1 ,he knows more than enough 7,costui ne sa troppo74 ,on another occasion ,lodovico1 consulted as umpire1 lowered a price which ,reni asked for an early picture4 ,this slight determined the young man to be a pupil no more4 ,he left the ,caracci1 and started on his own account as a competitor in the race for patronage and fame4 ,a renowned work1 the story of ,callisto and ,diana1 had been completed before he left4 ,guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the ,bolognese school of painting4 ,he had appropriated something from ,calvart1 much more from ,lodovico ,caracci2 he studied with much zest after ,albert ,durer2 he adopted the massive1 sombre and partly uncouth manner of ,caravaggio4 ,one day ,annibale ,caracci made the remark that a style might be formed reversing that of ,caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows and the gross common forms2 this observation germinated in ,guido's mind1 and he endeavoured after some such style1 aiming constantly at suavity4 ,towards #afjb he went to ,rome with ,albani1 and ,rome remained his headquarters for twenty years4 ,here1 in the pontificate of ,paul ,v4 7,borghese71 he was greatly noted and distinguished4 ,in the garden-house of the ,rospigliosi ,palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly regarded as his masterpiece--,phoebus and the ,hours preceded by ,aurora4 ,this exhibits his second manner1 in which he had deviated far indeed from the promptings of ,caravaggio4 ,he founded now chiefly upon the antique1 more especially the ,niobe group and the ,venus de' ,medici1 modified by suggestions from ,raphael1 ,correggio1 ,parmigiano and ,paul ,veronese4 ,of this last painter1 although on the whole he did not get much from him1 ,guido was a particular admirer2 he used to say that he would rather have been ,paul ,veronese than any other master--,paul was more nature than art4 ,the ,aurora is beyond doubt a work of pre-eminent beauty and attainment2 it is stamped with pleasurable dignity1 and1 without being effeminate1 has a more uniform aim after graceful selectness than can readily be traced in previous painters1 greatly superior though some of them had been in impulse and personal fervour of genius4 ,the pontifical chapel of ,montecavallo was assigned to ,reni to paint2 but1 being straitened in payments by the ministers1 the artist made off to ,bologna4 ,he was fetched back by ,paul ,v4 with ceremonious eclat1 and lodging1 living and equipage were supplied to him4 ,at another time he migrated from ,rome to ,naples1 having received a commission to paint the chapel of ,s4 ,gennaro4 ,the notorious cabal of three painters resident in ,naples--,corenzio1 ,caracciolo and ,ribera--offered1 however1 as stiff an opposition to ,guido as to some other interlopers who preceded and succeeded him4 ,they gave his servant a beating by the hands of two unknown bullies1 and sent by him a message to his master to depart or prepare for death2 ,guido waited for no second warning1 and departed4 ,he now returned to ,rome2 but he finally left that city abruptly1 in the pontificate of ,urban ,,viii41 in consequence of an offensive reprimand administered to him by ,cardinal ,spinola4 ,he had received an advance of #djj scudi on account of an altarpiece for ,st ,peter's1 but after some lapse of years had made no beginning with the work4 ,a broad reminder from the cardinal put ,reni on his mettle2 he returned the #djj scudi1 quitted ,rome within a few days1 and steadily resisted all attempts at recall4 ,he now resettled in ,bologna4 ,he had taught as well as painted in ,rome1 and he left pupils behind him2 but on the whole he did not stamp any great mark upon the ,roman school of painting1 apart from his own numerous works in the papal city4 ,in ,bologna ,guido lived in great splendour1 and established a celebrated school1 numbering more than two hundred scholars4 ,he himself drew in it1 even down to his latest years4 ,on first returning to this city1 he charged about ,l#ba for a full-length figure 7mere portraits are not here in question71 half this sum for a half-length1 and ,l#e for a head4 ,these prices must be regarded as handsome1 when we consider that ,domenichino about the same time received only ,l#aj1 #ajs4 for his very large and celebrated picture1 the ,last ,communion of ,st ,jerome4 ,but ,guido's reputation was still on the increase1 and in process of time he quintupled his prices4 ,he now left ,bologna hardly at all2 in one instance1 however1 he went off to ,ravenna1 and1 along with three pupils1 he painted the chapel in the cathedral with his admired picture of the ,israelites gathering ,manna4 ,his shining prosperity was not to last till the end4 ,guido was dissipated1 generously but indiscriminately profuse1 and an inveterate gambler4 ,the gambling propensity had been his from youth1 but until he became elderly it did not noticeably damage his fortunes4 ,it grew upon him1 and in a couple of evenings he lost the enormous sum of #ad1djj scudi4 ,the vice told still more ruinously on his art than on his character4 ,in his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture dealers2 one of them1 the ,shylock of his craft1 would stand by1 watch in hand1 and see him work4 ,half-heartedness1 half-performance1 blighted his product3 self-repetition and mere mannerism1 with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for beauty1 became the art of ,guido4 ,some of these trade-works1 heads or half-figures1 were turned out in three hours or even less4 ,it is said that1 tardily wise1 ,reni left off gambling for nearly two years2 at last he relapsed1 and his relapse was followed not long afterwards by his death1 caused by malignant fever4 ,this event took place in ,bologna on the #ahth of ,august #afdb2 he died in debt1 but was buried with great pomp in the church of ,s4 ,domenico4 ,guido was personally modest1 although he valued himself on his position in the art1 and would tolerate no slight in that relation2 he was extremely upright1 temperate in diet1 nice in his person and his dress4 ,he was fond of stately houses1 but could feel also the charm of solitude4 ,in his temper there was a large amount of suspiciousness2 and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes excited1 now from the ,caracci1 now from ,albani1 now from the monopolizing league of ,neapolitan painters1 may naturally have kept this feeling in active exercise4 ,of his numerous scholars1 ,simone ,cantarini1 named ,,ii ,pesarese1 counts as the most distinguished2 he painted an admirable head of ,reni1 now in the ,bolognese ,gallery4 ,the portrait in the ,uffizi ,gallery of ,florence is from ,reni's own hand4 ,two other good scholars were ,giacomo ,semenza and ,francesco ,gessi4 ,the character of ,guido's art is so well known as hardly to call for detailed analysis1 beyond what we have already intimated4 ,his most characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal1 of form rather than character1 with a slight mode of handling1 and silvery1 somewhat cold1 colour4 ,in working from the nude he aimed at perfection of form1 especially marked in the hands and feet4 ,but he was far from always going to choice nature for his model2 he transmuted ad libitum1 and painted1 it is averred1 a ,magdalene of demonstrative charms from a vulgar-looking colour-grinder4 ,his best works have beauty1 great amenity1 artistic feeling and high accomplishment of manner1 all alloyed by a certain core of commonplace2 in the worst pictures the commonplace swamps everything1 and ,guido has flooded ,european galleries with trashy and empty pretentiousness1 all the more noxious in that its apparent grace of sentiment and form misleads the unwary into approval1 and the dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures4 ,both in ,rome and wherever else he worked he introduced increased softness of style1 which was then designated as the modern method4 ,his pictures are mostly ,scriptural or mythologic in subject1 and between two and three hundred of them are to be found in various ,european collections--more than a hundred of these containing life-sized figures4 ,the portraits which he executed are few--those of ,sixtus ,v41 ,cardinal ,spada and the so-called ,beatrice ,cenci being among the most noticeable4 ,the identity of the last-named portrait is very dubious2 it certainly cannot have been painted direct from ,beatrice1 who had been executed in ,rome before ,guido ever resided there4 ,many etchings are attributed to him--some from his own works1 and some after other masters2 they are spirited1 but rather negligent4 ,of other works not already noticed1 the following should be named3--in ,rome 7the ,vatican71 the ,crucifixion of ,st ,peter1 an example of the painter's earlier manner2 in ,s4 ,lorenzo in ,lucina1 ,christ ,crucified2 in ,forli1 the ,conception2 in ,bologna1 the ,alms of ,st ,roch 7early71 the ,massacre of the ,innocents1 and the ,pieta1 or ,lament over the ,body of ,christ 7in the church of the ,mendicanti71 which is by many regarded as ,guido's prime executive work2 in the ,dresden ,gallery1 an ,ecce ,homo2 in ,milan 7,brera ,gallery71 ,saints ,peter and ,paul2 in ,genoa 7church of ,s4 ,ambrogio71 the ,assumption of the ,virgin2 in ,berlin1 ,st ,paul the ,hermit and ,st ,anthony in the ,wilderness4 ,the celebrated picture of ,fortune 7in the ,capitol7 is one of ,reni's finest treatments of female form2 as a specimen of male form1 the ,samson ,drinking from the ,jawbone of an ,ass might be named beside it4 ,one of his latest works of mark is the ,ariadne1 which used to be in the ,gallery of the ,capitol4 ,the ,louvre contains twenty of his pictures1 the ,national ,gallery of ,london seven1 and others were once there1 now removed to other public collections4 ,the most interesting of the seven is the small ,coronation of the ,virgin1 painted on copper1 an elegantly finished work1 more pretty than beautiful4 ,it was probably painted before the master quitted ,bologna for ,rome4 ,for the life and works of ,guido ,reni1 see ,bolognini1 ,vita di ,guido ,reni 7#ahci72 ,passeri1 ,vite de' pittori2 and ,malvasia1 ,felsina ,pittrice2 also ,lanzi1 ,storia pitiorica4 7,w4 ,m4 ,r47 ,,guienne1 an old ,french province which corresponded roughly to the ,aquitania ,secunda of the ,romans and the archbishopric of ,bordeaux4 ,in the #abth century it formed with ,gascony the duchy of ,aquitaine1 which passed under the dominion of the kings of ,england by the marriage of ,eleanor of ,aquitaine to ,henry ,,ii42 but in the #acth1 through the conquests of ,philip ,augustus1 ,louis ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,ix41 it was confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of ,paris 7#abei74 ,it is at this point that ,guienne becomes distinct from ,aquitaine4 ,it then comprised the ,bordelais 7the old countship of ,bordeaux71 the ,bazadais1 part of ,perigord1 ,limousin1 ,quercy and ,rouergue1 the ,agenais ceded by ,philip ,,iii4 7the ,bold7 to ,edward ,i4 7#abgi71 and 7still united with ,gascony7 formed a duchy extending from the ,charente to the ,pyrenees4 ,this duchy was held on the terms of homage to the ,french kings1 an onerous obligation2 and both in #abif and #acbd it was confiscated by the kings of ,france on the ground that there had been a failure in the feudal duties4 ,at the treaty of ,bretigny 7#acfj7 ,edward ,,iii4 acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy of ,guienne1 together with ,aunis1 ,saintonge1 ,angoumois and ,poitou4 ,the victories of du ,guesclin and ,gaston ,phoebus1 count of ,foix1 restored the duchy soon after to its #acth-century limits4 ,in #adea it was conquered and finally united to the ,french crown by ,charles ,,vii4 ,in #adfi ,louis ,,xi4 gave it in exchange for ,champagne and ,brie to his brother ,charles1 duke of ,berry1 after whose death in #adgb it was again united to the royal dominion4 ,guienne then formed a government which from the #agth century onwards was united with ,gascony4 ,the government of ,guienne and ,gascony1 with its capital at ,bordeaux1 lasted till the end of the ancien regime4 ,under the ,revolution the departments formed from ,guienne proper were those of ,gironde1 ,lot-et-,garonne1 ,dordogne1 ,lot1 ,aveyron and the chief part of ,tarn-et-,garonne4 ,,guignes1 ,,joseph ,,de 7#agba-ahjj71 ,french orientalist1 was born at ,pontoise on the #aith of ,october #agba4 ,he succeeded ,fourmont at the ,royal ,library as secretary interpreter of the ,eastern languages4 ,a ,memoire historique sur l'origine des ,huns et des ,turcs1 published by de ,guignes in #agdh1 obtained his admission to the ,royal ,society of ,london in #ageb1 and he became an associate of the ,french ,academy of ,inscriptions in #aged4 ,two years later he began to publish his learned and laborious ,histoire generale des ,huns1 des ,mongoles1 des ,turcs et des autres ,tartares occidentaux 7#agef-ageh72 and in #ageg he was appointed to the chair of ,syriac at the ,college de ,france4 ,he maintained that the ,chinese nation had originated in ,egyptian colonization1 an opinion to which1 in spite of every argument1 he obstinately clung4 ,he died in ,paris in #ahjj4 ,the ,histoire had been translated into ,german by ,dahnert 7#agfh-agga74 ,de ,guignes left a son1 ,christian ,louis ,joseph 7#agei-ahde71 who1 after learning ,chinese from his father1 went as consul to ,canton1 where he spent seventeen years4 ,on his return to ,france he was charged by the government with the work of preparing a ,chinese-,french-,latin dictionary 7#ahac74 ,he was also the author of a work of travels 7,voyages a ,pekin1 ,manille1 et l'ile de ,france1 #ahjh74 ,see ,querard1 ,la ,france litteraire1 where a list of the memoirs contributed by de ,guignes to the ,journal des savants is given4 ,,guilbert1 ,,yvette 7#ahfi- 71 ,french diseuse1 was born in ,paris4 ,she served for two years until #ahhe in the ,magasin du ,printemps1 when1 on the advice of the journalist1 ,edmond ,stoullig1 she trained for the stage under ,landrol4 ,she made her debut at the ,bouffes du ,nord1 then played at the ,varietes1 and in #ahij she received a regular engagement at the ,eldorado to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance4 ,she also sang at the ,ambassadeurs4 ,she soon won an immense vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from ,parisian lower-class life1 or from the humours of the ,latin ,quarter1 ,quatre z'etudiants and the ,hotel du numero trois being among her early triumphs4 ,her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long black gloves1 her studied simplicity of diction1 and her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with risque meaning1 made her famous4 ,she owed something to ,m4 ,xanrof1 who for a long time composed songs especially for her1 and perhaps still more to ,aristide ,bruant1 who wrote many of her argot songs4 ,she made successful tours in ,england1 ,germany and ,america1 and was in great request as an entertainer in private houses4 ,in #ahie she married ,dr ,m4 ,schiller4 ,in later years she discarded something of her earlier manner1 and sang songs of the pompadour and the crinoline period in costume4 ,she published the novels ,la ,vedette and ,les ,demi-vieilles1 both in #aijb4 ,,guildford1 a market town and municipal borough1 and the county town of ,surrey1 ,england1 in the ,guildford parliamentary division1 #bi m4 ,s4,w4 of ,london by the ,london and ,south ,western railway2 served also by the ,london1 ,brighton1 and ,south ,coast and the ,south ,eastern and ,chatham railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ae1ich4 ,it is beautifully situated on an acclivity of the northern chalk ,downs and on the river ,wey4 ,its older streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses1 with quaint lattices and curious doorways4 ,the ruins of a ,norman castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved2 while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden4 ,beneath the ,angel ,inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive vaults1 apparently of ,early ,english date1 and traditionally connected with the castle4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is ,norman and ,early ,english1 with later additions and considerably restored2 its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains many interesting details4 ,the church of ,st ,nicholas is a modern building on an ancient site1 and that of ,holy ,trinity is a brick structure of #agfc1 with later additions1 also on the site of an earlier church1 from which some of the monuments are preserved1 including that of ,archbishop ,abbot 7#afdj74 ,the town hall dates from #afhc and contains a number of interesting pictures4 ,other public buildings are the county hall1 corn-market and institute with museum and library4 ,abbot's ,hospital1 founded by ,archbishop ,abbot in #afai1 is a beautiful ,tudor brick building4 ,the county hospital 7#ahff7 was erected as a memorial to ,albert1 ,prince ,consort4 ,the ,royal ,free ,grammar ,school1 founded in #aeji1 and incorporated by ,edward ,,vi41 is an important school for boys4 ,at ,cranleigh1 #f m4 ,s4,e41 is a large middle-class county school4 ,the town has flour mills1 iron foundries and breweries1 and a large trade in grain2 while fairs are held for live stock4 ,there is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village of ,chilworth4 ,guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of ,winchester4 ,the borough is under a mayor1 #d aldermen and #ab councillors4 ,area1 #bfja acres4 ,guildford 7,gyldeford1 ,geldeford71 occurs among the possessions of ,king ,alfred1 and was a royal borough throughout the middle ages4 ,it probably owed its rise to its position at the junction of trade routes4 ,it is first mentioned as a borough in #aaca4 ,henry ,,iii4 granted a charter to the men of ,guildford in #abef1 by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout the kingdom1 and the privilege of having the county court held always in their town4 ,edward ,,iii4 granted charters to ,guildford in #acdj1 #acdf and #acfg2 ,henry ,,vi4 in #adbc2 ,henry ,,vii4 in #adhh4 ,elizabeth in #aehj confirmed earlier charters1 and other charters were granted in #afjc1 #afbf and #afhf4 ,the borough was incorporated in #adhf under the title of the mayor and good men of ,guildford4 ,during the middle ages the government of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild4 ,two members for ,guildford sat in the parliament of #abie1 and the borough continued to return two representatives until #ahfg when the number was reduced to one4 ,by the ,redistribution ,act of #ahhe ,guildford became merged in the county for electoral purposes4 ,edward ,,ii4 granted to the town the right of having two fairs1 at the feast of ,st ,matthew 7#bast of ,september7 and at ,trinity respectively4 ,henry ,,vii4 granted fairs on the feast of ,st ,martin 7#aath of ,november7 and ,st ,george 7#bcrd of ,april74 ,fairs in ,may for the sale of sheep and in ,november for the sale of cattle are still held4 ,the market rights date at least from #abgf1 and three weekly markets are still held for the sale of corn1 cattle and vegetables respectively4 ,the cloth trade which formed the staple industry at ,guildford in the middle ages is now extinct4 ,,guildhall1 the hall of the corporation of the city of ,london1 ,england4 ,it faces a courtyard opening out of ,gresham ,street4 ,the date of its original foundation is not known4 ,an ancient crypt remains1 but the hall has otherwise undergone much alteration4 ,it was rebuilt in #adaa1 beautified by the munificence of successive officials1 damaged in the ,great ,fire of #afff1 and restored in #aghi by ,george ,dance2 while the hall was again restored1 with a new roof1 in #ahgj4 ,this fine chamber1 #aeb ft4 in length1 is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments of the corporation1 and of the municipal meetings in common hall4 ,the building also contains a council chamber and various court rooms1 with a splendid library1 open to the public1 a museum and art gallery adjoining4 ,the hall contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood1 known as ,gog and ,magog4 ,these were set up in #agjh1 but the appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date4 ,,guilford1 ,,barons ,,and ,,earls ,,of4 ,,francis ,,north1 #ast ,baron ,guilford 7#afcg-afhe71 was the third son of the #dth ,baron ,north 7see ,,north1 ,,barons71 and was created ,baron ,guilford in #afhc1 after becoming lord keeper in succession to ,lord ,nottingham4 ,he had been an eminent lawyer1 solicitor-general 7#afga71 attorney-general 7#afgc71 and chief-justice of the common pleas 7#afge71 and in #afgi was made a member of the council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet4 ,he was a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist4 ,in #afgb he married ,lady ,frances ,pope1 daughter and co-heiress of the earl of ,downe1 who inherited the ,wroxton estate2 and he was succeeded as #bnd baron by his son ,francis 7#afgc-agbi71 whose eldest son ,francis 7#agjd-agij71 after inheriting first his father's title as #crd baron1 and then 7in #agcd7 the barony of ,north from his kinsman the #fth ,baron ,north1 was in #ageb created #ast earl of ,guilford4 ,his first wife was a daughter of the earl of ,halifax1 and his son and successor ,frederick was the ,english prime minister1 commonly known as ,lord ,north1 his courtesy title while the #ast earl was alive4 ,,frederick ,,north1 #bnd earl of ,guilford1 but better known by his courtesy title of ,lord ,north 7#agcb-agib71 prime minister of ,england during the important years of the ,american ,war1 was born on the #acth of ,april #agcb1 and after being educated at ,eton and ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 was sent to make the grand tour of the continent4 ,on his return he was1 though only twenty-two years of age1 at once elected ,m4,p4 for ,banbury1 of which town his father was high steward2 and he sat for the same town in parliament for nearly forty years4 ,in #agei he was chosen by the duke of ,newcastle to be a lord of the treasury1 and continued in the same office under ,lord ,bute and ,george ,grenville till #agfe4 ,he had shown himself such a ready debater that on the fall of the first ,rockingham ministry in #agff he was sworn of the privy council1 and made paymaster-general by the duke of ,grafton4 ,his reputation for ability grew so high that in ,december #agfg1 on the death of the brilliant ,charles ,townshend1 he was made chancellor of the exchequer4 ,his popularity with both the ,house of ,commons and the people continued to increase1 for his temper was never ruffled1 and his quiet humour perpetually displayed2 and1 when the retirement of the duke of ,grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the attacks of ,junius1 no better successor could be found for the premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer4 ,lord ,north succeeded the duke in ,march #aggj1 and continued in office for twelve of the most eventful years in ,english history4 ,george ,,iii4 had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great ,whig families1 under which he had so long groaned1 and determined to govern as well as rule4 ,he knew that he could only govern by obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes1 and this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage4 ,but in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would consent to act as his lieutenant1 and such a minister he found in ,lord ,north4 ,how a man of undoubted ability such as ,lord ,north was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere instrument cannot be explained2 but the confidential tone of the king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy between them1 which may account for ,north's compliance4 ,the path of the minister in parliament was a hard one2 he had to defend measures which he had not designed1 and of which he had not approved1 and this too in a ,house of ,commons in which all the oratorical ability of ,burke and ,fox was against him1 and when he had only the purchased help of ,thurlow and ,wedderburne to aid him4 ,the most important events of his ministry were those of the ,american ,war of ,independence4 ,he cannot be accused of causing it1 but one of his first acts was the retention of the tea-duty1 and he it was also who introduced the ,boston ,port ,bill in #aggd4 ,when the war had broken out he earnestly counselled peace1 and it was only the earnest solicitations of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy of the ,whigs that induced him to defend a war which from #aggi he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic4 ,at last1 in ,march #aghb1 he insisted on resigning after the news of ,cornwallis's surrender at ,yorktown1 and no man left office more blithely4 ,he had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king3 his children had good sinecures2 his half-brother1 ,brownlow ,north 7#agda-ahbj71 was bishop of ,winchester2 he himself was chancellor of the university of ,oxford1 lord-lieutenant of the county of ,somerset1 and had finally been made a knight of the ,garter1 an honour which has only been conferred on three other members of the ,house of ,commons1 ,sir ,r4 ,walpole1 ,lord ,castlereagh and ,lord ,palmerston4 ,lord ,north did not remain long out of office1 but in ,april #aghc formed his famous coalition with his old subordinate1 ,c4 ,j4 ,fox 7q4v471 and became secretary of state with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of ,portland4 ,he was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king1 and was not a mere royal mouthpiece4 ,the coalition ministry went out of office on ,fox's ,india ,bill in ,december #aghc1 and ,lord ,north1 who was losing his sight1 then finally gave up political ambition4 ,he played1 when quite blind1 a somewhat important part in the debates on the ,regency ,bill in #aghi1 and in the next year succeeded his father as earl of ,guilford4 ,he did not long survive his elevation1 and died peacefully on the #eth of ,august #agib4 ,it is impossible to consider ,lord ,north a great statesman1 but he was a most good-tempered and humorous member of the ,house of ,commons4 ,in a time of unexampled party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most bitter opponents4 ,burke finely sums up his character in his ,letter to a ,noble ,lord3 ,he was a man of admirable parts1 of general knowledge1 of a versatile understanding1 fitted for every sort of business2 of infinite wit and pleasantry1 of a delightful temper1 and with a mind most disinterested4 ,but it would be only to degrade myself1 he continues1 by a weak adulation1 and not to honour the memory of a great man1 to deny that he wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which the times required4 ,by his wife ,anne 7d4 #agig71 daughter of ,george ,speke of ,white ,lackington1 ,somerset1 ,guilford had four sons1 the eldest of whom1 ,george ,augustus 7#ageg-ahjb71 became #crd earl on his father's death4 ,this earl was a member of parliament from #aggh to #agib and was a member of his father's ministry and also of the royal household2 he left no sons when he died on the #bjth of ,april #ahjb and was succeeded in the earldom by his brother ,francis 7#agfa-ahag71 who also left no sons4 ,the youngest brother1 ,frederick 7#agff-ahbg71 who now became #eth earl of ,guilford1 was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of ,greece and of the ,greek language4 ,he had a good deal to do with the foundation of the ,ionian university at ,corfu1 of which he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal4 ,guilford1 who was governor of ,ceylon from #agih to #ahje1 died unmarried on the #adth of ,october #ahbg4 ,his cousin1 ,francis 7#aggb-ahfa71 a son of ,brownlow ,north1 bishop of ,winchester from #agha to #ahbj1 was the #fth earl1 and the latter's descendant1 ,frederick ,george 7b4 #ahgf71 became #hth earl in #ahhf4 ,on the death of the #crd earl of ,guilford in #ahjb the barony of ,north fell into abeyance between his three daughters1 the survivor of whom1 ,susan 7#agig-ahhd74 wife of ,john ,sidney ,doyle1 who took the name of ,north1 was declared by the ,house of ,lords in #ahda to be ,baroness ,north1 and the title passed to her son1 ,william ,henry ,john ,north1 the #aath baron 7b4 #ahcf7 7see ,,north1 ,,barons74 ,for the ,lord ,keeper ,guilford see the ,lives by the ,hon4 ,r4 ,north1 edited by ,a4 ,jessopp 7#ahij72 and ,e4 ,foss1 ,the ,judges of ,england1 vol4 vii4 7#ahdh-ahfd74 ,for the prime minister1 ,lord ,north1 see ,correspondence of ,george ,,iii4 with ,lord ,north1 edited by ,w4 ,b4 ,donne 7#ahfg72 ,horace ,walpole1 ,journal of the ,reign of ,george ,,iii4 7#ahei71 and ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,george ,,iii41 edited by ,g4 ,f4 ,r4 ,barker 7#ahid72 ,lord ,brougham1 ,historical ,sketches of ,statesmen1 vol4 i4 7#ahci72 ,earl ,stanhope1 ,history of ,england 7#aheh72 ,sir ,t4 ,e4 ,may1 ,constitutional ,history of ,england 7#ahfc-ahfe72 and ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,history of ,england in the #ahth century 7#ahgh-ahij74 ,,guilford1 a township1 including a borough of the same name1 in ,new ,haven county1 ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,long ,island ,sound and at the mouth of the ,menunkatuck or ,west river1 about #af m4 ,e4 by ,s4 of ,new ,haven4 ,pop4 of the township1 including the borough 7#aijj71 #bghe1 of whom #chg were foreign-born2 7#aiaj7 #cjja2 pop4 of the borough 7#aiaj71 #afjh4 ,the borough is served by the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railroad4 ,on a plain is the borough green of nearly #ab acres1 which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees1 and in which there is a soldiers' monument4 ,about the green are several churches and some of the better residences4 ,on an eminence commanding a fine view of the ,sound is an old stone house1 erected in #afci for a parsonage1 meeting-house and fortification2 it was made a state museum in #ahih1 when extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its original appearance4 ,the ,point of ,rocks1 in the harbour1 is an attractive resort during the summer season4 ,there are about #ab ft4 of water on the harbour bar at high tide4 ,the principal industries of ,guilford are coastwise trade1 the manufacture of iron castings1 brass castings1 wagon wheels and school furniture1 and the canning of vegetables4 ,near the coast are quarries of fine granite2 the stone for the pedestal of the ,statue of ,liberty on ,bedloe's ,island1 in ,new ,york ,harbour1 was taken from them4 ,guilford was founded ,in #afci as an independent colony by a company of twenty-five or more families from ,kent1 ,surrey and ,sussex1 ,england1 under the leadership of ,rev4 ,henry ,whitfield 7#aeig-afeg74 ,while still on shipboard twenty-five members of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to establish4 ,arriving at ,new ,haven early in ,july #afci1 they soon began negotiations with the ,indians for the purchase of land1 and on the #bith of ,september a deed was signed by which the ,indians conveyed to them the territory between ,east ,river and ,stony ,creek for #ab coates1 #ab ,fathoms of ,wampam1 #ab glasses 7mirrors71 #ab payer of shooes1 #ab ,hatchetts1 #ab paire of ,stockings1 #ab ,hooes1 #d kettles1 #ab knives1 #ab ,hatts1 #ab ,porringers1 #ab spoones1 and #b ,english coates4 ,other purchases of land from the ,indians were made later4 ,before the close of the year the company removed from ,new ,haven and established the new colony2 it was known by the ,indian name ,menuncatuck for about four years and the name ,guilford 7from ,guildford1 ,england7 was then substituted4 ,as a provisional arrangement1 civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a church should be organized4 ,this was postponed until #afdc when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should become a member of the ,new ,haven ,jurisdiction1 and then only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were the church and church state modelled after those of ,new ,haven4 ,even then1 though suffrage was restricted to church members1 ,guilford planters who were not church members were required to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections to any proposed order or law4 ,from #affa until the absorption of the members of the ,new ,haven ,jurisdiction by ,connecticut1 in #affd1 ,william ,leete 7#afaa-afhc71 one of the founders of ,guilford1 was governor of the ,jurisdiction1 and under his leadership ,guilford took a prominent part in furthering the submission to ,connecticut1 which did away with the church state and the restriction of suffrage to freemen4 ,guilford was the birthplace of ,fitz-,greene ,halleck 7#agij-ahfg71 the poet2 of ,samuel ,johnson 7#afif-agga71 the first president of ,king's ,college 7now ,columbia ,university72 of ,abraham ,baldwin 7#aged-ahjg71 prominent as a statesman and the founder of the ,university of ,georgia2 and of ,thomas ,chittenden1 the first governor of ,vermont4 ,the borough was incorporated in #ahae4 ,see ,b4 ,c4 ,steiner1 ,a ,history of the ,plantation of ,menunca-,tuck and of the ,original ,town of ,guilford1 ,connecticut 7,baltimore1 #ahig71 and ,proceedings at the ,celebration of the #bejth ,anniversary of the ,settlement of ,guilford1 ,connecticut 7,new ,haven1 #ahhi74 ,,guillaume1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,claude ,,eugene 7#ahbb-aije71 ,french sculptor1 was born at ,montbard on the #dth of ,july #ahbb1 and studied under ,cavelier1 ,millet1 and ,barrias1 at the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 which he entered in #ahda1 and where he gained the prix de ,rome in #ahde with ,theseus finding on a rock his ,father's ,sword4 ,he became director of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts in #ahfd1 and director-general of ,fine ,arts from #ahgh to #ahgi1 when the office was suppressed4 ,many of his works have been bought for public galleries1 and his monuments are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of ,france4 ,at ,rheims there is his bronze statue of ,colbert1 at ,dijon his ,rameau monument4 ,the ,luxembourg ,museum has his ,anacreon 7#aheb71 ,les ,gracques 7#ahec71 ,faucheur 7#ahee71 and the marble bust of ,mgr ,darboy2 the ,versailles ,museum the portrait of ,thiers2 the ,sorbonne ,library the marble bust of ,victor le ,clerc1 doyen de la faculte des lettres4 ,other works of his are at ,trinity ,church1 ,st ,germain l',auxerrois1 and the church of ,st ,clotilde1 ,paris4 ,guillaume was a prolific writer1 principally on sculpture and architecture of the ,classic period and of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,he was elected member of the ,academie ,francaise in #ahfb1 and in #ahia was sent to ,rome as director of the ,academie de ,france in that city4 ,he was also elected an honorary member of the ,royal ,academy1 ,london1 #ahfi1 on the institution of that class4 ,,guillaume ,,de ,,lorris 7fl4 #abcj71 the author of the earlier section of the ,roman de la rose1 derives his surname from a small town about equidistant from ,montargis and ,gien1 in the present department of ,loiret4 ,this and the fact of his authorship may be said to be the only things positively known about him4 ,the rubric of the poem1 where his own part finishes1 attributes ,jean de ,meun's continuation to a period forty years later than ,william's death and the consequent interruption of the romance4 ,arguing backwards1 this death used to be put at about #abfj2 but ,jean de ,meun's own work has recently been dated earlier1 and so the composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period before #abdj4 ,the author represents himself as having dreamed the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his twentieth year1 and as having set to work to rhyme it five years later4 ,the later and longer part of the ,roman shows signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the earlier and shorter1 but ,guillaume de ,lorris is to all appearance more original4 ,the great features of his four or five thousand lines are1 in the first place1 the extraordinary vividness and beauty of his word-pictures1 in which for colour1 freshness and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest masters1 and1 secondly1 the fashion of allegorical presentation1 which1 hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became1 was evidently in his time new and striking4 ,there are of course traces of it before1 as in some romances1 such as those of ,raoul de ,houdenc1 in the troubadours1 and in other writers2 but it was unquestionably ,guillaume de ,lorris who fixed the style4 ,for an attempt to identify ,guillaume de ,lorris see ,l4 ,jarry1 ,guillaume de ,lorris et le testament d',alphonse de ,poitiers 7#ahha74 ,also ,paulin ,paris in the ,hist4 litt4 de la ,france1 vol4 xxiii4 ,,guillaume ,,de ,,palerme 7,,william ,,of ,,palerne71 hero of romance4 ,the ,french verse romance was written at the desire of a ,countess ,yolande1 generally identified with ,yolande1 daughter of ,baldwin ,,iv41 count of ,flanders4 ,the ,english poem in alliterative verse was written about #acej by a poet called ,william1 at the desire of ,humphrey ,bohun1 earl of ,hereford1 7d4 #acfa74 ,guillaume1 a foundling supposed to be of low degree1 is brought up at the court of the emperor of ,rome1 and loves his daughter ,melior who is destined for a ,greek prince4 ,the lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins4 ,alfonso1 who is ,guillaume's cousin and a ,spanish prince1 has been changed into a wolf by his step-mother's enchantments4 ,he provides food and protection for the fugitives1 and ,guillaume eventually triumphs over ,alfonso's father1 and wins back from him his kingdom4 ,the benevolent werwolf is disenchanted1 and marries ,guillaume's sister4 ,see ,guillaume de ,palerne1 ed4 ,h4 ,michelant 7,soc4 d4 anc4 textes fr41 #ahgf72 ,hist4 litt4 de la ,france1 xxii4 #hbi2 ,william of ,palerme1 ed4 ,sir ,f4 ,madden 7,roxburghe ,club1 #ahcb71 and ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat 7,e4 ,e4 ,text ,soc41 extra series ,no4 #a1 #ahfg72 ,m4 ,kaluza1 in ,eng4 ,studien 7,heilbronn1 iv4 #aif74 ,the prose version of the ,french romance1 printed by ,n4 ,bonfons1 passed through several editions4 ,,guillaume ,d',,orange 7d4 #hab71 also known as ,guillaume ,fierabrace1 ,st ,guillaume de ,gellone1 and the ,marquis au court nez1 was the central figure of the southern cycle of ,french romance1 called by the trouveres the geste of ,garin de ,monglane4 ,the cycle of ,guillaume has more unity than the other great cycles of ,charlemagne or of ,doon de ,mayence1 the various poems which compose it forming branches of the main story rather than independent epic poems4 ,there exist numerous cyclic ,,mss4 in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous histoire poetique of ,guillaume and his family4 ,,ms4 ,royal #bj ,d xi4 in the ,british ,museum contains eighteen chansons of the cycle4 ,guillaume1 son of ,thierry or ,theodoric and of ,alde1 daughter of ,charles ,martel1 was born in the north of ,france about the middle of the #hth century4 ,he became one of the best soldiers and trusted counsellors of ,charlemagne1 and ,in #gij was made count of ,toulouse1 when ,charles's son ,louis the ,pious was put under his charge4 ,he subdued the ,gascons1 and defended ,narbonne against the infidels4 ,in #gic ,hescham1 the successor of ,abd-al-,rahman ,,ii41 proclaimed a holy war against the ,christians1 and collected an army of #ajj1jjj men1 half of which was directed against the kingdom of the ,asturias1 while the second invaded ,france1 penetrating as far as ,narbonne4 ,guillaume met the invaders near the river ,orbieux1 at ,villedaigne1 where he was defeated1 but only after an obstinate resistance which so far exhausted the ,saracens that they were compelled to retreat to ,spain4 ,he took ,barcelona from the ,saracens in #hjc1 and in the next year founded the monastery of ,gellone 7now ,saint ,guilhem-le ,desert71 of which he became a member in #hjf4 ,he died there in the odour of sanctity on the #bhth of ,may #hab4 ,no less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name of ,william 7,guillaume7 have been thought by various critics to have their share in the formation of the legend4 ,william1 count of ,provence1 son of ,boso ,,ii41 again delivered southern ,france from a ,saracen invasion by his victory at ,fraxinet in #igc1 and ended his life in a cloister4 ,william ,tow-head 7,tete d'etoupe71 duke of ,aquitaine 7d4 #ihc71 showed a fidelity to ,louis ,,iv4 paralleled by ,guillaume d',orange's service to ,louis the ,pious4 ,the cycle of twenty or more chansons which form the geste of ,guillaume reposes on the traditions of the ,arab invasions of the south of ,france1 from the battle of ,poitiers 7#gcb7 under ,charles ,martel onwards1 and on the ,french conquest of ,catalonia from the ,saracens4 ,in the ,norse version of the ,carolingian epic ,guillaume appears in his proper historical environment1 as a chief under ,charlemagne2 but he plays a leading part in the ,couronnement ,looys1 describing the formal associations of ,louis the ,pious in the empire at ,aix 7#hac1 the year after ,guillaume's death71 and after the battle of ,aliscans it is from the emperor ,louis that he seeks reinforcements4 ,this anachronism arises from the fusion of the epic ,guillaume with the champion of ,louis ,,iv41 and from the fact that he was the military and civil chief of ,louis the ,pious1 who was titular king of ,aquitaine under his father from the time when he was three years old4 ,the inconsistencies between the real and the epic ,guillaume are often left standing in the poems4 ,the personages associated with ,guillaume in his ,spanish wars belong to ,provence1 and have names common in the south4 ,the most famous of these are ,beuves de ,comarchis1 ,ernaud de ,girone1 ,garin d',anseun1 ,aimer le chetif1 so called from his long captivity with the ,saracens4 ,the separate existence of ,aimer1 who refused to sleep under a roof1 and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel1 is proved4 ,he was ,hadhemar1 count of ,narbonne1 who in #hji and #haj was one of the leaders sent by ,louis against ,tortosa4 ,no doubt the others had historical prototypes4 ,in the hands of the trouveres they became all brothers of ,guillaume1 and sons of ,aymeri de ,narbonne1#a the grandson of ,garin de ,monglane1 and his wife ,ermenjart4 ,nevertheless when ,guillaume seeks help from ,louis the emperor he finds all his relations in ,laon1 in accordance with his historic ,frankish origin4 ,the central fact of the geste of ,guillaume is the battle of the ,archamp or ,aliscans1 in which perished ,guillaume's heroic nephew1 ,vezian or ,vivien1 a second ,roland4 ,at the eleventh hour he summoned ,guillaume to his help against the overwhelming forces of the ,saracens4 ,guillaume arrived too late to help ,vivien1 was himself defeated1 and returned alone to his wife ,guibourc1 leaving his knights all dead or prisoners4 ,this event is related in a ,norman-,french transcript of an old ,french chanson de geste1 the ,chancun de ,willame--which only was brought to light in #aija at the sale of the books of ,sir ,henry ,hope ,edwardes--in the ,covenant ,vivien1 a recension of an older ,french chanson and in ,aliscans4 ,aliscans continues the story1 telling how ,guillaume obtained reinforcements from ,laon1 and how1 with the help of the comic hero1 the scullion ,rainouart or ,rennewart1 he avenged the defeat of ,aliscans and his nephew's death4 ,rainouart turns out to be the brother of ,guillaume's wife ,guibourc1 who was before her marriage the ,saracen princess and enchantress ,orable4 ,two other poems are consecrated to his later exploits1 ,la ,bataille ,loquifer1 the work of a ,french ,sicilian poet1 ,jendeu de ,brie 7fl4 #aagj71 and ,le ,moniage ,rainouart4 ,the staring-point of ,herbert le duc of ,dammartin 7fl4 #aagj7 in ,foucon de ,candie 7,candie,gandia in ,spain87 is the return of ,guillaume from the battle2 and the ,italian compilation ,i ,nerbonesi1 based on these and other chansons1 seems in some cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the ,french chansons1 although its author ,andrea di ,barberino wrote towards the end of the #adth century4 ,the minnesinger ,wolfram von ,eschenbach based his ,willehalm on a ,french original which must have differed from the versions we have4 ,the variations in the story of the defeat of ,aliscans or the ,archant1 and the numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered separately have occupied many critics4 ,aliscans 7,aleschans1 ,alyscamps1 ,elysii ,campi7 was1 however1 generally taken to represent the battle of ,villedaigne1 and to take its name from the famous cemetery outside ,arles4 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle4 ,indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not lacking before the discovery of the ,chancun de ,willame1 which1 although preserved in a very corrupt form1 represents the earliest recension we have of the story1 dating at least from the beginning of the #abth century4 ,it seems probable that the ,archant was situated in ,spain near ,vivien's headquarters at ,tortosa1 and that ,guillaume started from ,barcelona1 not from ,orange1 to his nephew's help4 ,the account of the disaster was modified by successive trouveres1 and the uncertainty of their methods may be judged by the fact that in the ,chancun de ,willame two consecutive accounts 7#aa4 #dej-acbf and #aa4 #acbf-bdbj7 of the fight appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes4 ,le ,couronnement ,looys1 already mentioned1 ,le ,charroi de ,nimes 7#abth century7 in which ,guillaume1 who had been forgotten in the distribution of fiefs1 enumerates his services to the terrified ,louis1 and ,aliscans 7#abth century71 with the earlier ,chancun1 are among the finest of the ,french epic poems4 ,the figure of ,vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the trouveres1 and the giant ,rainouart has more than a touch of ,rabelaisian humour4 ,the chansons de geste of the cycle of ,guillaume are3 ,enfances ,garin de ,monglane 7#aeth century7 and ,garin de ,monglane 7#acth century71 on which is founded the prose romance of ,guerin de ,monglane1 printed in the #aeth century by ,jehan ,trepperel and often later2 ,girars de ,viane 7#acth century1 by ,bertrand de ,bar-sur-,aube71 ed4 ,p4 ,tarbe 7,reims1 #ahej72 ,hernaut de ,beaulande 7fragment #adth century72 ,renier de ,gennes1 which only survives in its prose form2 ,aymeri de ,narbonne 7c4 #abaj7 by ,bertrand de ,bar-sur-,aube1 ed4 ,l4 ,demaison 7,soc4 des anc4 textes fr41 ,paris1 #b vols41 #ahhg72 ,les ,enfances ,guillaume 7#acth century72 ,les ,narbonnais1 ed4 ,h4 ,suchier 7,soc4 des anc4 textes fr41 #b vols41 #ahih71 with a ,latin fragment dating from the #aath century1 preserved at the ,hague2 ,le ,couronnement ,looys 7ed4 ,e4 ,langlois1 #ahhh71 ,le ,charroi de ,nimes1 ,la ,prise d',orange1 ,le ,covenant ,vivien1 ,aliscans1 which were edited by ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,jonckbloet in vol4 i4 of his ,guillaume d',orange 7,the ,hague1 #ahed72 a critical text of ,aliscans 7,halle1 #aijc1 vol4 i47 is edited by ,e4 ,wienbeck1 ,w4 ,hartnacke and ,p4 ,rasch2 ,loquifer and ,le ,moniage ,rainouart 7#abth century72 ,bovon de ,commarchis 7#acth century71 recension of the earlier ,siege de ,barbastre1 by ,adenes li ,rois1 ed4 ,a4 ,scheler 7,brussels1 #ahgd72 ,guibert d',andrenas 7#acth century72 ,la ,prise de ,cordres 7#acth century72 ,la ,mort ,aimeri de ,narbonne1 ed4 ,j4 ,couraye de ,parc 7,soc4 des ,anciens ,textes francais1 ,paris1 #ahhd72 ,foulque de ,candie 7ed4 ,p4 ,tarbe1 ,reims1 #ahfj72 ,le ,moniage ,guillaume 7#abth century72 ,les ,enfances ,vivien 7ed4 ,c4 ,wahlund and ,h4 v4 ,feilitzen1 ,upsala and ,paris1 #ahie72 ,chancun de ,willame 7,chiswick ,press1 #aijc71 described by ,p4 ,meyer in ,romania 7xxxiii4 #eig-fah74 ,the ninth branch of the ,karlamagnus ,saga 7ed4 ,c4 ,r4 ,unger1 ,christiania1 #ahfj7 deals with the geste of ,guillaume4 ,i ,nerbonesi is edited by ,j4 ,g4 ,isola 7,bologna1 #ahgg1 c474 ,see ,c4 ,revillout1 ,etude hist4 et litt4 sur la vita sancti ,willelmi 7,montpellier1 #ahgf72 ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,jonckbloet1 ,guillaume d',orange 7#b vols41 #ahed1 ,the ,hague72 ,l4 ,clarus 7ps4 for ,w4 ,volk71 ,herzog ,wilhelm von ,aquitanien 7,munster1 #ahfe72 ,p4 ,paris1 in ,hist4 litt4 de la ,france 7vol4 xxii41 #aheb72 ,l4 ,gautier1 ,epopees francaises 7vol4 iv41 #bnd ed41 #ahhb72 ,r4 ,weeks1 ,the newly discovered ,chancun de ,willame 7,chicago1 #aijd72 ,a4 ,thomas1 ,etudes romanes 7,paris1 #ahia71 on ,vivien2 ,l4 ,saltet1 ,s4 ,vidian de ,martres-,tolosanes in ,bull4 de litt4 eccles4 7,toulouse1 #aijb72 ,p4 ,becker1 ,die altfrz4 ,wilhelmsage u4 ihre ,beziehung zu ,wilhelm dem ,heiligen 7,halle1 #ahif71 and ,der sudfranzosische ,sagenkreis und seine ,probleme 7,halle1 #ahih72 ,a4 ,jeanroy1 ,etudes sur le cycle de ,guillaume au court nez 7in ,romania1 vols4 #be and #bf1 #ahif-ahig72 ,h4 ,suchier1 ,recherches sur 444 ,guillaume d',orange 7in ,romania1 vol4 #cb1 #aijc74 ,the conclusions arrived at by earlier writers are combated by ,joseph ,bedier in the first volume1 ,le ,cycle de ,guillaume d',orange 7#aijh71 of his ,legendes epiques1 in which he constructs a theory that the cycle of ,guillaume d',orange grew up round the various shrines on the pilgrim route to ,saint ,gilles of ,provence and ,saint ,james of ,compostella--that the chansons de geste were1 in fact1 the product of #aath and #abth century trouveres1 exploiting local ecclesiastical traditions1 and were not developed from earlier poems dating back perhaps to the lifetime of ,guillaume of ,toulouse1 the saint of ,gellone4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the poem of ,aymeri de ,narbonne contains the account of the young ,aymeri's brilliant capture of ,narbonne1 which he then receives as a fief from ,charlemagne1 of his marriage with ,ermenjart1 sister of ,boniface1 king of the ,lombards1 and of their children4 ,the fifth daughter1 ,blanchefleur1 is represented as the wife of ,louis the ,pious4 ,the opening of this poem furnished1 though indirectly1 the matter of the ,aymerillot of ,victor ,hugo's ,legende des siecles4 ,,guillemot 7,fr4 guillemot#a71 the name accepted by nearly all modern authors for a sea-bird1 the ,colymbus troile of ,linnaeus and the ,uria troile of ,latham1 which nowadays it seems seldom if ever to bear among those who1 from their vocation1 are most conversant with it1 though1 according to ,willughby and ,ray his translator1 it was in their time so called by those of ,northumberland and ,durham4 ,around the coasts of ,britain it is variously known as the frowl1 kiddaw or skiddaw1 langy 7cf4 ,ice4 ,langvia71 lavy1 marrock1 murre1 scout 7cf4 ,,coot71 scuttock1 strany1 tinker or tinkershire and willock4 ,in former days the guillemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts of the ,british coasts in countless multitudes1 and this is still the case in the northern parts of the ,united ,kingdom2 but more to the southward nearly all its smaller settlements have been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruction of their tenants during the breeding season1 and even the inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so thinned that1 but for the intervention of the ,sea ,birds ,preservation ,act 7#cb #cc ,vict4 cap4 #ag71 which provided under penalty for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of year when they were most exposed to danger1 they would unquestionably by this time have been exterminated so far as ,england is concerned4 ,part of the guillemot's history is still little understood4 ,we know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its accustomed day in spring1 that it remains there till1 towards the end of the summer1 its young are hatched and able1 as they soon are1 to encounter the perils of a seafaring life1 when away go all1 parents and progeny4 ,after that time it commonly happens that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow waters4 ,tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large number in a state of utter destitution--many of them indeed are not unfrequently washed up dead--but what becomes of the bulk of the birds1 not merely the comparatively few thousands that are natives of ,britain1 but the tens and hundreds of thousands1 not to say millions1 that are in summer denizens of more northern latitudes1 no one can say4 ,this mystery is not peculiar to the guillemot1 but is shared by all the ,alcidae that inhabit the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,examples stray every season across the ,bay of ,biscay1 are found off the coasts of ,spain and ,portugal1 enter the ,mediterranean and reach ,italian waters1 or1 keeping farther south1 may even touch the ,madeiras1 ,canaries or ,azores2 but these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom they are literally the scouts1 and whose position and movements they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well-appointed army4 ,the common guillemot of both sides of the ,atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter bill1 the ,u4 arra or ,u4 bruennichi of ornithologists1 and on the west coast of ,north ,america by the ,u4 californica4 ,the habits of all these are essentially the same1 and the structural resemblance between all of them and the ,auks is so great that several systematists have relegated them to the genus ,alca1 confining the genus ,uria to the guillemots of another group1 of which the type is the ,u4 grylla1 the black guillemot of ,british authors1 the dovekey or ,greenland dove of sailors1 the tysty of ,shetlanders4 ,this bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with the exception of a white patch on each wing1 while in winter it is beautifully marbled with white and black4 ,allied to it as species or geographical races are the ,u4 mandti1 ,u4 columba and ,u4 carbo4 ,all these differ from the larger guillemots by laying two or three eggs1 which are generally placed in some secure niche1 while the members of the other group lay but a single egg1 which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnote3 #a ,the word1 however1 seems to be cognate with or derived from the ,welsh and ,manx ,guillem1 or ,gwilym as ,pennant spells it4 ,the association may have no real meaning1 but one cannot help comparing the resemblance between the ,french guillemot and ,guillaume with that between the ,english willock 7another name for the bird7 and ,william4 ,,guilloche1 a ,french word for an ornament1 either painted or carved1 which was one of the principal decorative bands employed by the ,greeks in their temples or on their vases4 ,guilloches are single1 double or triple2 they consist of a series of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band which winds round them and interlaces4 ,this guilloche is of ,asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the ,assyrian palaces1 where it was probably copied from ,chaldaean work1 as there is an early example at ,erech which dates from the time of ,gudea 7#bbid ,b4,c474 ,the ornament as painted by the ,greeks has almost entirely disappeared1 but traces are found in the temple of ,nemesis at ,rhamnus2 and on the terra-cotta slabs by which the timber roofs of ,greek temples were protected1 it is painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first produced1 those of the ,treasury of ,gela at ,olympia being of great beauty4 ,these examples are double guilloches1 with two rows of circles1 each with an independent interlacing band and united by a small arc with palmette inside2 in both the single and double guilloches of ,greek work there is a flower in the centre of the circles4 ,in the triple guilloche1 the centre row of circles comes half-way between the others1 and the enclosing band crosses diagonally both ways1 interlacing alternately4 ,the best example of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding of the base and on the small convex moulding above the echinus of the capitals of the columns of the ,erechtheum at ,athens4 ,it was largely employed in ,roman work1 and the single guilloche is found almost universally as a border in mosaic pavements1 not only in ,italy but throughout ,europe4 ,in the ,renaissance in ,italy it was also a favourite enrichment for borders and occasionally in ,france and ,england4 ,,guillon1 ,,marie ,,nicolas ,,sylvestre 7#agfj-ahdg71 ,french ecclesiastic1 was born in ,paris on the #ast of ,january #agfj4 ,he was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de ,lamballe1 and when in #agib she was executed1 he fled to the provinces1 where under the name of ,pastel he practised medicine4 ,a man of facile conscience1 he afterwards served in turn under ,napoleon1 the ,bourbons and the ,orleanists1 and became canon of ,st ,denis1 bishop of ,morocco and dean of the ,sorbonne4 ,among his many literary works are a ,collection des brefs du pape ,pie ,,vi 7#agih71 ,bibliotheque choisie des peres grecs et latins 7#ahbb1 #bf vols47 and a ,french translation of ,cyprian with notes 7#ahcg1 #b vols474 ,,guillotine1 the instrument for inflicting capital punishment by decapitation1 introduced into ,france at the period of the ,revolution4 ,it consists of two upright posts surmounted by a cross beam1 and grooved so as to guide an oblique-edged knife1 the back of which is heavily weighted to make it fall swiftly and with force when the cord by which it is held aloft is let go4 ,some ascribe the invention of the machine to the ,persians2 and previous to the period when it obtained notoriety under its present name it had been in use in ,scotland1 ,england and various parts of the continent4 ,there is still preserved ,in the antiquarian museum of ,edinburgh the rude guillotine called the maiden by which the regent ,morton was decapitated in #aeha4 ,the last persons decapitated by the ,scottish maiden were the marquis of ,argyll in #affa and his son the earl of ,argyll in #afhe4 ,it would appear that no similar machine was ever in general use in ,england2 but until #afej there existed in the forest of ,hardwick1 which was coextensive with the parish of ,halifax1 ,west ,riding1 ,yorkshire1 a mode of trial and execution called the gibbet law1 by which a felon convicted of theft within the liberty was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called the ,halifax gibbet4 ,a print of it is contained in a small book called ,halifax and its ,gibbet ,law 7#agjh71 and in ,gibson's edition of ,camden's ,britannia 7#agbb74 ,in ,germany the machine was in general use during the middle ages1 under the name of the ,diele1 the ,hobel or the ,dolabra4 ,two old ,german engravings1 the one by ,george ,penez1 who died in #aeej1 and the other by ,heinrich ,aldegrever1 with the date #aeec1 represent the death of a son of ,titus ,manlius by a similar instrument1 and its employment for the execution of a ,spartan is the subject of the engraving of the eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled ,symbolicae quaestiones de universo genere1 by ,achilles ,bocchi 7#aeee74 ,from the #acth century it was used in ,italy under the name of ,mannaia for the execution of criminals of noble birth4 ,the ,chronique de ,jean d',anton1 first published in #ahce1 gives minute details of an execution in which it was employed at ,genoa in #aejg2 and it is elaborately described by ,pere ,jean ,baptiste ,labat in his ,voyage en ,espagne et en ,italie en #agcj4 ,it is mentioned by ,jacques1 viscomte de ,puysegur1 in his ,memoires as in use in the south of ,france1 and he describes the execution by it of ,marshal ,montmorency at ,toulouse in #afcb4 ,for about a century it had1 however1 fallen into general disuse on the continent2 and ,dr ,guillotine1 who first suggested its use in modern times1 is said to have obtained his information regarding it from the description of an execution that took place at ,milan in #agjb1 contained in an anonymous work entitled ,voyage historique et politique de ,suisse1 d',italie1 et d',allemagne4 ,guillotine1 who was born at ,saintes1 ,may #bh1 #agch1 and elected to the ,constituent ,assembly in #aghi1 brought forward on the #ast ,december of that year two propositions regarding capital punishment1 the second of which was that1 in all cases of capital punishment it shall be of the same kind--that is1 decapitation--and it shall be executed by means of a machine4 ,the reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in cases of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation should no longer be confined to the nobles1 and that it was desirable to render the process of execution as swift and painless as possible4 ,the debate was brought to a sudden termination in peals of laughter caused by an indiscreet reference of ,dr ,guillotine to his machine1 but his ideas seem gradually to have leavened the minds of the ,assembly1 and after various debates decapitation was adopted as the method of execution in the penal code which became law on the #fth ,october #agia4 ,at first it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword1 but on account of a memorandum by ,m4 ,sanson1 the executioner1 pointing out the expense and certain other inconveniences attending that method1 the ,assembly referred the question to a committee1 at whose request ,dr ,antoine ,louis1 secretary to the ,academy of ,surgeons1 prepared a memorandum on the subject4 ,without mentioning the name of ,guillotine1 it recommended the adoption of an instrument similar to that which was formerly suggested by him4 ,the ,assembly decided in favour of the report1 and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided the instruments of justice2 but1 as his terms were considered exorbitant1 an agreement was ultimately come to with a ,german of the name of ,schmidt1 who1 under the direction of ,m4 ,louis1 furnished a machine for each of the ,french departments4 ,after satisfactory experiments had been made with the machine on several dead bodies in the hospital of ,bicetre1 it was erected on the ,place de ,greve for the execution of the highwayman ,pelletier on the #beth ,april #agib4 ,while the experiments regarding the machine were being carried on1 it received the name ,louisette or ,la ,petite ,louison1 but the mind of the nation seems soon to have reverted to ,guillotine1 who first suggested its use2 and in the ,journal des revolutions de ,paris for #bhth ,april #agib it is mentioned as la guillotine1 a name which it thenceforth bore both popularly and officially4 ,in #agie the question was much debated as to whether or not death by the guillotine was instantaneous1 and in support of the negative side the case of ,charlotte ,corday was adduced whose countenance1 it is said1 blushed as if with indignation when the executioner1 holding up the head to the public gaze1 struck it with his fist4 ,the connexion of the instrument with the horrors of the ,revolution has hindered its introduction into other countries1 but in #ahec it was adopted under the name of ,fallschwert or ,fallbeil by the kingdom of ,saxony2 and it is used for the execution of sentences of death in ,france1 ,belgium and some parts of ,germany4 ,it has often been stated that ,dr ,guillotine perished by the instrument which bears his name1 but it is beyond question that he survived the ,revolution and died a natural death in #ahad4 ,see ,sedillot1 ,reflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le supplice de la guillotine 7#agie72 ,sue1 ,opinion sur le supplice de la guillotine1 7#agif72 ,reveille-,parise1 ,etude biographique sur ,guillotine 7,paris1 #ahea72 ,notice historique et physiologique sur le supplice de la guillotine 7,paris1 #ahcj72 ,louis ,dubois1 ,recherches historiques et physiologiques sur la guillotine et details sur ,sanson 7,paris1 #ahdc72 and a paper by ,j4 ,w4 ,croker in the ,quarterly ,review for ,december #ahdc1 reprinted separately in #ahej under the title ,the ,guillotine1 a historical ,essay4 ,,guilt1 a lapse from duty1 a crime1 now usually the fact of wilful wrong-doing1 the condition of being guilty of a crime1 hence conduct deserving of punishment4 ,the ,o4 ,eng4 form of the word is gylt4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary rejects for phonetic reasons the usually accepted connexion with the ,teutonic root gald-1 to pay1 seen in ,ger4 gelten1 to be of value1 ,geld1 money1 payment1 ,english yield4 ,,guimaraes 7sometimes written ,guimaraens71 a town of northern ,portugal1 in the district of ,braga1 formerly included in the province of ,entre-,minho-e-,douro2 #cf m4 ,n4,e4 of ,oporto by the ,trofa-,guimaraes branch of the ,oporto-,corunna railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #iajd4 ,guimaraes is a very ancient town with ,moorish fortifications2 and even the quarters which are locally described as new date partly from the #aeth century4 ,it occupies a low hill1 skirted on the north-west by a small tributary of the river ,ave4 ,the citadel1 founded in the #aath century by ,count ,henry of ,burgundy1 was in #ajid the birthplace of his son ,alphonso1 the first king of ,portugal4 ,the font in which ,alphonso was baptized is preserved1 among other interesting relics1 in the collegiate church of ,santa ,maria da ,oliveira1 ,st ,mary of the ,olive1 a ,romanesque building of the #adth century1 which occupies the site of an older foundation4 ,this church owes its name to the legend that the ,visigothic king ,wamba 7#fgb-fhj7 here declined the crown of ,spain1 until his olive wood spear-shaft blossomed as a sign that he should consent4 ,the convent of ,sao ,domingos1 now a museum of antiquities1 has a fine #abth-#acth century cloister2 the town hall is built in the blend of ,moorish and ,gothic architecture known as ,manoelline4 ,guimaraes has a flourishing trade in wine and farm produce2 it also manufactures cutlery1 linen1 leather and preserved fruits4 ,near the town are ,citania1 the ruins of a prehistoric ,iberian city1 and the hot sulphurous springs of ,taipas1 frequented since the #dth century1 when ,guimaraes itself was founded4 ,,guimard1 ,,marie ,,madeleine 7#agdc-ahaf71 ,french dancer1 was born in ,paris on the #ajth of ,october #agdc4 ,for twenty-five years she was the star of the ,paris ,opera4 ,she made herself even more famous by her love affairs1 especially by her long liaison with the prince de ,soubise4 ,she bought a magnificent house at ,pantin1 and built a private theatre connected with it1 where ,colle's ,partie de chasse de ,henri ,,iv which was prohibited in public1 and most of the ,proverbes of ,carmontelle 7,louis ,carrogis1 #agag-ahjf71 and similar licentious performances were given to the delight of high society4 ,in #aggb1 in defiance of the archbishop of ,paris1 she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre seating five hundred spectators in the ,chaussee d',antin4 ,in this ,temple of ,terpsichore1 as she named it1 the wildest orgies took place4 ,in #aghf she was compelled to get rid of the property1 and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of #cjj1jjj francs4 ,soon after her retirement in #aghi she married ,jean ,etienne ,despreaux 7#agdh-ahbj71 dancer1 song-writer and playwright4 ,,guimet1 ,,jean ,,baptiste 7#agie-ahga71 ,french industrial chemist1 was born at ,voiron on the #bjth of ,july #agie4 ,he studied at the ,ecole ,polytechnique in ,paris1 and in #ahag entered the ,administration des ,poudres et ,salpetres4 ,in #ahbh he was awarded the prize offered by the ,societe d',encouragement pour l',industrie ,nationale for a process of making artificial ultramarine with all the properties of the substance prepared from lapis lazuli2 and six years later he resigned his official position in order to devote himself to the commercial production of that material1 a factory for which he established at ,fleurieux sur ,saone4 ,he died on the #hth of ,april #ahga4 ,his son ,,emile ,,etienne ,,guimet1 born at ,lyons on the #bfth of ,june #ahcf1 succeeded him in the direction of the factory1 and founded the ,musee ,guimet1 which was first located at ,lyons in #ahgi and was handed over to the state and transferred to ,paris in #ahhe4 ,devoted to travel1 he was in #ahgf commissioned by the minister of public instruction to study the religions of the ,far ,east1 and the museum contains many of the fruits of this expedition1 including a fine collection of ,japanese and ,chinese porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the religions of the ,east but also to those of ,ancient ,egypt1 ,greece and ,rome4 ,he wrote ,lettres sur l',algerie 7#ahgg7 and ,promenades japonaises 7#ahhj71 and also some musical compositions1 including a grand opera1 ,tai-,tsoung 7#ahid74 ,,guinea1 the general name applied by ,europeans to part of the western coast region of equatorial ,africa1 and also to the gulf formed by the great bend of the coast line eastward and then southward4 ,like many other geographical designations the use of which is controlled neither by natural nor political boundaries1 the name has been very differently employed by different writers and at different periods4 ,in the widest acceptation of the term1 the ,guinea coast may be said to extend from #ac deg4 ,n4 to #af deg4 ,s41 from the neighbourhood of the ,gambia to ,cape ,negro4 ,southern or ,lower ,guinea comprises the coasts of ,gabun and ,loango 7known also as ,french ,congo7 and the ,portuguese possessions on the south-west coast1 and ,northern or ,upper ,guinea stretches from the river ,casamance to and inclusive of the ,niger delta1 ,cameroon occupying a middle position4 ,in a narrower use of the name1 ,guinea is the coast only from ,cape ,palmas to the ,gabun estuary4 ,originally1 on the other hand1 ,guinea was supposed to begin as far north as ,cape ,nun1 opposite the ,canary ,islands1 and ,gomes ,azurara1 a ,portuguese historian of the #aeth century1 is said to be the first authority who brings the boundary south to the ,senegal4 ,the derivation of the name is uncertain1 but is probably taken from ,ghinea1 ,ginnie1 ,genni or ,jenne1 a town and kingdom in the basin of the ,niger1 famed for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the #hth century ,a4,d4 ,the name ,guinea is found on maps of the middle of the #adth century1 but it did not come into general use in ,europe till towards the close of the #aeth century4#a ,although the term ,gulf of ,guinea is applied generally to that part of the coast south of ,cape ,palmas and north of the mouth of the ,congo1 particular indentations have their peculiar designations4 ,the bay formed by the configuration of the land between ,cape ,st ,paul and the ,nun mouth of the ,niger is known as the ,bight of ,benin1 the name being that of the once powerful native state whose territory formerly extended over the whole district4 ,the ,bight of ,biafra1 or ,mafra 7named after the town of ,mafra in southern ,portugal71 between ,capes ,formosa and ,lopez1 is the most eastern part of the ,gulf of ,guinea2 it contains the islands ,fernando ,po1 ,prince's and ,st ,thomas's4 ,the name ,biafra--as indicating the country--fell into disuse in the later part of the #aith century4 ,the coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only within a very short distance1 the mangrove trees being their only sailing marks4 ,in the ,bight of ,biafra the coast forms an exception1 being high and bold1 with the ,cameroon ,mountains for background4 ,at ,sierra ,leone also there is high land4 ,the coast in many places maintains a dead level for #cj to #ej m4 inland4 ,vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied4 ,the palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river ,gambia to the ,congo4 ,the fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable of ,african animals4 ,the inhabitants are the true ,negro stock4 ,by the early traders the coast of ,upper ,guinea was given names founded on the productions characteristic of the different parts4 ,the ,grain coast1 that part of the ,guinea coast extending for #ejj m4 from ,sierra ,leone eastward to ,cape ,palmas received its name from the export of the seeds of several plants of a peppery character1 called variously grains of paradise1 ,guinea pepper and melegueta4 ,the name ,grain coast was first applied to this region in #adee4 ,it was occasionally styled the ,windy or ,windward coast1 from the frequency of short but furious tornadoes throughout the year4 ,towards the end of the #ahth century1 ,guinea pepper was supplanted in ,europe by peppers from the ,east ,indies4 ,the name now is seldom used1 the ,grain coast being divided between the ,british colony of ,sierra ,leone and the republic of ,liberia4 ,the ,ivory coast extends from ,cape ,palmas to #c deg4 ,w41 and obtained its name from the quantity of ivory exported therefrom4 ,it is now a ,french possession4 ,eastwards of the ,ivory coast are the ,gold and ,slave coasts4 ,the ,niger delta was for long known as the ,oil rivers4 ,to two regions only of the coast is the name ,guinea officially applied1 the ,french and ,portuguese colonies north of ,sierra ,leone being so styled4 ,of the various names by which the divisions of ,lower ,guinea were known1 ,loango was applied to the country south of the ,gabun and north of the ,congo river4 ,it is now chiefly included in ,french ,congo4 ,congo was used to designate the country immediately south of the river of the same name1 usually spoken of until the last half of the #aith century as the ,zaire4 ,congo is now one of the subdivisions of ,portuguese ,west ,africa 7see ,,angola74 ,it must not be confounded with the ,belgian ,congo4 ,few questions in historical geography have been more keenly discussed than that of the first discovery of ,guinea by the navigators of modern ,europe4 ,lancelot ,malocello1 a ,genoese1 in #abgj reached at least as far as the ,canaries4 ,the first direct attempt to find a sea route to ,india was1 it is said1 also made by ,genoese1 ,ugolino and ,guido de ,vivaldo1 ,tedisio ,doria and others who equipped two galleys and sailed south along the ,african coast in #abia4 ,beyond the fact that they passed ,cape ,nun there is no trustworthy record of their voyage4 ,in #acdf a ,catalan expedition started for the river of gold on the ,guinea coast2 its fate is unknown4 ,the ,french claim that between #acfd and #adaj the people of ,dieppe sent out several expeditions to ,guinea2 and ,jean de ,bethencourt1 who settled in the ,canaries about #adjb1 made explorations towards the south4 ,at length the consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by ,prince ,henry of ,portugal--,gil ,eannes1 ,diniz ,diaz1 ,nuno ,tristam1 ,alvaro ,fernandez1 ,cadamosto1 ,usodimare and ,diego ,gomez--made known the coast as far as the ,gambia1 and by the end of the #aeth century the whole region was familiar to ,europeans4 ,for further information see ,,senegal1 ,,gold ,,coast1 ,,ivory ,,coast1 ,,french ,,guinea1 ,,portuguese ,,guinea1 ,,liberia1 c4 ,for the history of ,european discoveries1 consult ,g4 ,e4 de ,azurara1 ,chronica de descobrimento e conquista de ,guine1 published1 with an introduction1 by ,barros de ,santarem 7,paris1 #ahda71 ,english translation1 ,the ,discovery and ,conquest of ,guinea1 by ,c4 ,r4 ,beazley and ,e4 ,prestage 7,hakluyt ,society publications1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahif-ahii1 vol4 ii4 has an introduction on the early history of ,african exploration1 c4 with full bibliographical notes74 ,l4 ,estancelin1 ,recherches sur les voyages et decouvertes des navigateurs normands en ,afrique 7,paris1 #ahcb72 ,villault de ,bellefond1 ,relation des costes d',afrique appellees ,guinee 7,paris1 #affi72 ,pere ,labat1 ,nouvelle ,relation de l',afrique occidentale 7,paris1 #agbh72 ,desmarquets1 ,mem4 chron4 pour servir a l'hist4 de ,dieppe 7#ahge72 ,santarem1 ,priorite de la decouverte des pays situes sur la cote occidentale d',afrique 7,paris1 #ahdb72 ,r4 ,h4 ,major1 ,life of ,prince ,henry the ,navigator 7,london1 #ahfh72 and the elaborate review of ,major's work by ,m4 ,codine in the ,bulletin de la ,soc4 de ,geog4 7#ahgc72 ,a4 ,e4 ,nordenskiold1 ,periplus 7,stockholm1 #ahig72 ,the ,story of ,africa1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahib71 edited by ,dr ,robert ,brown4 ,,footnote3 #a ,guinea may1 however1 be derived from ,ghana 7or ,ghanata7 the name of the oldest known state in the western ,sudan4 ,ghana dates1 according to some authorities1 from the #crd century ,a4,d4 ,from the #gth to the #abth century it was a powerful empire1 its dominions extending1 apparently1 from the ,atlantic to the ,niger bend4 ,at one time ,jenne was included within its borders4 ,ghana was finally conquered by the ,mandingo kings of ,melle in the #acth century4 ,its capital1 also called ,ghana1 was west of the ,niger1 and is generally placed some #bjj m4 west of ,jenne4 ,in this district ,l4 ,desplagnes discovered in #aijg numerous remains of a once extensive city1 which he identified as those of ,ghana4 ,the ruins lie #be m4 ,w4 of the ,niger1 on both banks of a marigot1 and are about #dj m4 ,n4 by ,e4 of ,kulikoro 7see ,la ,geographie1 xvi4 #cbi74 ,by some writers ,ghana city is1 however1 identified with ,walata1 which town is mentioned by ,arab historians as the capital of ,ghanata4 ,the identification of ,ghana city with ,jenne is not justified1 though ,idrisi seems to be describing ,jenne when writing of ,ghana the ,great4 ,,guinea1 a gold coin at one time current in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it was first coined in #affc1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 from gold imported from the ,guinea coast of ,west ,africa by a company of merchants trading under charter from the ,british crown--hence the name4 ,many of the first guineas bore an elephant on one side1 this being the stamp of the company2 in #afge a castle was added4 ,issued at the same time as the guinea were five-guinea1 two-guinea and half-guinea pieces4 ,the current value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty shillings4 ,it was subsidiary to the silver coinage1 but this latter was in such an unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of time became over-valued in relation to silver1 so much so that in #afid it had risen in value to thirty shillings4 ,the rehabilitation of the silver coinage in ,william ,,iii4's reign brought down the value of the guinea to #bas4 #f;d4 in #afih1 at which it stood until #agag1 when its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings4 ,this value the guinea retained until its disappearance from the coinage4 ,it was last coined in #ahac1 and was superseded in #ahag by the present principal gold coin1 the sovereign4 ,in #agah the quarter-guinea was first coined4 ,the third-guinea was first struck in ,george ,,iii4's reign 7#aghg74 ,to ,george ,,iii4's reign also belongs the spade-guinea1 a guinea having the shield on the reverse pointed at the base or spade-shaped4 ,it is still customary to pay subscriptions1 professional fees and honoraria of all kinds1 in terms of guineas1 a guinea being twenty-one shillings4 ,,guinea ,,fowl1 a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird1 so called from the country whence in modern times it was brought to ,europe1 the ,meleagris and ,avis or ,gallina ,numidica of ancient authors4#a ,little is positively known of the wild stock to which we owe our tame birds1 nor can the period of its reintroduction 7for there is apparently no evidence of its domestication being continuous from the time of the ,romans7 be assigned more than roughly to that of the ,african discoveries of the ,portuguese4 ,it does not seem to have been commonly known till the middle of the #afth century1 when ,john ,caius sent a description and figure1 with the name ,gallus ,mauritanus1 to ,gesner1 who published both in his ,paralipomena in #aeee1 and in the same year ,belon also gave a notice and woodcut under the name of ,poulle de la ,guinee2 but while the former authors properly referred their bird to the ancient ,meleagris1 the latter confounded the ,meleagris and the turkey4 ,the ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard 7see also ,,poultry ,,and ,,poultry-,,farming7 is the ,numida meleagris of ornithologists4 ,the chief or only changes which domestication seems to have induced in its appearance are a tendency to albinism generally shown in the plumage of its lower parts1 and frequently1 though not always1 the conversion of the colour of its legs and feet from dark greyish-brown to bright orange4 ,that the home of this species is ,west ,africa from the ,gambia#b to the ,gaboon is certain1 but its range in the interior is quite unknown4 ,it appears to have been imported early into the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 where1 as also in some of the ,greater ,antilles and in ,ascension1 it has run wild4 ,representing the species in ,south ,africa we have the ,n4 coronata1 which is very numerous from the ,cape ,colony to ,ovampoland1 and the ,n4 cornuta of ,drs ,finsch and ,hartlaub1 which replaces it in the west as far as the ,zambesi4 ,madagascar also has its peculiar species1 distinguishable by its red crown1 the ,n4 mitrata of ,pallas1 a name which has often been misapplied to the last4 ,this bird has been introduced to ,rodriguez1 where it is now found wild4 ,abyssinia is inhabited by another species1 the ,n4 ptilorhyncha1#c which differs from all the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the head4 ,very different from all of them1 and the finest species known1 is the ,n4 vulturina of ,zanzibar1 conspicuous by the bright blue in its plumage1 the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck1 and its long tail4 ,by some writers it is thought to form a separate genus1 ,acryllium4 ,all these guinea fowls except the last are characterized by having the crown bare of feathers and elevated into a bony helmet1 but there is another group 7to which the name ,guttera has been given7 in which a thick tuft of feathers ornaments the top of the head4 ,this contains four or five species1 all inhabiting some part or other of ,africa1 the best known being the ,n4 cristata from ,sierra ,leone and other places on the western coast4 ,this bird1 apparently mentioned by ,marcgrave more than #bjj years ago1 but first described by ,pallas1 is remarkable for the structure--unique1 if not possessed by its representative forms--of its furcula1 where the head1 instead of being the thin plate found in all other ,gallinae1 is a hollow cup opening upwards1 into which the trachea dips1 and then emerges on its way to the lungs4 ,allied to the genus ,numida1 but readily distinguished form among other characters by the possession of spurs and the absence of a helmet1 are two very rare forms1 ,agelastes and ,phasidus1 both from western ,africa4 ,of their habits nothing is known4 ,all these birds are beautifully figured in ,elliot's ,monograph of the ,phasianidae1 from drawings by ,wolf4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnote3 #a ,columella 7,de re rustica1 viii4 cap4 #b7 distinguishes the ,meleagris from the ,gallina ,africana or ,numidica1 the latter having1 he says1 a red wattle 7palea1 a reading obviously preferable to galea71 while it was blue in the former4 ,this would look as if the ,meleagris had sprung from what is now called ,numida ptilorhyncha1 while the ,gallina ,africana originated in the ,n4 meleagris1 species which have a different range1 and if so the fact would point to two distinct introductions--one by ,greeks1 the other by ,latins4 #b ,specimens from the ,gambia are said to be smaller1 and have been described as distinct under the name of ,n4 rendalli4 #c ,darwin 7,anim4 and ,pl4 under ,domestication1 i4 #bid71 gives this as the original stock of the modern domestic birds1 but obviously by an accidental error4 ,as before observed1 it may possibly have been the true ,greek3 meleagris of the ,greeks4 ,,guinea-,,worm 7,dracontiasis71 a disease due to the ,filaria medinensis1 or ,dracunculus1 or ,guinea-worm1 a filarious nematode like a horse-hair1 whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous and intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet4 ,it is common on the ,guinea coast1 and in many other tropical and subtropical regions and has been familiarly known since ancient times4 ,the condition of dracontiasis due to it is a very common one1 and sometimes amounts to an epidemic4 ,the black races are most liable1 but ,europeans of almost any social rank and of either sex are not altogether exempt4 ,the worm lives in water1 and1 like the ,filaria sanguinis hominis1 appears to have an intermediate host for its larval stage4 ,it is doubtful whether the worm penetrates the skin of the legs directly2 it is not impossible that the intermediate host 7a cyclops7 which contains the larvae may be swallowed with the water1 and that the larvae of the ,dracunculus may be set free in the course of digestion4 ,,guines1 a town in the interior of ,havana province1 ,cuba1 about #cj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,havana4 ,pop4 7#aijg7 #hjec4 ,it is situated on a plain1 in the midst of a rich plantation district1 chiefly devoted to the cultivation of tobacco4 ,the first railway in ,cuba was built from ,havana to ,guines between #ahce and #ahch4 ,one of the very few good highways of the island also connects ,guines with the capital4 ,the pueblo of ,guines1 which was built on a great private estate of the same name1 dates back to about #agce4 ,the church dates from #ahej4 ,guines became a villa in #ahad1 and was destroyed by fire in #ahag4 ,,guingamp1 a town of north-western ,france1 capital of an arrondissement in the department of ,cotes-du-,nord1 on the right bank of the ,trieux1 #bj m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,st ,brieuc on the railway to ,brest4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 town #ficg1 commune #ibab4 ,its chief church1 ,notre-,dame de ,bon-,secours1 dates from the #adth to the #afth centuries2 two towers rise on each side of the richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the crossing4 ,a famous statue of the ,virgin1 the object of one of the most important pardons or religious pilgrimages in ,brittany1 stands in one of the two northern porches4 ,the central square is decorated by a graceful fountain in the ,renaissance style1 restored in #agdc4 ,remains of the ramparts and of the chateau of the dukes of ,penthievre1 which belong to the #aeth century1 still survive4 ,guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance4 ,it is an important market for dairy-cattle1 and its industries include flour-milling1 tanning and leather-dressing4 ,guingamp was the chief town of the countship 7subsequently the duchy7 of ,penthievre4 ,the ,gothic chapel of ,graces1 near ,guingamp1 contains fine sculptures4 ,,guinness1 the name of a family of ,irish brewers4 ,the firm was founded by ,,arthur ,,guinness1 who about the middle of the #ahth century owned a modest brewing-plant at ,leixlip1 a village on the upper reaches of the river ,liffey4 ,in or about #agei ,arthur ,guinness1 seeking to extend his trade1 purchased a small porter brewery belonging to a ,mr ,rainsford at ,st ,james's ,gate1 ,dublin4 ,by careful attention to the purity of his product1 coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste1 he built up a considerable business4 ,but his third son1 ,,benjamin ,,lee ,,guinness 7#agih-ahfh71 may be regarded as the real maker of the firm1 into which he was taken at an early age1 and of which about #ahbe he was given sole control4 ,prior to that date the trade in ,guinness's porter and stout had been confined to ,ireland1 but ,benjamin ,lee ,guinness at once established agencies in the ,united ,kingdom1 on the continent1 in the ,british colonies and in ,america4 ,the export trade soon assumed huge proportions2 the brewery was continually enlarged1 and when in #ahee his father died1 ,benjamin ,lee ,guinness1 who in #ahea was elected first lord mayor of ,dublin1 found himself sole proprietor of the business and the richest man in ,ireland4 ,between #ahfj and #ahfe he devoted a portion of this wealth to the restoration of ,st ,patrick's cathedral1 ,dublin4 ,the work1 the progress of which he regularly superintended himself1 cost ,l#afj1jjj4 ,benjamin ,lee ,guinness represented the city of ,dublin in parliament as a ,conservative from #ahfe till his death1 and in #ahfg was created a baronet4 ,he died in #ahfh1 and was succeeded in the control of the business by ,sir ,arthur ,edward ,guinness 7b4 #ahdj71 his eldest1 and ,edward ,cecil ,guinness 7b4 #ahdg71 his third1 son4 ,,sir ,,arthur ,,edward ,,guinness1 who for some time represented ,dublin in parliament1 was in #ahhj raised to the peerage as ,baron ,ardilaun1 and about the same time disposed of his share in the brewery to his brother ,edward ,cecil ,guinness4 ,in #ahhf ,,edward ,,cecil ,,guinness disposed of the brewery1 the products of which were then being sent all over the world1 to a limited company1 in which he remained the largest shareholder4 ,edward ,cecil ,guinness was created a baronet in #ahhe1 and in #ahia was raised to the peerage as ,baron ,iveagh4 ,the ,guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy and public munificence4 ,lord ,ardilaun gave a recreation ground to ,dublin1 and the famous ,muckross estate at ,killarney to the nation4 ,lord ,iveagh set aside ,l#bej1jjj for the creation of the ,guinness trust 7#ahhi7 for the erection and maintenance of buildings for the labouring poor in ,london and ,dublin1 and was a liberal benefactor to the funds of ,dublin university4 ,,guinobatan1 a town of the province of ,albay1 ,luzon1 ,philippine ,islands1 on the ,inaya river1 #i m4 ,w4 by ,n4 of the town of ,albay4 ,pop4 7#aijc71 #bj1jbg4 ,its chief interest is in hemp1 which is grown in large quantities in the neighbouring country4 ,,guipuzcoa1 a maritime province of northern ,spain1 included among the ,basque provinces1 and bounded on the ,n4 by the ,bay of ,biscay2 ,w4 by the province of ,biscay 7,vizcaya72 ,s4 and ,s4,e4 by4 ,alava and ,navarre3 and ,n4,e4 by the river ,bidassoa1#a which separates it from ,france4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #aie1hej2 area1 #gbh sq4 m4 ,situated on the northern slope of the great ,cantabrian chain at its junction with the ,pyrenees1 the province has a great variety of surface in mountain1 hill and valley2 and its scenery is highly picturesque4 ,the coast is much indented1 and has numerous harbours1 but none of very great importance2 the chief are those of ,san ,sebastian1 ,pasajes1 ,guetaria1 ,deva and ,fuenterrabia4 ,the rivers 7,deva1 ,urola1 ,oria1 ,urumea1 ,bidassoa7 are all short1 rapid and unnavigable4 ,the mountains are for the most part covered with forests of oak1 chestnut or pine2 holly and arbutus are also common1 with furze and heath in the poorer parts4 ,the soil in the lower valleys is generally of hard clay and unfertile2 it is cultivated with great care1 but the grain raised falls considerably short of what is required for home consumption4 ,the climate1 though moist1 is mild1 pleasant and healthy2 fruit is produced in considerable quantities1 especially apples for manufacture into zaragua or cider4 ,the chief mineral products are iron1 lignite1 lead1 copper1 zinc and cement4 ,ferruginous and sulphurous springs are very common1 and are much frequented every summer by visitors from all parts of the kingdom4 ,there are excellent fisheries1 which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod1 tunny1 sardines and oysters2 and the average yearly value of the coasting trade exceeds ,l#djj1jjj4 ,by ,irun1 ,pasajes and the frontier roads ,l#d1jjj1jjj of imports and ,l#c1jjj1jjj of exports pass to and from ,france1 partly in transit for the rest of ,europe4 ,apart from the four ,catalan provinces1 no province has witnessed such a development of local industries as ,guipuzcoa4 ,the principal industrial centres are ,irun1 ,renteria1 ,villabona1 ,vergara and ,azpeitia for cotton and linen stuffs2 ,zumarraga for osiers2 ,eibar1 ,plasencia and ,elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold incrustations2 ,irun for soap and carriages2 ,san ,sebastian1 ,irun and ,onate for paper1 glass1 chemicals and saw-mills2 ,tolosa for paper1 timber1 cloths and furniture2 and the banks of the bay of ,pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of every kind1 and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption in the interior of ,spain4 ,this last industry occupies several thousand ,french and ,spanish workmen4 ,an arsenal was established at ,azpeitia during the ,carlist rising of #ahgj-ahgd2 but the manufacture of ordnance and gunpowder was subsequently discontinued4 ,the main line of the northern railway from ,madrid to ,france runs through the province1 giving access1 by a loop line1 to the chief industrial centres4 ,the custom-house through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most important in ,spain4 ,despite the steep gradients1 where traffic is hardly possible except by ox-carts1 there are over #cej m4 of admirably engineered roads1 maintained solely by the local tax-payers4 ,after ,san ,sebastian1 the capital 7pop4 #aijj1 #cg1hab71 the chief towns are ,fuenterrabia 7#dcde7 and ,irun 7#iiab74 ,other towns with more than #fjjj inhabitants are ,azpeitia 7#fjff71 ,eibar 7#fehc71 ,tolosa 7#haaa7 and ,vergara 7#faif74 ,guipuzcoa is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled provinces of ,spain2 for its constant losses by emigration are counterbalanced by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from other districts who are attracted by its industrial prosperity4 ,for an account of its inhabitants and their customs1 language and history1 see ,,basques and ,,basque ,,provinces4 ,,footnote3 #a ,a small island in the ,bidassoa1 called ,la ,isla de los ,faisanes1 or l',isle de la ,conference1 is celebrated as the place where the marriage of the duke of ,guienne was arranged between ,louis ,,xi4 and ,henry ,,iv4 in #adfc1 where ,francis ,i41 the prisoner of ,charles ,v41 was exchanged for his two sons in #aebf1 and where in #afei the ,peace of the ,pyrenees was concluded between ,d4 ,luis de ,haro and ,cardinal ,mazarin4 ,,guiraud1 ,,ernest 7#ahcg-ahib71 ,french composer1 was born at ,new ,orleans on the #bfth of ,june #ahcg4 ,he studied at the ,paris ,conservatoire1 where he won the grand prix de ,rome4 ,his father had gained the same distinction many years previously1 this being the only instance of both father and son obtaining this prize4 ,ernest ,guiraud composed the following operas3 ,sylvie 7#ahfd72 ,le ,kobold 7#ahgj71 ,madame ,turlupin 7#ahgb71 ,piccolino 7#ahgf71 ,galante ,aventure 7#ahhb71 and also the ballet ,gretna ,green1 given at the ,opera in #ahgc4 ,his opera ,fredegonde was left in an unfinished condition and was completed by ,camille ,saint-,saens4 ,guiraud1 who was a fellow-student and intimate friend of ,georges ,bizet1 was for some years professor of composition at the ,conservatoire4 ,he was the author of an excellent treatise on instrumentation4 ,he died in ,paris on the #fth of ,may #ahib4 ,,guisborough1 or ,,guisbrough1 a market town in the ,cleveland parliamentary division of the ,north ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 #aj m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,middlesbrough by a branch of the ,north-,eastern railway4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija71 #efde4 ,it is well situated in a narrow1 fertile valley at the ,n4 foot of the ,cleveland ,hills4 ,the church of ,st ,nicholas is ,perpendicular1 greatly restored4 ,other buildings are the town hall1 and the modern buildings of the grammar school founded in #aefa4 ,ruins of an ,augustinian priory1 founded in #aabi1 are beautifully situated near the eastern extremity of the town4 ,the church contains some fine ,decorated work1 and the chapter house and parts of the conventual buildings may be traced4 ,considerable fragments of ,norman and transitional work remain4 ,among the historic personages who were buried within its walls was ,robert ,bruce1 lord of ,annandale1 the competitor for the throne of ,scotland with ,john ,baliol1 and the grandfather of ,king ,robert the ,bruce4 ,about #a m4 ,s4,e4 of the town there is a sulphurous spring discovered in #ahbb4 ,the district neighbouring to ,guisborough is rich in iron-stone4 ,its working forms the chief industry of the town1 and there are also tanneries and breweries4 ,,guise1 a town of northern ,france1 in the department of ,aisne1 on the ,oise1 #ca m4 ,n4 of ,laon by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 #gefb4 ,the town was formerly the capital of the district of ,thierache and afterwards of a countship 7see below74 ,there is a chateau dating in part from the middle of the #afth century4 ,camille ,desmoulins was in #agfb born in the town1 which has erected a statue to him4 ,the chief industry is the manufacture of iron stoves and heating apparatus1 carried on on the co-operative system in works founded by ,j4 ,b4 ,a4 ,godin1 who built for his workpeople the huge buildings known as the familistere1 in front of which stands his statue4 ,a board of trade-arbitration is among the public institutions4 ,,guise1 ,,house ,,of1 a cadet branch of the house of ,lorraine 7q4v474 ,rene ,,ii41 duke of ,lorraine 7d4 #aejh71 united the two branches of the house of ,lorraine4 ,from his paternal grandmother1 ,marie d',harcourt1 ,rene inherited the countships of ,aumale1 ,mayenne1 ,elbeuf1 ,lillebonne1 ,brionne and other ,french fiefs1 in addition to the honours of the elder branch1 which included the countship of ,guise1 the dowry of ,marie of ,blois on her marriage in #accc with ,rudolph or ,raoul of ,lorraine4 ,rene's eldest surviving son by his marriage with ,philippa1 daughter of ,adolphus of ,egmont1 duke of ,gelderland1 was ,anthony1 who succeeded his father as duke of ,lorraine 7d4 #aedd71 while the second1 ,claude1 count and afterwards duke of ,guise1 received the ,french fiefs4 ,the ,guises1 though naturalized in ,france1 continued to interest themselves in the fortunes of ,lorraine1 and their enemies were always ready to designate them as foreigners4 ,the partition between the brothers ,anthony and ,claude was ratified by a further agreement in #aecj1 reserving the lapsed honours of the kingdoms of ,jerusalem1 ,sicily1 ,aragon1 the duchy of ,anjou and the countships of ,provence and ,maine to the duke of ,lorraine4 ,of the other sons of ,rene ,,ii41 ,john 7#adih-aeej7 became the first cardinal of ,lorraine1 while ,ferri1 ,louis and ,francis fell fighting in the ,french armies at ,marignano 7#aeae71 ,naples 7#aebh7 and ,pavia 7#aebe7 respectively4 ,,claude ,,of ,,lorraine1 count and afterwards #ast duke of ,guise 7#adif-aeej71 was born on the #bjth of ,october #adif4 ,he was educated at the ,french court1 and at seventeen allied himself to the royal house of ,france by a marriage with ,antoinette de ,bourbon 7#adic-aehc7 daughter of ,francois1 ,count of ,vendome4 ,guise distinguished himself at ,marignano 7#aeae71 and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the battle2 in #aeba he fought at ,fuenterrabia1 when ,louise of ,savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts2 in #aebb he defended northern ,france1 and forced the ,english to raise the siege of ,hesdin2 and in #aebc he obtained the government of ,champagne and ,burgundy1 defeating at ,neufchateau the imperial troops who had invaded his province4 ,in #aebe he destroyed the ,anabaptist peasant army1 which was overrunning ,lorraine1 at ,lupstein1 near ,saverne 7,zabern74 ,on the return of ,francis ,i4 from captivity1 ,guise was erected into a duchy in the peerage of ,france1 though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of ,france4 ,the ,guises1 as cadets of the sovereign house of ,lorraine and descendants of the house of ,anjou1 claimed precedence of the ,bourbon princes4 ,their pretensions and ambitions inspired distrust in ,francis ,i41 although he rewarded ,guise's services by substantial gifts in land and money4 ,the duke distinguished himself in the ,luxemburg campaign in #aedb1 but for some years before his death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes of his sons4 ,he died on the #abth of ,april #aeej4 ,he had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues by his brother ,,john1 cardinal of ,lorraine 7#adih-aeej71 who had been made coadjutor of ,metz at the age of three4 ,the cardinal was archbishop of ,reims1 ,lyons and ,narbonne1 bishop of ,metz1 ,toul1 ,verdun1 ,therouanne1 ,lucon1 ,albi1 ,valence1 ,nantes and ,agen1 and before he died had squandered most of the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices4 ,part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of his nephews4 ,he became a member of the royal council in #aecj1 and in #aecf was entrusted with an embassy to ,charles ,v4 ,although a complaisant helper in ,francis ,i4's pleasures1 he was disgraced in #aedb1 and retired to ,rome4 ,he died at ,nogent-sur-,yonne on the #ahth of ,may #aeej4 ,he was extremely dissolute1 but as an open-handed patron of art and learning1 as the protector and friend of ,erasmus1 ,marot and ,rabelais he did something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of his calculating and avaricious brother4 ,claude of ,guise had twelve children1 among them ,francis1 #bnd duke of ,guise2 ,charles1 #bnd cardinal of ,lorraine 7#aebd-aegd71 who became archbishop of ,reims in #aech and cardinal in #aedg2 ,claude1 marquis of ,mayenne1 duke of ,aumale 7#aebf-aegc71 governor of ,burgundy1 who married ,louise de ,breze1 daughter of ,diane de ,poitiers1 thus securing a powerful ally for the family2 ,louis 7#aebg-aegh71 bishop of ,troyes1 archbishop of ,sens and cardinal of ,guise2 ,rene1 marquis of ,elbeuf 7#aecf-aeff71 from whom descended the families of ,harcourt1 ,armagnac1 ,marsan and ,lillebonne2 ,mary of ,lorraine 7q4v471 generally known as ,mary of ,guise1 who after the death of her second husband1 ,james ,v4 of ,scotland1 acted as regent of ,scotland for her daughter ,mary1 queen of ,scots2 and ,francis 7#aecd-aefc71 grand prior of the order of the ,knights of ,malta4 ,the solidarity of this family1 all the members of which through three generations cheerfully submitted to the authority of the head of the house1 made it a formidable factor in ,french politics4 ,,francis ,,of ,,lorraine1 #bnd duke of ,guise 7#aeai-aefc71 le grand ,guise1 was born at ,bar on the #agth of ,february #aeai4 ,as count of ,aumale he served in the ,french army1 and was nearly killed at the siege of ,boulogne in #aede by a wound which brought him the name of ,balafre4 ,aumale was made 7#aedg7 a peerage-duchy in his favour1 and on the accession of ,henry ,,ii4 the young duke1 who had paid assiduous court to ,diane de ,poitiers1 shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the constable ,anne de ,montmorency4 ,both cherished ambitions for their families1 but the ,guises were more unscrupulous in subordinating the interests of ,france to their own4 ,montmorency's brutal manners1 however1 made enemies where ,guise's grace and courtesy won him friends4 ,guise was a suitor for the hand of ,jeanne d',albret1 princess of ,navarre1 who refused1 however1 to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of ,diane de ,poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent enemies of the ,guises4 ,he married in ,december #aedh ,anne of ,este1 daughter of ,ercole ,,ii41 duke of ,ferrara1 and through her mother ,renee1 a granddaughter of ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france4 ,in the same year he had put down a peasant rising in ,saintonge with a humanity that compared very favourably with the cruelty shown by ,montmorency to the town of ,bordeaux4 ,he made preparations in ,lorraine for the king's ,german campaign of #aeea-eb4 ,he was already governor of ,dauphine1 and now became grand chamberlain1 prince of ,joinville1 and hereditary seneschal of ,champagne1 with large additions to his already considerable revenues4 ,he was charged with the defence of ,metz1 which ,henry ,,ii4 had entered in #aeea4 ,he reached the city in ,august #aeeb1 and rapidly gave proof of his great powers as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the place1 badly fortified and unprovided with artillery1 was put in a state of defence4 ,metz was invested by the duke of ,alva in ,october with an army of #fj1jjj men1 and the emperor joined his forces in ,november4 ,an army of brigands commanded by ,albert of ,brandenburg had also to be reckoned with4 ,charles was obliged to raise the siege on the #bnd of ,january #aeec1 having lost1 it is said1 #cj1jjj men before the walls4 ,guise used his victory with rare moderation and humanity1 providing medical care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers' camp4 ,the subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion and carelessness1 and the constable's inactivity1 and a year later ,guise was removed from the command4 ,he followed the constable's army as a volunteer1 and routed the army of ,charles ,v4 at the siege of ,renty on the #abth of ,august #aeed4 ,montmorency's inaction rendered the victory fruitless1 and a bitter controversy followed between ,guise and the constable's nephew ,coligny1 admiral of ,france1 which widened a breach already existing4 ,the conclusion of a six years' truce at ,vaucelles 7#aeef7 disappointed ,guise's ambitions1 and he was the main mover in the breach of the treaty in #aeeh1 when he was sent at the head of a ,french army to ,italy to the assistance of ,pope ,paul ,,iv4 against ,spain4 ,guise1 who perhaps had in view the restoration to his family of the ,angevin dominion of ,naples and ,sicily1 crossed the ,alps early in #aeeg and after a month's delay in ,rome1 where he failed to receive the promised support1 marched on the kingdom of ,naples1 then occupied by the ,spanish troops under ,alva4 ,he seized and sacked ,campli 7,april #agth71 but was compelled to raise the siege of ,civitella4 ,meanwhile the pope had veered round to a ,spanish alliance1 and ,guise1 seeing that no honour was to be gained in the campaign1 wisely spared his troops1 so that his army was almost intact when1 in ,august1 he was hastily summoned home to repel the ,spanish army which had invaded ,france from the north1 and had taken ,st ,quentin4 ,on reaching ,paris in ,october ,guise was made lieutenant-general of the kingdom1 and proceeded to prepare for the siege of ,calais4 ,the town was taken1 after six days' fighting1 on the #fth of ,january #aeeh1 and this success was followed up by the capture of ,guines1 ,thionville and ,arlon1 when the war was ended by the treaty of ,cateau ,cambresis 7#aeei74 ,although his brother1 the cardinal of ,lorraine1 was one of the negotiators1 this peace was concluded against the wishes of ,guise1 and was regarded as a triumph of the constable's party4 ,the ,guises were provided with a weapon against ,montmorency by the bishop of ,arras 7afterwards ,cardinal ,granvella71 who gave to the cardinal of ,lorraine at an interview at ,peronne in #aeeh an intercepted letter proving the ,huguenot leanings of the constable's nephews4 ,on the accession in #aeei of ,francis ,,ii41 their nephew by marriage with ,mary ,stuart1 the royal authority was practically delegated to ,guise and the cardinal1 who found themselves beyond rivalry for the time being4 ,they had1 however1 to cope with a new and dangerous force in ,catherine de' ,medici1 who was now for the first time free to use her political ability4 ,the incapacity1 suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal1 who controlled the internal administration1 roused the smaller nobility against the ,lorraine princes4 ,a conspiracy to overturn their government was formed at ,nantes1 with a needy ,perigord nobleman named ,la ,renaudie as its nominal head1 though the agitation had in the first instance been fostered by the agents of ,louis ,i41 prince of ,conde4 ,the ,guises were warned of the conspiracy while the court was at ,blois1 and for greater security removed the king to ,amboise4 ,la ,renaudie1 nothing daunted1 merely postponed his plans2 and the conspirators assembled in small parties in the woods round ,amboise4 ,they had1 however1 been again betrayed and many of them were surrounded and taken before the coup could be delivered2 one party1 which had seized the chateau of ,noizay1 surrendered on a promise of amnesty given on his faith as a prince by ,james of ,savoy1 duke of ,nemours1 a promise which1 in spite of the duke's protest1 was disregarded4 ,on the #aith of ,march #aefj1 ,la ,renaudie and the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the chateau of ,amboise4 ,they were repelled2 their leader was killed2 and a large number were taken prisoners4 ,the merciless vengeance of the ,guises was the measure of their previous fears4 ,for a whole week the torturings1 quarterings and hangings went on1 the bodies being cast into the ,loire1 the young king and queen witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony of the chateau4 ,the cruel repression of this conspiracy of ,amboise inspired bitter hatred of the ,guises1 since they were avenging a rising rather against their own than the royal authority4 ,they now entrenched themselves with the king at ,orleans1 and the ,bourbon princes1 ,anthony1 king of ,navarre1 and his brother ,conde1 were summoned to court4 ,the ,guises convened a special commission to try ,conde1 who was condemned to death2 but the affair was postponed by the chancellor1 and the death of ,francis ,,ii4 in ,december saved ,conde4 ,guise then made common cause with his old rival ,montmorency and with the ,marshal de ,saint ,andre against ,catherine1 the ,bourbons and ,coligny4 ,this alliance1 constituted on the #fth of ,april #aefa1 and known as the triumvirate1 aimed at the annulment of the concessions made by ,catherine to the ,huguenots4 ,the cardinal of ,lorraine fomented the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two religions when they met at the colloquy of ,poissy in #aefa1 but in spite of the extreme ,catholic views he there professed1 he was at the time in communication with the ,lutheran princes of ,germany1 and in ,february #aefb met the duke of ,wurttemberg at ,zabern to discuss the possibility of a religious compromise4 ,the signal for civil war was given by an attack of ,guise's escort on a ,huguenot congregation at ,vassy 7#ast of ,march #aefb74 ,although ,guise did not initiate the massacre1 and although1 when he learned what was going on1 he even tried to restrain his soldiers1 he did not disavow their action4 ,when ,catherine de' ,medici forbade his entry into ,paris1 he accepted the challenge1 and on the #afth of ,march he entered the city1 where he was a popular hero1 at the head of #bjjj armed nobles4 ,the provost of the merchants offered to put #bj1jjj men and two million livres at his disposal4 ,in ,september he joined ,montmorency in besieging ,rouen1 which was sacked as if it had been a foreign city1 in spite of ,guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors4 ,at the battle of ,dreux 7#aith of ,december #aefb7 he commanded a reserve army1 with which he saved ,montmorency's forces from destruction and inflicted a crushing defeat on the ,huguenots4 ,the prince of ,conde was his prisoner1 while the capture of ,montmorency by the ,huguenots and the assassination of the ,marshal de ,saint-,andre after the battle left ,guise the undisputed head of the ,catholic party4 ,he was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom1 and on the #eth of ,february #aefc he appeared with his army before ,orleans4 ,on the #aith1 however1 he was shot by the ,huguenot ,jean ,poltrot de ,mere as he was returning to his quarters1 and died on the #bdth of the effects of the wound4 ,guise's splendid presence1 his generosity and humanity and his almost unvarying success on the battlefield made him the idol of his soldiers4 ,he attended personally to the minutest details1 and ,monluc complains that he even wrote out his own orders4 ,the mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were partly due to the evil counsels of his brother ,charles1 the cardinal1 whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries4 ,the negotiations of the ,guises with ,spain dated from the interview with ,granvella at ,peronne1 in #aeeh1 and after the death of his brother the cardinal of ,lorraine was constantly in communication with the ,spanish court1 offering1 in the event of the failure of direct heirs to the ,valois kings1 to deliver up the frontier fortresses and to acknowledge ,philip ,,ii4 as king of ,france4 ,his death in #aegd temporarily weakened the extreme ,catholic party4 ,of the children of ,francis le ,balafre five survived him3 ,henry1 #crd duke of ,guise2 ,charles1 duke of ,mayenne 7#aeed-afaa7 7q4v471 who consolidated the ,league2 ,catherine 7#aeeb-aeif71 who married ,louis of ,bourbon1 duke of ,montpensier1 and encouraged the fanaticism of the ,parisian leaguers2 ,louis1 second cardinal of ,guise1 afterwards of ,lorraine 7#aeee-aehh71 who was assassinated with his brother ,henry2 and ,francis 7#aeeh-aegc74 ,,henry ,,of ,,lorraine1 #crd duke of ,guise 7#aeej-aehh71 born on the #cast of ,december #aeej1 was thirteen years old at the time of his father's death1 and grew up under the domination of a passionate desire for revenge4 ,catherine de' ,medici refused to take steps against ,coligny1 who was formally accused by the duchess of ,guise and her brothers-in-law of having incited the murder4 ,in #aeff she insisted on a formal reconciliation at ,moulins between the ,guises and ,coligny1 at which1 however1 none of the sons of the murdered man was present4 ,henry and his brothers were1 however1 compelled in #aegb to sign an ambiguous assent to this agreement4 ,guise's widow married ,james of ,savoy1 duke of ,nemours1 and the young duke at sixteen went to fight against the ,turks in ,hungary4 ,on the fresh outbreak of civil war in #aefg he returned to ,france and served under his uncle ,aumale4 ,in the autumn of #aefh he received a considerable command1 and speedily came into rivalry with ,henry of ,valois1 duke of ,anjou4 ,he had not inherited his father's generalship1 and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once brought disaster on his troops1 but the showy quality of his fighting brought him great popularity in the army4 ,in the defence of ,poitiers in #aefi with his brother1 the duke of ,mayenne1 he showed more solid abilities as a soldier4 ,on the conclusion of peace in #aegj he returned to court1 where he made no secret of his attachment to ,margaret of ,valois4 ,his pretensions were violently resented by her brothers1 who threatened his life1 and he saved himself by a precipitate marriage with ,catherine of ,cleves 7daughter of ,francis of ,cleves1 duke of ,nevers1 and ,margaret of ,bourbon71 the widow of a ,huguenot nobleman1 ,antoine de ,crog1 prince of ,porcien4 ,presently he ended his disgrace by an apparent reconciliation with ,henry of ,valois and an alliance with ,catherine de' ,medici4 ,he was an accomplice in the first attack on ,coligny's life1 and when permission for the massacre of ,saint ,bartholomew had been extorted from ,charles ,,ix4 he roused ,paris against the ,huguenots1 and satisfied his personal vengeance by superintending the murder of ,coligny4 ,he was now the acknowledged chief of the ,catholic party1 and the power of his family was further increased by the marriage 7#aege7 of ,henry ,,iii4 with ,louise of ,vaudemont1 who belonged to the elder branch of the house of ,lorraine4 ,in a fight at ,dormans 7#ajth of ,october #aege71 the only ,catholic victory in a disastrous campaign1 ,guise received a face wound which won for him his father's name of ,balafre and helped to secure the passionate attachment of the ,parisians4 ,he refused to acquiesce in the treaty of ,beaulieu 7#eth of ,may #aegf71 and with the support of the ,jesuits proceeded to form a holy league for the defence of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the terms of enrolment enjoined offensive action against all who refused to join4 ,this association had been preceded by various provincial leagues among the ,catholics1 notably one at ,peronne4 ,conde had been imposed on this town as governor by the terms of the peace1 and the local nobility banded together to resist him4 ,this1 like the ,holy ,league itself1 was political as well as religious in its aims1 and was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority4 ,in the direction of the ,league ,guise was hampered by ,philip of ,spain1 who subsidized the movement1 while he also had to submit to the dictation of the ,parisian democracy4 ,ulterior ambitions were freely ascribed to him4 ,it was asserted that papers seized from his envoy to ,rome1 ,jean ,david1 revealed a definite design of substituting the ,lorraines1 who represented themselves as the successors of ,charlemagne1 for the ,valois2 but these papers were probably a ,huguenot forgery4 ,henry ,,iii4 eventually placed himself at the head of the ,league1 and resumed the war against the ,huguenots2 but on the conclusion of peace 7,september #aegg7 he seized the opportunity of disbanding the ,catholic associations4 ,the king's jealousy of ,guise increased with the duke's popularity1 but he did not venture on an open attack1 nor did he dare to avenge the murder by ,guise's partisans of one of his personal favourites1 ,saint-,megrin1 who had been set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess of ,guise4#a ,meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with ,don ,john of ,austria4 ,he was also in constant correspondence with ,mary of ,lorraine1 and meditated a descent on ,scotland in support of the ,catholic cause4 ,but the great riches of the ,guises were being rapidly dissipated1 and in #aegh the duke became a pensioner of ,philip ,,ii4 ,when in #aehd the death of the duke of ,anjou made ,henry of ,navarre the next heir to the throne1 the prospect of a ,huguenot dynasty roused the ,catholics to forget their differences1 and led to the formation of a new league of the ,catholic nobles4 ,at the end of the same year ,guise and his brother1 the duke of ,mayenne1 with the assent of other ,catholic nobles1 signed a treaty at ,joinville with ,philip ,,ii41 fixing the succession to the crown on ,charles1 cardinal of ,bourbon1 to the exclusion of the ,protestant princes of his house4 ,in ,march #aehe the chiefs of the ,league issued the ,declaration of ,peronne1 exposing their grievances against the government and announcing their intention to restore the dignity of religion by force of arms4 ,on the refusal of ,henry ,,iii4 to accept ,spanish help against his ,huguenot subjects1 war broke out4 ,the chief cities of ,france declared for the ,league1 and ,guise1 who had recruited his forces in ,germany and ,switzerland1 took up his headquarters at ,chalons1 while ,mayenne occupied ,dijon1 and his relatives1 the dukes of ,elbeuf1 ,aumale and ,mercoeur1#b roused ,normandy and ,brittany4 ,henry ,,iii4 accepted1 or feigned to accept1 the terms imposed by the ,guises at ,nemours 7#gth of ,july #aehe74 ,the edicts in favour of the ,huguenots were immediately revoked4 ,guise added to his reputation as the ,catholic champion by defeating the ,german auxiliaries of the ,huguenots at ,vimory 7,october #aehg7 and ,auneau 7,november #aehg74 ,the protestations of loyalty to ,henry ,,iii4 which had marked the earlier manifestoes of the ,league were modified4 ,obedience to the king was now stated to depend on his giving proof of ,catholic zeal and showing no favour to heresy4 ,in ,april #aehh ,guise arrived in ,paris1 where he put himself at the head of the ,parisian mob1 and on the #abth of ,may1 known as the ,day of the ,barricades1 he actually had the crown within his grasp4 ,he refused to treat with ,catherine de' ,medici1 who was prepared to make peace at any cost1 but restrained the populace from revolution and permitted ,henry to escape from ,paris4 ,henry came to terms with the ,league in ,may1 and made ,guise lieutenant-general of the royal armies4 ,the estates-general1 which were assembled at ,blois1 were devoted to the ,guise interest1 and alarmed the king by giving voice to the political as well as the religious aspirations of the ,league4 ,guise remained at the court of ,blois after receiving repeated warnings that ,henry meditated treason4 ,on the #beth of ,december he was summoned to the king's chamber during a sitting of the royal council1 and was murdered by assassins carefully posted by ,henry ,,iii4 himself4 ,the cardinal of ,lorraine was murdered in prison on the next day4 ,the history of the ,guises thenceforward centres in the duke of ,mayenne 7q4v474 ,by his wife1 ,catherine of ,cleves1 the third duke had fourteen children3 among them ,charles1 #dth duke of ,guise 7#aega-afdj72 ,claude1 duke of ,chevreuse 7#aegh-afeg71 whose wife1 ,marie de ,rohan1 duchess of ,chevreuse1 became famous for her intrigues2 ,louis 7#aehe-afba71 #crd cardinal of ,guise1 archbishop of ,reims1 remembered for his liaison with ,charlotte des ,essarts1 mistress of ,henry ,,iv4 ,,charles1 #dth duke of ,guise 7#aega-afdj71 was imprisoned for three years after his father's death4 ,he married ,henriette ,catherine de ,joyeuse1 widow of the duke of ,montpensier4 ,his eldest son predeceased him1 and he was succeeded by his second son ,,henry 7#afad-affd71 who had been archbishop of ,reims1 but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became #eth duke4 ,he made an attempt 7#afdg7 on the crown of ,naples1 and was a prisoner in ,spain from #afdh to #afeb4 ,a second expedition to ,naples in #afed was a fiasco4 ,he was succeeded by his nephew1 ,,louis ,,joseph 7#afej-afga71 as #fth duke4 ,with his son1 ,,francis ,,joseph 7#afgj-afge71 the line failed2 and the title and estates passed to his great-aunt1 ,marie of ,lorraine1 duchess of ,guise 7#afae-afhh71 daughter of the #dth duke1 and with her the title became extinct4 ,the title is now vested in the family of the ,bourbon-,orleans princes4 ,,genealogical ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,guise ,rene ,,ii4 7who united the two branches of the house of ,lorraine71 duke of ,lorraine1 and ,philippa of ,gelderland1 had 7besides two older boys who died in childhood1 and four unmarried daughters7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,antoine1 ,claude1 ,john1 ,ferri1 ,louis1 ,francis1 duke of #ast duke of #ast cardinal killed at killed at killed at ,lorraine1 ,guise1 of ,lorraine4 ,marignano4 ,naples4 ,pavia4 #aedd1 #aeej1 ancestor of ,antoinette the dukes of of ,bourbon4 ,lorraine and the house of ,mercoeur4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,francis1 ,charles1 ,claude1 ,louis1 ,francis1 ,rene1 ,marie ,and #bnd duke of #bnd cardinal marquis of #ast cardinal grand marquis 7#a7 duke of five ,guise1 of ,lorraine1 ,mayenne and of ,guise1 prior4 of ,elbeuf1 ,longueville1 others4 #aefc4 #aegd4 and duke of #aegh #aeff4 7#b7 ,james ,v4 ,anne of ,aumale1 of ,scotland4 ,este4 #aegc4 ,louise de ,breze4 ,mary ,stuart1 queen of ,charles1 ,charles1 ,scots4 duke of ,aumale1 duke of ,elbeuf1 #afca4 #afje4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,henry1 ,charles1 ,louis1 ,catherine ,and five others4 #crd duke1 duke of #bnd cardinal ,louis de ,bourbon1 #aehh ,mayenne1 of ,guise1 duke of ,catherine #afaa4 #aehh4 ,montpensier4 of ,cleves 7and had #ad children74 ,henry1 duke of ,mayenne1 #afba4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,charles1 ,claude1 ,louis1 ,and eleven more4 #dth duke of ,guise1 duke of ,chevreuse1 #crd cardinal of ,guise1 #afdj4 ,marie de ,rohan1 #afba4 widow of the duke of ,luynes4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,henry1 ,marie1 ,louis1 ,and eight archbishop of ,reims1 called ,mlle4 de ,guise1 chevalier of ,guise and more4 and #eth duke1 succeeded to the duchy duke of ,joyeuse1 #affd4 in #afge and sold her #afed4 rights to ,louis ,augustus1 duke of ,maine4 ,louis-,joseph1 #fth duke of ,guise1 #afga4 ,francis-,joseph1 #gth and last duke of ,guise1 #afge4 ,,authorities4--,a number of contemporary documents relating to the ,guises are included by ,l4 ,cimber and ,f4 ,danjou in their ,archives curieuses de l'histoire de ,france 7,paris1 #ahcd1 c474 ,vol4 iii4 contains a soldier's diary of the siege of ,metz1 first published in ,italian 7,lyons1 #aeec71 accounts of the sieges of ,calais 7,tours1 #aeeh74 of ,thionville 7,paris1 #aeeh72 vol4 iv4 an account of the tumult of ,amboise from the ,memoires of ,conde1 and four accounts of the affair of ,vassy2 vol4 v4 four accounts of the battle of ,dreux1 one dictated by ,guise1 and accounts of the murder of ,guise2 vol4 xi4 accounts of the ,parisian revolution of #aeeh2 and vol4 xii4 numerous pamphlets and pieces dealing with the murder of ,henry of ,guise and his brother4 ,an account of the murder of ,guise and of the subsequent measures taken by ,mayenne1 which was supplied by the ,venetian ambassador1 ,g4 ,mocenigo1 to his government1 is printed by ,h4 ,brown in the ,eng4 ,hist4 ,rev4 7,april #ahie74 ,for the foreign policy of the ,guises1 and especially their relations with ,scotland1 there is abundant material in the ,english ,calendar of ,state ,papers of ,queen ,elizabeth 7,foreign ,series7 and in the correspondence of ,cardinal ,granvella4 ,the memoirs of ,francis1 duke of ,guise1 covering the years #aedg to #aefc1 were published by ,michel and ,poujoulat in series #a1 vol4 iv4 of their ,coll4 de memoires4 ,among contemporary memoirs see especially those of the prince of ,conde1 of ,blaise de ,monluc and of ,gaspard de ,saulx-,tavannes4 ,see also ,la ,vie de ,f4 de ,lorraine1 duc de ,guise 7,paris1 #afha71 by ,j4 ,b4 ,h4 du ,trousset de ,valincourt2 ,a4 de ,ruble1 ,l',assassinat de ,f4 de ,lorraine1 duc de ,guise 7#ahig71 where there is a list of the ,,ms4 sources available for a history of the house2 ,r4 de ,bouille1 ,hist4 des ducs de ,guise 7#d vols41 #ahdi72 ,h4 ,forneron1 ,les ,guise et leur epoque 7#b vols41 #ahhg74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this incident supplied ,alexandre ,dumas pere with the subject of his ,henri ,,iii et sa cour 7#ahbi74 #b ,philippe-,emmanuel of ,lorraine1 duke of ,mercoeur1 a cadet of ,lorraine and brother of ,louise de ,vaudemont1 ,henry ,,iii4's queen4 ,his wife1 ,mary of ,luxemburg1 descended from the dukes of ,brittany1 and he was made governor of the province in #aehb4 ,he aspired to separate sovereignty1 and called his son prince and duke of ,brittany4 ,,guitar 7,fr4 guitarre1 ,ger4 ,guitarre1 ,ital4 chitarra1 ,span4 guitarra71 a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged by the fingers1 having a body with a flat back and graceful incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family of lute 7i4e471 whose back is vaulted4 ,the construction of the instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments1 midway between the cithara 7i4e47 and the violin4 ,the medieval stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes1 characterized mainly by the construction of the body3 7#a7 ,those which1 like their archetype the cithara1 had a body composed of a flat or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs4 7#b7 ,those which1 like the lyre1 had a body consisting of a vaulted back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary of ribs2 this method of construction predominates among ,oriental ,instruments and is greatly inferior to the first4 ,a striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that instruments with vaulted backs1 such as the rebab or rebec1 although extensively represented during the middle ages in all parts of ,europe by numerous types1 have shown but little or no development during the course of some twelve centuries1 and have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music without leaving a single survivor4 ,the guitar must be referred to the first of these classes4 ,illustration3 ,notation4 ,illustration3 ,real ,sounds4 ,the back and ribs of the guitar are of maple1 ash or cherry-wood1 frequently inlaid with rose-wood1 mother-of-pearl1 tortoise-shell1 c41 while the soundboard is of pine and has one large ornamental rose sound hole4 ,the bridge1 to which the strings are fastened1 is of ebony with an ivory nut which determines the one end of the vibrating strings1 while the nut at the end of the fingerboard determines the other4 ,the neck and fingerboard are made of hard wood1 such as ebony1 beech or pear4 ,the head1 bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains two parallel barrels or long holes through which the pegs or metal screws pass1 three on each side of the head4 ,the correct positions for stopping the intervals are marked on the fingerboard by little metal ridges called frets4 ,the modern guitar has six strings1 three of gut and three of silk covered with silver wire1 tuned as shown4 ,to the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings1 while the first1 second and third fingers are used to twang the highest strings4 ,it is generally stated that the sixth or lowest string was added in #agij by ,jacob ,august ,otto of ,jena1 who was the first in ,germany to take up the construction of guitars after their introduction from ,italy in #aghh by the duchess ,amalie of ,weimar4 ,otto#a states that it was ,capellmeister ,naumann of ,dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six strings by adding the low ,e1 a spun wire string4 ,the original guitar brought from ,italy by the duchess ,amalie had five strings1#b the lowest ,a being the only one covered with wire4 ,otto also covered the ,d in order to increase the fulness of the tone4 ,in ,spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known in the #afth century2 they are described by ,juan ,bermudo#c and others4#d ,the lowest string was tuned to ,g4 ,other ,spanish guitars of the same period had four1 five or seven strings or courses of strings in pairs of unisons4 ,they were always twanged by the fingers4 ,illustration3 ,from ,juan ,bermudo4 ,,fig4 #a4--,spanish ,guitar with seven ,strings4 #aeee4 ,vihuela da ,mano4 ,the guitar is derived from the cithara#e both structurally and etymologically4 ,it is usually asserted that the guitar was introduced into ,spain by the ,arabs1 but this statement is open to the gravest doubts4 ,there is no trace among the instruments of the ,arabs known to us of any similar to the guitar in construction or shape1 although a guitar 7fig4 #b7 with slight incurvations was known to the ancient ,egyptians4#f ,there is also extant a fine example of the guitar1 with ribs and incurvations and a long neck provided with numerous frets1 on a ,hittite bas-relief on the dromos at ,euyuk 7c4 #ajjj ,b4,c47 in ,cappadocia4#g ,unless other monuments of much later date should come to light showing guitars with ribs1 we shall be justified in assuming that the instrument1 which required skill in construction1 died out in ,egypt and in ,asia before the days of classic ,greece1 and had to be evolved anew from the cithara by the ,greeks of ,asia ,minor4 ,that the evolution should take place within the ,byzantine ,empire or in ,syria would be quite consistent with the traditions of the ,greeks and their veneration for the cithara1 which would lead them to adapt the neck and other improvements to it1 rather than adopt the rebab1 the tanbur or the barbiton from the ,persians or ,arabians4 ,this is1 in fact1 what seems to have taken place4 ,it is true that in the #adth century in an enumeration of musical instruments by the ,archipreste de ,hita1 a guitarra morisca is mentioned and unfavourably compared with the guitarra latina2 moreover1 the ,arabs of the present day still use an instrument called kuitra 7which in ,n4 ,africa would be guithara71 but it has a vaulted back1 the body being like half a pear with a long neck2 the strings are twanged by means of a quill4 ,the ,arab instrument therefore belongs to a different class1 and to admit the instrument as the ancestor of the ,spanish guitar would be tantamount to deriving the guitar from the lute4#h ,by piecing together various indications given by ,spanish writers1 we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments1 which1 in the absence of absolute proof1 is entitled to serious consideration4 ,from ,bermudo's work1 quoted above1 we learn that the guitar and the vihuela da mano were practically identical1 differing only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings4#i ,three kinds of vihuelas were known in ,spain during the middle ages1 distinguished by the qualifying phrases da arco 7with bow71 da mano 7by hand71 da penola 7with quill74 ,spanish scholars#aj who have inquired into this question of identity state that the guitarra latina was afterwards known as the vihuela da mano1 a statement fully supported by other evidence4 ,as the ,arab kuitra was known to be played by means of a quill1 we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the vihuela da penola4 ,the word vihuela or vigola is connected with the ,latin fidicula or fides1 a stringed instrument mentioned by ,cicero#aa as being made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings4 ,the remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by ,st ,isidore1 bishop of ,seville in the #gth century1 who states that fidicula was another name for cithara1 ,veteres aut citharas fidicula vel fidice nominaverunt4#ab ,the fidicula therefore was the cithara1 either in its original classical form or in one of the transitions which transformed it into the guitar4 ,the existence of a superior guitarra latina side by side with the guitarra morisca is thus explained4 ,it was derived directly from the classical cithara introduced by the ,romans into ,spain1 the archetype of the structural beauty which formed the basis of the perfect proportions and delicate structure of the violin4 ,in an inventory#ac made by ,philip van ,wilder of the musical instruments which had belonged to ,henry ,,viii4 is the following item bearing on the question3 foure gitterons with iiii4 cases they are called ,spanishe ,vialles4 ,vial or viol was the ,english equivalent of vihuela4 ,the transitions whereby the cithara acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures 7fig4 #c7 of a single ,,ms41 the celebrated ,utrecht ,psalter1 which gave rise to so many discussions4 ,the ,utrecht ,psalter was executed in the diocese of ,reims in the #ith century1 and the miniatures1 drawn by an ,anglo-,saxon artist attached to the ,reims school1 are unique1 and illustrate the ,psalter1 psalm by psalm4 ,it is evident that the ,anglo-,saxon artist1 while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagination1 drew his inspiration from an older ,greek illustrated ,psalter from the ,christian ,east1#ad where the evolution of the guitar took place4 ,illustration3 ,from ,denon's ,voyage in ,egypt4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,ancient ,egyptian ,guitar4 #agjj to #abjj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,instrumentalists from the ,utrecht ,psalter1 #ith century3 7a7 ,the bass rotta1 first transition of cithara in 7,c72 7b1 c1 d71 ,transitions showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara4 ,illustration3 ,from ,dr ,h4 ,janitschek's ,geschichte der deutschen ,malerei4 ,,fig4 #d4--,representation of a ,european ,guitar4 ,a4,d4 #aahj4 ,one of the earliest representations 7fig4 #d7 of a guitar in ,western ,europe occurs in a ,passionale from ,zwifalten ,a4,d4 #aahj1 now in the ,royal ,library at ,stuttgart4#ae ,st ,pelagia seated on an ass holds a rotta1 or cithara in transition1 while one of the men-servants leading her ass holds her guitar4 ,both instruments have three strings and the characteristic guitar outline with incurvations1 the rotta differing in having no neck4 ,mersenne#af writing early in the #agth century describes and figures two ,spanish guitars1 one with four1 the other with five strings2 the former had a cittern head1 the latter the straight head bent back at an obtuse angle from the neck1 as in the modern instrument2 he gives the ,italian1 ,french and ,spanish tablatures which would seem to show that the guitar already enjoyed a certain vogue in ,france and ,italy as well as in ,spain4 ,mersenne states that the proportions of the guitar demand that the length of the neck from shoulder to nut shall be equal to the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail end4 ,from this time until the middle of the #aith century the guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent1 and became the fashionable instrument in ,england after the ,peninsular ,war1 mainly through the virtuosity of ,ferdinand ,sor1 who also wrote compositions for it4 ,this popularity of the guitar was due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice4 ,the advent of the ,spanish guitar in ,england led to the wane in the popularity of the cittern1 also known at that time in contradistinction as the ,english or wire-strung guitar1 although the two instruments differed in many particulars4 ,as further evidence of the great popularity of the guitar all over ,europe may be instanced the extraordinary number of books extant on the instrument1 giving instructions how to play the guitar and read the tablature4#ag 7,k4 ,s47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,uber den ,bau der ,bogeninstrumente 7,jena1 #ahbh71 pp4 #id and #ie4 #b ,see ,pietro ,millioni1 ,vero e facil modo d' imparare a sonare et accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola1 with illustration 7,rome1 #afcg74 #c ,declaracion de instrumentos musicales 7,ossuna1 #aeee71 fol4 xciii4 b and fol4 xci4 a4 ,see also illustration of vihuela da mano4 #d ,see also ,g4 ,g4 ,kapsperger1 ,libro primo di ,villanelle con l' infavolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola 7three books1 ,rome1 #afaj-afbc74 #e ,see ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 ,the ,instruments of the ,orchestra1 part ii4 ,precursors of the ,violin ,family1 pp4 #bcj-bdh4 #f ,see ,denon's ,voyage in ,egypt 7,london1 #ahjg1 pl4 #ee74 #g ,illustrated from a drawing in ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,judee ,sardaigne1 ,syrie1 ,cappadoce4 ,vol4 iv4 of ,hist4 de l'art dans l'antiquite1 ,paris1 #ahhg1 p4 #fgj4 ,also see plate from a photograph by ,prof4 ,john ,garstang1 in ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 op4 cit4 #h ,see ,biernath1 ,die ,guitarre 7#aijh74 #i ,see also ,luys ,milan1 ,libro de musica de vihuela da mano1 ,intitulado ,il ,maestro1 where the accordance is ,d1 ,g1 ,c1 ,e1 ,a1 ,d from bass to treble4 #aj ,mariano ,soriano1 ,fuertes ,historia de la musica espanola 7,madrid1 #ahee71 i4 #aje1 and iv4 #bjh1 c4 #aa ,de natura deorum1 ii4 #h1 #bb4 #ab ,see ,etymologiarium1 lib4 iii41 cap4 #ba4 #ac ,see ,british ,museum1 ,harleian ,,ms4 #adai1 fol4 #bjj4 #ad ,the literature of the ,utrecht ,psalter embraces a large number of books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are here given3 ,professor ,j4 ,o4 ,westwood1 ,facsimiles of the ,miniatures and ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,,mss4 7,london1 #ahfh72 ,sir ,thos4 ,duffus-,hardy1 ,report on the ,athanasian ,creed in connection with the ,utrecht ,psalter 7,london1 #ahgb72 ,report on the ,utrecht ,psalter1 addressed to the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum 7,london1 #ahgd72 ,sir ,thomas ,duffus-,hardy1 ,further ,report on the ,utrecht ,psalter 7,london1 #ahgd72 ,walter de ,gray ,birch1 ,the ,history1 ,art and ,palaeography of the ,,ms4 styled the ,utrecht ,psalter 7,london1 #ahgf72 ,anton ,springer1 ,die ,psalterillustrationen im fruhen ,mittelalter mit besonderer ,rucksicht auf den ,utrecht ,psalter1 ,abhandlungen der kgl4 sachs4 ,ges4 d4 ,wissenschaften1 phil4-hist4 ,klasse1 ,bd4 viii4 pp4 #ahg-bif1 with #aj facsimile plates in autotype from the ,,ms42 ,adolf ,goldschmidt1 ,der ,utrecht ,psalter1 in ,repertorium fur ,kunstwissenschaft1 ,bd4 xv4 7,stuttgart1 #ahib71 pp4 #aef-aff2 ,franz ,friedrich ,leitschuh1 ,geschichte der karolingischen ,malerei1 ihr ,bilderkreis und seine ,quellen 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #cba-ccj2 ,adolf ,goldschmidt1 ,der ,albani ,psalter in ,hildesheim1 c4 7,berlin1 #ahie72 ,paul ,durrieu1 ,l',origine du ,,ms4 celebre dit le ,psaultier d',utrecht 7,paris1 #ahie72 ,hans ,graeven1 ,die ,vorlage des ,utrecht ,psalters1 paper read before the ,,xi4 ,international ,oriental ,congress1 ,paris1 #ahig4 ,see also ,repertorium fur ,kunstwissenschaft 7,stuttgart1 #ahih71 ,bd4 xxi4 pp4 #bh-ce2 ,j4 ,j4 ,tikkanen1 ,abendlandische ,psalter-,illustration im ,mittelalter1 part iii4 ,der ,utrecht ,psalter 7,helsingfors1 #aijj71 #cbj pp4 and #gg ills4 7,professor ,tikkanen now accepts the ,greek or ,syrian origin of the ,utrecht ,psalter72 ,georg ,swarzenski1 ,die karolingische ,malerei und ,plastik in ,reims4 in ,jahrbuch d4 kgl4 preussischen ,kunstsammlungen1 ,bd4 xxiii4 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #ha-ajj2 ,ormonde ,m4 ,dalton1 ,the ,crystal of ,lothair1 in ,archaologie1 vol4 lix4 7#aijd72 ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 ,the ,instruments of the ,orchestra1 part ii4 ,the ,precursors of the ,violin ,family1 chap4 viii4 ,the ,question of the ,origin of the ,utrecht ,psalter1 pp4 #ceb-chb 7with illustrations71 where all the foregoing are summarized4 #ae ,reproduced in ,hubert ,janitschek's ,geschichte der deutschen ,malerei1 ,bd4 iii4 of ,gesch4 der deutschen ,kunst 7,berlin1 #ahij71 p4 #aah4 #af ,harmonie universelle 7,paris1 #afcf71 livre ii4 prop4 xiv4 #ag ,see ,c4 ,f4 ,becker1 ,darstellung der musik4 ,literatur 7,leipzig1 #ahcf72 and ,wilhelm ,tappert1 ,zur ,geschichte der ,guitarre1 in ,monatshefte fur ,musikgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahhb71 ,no4 #e4 pp4 #gg-he4 ,,guitar ,,fiddle 7,troubadour ,fiddle71 a modern name bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle4 ,the name guitar fiddle is intended to emphasize the fact that the instrument in the shape of the guitar1 which during the middle ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for stringed instruments with necks1 adopted at a certain period the use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type1 the rebab and its hybrids4 ,the use of the bow with the guitar entailed certain constructive changes in the instrument3 the large central rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes2 the flat bridge1 suitable for instruments whose strings were plucked1 gave place to the arched bridge required in order to enable the bow to vibrate each string separately2 the arched bridge1 by raising the strings higher above the soundboard1 made the stopping of strings on the neck extremely difficult if not impossible2 this matter was adjusted by the addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions 7fig4 #a74 ,at this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of the violin1 and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor#a not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the ,minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders1 as through the intermediary of the ,italian lyra1 a guitar-shaped bowed instrument with from #g to #ab strings4 ,illustration3 ,from ,ruhlmann's ,geschichte der ,bogeninstrumente4 ,,fig4 #a4--,typical ,alto ,guitar ,fiddle1 #aeth century 7,pinakothek1 ,munich74 ,from such evidence as we now possess1 it would seem that the evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the ,greek cithara took place under ,greek influence in the ,christian ,east4 ,the various stages of this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable miniatures of the ,utrecht ,psalter4#b ,two kinds of citharas are shown3 the antique rectangular1#c and the later design with rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indications of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the ,spanish guitar4#d ,the first stage in the transition is shown by a cithara or rotta#e in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing the second lobe of the ,spanish guitar4 ,the next stages in the transition are concerned with the addition of a neck#f and of frets4#g ,all these instruments are twanged by the fingers4 ,one may conclude that the use of the bow was either unknown at this time 7c4 #fth century ,a4,d471 or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type4 ,the earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with bow#h 7fig4 #b7 occurs in a ,greek ,psalter written and illuminated in ,caesarea by the archpriest ,theodorus in #ajff 7,british ,museum1 ,add4 ,,ms4 #aiceb74 ,instances of perfect guitar fiddles abound in the #acth century ,,mss4 and monuments1 as for instance in a picture by ,cimabue 7#abdj-acjb74 in the ,pitti ,gallery in ,florence4#i ,illustration3 ,from a ,byzantine ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,earliest example of the ,guitar ,fiddle4 ,a4,d4 #ajff4 ,an evolution on parallel lines appears also to have taken place from the antique rectangular cithara#aj of the citharoedes1 which was a favourite in ,romano-,christian art4#aa ,in this case examples illustrative of the transitions are found represented in great variety in ,europe4 ,the old ,german rotta#ab of the #fth century preserved in the ,volker ,museum1 ,berlin1 and the instruments played by ,king ,david in two early ,anglo-,saxon illuminated ,,mss41 one a ,psalter 7,cotton ,,ms4 ,vesp4 ,a4 i4 ,british ,museum7 finished in ,a4,d4 #gjj1 the other ,a ,commentary on the ,psalms by ,cassiodorus manu ,bedae of the #hth century preserved in the ,cathedral ,library at ,durham#ac form examples of the first stage of transition4 ,from such types as these the rectangular crwth or crowd was evolved by the addition of a finger-board and the reduction in the number of strings1 which follows as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be obtained by stopping the strings4 ,by the addition of a neck we obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with various modifications4 ,we may not look upon this type of guitar fiddle as due entirely to western or southern ,european initiative2 its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently ,byzantine4 ,it is found among the frescoes which cover walls and barrel vaults in the palace of ,kosseir ',amra1#ad believed to be that of ,caliph ,walid ,,ii4 7,a4,d4 #gdd7 of the ,omayyad dynasty1 or of ,prince ,ahmad1 the ,abbasid 7#hfb-hff74 ,the instrument1 a cittern with four strings1 is being played by a bear4 ,other examples occur in the ,stuttgart ,carolingian ,psalter#ae 7#ajth century72 in ,,ms4 #abfj 7,bibl4 ,imp4 ,paris7 ,tristan and ,yseult2 as guitar fiddle in the ,liber ,regalis preserved in ,westminster ,abbey 7#adth century72 in the ,sforza ,book#af 7#addd-adgf71 the ,book of ,hours executed for ,bona of ,savoy1 wife of ,galeazzo ,maria ,sforza2 on one of the carvings of the #acth century in the ,cathedral of ,amiens4 ,it has also been painted by ,italian artists of the #aeth and #afth centuries4 7,k4 ,s47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,the ,precursors of the ,violin ,family1 by ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 part ii4 of ,an ,illustrated ,handbook on the ,instruments of the ,orchestra 7,london1 #aijh71 chs4 ii4 and x4 #b ,see ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 op4 cit4 part ii41 the ,utrecht ,psalter1 pp4 #abg-ace1 and the ,question of the ,origin of the ,utrecht ,psalter1 pp4 #acf-aff1 where the subject is discussed and illustrated4 #c ,idem1 see pl4 vi4 7#b7 to the right centre4 #d ,idem1 see pl4 iii4 centre and figs4 #aah and #aai4 #e ,idem1 see fig4 #aag1 p4 #cda1 and figs4 #agb and #aaf4 #f ,idem1 see fig4 #aba1 p4 #bdf1 figs4 #abb1 #abc1 #abe and #abf pl4 iii4 vi4 7#a7 and 7#b74 #g ,idem1 see fig4 #abf1 p4 #cej1 and pl4 iii4 right centre4 #h ,idem1 see fig4 #agc1 p4 #ddh4 #i ,idem1 see fig4 #bje1 p4 #dhj4 #aj ,see ,museo ,pio ,clementino1 by ,visconti 7,milan1 #ahah74 #aa ,see for example ,georgics1 iv4 #dga-dge in the ,vatican ,virgil 7,cod4 #cbbe71 in facsimile 7,rome1 #ahii7 7,british ,museum press-mark #h1 tab4 f4 vol4 ii474 #ab ,this rotta was found in an ,alamannic tomb of the #dth to the #gth centuries at ,oberflacht in the ,black ,forest4 ,a facsimile is preserved in the collection of the ,kgl4 ,hochschule1 ,berlin1 illustrations in ,grabfunde am ,berge ,lupfen bei ,oberflacht1 #ahdf1 ,jahresberichte d4 ,wurttemb4 ,altertums-,vereins1 iii4 7,stuttgart1 #ahdf71 tab4 viii4 also ,kathleen ,schlesinger1 op4 cit4 part ii4 fig4 #afh 7drawing from the facsimile74 #ac ,reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in ,professor ,j4 ,o4 ,westwood's ,facsimiles of the ,miniatures and ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,,mss4 7,london1 #ahfh74 #ad ,an illustration occurs in the fine publication of the ,austrian ,academy of ,sciences1 ,kusejr ',amra 7,vienna1 #aijg1 pl4 xxxiv474 #ae ,see reproduction of some of the miniatures in ,jacob and ,h4 von ,hefner-,alteneck1 ,trachten des christlichen ,mittelalters 7,darmstadt4 #ahdj-ahed1 #c vols471 and in ,trachten1 ,kunstwerke und ,geratschaften vom fruhen ,mittelalter 7,frankfort-on-,main1 #ahgi-ahij71 #af ,add4 ,,ms4 #cdbid1 ,british ,museum1 vol4 ii4 fol4 #hc1 #afa1 vol4 iii4 fol4 #djb1 vol4 iv4 fols4 #ecd and #ffg4 ,,guitry1 ,,lucien ,,germain 7#ahfj- 71 ,french actor1 was born in ,paris4 ,he became prominent on the ,french stage at the ,porte ,saint-,martin theatre in #aijj1 and the ,varietes in #aija1 and then became a member of the ,comedie ,francaise1 but he resigned very soon in order to become director of the ,renaissance1 where he was principally associated with the actress ,marthe ,brandes1 who had also left the ,comedie4 ,here he established his reputation1 in a number of plays1 as the greatest contemporary ,french actor in the drama of modern reality4 ,,guizot1 ,,francois ,,pierre ,,guillaume 7#aghg-ahgd71 historian1 orator and statesman1 was born at ,nimes on the #dth of ,october #aghg1 of an honourable ,protestant family belonging to the bourgeoisie of that city4 ,it is characteristic of the cruel disabilities which still weighed upon the ,protestants of ,france before the ,revolution1 that his parents1 at the time of their union1 could not be publicly or legally married by their own pastors1 and that the ceremony was clandestine4 ,the liberal opinions of his family did not1 however1 save it from the sanguinary intolerance of the ,reign of ,terror1 and on the #hth ,april #agid his father perished at ,nimes upon the scaffold4 ,thenceforth the education of the future minister devolved entirely upon his mother1 a woman of slight appearance and of homely manners1 but endowed with great strength of character and clearness of judgment4 ,madame ,guizot was a living type of the ,huguenots of the #afth century1 stern in her principles and her faith1 immovable in her convictions and her sense of duty4 ,she formed the character of her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his life4 ,in the days of his power her simple figure1 always clad in deep mourning for her martyred husband1 was not absent from the splendid circle of his political friends4 ,in the days of his exile in #ahdh she followed him to ,london1 and there at a very advanced age closed her life and was buried at ,kensal ,green4 ,driven from ,nimes by the ,revolution1 ,madame ,guizot and her son repaired to ,geneva1 where he received his education4 ,in spite of her decided ,calvinistic opinions1 the theories of ,rousseau1 then much in fashion1 were not without their influence on ,madame ,guizot4 ,she was a strong ,liberal1 and she even adopted the notion inculcated in the ,emile that every man ought to learn a manual trade or craft4 ,young ,guizot was taught to be a carpenter1 and he so far succeeded in his work that he made a table with his own hands1 which is still preserved4 ,of the progress of his graver studies little is known1 for in the work which he entitled ,memoirs of my own ,times ,guizot omitted all personal details of his earlier life4 ,but his literary attainments must have been precocious and considerable1 for when he arrived in ,paris in #ahje to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws1 he entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of ,m4 ,stapfer1 formerly ,swiss minister in ,france1 and he soon began to write in a journal edited by ,m4 ,suard1 the ,publiciste4 ,this connexion introduced him to the literary society of ,paris4 ,in ,october #ahji1 being then twenty-two1 he wrote a review of ,m4 de ,chateaubriand's ,martyrs1 which procured for him the approbation and cordial thanks of that eminent person1 and he continued to contribute largely to the periodical press4 ,at ,suard's he had made the acquaintance of ,pauline ,meulan1 an accomplished lady of good family1 some fourteen years older than himself1 who had been forced by the hardships of the ,revolution to earn her living by literature1 and who also was engaged to contribute a series of articles to ,suard's journal4 ,these contributions were interrupted by her illness1 but immediately resumed and continued by an unknown hand4 ,it was discovered that ,francois ,guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf4 ,the acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love1 and in #ahab ,mademoiselle de ,meulan consented to marry her youthful ally4 ,she died in #ahbg2 she was the author of many esteemed works on female education4 ,an only son1 born in #ahai1 died in #ahcg of consumption4 ,in #ahbh ,guizot married ,elisa ,dillon1 niece of his first wife1 and also an author4 ,she died in #ahcc1 leaving a son1 ,maurice ,guillaume 7#ahcc-ahib71 who attained some reputation as a scholar and writer4 ,during the empire1 ,guizot1 entirely devoted to literary pursuits1 published a collection of ,french synonyms 7#ahji71 an essay on the fine arts 7#ahaa71 and a translation of ,gibbon with additional notes in #ahab4 ,these works recommended him to the notice of ,m4 de ,fontanes1 then grand-master of the university of ,france1 who selected ,guizot for the chair of modern history at the ,sorbonne in #ahab4 ,his first lecture 7which is reprinted in his ,memoirs7 was delivered on the #aath of ,december of that year4 ,the customary compliment to the all-powerful emperor he declined to insert in it1 in spite of the hints given him by his patron1 but the course which followed marks the beginning of the great revival of historical research in ,france in the #aith century4 ,he had now acquired a considerable position in the society of ,paris1 and the friendship of ,royer-,collard and the leading members of the liberal party1 including the young duc de ,broglie4 ,absent from ,paris at the moment of the fall of ,napoleon in #ahad1 he was at once selected1 on the recommendation of ,royer-,collard1 to serve the government of ,louis ,,xviii4 in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the interior1 under the abbe de ,montesquiou4 ,upon the return of ,napoleon from ,elba he immediately resigned1 on the #beth of ,march #ahae 7the statement that he retained office under ,general ,carnot is incorrect71 and returned to his literary pursuits4 ,after the ,hundred ,days1 he repaired to ,ghent1 where he saw ,louis ,,xviii41 and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to his majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone secure the duration of the restored monarchy--advice which was ill-received by ,m4 de ,blacas and the king's confidential advisers4 ,this visit to ,ghent1 at the time when ,france was a prey to a second invasion1 was made a subject of bitter reproach to ,guizot in after life by his political opponents1 as an unpatriotic action4 ,the ,man of ,ghent was one of the terms of insult frequently hurled against him in the days of his power4 ,but the reproach appears to be wholly unfounded4 ,the true interests of ,france were not in the defence of the falling empire1 but in establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in combating the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists4 ,it is at any rate a remarkable circumstance that a young professor of twenty-seven1 with none of the advantages of birth or political experience1 should have been selected to convey so important a message to the ears of the king of ,france1 and a proof1 if any were wanting1 that the ,revolution had1 as ,guizot said1 done its work4 ,on the second restoration1 ,guizot was appointed secretary-general of the ministry of justice under ,m4 de ,barbe-,marbois1 but resigned with his chief in #ahaf4 ,again in #ahai he was appointed general director of communes and departments in the ministry of the interior1 but lost his office with the fall of ,decazes in ,february #ahbj4 ,during these years ,guizot was one of the leaders of the ,doctrinaires1 a small party strongly attached to the charter and the crown1 and advocating a policy which has become associated 7especially by ,faguet7 with the name of ,guizot1 that of the juste milieu1 a via media between absolutism and popular government4 ,their opinions had more of the rigour of a sect than the elasticity of a political party4 ,adhering to the great principles of liberty and toleration1 they were sternly opposed to the anarchical traditions of the ,revolution4 ,they knew that the elements of anarchy were still fermenting in the country2 these they hoped to subdue1 not by reactionary measures1 but by the firm application of the power of a limited constitution1 based on the suffrages of the middle class and defended by the highest literary talent of the times4 ,their motives were honourable4 ,their views were philosophical4 ,but they were opposed alike to the democratical spirit of the age1 to the military traditions of the empire1 and to the bigotry and absolutism of the court4 ,the fate of such a party might be foreseen4 ,they lived by a policy of resistance2 they perished by another revolution 7#ahcj74 ,they are remembered more for their constant opposition to popular demands than by the services they undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate freedom4 ,in #ahbj1 when the reaction was at its height after the murder of the duc de ,berri1 and the fall of the ministry of the duc ,decazes1 ,guizot was deprived of his offices1 and in #ahbb even his course of lectures were interdicted4 ,during the succeeding years he played an important part among the leaders of the liberal opposition to the government of ,charles ,x41 although he had not yet entered parliament1 and this was also the time of his greatest literary activity4 ,in #ahbb he had published his lectures on representative government 7,histoire des origines du gouvernement representatif1 #ahba-ahbb1 #b vols42 ,eng4 trans4 #aheb72 also a work on capital punishment for political offences and several important political pamphlets4 ,from #ahbb to #ahcj he published two important collections of historical sources1 the memoirs of the history of ,england in #bf volumes1 and the memoirs of the history of ,france in #ca volumes1 and a revised translation of ,shakespeare1 and a volume of essays on the history of ,france4 ,the most remarkable work from his own pen was the first part of his ,histoire de la revolution d',angleterre depuis ,charles ,ier a ,charles ,,ii4 7#b vols41 #ahbf-ahbg2 ,eng4 trans41 #b vols41 ,oxford1 #ahch71 a book of great merit and impartiality1 which he resumed and completed during his exile in ,england after #ahdh4 ,the ,martignac administration restored ,guizot in #ahbh to his professor's chair and to the council of state4 ,then it was that he delivered the celebrated courses of lectures which raised his reputation as an historian to the highest point of fame1 and placed him amongst the best writers of ,france and of ,europe4 ,these lectures formed the basis of his general ,histoire de la civilisation en ,europe 7#ahbh2 ,eng4 trans1 by ,w4 ,hazlitt1 #c vols41 #ahdf71 and of his ,histoire de la civilisation en ,france 7#d vols41 #ahcj71 works which must ever be regarded as classics of modern historical research4 ,hitherto ,guizot's fame rested on his merits as a writer on public affairs and as a lecturer on modern history4 ,he had attained the age of forty-three before he entered upon the full display of his oratorical strength4 ,in ,january #ahcj he was elected for the first time by the town of ,lisieux to the chamber of deputies1 and he retained that seat during the whole of his political life4 ,guizot immediately assumed an important position in the representative assembly1 and the first speech he delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the #bba1 in answer to the menacing speech from the throne1 which was followed by the dissolution of the chamber1 and was the precursor of another revolution4 ,on his returning to ,paris from ,nimes on the #bgth of ,july1 the fall of ,charles ,x4 was already imminent4 ,guizot was called upon by his friends ,casimir-,perier1 ,laffitte1 ,villemain and ,dupin to draw up the protest of the liberal deputies against the royal ordinances of ,july1 whilst he applied himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the late contest4 ,personally1 ,guizot was always of opinion that it was a great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government in ,france that the infatuation and ineptitude of ,charles ,x4 and ,prince ,polignac rendered a change in the hereditary line of succession inevitable4 ,but1 though convinced that it was inevitable1 he became one of the most ardent supporters of ,louis-,philippe4 ,in ,august #ahcj ,guizot was made minister of the interior1 but resigned in ,november4 ,he had now passed into the ranks of the conservatives1 and for the next eighteen years was the most determined foe of democracy1 the unyielding champion of a monarchy limited by a limited number of bourgeois4 ,in #ahca ,casimir-,perier formed a more vigorous and compact administration1 which was terminated in ,may #ahcb by his death2 the summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican rising in ,paris1 and it was not till the #aath of ,october #ahcb that a stable government was formed1 in which ,marshal ,soult was first minister1 the duc de ,broglie took the foreign office1 ,thiers the home department1 and ,guizot the department of public instruction4 ,this ministry1 which lasted for nearly four years1 was by far the ablest that ever served ,louis ,philippe4 ,guizot1 however1 was already marked with the stigma of unpopularity by the more advanced liberal party4 ,he remained unpopular all his life1 not1 said he1 that ,i court unpopularity1 but that ,i think nothing about it4 ,yet never were his great abilities more useful to his country than whilst he filled this office of secondary rank but of primary importance in the department of public instruction4 ,the duties it imposed on him were entirely congenial to his literary tastes1 and he was master of the subjects they concerned4 ,he applied himself in the first instance to carry the law of the #bhth of ,june #ahcc1 and then for the next three years to put it into execution4 ,in establishing and organizing primary education in ,france1 this law marked a distinct epoch in ,french history4 ,in fifteen years1 under its influence1 the number of primary schools rose from ten to twenty-three thousand2 normal schools for teachers1 and a general system of inspection1 were introduced2 and boards of education1 under mixed lay and clerical authority1 were created4 ,the secondary class of schools and the university of ,france were equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care1 and a prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and historical research4 ,the branch of the ,institute of ,france known as the ,academie des ,sciences ,morales et ,politiques1 which had been suppressed by ,napoleon1 was revived by ,guizot4 ,some of the old members of this learned body--,talleyrand1 ,sieyes1 ,roederer and ,lakanal--again took their seats there1 and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for the free discussion of the great problems of political and social science4 ,the ,societe de l',histoire de ,france was founded for the publication of historical works2 and a vast publication of medieval chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken at the expense of the state 7see ,,history2 and ,,france1 ,history1 section ,sources74 ,the object of the cabinet of ,october #ahcb was to organize a conservative party1 and to carry on a policy of resistance to the republican faction which threatened the existence of the monarchy4 ,it was their pride and their boast that their measures never exceeded the limits of the law1 and by the exercise of legal power alone they put down an insurrection amounting to civil war in ,lyons and a sanguinary revolt in ,paris4 ,the real strength of the ministry lay not in its nominal heads1 but in the fact that in this government and this alone ,guizot and ,thiers acted in cordial co-operation4 ,the two great rivals in ,french parliamentary eloquence followed for a time the same path2 but neither of them could submit to the supremacy of the other1 and circumstances threw ,thiers almost continuously on a course of opposition1 whilst ,guizot bore the graver responsibilities of power4 ,once again indeed1 in #ahci1 they were united1 but it was in opposition to ,m4 ,mole1 who had formed an intermediate government1 and this coalition between ,guizot and the leaders of the left centre and the left1 ,thiers and ,odilon ,barrot1 due to his ambition and jealousy of ,mole1 is justly regarded as one of the chief inconsistencies of his life4 ,victory was secured at the expense of principle1 and ,guizot's attack upon the government gave rise to a crisis and a republican insurrection4 ,none of the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial office1 however1 and ,guizot was not sorry to accept the post of ambassador in ,london1 which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary contests4 ,this was in the spring of #ahdj1 and ,thiers succeeded shortly afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs4 ,guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen and by the society of ,london4 ,his literary works were highly esteemed1 his character was respected1 and ,france was never more worthily represented abroad than by one of her greatest orators4 ,he was known to be well versed in the history and the literature of ,england1 and sincerely attached to the alliance of the two nations and the cause of peace4 ,but1 as he himself remarked1 he was a stranger to ,england and a novice in diplomacy2 and unhappily the embroiled state of the ,syrian question1 on which the ,french government had separated itself from the joint policy of ,europe1 and possibly the absence of entire confidence between the ambassador and the minister of foreign affairs1 placed him in an embarrassing and even false position4 ,the warnings he transmitted to ,thiers were not believed4 ,the warlike policy of ,thiers was opposed to his own convictions4 ,the treaty of the #aeth of ,july was signed without his knowledge and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances4 ,for some weeks ,europe seemed to be on the brink of war1 until the king put an end to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations of ,thiers1 and by summoning ,guizot from ,london to form a ministry and to aid his ,majesty in what he termed ma lutte tenace contre l'anarchie4 ,thus began1 under dark and adverse circumstances1 on the #bith of ,october #ahdj1 the important administration in which ,guizot remained the master-spirit for nearly eight years4 ,he himself took the office of minister for foreign affairs1 to which he added some years later1 on the retirement of ,marshal ,soult1 the ostensible rank of prime minister4 ,his first care was the maintenance of peace and the restoration of amicable relations with the other powers of ,europe4 ,if he succeeded1 as he did succeed1 in calming the troubled elements and healing the wounded pride of ,france1 the result was due mainly to the indomitable courage and splendid eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition1 gave unity and strength to the conservative party1 who now felt that they had a great leader at their head1 and appealed to the thrift and prudence of the nation rather than to their vanity and their ambition4 ,in his pacific task he was fortunately seconded by the formation of ,sir ,robert ,peel's administration in ,england1 in the autumn of #ahda4 ,between ,lord ,palmerston and ,guizot there existed an incompatibility of character exceedingly dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some respects rival countries4 ,with ,lord ,palmerston in office1 ,guizot felt that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every ,british agent throughout the world2 the combative element was strong in his own disposition2 and the result was a system of perpetual conflict and counter-intrigues4 ,lord ,palmerston held 7as it appears from his own letters7 that war between ,england and ,france was1 sooner or later1 inevitable4 ,guizot held that such a war would be the greatest of all calamities1 and certainly never contemplated it4 ,in ,lord ,aberdeen1 the foreign secretary of ,sir ,robert ,peel1 ,guizot found a friend and an ally perfectly congenial to himself4 ,their acquaintance in ,london had been slight1 but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence4 ,they were both men of high principles and honour2 the ,scotch ,presbyterianism which had moulded the faith of ,lord ,aberdeen was reflected in the ,huguenot minister of ,france2 both were men of extreme simplicity of taste1 joined to the refinement of scholarship and culture2 both had an intense aversion to war and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those adventurous operations which inflamed the imagination of their respective opponents4 ,in the eyes of ,lord ,palmerston and ,thiers their policy was mean and pitiful2 but it was a policy which secured peace to the world1 and united the two great and free nations of the ,west in what was termed the entente cordiale4 ,neither of them would have stooped to snatch an advantage at the expense of the other2 they held the common interest of peace and friendship to be paramount2 and when differences arose1 as they did arise1 in remote parts of the world1--in ,tahiti1 in ,morocco1 on the ,gold ,coast1--they were reduced by this principle to their proper insignificance4 ,the opposition in ,france denounced ,guizot's foreign policy as basely subservient to ,england4 ,he replied in terms of unmeasured contempt1--,you may raise the pile of calumny as high as you will2 vous n'arriverez jamais a la hauteur de mon dedain6 ,the opposition in ,england attacked ,lord ,aberdeen with the same reproaches1 but in vain4 ,king ,louis ,philippe visited ,windsor4 ,the queen of ,england 7in #ahdc7 stayed at the ,chateau d',eu4 ,in #ahde ,british and ,french troops fought side by side for the first time in an expedition to the ,river ,plate4 ,the fall of ,sir ,robert ,peel's government in #ahdf changed these intimate relations2 and the return of ,lord ,palmerston to the foreign office led ,guizot to believe that he was again exposed to the passionate rivalry of the ,british cabinet4 ,a friendly understanding had been established at ,eu between the two courts with reference to the future marriage of the young queen of ,spain4 ,the language of ,lord ,palmerston and the conduct of ,sir ,henry ,bulwer 7afterwards ,lord ,dalling7 at ,madrid led ,guizot to believe that this understanding was broken1 and that it was intended to place a ,coburg on the throne of ,spain4 ,determined to resist any such intrigue1 ,guizot and the king plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue1 wholly inconsistent with their previous engagements to ,england1 and fatal to the happiness of the queen of ,spain4 ,by their influence she was urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of ,bourbon1 and her sister was at the same time married to the youngest son of the ,french king1 in direct violation of ,louis ,philippe's promises4 ,this transaction1 although it was hailed at the time as a triumph of the policy of ,france1 was in truth as fatal to the monarch as it was discreditable to the minister4 ,it was accomplished by a mixture of secrecy and violence4 ,it was defended by subterfuges4 ,by the dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned4 ,its immediate effect was to destroy the ,anglo-,french alliance1 and to throw ,guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of ,metternich and the ,northern courts4 ,the history of ,guizot's administration1 the longest and the last which existed under the constitutional monarchy of ,france1 bears the stamp of the great qualities and the great defects of his political character1 for he was throughout the master-spirit of that government4 ,his first object was to unite and discipline the conservative party1 which had been broken up by previous dissensions and ministerial changes4 ,in this he entirely succeeded by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary leader1 and by the use of all those means of influence which ,france too liberally supplies to a dominant minister4 ,no one ever doubted the purity and disinterestedness of ,guizot's own conduct4 ,he despised money2 he lived and died poor2 and though he encouraged the fever of money-getting in the ,french nation1 his own habits retained their primitive simplicity4 ,but he did not disdain to use in others the baser passions from which he was himself free4 ,some of his instruments were mean2 he employed them to deal with meanness after its kind4 ,gross abuses and breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the government1 and under an incorruptible minister the administration was denounced as corrupt4 ,licet uti alieno vitio is a proposition as false in politics as it is in divinity4 ,of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too highly4 ,it was terse1 austere1 demonstrative and commanding1--not persuasive1 not humorous1 seldom adorned1 but condensed with the force of a supreme authority in the fewest words4 ,he was essentially a ministerial speaker1 far more powerful in defence than in opposition4 ,like ,pitt he was the type of authority and resistance1 unmoved by the brilliant charges1 the wit1 the gaiety1 the irony and the discursive power of his great rival4 ,nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics and of those sudden changes and movements in debate which1 as in a battle1 sometimes change the fortune of the day4 ,his confidence in himself1 and in the majority of the chamber which he had moulded to his will1 was unbounded2 and long success and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country like ,france there was a people outside the chamber elected by a small constituency1 to which the minister and the king himself were held responsible4 ,a government based on the principle of resistance and repression and marked by dread and distrust of popular power1 a system of diplomacy which sought to revive the traditions of the old ,french monarchy1 a sovereign who largely exceeded the bounds of constitutional power and whose obstinacy augmented with years1 a minister who1 though far removed from the servility of the courtier1 was too obsequious to the personal influence of the king1 were all singularly at variance with the promises of the ,revolution of ,july1 and they narrowed the policy of the administration4 ,guizot's view of politics was essentially historical and philosophical4 ,his tastes and his acquirements gave him little insight into the practical business of administrative government4 ,of finance he knew nothing2 trade and commerce were strange to him2 military and naval affairs were unfamiliar to him2 all these subjects he dealt with by second hand through his friends1 ,p4 ,s4 ,dumon 7#agig-ahgj71 ,charles ,marie ,tanneguy1 ,comte ,duchatel 7#ahjc-ahfg71 or ,marshal ,bugeaud4 ,the consequence was that few measures of practical improvement were carried by his administration4 ,still less did the government lend an ear to the cry for parliamentary reform4 ,on this subject the king's prejudices were insurmountable1 and his ministers had the weakness to give way to them4 ,it was impossible to defend a system which confined the suffrage to #bjj1jjj citizens1 and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen4 ,nothing would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative party by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in ,france1 but blank resistance was the sole answer of the government to the just and moderate demands of the opposition4 ,warning after warning was addressed to them in vain by friends and by foes alike2 and they remained profoundly unconscious of their danger till the moment when it overwhelmed them4 ,strange to say1 ,guizot never acknowledged either at the time or to his dying day the nature of this error2 and he speaks of himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal government and constitutional law4 ,he utterly fails to perceive that a more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of ,france and a less intense confidence in his own specific theory might have preserved the constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series of calamities1 which were in the end fatal to every principle he most cherished4 ,but with the stubborn conviction of absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own doctrines to the end4 ,the last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic of his inflexible adherence to a lost cause4 ,in the afternoon oi the #bcrd of ,february #ahdh the king summoned his minister from the chamber1 which was then sitting1 and informed him that the aspect of ,paris and the country during the banquet agitation for reform1 and the alarm and division of opinion in the royal family1 led him to doubt whether he could retain his ministry4 ,that doubt1 replied ,guizot1 is decisive of the question1 and instantly resigned1 returning to the chamber only to announce that the administration was at an end and that ,mole had been sent for by the king4 ,mole failed in the attempt to form a government1 and between midnight and one in the morning ,guizot1 who had according to his custom retired early to rest1 was again sent for to the ,tuileries4 ,the king asked his advice4 ,we are no longer the ministers of your ,majesty1 replied ,guizot2 it rests with others to decide on the course to be pursued4 ,but one thing appears to be evident3 this street riot must be put down2 these barricades must be taken2 and for this purpose my opinion is that ,marshal ,bugeaud should be invested with full power1 and ordered to take the necessary military measures1 and as your ,majesty has at this moment no minister1 ,i am ready to draw up and countersign such an order4 ,the marshal1 who was present1 undertook the task1 saying1 ,i have never been beaten yet1 and ,i shall not begin to-morrow4 ,the barricades shall be carried before dawn4 ,after this display of energy the king hesitated1 and soon added3 ,i ought to tell you that ,m4 ,thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government6 ,upon this ,guizot rejoined1 ,then it rests with them to do what they think fit1 and left the palace4 ,thiers and ,barrot decided to withdraw the troops4 ,the king and ,guizot next met at ,claremont4 ,this was the most perilous conjuncture of ,guizot's life1 but fortunately he found a safe refuge in ,paris for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature painter whom he had befriended1 and shortly afterwards effected his escape across the ,belgian frontier and thence to ,london1 where he arrived on the #crd of ,march4 ,his mother and daughters had preceded him1 and he was speedily installed in a modest habitation in ,pelham ,crescent1 ,brompton4 ,the society of ,england1 though many persons disapproved of much of his recent policy1 received the fallen statesman with as much distinction and respect as they had shown eight years before to the king's ambassador4 ,sums of money were placed at his disposal1 which he declined4 ,a professorship at ,oxford was spoken of1 which he was unable to accept4 ,he stayed in ,england about a year1 devoting himself again to history4 ,he published two more volumes on the ,english revolution1 and in #ahed his ,histoire de la republique d',angleterre et de ,cromwell 7#b vols41 #ahed71 then his ,histoire du protectorat de ,cromwell et du retablissement des ,stuarts 7#b vols41 #ahef74 ,he also published an essay on ,peel1 and amid many essays on religion1 during the ten years #aheh-ahfh1 appeared the extensive ,memoires pour servir a l'histoire de mon temps1 in nine volumes4 ,his speeches were included in #ahfc in his ,histoire parlementaire de la ,france 7#e vols4 of parliamentary speeches1 #ahfc74 ,guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government he had served twenty-six years4 ,he passed abruptly from the condition of one of the most powerful and active statesmen in ,europe to the condition of a philosophical and patriotic spectator of human affairs4 ,he was aware that the link between himself and public life was broken for ever2 and he never made the slightest attempt to renew it4 ,he was of no party1 a member of no political body2 no murmur of disappointed ambition1 no language of asperity1 ever passed his lips2 it seemed as if the fever of oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from him and left him a greater man than he had been before1 in the pursuit of letters1 in the conversation of his friends1 and as head of the patriarchal circle of those he loved4 ,the greater part of the year he spent at his residence at ,val ,richer1 an ,augustine monastery near ,lisieux in ,normandy1 which had been sold at the time of the first ,revolution4 ,his two daughters1 who married two descendants of the illustrious ,dutch family of ,de ,witt1 so congenial in faith and manners to the ,huguenots of ,france1 kept his house4 ,one of his sons-in-law farmed the estate4 ,and here ,guizot devoted his later years with undiminished energy to literary labour1 which was in fact his chief means of subsistence4 ,proud1 independent1 simple and contented he remained to the last2 and these years of retirement were perhaps the happiest and most serene portion of his life4 ,two institutions may be said even under the second empire to have retained their freedom--the ,institute of ,france and the ,protestant ,consistory4 ,in both of these ,guizot continued to the last to take an active part4 ,he was a member of three of the five academies into which the ,institute of ,france is divided4 ,the ,academy of ,moral and ,political ,science owed its restoration to him1 and he became in #ahcb one of its first associates4 ,the ,academy of ,inscriptions and ,belles ,lettres elected him in #ahcc as the successor to ,m4 ,dacier2 and in #ahcf he was chosen a member of the ,french ,academy1 the highest literary distinction of the country4 ,in these learned bodies ,guizot continued for nearly forty years to take a lively interest and to exercise a powerful influence4 ,he was the jealous champion of their independence4 ,his voice had the greatest weight in the choice of new candidates2 the younger generation of ,french writers never looked in vain to him for encouragement2 and his constant aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession of letters4 ,in the consistory of the ,protestant church in ,paris ,guizot exercised a similar influence4 ,his early education and his experience of life conspired to strengthen the convictions of a religious temperament4 ,he remained through life a firm believer in the truths of revelation1 and a volume of ,meditations on the ,christian ,religion was one of his latest works4 ,but though he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and combated the rationalist tendencies of the age1 which seemed to threaten it with destruction1 he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or asperity of the ,calvinistic creed4 ,he respected in the ,church of ,rome the faith of the majority of his countrymen2 and the writings of the great ,catholic prelates1 ,bossuet and ,bourdaloue1 were as familiar and as dear to him as those of his own persuasion1 and were commonly used by him in the daily exercises of family worship4 ,in these literary pursuits and in the retirement of ,val ,richer years passed smoothly and rapidly away2 and as his grandchildren grew up around him1 he began to direct their attention to the history of their country4 ,from these lessons sprang his last and not his least work1 the ,histoire de ,france racontee a mes petits enfants1 for although this publication assumed a popular form1 it is not less complete and profound than it is simple and attractive4 ,the history came down to #aghi1 and was continued to #ahgj by his daughter ,madame ,guizot de ,witt from her father's notes4 ,down to the summer of #ahgd ,guizot's mental vigour and activity were unimpaired4 ,his frame1 temperate in all things1 was blessed with a singular immunity from infirmity and disease2 but the vital power ebbed away1 and he passed gently away on the #abth of ,september #ahgd1 reciting now and then a verse of ,corneille or a text of ,scripture4 ,,bibliography4--,see his own ,memoires pour servir a l'histoire de mon temps 7#h vols41 #aheh-ahfa72 ,lettres de ,m4 ,guizot a sa famille et a ses amis 7#ahhd72 ,c4 ,a4 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,causeries du lundi 7vol4 i41 #aheg7 and ,nouveaux ,lundis 7vols4 i4 and ix41 #ahfc-ahgb72 ,e4 ,scherer1 ,etudes critiques sur la litterature contemporaine 7vol4 iv41 #ahgc72 ,mme de ,witt1 ,guizot dans sa famille 7#ahhj72 ,jules ,simon1 ,thiers1 ,guizot et ,remusat 7#ahhe72 ,e4 ,faguet1 ,politiques et moralistes au ,,xixe siecle 7#ahia72 ,g4 ,bardoux1 ,guizot 7#ahid7 in the series of ,les ,grands ,ecrivains francais2 ,maurice ,guizot1 ,les ,annees de retraite de ,m4 ,guizot 7#aija72 and for a long list of books and articles on ,guizot in periodicals see ,h4 ,p4 ,thieme1 ,guide bibliographique de la litterature francaise de #ahjj a #aijf 7s4v4 ,guizot1 ,paris1 #aijg74 ,for a notice of his first wife see ,c4 ,a4 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,portraits de femmes 7#ahhd71 and ,ch4 de ,remusat1 ,critiques et etudes litteraires 7vol4 ii41 #ahdg74 7,h4 ,r42 ,j4 ,t4 ,s4997 ,,gujarat or ,,guzerat1 a region of ,india1 in the ,bombay ,presidency4 ,in the widest sense of the name it includes the whole of the country where the ,gujarati language is spoken1 i4e4 the northern districts and states of the ,presidency from ,palanpur to ,damaun1 with ,kathiawar and ,cutch4 ,but it is more properly confined to the country north of the ,nerbudda and east of the ,rann of ,cutch and ,kathiawar4 ,in this sense it has an area of #bi1jga sq4 m41 with a population in #aija of #d1gih1ejd4 ,it includes the states distributed among the agencies of ,palanpur1 ,mahi ,kantha1 ,rewa ,kantha and ,cambay1 with most of ,baroda and the ,british districts of ,ahmedabad1 ,kaira1 ,panch ,mahals and ,broach4 ,less than one-fourth is ,british territory4 ,the region takes its name from the ,gujars1 a tribe who passed into ,india from the north-west1 established a kingdom in ,rajputana1 and spread south in ,a4,d4 #djj-fjj4 ,the ancient ,hindu capital was ,anhilvada2 the ,mahommedan dynasty1 which ruled from #acif to #aegb1 founded ,ahmedabad1 which is still the largest city2 but ,gujarat owed much of its historical importance to the seaports of ,broach1 ,cambay and ,surat4 ,its fertile plain1 with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers1 has caused it to be styled the garden of ,india4 ,it suffered1 however1 severely from the famine of #ahii-aija4 ,for an account of the history1 geography1 c41 of ,gujarat see the articles on the various states and districts4 ,gujarat gives its name to the vernacular of northern ,bombay1 viz4 ,gujarati1 one of the three great languages of that ,presidency1 spoken by more than #i millions4 ,it has an ancient literature and a peculiar character4 ,as the language of the ,parsis it is prominent in the ,bombay press2 and it is also the commercial language of ,bombay city1 which lies outside the territorial area of ,gujarat4 ,see ,j4 ,campbell1 ,history of ,gujarat 7,bombay1 #ahif72 ,sir ,e4 ,c4 ,bayley1 ,the ,muhammedan ,kingdom of ,gujarat 7#ahhf72 ,a4 ,k4 ,forbes1 ,ras ,mala 7#ahef74 ,,gujarati and ,,rajasthani1 the names of two members of the western sub-group of the ,intermediate ,group of ,indo-,aryan languages 7q4v474 ,the remaining member of this sub-group is ,panjabi or ,punjabi 7see ,,hindostani74 ,in #aija the speakers of those now dealt with numbered3 ,gujarati1 #i1dci1ibe1 and ,rajasthani1 #aj1iag1gab4 ,the two languages are closely connected and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same form of speech4 ,together they occupy an almost square block of country1 some #djj m4 broad1 reaching from near ,agra and ,delhi on the river ,jumna to the ,arabian ,sea4 ,gujarati 7properly ,gujarati7 is spoken in ,gujarat1 the northern maritime province of the ,bombay ,presidency1 and also in ,baroda and the native states adjoining4 ,rajasthani 7properly ,rajasthani1 from ,rajasthan1 the native name for ,rajputana7 is spoken in ,rajputana and the adjoining parts of ,central ,india4 ,in the articles ,,indo-,,aryan ,,languages and ,,prakrit the history of the earlier stages of the ,indo-,aryan vernaculars is given at some length4 ,it is there shown that1 from the most ancient times1 there were two main groups of these forms of speech--one1 the language of the ,midland1 spoken in the country near the ,gangetic ,doab1 and the other1 the so-called ,outer ,band1 containing the ,midland on three sides1 west1 north and south4 ,the country to the west and south-west of the ,midland1 in which this outer group of languages was spoken1 included the modern ,punjab1 ,rajputana and ,gujarat4 ,in process of time the population of the ,midland expanded and carried its language to its new homes4 ,it occupied the eastern and central ,punjab1 and the mixed 7or intermediate7 language which there grew up became the modern ,panjabi4 ,to the west it spread into ,rajputana1 till its progress was stopped by the ,indian desert1 and in ,rajputana another intermediate language took rise and became ,rajasthani4 ,as elsewhere explained1 the language-wave of the ,midland exercised less and less influence as it travelled farther from its home1 so that1 while in eastern ,rajputana the local dialect is now almost a pure midland speech1 in the west there are many evident traces of the old outer language still surviving4 ,to the south-west of ,rajputana there was no desert to stop the wave of ,midland expansion1 which therefore rolled on unobstructed into ,gujarat1 where it reached the sea4 ,here the survivals of the old outer language are stronger still4 ,the old outer ,prakrit of north ,gujarat was known as ,saurastri1 while the ,prakrit of the ,midland invaders was called ,sauraseni1 and we may therefore describe ,gujarati as being an intermediate language derived 7as explained in the articles ,,prakrit7 from a mixture of the ,apabhramsa forms of ,saurastri and ,sauraseni1 in which the latter predominated4 ,it will be observed that1 at the present day1 ,gujarati breaks the continuity of the outer band of ,indo-,aryan languages4 ,to its north it has ,sindhi and to its south ,marathi1 both outer languages with which it has only a slight connexion4 ,on the other hand1 on the east and north-east it has ,rajasthani1 into which it merges so gradually and imperceptibly that at the conventional border-line1 in the state of ,palanpur1 the inhabitants of ,rajputana say that the local dialect is a form of ,gujarati1 while the inhabitants of ,gujarat say that it is ,rajasthani4 ,language4 ,gujarati has no important local dialects1 but there is considerable variation in the speeches of different classes of the community4 ,parsees and ,mussulmans 7when the latter use the language--as a rule the ,gujarat ,mussulmans speak ,hindostani7 have some striking peculiarities of pronunciation1 the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the latter of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters4 ,the uneducated ,hindus do not pronounce the language in the same way as their betters1 and this difference is accentuated in northern ,gujarat1 where the lower classes substitute e for i1 c for k1 ch for kh1 s for c and ch1 h for s1 and drop h as readily as any cockney4 ,there is also 7as in the case of the ,mussulmans7 a tendency to confuse cerebral and dental consonants1 to substitute r for d and l1 to double medial consonants1 and to pronounce the letter a as a1 something like the a in all4 ,the ,bhils of the hills east of ,gujarat also speak a rude ,gujarati1 with special dialectic peculiarities of their own1 probably due to the fact that the tribes are of ,dravidian origin4 ,these ,bhil peculiarities are further mixed with corruptions of ,marathi idioms in ,nimar and ,khandesh1 where we have almost a new language4 ,rajasthani has numerous dialects1 each state claiming one or more of its own4 ,thus1 in the state of ,jaipur there have been catalogued no less than ten dialects among about #a1fhh1jjj people4 ,all ,rajasthani dialects can1 however1 be easily classed in four well-defined groups1 a north-eastern1 a southern1 a western and an east-central4 ,the north-eastern 7,mewati7 is that form of ,rajasthani which is merging into the ,western ,hindi of the ,midland4 ,it is a mixed form of speech1 and need not detain us further4 ,similarly1 the southern 7,malvi7 is much mixed with the neighbouring ,bundeli form of ,western ,hindi4 ,the western 7,marwari7 spoken in ,marwar and its neighbourhood1 and the east-central 7,jaipuri7 spoken in ,jaipur and its neighbourhood1 may be taken as the typical ,rajasthani dialects4 ,in the following paragraphs we shall therefore confine ourselves to ,gujarati1 ,marwari and ,jaipuri4 ,we know more about the ancient history of ,gujarati than we do about that of any other ,indo-,aryan language4 ,the one native grammar of ,apabhramsa ,prakrit which we possess in a printed edition1 was written by ,hemacandra 7#abth century ,a4,d471 who lived in what is now north ,gujarat1 and who naturally described most fully the particular vernacular with which he was personally familiar4 ,it was known as the ,nagara ,apabhramsa1 closely connected 7as above explained7 with ,sauraseni1 and was so named after the ,nagara ,brahmans of the locality4 ,these men carried on the tradition of learning inherited from ,hemacandra1 and we see ,gujarati almost in the act of taking birth in a work called the ,mugdhavabodhamauktika1 written by one of them only two hundred years after his death4 ,formal ,gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet ,narsingh ,meta in the #aeth century4 ,rajasthani literature has received but small attention from ,european or native scholars1 and we are as yet unable to say how far back the language goes4 ,both ,gujarati and ,rajasthani are usually written in current scripts related to the well-known ,nagari alphabet 7see ,,sanskrit74 ,the form employed in ,rajputana is known all over northern ,india as the ,mahajani alphabet1 being used by bankers or ,mahajans1 most of whom are ,marwaris4 ,it is noteworthy as possessing two distinct characters for d and r4 ,the ,gujarati character closely resembles the ,kaithi character of northern ,india 7see ,,bihari74 ,the ,nagari character is also freely used in ,rajputana1 and to a less extent in ,gujarat1 where it is employed by the ,nagara ,brahmans1 who claim that their tribe has given the alphabet its name4 ,in the following description of the main features of our two languages1 the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading facts stated in the articles ,,indo-,,aryan ,,languages and ,,prakrit4 ,the article ,,hindostani may also be perused with advantage4 7,abbreviations4 ,skr4 ,sanskrit4 ,pr4 ,prakrit4 ,ap4 ,apabhramsa4 ,g4 ,gujarati4 ,r4 ,rajasthani4 ,h4 ,hindostaani47 ,vocabulary4--,the vocabulary of both ,gujarat and ,rajasthani is very free from tatsama words4 ,the great mass of both vocabularies is tadbhava 7see ,,indo-,,aryan ,,languages74 ,rajputana was from an early period brought into close contact with the ,mogul court at ,agra and ,delhi1 and even in the #acth century ,a4,d4 official documents of the ,rajput princes contained many borrowed ,persian and ,arabic words4 ,gujarati1 under the influence of the learned ,nagara ,brahmans1 has perhaps more tatsama words than ,rajasthani1 but their employment is not excessive4 ,on the other hand1 ,parsees and ,mussulmans employ ,persian and ,arabic words with great freedom2 while1 owing to its maritime connexions1 the language has also borrowed occasional words from other parts of ,asia and from ,europe4 ,this is specially marked in the strange dialect of the ,kathiawar boatmen who travel all over the world as lascars on the great steamships4 ,their language is a mixture of ,hindostani and ,gujarati with a heterogeneous vocabulary4 ,phonetics4--,with a few exceptions to be mentioned below1 the sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of ,sanskrit1 and is represented in the same manner in the ,roman character 7see ,,sanskrit74 ,the simplest method for considering the subject in regard to ,gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of ,hindostani 7q4v474 ,as a rule1 ,rajasthani closely follows ,gujarati and need not be referred to except in special cases4 ,g4 invariably simplifies a medial ,pr4 double consonant1 lengthening the preceding vowel in compensation4 ,thus ,skr4 mraksanam1 ,ap4 makkhanu1 ,h4 makkhan1 but ,g4 makhan1 butter4 ,in ,h4 this rule is generally observed1 but in ,g4 it is universal1 while1 on the other hand1 in ,panjabi the double consonant is never simplified1 but is retained as in ,ap4 ,in ,g4 7and sometimes in ,r47 when a is followed by h it is changed to e1 as in ,h4 shahr1 ,g4 seher1 a city4 ,as in other outer languages ,h4 ai and au are usually represented by a short e and by a 7sounded like the a in all7 respectively4 ,thus ,h4 baitha4 ,g4 betho1 seated2 ,h4 cautha1 ,g4 catho 7written cotho71 fourth4 ,in ,r4 this e is often further weakened to the sound of a in man1 a change which is also common in ,bengali4 ,many words which have i in ,h4 have a in ,g4 and ,r41 thus1 ,h4 likhe1 ,g4 lakhe1 he writes2 ,h4 din1 ,g4 and ,r4 dan1 a day4 ,similarly we have a for u1 as in ,h4 tum1 ,g41 ,r4 tame1 you4 ,in colloquial ,g4 a often becomes a1 and i becomes e2 thus1 pani for pani1 water2 mares for maris1 ,i shall strike4 ,as in most ,indo-,aryan vernaculars an a after an accented syllable is very lightly pronounced1 and is here represented by a small a above the line4 ,the ,vedic cerebral l and the cerebral n are very common as medial letters in both ,g4 and ,r4 7both being unknown to literary ,h474 ,the rule is1 as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate and outer languages1 that when n and l represent a double nn 7or nn7 or a double ll in ,pr4 they are dental1 but when they represent single medial letters they are cerebralized4 ,thus ,ap4 sonnau1 ,g4 sonu1 gold2 ,ap4 ghanau1 ,g4 ghanu1 dense2 ,ap4 callai1 ,g4 cale1 he goes2 ,ap4 calai1 ,g4 cale1 he moves4 ,in northern ,g4 and in some caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are absolutely interchangeable1 as in dahado or dahado1 a day2 tu or tu1 thou2 didho or didho1 given4 ,in ,g4 and ,r4 medial d is pronounced as a rough cerebral r1 and is then so transcribed4 ,we have seen that in the ,marwari alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these two sounds4 ,in colloquial ,g4 c and ch are pronounced s1 especially in the north1 as in pas for pac1 five2 pusyo for puchyo1 he asked4 ,similarly1 in the north1 j and jh become z1 as in zad for jhad1 a tree4 ,in some localities 7as in ,marathi7 we have ts and dz for these sounds1 as in ,tsarotar 7name of a tract of country7 for ,carotar4 ,on the other hand1 k1 kh and g1 especially when preceded or followed by i1 e or y1 become in the north c1 ch and j respectively2 thus1 dicaro for dikaro1 a son2 chetar for khetar1 a field2 lajyo for lagyo1 begun4 ,a similar change is found in dialectic ,marathi1 and is1 of course1 one of the commonplaces of the philology of the ,romance languages4 ,the sibilants s and s are colloquially pronounced h 7as in several outer languages71 especially in the north4 ,thus deh for des1 a country2 hu for su1 what2 hamajavyo for samajavyo1 he explained4 ,an original aspirate is1 however1 often dropped1 as in 'u for hu1 ,i2 'ate for hathe1 on the hand4 ,standard ,g4 is at the same time fond of pronouncing an h where it is not written1 as in ame1 we1 pronounced ahme4 ,in other respects both ,g4 and ,r4 closely agree in their phonetical systems with the ,apabhramsa form of ,sauraseni ,prakrit from which the ,midland language is derived4 ,declension4--,gujarati agrees with ,marathi 7an outer language7 as against ,hindostani in retaining the neuter gender of ,sanskrit and ,prakrit4 ,moreover1 the neuter gender is often employed to indicate living beings of which the sex is uncertain1 as in the case of dikaru1 a child1 compared with dikaro1 a son1 and dikari1 a daughter4 ,in ,r4 there are only sporadic instances of the neuter1 which grow more and more rare as we approach the ,midland4 ,nouns in both ,g4 and ,r4 may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article ,,hindostani4 ,we have there seen that the strong form of masculine nouns in ,western ,hindi generally ends in au1 the a of words like the ,hindostani ghora1 a horse1 being an accident due to the fact that the ,hindostani dialect of ,western ,hindi borrows this termination from ,panjabi4 ,g4 and ,r4 follow ,western ,hindi1 for their masculine strong forms end in o4 ,feminine strong forms end in i as elsewhere4 ,neuter strong forms in ,g4 end in u1 derived as follows3 ,skr1 svarnakam1 ,ap4 sonnau1 ,g4 sonu1 gold4 ,as an example of the three genders of the same word we may take ,g4 chokaro 7masc471 a boy2 chokari 7fem471 a girl2 chokaru 7neut471 a child4 ,long forms corresponding to the ,eastern ,hindi ghorawa1 a horse1 are not much used1 but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing the pleonastic termination do or ro 7fem4 di or ri2 ,g4 neut4 du or ru7 which is directly descended from the ,ap4 pleonastic termination dau1 dai1 dau4 ,we come across this most often in ,r41 where it is used contemptuously1 as in ,turuk-ro1 a ,turk4 ,in the article ,,hindostani it is shown that all the oblique cases of each number in ,sanskrit and ,prakrit became melted down in the modern languages into one general oblique case1 which1 in the ,midland1 is derived in the singular from the ,ap4 termination -hi or -hi1 and that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine nouns2 thus1 ghora1 obl4 ghore4 ,in ,g4 and ,r4 this same termination has also survived1 but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and locative cases4 ,the general oblique case is the same as the nominative1 except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in o and u respectively1 where it ends in a1 not e4 ,this a-termination is characteristic of the outer band of languages1 and is one of the survivals already referred to4 ,it is derived from the ,apabhramsa genitive form in -aha1 corresponding to the ,magadhi ,pr4 7an outer ,prakrit7 termination -aha4 ,thus1 ,g4 chokaro1 a son2 chokaru1 a child2 obl4 sing4 chokara4 ,in ,g4 the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed by adding o to the oblique form singular1 but in the neuter strong forms the oblique singular is nasalized4 ,the real plural is the same in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines1 and as a nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms1 as in other modern ,indo-,aryan vernaculars1 and the added o is a further plural termination 7making a double plural1 exactly as it does in the ,ardhamagadhi ,prakrit putta-o1 sons7 which is often dropped4 ,the nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from ,ap41 in which the neuter nom4 plural of such nouns ended in -aai ,in ,r4 the nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the oblique case singular1 and the oblique plural ends in a4 ,the feminine has a both in the nominative and in the oblique plural4 ,these are all explained in the article ,,hindostani4 ,we thus get the following paradigms of the declension of nouns4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,apabhramsa4 ,gujarati4 ,rajasthani4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,strong ,noun ,masc4-- ,a horse4 ,sing4 ,nom4 ghodau ghodo ghodo ,obl4 ghodaaha ghoda ghoda ,ag4-,loc4 ghodaahi ghode1 ghodae ghodai ,plur4 ,nom4 ghodaa ghoda-o ghoda ,obl4 ghodaaha ghoda-o ghoda ,ag4-,loc4 ghodaahi ghoda-o-e ghoda ,strong ,noun ,neut4-- ,gold4 ,sing4 ,nom4 sonnau sonu 44 ,obl4 sonnaaha sona 44 ,ag4-,loc4 sonnaahi sone1 sonae 44 ,plur4 ,nom4 sonnaai sone 44 ,obl4 sonnaaha sona-o 44 ,ag4-,loc4 sonnaahi sona-o-e 44 ,strong ,noun ,fem4-- ,a mare4 ,sing4 ,nom4 ghodia ghodi ghodi ,obl4 ghodiahi ghodi ghodi ,ag4-,loc4 ghodiae ghodie ghodi ,plur4 ,nom4 ghodia-o ghodi-o ghodya ,obl4 ghodiahu ghodi-o ghodya ,ag4-,loc4 ghodiahi ghodi-o-e ghodya ,weak ,noun ,masc4 or ,neut4-- ,a house4 ,sing4 ,nom4 gharu 7neut47 ghar ghar ,obl4 gharaha ghar ghar ,ag4-,loc4 gharahi ghare gharai ,plur4 ,nom4 gharai ghar-o ghar ,obl4 gharaha ghar-o ghara ,ag4-,loc4 gharahi ghar-o-e ghara ,weak ,noun ,fem4-- ,a word4 ,sing4 ,nom4 vatta wat bat ,obl4 vattahi wat bat ,ag4-,loc4 vattae wate bat ,plur4 ,nom4 vatta-o wat-o bata ,obl4 vattahu wat-o bata ,ag4-,loc4 vattahi wat-o-e bata ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the general oblique case can be employed for any case except the nominative1 but1 in order to define the meaning1 it is customary to add postpositions as in ,hindostani4 ,these are3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,genitive4 ,dative4 ,ablative4 ,locative4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,gujarati no ne thi ma ,rajasthani ro1 ko nai1 rai1 kai su mai ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the suffix no of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of tano1 which is found in old ,gujarati poetry1 and which1 under the form tanas in ,sanskrit and tanau in ,apabhramsa1 mean belonging to4 ,it is an adjective1 and agrees in gender1 number and case with the thing possessed4 ,thus1 raja-no dikaro1 the king's son2 raja-ni dikari1 the king's daughter2 raja-nu ghar1 the king's house2 raja-na dikara-ne1 to the king's son 7na is in the oblique case masculine to agree with dikara72 raja-ne ghare1 in the king's house4 ,the ro and ko of ,r4 are similarly treated1 but1 of course1 have no neuter4 ,the dative postpositions are simply locatives of the genitive ones1 as in all modern ,indo-,aryan languages 7see ,,hindostani74 ,thi1 the postposition of the ,g4 ablative1 is connected with thawu1 to be1 one of the verbs substantive in that language4 ,the ablative suffix is made in this way in many modern ,indo-,aryan languages 7e4g4 ,bengali1 q4v474 ,it means literally having been and is to be ultimately referred to the ,sanskrit root1 stha1 stand4 ,the derivation of the other postpositions is discussed in the article ,,hindostani4 ,strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender1 number and case1 as in the examples of the genitive above4 ,weak adjectives are immutable4 ,pronouns closely agree with those found in ,hindostani4 ,in the table on following page we give the first two personal pronouns1 and the demonstrative pronoun this4 ,similarly are formed the remaining pronouns1 viz4 ,g4 a1 ,r4 u1 he1 that2 ,g4 te1 ,r4 so 7obl4 sing4 ti71 that2 ,g4 je1 ,r4 jo1 who2 ,g4 kan 7obl4 kan1 ko1 or ke71 ,r4 kun 7obl4 kun71 who82 ,g4 su1 ,r4 kai1 what82 ,g41 ,r4 koi1 anyone1 someone1 kai anything1 something4 ,g4 has two other demonstratives1 pelo and olyo1 both meaning that4 ,the derivation of these and of su has been discussed without any decisive result4 ,the rest are explained in the article ,,hindostani4 ,the reflexive pronoun is ,g4 apane1 ,r4 apa4 ,it is generally employed as a plural of the first personal pronoun including the person addressed2 thus ,g4 apane1 we 7including you71 but ame1 we 7excluding you74 ,in ,g4 pote1 obl4 pota1 is used to mean self4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,apabhramsa4 ,gujarati4 ,rajasthani4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,i ,nom4 hau hu hu1 mhu1 mai ,obl4 mai1 mahu1 majjhu ma1 maj ma1 mha1 mu ,,my maharau maro maro1 mharo ,,we ,nom4 amhe ame mhe ,obl4 amhaha am-o mha ,,our amharau amaro mha-ro1 mha-ko ,,thou ,nom4 tuhu tu tu ,obl4 tai1 tuha1 tujjhu ta1 tuj ta1 tha1 tu ,,thy tuharau taro tharo ,,you ,nom4 tumhe tame the1 tame ,obl4 tumhaha tam-o tha1 tama ,,your tumharau tamaro tha-ro1 tha-ko ,,this1 ,,he ,nom4 eho e yo ,obl4 787 ehaha1 imaha e i ,,these1 ,,they ,nom4 ei e-o e1 ye ,obl4 eammi1 ehana em ina1 ya4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,conjugation4--,the old present has survived as in ,hindostani and other ,indian languages4 ,taking the base call or cal1 go1 as our model1 we have3 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,apabhramsa4 ,gujarati4 ,rajasthani4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,sing4 #a callau calu calu #b callahi cale calai #c callai cale calai ,plur4 #a callahu calie cala #b callahu calo calo #c callahi cale calai ---------------------------------------- -------- ,the derivation of the ,g4 #a plural is unknown4 ,that of the other ,g4 and ,r4 forms is manifest4 ,the imperative closely follows this1 but as usual has no termination in the second person singular4 ,in ,r4 the future may be formed by adding go 7cf4 ,hindostani ga71 lo1 or la to the old present4 ,thus1 calu-go1 calu-lo or calu-la ,i shall go4 ,the go and lo agree in gender and number with the subject1 but la is immutable4 ,the termination with l is also found in ,bhojpuri 7see ,,bihari71 in ,marathi and in ,nepali4 ,for go see ,,hindostani4 ,another form of the future has s or h for its characteristic letter1 and is the only one employed in ,g4 ,thus1 ,ap4 callisau or callihau1 ,g4 calis1 ,r4 7,jaipuri7 calasyu1 7,marwari7 calahu4 ,the other personal terminations differ considerably from those of the old present1 and closely follow ,ap4 ,thus1 ,ap4 #c sing4 callisai or callihi1 ,g4 calase1 ,marwari calahi4 ,the participles and infinitive are as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,apabhramsa4 ,gujarati4 ,rajasthani4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,pres4 ,part4 ,active callantau calato calato ,past4 ,part4 ,passive calliau calyo calyo ,future ,part4 ,passive calliavvau calavo calabo ,infinitive 44 calavu calabo ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,in ,g4 the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive participle4 ,the participles are employed to form finite tenses2 thus ,g4 hu calato1 ,i used to go2 hu calyo1 ,i went4 ,if the verb is transitive 7see ,,hindostani7 the passive meaning of the past participle comes into force4 ,the subject is put into the case of the agent1 and the participle inflects to agree with the object1 or1 if there is no object1 is employed impersonally in the neuter 7in ,g47 or in the masculine 7in ,r474 ,in ,hindostani1 if the object is expressed in the dative1 the participle is also employed impersonally1 in the masculine2 thus raja-ne sherni-ko mara 7masc471 not mari1 7fem471 by-the-king1 with reference-to-the-tigress1 it-7impersonal7-was-killed1 i4e4 the king killed the tigress4 ,but in ,g4 and ,r41 even if the object is in the dative1 the past participle agrees with it2 thus1 ,g4 rajae waghan-ne mari1 by-the-king1 with-reference-to-the-tigress1 she-was-killed4 ,other examples from ,g4 of this passive construction are me kahyu1 by me it was said1 ,i said2 tene citthi lakhi1 by him a letter was written1 he wrote a letter2 e baie vagada-ma1 dahada kadya1 by this lady1 in the wilderness1 days were passed1 i4e4 she passed her days in the wilderness2 rajae vicaryu1 the king considered4 ,the idiom of ,r4 is exactly the same in these cases1 except that the masculine must be used where ,g4 has the neuter2 thus1 rajaai vicaryo4 ,the future passive participle is construed in much the same way1 but 7as in ,latin7 the subject may be put into the dative4 ,thus1 mare a capadi vacavi1 mihi ille liber 7est7 legendus1 ,i must read that book1 but also tene 7agent case7 e kam karavu1 by him this business is to be done4 ,g4 also forms a past participle in elo 7calelo71 which is one of the many survivals of the outer language4 ,this -l- participle is typical of most of the languages of the outer band1 including ,marathi1 ,oriya1 ,bengali1 ,bihari and ,assamese4 ,it is formed by the addition of the ,prakrit pleonastic suffix -illa-1 which was not used by the ,prakrit of the ,midland1 but was common elsewhere4 ,compare1 for instance1 the ,ardhamagadhi past participle passive an-illia-1 brought4 ,the usual verbs substantive are as follows3 ,g4 chu1 ,r4 hu or chu1 ,i am1 which are conjugated regularly as old presents1 and ,g4 hato1 ,r4 ho or cho1 was1 which is a past participle1 like the ,hindostani 7q4v47 tha4 ,hu1 hato and ho are explained in the article on that language4 ,chu is for ,skr4 r deg4cchami1 ,ap4 acchau4 ,the use of this base is one of the outer band survivals4 ,even in ,prakrit1 it is not found 7so far as the present writer is aware7 in the ,sauraseni of the ,midland4 ,using these as auxiliaries the finite verb makes a whole series of periphrastic tenses4 ,a present definite is formed by conjugating the old present tense 7not the present participle7 with the present tense of the verb substantive4 ,thus1 ,g4 calu chu1 ,i am going4 ,a similar idiom is found in some ,western ,hindi dialects1 but ,hindostani employs the present participle2 thus1 calta hu4 ,in ,g4 and ,r41 however1 the imperfect is formed with the present participle as in ,h4 ,thus1 ,g4 hu calato hato1 ,i was going4 ,so1 as in ,h41 we have a perfect hu calyo 7or calelo7 chu1 ,i have gone1 and a pluperfect hu calyo 7or calelo7 hato1 ,i had gone4 ,the ,r4 periphrastic tenses are made on the same principles4 ,with the genitive of the ,g4 future passive participle1 calava-no1 we have a kind of gerundive1 as in hu calavano chu1 ,i am to be gone1 i4e4 ,i am about to go2 hu calavano hato1 ,i was about to go4 ,the same series of derivative verbs occurs in ,g4 and ,r4 as in ,h4 ,thus1 we have a potential passive 7a simple passive in ,g47 formed by adding a to the base1 as in ,g4 lakhavu1 to write1 lakhavu1 to be written2 and a causal by adding av or ad1 as in lakhavavu1 to cause to write2 besavu1 to sit1 besadavu1 to seat4 ,a new passive may be formed in ,g4 from the causal1 as in tapavu1 to be hot2 tapavavu1 to cause to be hot2 to heat2 tapavavu1 to be heated4 ,several verbs have irregular past participles4 ,these must be learnt from the grammars4 ,so also the numerous compound verbs1 such as 7,g47 cali sakavu1 to be able to go2 cali cukavu1 to have completed going2 calya karavu1 to be in the habit of going1 and so on4 ,literature4 ,very little is known about the literature of ,rajputana1 except that it is of large extent4 ,it includes a number of bardic chronicles of which only one has been partially edited1 but the contents of which have been described by ,tod in his admired ,rajasthan4 ,it also includes a considerable religious literature1 but the whole mass of this is still in ,,ms4 ,from those specimens which the present writer has examined1 it would appear that most of the authors wrote in ,braj ,bhasha1 the ,hindu literary dialect of ,hindostani 7q4v47 ,in ,marwar it is an acknowledged fact that the literature falls into two branches1 one called ,pingal and couched in ,braj ,bhasha1 and the other called ,d4ingal and couched in ,rajasthani4 ,the most admired work in ,d4ingal is the ,raghunath ,rupak written by ,mansa ,ram in the beginning of the #aith century4 ,it is nominally a treatise on prosody1 but1 like many other works of the same kind1 it contrives to pay a double debt1 for the examples of the metres are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the deeds of the hero ,rama4 ,the earliest writer of importance in ,gujarati1 and its most admired poet1 was ,narsingh ,meta1 who lived in the #aeth century ,a4,d4 ,before him there were writers on ,sanskrit grammar1 rhetoric and the like1 who employed an old form of ,gujarati for their explanations4 ,narsingh does not appear to have written any considerable work1 his reputation depending on his short songs1 many of which exhibit much felicity of diction4 ,he had several successors1 all admittedly his inferiors4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy of these was ,rewa ,sankar1 the translator of the ,mahabharata 7see ,,sanskrit3 ,literature74 ,a more important side of ,gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles1 the contents of which have been utilized by ,forbes in his ,ras ,mala4 ,modern ,gujarati literature mostly consists of translations or imitations of ,english works4 ,,authorities4--,volume ix4 of the ,linguistic ,survey of ,india contains a full and complete account of ,gujarati and ,rajasthani1 including their various dialectic forms4 ,for ,rajasthani1 see ,s4 ,h4 ,kellogg1 ,grammar of the ,hindi ,language 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahic74 ,in this are described several dialects of ,rajasthani4 ,see also ,ram ,karn ,sarma1 ,marwari ,vyakarana 7,jodhpur1 #aija7 7a ,marwari grammar written in that language71 and ,g4 ,macalister1 ,specimens of the ,dialects spoken in the ,state of ,jaipur 7contains specimens1 vocabularies and grammars7 7,allahabad1 #ahih74 ,for ,gujarati1 there are numerous grammars1 amongst which we may note ,w4 ,st ,c4 ,tisdall1 ,simplified ,grammar of the ,gujarati ,language 7,london1 #ahib7 and 7the most complete7 ,g4 ,p4 ,taylor1 ,the ,student's ,gujarati ,grammar 7#bnd ed41 ,bombay1 #aijh74 ,as for dictionaries1 the most authoritative is the ,narma-kos of ,narmada ,sankar 7,bhaunagar and ,surat1 #ahgc71 in ,gujarati throughout4 ,for ,english readers we may mention ,shahpurji ,edalji's 7#bnd ed41 ,bombay1 #ahfh71 the introduction to which contains an account of ,gujarati literature by ,j4 ,glasgow1 ,belsare's 7,ahmedabad1 #ahie71 and ,karbhari's 7,ahmedabad1 #ahii74 7,g4 ,a4 ,gr47 ,,gujranwala1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,lahore division of the ,punjab4 ,the town is situated #dj m4 ,n4 of ,lahore by rail4 ,it is of modern growth1 and owes its importance to the father and grandfather of ,maharaja ,ranjit ,singh1 whose capital it formed during the early period of the ,sikh power4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bi1bbd4 ,there are manufactures of brass-ware1 jewellery1 and silk and cotton scarves4 ,the ,,district comprises an area of #caih sq4 m4 ,in #aija the population was #gef1gig1 showing an increase of #bi in the decade4 ,the district is divided between a low alluvial tract along the rivers ,chenab and ,degh and the upland between them1 which forms the central portion of the ,rechna ,doab1 intermediate between the fertile submontane plains of ,sialkot and the desert expanses of ,jhang4 ,part of the upland tract has been brought under cultivation by the ,chenab canal4 ,the country is very bare of trees1 and the scenery throughout is tame and in the central plateau becomes monotonous4 ,it seems likely that the district once contained the capital of the ,punjab1 at an epoch when ,lahore had not begun to exist4 ,we learn from the ,chinese ,buddhist pilgrim1 ,hsuan ,tsang1 that about the year #fcj he visited a town known as ,tse-kia 7or ,taki71 the metropolis of the whole country of the five rivers4 ,a mound near the modern village of ,asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient capital4 ,until the ,mahommedan invasions little is known of ,gujranwala1 except that ,taki had fallen into oblivion and ,lahore had become the chief city4 ,under ,mahommedan rule the district flourished for a time2 but a mysterious depopulation fell upon the tract1 and the whole region seems to have been almost entirely abandoned4 ,on the rise of ,sikh power1 the waste plains of ,gujranwala were seized by various military adventurers4 ,charat ,singh took-possession of the village of ,gujranwala1 and here his grandson the great ,maharaja ,ranjit ,singh was born4 ,the ,sikh rule1 which was elsewhere so disastrous1 appears to have been an unmitigated benefit to this district4 ,ranjit ,singh settled large colonies in the various villages1 and encouraged cultivation throughout the depopulated plain4 ,in #ahdg the district came under ,british influence in connexion with the regency at ,lahore2 and in #ahdi it was included in the territory annexed after the second ,sikh war4 ,a large export trade is carried on in cotton1 wheat and other grains4 ,the district is served by the main line and branches of the ,north-,western railway4 ,,gujrat1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,rawalpindi division of the ,punjab1 lying on the south-western border of ,kashmir4 ,the town stands about #e m4 from the right bank of the river ,chenab1 #gj m4 ,n4 of ,lahore by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ai1daj4 ,it is built upon an ancient site1 formerly occupied1 according to tradition1 by two successive cities1 the second of which is supposed to have been destroyed in #acjc1 the year of a ,mongol invasion4 ,more than #bjj years later either ,sher ,shah or ,akbar founded the existing town4 ,though standing in the midst of a ,jat neighbourhood1 the fort was first garrisoned by ,gujars1 and took the name of ,gujrat4 ,akbar's fort1 largely improved by ,gujar ,singh1 stands in the centre of the town4 ,the neighbouring shrine of the saint ,shah ,daula serves as a kind of native asylum for lunatics4 ,the town has manufactures of furniture1 inlaid work in gold and iron1 brass-ware1 boots1 cotton goods and shawls4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,gujrat comprises a narrow wedge of sub-,himalayan plain country1 possessing few natural advantages4 ,from the basin of the ,chenab on the south the general level rises rapidly towards the interior1 which1 owing to the great distance of the water beneath the surface1 assumes a dreary and desert aspect4 ,a range of low hills1 known as the ,pabbi1 traverses the northern angle of ,gujrat4 ,they are composed of a friable ,tertiary sandstone and conglomerate1 destitute of vegetation1 and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock1 deeply scored with precipitous ravines4 ,immediately below the ,pabbi stretches a high plateau1 terminating abruptly in a precipitous bluff some #bjj ft4 in height4 ,at the foot of this plateau is a plain1 which forms the actual valley of the ,chenab and participates in the irrigation from the river bed4 ,numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district4 ,mounds of ancient construction yield early coins1 and bricks are found whose size and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric period4 ,a mound now occupied by the village of ,moga or ,mong has been identified as the site of ,nicaea1 the city built by ,alexander the ,great on the field of his victory over ,porus4 ,the ,delhi empire established its authority in this district under ,bahlol ,lodi 7#adea-adhi74 ,a century later it was visited by ,akbar1 who founded ,gujrat as the seat of government4 ,during the decay of the ,mogul power1 the ,ghakkars of ,rawalpindi overran this portion of the ,punjab and established themselves in ,gujrat about #agda4 ,meanwhile the ,sikh power had been asserting itself in the eastern ,punjab1 and in #agfe the ,ghakkar chief was defeated by ,sirdar ,gujar ,singh1 chief of the ,bhangi confederacy4 ,on his death1 his son succeeded him1 but after a few months' warfare1 in #agih1 he submitted himself as vassal to the ,maharaja ,ranjit ,singh4 ,in #ahdf ,gujrat first came under the supervision of ,british officials4 ,two years later the district became the theatre for the important engagements which decided the event of the second ,sikh war4 ,after several bloody battles in which the ,british were unsuccessful1 the ,sikh power was irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place at ,gujrat on the #bbnd of ,february #ahdi4 ,the ,punjab then passed by annexation under ,british rule4 ,the district comprises an area of #bjea sq4 m4 ,in #aija the population was #gej1edh1 showing a decrease of #a1 compared with an increase of #aj in the previous decade4 ,the district has a large export trade in wheat and other grains1 oil1 wool1 cotton and hides4 ,the main line and the ,sind-,sagar branch of the ,north-,western railway traverse it4 ,,gula1 a ,babylonian goddess1 the consort of ,ninib4 ,she is identical with another goddess1 known as ,bau1 though it would seem that the two were originally independent4 ,the name ,bau is more common in the oldest period and gives way in the post-,khammurabic age to ,gula4 ,since it is probable that ,ninib 7q4v47 has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities1 the two names may represent consorts of different gods4 ,however this may be1 the qualities of both are alike1 and the two occur as synonymous designations of ,ninib's female consort4 ,other names borne by this goddess are ,nin-,karrak1 ,ga-tum-dug and ,nin-din-dug1 the latter signifying the lady who restores to life4 ,the designation well emphasizes the chief trait of ,bau-,gula which is that of healer4 ,she is often spoken of as the great physician1 and accordingly plays a specially prominent role in incantations and incantation rituals intended to relieve those suffering from disease4 ,she is1 however1 also invoked to curse those who trample upon the rights of rulers or those who do wrong with poisonous potions4 ,as in the case of ,ninib1 the cult of ,bau-,gula is prominent in ,shirgulla and in ,nippur4 ,while generally in close association with her consort1 she is also invoked by herself1 and thus retains a larger measure of independence than most of the goddesses of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,she appears in a prominent position on the designs accompanying the ,kudurrus boundary-stone monuments of ,babylonia1 being represented by a statue1 when other gods and goddesses are merely pictured by their shrines1 by sacred animals or by weapons4 ,in neo-,babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent position1 and ,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii4 speaks of no less than three chapels or shrines within the sacred precincts of ,e-,zida in the city of ,borsippa1 besides a temple in her honour at ,babylon4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,gulbarga1 an ancient city of ,india1 situated in the ,nizam's dominions1 #gj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,sholapur4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bi1bbh4 ,originally a ,hindu city1 it was made the capital of the ,bahmani kings when that dynasty established their independence in the ,deccan in #acdg1 and it remained such until #adbb4 ,the palaces1 mosques and tombs of these kings still stand half-ruined4 ,the most notable building is a mosque modelled after that of ,cordova in ,spain1 covering an area of #ch1jjj sq4 ft41 which is almost unique in ,india as being entirely covered in4 ,since the opening of a station on the ,great ,india ,peninsula railway1 ,gulbarga has become a centre of trade1 with cotton-spinning and weaving mills4 ,it is also the headquarters of a district and division of the same name4 ,the district1 as recently reconstituted1 has an area of #fjjd sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #a1jda1jfg4 ,,gulf ,,stream1#a the name properly applied to the stream current which issues from the ,gulf of ,mexico and flows north-eastward1 following the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 and separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water 7the ,cold ,wall71 to a point east of the ,grand ,banks off ,newfoundland4 ,the ,gulf ,stream is a narrow1 deep current1 and its velocity is estimated at about #hj m4 a day4 ,it is joined by1 and often indistinguishable from1 a large body of water which comes from outside the ,west ,indies and follows the same course4 ,the term was formerly applied to the drift current which carries the mixed waters of the ,gulf ,stream and the ,labrador current eastwards across the ,atlantic4 ,this is now usually known as the ,gulf ,stream drift1 although the name is not altogether appropriate4 ,see ,atlantic4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the word gulf1 a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the coast-line1 and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger than a bay and smaller than a sea1 is derived through the ,fr4 golfe1 from ,late ,gr4 ,greek3 kolphos1 class4 ,gr4 ,greek3 kolpos1 bosom1 hence bay1 cf4 ,lat4 sinus4 ,in ,university slang1 the term is used of the position of those who fail to obtain a place in the honours list at a public examination1 but are allowed a pass4 ,,gulfweed1 in botany1 a popular name for the seaweed ,sargassum bacciferum1 one of the brown seaweeds 7,phaeophyceae71 large quantities of which are found floating in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 whence it is carried northwards by the ,gulf ,stream1 small portions sometimes being borne as far as the coasts of the ,british ,isles4 ,it was observed by ,columbus1 and is remarkable among seaweeds for its form1 which resembles branches bearing leaves and berries2 the latter1 to which the species-name bacciferum refers1 are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the bladders in another brown seaweed1 ,fucus vesiculosus1 which is common round the ,british ,isles between high and low water4 ,,gull1 ,,sir ,,william ,,withey1 #ast ,bart4 7#ahaf-ahij71 ,english physician1 was the youngest son of ,john ,gull1 a barge-owner and wharfinger of ,thorpe-le-,soken1 ,essex1 and was born on the #cast of ,december #ahaf at ,colchester4 ,he began life as a schoolmaster1 but in #ahcg ,benjamin ,harrison1 the treasurer of ,guy's ,hospital1 who had noticed his ability1 brought him up to ,london from the school at ,lewes where he was usher1 and gave him employment at the hospital1 where he also gained permission to attend the lectures4 ,in #ahdc he was made a lecturer in the medical school of the hospital1 in #ahea he was chosen an assistant physician1 and in #ahef he became full physician4 ,in #ahdg he was elected ,fullerian professor of physiology in the ,royal ,institution1 retaining the post for the usual three years1 and in #ahdh he delivered the ,gulstonian ,lectures at the ,college of ,physicians1 where he filled every office of honour but that of president4 ,he died in ,london on the #bith of ,january #ahij after a series of paralytic strokes1 the first of which had occurred nearly three years previously4 ,he was created a baronet in #ahgb1 in recognition of the skill and care he had shown in attending the prince of ,wales during his attack of typhoid in #ahga4 ,sir ,william ,gull's fame rested mainly on his success as a clinical practitioner2 as he said himself1 he was a clinical physician or nothing4 ,this success must be largely ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation1 and to the great opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease4 ,he was sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs4 ,that was not the case1 for he prescribed drugs like other physicians when he considered them likely to be beneficial4 ,he felt1 however1 that their administration was only a part of the physician's duties1 and his mental honesty and outspokenness prevented him from deluding either himself or his patients with unwarranted notions of what they can do4 ,but though he regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical suffering1 he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his profession1 and he made some real contributions to medical science4 ,his papers were printed chiefly in ,guy's ,hospital ,reports and in the proceedings of learned societies3 among the subjects he wrote about were cholera1 rheumatic fever1 taenia1 paraplegia and abscess of the brain1 while he distinguished for the first time 7#ahgc7 the disease now known as myxoedema1 describing it as a cretinoid state in adults4 ,,gull 7,welsh gwylan1 ,breton1 goelann1 whence ,fr4 goeland71 the name commonly adopted1 to the almost entire exclusion of the ,o4 ,eng4 ,,mew 7,icel4 mafur1 ,dan4 maage1 ,swedish mase1 ,ger4 ,meve1 ,dutch meeuw1 ,fr4 mouette71 for a group of sea-birds widely and commonly known1 all belonging to the genus ,larus of ,linnaeus1 which subsequent systematists have broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd fashion4 ,the family ,laridae is composed of two chief groups1 ,larinae and ,sterninae--the gulls and the terns1 though two other subfamilies are frequently counted1 the skuas 7,stercorariinae71 and that formed by the single genus ,rhynchops1 the skimmers2 but there seems no strong reason why the former should not be referred to the ,larinae and the latter to the ,sterninae4 ,taking the gulls in their restricted sense1 ,howard ,saunders1 who has subjected the group to a rigorous revision 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,society1 #ahgh1 pp4 #aee-baa71 admits forty-nine species of them1 which he places in five genera instead of the many which some prior investigators had sought to establish4 ,of the genera recognized by him1 ,pagophila and ,rhodostethia have but one species each1 ,rissa and ,xema two1 while the rest belong to ,larus4 ,the ,pagophila is the so-called ivory-gull1 ,p4 eburnea1 names which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of its plumage1 to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast4 ,the young1 however1 are spotted with black4 ,an inhabitant of the most northern seas1 examples1 most commonly young birds of the year1 find their way in winter to more temperate shores4 ,its breeding-place has seldom been discovered1 and the first of its eggs ever seen by ornithologists was brought home by ,sir ,l4 ,m',clintock in #ahec from ,cape ,krabbe 7,journ4 ,r4 ,dubl4 ,society1 i4 #fj1 pl4 #a72 others were subsequently obtained by ,dr ,malmgren in ,spitsbergen4 ,of the species of ,rissa1 one is the abundant and well-known kittiwake1 ,r4 tridactyla1 of circumpolar range1 breeding1 however1 also in comparatively low latitudes1 as on the coasts of ,britain1 and in winter frequenting southern waters4 ,the other is ,r4 brevirostris1 limited to the ,north ,pacific1 between ,alaska and ,kamchatka4 ,the singular fact requires to be noticed that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient1 but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this functionless member has not wholly disappeared4 ,we have then the genus ,larus1 which ornithologists have attempted most unsuccessfully to subdivide4 ,it contains the largest as well as the smallest of gulls4 ,in some species the adults assume a dark-coloured head every breeding-season1 in others any trace of dark colour is the mark of immaturity4 ,the larger species prey fiercely on other kinds of birds1 while the smaller content themselves with a diet of small animals1 often insects and worms4 ,but however diverse be the appearance1 structure or habits of the extremities of the series of species1 they are so closely connected by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between them that would justify a generic division4 ,forty-three species of this genus are recognized by ,saunders4 ,about fifteen belong to ,europe and fourteen to ,north ,america1 of which 7excluding stragglers7 some five only are common to both countries4 ,our knowledge of the geographical distribution of several of them is still incomplete4 ,some have a very wide range1 others very much the reverse1 as witness ,l4 fuliginosus1 believed to be confined to the ,galapagos1 and ,l4 scopulinus and ,l4 bulleri to ,new ,zealand1--the last indeed perhaps only to the ,south ,island4 ,the largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and greater black-backed gull1 ,l4 glaucus and ,l4 marinus1 of which the former is circumpolar1 and the latter nearly so--not being hitherto found between ,labrador and ,japan4 ,the smallest species is the ,european ,l4 minutus1 though the ,north ,american ,l4 ,philadelphia does not much exceed it in size4 ,many of the gulls congregate in vast numbers to breed1 whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast or on healthy islands in inland waters4 ,some of the settlements of the black-headed or peewit gull1 ,l4 ridibundus1 are a source of no small profit to their proprietors1--the eggs1 which are rightly accounted a great delicacy1 being taken on an orderly system up to a certain day1 and the birds carefully protected4 ,ross's or the roseate gull1 ,rhodostethia rosea1 forms a well-marked genus1 distinguished not so much by the pink tint of its plumage 7for that is found in other species7 but by its small dove-like bill and wedge-shaped tail4 ,it is an exceedingly scarce bird1 and beyond its having an ,arctic habitat1 little has yet been ascertained about it4 ,more rare still is one of the species of ,xema1 ,x4 furcatum1 of which only two specimens1 both believed to have come from the ,galapagos1 have been seen4 ,its smaller congener ,sabine's gull1 ,x4 sabinii1 is more common1 and has been found breeding both in ,arctic ,america and in ,siberia1 and several examples1 chiefly immature birds1 have been obtained in the ,british islands4 ,both species of ,xema are readily distinguished from all other gulls by their forked tails4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,gully1 ,,john 7#aghc-ahfc71 ,english sportsman and politician1 was born at ,wick1 near ,bath1 on the #bast of ,august #aghc1 the son of an innkeeper4 ,he came into prominence as a boxer1 and in #ahje he was matched against ,henry ,pearce1 the ,game ,chicken1 before the duke of ,clarence 7afterwards ,william ,,iv47 and numerous other spectators1 and after fighting sixty-four rounds1 which occupied an hour and seventeen minutes1 was beaten4 ,in #ahjg he twice fought ,bob ,gregson1 the ,lancashire giant1 for two hundred guineas a side1 winning on both occasions4 ,as the landlord of the ,plough tavern in ,carey ,street1 ,london1 be retired from the ring in #ahjh1 and took to horse-racing4 ,in #ahbg he lost ,l#dj1jjj by backing his horse ,mameluke 7for which he had paid four thousand guineas7 for the ,st ,leger4 ,in partnership with ,robert ,ridskale1 in #ahcb1 he made ,l#he1jjj by winning the ,derby and ,st ,leger with ,st ,giles and ,margrave4 ,in partnership with ,john ,day he won the ,two ,thousand ,guineas with ,ugly ,buck in #ahdd1 and two years later he took the ,derby and the ,oaks with ,pyrrhus the ,first and ,mendicant1 in #ahed the ,two ,thousand ,guineas with ,hermit1 and in the same year1 in partnership with ,henry ,padwick1 the ,derby with ,andover4 ,having bought ,ackworth ,park near ,pontefract he was ,m4,p4 from ,december #ahcb to ,july #ahcg4 ,in #ahfb he purchased the ,wingate ,grange estate and collieries4 ,gully was twice married and had twelve children by each wife4 ,he died at ,durham on the #ith of ,march #ahfc4 ,he appears to have been no relation of the subsequent ,speaker1 ,lord ,selby4 ,,gulpaigan 7,jerbadegan of the ,arab geographers71 a district and city in ,central ,persia1 situated ,n4,w4 of ,isfahan and ,s4,e4 of ,irak4 ,together with ,khunsar it forms a small province1 paying a yearly revenue of about ,l#fjjj4 ,the city of ,gulpaigan is situated #hg m4 ,n4,w4 of ,isfahan1 at an elevation of #ehge ft4 in #cc deg4 #bd' ,n4 and #ej deg4 #bj' ,e41 and has a population of about #ejjj4 ,the district is fertile and produces much grain and some opium4 ,sometimes it is under the governor-general of the ,isfahan province1 at others it forms part of the province of ,irak1 and at times1 as in #aijf1 is under a governor appointed from ,teheran4 ,,gum 7,fr4 gomme1 ,lat4 gommi1 ,gr4 ,greek3 kommi1 possibly a ,coptic word2 distinguish gum1 the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth1 in ,o4 ,eng4 goma1 palate1 cf4 ,ger4 ,gaumen1 roof of the mouth2 the ultimate origin is probably the root gha1 to open wide1 seen in ,gr4 ,greek3 chainein1 to gape1 cf4 yawn71 the generic name given to a group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the general formula 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7n1 which exist in the juices of almost all plants1 and also occur as exudations from stems1 branches and fruits of plants4 ,they are entirely soluble or soften in water1 and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or mucilage4 ,they yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric acid4 ,in structure the gums are quite amorphous1 being neither organized like starch nor crystallized like sugar4 ,they are odourless and tasteless1 and some yield clear aqueous solutions--the real gums--while others swell up and will not percolate filter paper--the vegetable mucilages4 ,the acacias and the ,rosaceae yield their gums most abundantly when sickly and in an abnormal state1 caused by a fulness of sap in the young tissues1 whereby the new cells are softened and finally disorganized2 the cavities thus formed fill with liquid1 which exudes1 dries and constitutes the gum4 ,gum arabic may be taken as the type of the gums entirely soluble in water4 ,another variety1 obtained from the ,prosopis dulcis1 a leguminous plant1 is called gum mesquite or mezquite2 it comes from western ,texas and ,mexico1 and is yellowish in colour1 very brittle and quite soluble in water4 ,gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size1 and some kinds are full of minute cracks4 ,the specific gravity of ,turkey picked gum 7the purest variety7 is #a4dhg1 or1 when dried at #ajj deg4 ,c41 #a4ebe4 ,it is soluble in water to an indefinite extent2 boiled with dilute sulphuric acid it is converted into the sugar galactose4 ,moderately strong nitric acid changes it into mucic1 saccharic1 tartaric and oxalic acids4 ,under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the alcoholic fermentation1 but ,m4 ,p4 ,e4 ,berthelot1 by digesting with chalk and cheese1 obtained from it #ab of its weight of alcohol1 along with calcium lactate1 but no appreciable quantity of sugar4 ,gum arabic may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic acid4 ,t4 ,graham 7,chemical and ,physical ,researches7 recommended dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid1 and stated that the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is #djj times less than that of sodium chloride1 and1 further1 that by mixing the gum with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered1 and may be even reduced to nothing4 ,the mucilage must be acidulated with hydrochloric acid before dialysing1 to set free the gummic acid4 ,by adding alcohol to the solution1 the acid is precipitated as a white amorphous mass1 which becomes glassy at #ajj deg4 ,its formula is 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7b;,h#b,o1 and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which are easily soluble in water4 ,gummic acid reddens litmus1 its reaction being about equal to carbonic acid4 ,when solutions of gum arabic and gelatin are mixed1 oily drops of a compound of the two are precipitated1 which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly1 melting at #be deg4 ,c41 or by the heat of the hand4 ,this substance can be washed without decomposition4 ,gummic acid is soluble in water2 when well dried at #ajj deg4 ,c41 it becomes transformed into metagummic acid1 which is insoluble1 but swells up in water like gum tragacanth4 ,gum arabic1 when heated to #aej deg4 ,c4 with two parts of acetic anhydride1 swells up to a mass which1 when washed with boiling water1 and then with alcohol1 gives a white amorphous insoluble powder called acetyl arabin ,c#f;,h#h7;,c#b;,h#c,o7#b,o#e4 ,it is saponified by alkalies1 with reproduction of soluble gum4 ,gum arabic is not precipitated from solution by alum1 stannous chloride1 sulphate or nitrate of copper1 or neutral lead acetate2 with basic lead acetate it forms a white jelly1 with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear gelatinoid mass1 and its solutions are also precipitated by borax4 ,the finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent in medicine1 and in the manufacture of confectionery2 the commoner qualities are used as an adhesive paste1 for giving lustre to crape1 silk1 c41 in cloth finishing to stiffen the fibres1 and in calico-printing4 ,for labels1 c41 it is usual to mix sugar or glycerin with it to prevent it from cracking4 ,gum senegal1 a variety of gum arabic produced by ,acacia ,verek1 occurs in pieces generally rounded1 of the size of a pigeon's egg1 and of a reddish or yellow colour1 and specific gravity #a4dcf4 ,it gives with water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum arabic1 from which it is distinguished by its clear interior1 fewer cracks and greater toughness4 ,it is imported from the river ,gambia1 and from ,senegal and ,bathurst4 ,chagual gum1 a variety brought from ,santiago1 ,chile1 resembles gum senegal4 ,about #ge is soluble in water4 ,its solution is not thickened by borax1 and is precipitated by neutral lead acetate2 and dilute sulphuric acid converts it into d-glucose4 ,gum tragacanth1 familiarly called gum dragon1 exudes from the stem1 the lower part especially1 of the various species of ,astragalus1 especially ,a4 gummifer1 and is collected in ,asia ,minor1 the chief port of shipment being ,smyrna4 ,formerly only what exuded spontaneously was gathered2 this was often of a brownish colour2 but now the flow of the gum is aided by incisions cut near the root1 and the product is the fine1 white1 flaky variety so much valued in commerce4 ,the chief flow of gum takes place during the night1 and hot and dry weather is the most favourable for its production4 ,in colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white2 it occurs in horny1 flexible and tough1 thin1 twisted flakes1 translucent1 and with peculiar wavy lines on the surface4 ,when dried at temperatures under #ajj deg4 ,c4 it loses about #ad of water1 and is then easily powdered4 ,its specific gravity is #a4chd4 ,with water it swells by absorption1 and with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick mucilage4 ,part of it only is soluble in water1 and that resembles gummic acid in being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate1 but differs from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and none with borax4 ,the insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of bassorin 7,c#ab;,h#bj,o#aj71 which is devoid of taste and smell1 forms a gelatinoid mass with water1 but by continued boiling is rendered soluble4 ,gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of colours and mordants2 in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle for insoluble powders1 and as an excipient in pills2 and for setting and mending beetles and other insect specimens4 ,it is medicinally superior to gum acacia1 as it does not undergo acetous fermentation4 ,the best pharmacopeial preparation is the ,mucilago ,tragacanthae4 ,the compound powder is a useless preparation1 as the starch it contains is very liable to ferment4 ,gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth1 for which the attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it4 ,it is said to be the product of ,sterculia urens1 a plant of the natural order ,sterculiaceae4 ,cherry tree gum is an exudation from trees of the genera ,prunus and ,cerasus4 ,it occurs in shiny reddish lumps1 resembling the commoner kinds of gum arabic4 ,with water1 in which it is only partially soluble1 it forms a thick mucilage4 ,sulphuric acid converts it into l-arabinose2 and nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid 7without the intermediate formation of mucic acid as in the case of gum arabic74 ,gum of ,bassora1 from ,bassora or ,bussorah in ,asia1 is sometimes imported into the ,london market under the name of the hog tragacanth4 ,it is insipid1 crackles between the teeth1 occurs in variable-sized pieces1 is tough1 of a yellowish-white colour1 and opaque1 and has properties similar to gum tragacanth4 ,its specific gravity is #a4cf4 ,it contains only #a of soluble gum or arabin4 ,under the name of ,caramania gum it is mixed with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation4 ,mucilage4--,very many seeds1 roots1 c41 when infused in boiling water1 yield mucilages which1 for the most part1 consist of bassorin4 ,linseed1 quince seed and marshmallow root yield it in large quantity4 ,in their reactions the different kinds of mucilage present differences2 e4g4 quince seed yields only oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid1 and with a solution of iodine in zinc iodide it gives1 after some time1 a beautiful red tint4 ,linseed does not give the latter reaction2 by treatment with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids4 ,gum ,resins4--,this term is applied to the inspissated milky juices of certain plants1 which consist of gum soluble in water1 resin and essential oil soluble in alcohol1 other vegetable matter and a small amount of mineral matter4 ,they are generally opaque and solid1 and often brittle4 ,when finely powdered and rubbed down with water they form emulsions1 the undissolved resin being suspended in the gum solution4 ,their chief uses are in medicine4 ,examples are ammoniacum1 asafetida1 bdellium1 euphorbium1 gamboge1 myrrh1 sagapanum and scammony4 ,,gumbel1 ,,karl ,,wilhelm ,,von1 ,,baron 7#ahbc-ahih71 ,german geologist1 was born at ,dannenfels1 in the ,palatinate of the ,rhine1 on the #aath of ,february #ahbc1 and is known chiefly by his researches on the geology of ,bavaria4 ,he received a practical and scientific education in mining at ,munich and ,heidelberg1 taking the degree of ,ph4,d4 at ,munich in #ahfb2 and he was engaged for a time at the colliery of ,st ,ingbert and as a surveyor in that district4 ,in #ahea1 when the ,geological ,survey of ,bavaria was instituted1 ,gumbel was appointed chief geologist2 in #ahfc he was made honorary professor of geognosy and surveying at the university of ,munich1 and in #ahgi1 ,oberberg director of the ,bavarian mining department with which the ,geological ,survey was incorporated4 ,his geological map of ,bavaria appeared in #aheh1 and the official memoir descriptive of the detailed work1 entitled ,geognostische ,beschreibung des ,konigreichs ,bayern was issued in three parts 7#ahfa1 #ahfh and #ahgi74 ,he subsequently published his ,geologie von ,bayern in #b vols4 7#ahhd-ahid71 an elaborate treatise on geology1 with special reference to the geology of ,bavaria4 ,in the course of his long and active career he engaged in much palaeontological work3 he studied the fauna of the ,trias1 and in #ahfa introduced the term ,rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system2 he supported at first the view of the organic nature of ,eozoon 7#ahff and #ahgf71 he devoted special attention to ,foraminifera1 and described those of the ,eocene strata of the northern ,alps 7#ahfh72 he dealt also with ,receptaculites 7#ahge7 which he regarded as a genus belonging to the ,foraminifera4 ,he died on the #ahth of ,june #ahih4 ,,gumbinnen1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,east ,prussia1 on the ,pissa1 an affluent of the ,pregel1 #bb m4 by rail ,s4,w4 of ,eydtkuhnen on the line to ,konigsberg4 ,pop4 7#aije71 #ad1aid4 ,the surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful1 and the town has spacious and regular streets shaded by linden trees4 ,it has a ,roman ,catholic and three ,evangelical churches1 a synagogue1 a gymnasium1 two public schools1 a public library1 a hospital and an infirmary4 ,in the market square there is a statue of the king of ,prussia ,frederick ,william ,i41 who in #agbd raised ,gumbinnen to the rank of a town1 and in #agcb brought to it a number of persons who had been driven from ,salzburg by religious persecution4 ,on the bridge over the ,pissa a monument has been erected to the soldiers from the neighbourhood who fell in the ,franco-,german war of #ahgj-ga4 ,iron founding and the manufacture of machinery1 wool1 cotton1 and linen weaving1 stocking-making1 tanning1 brewing and distilling are the principal industries4 ,there are horse and cattle markets1 and some trade in corn and linseed4 ,see ,j4 ,schneider1 ,aus ,gumbinnens ,vergangenheit 7,gumbinnen1 #aijd74 ,,gumbo1 or ,,okra1 termed also ,okro1 ,ochro1 ,ketmia1 ,gubbo and ,syrian mallow 7,sans4 ,tindisa1 ,bengali ,dheras1 ,pers4 ,bamiyah--the ,bammia of ,prosper ,alpinus2 ,fr4 ,gombaut1 or better ,gombo1 and ,ketmie comestible71 ,hibiscus esculentus1 a herbaceous hairy annual plant of the natural order ,malvaceae1 probably of ,african origin1 and now naturalized or cultivated in all tropical countries4 ,the leaves are cordate1 and #c to #e-lobed1 and the flowers yellow1 with a crimson centre2 the fruit or pod1 the ,bendi-,kai of the ,europeans of southern ,india1 is a tapering1 #aj-;angled capsule1 #d to #aj in4 in length1 except in the dwarf varieties of the plant1 and contains numerous oval dark-coloured seeds1 hairy at the base4 ,three distinct varieties of the gumbo 7,quiabo and ,quimgombo7 in ,brazil have been described by ,pacheco4 ,the unripe fruit is eaten either pickled or prepared like asparagus4 ,it is also an ingredient in various dishes1 e4g4 the gumbo of the ,southern ,united ,states and the calalou of ,jamaica2 and on account of the large amount of mucilage it contains1 it is extensively consumed1 both fresh and in the form of the prepared powder1 for the thickening of broths and soups4 ,for winter use it is salted or sliced and dried4 ,the fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of ,constantinople4 ,it was one of the esculents of ,egypt in the time of ,abul-,abbas el-,nebati1 who journeyed to ,alexandria in #abaf 7,wustenfeld1 ,gesch4 d4 arab4 ,arzte1 p4 #aah1 ,gott41 #ahdj71 and is still cultivated by the ,egyptians1 who called it ,bammge4 ,the seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee4 ,from their demulcent and emollient properties1 the leaves and immature fruit have long been in repute in the ,east for the preparation of poultices and fomentations4 ,alpinus 7#aeib7 mentions the employment of their decoction in ,egypt in ophthalmia and in uterine and other complaints4 ,the musk okra 7,sans41 ,latakasturika1 cf4 the ,gr4 ,greek3 kastor2 ,bengali1 ,latakasturi2 ,ger4 ,bisamkornerstrauch2 ,fr4 ,ketmie musquee71 ,hibiscus ,abelmoschus 7,abelmoschus moschatus71 indigenous to ,india1 and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe1 is a suffruticose plant1 bearing a conical #e-ridged pod about #c in4 in length1 within which are numerous brown reniform seeds1 smaller than those of ,h4 esculentus4 ,the seeds possess a musky odour1 due to an oleo-resin present in the integument1 and are known to perfumers under the name of ambrette as a substitute for musk4 ,they are said to be used by the ,arabs for scenting coffee4 ,the seeds 7in the ,fantee language1 ,incromahom7 are used in ,africa as beads2 and powdered and steeped in rum they are valued in the ,west ,indies as a remedy for snakebites4 ,the plant yields an excellent fibre1 and1 being rich in mucilage1 is employed in ,upper ,india for the clarifying of sugar4 ,the best-perfumed seeds are reported to come from ,martinique4 ,see ,p4 ,alpinus1 ,de plantis ,aegypti1 cap4 xxvii4 p4 #ch 7,venice1 #aeib72 ,j4 ,sontheimer's ,abd ,allah ibn ,ahmad1 c41 i4 #aah 7,stuttgart1 #ahdj-ahdb72 ,p4 ,p4 ,pacheco1 ,la ,ketmie potagere ou comestible1 ,la ,belgique horticole1 iv4 #fc 7#ahec72 ,della ,sudda1 ,de l'emploi a ,constantinople de la racine de l',hibiscus esculentus1 ,repert4 de pharm41 ,january #ahfj1 p4 #bbi2 ,e4 ,j4 ,waring1 ,pharm4 of ,india1 p4 #ce 7#ahfh72 ,o4 ,popp1 ,uber die ,aschenbestandteile der ,samen von ,acacia nilotica und ,hibiscus esculentus in ,agypten1 ,arch4 der ,pharm4 cxcv4 p4 #adj 7#ahga72 ,drury1 ,the ,useful ,plants of ,india1 pp4 #a1 #b 7#bnd ed41 #ahgc72 ,u4 ,c4 ,dutt1 ,the ,mat4 ,med4 of the ,hindus1 pp4 #abc1 #cba 7#ahgg72 ,lanessan1 ,hist4 des drogues1 i4 #aha-ahd 7#ahgh72 ,g4 ,watt1 ,dictionary of the ,economic ,products of ,india 7#ahij74 ,,gumti1 a river of northern ,india4 ,it rises in a depression in the ,pilibhit district of the ,united ,provinces1 and after a sinuous but generally south-easterly course of #ejj m4 past ,lucknow and ,jaunpur joins the ,ganges in ,ghazipar district4 ,at ,jaunpur it is a fine stream1 spanned by a #afth-century bridge of sixteen arches1 and is navigable by vessels of #ag tons burden4 ,there is also a small river of the same name in the ,tippera district of eastern ,bengal and ,assam4 ,,gumuljina1 or ,,gumurdjina1 a town of ,european ,turkey1 in the vilayet of ,adrianople4 ,pop4 7#aije71 about #hjjj1 of whom three-fourths are ,turks and the remainder ,greeks1 ,jews or ,armenians4 ,gumuljina is situated on the river ,karaja-,su1 south of the eastern extremity of the ,rhodope range of mountains and #ac m4 inland from the ,aegean ,sea4 ,it has a station on the railway between ,salonica and ,dedeagatch4 ,the district produces wheat1 maize1 barley and tobacco2 sericulture and viticulture are both practised on a limited scale4 ,a cattle fair is held annually on ,greek ,palm ,sunday4 ,copper and antimony are found in the neighbourhood4 ,,gumus1 or ,,gumz1 ,negroes of the ,shangalla group of tribes1 dwelling in the mountainous district of ,fazogli on the ,sudan-,abyssinian frontier4 ,they live in independent groups1 some being mountaineers while others are settled on the banks of the ,blue ,nile4 ,gumz in the native tongue signifies people1 and the sub-tribes have distinctive names4 ,the ,gumus are nature-worshippers1 ,god and the sun being synonymous4 ,on ceremonial occasions they carry parasols of honour 7see ,,shangalla74 ,,gumush-,,khaneh1 the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the ,trebizond vilayet of ,asiatic ,turkey1 situated on high ground 7#ddjj ft47 in the valley of the ,kharshut ,su1 about #a_/b m4 to south of the ,trebizond-,erzerum chaussee4 ,the silver mines from which the place takes its name were noted in ancient times and are mentioned by ,marco ,polo4 ,pop4 about #cjjj1 chiefly ,greeks1 who are in the habit of emigrating to great distances to work in mines4 ,they practically supply the whole lead and silver-mining labour in ,asiatic ,turkey1 and in consequence the ,greek bishop of ,gumush-,khaneh has under his jurisdiction all the communities engaged in this particular class of mines4 ,,gun1 a general term for a weapon1 tubular in form1 from which a projectile is discharged by means of an explosive4 ,when applied to artillery the word is confined to those pieces of ordnance which have a direct as opposed to a high-angle fire1 in which case the terms howitzer and mortar are used 7see ,,ordnance and ,,machine-,,gun74 ,gun as applied to firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the shoulder1 the old hand gun1 is now chiefly used of the sporting shot-gun1 with which this article mainly deals2 in military usage this type of weapon1 whether rifle1 carbine1 c41 is known collectively as small arms 7see ,,rifle and ,,pistol74 ,the origin of the word1 which in ,mid4 ,eng4 is gonne or gunne1 is obscure1 but it has been suggested by ,professor ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat that it conceals a female name1 ,gunnilde or ,gunhilda4 ,the names1 e4g4 ,mons ,meg at ,edinburgh ,castle and faule ,grete 7heavy ,peg71 known to readers of ,carlyle's ,frederick the ,great1 will be familiar parallelisms4 ,gunne would be a shortened pet name of ,gunnhilde4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary finds support for the suggestion in the fact that in ,old ,norwegian gunne and hilde both mean war1 and quotes an inventory of war material at ,windsor ,castle in #accj-acca1 where is mentioned una magna balista de cornu quae vocatur ,domina ,gunilda4 ,another suggestion for the origin of the word is that the word represents a shortened form1 gonne1 of a supposed ,french mangonne1 a mangonel1 but the ,french word is mangonneau4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,hand ,gun4 ,firearms are said to have been first used in ,european warfare in the #adth century4 ,the hand gun 7see fig4 #a7 came into practical use in #addf and was of very rude construction4 ,it consisted of a simple iron or brass tube with a touch-hole at the top fixed in a straight stock of wood1 the end of which passed under the right armpit when the gonne was about to be fired4 ,a similar weapon 7see fig4 #b7 was also used by the horse-soldier1 with a ring at the end of the stock1 by which it was suspended by a cord round the neck2 a forked rest1 fitted by a ring to the saddlebow1 served to steady the gun4 ,this rest1 when not in use1 hung down in front of the right leg4 ,a match was made of cotton or hemp spun slack1 and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees of wine4 ,the touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel1 but afterwards at the side1 with a small pan underneath to hold the priming1 and guarded by a cover moving on a pivot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,mounted ,man with ,hand ,gun4 ,illustration3 ,from ,general ,hardy de ,perini's ,turenne et ,conde #afbf-afge4 ,,fig4 #c4--,musketeer1 #afbf4 ,an improvement in firearms took place in the first year of the reign of ,henry ,,vii41 or at the close of ,edward ,,iv41 by fixing a cock 7,fr4 serpentine7 on the hand gun to hold the match1 which was brought down to the priming by a trigger1 whence the term matchlock4 ,this weapon is still in use among the ,chinese1 ,tatars1 ,sikhs1 ,persians and ,turks4 ,an improvement in the stock was also made during this period by forming it with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast4 ,subsequently the stock was bent1 a ,german invention1 and the arm was called a hackbutt or hagbut1 and the smaller variety a demihague4 ,the arquebus and hackbutt were about a yard in length1 including barrel and stock1 and the demihague was about half the size and weight1 the forerunner of the pistol4 ,the arquebus was the standard infantry firearm in ,europe from the battle of ,pavia to the introduction of the heavier and more powerful musket4 ,it did not as a rule require a rest1 as did the musket4 ,the wheel-lock1 an improvement on the matchlock1 was invented in ,nuremberg in #aeag2 was first used at the siege of ,parma in #aeba2 was brought to ,england in #aecj1 and continued in partial use there until the time of ,charles ,,ii4 ,this wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved steel wheel which protruded into the priming pan1 and was connected with a strong spring4 ,the cock1 also regulated by a spring1 was fitted with a piece of iron pyrites4 ,in order to discharge the gun the lock was wound up by a key1 the cock was let down on the priming pan1 the pyrites resting on the wheel2 on the trigger being pressed the wheel was released and rapidly revolved1 emitting sparks1 which ignited the powder in the pan4 ,the complicated and expensive nature of this lock1 with its liability to injury1 no doubt prevented its general adoption4 ,illustration3 ,from ,general ,hardy de ,perini's ,turenne et ,conde1 #afbf-afge4 ,,figs4 #d and #e4--,musketeers1 #afge4 ,about #aedj the ,spaniards constructed a larger and heavier firearm 7matchlock71 carrying a ball of #aj to the pound1 called a musket4 ,this weapon was introduced into ,england before the middle of the #afth century1 and soon came into general use throughout ,europe4 ,the snaphance was invented about this period in ,germany1 and from its comparative cheapness was much used in ,england1 ,france and ,holland4 ,it held a flint instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock1 which ignited the powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel1 when released by the trigger1 and emitting sparks4 ,as a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the invention of the wheel-lock in the beginning of the #afth century1 though firearms were used for sporting purposes in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and to some extent in ,france1 in the #aeth century4 ,before that period the longbow in ,england and the crossbow on the ,continent were the usual weapons of the chase4 ,in ,great ,britain little use appears to have been made of firearms for game shooting until the latter half of the #agth century1 and the arms then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make4 ,the ,french gunmakers of ,st-,etienne claim for their town that it is the oldest centre of the firearms industry4 ,they do not appear to have made more than the barrels of the finest sporting arms1 and these even were sometimes made in ,paris4 ,the production of firearms by the artists of ,paris reached its zenith about the middle of the #agth century4 ,the ,italian1 ,german1 ,spanish and ,russian gunsmiths also showed great skill in the elegance and design of their firearms1 the ,spaniards in particular being makers of fine barrels4 ,the pistol 7q4v47 is understood to have been made for the first time about #aedj at ,pistoia in ,italy4 ,about #afce the modern firelock or flint-lock was invented1 which only differed from the snaphance by the cover of the pan forming part of the furrowed steel struck by the flint4 ,originally the priming was put into the pan from a flask containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder4 ,later the top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled therefrom before loading4 ,the mechanism of the flint-lock musket rendered all this unnecessary1 as1 in loading1 a portion of the charge passed through the vent into the pan1 where it was held by the cover or hammer4 ,the matchlock1 as a military weapon1 gradually gave way to the firelock1 which came into general use in the last half of the #agth century1 and was the weapon of ,marlborough's and ,wellington's armies4 ,this was the famous ,brown ,bess of the ,british army4 ,the highest development of the flint-lock is found in the fowling-pieces of the end of the #ahth and beginning of the #aith centuries1 particularly those made by ,joseph ,manton1 the celebrated ,english gunsmith and inventor4 ,the ,napoleonic wars afforded ,english gunmakers an opportunity1 which they fully utilized1 of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors in the gunmaking trade4 ,english gunmakers reduced the weight1 improved the shooting powers1 and perfected the lock mechanism of the sporting gun1 and increased the range and efficiency of the rifle4 ,this transference of the gunmaking craft from the ,continent to ,england was also assisted by the tyranny of the foreign gunmaking gilds4 ,in #afcg the ,london gunmakers obtained their charter of incorporation4 ,the important gunmaking industry of ,birmingham dates from #afjc1 and soon rivalled that of ,london4 ,double shot-guns do not appear to have been generally used until the #aith century4 ,the first successful double guns were built with the barrels over and under1 and not side by side1 and were invented about #afaf by one ,guilliano ,bossi of ,rome4 ,in #aghd double shot guns were described as a novelty4 ,joseph ,manton patented the elevated rib which rested on the barrels4 ,the general success of the double gun was eventually due to the light weight which the better material and workmanship of the best gunmakers made possible1 and to the quickness and certainty of ignition of the modern cartridge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,moorish ,flint-lock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,indian ,matchlock4 ,the objections to the flint-lock were that it did not entirely preserve the priming from wet1 and that the flint sparks sometimes failed to ignite the charge4 ,in #ahjg the ,rev4 ,alexander ,john ,forsyth obtained a patent for priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash1 sulphur and charcoal1 which exploded by concussion4 ,this important improvement in firearms was not recognized and adopted by the military authorities until more than thirty years later4 ,in the meantime it was gradually developed1 and the copper percussion cap invented1 by various gunmakers and private individuals4 ,thomas ,shaw of ,philadelphia first used fulminate in a steel cap in #ahad1 which he changed to a copper cap in #ahaf4 ,it was not until the introduction of the copper cap that the percussion gun could be considered in every way superior to the flint4 ,in #ahcd1 in the reign of ,william ,,iv41 ,forsyth's invention was tested at ,woolwich by firing #fjjj rounds from six flint-lock muskets1 and a similar number from six percussion muskets1 in all weathers4 ,this trial established the percussion principle4 ,the shooting was found to be more accurate1 the recoil less1 the charge of powder having been reduced from #f to #d-a_/b drs41 the rapidity of firing greater and the number of miss-fires much reduced1 being as #a to #bf nearly in favour of the percussion system4 ,in consequence of this successful trial the military flint-lock in #ahci was altered to suit the percussion principle4 ,this was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan by a nipple with a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole1 and by replacing the cock which held the flint by a smaller cock or hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger4 ,on the nipple was placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition1 now made of three parts of chlorate of potash1 two of fulminate of mercury and one of powdered glass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,in #ahdj the ,austrian army was supplied with the percussion musket1 and in #ahdb a new model percussion musket with a block or back-sight for #aej yds4 was issued to the ,british army1 #aa lb4 #f oz4 in weight1 #d ft4 #f-c_/d in4 in length without bayonet1 #f ft4 with bayonet and with a barrel #c ft4 #c in4 in length1 firing a bullet of #ad-a_/b to the lb4 with #d-a_/b drs4 of powder4 ,this musket was larger in bore than that of ,france1 ,belgium1 ,russia and ,austria1 and thus had the advantage of being able to fire their balls1 while the ,english balls could not be fired from their barrels4 ,but the greater weight and momentum of the ,english ball was counteracted by the excess of windage4 ,this percussion musket of #ahdb1 the latest development of the renowned ,brown ,bess1 continued in use in the ,british army until partially superseded in #ahea by the ,minie rifle1 and altogether by the ,enfield rifle in #ahee4 ,for further information as to the history and development of military1 target and sporting rifles see ,,rifle4 ,illustrations are given herewith of a ,german carbine of the #afth century1 with double wheel-lock 7fig4 #h72 a snaphance 7fig4 #i72 several forms of the ,brown ,bess or flint-lock military musket 7,english1 ,william ,,iii41 fig4 #aj2 ,george ,,ii41 fig4 #aa2 ,george ,,iii41 fig4 #ab2 ,french1 ,napoleon1 fig4 #ac72 and of the percussion musket adopted in the ,british service in #ahci 7fig4 #ad74 ,examples of non-,european firearms are shown in figs4 #f and #g1 representing a ,moorish flint-lock and an ,indian matchlock respectively4 ,figs4 #ae-ah represent various carbines1 musketoons and blunderbusses1 fig4 #ae showing a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early #ahth century1 fig4 #af a large blunderbuss of #agej1 fig4 #ag a flint-lock cavalry carbine of about #ahbe and fig4 #ah a percussion carbine of #ahcj4 ,all these are drawn from arms in the museum of the ,royal ,united ,service ,institution1 ,london4 ,modern ,shot ,guns4--,the modern sporting breech-loaders may be said to have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition4 ,the breech-loading mechanism antedated the cartridge by many years1 the earliest breech-loading hand guns dating back to #aecg4 ,another distinct type of breech-loader was invented in ,france about the middle of the #agth century4 ,during the #agth and #ahth centuries breech-loading arms were very numerous and of considerable variety4 ,the original cartridge1 a charge of powder and bullet in a paper envelope1 dates from #aehf4 ,these were used with muzzle-loaders1 the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier before placing in the barrel4 ,it was only when the detonating cap came into use that the paper cartridge answered well in breech-loaders4 ,the modern breech-loader has resulted from a gradual series of improvements1 and not from any one great invention4 ,its essential feature is the prevention of all escape of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by means of an expansive cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition4 ,the earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight1 because the cartridge-cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a strong non-expansive breech-plug4 ,the earliest efficient modern cartridge-case was the pin-fire1 patented by ,houiller1 a ,paris gunsmith1 in #ahdg1 with a thin weak shell which expanded by the force of the explosion1 fitted perfectly in the barrel1 and thus formed an efficient gas check4 ,probably no invention connected with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun-construction as those effected by the expansive cartridge-case4 ,this invention has completely revolutionized the art of gunmaking1 has been successfully applied to all descriptions of firearms1 and has produced a new and important industry--that of cartridge manufacture4 ,about #ahcf1 ,c4 ,lefaucheux1 a ,paris gunsmith1 improved the old ,pauly system of breech-loading1 but its breech action was a crude mechanism1 with single grip worked by a bottom lever4 ,the double grip for the barrels was the subsequent invention of a ,birmingham gunmaker4 ,the central-fire cartridge1 practically as now in use1 was introduced into ,england in #ahfa by ,daw4 ,it is said to have been the invention of ,pottet1 of ,paris1 improved upon by ,schneider1 and gave rise to considerable litigation in respect of its patent rights4 ,daw1 who controlled the ,english patents1 was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns and cartridges at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb4 ,in his system the barrels work on a hinge joint1 the bottom lever withdraws the holding-down bolt2 the cartridge is of the modern type1 the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner face4 ,the cartridge-case is withdrawn by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the barrels4 ,daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the patents by ,eley ,bros41 owing to the patent not having been kept in force in ,france4 ,the modern breech-loading gun has been gradually and steadily improved since #ahfj4 ,westley ,richards adopted and improved ,matthews' top-lever mechanism4 ,about #ahff the rebounding lock was introduced1 and improved in #ahfi4 ,the treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels was originated by ,w4 ,w4 ,greener in #ahfe1 and perfected in #ahgc4 ,a very important improvement was the introduction of the hammerless gun1 in which the mechanism for firing is placed entirely within the gun4 ,this was made possible by the introduction of the central-fire cartridge4 ,in #ahfb ,daw1 and in #ahff ,green1 introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was effected by the under lever4 ,these guns did not attain popularity4 ,in #ahga ,t4 ,murcott patented a hammerless gun1 the first to obtain distinct success4 ,this also was a lever-cocking gun4 ,about the same time ,needham introduced the principle of utilizing the weight of the barrels to assist in cocking4 ,in #ahge ,anson and ,deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the locks4 ,from this date hammerless guns became really popular4 ,subsequently minor improvements were made by many other gun-makers1 including alternative movements introduced by ,purdey and ,rogers4 ,improvements were also introduced by ,westley ,richards1 ,purdey and others1 including cocking by means of the mainspring4 ,in #ahgd ,j4 ,needham introduced the ejector mechanism1 by which each empty cartridge-case is separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the breech is opened1 the necessary force being provided by the mainspring of the lock4 ,w4 ,w4 ,greener and some other gunmakers have since introduced minor modifications and improvements of this mechanism4 ,next in turn came ,perks and other inventors1 who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock work4 ,this very decided improvement is universal to-day4 ,a later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading ,english gun-makers1 by which both barrels can be fired in succession by a single trigger4 ,this improvement enables both barrels to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand1 but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel4 ,repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the repeating rifle1 with a magazine below the single firing barrel1 are also made by some ,american and continental gun-makers1 but as yet have not come into general use1 being comparatively cumbersome and not well balanced4 ,the difficulty of a shifting balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome4 ,several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also made1 for a description of which see ,,rifle4 ,the chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required are game-shooting1 trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling4 ,the game gun may be any bore from #cb to #aj gauge4 ,the usual standard bore is #ab gauge unless it be for a boy1 when it is #bj gauge4 ,the usual weight of the #ab-;bore double-barrelled game gun is from #f to #g lb4 with barrels #cj in4 long1 there1 however1 being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length4 ,these barrels are made of steel1 as being a stronger and more homogeneous material than the barrels formerly produced1 which were mostly of ,damascus pattern1 a mixture of iron and steel4 ,steel barrels1 drilled from the solid block1 were originally produced by ,whitworth4 ,to-day the makers of steel for this purpose are many4 ,the standard charge for the #ab-;bore is #db grains of smokeless powder and #a oz4 to #a-a_/hth oz4 of shot4 ,powder of a lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed1 when the weight of the charge is reduced to #cc grains4 ,this charge of powder corresponds to the #c drams of black powder formerly used4 ,the ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of #cj in4 at #cj yds4 with the first barrel and at #dj yds4 with the second4 ,improved materials and methods of manufacture1 and what is known as choke boring of the barrels1 have enabled modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety4 ,choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel near the muzzle1 and was known in ,america in the early part of the #aith century4 ,in #ahge ,pape of ,newcastle was awarded a prize for the invention of choke-boring1 there being no other claimant4 ,the methods of choke-boring have since been varied and improved by the leading ,english gun-makers4 ,the pigeon gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked4 ,it generally weighs from #g to #h lb4 ,its weight1 by club rules1 is frequently restricted to #g-a_/b lb4 and its bore to #ab gauge4 ,the standard wild-fowling gun is a double #h-;bore with #cj-;in4 barrels weighing #ae lb4 and firing a charge of #g drams of powder and #b-c_/d to #c oz4 of shot4 ,these guns are also made in both smaller and larger varieties1 including a single barrel #d-;bore1 which is the largest gun that can be used from the shoulder1 and single barrel punt guns of #a-a_/b-;in4 bore1 weighing #ajj lb4 ,while no conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention has been made during the last few years1 the materials and methods of manufacture1 and the quality and exactitude of the gun-maker's work1 have continued gradually and steadily to improve4 ,english1 and particularly ,london-made1 guns stand pre-eminent all over the world4 7,h4 ,s4-,k47 ,,guna1 a town and military station in ,central ,india1 in the state of ,gwalior4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aa1deb4 ,after the ,mutiny1 it became the headquarters of the ,central ,india ,horse1 whose commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of ,gwalior2 and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening of a station on a branch of the ,great ,indian ,peninsula railway in #ahii4 ,,guncotton1 an explosive substance produced by the action of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature2 chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose1 or a mixture of nitrates1 according to some authorities4 ,the first step in the history of guncotton was made by ,t4 ,j4 ,pelouze in #ahch1 who observed that when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric acid the materials1 though not altered in physical appearance1 became heavier1 and after washing and drying were possessed of self-explosive properties4 ,at the time these products were thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little previously by ,henri ,braconnot and called xyloidin2 they are only related in so far as they are nitrates4 ,c4 ,f4 ,schonbein of ,basel published his discovery of guncotton in #ahdf 7,phil4 ,mag4 #c1 #ca1 p4 #g71 and this was shortly after followed by investigations by ,r4 ,r4 ,bottger of ,frankfort and ,otto and ,knop1 all of whom added to our knowledge of the subject1 the last-named introducing the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process4 ,the chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many divergent views have been put forward on the subject4 ,w4 ,crum was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen1 and this view was supported more or less by other workers1 especially ,hadow1 who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least three compounds were present1 the most violently explosive of which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly obtained and known as guncotton4 ,this particular product was insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol1 and its composition could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose4 ,other products were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture3 they were less highly nitrated1 and constituted the so-called collodion guncotton4 ,the smallest empirical formula for cellulose 7q4v47 may certainly be written ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e4 ,how much of the hydrogen and oxygen are in the hydroxylic 7,,oh7 form cannot be absolutely stated1 but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups may be assumed4 ,the oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate1 but this has been much disputed1 and various formulae1 some based on cellulose as ,c#ab;,h#bj,o#aj1 others on a still more complex molecule1 have been proposed4 ,the constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to investigate1 primarily on account of the very insoluble nature of cellulose itself1 and also from the fact that comparatively slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the acids used produce considerable differences in the products4 ,the nitrates are also very insoluble substances1 all the so-called solvents merely converting them into jelly4 ,no method has yet been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained4#a ,the products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is1 but are nitrates or nitric esters4 ,guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids4 ,the relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different works1 but the underlying idea is the same1 viz4 employing such an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in the sulphuric acid1 and that the sulphuric acid shall still be sufficiently strong to absorb and combine with the water produced during the actual formation of the guncotton4 ,in the recent methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to four hours at the ordinary air temperature 7#ae deg4 ,c471 in which time it is almost fully nitrated1 the main portion1 say #ij1 having a composition represented by the formula#b ,c#f;,h#g,o#b7,,no#c7c1 the remainder consisting of lower nitrated products1 some oxidation products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose sulphates4 ,the acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted1 and water distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices of the cotton1 which is finally subjected to a course of boiling and washing with water4 ,this washing is a most important part of the process4 ,on its thoroughness depends the removal of small quantities of products other than the nitrates1 for instance1 some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the original cellulose4 ,cellulose sulphates are one1 and possibly the main1 cause of instability in guncotton1 and it is highly desirable that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in the washing process4 ,the nitrated product retains the outward form of the original cellulose4 ,in the course of the washing1 according to a method introduced by ,sir ,f4 ,abel1 the cotton is ground into a pulp1 a process which greatly facilitates the complete removal of acids1 c4 ,this pulp is finally drained1 and is then either compressed1 while still moist1 into slabs or blocks when required for blasting purposes1 or it is dried when required for the manufacture of propellants4 ,sometimes a small quantity of an alkali 7e4g4 sodium carbonate7 is added to the final washing water1 so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from #j4e to a little over #a are retained by the guncotton4 ,the idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the substance will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless4 ,guncotton in an air-dry state1 whether in the original form or after grinding to pulp and compressing1 burns with very great rapidity but does not detonate unless confined4 ,immediately after the discovery of guncotton ,schonbein proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder1 and ,general von ,lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use4 ,all these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it1 either loose or mechanically compressed in any way1 signally failed4 ,however much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous mass1 and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder1 generally causing it actually to detonate1 or to burn so rapidly that its action approaches detonation4 ,the more closely it is confined the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge burning1 and the more completely will the explosion of the remainder assume the detonating form4 ,the employment of guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action of so-called solvents1 e4g4 ethylacetate and other esters1 acetone and a number of like substances 7see ,,cordite74 ,when quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an anvil or hard surface4 ,if dry and warm it is much more sensitive to percussion or friction1 and also becomes electrified by friction under those conditions4 ,the amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable effect on its sensitiveness4 ,with about #b of moisture it can still be detonated on an anvil1 but the action is generally confined to the piece struck4 ,as the quantity of contained water increases it becomes difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary blow4 ,compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative detonator such as mercuric fulminate4 ,guncotton containing more than #ae of water is uninflammable1 may be compressed or worked without danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate detonator than when dry4#c ,a small charge of dry guncotton will1 however1 detonate the wet material1 and this peculiarity is made use of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes4 ,a charge of compressed wet guncotton may be exploded1 even under water1 by the detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed material1 which in turn can be started by a small fulminate detonator4 ,the explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is in fact better responded to by the wet compressed material than the dry1 and its detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry4 ,it is not necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in contact if they be under water1 and the peculiar explosive wave can also be conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a railway rail4 ,the more nearly the composition of guncotton approaches that represented by ,c#f;,h#g,o#b7,,no#c7c1 the more stable is it as regards storing at ordinary temperatures1 and the higher the igniting temperature4 ,carefully prepared guncotton after washing with alcohol-ether until nothing more dissolves may require to be heated to #ahj-ahe deg4 ,c4 before inflaming4 ,ordinary commercial guncottons1 containing from #aj to #ae of lower nitrated products1 will ignite as a rule some #bj-be deg4 lower4 ,assuming the above formula to represent guncotton1 there is sufficient oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being left4 ,the gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a vacuum vessel contains steam1 carbon monoxide1 carbon dioxide1 nitrogen1 nitric oxide1 and methane4 ,when slowly heated in a vacuum vessel until ignition takes place1 some nitrogen dioxide1 ,,no#b1 is also produced4 ,when kept for some weeks at a temperature of #ajj deg4 in steam1 a considerable number of fatty acids1 some bases1 and glucose-like substances result4 ,under different pressures the relative amounts of the combustion products vary considerably4 ,under very great pressures carbon monoxide1 steam and nitrogen are the main products1 but nitric oxide never quite disappears4 ,dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton4 ,strong sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and later oxides of nitrogen1 leaving a charred residue or a brown solution according to the quantity of acid4 ,it sometimes fires on contact with strong sulphuric acid1 especially when slightly warmed4 ,the alkali hydroxides 7e4g4 sodium hydroxide7 will in a solid state fire it on contact4 ,strong or weak solutions of these substances also decompose it1 producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite1 the cellulose molecule being only partially restored1 some quantity undergoing oxidation4 ,ammonia is also active1 but not quite in the same manner as the alkali hydroxides4 ,dry guncotton heated in ammonia gas detonates at about #gj deg41 and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all strengths slowly decompose it1 yielding somewhat complex products4 ,alkali sulphohydrates reduce guncotton1 or other nitrated celluloses1 completely to cellulose4 ,the production of the so-called artificial silk depends on this action4 ,a characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion cotton is the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture of these liquids4 ,the so-called collodion cottons are nitrated celluloses1 but of a lower degree of nitration 7as a rule7 than guncotton4 ,they are sometimes spoken of as lower or soluble cottons or nitrates4 ,the solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a lower degree of nitration1 or to the temperature conditions under which the process of manufacture has been carried on4 ,if guncotton be correctly represented by the formula ,c#f;,h#g,o#b7,,no#c7c1 it should contain a little more than #ad of nitrogen4 ,guncottons are examined for degree of nitration by the nitrometer1 in which apparatus they are decomposed by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury1 and all the nitrogen is evolved as nitric oxide1 ,,no1 which is measured and the weight of its contained nitrogen calculated4 ,ordinary guncottons seldom contain more than #ac of nitrogen1 and in most cases the amount does not exceed #ab4e4 ,generally speaking1 the lower the nitrogen content of a guncotton1 as found by the nitrometer1 the higher the percentage of matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol4 ,these soluble matters are usually considered as lower nitrates4 ,guncottons are usually tested by the ,abel heat test for stability 7see ,,cordite74 ,another heat test1 that of ,will1 consists in heating a weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide to #acj deg4 ,c41 passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper1 and finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen1 arising from the guncotton decomposition1 to be measured4 ,this is done at definite time intervals so that the rate of decomposition can be followed4 ,the relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas collected in a certain time4 ,several modifications of this and of the ,abel heat test are also in use4 7,see ,,explosives47 7,w4 ,r4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by ,g4 ,lunge 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aija1 #bc1 p4 #ebg71 who1 assuming the formula ,c#bd;,h#dj,o#bj for cellulose1 showed how the nitrocelluloses described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula ,c#bd;,h7#df-x7,o#bj7,,no#b7x1 where x has the values #d1 #e1 #f1 444 #ab4 #b ,this formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity4 ,it also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion4 #c ,air-dried guncotton will contain #b or less of moisture4 ,,gundulich1 ,,ivan 7#aehh-afch71 known also as ,giovanni ,gondola1 ,servian poet1 was born at ,ragusa on the #hth of ,january #aehh4 ,his father1 ,franco ,gundulich1 once the ,ragusan envoy to ,constantinople and councillor of the republic1 gave him an excellent education4 ,he studied the humanities with the ,jesuit1 ,father ,muzzi1 and philosophy with ,father ,ricasoli4 ,after that he studied ,roman law and jurisprudence in general4 ,he was member of the ,lower ,council and once served as the chief magistrate of the republic4 ,he died on the #hth of ,december #afch4 ,a born poet1 he admired much the ,italian poets of his time1 from whom he made many translations into ,servian4 ,it is believed that he so translated ,tasso's ,gerusalemme liberata4 ,he is known to have written eighteen works1 of which eleven were dramas1 but of these only three have been fully preserved1 others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in #affg4 ,most of those dramas were translations from the ,italian1 and were played1 seemingly with great success1 by the amateurs furnished by the noble families of ,ragusa4 ,but his greatest and justly celebrated work is an epic1 entitled ,osman1 in twenty cantos4 ,it is the first political epic on the ,eastern ,question1 glorifying the victory of the ,poles over ,turks and ,tatars in the campaign of #afba1 and encouraging a league of the ,christian nations1 under the guidance of ,vladislaus1 the king of ,poland1 for the purpose of driving away the ,turks from ,europe4 ,the fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost4 ,it is generally believed that the ,ragusan government suppressed them from consideration for the ,sultan1 the protector of the republic1 those two cantos having been violently anti-,turkish4 ,osman was printed for the first time in ,ragusa in #ahbf1 the two missing cantos being replaced by songs written by ,pietro ,sorgo 7or ,sorkochevich74 ,from this edition the learned ,italian1 ,francesco ,appendini1 made an ,italian translation published in #ahbg4 ,since that time several other editions have been made4 ,the best are considered to be the edition of the ,south ,slavonic ,academy in ,agram 7#ahgg7 and the edition published in ,semlin 7#ahhi7 by ,professor ,yovan ,boshkovich4 ,in the edition of #ahdd 7,agram7 the last cantos1 fourteen and fifteen1 were replaced by very fine compositions of the ,serbo-,croatian poet1 ,mazhuranich 7,mazuranic74 ,the complete works of ,gundulich have been published in ,agram1 #ahdg1 by ,v4 ,babukich and by the ,south ,slavonic ,academy of ,agram in #ahhi4 7,c4 ,mi47 ,,gung',l1 ,,josef 7#ahaj-ahhi71 ,hungarian composer and conductor1 was born on the #ast of ,december #ahaj1 at ,zsambek1 in ,hungary4 ,after starting life as a school-teacher1 and learning the elements of music from ,ofen1 the school-choirmaster1 he became first oboist at ,graz1 and1 at twenty-five1 bandmaster of the #dth regiment of ,austrian artillery4 ,his first composition1 a ,hungarian march1 written in #ahcf1 attracted some notice1 and in #ahdc he was able to establish an orchestra in ,berlin4 ,with this band he travelled far1 even 7in #ahdi7 to ,america4 ,it is worth recording that ,mendelssohn's complete ,midsummer ,night's ,dream music is said to have been first played by ,gung'l's band4 ,in #ahec he became bandmaster to the #bcrd ,infantry ,regiment at ,brunn1 but in #ahfd he lived at ,munich1 and in #ahgf at ,frankfort1 after 7in #ahgc7 having conducted with great success a series of promenade concerts at ,covent ,garden1 ,london4 ,from ,frankfort ,gung'l went to ,weimar to live with his daughter1 a well-known ,german opera singer and local prima donna4 ,there he died1 on the #cast of ,january #ahhi4 ,gung'l's dances number over #cjj1 perhaps the most popular being the ,amoretten1 ,hydropaten1 ,casino1 ,dreams on the ,ocean waltzes2 ,in ,stiller ,mitternacht polka1 and ,blue ,violets mazurka4 ,his ,hungarian march was transcribed by ,liszt4 ,his music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of ,strauss1 to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of composition4 ,,gunner1 or ,,master ,,gunner1 in the navy1 the warrant officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition1 and of the training of the men at gun drill4 ,his functions in this respect are of less relative importance than they were in former times1 when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not been formed4 ,,gunning1 ,,peter 7#afad-afhd71 ,english divine1 was born at ,hoo1 in ,kent1 and educated at the ,king's ,school1 ,canterbury1 and ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he became a fellow in #afcc4 ,having taken orders1 he advocated the royalist cause from the pulpit with much eloquence4 ,in #afdd he retired to ,oxford1 and held a chaplaincy at ,new ,college until the city surrendered to the parliamentary forces in #afdf4 ,subsequently he was chaplain1 first to the royalist ,sir ,robert ,shirley of ,eatington 7#afbi-afef71 and then at the ,exeter ,house chapel4 ,after the ,restoration in #affj he returned to ,clare ,college as master1 and was appointed ,lady ,margaret professor of divinity4 ,he also received the livings of ,cottesmore1 ,rutlandshire1 and ,stoke ,bruerne1 ,northamptonshire4 ,in #affa he became head of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and was elected ,regius professor of divinity4 ,he was consecrated bishop of ,chichester in #affi1 and was translated to the see of ,ely in #afgd-afge4 ,holding moderate religious views1 he deprecated alike the extremes represented by ,puritanism and ,roman ,catholicism4 ,his works are chiefly reports of his disputations1 such as that which appears in the ,scisme ,unmask't 7,paris1 #afeh71 in which the definition of a schism is discussed with two ,romanist opponents4 ,,gunny1 a sort of cloth1 the name of which is supposed to be derived from ganga or gania of ,rumphius1 or from gonia1 a vernacular name of the ,crotolaria juncea--a plant common in ,madras4 ,one of the first notices of the term itself is to be found in ,knox's ,ceylon1 in which he says3 ,the filaments at the bottom of the stem 7coir from the coco-nut husk1 ,cocos nucifera7 may be made into a coarse cloth called gunny1 which is used for bags and similar purposes4 ,warden1 in ,the ,linen ,trade1 says3 ,a very large proportion of the jute grown in ,bengal is made into cloth in the districts where it is cultivated1 and this industry forms the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts of ,bengal4 ,it pervades all classes1 and penetrates into every household1 almost every one1 man1 woman and child1 being in some way engaged in it4 ,boatmen1 husbandmen1 palankeen carriers1 domestic servants1 everyone1 in fact1 being ,hindu--for ,mussulmans spin cotton only--pass their leisure moments1 distaff in hand1 spinning gunny twist4 ,it is spun by the takur and dhara1 the former being a kind of spindle1 which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot1 and the latter a reel1 on which the thread1 when sufficiently twisted1 is wound up4 ,another kind of spinning machine1 called a ghurghurea1 is occasionally used4 ,a bunch of the raw material is hung up in every farmer's house1 or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof1 and every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse pack-thread1 of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm4 ,the lower ,hindu castes1 from this pack-thread1 spin a finer thread for being made into cloth1 and1 there being a loom in nearly every house1 very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of people4 ,it is especially the employment of the ,hindu widow1 as it enables her to earn her bread without being a burden on her family4 ,the cloth thus made is of various qualities1 such as clothing for the family 7especially the women1 a great proportion of whom on all the eastern frontier wear almost nothing else71 coarse fabrics1 bedding1 rice and sugar bags1 sacking1 pack-sheet1 c4 ,much of it is woven into short lengths and very narrow widths1 two or three of which are sometimes sewed into one piece before they are sold4 ,that intended for rice and sugar bags is made about #f feet long1 and from #bd to #bg inches wide1 and doubled4 ,a considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and woven into cloth for various local purposes1 and some of it is also sent out of the district4 ,the principal places where chotee1 or jute cloth for gunny bags1 is made are within a radius of perhaps #aej to #bjj miles around ,dacca1 and there both labour and land are remarkably cheap4 ,the short1 staple1 common jute is generally consumed in the local manufacture1 the finer and long stapled being reserved for the export trade4 ,these causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be sold almost as cheaply as the raw material1 which creates an immense demand for them in nearly every market of the world4 ,such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time the above was written--between #ahej and #ahfj4 ,most of the ,indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power1 and within about #bj m4 of ,calcutta4 ,in many respects the term gunny cloth is still applied to all and sundry1 but there is no doubt that the original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what is now known as cotton bagging4 ,this particular type of cloth is still largely made in the hand loom1 even in ,dundee1 this method of manufacture being considered1 for certain reasons1 more satisfactory than the power loom method 7see ,,jute and ,,bagging74 ,,gunpowder1 an explosive composed of saltpetre1 charcoal and sulphur4 ,very few substances have had a greater effect on civilization than gunpowder4 ,its employment altered the whole art of war1 and its influence gradually and indirectly permeated and affected the whole fabric of society4 ,its direct effect on the arts of peace was but slight1 and had but a limited range1 which could not be compared to the modern extended employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and engineering work4 ,it is probably quite incorrect to speak of the discovery of gunpowder4 ,from modern researches it seems more likely and more just to think of it as a thing that has developed1 passing through many stages--mainly of improvement1 but some undoubtedly retrograde4 ,there really is not sufficient solid evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man4 ,as ,lieutenant-,colonel ,h4 ,w4 ,l4 ,hime 7,gunpowder and ,ammunition1 #aijd7 says1 the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known4 ,the honour1 however1 has been associated with two names in particular1 ,berthold ,schwartz1 a ,german monk1 and ,friar ,roger ,bacon4 ,of the former ,oscar ,guttmann writes 7,monumenta pulveris pyrii1 #aijd1 p4 #f73 ,berthold ,schwartz was generally considered to be the inventor of gunpowder1 and only in ,england has ,roger ,bacon's claim been upheld1 though there are ,english writers who have pleaded in favour of ,schwartz4 ,most writers are agreed that ,schwartz invented the first firearms1 and as nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder1 it was perhaps considered justifiable to give ,schwartz the credit thereof4 ,there is some ambiguity as to when ,schwartz lived4 ,the year #aced is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of powder1 and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on the monument to him in ,freiburg4 ,but considering there can be no doubt as to the manufacture in ,england of gunpowder and cannon in #acdd1 that we have authentic information of guns in ,france in #acch and in ,florence in #acbf1 and that the ,oxford ,,ms4 ,de officiis regum of #acbe gives an illustration of a gun1 ,berthold ,schwartz must have lived long before #aced to have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns4 ,in ,germany also there were powder-works at ,augsburg in #acdj1 in ,spandau in #acdd1 and ,liegnitz in #acdh4 ,roger ,bacon1 in his ,de mirabili potestate artis et naturae 7#abdb71 makes the most important communication on the history of gunpowder4 ,reference is made to an explosive mixture as known before his time and employed for diversion1 producing a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning4 ,in one passage ,bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive1 but there is no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance1 but only so when mixed with other substances1 as appears from the statement in ,de secretis operibus artis et naturae1 printed at ,hamburg in #afah1 that from saltpetre and other ingredients we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we please4 ,a great part of his three chapters1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 long appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of the sentences was realized4 ,the words of this anagram are 7chap4 #aa73 ,item ponderis totum #cj sed tamen salis petrae luru vopo vir can utri#a et sulphuris2 et sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem1 si scias artificium4 ,videas tamen utrum loquar aenigmate aut secundum veritatem4 ,hime1 in his chapter on the origin of gunpowder1 discusses these chapters at length1 and gives1 omitting the anagram1 the translation3 ,let the total weight of the ingredients be #cj1 however1 of saltpetre 444 of sulphur2 and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise1 if you know the trick4 ,you may find 7by actual experiment7 whether ,i am writing riddles to you or the plain truth4 ,the anagram reads1 according to ,hime1 salis petrae r7ecipe7 vii part7es71 v nov7ellae7 corul7i71 v et sulphuris 7take seven parts of saltpetre1 five of young hazel-wood1 and five of sulphur74 ,hime then goes on to show that ,bacon was in possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on mere incendiary compositions4 ,bacon does not appear to have been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder4 ,he knew that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or frightened by it2 more cannot be said4 ,the behaviour of small quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its behaviour in large quantities and especially when under confinement4 ,hime is of opinion that ,bacon blundered upon gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition1 such as those mentioned by ,marcus ,graecus and others1 in which he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude nitrum4 ,it has been suggested that ,bacon derived his knowledge of these fiery mixtures from the ,,ms4 ,liber ignium1 ascribed to ,marcus ,graecus1 in the ,national ,library in ,paris 7,dutens1 ,enquiry into ,origin of ,discoveries attributed to ,moderns74 ,certainly this ,marcus ,graecus appears to have known of some incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients1 but it was not gunpowder4 ,hime seems to doubt the existence of any such person as ,marcus ,graecus1 as he says3 ,the ,liber ignium was written from first to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs 444 and we may reasonably conclude that ,marcus ,graecus is as unreal as the imaginary ,greek original of the tract which bears his name4 ,albertus ,magnus in the ,de mirabilibus mundi repeats some of the receipts given in ,marcus ,graecus1 and several other writers give receipts for ,greek fire1 rockets1 c4 ,dutens gives many passages in his work1 above-named1 from old authors in support of his view that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown to the ancients4 ,hime's elaborate arguments go to show that these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type and not real explosives4 ,his arguments seem to hold good as regards not only the ,greeks but also the ,arabs1 ,hindus and ,chinese 7see also ,,fireworks74 ,there seems no doubt that incendiary compositions1 some perhaps containing nitre1 mostly1 however1 simply combustible substances as sulphur1 naphtha1 resins1 c41 were employed and projected both for defence and offence1 but they were projected or blown by engines and not by themselves4 ,it is quite inconceivable that a real propelling explosive should have been known in the time of ,alexander or much later1 and not have immediately taken its proper place4 ,in a chapter discussing this question of explosives amongst the ,hindus1 ,hime says3 ,it is needless to enlarge the list of quotations3 incendiaries pursued much the same course in ,upper ,india as in ,greece and ,arabia4 ,no trustworthy evidence of an explosive in ,india is to be found until the #bast of ,april #aebf1 the date of the decisive battle of ,panipat1 in which ,ibrahim1 sultan of ,delhi1 was killed and his army routed by ,baber the ,mogul1 who possessed both great and small firearms4 ,as regards also the crusader period 7#ajig-abia71 so strange and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties1 yet no historian1 ,christian or ,moslem1 alludes to an explosive of any kind1 while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries4 ,the employment of rockets and wildfire incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of very old date in ,india1 but the names given to pieces of artillery under the ,mogul conqueror of ,hindustan point to a ,european1 or at least to a ,turkish origin1 and it is quite certain that ,europeans were retained in the service of ,akbar and ,aurangzeb4 ,the composition of present day ,chinese gunpowder is almost identical with that employed in ,europe1 so that in all probability the knowledge of it was obtained from ,western sources4 ,in the writings of ,bacon there is no mention of guns or the use of powder as a propellant1 but merely as an explosive and destructive power4 ,owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging over the early history of gunpowder1 its employment as a propelling agent has been ascribed to the ,moors or ,saracens4 ,j4 ,a4 ,conde 7,historia de la dominacion de los ,arabes en ,espana7 states that ,ismail ,ben ,firaz1 king of ,granada1 who in #acbe besieged ,boza1 had among his machines some that cast globes of fire1 but there is not the least evidence that these were guns4 ,the first trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder in ,europe1 a document still in existence1 and bearing date ,february #aa1 #acbf1 gives authority to the council of twelve of ,florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls1 for the defence of the territory1 c41 of the republic4 ,john ,barbour1 archdeacon of ,aberdeen1 writing in #acge1 states that cannons 7crakys of war7 were employed in ,edward ,,iii4's invasion of ,scotland in #acbg4 ,an indenture first published by ,sir ,n4 ,h4 ,nicolas in his ,history of the ,royal ,navy 7,london1 #ahdf71 and again by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,h4 ,brackenbury 7,proc4 ,r4,a4 ,inst41 #ahfe71 stated to be #acch1 contains references to small cannon as among the stores of the ,tower1 and also mentions un petit barrell de gonpoudre le quart' plein4 ,if authentic1 this is possibly the first mention of gunpowder as such in ,england1 but some doubts have been thrown upon the date of this ,,ms4 ,from a contemporary document in the ,national ,library in ,paris it seems that in the same year 7#acch7 there existed in the marine arsenal at ,rouen an iron weapon called pot de feu1 for propelling bolts1 together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for the same4 ,preserved in the ,record ,office in ,london are trustworthy accounts from the year #acde of the purchase of ingredients for making powder1 and of the shipping of cannon to ,france4 ,in #acdf ,edward ,,iii4 appears to have ordered all available saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him4 ,in the first year of ,richard ,,ii4 7#acgg7 ,thomas ,norbury was ordered to buy1 amongst other munitions1 sulphur1 saltpetre and charcoal1 to be sent to the castle of ,brest4 ,in #adad ,henry ,v4 ordered that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom without special licence1 and in the same year ordered twenty pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the guns4 ,the manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried on as a crown monopoly about the time of ,elizabeth1 and regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about #afbc 7,james ,i474 ,powder-mills were probably in existence at ,waltham ,abbey about the middle or towards the end of the #afth century4 ,ingredients and their ,action4--,roger ,bacon in his anagram gives the first real recipe for gunpowder1 viz4 7according to ,hime1 ch4 xii47 saltpetre #da4b1 charcoal #bi4d1 sulphur #bi4d4 ,dr ,john ,arderne of ,newark1 who began to practise about #acej and was later surgeon to ,henry ,,iv41 gives a recipe 7,sloane ,,mss4 #cce1 #gie71 saltpetre #ff4f1 charcoal #bb4b1 sulphur #aa4a1 which are to be thoroughly mixed on a marble and then sifted through a cloth4 ,this powder is nominally of the same composition as one given in a ,,ms4 of ,marcus ,graecus1 but the saltpetre of this formula by ,marcus ,graecus was undoubtedly answerable for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions4 ,roger ,bacon had not only refined and obtained pure nitre1 but had appreciated the importance of thoroughly mixing the components of the powder4 ,most if not all the early powder was a loose mixture of the three ingredients1 and the most important step in connexion with the development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction of wet mixing or incorporating4 ,whenever this was done1 the improvement in the product must have been immediately evident4 ,in the damp or wetted state pressure could be applied with comparative safety during the mixing4 ,the loose powder mixture came to be called serpentine2 after wet mixing it was more or less granulated or corned and was known as corned powder4 ,corned powder seems to have been gradually introduced4 ,it is mentioned in the ,fire ,book of ,conrad von ,schongau 7in #adbi71 and was used for hand-guns in ,england long before #aefj4 ,it would seem that corned powder was used for hand-guns or small arms in the #aeth century1 but cannon were not made strong enough to withstand its explosion for quite another century 7,hime74 ,according to the same writer1 in the period #abej-adej1 when serpentine only was used1 one powder could differ from another in the proportions of the ingredients2 in the modern period--say #agjj-ahhf--the powders in use 7in each state7 differed only as a general rule in the size of the grain1 whilst during the transition period--#adej-agjj--they generally differed both in composition and size of grain4 ,corned or grained powder was adopted in ,france in #aebe1 and in #aedj the ,french utilized an observation that large-grained powder was the best for cannon1 and restricted the manufacture to three sizes of grain or corn1 possibly of the same composition4 ,early in the #ahth century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition appear to have become common4 ,the composition of ,english powder seems to have settled down to #ge nitre1 #ae charcoal1 and #aj sulphur1 somewhere about the middle of the #ahth century4 ,the composition of gunpowders used in different countries at different times is illustrated in the following tables3-- ,english ,powders 7,hime74 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #abej4 #acej4 #aefj4 #afdg4 #afgj4 #agdb4 #agha4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,saltpetre #da4b #ff4f #ej4j #ff4f #ga4d #ge4j #ge4j ,charcoal #bi4d #bb4b #cc4c #af4f #ad4c #ab4e #ae4j ,sulphur #bi4d #aa4a #af4f #af4f #ad4c #ab4e #aj4jb ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,foreign ,powders 7,hime74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,france4,sweden4,germany4,denmark4,franc e4,sweden4,germany4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #acch4 #aefj4 #aeie4 #afjh4 #afej4 #afig4 #ahhb4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,saltpetre #ej #ff4f #eb4b #fh4c #ge4f #gc #gh ,charcoal 8 #af4f #bf4a #bc4b #ac4f #ag #ai ,sulphur #be #af4f #ba4g #h4e #aj4h #aj #cc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,when reasonably pure1 none of the ingredients of gunpowder absorbs any material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere1 and the nitre only is a soluble substance4 ,it seems extremely probable that for a long period the three substances were simply mixed dry1 indeed sometimes kept separate and mixed just before being required2 the consequence must have been that1 with every care as to weighing out1 the proportions of any given quantity would alter on carriage4 ,saltpetre is considerably heavier than sulphur or charcoal1 and would tend to separate out towards the bottom of the containing vessel if subjected to jolting or vibration4 ,when pure there can only be one kind of saltpetre or sulphur1 because they are chemical individuals1 but charcoal is not4 ,its composition1 rate of burning1 c41 depend not only on the nature of the woody material from which it is made1 but quite as much on the temperature and time of heating employed in the making4 ,the woods from which it is made contain carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen1 and the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in charcoal-making4 ,if they were1 the resulting substance would be of no use for gunpowder4 #a-c of hydrogen and #h-ae of oxygen generally remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder4 ,a good deal of the fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the mode of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which it is made4 ,properties of ,ingredients4--,charcoal is the chief combustible in powder4 ,it must burn freely1 leaving as little ash or residue as possible2 it must be friable1 and grind into a non-gritty powder4 ,the sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood 7,rhamnus frangula71 willow 7,salix alba71 and alder 7,betula alnus74 ,dogwood is mainly used for small-arm powders4 ,powders made from dogwood charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow1 c4 ,the wood after cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for two or three years4 ,it is then picked to uniform size and charred in cylindrical iron cases or slips1 which can be introduced into slightly larger cylinders set in a furnace4 ,the slips are provided with openings for the escape of gases4 ,the rate of heating as well as the absolute temperature attained have an effect on the product1 a slow rate of heating yielding more charcoal1 and a high temperature reducing the hydrogen and oxygen in the final product4 ,when heated for seven hours to about #hjj deg4 ,c4 to #ijj deg4 ,c4 the remaining hydrogen and oxygen amount to about #b and #ab respectively4 ,the time of charring is as a rule from #e to #g hours4 ,the slips are then removed from the furnace and placed in a larger iron vessel1 where they are kept comparatively air-tight until quite cold4 ,the charcoal is then sorted1 and stored for some time before grinding4 ,the charcoal is ground1 and the powder sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine mesh copper-wire gauze4 ,the sifted powder is again stored for some time before use in closed iron vessels4 ,sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder1 and for complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast into moulds4 ,it is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted as in the case of the charcoal4 ,potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider1 not being deliquescent4 ,nitrates are continually being produced in surface soils1 c41 by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances4 ,nitric and nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges through the atmosphere1 and these are found eventually as nitrates in soils1 c4 ,nitre is soluble in water1 and much more so in hot than in cold4 ,crude nitre1 obtained from soils or other sources1 is purified by recrystallization4 ,the crude material is dissolved almost to saturation in boiling water3 on filtering and then cooling this liquor to about #cj deg4 ,c4 almost pure nitre crystallizes out1 most of the usual impurities still remaining in solution4 ,by rapidly cooling and agitating the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient fineness for the manufacture of powder without special grinding4 ,nitre contains nearly #dh of oxygen by weight1 five-sixths of which is available for combustion purposes4 ,nearly all the gases of the powder explosion are derived from the nitre4 ,the specific gravity of nitre is #b4b 3 #bjj grams will therefore occupy about #ajj cubic centimetres volume4 ,this quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields #bh grams or #bb1djj c4c4 of nitrogen1 and #hj grams or #ef1jjj c4c4 of oxygen as gases1 and #id grams of potassium oxide1 a fusible solid which vaporizes at a very high temperature4 ,incorporation4--,the materials are weighed out separately1 mixed by passing through a sieve1 and then uniformly moistened with a certain quantity of water1 whilst on the bed of the incorporating mill4 ,this consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to run in a circular bed4 ,the incorporation requires about four hours4 ,the mechanical action of rollers on the powder paste is a double one3 not only crushing but mixing by pushing forwards and twisting sideways4 ,the pasty mass is deflected so that it repeatedly comes under first one roller and then the next by scrapers1 set at an angle to the bed1 which follow each wheel4 ,although the charge is wet it is possible for it to be fired either by the heat developed by the roller friction1 by sparks from foreign matters1 as bits of stone1 c41 or possibly by heat generated by oxidation of the materials4 ,the mills are provided with a drenching apparatus so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its neighbours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately above the mill4 ,the product from the incorporation is termed mill-cake4 ,after this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never completely separate on drying1 however much shaken1 because each particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are entangled and retained4 ,after due incorporation1 powders are pressed to a certain extent whilst still moist4 ,the density to which a powder is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of burning4 ,the effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate of burning4 ,less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first and tend to put a great strain on the gun4 ,fouling is usually less with denser powders2 and1 as would be expected1 such powders bear transport better and give less dust than light powders4 ,up to a certain pressure1 hardness1 density1 and size of grain of a powder have an effect on the rate of burning and therefore on pressure4 ,glazing or polishing powder grains1 also exerts a slight retarding action on burning and enables the powders to resist atmospheric moisture better4 ,excess of moisture in gunpowder has a marked effect in reducing the explosiveness4 ,all powders are liable to absorb moisture1 the quality and kind of charcoal being the main determinant in this respect2 hard burnt black charcoal is least absorbent4 ,the material employed in brown powders absorbs moisture somewhat readily4 ,powder kept in a very damp atmosphere1 and especially in a changeable one1 spoils rapidly1 the saltpetre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing out4 ,the pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals of nitre in the mass4 ,after the pressing of the incorporated powder into a press-cake1 it is broken up or granulated by suitable machines1 and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting through sieves of determined sizes of mesh4 ,some dust is formed in this operation1 which is sifted away and again worked up under the rollers 7for sizes of grains see fig4 #a74 ,these grains1 cubes1 c41 are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite1 which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains4 ,this process is generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or moderately small ordnance4 ,shaped ,powders4--,prisms or prismatic powder are made by breaking up the press-cake into a moderately fine state1 whilst still moist1 and pressing a certain quantity in a mould4 ,the moulds generally employed consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are a number of hexagonal perforations4 ,accurately fitting plungers are so applied to these that one can enter at the top and the other at the bottom4 ,the lower plunger being withdrawn to the bottom of the plate the hexagonal hole is charged with the powder and the two plungers set in motion1 thus compressing the powder between them4 ,after the desired pressure has been applied the top plunger is withdrawn1 and the lower one pushed upward to eject the prism of powder4 ,the axial perforations in prism powders are made by small bronze rods which pass through the lower plunger and fit into corresponding holes in the upper one4 ,if these prisms are made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of about #a4gh may be obtained4 ,further to regulate the rate of burning so that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is consumed1 another form of machine was devised1 the cam press1 in which the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder4 ,it receives in fact one blow1 which compresses the powder to the same dimensions1 but the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much greater than in the interior4 ,the leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains1 and with the very large sizes1 was to regulate the rate of burning so as to avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the pressure in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or tube by the movement of the shot towards the muzzle4 ,in the perforated prismatic powder the ignition is intended to proceed through the perforations2 since in a charge the faces of the prisms fit pretty closely together1 it was thought that this arrangement would prevent unburnt cores or pieces of powder from being blown out4 ,these larger grain powders necessitated a lengthened bore to take advantage of the slower production of gases and complete combustion of the powder4 ,general ,t4 ,j4 ,rodman first suggested and employed the perforated cake cartridge in #ahfj1 the cake having nearly the diameter of the bore and a thickness of #a to #b in4 with perforations running parallel with the gun axis4 ,the burning would then start from the comparatively small surfaces of the perforations1 which would become larger as the powder burnt away4 ,experiments bore out this theory perfectly4 ,it was found that small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks1 and as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result was obtained4 ,this effect of mechanical density on rate of burning is good only up to a certain pressure1 above which the gases are driven through the densest form of granular material4 ,after granulating or pressing into shapes1 all powders must be dried4 ,this is done by heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by steam pipes4 ,as a rule this drying is followed by the finishing or polishing process4 ,powders are finally blended1 i4e4 products from different batches or makes are mixed so that identical proof results are obtained4 ,sizes and ,shapes of ,powders4--,in fig4 #a1 a to k show the relative sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military purposes1 except that the three largest powders1 e-f-g and h are figured half-size to save space1 whereas the remainder indicate the actual dimensions of the grains4 a is for small-arms1 all the others are for cannon of various sizes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,proof of ,powder4--,in addition to chemical examination powder is passed through certain mechanical tests3-- #a4 ,for colour1 glaze1 texture and freedom from dust4 #b4 ,for proper incorporation4 #c4 ,for shape1 size and proportion of the grains4--,the first is judged by eye1 and grains of the size required are obtained by the use of sieves of different sizes4 #d4 ,density4--,the density is generally obtained in some form of mercury densimeter1 the powder being weighed in air and then under mercury4 ,in some forms of the instrument the air can be pumped out so that the weighing takes place in vacuo4 #e4 ,moisture and absorption of moisture4--,the moisture and hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample1 drying at #ajj deg4 ,c4 for a certain time1 weighing again1 c41 until constant4 ,the dried weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of known moisture and temperature1 and the gain in weight per hour similarly ascertained by periodic weighings4 #f4 ,firing proof4--,the nature of this depends upon the purpose for which the powder is intended4 ,for sporting powders it consists in the pattern given by the shot upon a target at a given distance1 or1 if fired with a bullet1 upon the figure of merit1 or mean radial deviation of a certain number of rounds2 also upon the penetrative power4 ,for military purposes the muzzle velocity produced by a powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the exact time the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known distance between two wire screens4 ,by means of crusher gauges the exact pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior of the bore can be found4 ,in the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be ascertained are1 in addition to moisture1 freedom from chlorides or sulphates1 and correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal4 ,products of ,fired ,powder and ,changes taking place on ,explosion4--,with a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite impossible to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of products4 ,the desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as gases1 and potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids4 ,but the ingredients of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion4 ,burning in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure1 and burning in a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of atmospheres pressure1 may produce quite different results4 ,the temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure4 ,although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and nitrogen1 of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of the heat1 and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of burning1 it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation4 ,roughly speaking1 the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have a volume at #j deg4 ,c4 and #gfj mm4 pressure of about #bhj times that of the original powder4 ,the temperature produced under one atmosphere is above #bjjj deg4 ,c41 and under greater pressures considerably higher4 ,experiments have been made by ,benjamin ,robins 7#agdc71 ,charles ,hutton 7#aggh71 ,count ,rumford 7#agig71 ,gay-,lussac 7#ahbc71 ,r4 ,bunsen and ,l4 ,schiskoff 7#aheg71 ,t4 ,j4 ,rodman 7#ahfa71 ,c4 ,karolyi 7#ahfc71 and later many researches by ,sir ,andrew ,noble and ,sir ,f4 ,a4 ,abel1 and by ,h4 ,debus and others1 all with the idea of getting at the precise mechanism of the explosion4 ,debus 7,ann41 #ahhb1 vols4 #bab1 #bac2 #ahia1 vol4 #bfe7 discussed at great length the results of researches by ,bunsen1 ,karolyi1 ,noble and ,abel1 and others on the combustion of powder in closed vessels in such manner that all the products could be collected and examined and the pressures registered4 ,a ,waltham ,abbey powder1 according to an experiment by ,noble and ,abel1 gave when fired in a closed vessel the following quantities of products calculated from one gram of powder3-- ,fractions of ,fractions of a a gram4 molecule or atom4 ,potassium carbonate 4#bfae 4#jjahi molecule ,potassium sulphate 4#abfh 4#jjjgb thiosulphate 4#afff 4#jjjhg sulphide 4#jbeb 4#jjjag ,sulphur 4#jjab 4#jjjjd atom ,carbon dioxide 4#bfgh 4#jjfjh molecule ,carbon monoxide 4#jcci 4#jjaba ,nitrogen 4#ajga 4#jjgfe atom ,hydrogen 4#jjjh 4#jjjh ,hydrogen sulphide 4#jjhj 4#jjjbc molecule ,potassium thiocyanate 4#jjjd ,nitre 4#jjje ,ammonium carbonate 4#jjjb ,from this1 and other results1 ,debus concluded that ,waltham ,abbey powder could be represented by the formula #af,,kno#cba4ah;,c#f4fc,s and that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results could be fairly expressed 7rounding off fractions7 by #af,,kno#cba;,c#e,s #e,k#b;,,co#c ,k#b,,so#db,k#b,s#bac;,,co#bc;,,co#h,n#b 4 ,some of the sulphur is lost1 part combining with the metal of the apparatus and part with hydrogen in the charcoal4 ,the military powders of most nations can be represented by the formula #af,,kno#cba4b;,c#f4f,s1 proportions which are reasonably near to a theoretical mixture1 that is one giving most complete combustion1 greatest gas volume and temperature4 ,the combustion of powder consists of two processes3 7i47 oxidation1 during which potassium carbonate and sulphate1 carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed1 and 7ii47 a reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium sulphate and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate1 producing potassium sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively4 ,most powders contain more carbon and sulphur than necessary1 hence the second stage4 ,in this second stage heat is lost4 ,the potassium sulphide is also the most objectionable constituent as regards fouling4 ,the energy of a powder is given1 according to ,berthelot1 by multiplying the gas volume by the heat 7in calories7 produced during burning2 ,debus shows that a powder composed of #af,,kno#c to #h;,c and #h,s would have the least1 and one of composition #af,,kno#cbd;,c#af,s the greatest1 when completely burnt4 ,the greatest capability with the lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre would be obtained from the mixture _/#af,,kno#cbb;,c#h,s4 ,smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought for during the whole gunpowder period4 ,in #agef one was experimented with in ,france1 but was abandoned owing to difficulties in manufacture4 ,modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy than the black powders1 mainly because of the absence of metallic salts which although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are certainly ejected as solids or become solids at the moment of contact with air4 ,brown ,powders4--,about the middle of the #aith century guns and projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously1 and it was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most dense form burnt much too rapidly1 straining or bursting the pieces4 ,powders were introduced containing about #c sulphur and #ag-ai of a special form of charcoal made from slightly charred straw1 or similar material4 ,this brown charcoal contains a considerable amount of the hydrogen and oxygen of the original plant substance4 ,the mechanical processes of manufacture of these brown powders is the same as for black4 ,they1 however1 differ from black by burning very slowly1 even under considerable pressure4 ,this comparative slowness is caused by 7#a7 the presence of a small amount of water even when air-dry2 7#b7 the fact that the brown charcoal is practically very slightly altered cellulosic material1 which before it can burn completely must undergo a little further resolution or charring at the expense of some heat from the portion of charge first ignited2 and 7#c7 the lower content of sulphur4 ,an increase of a few per cent in the sulphur of black powder accelerates its rate of burning1 and it may become almost a blasting powder4 ,a decrease in sulphur has the reverse effect4 ,it is really the sulphur vapour that in the early period of combustion spreads the flame through the charge4 ,many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates or chlorates of the alkalis or of barium1 c41 are the oxygen providers and substances as sugar1 starch1 and many other organic compounds as the combustible elements4 ,some of these compositions have found employment for blasting or even as sporting powders1 but in most cases their objectionable properties of fouling1 smoke and mode of exploding have prevented their use for military purposes4 ,the adoption by the ,french government of the comparatively smokeless nitrocellulose explosive of ,paul ,vieille in #ahhg practically put an end to the old forms of gunpowders4 ,the first smokeless powder was made in #ahfe by ,colonel ,e4 ,schultze 7,ding4 ,pol4 ,jour4 #agd1 p4 #cbc2 #age1 p4 #dec7 by nitrating wood meal and adding potassium and barium nitrates4 ,it is somewhat similar in composition to the ,e4 ,c4 sporting powder4 ,f4 ,uchatius1 in ,austria1 proposed a smokeless powder made from nitrated starch1 but it was not adopted owing to its hygroscopic nature and also its tendency to detonate4 ,,bibliography4--,vanucchio ,biringuccio1 ,de la pirotechnia 7,venice1 #aedj72 ,tartaglia1 ,quesiti e invenzioni diversi 7lib4 iii47 7,venice1 #aedf72 ,peter ,whitehorne1 ,how to make ,saltpetre1 ,gunpowder1 c4 7,london1 #aegc72 ,nic4 ,macchiavelli1 ,the ,arte of ,warre1 trans4 by ,whitehorne 7,london1 #aehh72 ,hanzelet1 ,recueil de plusiers machines militaires 7,paris1 #afbj72 ,boillet ,langrois1 ,modelles artifices de feu 7#afbj72 ,kruger1 ,chemical ,meditations on the ,explosion of ,gunpowder 7in ,latin7 7#afcf72 ,collado1 ,on the ,invention of ,gunpowder 7,spanish7 7#afda72 ,the ,true ,way to make all ,sorts of ,gunpowder and ,matches 7#afdg72 ,hawksbee1 ,on ,gunpowder 7#afhf72 ,winter1 ,on ,gunpowder 7in ,latin72 ,robins1 ,new ,principles of ,gunnery 7,london1 #agdb7 7new ed4 by ,hutton1 #ahje72 ,d',antoni1 ,essame della polvere 7,turin1 #agfe7 7trans4 by ,captain ,thomson1 ,r4 ,a41 ,london1 #aghg72 ,count ,rumford1 ,experiments on ,fired ,gunpowder1 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 7#agig72 ,charles ,hutton1 ,mathematical ,tracts1 vol4 iii4 7#ahab72 ,sir ,w4 ,congreve1 ,a ,short ,account of ,improvements in ,gunpowder made by 7,london1 #ahah72 ,bunsen and ,schiskoff1 ,on the ,chemical ,theory of ,gunpowder1 ,pogg4 ,ann41 #aheg1 vol4 cii42 ,general ,rodman1 ,experiments on ,metal for ,cannon1 and ,qualities of ,cannon ,powder 7,boston1 #ahfa72 ,napoleon ,,iii41 ,etudes sur le passe et l'avenir de l'artillerie1 vol4 iii4 7,paris1 #ahfb72 ,von ,karolyi1 ,on the ,products of the ,combustion of ,gun ,cotton and ,gunpowder1 ,phil4 ,mag4 7,october #ahfc72 ,captain ,f4 ,m4 ,smith1 ,handbook of the ,manufacture and ,proof of ,gunpowder at ,waltham ,abbey 7,london1 #ahgj72 ,noble and ,abel1 ,fired ,gunpowder 7,london1 #ahge1 #ahhj72 ,noble1 ,artillery and ,explosives 7#aijf72 ,h4 ,w4 ,l4 ,hime1 ,gunpowder and ,ammunition1 their ,origin and ,progress 7#aijd72 ,o4 ,guttmann1 ,the ,manufacture of ,explosives 7#ahie71 ,monumenta pulveris pyrii 7#aijf72 ,notes on ,gunpowder and ,gun ,cotton1 published by order of the secretary of state for war 7,london1 #aijg74 7,see also ,,explosives47 7,w4 ,r4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,footnote3 #a ,these words were emended by some authors to read luru mope can ubre1 the letters of which can be arranged to give pulvere carbonum4 #b ,this represents the composition of ,english powder at present1 and no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the above date indicates4 #c ,brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns4 ,the charcoal is not burnt black but roasted until brown1 and is made from some variety of straw1 not wood4 ,,gunpowder ,,plot1 the name given to a conspiracy for blowing up ,king ,james ,i4 and the parliament on the #eth of ,november #afje4 ,to understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous conspiracy1 it is necessary to recall the political situation and the attitude of the ,roman ,catholics towards the government at the accession of ,james ,i4 ,the ,elizabethan administration had successfully defended its own existence and the ,protestant faith against able and powerful antagonists1 but this had not been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of repression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith4 ,the beginning of a happier era1 however1 was expected with the opening of the new reign4 ,the right of ,james to the crown could be more readily acknowledged by the ,romanists than that of ,elizabeth3 ,pope ,clement ,,viii4 appeared willing to meet the king half-way4 ,james himself was by nature favourable to the ,roman ,catholics and had treated the ,roman ,catholic lords in ,scotland with great leniency1 in spite of their constant plots and rebellions4 ,writing to ,cecil before his accession he maintained1 ,i am so far from any intention of persecution as ,i protest to ,god ,i reverence their church as our mother church1 although clogged with many infirmities and corruptions1 besides that ,i did ever hold persecution as one of the infallible notes of a false church4 ,he declared to ,northumberland1 the kinsman and master of ,thomas ,percy1 the conspirator1 as for the ,catholics1 ,i will neither persecute any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law1 neither will ,i spare to advance any of them that will be of good service and worthily deserved4 ,it is probable that these small but practical concessions would have satisfied the lay ,roman ,catholics and the secular priests1 but they were very far from contenting the ,jesuits1 by whom the results of such leniency were especially feared3 ,what rigour of laws would not compass in so many years1 wrote ,henry ,tichborne1 the ,jesuit1 in #aeih1 this liberty and lenity will effectuate in #bj days1 to wit the disfurnishing of the seminaries1 the disanimating of men to come and others to return1 the expulsion of the society and confusion as in ,germany1 extinction of zeal and favour1 disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the enterprise4444 ,we shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will besides drive our greatest patron the king of ,spain to stoop to a peace which will be the utter ruin of our edifice1 this many years in building4 ,unfortunately1 about this time the ,jesuits1 who thus thrived on political intrigue1 and who were deeply implicated in treasonable correspondence with ,spain1 had obtained a complete ascendancy over the secular priests1 who were for obeying the civil government as far as possible and keeping free from politics4 ,the time1 therefore1 as far as the ,roman ,catholics themselves were concerned1 was not a propitious one for introducing the moderate concessions which alone ,james had promised3 ,james1 too1 on his side1 found that religious toleration1 though clearly sound in principle1 was difficult in practice4 ,during the first few months of the reign all went well4 ,in ,july #afjc the fines for recusancy were remitted4 ,in ,january #afjd peaceable ,roman ,catholics could live unmolested and serve ,god according to their consciences without any danger4 ,but ,james's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled and the numbers of the ,jesuits and the ,roman ,catholics greatly increased4 ,rumours of plots came to hand4 ,cecil1 though like his master naturally in favour of toleration1 with his experience gained in the reign of ,elizabeth1 was alarmed at the policy pursued and its results1 and great anxiety was aroused in the government and nation1 which was in the end shared by the king4 ,it was determined finally to return to the earlier policy of repression4 ,on the #bbnd of ,february #afjd a proclamation was issued banishing priests2 on the #bhth of ,november #afjd1 recusancy fines were demanded from #ac wealthy persons1 and on the #ajth of ,february #afje the penal laws were ordered to be executed4 ,the plot1 however1 could not have been occasioned by these measures1 for it had been already conceived in the mind of ,robert ,catesby4 ,it was aimed at the repeal of the whole ,elizabethan legislation against the ,roman ,catholics and perhaps derived some impulse at first from the leniency lately shown by the administration1 afterwards gaining support from the opposite cause1 the return of the government to the policy of repression4 ,it was in ,may #afjc that ,catesby told ,percy1 in reply to the latter's declaration of his intention to kill the king1 that he was thinking of a most sure way4 ,subsequently1 about the #ast of ,november #afjc1 ,catesby sent a message to his cousin ,robert ,winter at ,huddington1 near ,worcester1 to come to ,london1 which the latter refused4 ,on the arrival of a second urgent summons shortly afterwards he obeyed1 and was then at a house at ,lambeth1 probably in ,january #afjd1 initiated by ,catesby together with ,john ,wright into the plot to blow up the parliament house4 ,before putting this plan into execution1 however1 it was decided to try a quiet way2 and ,winter was sent over to ,flanders to obtain the good offices of ,juan de ,velasco1 duke of ,frias and constable of ,castile1 who had arrived there to conduct the negotiations for a peace between ,england and ,spain1 in order to obtain the repeal of the penal laws4 ,winter1 having secured nothing but vain promises from the constable1 returned to ,england about the end of ,april1 bringing with him ,guy ,fawkes1 a man devoted to the ,roman ,catholic cause and recommended for undertaking perilous adventures4 ,subsequently the three and ,thomas ,percy1 who joined the conspiracy in ,may1 met in a house behind ,st ,clement's and1 having taken an oath of secrecy together1 heard ,mass and received the ,sacrament in an adjoining apartment from a priest stated by ,fawkes to have been ,father ,gerard4 ,later several other persons were included in the plot1 viz4 ,winter's brother ,thomas1 ,john ,grant1 ,ambrose ,rokewood1 ,robert ,keyes1 ,sir ,everard ,digby1 ,francis ,tresham1 a cousin of ,catesby and ,thomas ,bates ,catesby's servant1 all1 with the exception of the last1 being men of good family and all ,roman ,catholics4 ,father ,greenway and ,father ,garnet1 the ,jesuits1 were both cognisant of the plot 7see ,,garnet1 ,,henry74 ,on the #bdth of ,may #afjd a house was hired in ,percy's name adjoining the ,house of ,lords1 from the cellar of which they proposed to work a mine4 ,they began on the #aath of ,december #afjd1 and by about ,march had got half-way through the wall4 ,they then discovered that a vault immediately under the ,house of ,lords was available4 ,this was at once hired by ,percy1 and #cf barrels of gunpowder1 amounting to about #a ton and #ab cwt41 were brought in and concealed under coal and faggots4 ,the preparations being completed in ,may the conspirators separated4 ,fawkes was despatched to ,flanders1 where he imparted the plot to ,hugh ,owen1 a zealous ,romanist intriguer4 ,sir ,edmund ,baynham was sent on a mission to ,rome to be at hand when the news came to gain over the pope to the cause of the successful conspirators4 ,an understanding was arrived at with several officers levied for the service of the archduke1 that they should return at once to ,england when occasion arose of defending the ,roman ,catholic cause4 ,a great hunting match was organized at ,danchurch in ,warwickshire by ,digby1 to which large numbers of the ,roman ,catholic gentry were invited1 who were to join the plot after the successful accomplishment of the explosion of the #eth of ,november1 the day fixed for the opening of parliament1 and get possession of the princess ,elizabeth1 then residing in the neighbourhood2 while ,percy was to seize the infant prince ,charles and bring him on horseback to their meeting-place4 ,guy ,fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for ,flanders1 spread the news on the continent and get supporters4 ,the conspirators imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would readily agree to all their demands4 ,hitherto the secret had been well kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary success and without a single drawback2 but a very serious difficulty now confronted the conspirators as the time for action arrived1 and disturbed their consciences4 ,the feelings of ordinary humanity shrunk from the destruction of so many persons guiltless of any offence4 ,but in addition1 among the peers to be assassinated were included many ,roman ,catholics and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with the plotters themselves4 ,several appeals1 however1 made to ,catesby to allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly rejected4 ,on the #bfth of ,october ,lord ,monteagle1 a brother-in-law of ,francis ,tresham1 who had formerly been closely connected with some of the other conspirators and had engaged in ,romanist plots against the government1 but who had given his support to the new king1 unexpectedly ordered supper to be prepared at his house at ,haxton1 from which he had been absent for more than a year4 ,while at supper about #f o'clock an anonymous letter was brought by an unknown messenger which1 having glanced at1 he handed to ,ward1 a gentleman of his service and an intimate friend of ,winter1 the conspirator1 to be read aloud4 ,the celebrated letter ran as follows3-- ,my lord1 out of the love ,i bear to some of your friends1 ,i have a care for your preservation4 ,therefore ,i would advise you1 as you tender your life1 to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance of this ,parliament1 for ,god and man hath concurred to punish the wickedness of this time4 ,and think not slightly of this advertisement1 but retire yourself into your country1 where you may expect the event in safety1 for though there be no appearance of any stir1 yet ,i say they shall receive a terrible blow the ,parliament1 and yet they shall not see who hurts them4 ,this counsel is not to be contemned1 because it may do you good and can do you no harm1 for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter3 and ,i hope ,god will give you the grace to make good use of it1 to whose holy protection ,i commend you4 ,the authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved1 but all evidence seems to point to ,tresham1 and to the probability that he had some days before warned ,monteagle and agreed with him as to the best means of making known the plot and preventing its execution1 and at the same time of giving the conspirators time to escape 7see ,,tresham1 ,,francis74 ,monteagle at once started for ,whitehall1 found ,salisbury and other ministers about to sit down to supper1 and showed the letter1 whereupon it was decided to search the cellar under the ,house of ,lords before the meeting of parliament1 but not too soon1 so that the plot might be ripe and be fully disclosed4 ,meanwhile ,ward1 on the #bgth of ,october1 as had evidently been intended1 informed ,winter that the plot was known1 and on the #bhth ,winter informed ,catesby and begged him to give up the whole project4 ,catesby1 however1 after some hesitation1 finding from ,fawkes that nothing had been touched in the cellar1 and prevailed upon by ,percy1 determined to stand firm1 hoping that the government had put no credence in ,monteagle's letter1 and ,fawkes returned to the cellar to keep guard as before4 ,on the #dth the king1 having been shown the letter1 ordered the earl of ,suffolk1 as lord chamberlain1 to examine the buildings4 ,he was accompanied by ,monteagle4 ,on arriving at the cellar1 the door was opened to him by ,fawkes4 ,seeing the enormous piles of faggots he asked the name of their owner1 to which ,fawkes replied that they belonged to ,percy4 ,his name immediately aroused suspicions1 and accordingly it was ordered that a further search should be made by ,thomas ,knyvett1 a ,westminster magistrate who1 coming with his men at night1 discovered the gunpowder and arrested ,fawkes on the threshold4 ,the opinion that the whole plot was the work of ,salisbury1 that he acted as an agent provocateur and lured on his victims to destruction1 repeated by some contemporary and later writers and recently formulated and urged with great ability1 has no solid foundation4 ,nor is it even probable that he was aware of its existence till he received ,monteagle's letter4 ,even after its reception complete belief was not placed in the warning4 ,a search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and guided only by ,monteagle's letter1 while no attempt was made to seize the conspirators4 ,the steps taken by ,salisbury after the discovery of the gunpowder do not show the possession of any information of the plot or of the persons who were its chief agents outside ,fawkes's first statement1 and his knowledge is seen to develop according to the successive disclosures and confessions of the latter4 ,thus on the #gth of ,november he had no knowledge of the mine1 and it is only after ,fawkes's examination by torture on the #ith1 when the names of the conspirators were drawn from him1 that the government was able to classify them according to their guilt and extent of their participation4 ,the inquiry was not conducted by ,salisbury alone1 but by several commissioners1 some of whom were ,roman ,catholics1 and many rivals and secret enemies4 ,to conceal his intrigue from all these would have been impossible1 and that he should have put himself in their power to such an extent is highly improbable4 ,again1 the plan agreed upon for disclosing the plot was especially designed to allow the conspirators to escape1 and therefore scarcely a method which would have been arranged with ,salisbury4 ,not one of the conspirators1 even when all hope of saving life was gone1 made any accusation against ,salisbury or the government and all died expressing contrition for their crime4 ,lastly ,salisbury had no conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this description4 ,his political power and position in the new reign had been already secured and by very different methods4 ,he was now at the height of his influence1 having been created ,viscount ,cranborne in ,august #afjd and earl of ,salisbury in ,may #afje2 and ,james had already1 more than #af months before the discovery of the plot1 consented to return to the repressive measures against the ,romanists4 ,the success with which the conspirators concealed their plot from ,salisbury's spies is indeed astonishing1 but is probably explained by its very audacity and by the absence of incriminating correspondence1 the medium through which the minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his enemies4 ,on the arrest of ,fawkes the other conspirators1 except ,tresham1 fled in parties by different ways1 rejoining each other in ,warwickshire1 as had been agreed in case the plot had been successful4 ,catesby1 who with some others had covered the distance of #hj m4 between ,london and his mother's house at ,ashby ,st ,legers in eight hours1 informed his friends in ,warwickshire1 who had been awaiting the issue of the plot1 of its failure1 but succeeded in persuading ,sir ,everard ,digby1 by an unscrupulous falsehood1 to further implicate himself in his hopeless cause by assuring him that both ,james and ,salisbury were dead2 and1 according to ,father ,garnet1 this was not the first time that ,catesby had been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot4 ,he pushed on the same day with his companions in the direction of ,wales1 where1 it was hoped1 they would be joined by bands of insurgents4 ,they arrived at ,huddington at #b in the afternoon4 ,on the morning of the #gth the band1 numbering about #cf persons1 confessed and heard ,mass1 and then rode away to ,holbeche1 #b m4 from ,stourbridge1 in ,staffordshire1 the house of ,stephen ,littleton1 who had been present at the hunting at ,danchurch 7see ,,digby1 ,,everard71 where they arrived at #aj o'clock at night1 having on their way broken into ,lord ,windsor's house at ,hewell ,grange and taken all the armour they found there4 ,their case was now desperate4 ,none had joined them3 ,not one came to take our part1 said ,sir ,everard ,digby1 though we had expected so many4 ,they were being followed by the sheriff and all the forces of the county4 ,all spurned them from their doors when they applied for succour4 ,one by one their followers fled from the house in which the last scene was to be played out4 ,they now began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but by ,god2 for an explosion of some of their gunpowder1 on the morning of the #hth1 by which ,catesby and some others were scorched1 struck terror into their hearts as a judgment from heaven4 ,the assurance of innocence and of a just cause which till now had alone supported them was taken away4 ,the greatness of their crime1 its true nature1 now struck home to them1 and the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in prayer and in repentance4 ,the supreme hour had now arrived4 ,about #aa o'clock the sheriff and his men came up and immediately began firing into the house4 ,catesby1 ,percy and the two ,wrights were killed1 ,winter and ,rokewood wounded and taken prisoners with the men who still adhered to them4 ,in all eight of the conspirators1 including the two ,winters1 ,digby1 ,fawkes1 ,rokewood1 ,keyes and ,bates1 were executed1 while ,tresham died in the ,tower4 ,of the priests involved1 ,garnet was tried and executed1 while ,greenway and ,gerard succeeded in escaping4 ,so ended the strange and famous ,gunpowder ,plot4 ,however atrocious its conception and its aims1 it is impossible not to feel1 together with horror for the deed1 some pity and admiration for the guilty persons who took part in it4 ,theirs was a crime which it would never have entered into the heart of any man to commit who was not raised above the lowness of the ordinary criminal4 ,they sinned not against the light but in the dark4 ,they erred from ignorance1 from a perverted moral sense rather than from any mean or selfish motive1 and exhibited extraordinary courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them the cause of ,god and of their country4 ,their punishment was terrible4 ,not only had they risked and lost all in the attempt and drawn upon themselves the frightful vengeance of the state1 but they saw themselves the means of injuring irretrievably the cause for which they felt such devotion4 ,nothing could have been more disastrous to the cause of the ,roman ,catholics than their crime4 ,the laws against them were immediately increased in severity1 and the gradual advance towards religious toleration was put back for centuries4 ,in addition a new1 increased and long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the adherents of the old faith1 not unnatural in the circumstances1 but unjust and undiscriminating1 because while some of the ,jesuits were no doubt implicated1 the secular priests and ,roman ,catholic laity as a whole had taken no part in the conspiracy4 ,,bibliography4--,the recent controversy concerning the nature and origin of the plot can be followed in ,what was the ,gunpowder ,plot8 by ,john ,gerard1 ,s4,j4 7#ahig72 ,what ,gunpowder ,plot was1 by ,s4 ,r4 ,gardiner 7a rejoinder7 7#ahig72 ,the ,gunpowder ,plot 444 in reply to ,professor ,gardiner1 by ,john ,gerard1 ,s4,j4 7#ahig72 ,thomas ,winter's ,confession and the ,gunpowder ,plot1 by ,john ,gerard1 ,s4,j4 7with facsimiles of his writing7 7#ahih72 ,eng4 ,hist4 ,rev4 iii4 #eaj and xii4 #gia2 ,edinburgh ,review1 clxxxv4 #ahc2 ,athenaeum #ahig1 ii4 #adi1 #ghe1 #hee2 #ahih1 i4 #bc1 ii4 #ceb1 #dbj2 ,academy1 vol4 #eb p4 #hd2 ,the ,nation1 vol4 #fe p4 #djj4 ,a considerable portion of the controversy centres round the question of the authenticity of ,thomas ,winter's confession1 the ,,ms4 of which is at ,hatfield1 supported by ,professor ,gardiner1 but denied by ,father ,gerard principally on account of the document having been signed ,winter instead of ,wintour1 the latter apparently being the conspirator's usual style of signature4 ,the document was deposited by the #crd ,marquess of ,salisbury for inspection at the ,record ,office1 and was pronounced by two experts1 one from the ,british ,museum and another from the ,record ,office1 to be undoubtedly genuine4 ,the cause of the variation in the signature still remains unexplained1 but ceases to have therefore any great historical importance4 ,the bibliography of the contemporary controversy is given in the article on ,henry ,garnet in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography and in ,the ,gunpowder ,plot by ,david ,jardine 7#aheg71 the latter work still remaining the principal authority on the subject2 add to these ,gardiner's ,hist4 of ,england1 i41 where an excellent account is given2 ,history of the ,jesuits in ,england1 by ,father ,ethelred ,taunton 7#aija72 ,father ,gerard's ,narrative in ,condition of the ,catholics under ,james ,i4 7#ahgb71 and ,father ,greenway's ,narrative in ,troubles of our ,catholic ,forefathers1 #ast series 7#ahgb71 interesting as contemporary accounts1 but not to be taken as complete or infallible authorities1 of the same nature being ,historia ,provinciae ,anglicanae ,societatis ,jesu1 by ,henry ,more1 ,s4,j4 7#affj71 pp4 #cji et seq42 also ,history of ,great ,britain1 by ,john ,speed 7#afaa71 pp4 #hci et seq42 ,archaeologia1 xii4 #bjj1 xxviii4 #dbb1 xxix4 #hj2 ,harleian ,miscellany 7#ahji71 iii4 #aai-ace1 or ,somers ,tracts 7#ahji71 ii4 #ig-aag2 ,m4 ,a4 ,tierney's ed4 of ,dodd's ,church ,history1 vol4 iv4 7#ahda72 ,treason and ,plot1 by ,martin ,hume 7#aija72 ,notes and ,queries1 #g ser4 vi41 #h ser4 iv4 #djh1 #dig1 v4 #ee1 xii4 #eje1 #i ser4 xi4 #aae2 ,add4 ,,mss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #fagh2 ,state ,trials1 ii42 ,calendar of ,state ,pap4 ,dom4 7#afjc-afaj71 and the official account1 ,a ,true and ,perfect ,relation of the ,whole ,proceedings against the late most ,barbarous ,traitors 7#afjf71 a neither true nor complete narrative however1 now superseded as an authority1 reprinted as ,the ,gunpowder ,treason 444 with additions in #afgi by ,thomas ,barlow1 bishop of ,lincoln4 ,a large number of letters and papers in the ,state ,paper ,office relating to the plot were collected in one volume in #ahai1 called the ,gunpowder ,plot ,book2 these are noted in their proper place in the printed calendars of ,state ,papers1 ,domestic ,series2 see also articles on ,,fawkes1 ,,guy2 ,,tresham1 ,,francis2 ,,monteagle1 ,,william ,,parker1 #d,,th ,,baron2 ,,percy1 ,,thomas2 ,,catesby1 ,,robert2 ,,garnet1 ,,henry2 ,,digby1 ,,sir ,,everard4 7,p4 ,c4 ,y47 ,,gun-,,room1 a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the rank of lieutenant1 but who are not warrant officers of the class of the boatswain1 gunner or carpenter4 ,in the wooden sailing ships it was on the lower deck1 and was originally the quarters of the gunner4 ,,gunter1 ,,edmund 7#aeha-afbf71 ,english mathematician1 of ,welsh extraction1 was born in ,hertfordshire in #aeha4 ,he was educated at ,westminster school1 and in #aeii was elected a student of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,he took orders1 became a preacher in #afad1 and in #afae proceeded to the degree of bachelor in divinity4 ,mathematics1 however1 which had been his favourite study in youth1 continued to engross his attention1 and on the #fth of ,march #afai he was appointed professor of astronomy in ,gresham ,college1 ,london4 ,this post he held till his death on the #ajth of ,december #afbf4 ,with ,gunter's name are associated several useful inventions1 descriptions of which are given in his treatises on the ,sector1 ,cross-staff1 ,bow1 ,quadrant and other ,instruments4 ,he contrived his sector about the year #afjf1 and wrote a description of it in ,latin1 but it was more than sixteen years afterwards before he allowed the book to appear in ,english4 ,in #afbj he published his ,canon triangulorum 7see ,,logarithms74 ,there is reason to believe that ,gunter was the first to discover 7in #afbb or #afbe7 that the magnetic needle does not retain the same declination in the same place at all times4 ,by desire of ,james ,i4 he published in #afbd ,the ,description and ,use of ,his ,majestie's ,dials in ,whitehall ,garden1 the only one of his works which has not been reprinted4 ,he introduced the words cosine and cotangent1 and he suggested to ,henry ,briggs1 his friend and colleague1 the use of the arithmetical complement 7see ,brigg's ,arithmetica ,logarithmica1 cap4 xv474 ,his practical inventions are briefly noticed below3 ,gunter's ,chain1 the chain in common use for surveying1 is #bb yds4 long and is divided into #ajj links4 ,its usefulness arises from its decimal or centesimal division1 and the fact that #aj square chains make an acre4 ,gunter's ,line1 a logarithmic line1 usually laid down upon scales1 sectors1 c4 ,it is also called the line of lines and the line of numbers1 being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler1 which therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner as logarithms do arithmetically4 ,gunter's ,quadrant1 an instrument made of wood1 brass or other substance1 containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere on the plane of the equinoctial1 the eye being supposed to be placed in one of the poles1 so that the tropic1 ecliptic1 and horizon form the arcs of circles1 but the hour circles are other curves1 drawn by means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude every year4 ,this instrument is used to find the hour of the day1 the sun's azimuth1 c41 and other common problems of the sphere or globe1 and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees4 ,gunter's ,scale 7generally called by seamen the ,gunter7 is a large plane scale1 usually #b ft4 long by about #a-a_/b in4 broad1 and engraved with various lines of numbers4 ,on one side are placed the natural lines 7as the line of chords1 the line of sines1 tangents1 rhumbs1 c471 and on the other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones4 ,by means of this instrument questions in navigation1 trigonometry1 c41 are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses4 ,,gunther1 ,,johann ,,christian 7#afie-agbc71 ,german poet1 was born at ,striegau in ,lower ,silesia on the #hth of ,april #afie4 ,after attending the gymnasium at ,schweidnitz1 he was sent in #agae by his father1 a country doctor1 to study medicine at ,wittenberg2 but he was idle and dissipated1 had no taste for the profession chosen for him1 and came to a complete rupture with his family4 ,in #agag he went to ,leipzig1 where he was befriended by ,j4 ,b4 ,mencke 7#afgd-agcb71 who recognized his genius2 and there he published a poem on the peace of ,passarowitz 7concluded between the ,german emperor and the ,porte in #agah7 which acquired him reputation4 ,a recommendation from ,mencke to ,frederick ,augustus ,,ii4 of ,saxony1 king of ,poland1 proved worse than useless1 as ,gunther appeared at the audience drunk4 ,from that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life1 sinking ever deeper into the slough of misery1 until he died at ,jena on the #aeth of ,march #agbc1 when only in his #bhth year4 ,goethe pronounces ,gunther to have been a poet in the fullest sense of the term4 ,his lyric poems as a whole give evidence of deep and lively sensibility1 fine imagination1 clever wit1 and a true ear for melody and rhythm2 but an air of cynicism is more or less present in most of them1 and dull or vulgar witticisms are not infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of his genius4 ,gunther's collected poems were published in four volumes 7,breslau1 #agbc-agce74 ,they are also included in vol4 vi4 of ,tittmann's ,deutsche ,dichter des #agten ,jahrh4 7,leipzig1 #ahgd71 and vol4 xxxviii4 of ,kurschner's ,deutsche ,nationalliteratur 7#ahhc74 ,a pretended autobiography of ,gunther appeared at ,schweidnitz in #agcb1 and a life of him by ,siebrand at ,leipzig in #agch4 ,see ,hoffmann von ,fallersleben1 ,j4 ,ch4 ,gunther 7,breslau1 #ahcc72 ,o4 ,roquette1 ,leben und ,dichten ,j4 ,ch4 ,gunthers 7,stuttgart1 #ahfj72 ,m4 ,kalbeck1 ,neue ,beitrage zur ,biographie des ,dichters ,c4 ,gunther 7,breslau1 #ahgi74 ,,gunther ,,of ,,schwarzburg 7#acjd-acdi71 ,german king1 was a descendant of the counts of ,schwarzburg and the younger son of ,henry ,,vii41 count of ,blankenburg4 ,he distinguished himself as a soldier1 and rendered good service to the emperor ,louis ,,iv41 on whose death in #acdg he was offered the ,german throne1 after it had been refused by ,edward ,,iii41 king of ,england4 ,he was elected ,german king at ,frankfort on the #cjth of ,january #acdi by four of the electors1 who were partisans of the house of ,wittelsbach and opponents of ,charles of ,luxemburg1 afterwards the emperor ,charles ,,iv4 ,charles1 however1 won over many of ,gunther's adherents1 defeated him at ,eltville1 and ,gunther1 who was now seriously ill1 renounced his claims for the sum of #bj1jjj marks of silver4 ,he died three weeks afterwards at ,frankfort1 and was buried in the cathedral of that city1 where a statue was erected to his memory in #aceb4 ,see ,graf ,l4 ,utterodt zu ,scharffenberg1 ,gunther1 ,graf von ,schwarzburg1 erwahlter deutscher ,konig 7,leipzig1 #ahfb72 and ,k4 ,janson1 ,das ,konigtum ,gunthers von ,schwarzburg 7,leipzig1 #ahhj74 ,,guntram1 or ,,gontran 7#efa-eib71 king of ,burgundy1 was one of the sons of ,clotaire ,i4 ,on the death of his father 7#efa7 he and his three brothers divided the ,frankish realm between them1 ,guntram receiving as his share the valleys of the ,saone and ,rhone1 together with ,berry and the town of ,orleans1 which he made his capital4 ,on the death of ,charibert 7#efg71 he further obtained the civitates of ,saintes1 ,angouleme and ,perigueux4 ,during the civil war which broke out between the kings of ,neustria and ,austrasia1 his policy was to try to maintain a state of equilibrium4 ,after the assassination of ,sigebert 7#ege71 he took the youthful ,childebert ,,ii4 under his protection1 and1 thanks to his assistance against the intrigues of the great lords1 the latter was able to maintain his position in ,austrasia4 ,after the death of ,chilperic 7#ehd7 he protected the young ,clotaire ,,ii4 in the same way1 and prevented ,childebert from seizing his dominions4 ,his course was rendered easier by the fact that his own sons had died2 consequently1 having an inheritance at his disposal1 he was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he wished4 ,the danger to the ,frankish realm caused by the expedition of ,gundobald 7#ehe71 and the anxiety which was caused him by the revolts of the great lords in ,austrasia finally decided him in favour of ,childebert4 ,he adopted him as his son1 and recognized him as his heir at the treaty of ,andelot 7#ehg72 he also helped him to crush the great lords1 especially ,ursion and ,berthefried1 who were conquered in la ,woevre4 ,from this time on he ceased to play a prominent part in the affairs of ,austrasia4 ,he died in #eib1 and ,childebert received his inheritance without opposition4 ,gregory of ,tours is very indulgent to ,guntram1 who showed himself on occasions generous towards the church2 he almost always calls him good king ,guntram1 and in his writings are to be found such phrases as good king ,guntram took as his servant a concubine ,veneranda 7iv4 #be72 but ,guntram was really no better than the other kings of his age2 he was cruel and licentious1 putting his cubicularius ,condo to death1 for instance1 because he was suspected of having killed a buffalo in the ,vosges4 ,he was moreover a coward1 and went in such constant terror of assassination that he always surrounded himself with a regular bodyguard4 ,see ,krusch1 ,zur ,chronologie der merowingischen ,konige1 in the ,forschungen zur deutschen ,geschichte1 xxii4 #dea-dij2 ,ulysse ,chevalier1 ,bio-bibliographie 7#bnd ed471 s4v4 ,guntram4 7,c4 ,pf47 ,,guntur1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,madras presidency4 ,the town 7pop4 in #aija1 #cj1hcc7 has a station on the ,bellary-,bezwada branch of the ,southern ,mahratta railway4 ,it is situated east of the ,kondavid hills1 and is very healthy4 ,it appears to have been founded in the #ahth century by the ,french4 ,at the time of the cession of the ,circars to the ,english in #agfe1 ,guntur was specially exempted during the life of ,basalat ,jang1 whose personal jagir it was4 ,in #aghh it came into ,british possession1 the cession being finally confirmed in #ahbc4 ,it has an important trade in cotton1 with presses and ginning factories4 ,there is a second-grade college supported by the ,american ,lutheran ,mission4 ,until #ahei1 ,guntur was the headquarters of a district of the same name1 and in #aijd a new ,,district ,,of ,,guntur was constituted1 covering territory which till then had been divided between ,kistna and ,nellore4 ,area1 #egcc sq4 m4 ,the population on this area in #aija was #a1dij1fce4 ,the district is bounded on the ,e4 and ,n4 by the river ,kistna2 in the ,w4 a considerable part of the boundary is formed by the ,gundlakamma river4 ,the greater part consists of a fertile plain irrigated by canals from the ,kistna1 and producing cotton1 rice and other crops4 ,,gupta1 an empire and dynasty of northern ,india1 which lasted from about ,a4,d4 #cbj to #dhj4 ,the dynasty was founded by ,chandragupta ,i41 who must not be confounded with his famous predecessor ,chandragupta ,maurya4 ,he gave his name to the ,gupta era1 which continued in use for several centuries1 dating from the #bfth of ,february1 ,a4,d4 #cbj4 ,chandragupta was succeeded by ,samudragupta 7c4 ,a4,d4 #cbf-cge71 one of the greatest of ,indian kings1 who conquered nearly the whole of ,india1 and whose alliances extended from the ,oxus to ,ceylon2 but his name was at one time entirely lost to history1 and has only been recovered of recent years from coins and inscriptions4 ,his empire rivalled that of ,asoka1 extending from the ,hugli on the east to the ,jumna and ,chambal on the west1 and from the foot of the ,himalayas on the north to the ,nerbudda on the south4 ,his son ,chandragupta ,,ii4 7c4 ,a4,d4 #cge-dac7 was also known as ,vikra-,maditya 7q4v471 and seems to have been the original of the mythical ,hindu king of that name4 ,about #chh he conquered the ,saka satrap of ,surashtra 7,kathiawar7 and penetrated to the ,arabian ,sea4 ,his administration is described in the work of ,fa-hien1 the earliest ,chinese pilgrim1 who visited ,india in ,a4,d4 #dje-daa4 ,pataliputra was the capital of the dynasty1 but ,ajodhya seems to have been sometimes used by both ,samudragupta and ,chandragupta ,,ii4 as the headquarters of government4 ,the ,gupta dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of ,brahmanism at the expense of ,buddhism1 and to have given an impulse to art and literature4 ,the golden age of the empire lasted from ,a4,d4 #ccj to #dee1 beginning to decline after the latter date4 ,when ,skandagupta came to the throne in #dee1 ,india was threatened with an irruption of the ,white ,huns1 on whom he inflicted a severe defeat1 thus saving his kingdom for a time2 but about #dgj the ,white ,huns 7see ,,ephthalites7 returned to the attack1 and the empire was gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads4 ,when ,skandagupta died about #dhj1 the ,gupta empire came to an end1 but the dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several generations4 ,the last known prince of the imperial line of ,guptas was ,kamaragupta ,,ii4 7c4 #ece71 after whom it passed by an obscure transition into a dynasty of eleven ,gupta princes1 known as the later ,guptas of ,magadha1 who seem for the most part to have been merely local rulers of ,magadha4 ,one of them1 however1 ,adityasena1 after the death of the paramount sovereign in #fdh1 asserted his independence4 ,the last known ,gupta king was ,jivitagupta ,,ii41 who reigned early in the #hth century4 ,about the middle of the century ,magadha passed under the sway of the ,pal kings of ,bengal4 ,see ,j4 ,f4 ,fleet1 ,gupta ,inscriptions 7#ahhh72 and ,vincent ,a4 ,smith1 ,the ,early ,history of ,india 7#bnd ed41 ,oxford1 #aijh71 pp4 #bfd-bie4 ,,gura1 ,,eugen 7#ahdb-aijf71 ,german singer1 was born near ,saatz in ,bohemia1 and educated at first for the career of a painter at ,vienna and ,munich2 but later1 developing a fine baritone voice1 he took up singing and studied it at the ,munich ,conservatorium4 ,in #ahfe he made his debut at the ,munich opera1 and in the following years he gained the highest reputation in ,germany1 being engaged principally at ,leipzig till #ahgf and then at ,hamburg till #ahhc4 ,he sang in #ahgf in the ,ring at ,bayreuth1 and was famous for his ,wagnerian roles2 and his ,hans ,sachs in ,meistersinger1 as performed in ,london in #ahhb1 was magnificent4 ,in later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of ,german ,lieder4 ,he died in ,bavaria on the #bfth of ,august #aijf4 ,,gurdaspur1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,lahore division of the ,punjab4 ,the town had a population in #aija of #egfd4 ,it has a fort 7now containing a ,brahman monastery7 which was famous for the siege it sustained in #agab from the ,moguls4 ,the ,sikh leader1 ,banda1 was only reduced by starvation1 when he and his men were tortured to death after capitulating4 ,the ,,district comprises an area of #ahhi sq4 m4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by the native states of ,kashmir and ,chamba1 on the ,e4 by ,kangra district and the river ,beas1 on the ,s4,w4 by ,amritsar district1 and on the ,w4 by ,sialkot1 and occupies the submontane portion of the ,bari ,doab1 or tract between the ,beas and the ,ravi4 ,an intrusive spur of the ,british dominions runs northward into the lower ,himalayan ranges1 to include the mountain sanatorium of ,dalhousie1 #gfhg ft4 above sea-level4 ,this station1 which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer months1 crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent snowy range1 the ,dhaoladhar1 between which and the plain two minor ranges intervene4 ,below the hills stretches a picturesque and undulating plateau covered with abundant timber1 made green by a copious rainfall1 and watered by the streams of the ,bari ,doab1 which1 diverted by dams and embankments1 now empty their waters into the ,beas directly1 in order that their channels may not interfere with the ,bari ,doab canal4 ,the district contains several large jhils or swampy lakes1 and is famous for its snipe-shooting4 ,it is historically important in connexion with the rise of the ,sikh confederacy4 ,the whole of the ,punjab was then distributed among the ,sikh chiefs who triumphed over the imperial governors4 ,in the course of a few years1 however1 the maharaja ,ranjit ,singh acquired all the territory which those chiefs had held4 ,pathankot and the neighbouring villages in the plain1 together with the whole hill portion of the district1 formed part of the area ceded by the ,sikhs to the ,british after the first ,sikh war in #ahdf4 ,in #ahfb1 after receiving one or two additions1 the district was brought into its present shape4 ,in #aija the population was #idj1ccd1 showing a slight decrease1 compared with an increase of #ae in the previous decade4 ,a branch of the ,north-,western railway runs through the district4 ,the largest town and chief commercial centre is ,batala4 ,there are important woollen mills at ,dhariwal1 and besides their products the district exports cotton1 sugar1 grain and oil-seeds4 ,,gurgaon1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,delhi division of the ,punjab4 ,the town 7pop4 in #aija1 #dgfe7 is the headquarters of the district1 but is otherwise unimportant4 ,the district has an area of #aihd sq4 m4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by ,rohtak1 on the ,w4 and ,s4,w4 by portions of the ,alwar1 ,nabha and ,jind native states1 on the ,s4 by the ,muttra district of the ,united ,provinces1 on the ,e4 by the river ,jumna and on the ,n4,e4 by ,delhi4 ,it comprises the southernmost corner of the ,punjab province1 stretching away from the level plain towards the hills of ,rajputana4 ,two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the south and run northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward the plain country4 ,east of the western ridge the valley is wide and open1 extending to the banks of the ,jumna4 ,to the west lies the subdivision of ,rewari1 consisting of a sandy plain dotted with isolated hills4 ,numerous torrents carry off the drainage from the upland ranges1 and the most important among them empty themselves at last into the ,najafgarh jhil4 ,this swampy lake lies to the east of the civil station of ,gurgaon1 and stretches long arms into the neighbouring districts of ,delhi and ,rohtak4 ,salt is manufactured in wells at several villages4 ,the mineral products are iron ore1 copper ore1 plumbago and ochre4 ,in #ahjc ,gurgaon district passed into the hands of the ,british after ,lord ,lake's conquests4 ,on the outbreak of the ,mutiny in ,may #aheg1 the nawab of ,farukhnagar1 the principal feudatory of the district1 rose in rebellion4 ,the ,meos and many ,rajput families followed his example4 ,a faithful native officer preserved the public buildings and records at ,rewari from destruction2 but with this exception1 ,british authority became extinguished for a time throughout ,gurgaon4 ,after the fall of the rebel capital1 a force marched into the district and either captured or dispersed the leaders of rebellion4 ,the territory of the nawab was confiscated on account of his participation in the ,mutiny4 ,civil administration was resumed under orders from the ,punjab government1 to which province the district was formally annexed on the final pacification of the country4 ,the population in #aija was #gdf1bjh1 showing an increase of #aa in the decade4 ,the largest town and chief trade centre is ,rewari4 ,the district is now traversed by several lines of railway1 and irrigation is provided by the ,agra canal4 ,the chief trade is in cereals1 but hardware is also exported4 ,,gurkha 7pronounced goorka2 from ,sans4 gau1 a cow1 and raks1 to protect71 the ruling ,hindu race in ,nepal 7q4v474 ,the ,gurkhas1 or ,gurkhalis1 claim descent from the rajas of ,chitor in ,rajputana4 ,when driven out of their own country by the ,mahommedan invasion1 they took refuge in the hilly districts about ,kumaon1 whence they gradually invaded the country to the eastward as far as ,gurkha1 ,noakote and ultimately to the valley of ,nepal and even ,sikkim4 ,they were stopped by the ,english in an attempt to push south1 and the treaty of ,segauli1 which ended the ,gurkha ,war of #ahad1 definitely limited their territorial growth4 ,the ,gurkhas of the present day remain ,hindus by religion1 but show in their appearance a strong admixture of ,mongolian blood4 ,they make splendid infantry soldiers1 and by agreement with their government about #bj1jjj have been recruited for the ,gurkha regiments of the ,indian army4 ,as a rule they are bold1 enduring1 faithful1 frank1 independent and self-reliant4 ,they despise other ,orientals1 but admire and fraternize with ,europeans1 whose tastes in sport and war they share4 ,they strongly resemble the ,japanese1 but are of a sturdier build4 ,their national weapon is the kukri1 a heavy curved knife1 which they use for every possible purpose4 ,see ,capt4 ,eden ,vansittart1 ,notes on the ,gurkhas 7#ahih72 and ,p4 ,d4 ,bonarjee1 ,the ,fighting ,races of ,india 7#ahii74 ,,gurnall1 ,,william 7#afag-afgi71 ,english author1 was born in #afag at ,king's ,lynn1 ,norfolk4 ,he was educated at the free grammar school of his native town1 and in #afca was nominated to the ,lynn scholarship in ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he graduated ,b4,a4 in #afce and ,m4,a4 in #afci4 ,he was made rector of ,lavenham in ,suffolk in #afdd2 and before he received that appointment he seems to have officiated1 perhaps as curate1 at ,sudbury4 ,at the ,restoration he signed the declaration required by the ,act of ,uniformity1 and on this account he was the subject of a libellous attack1 published in #affe1 entitled ,covenant-,renouncers ,desperate ,apostates4 ,he died on the #abth of ,october #afgi4 ,gurnall is known by his ,christian in ,complete ,armour1 published in three volumes1 dated #afee1 #afeh and #affb4 ,it consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion of the #fth chapter of ,ephesians1 and is described as a magazine from whence the ,christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the battle1 helped on with his armour1 and taught the use of his weapon2 together with the happy issue of the whole war4 ,the work is more practical than theological2 and its quaint fancy1 graphic and pointed style1 and its fervent religious tone render it still popular with some readers4 ,see also ,an ,inquiry into the ,life of the ,rev4 ,w4 ,gurnall1 by ,h4 ,m',keon 7#ahcj71 and a biographical introduction by ,bishop ,ryle to the ,christian in ,complete ,armour 7#ahfe74 ,,gurnard 7,trigla71 a genus of fishes forming a group of the family of mailed cheeks 7,triglidae71 and easily recognized by three detached finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins1 and by their large1 angular1 bony head1 the sides of which are protected by strong1 hard and rough bones4 ,the pectoral appendages are provided with strong nerves1 and serve not only as organs of locomotion when the fish moves on the bottom1 but also as organs of touch1 by which it detects small animals on which it feeds4 ,gurnards are coast-fishes1 generally distributed over the tropical and temperate areas2 of the forty species known six occur on the coast of ,great ,britain1 viz4 the red gurnard 7,t4 pini71 the streaked gurnard 7,t4 lineata71 the sapphirine gurnard 7,t4 hirundo71 the grey gurnard 7,t4 gurnardus71 the piper 7,t4 lyra7 and the long-finned gurnard 7,t4 obscura or ,t4 lucerna74 ,although never found very far from the coast1 gurnards descend to depths of several hundred fathoms2 and as they are bottom-fish they are caught chiefly by means of the trawl4 ,not rarely1 however1 they may be seen floating on the surface of the water1 with their broad1 finely coloured pectoral fins spread out like fans4 ,in very young fishes1 which abound in certain localities on the coast in the months of ,august and ,september1 the pectorals are comparatively much longer than in the adult1 extending to the end of the body2 they are beautifully coloured and kept expanded1 the little fishes looking like butterflies4 ,when caught and taken out of the water1 gurnards emit a grunting noise1 which is produced by the vibrations of a diaphragm situated transversely across the cavity of the bladder and perforated in the centre4 ,this grunting noise gave rise to the name gurnard1 which is probably an adaptation or variation of the ,fr4 grognard1 grumbler1 cf4 the ,fr4 grondin1 gurnard1 from gronder1 and ,ger4 ,knurrfisch4 ,their flesh is very white1 firm and wholesome4 ,illustration3 ,trigla pleuracanthica4 ,,gurney1 the name of a philanthropic ,english family of bankers and merchants1 direct descendants of ,hugh de ,gournay1 lord of ,gournay1 one of the ,norman noblemen who accompanied ,william the ,conqueror to ,england4 ,large grants of land were made to ,hugh de ,gournay in ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 and ,norwich has since that time been the headquarters of the family1 the majority of whom were ,quakers4 ,here in #aggj the brothers ,john and ,henry ,gurney founded a banking-house1 the business passing in #aggi to ,henry's son1 ,bartlett ,gurney4 ,on the death of ,bartlett ,gurney in #ahjb the bank became the property of his three cousins1 of whom ,,john ,,gurney 7#agej-ahji7 was the most remarkable4 ,one of his daughters was ,elizabeth ,fry2 another married ,sir ,thomas ,fowell ,buxton4 ,of his sons one was ,joseph ,,john ,,gurney 7#aghh-ahdg71 a well-known philanthropist of the day2 another1 ,,samuel ,,gurney 7#aghf-ahef7 assumed on his father's death the control of the ,norwich bank4 ,samuel ,gurney also took over about the same time the control of the ,london bill-broking business of ,richardson1 ,overend ,company1 in which he was already a partner4 ,this business had been founded in #ahjj by ,thomas ,richardson1 clerk to a ,london bill-discounter1 and ,john ,overend1 chief clerk in the bank of ,smith1 ,payne ,company at ,nottingham1 the ,gurneys supplying the capital4 ,at that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic fashion by the ordinary merchant in addition to his regular business1 but ,richardson considered that there was room for a ,london house which should devote itself entirely to the trade in bills4 ,this1 at that time1 novel idea proved an instant success4 ,the title of the firm was subsequently changed to ,overend1 ,gurney ,company1 and for forty years it was the greatest discounting-house in the world4 ,during the financial crisis of #ahbe ,overend1 ,gurney ,company were able to make short loans to many other bankers4 ,the house indeed became known as the bankers' banker1 and secured many of the previous clients of the ,bank of ,england4 ,samuel ,gurney died in #ahef4 ,he was a man of very charitable disposition1 and during the latter years of his life charitable and philanthropic undertakings almost monopolized his attention4 ,in #ahfe the business of ,overend1 ,gurney ,company1 which had come under less competent control1 was converted into a joint stock company1 but in #ahff the firm suspended payment with liabilities amounting to eleven millions sterling4 ,,gurney1 ,,edmund 7#ahdg-ahhh71 ,english psychologist1 was born at ,hersham1 near ,walton-on-,thames1 on the #bcrd of ,march #ahdg4 ,he was educated at ,blackheath and at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he took a high place in the classical tripos and obtained a fellowship4 ,his work for the schools was done1 says his friend ,f4 ,w4 ,h4 ,myers1 in the intervals of his practice on the piano4 ,dissatisfied with his own executive skill as a musician1 he wrote ,the ,power of ,sound 7#ahhj71 an essay on the philosophy of music4 ,he then studied medicine with no intention of practising1 devoting himself to physics1 chemistry and physiology4 ,in #ahhj he passed the second ,m4,b4 ,cambridge examination in the science of the healing profession4 ,these studies1 and his great logical powers and patience in the investigation of evidence1 he devoted to that outlying field of psychology which is called ,psychical ,research4 ,he asked whether1 as universal tradition declares1 there is an unexplored region of human faculty transcending the normal limitations of sensible knowledge4 ,that there is such a region it was part of the system of ,hegel to declare1 and the subject had been metaphysically treated by ,hartmann1 ,schopenhauer1 ,du ,prel1 ,hamilton and others1 as the philosophy of the ,unconscious or ,subconscious4 ,but ,gurney's purpose was to approach the subject by observation and experiment1 especially in the hypnotic field1 whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes had hitherto been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians4 ,the tendency of his mind was to investigate whatever facts may give a colour of truth to the ancient belief in the persistence of the conscious human personality after the death of the body4 ,like ,joseph ,glanvill's1 the natural bent of ,gurney's mind was sceptical4 ,both thought the current and traditional reports of supernormal occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by the ordinary methods of scientific observation1 and inquisition into evidence at first hand4 ,but the method of ,gurney was1 of course1 much more strict than that of the author of ,sadducismus ,triumphatus1 and it included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to ,glanvill4 ,gurney began at what he later saw was the wrong end by studying1 with ,myers1 the seances of professed spiritualistic mediums 7#ahgd-ahgh74 ,little but detection of imposture came of this1 but an impression was left that the subject ought not to be abandoned4 ,in #ahhb the ,society for ,psychical ,research was founded4 7,see ,,psychical ,,research47 ,paid mediums were discarded1 at least for the time1 and experiments were made in thought-transference and hypnotism4 ,personal evidence as to uninduced hallucinations was also collected4 ,the first results are embodied in the volumes of ,phantasms of the ,living1 a vast collection 7,podmore1 ,myers and ,gurney71 and in ,gurney's remarkable essay1 ,hallucinations4 ,the chief consequence was to furnish evidence for the process called telepathy1 involving the provisional hypothesis that one human mind can affect another through no recognized channel of sense4 ,the fact was supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the ,proceedings of the ,society for ,psychical ,research1 and it was argued that similar experiences occurred spontaneously1 as1 for example1 in the many recorded instances of deathbed wraiths among civilized and savage races4 7,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 chapter xi41 especially pp4 #ddi-dej1 #ahgc4 ,lang1 ,making of ,religion1 pp4 #abj-abd1 #ahih47 ,the dying man is supposed to convey the hallucination of his presence as one living person experimentally conveys his thought to another1 by thought-transference4 ,gurney's hypnotic experiments1 marked by great exactness1 patience and ingenuity1 were undertaken in #ahhe-ahhh4 ,their tendency was1 in ,myers's words1 to prove--so far as any one operator's experience in this protean subject can be held to prove anything--that there is sometimes1 in the induction of hypnotic phenomena1 some agency at work which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation 7monotonous or sudden7 nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the subject's mind4 ,these results1 if accepted1 of course corroborate the idea of telepathy4 7,see ,gurney1 ,hypnotism and ,telepathy1 ,proceedings ,s4 ,p4 ,r4 vol4 iv47 ,experiments by ,,mm4 ,gibert1 ,janet1 ,richet1 ,hericourt and others are cited as tending in the same direction4 ,other experiments dealt with the relation of the memory in the hypnotic state to the memory in another hypnotic state1 and of both to the normal or waking memory4 ,the result of ,gurney's labours1 cut short by his early death1 was to raise and strengthen the presumption that there exists an unexplored region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage superstition4 ,rather1 it appears to have furnished the experiences which1 misinterpreted1 are expressed in traditional beliefs4 ,that ,gurney was credulous and easily imposed upon those who knew him1 and knew his penetrating humour1 cannot admit2 nor is the theory likely to be maintained by those whom bias does not prevent from studying with care his writings4 ,in controversy he delighted in replying with easy courtesy to attacks envenomed with that odium plus quam theologicum which the very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some philosophers to inspire4 ,in discussion of themes unpopular and obscure ,gurney displayed the highest tact1 patience1 good temper1 humour and acuteness4 ,there never was a more disinterested student4 ,in addition to his work on music and his psychological writings1 he was the author of ,tertium ,quid 7#ahhg71 a collection of essays1 on the whole a protest against one-sided ideas and methods of discussion4 ,he died at ,brighton on #bcrd ,june #ahhh1 from the effects of an overdose of narcotic medicine4 7,a4 ,l47 ,,gurwood1 ,,john 7#agij-ahde71 ,british soldier1 began his career in a merchant's office1 but soon obtained an ensigncy in the #ebnd 7#ahjh74 ,with his regiment he served in the ,light ,division of ,wellington's army throughout the earlier ,peninsular campaigns1 and at ,ciudad ,rodrigo 7#aith ,jan4 #ahab7 he led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded4 ,for his gallant conduct on this occasion ,wellington presented ,gurwood with the sword of the ,french governor of ,ciudad ,rodrigo4 ,a little later1 transferring to the #ith ,light ,dragoons1 he was made brigade-major to the ,guards' cavalry which had just arrived in the ,peninsula4 ,in the latter part of the war he served as brigade-major to ,lambert's brigade of the sixth infantry division1 and was present at the various actions in which that division played a conspicuous part--the ,nivelle1 the ,nive1 ,orthes and ,toulouse4 ,at ,waterloo ,captain ,gurwood was for the third time severely wounded4 ,in the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted up to the grade of lieut4-colonel1 and in #ahda became brevet-colonel4 ,he was for many years the duke of ,wellington's private secretary1 and was entrusted by him with the collection and editing of the ,wellington ,despatches1 which occupied ,gurwood from #ahcg to the end of his life4 ,this work is a monument of industrious skill1 and earned its author a ,civil ,list ,pension of ,l#bjj4 ,but overwork and the effects of his wounds had broken his health1 and he committed suicide on ,christmas day #ahde4 ,he was a ,c4,b4 and deputy-lieutenant of the ,tower4 ,,gusla1 or ,,gusli1 an ancient stringed instrument still in use among the ,slavonic races4 ,the modern ,servian gusla is a kind of tanbur 7see ,pandura71 consisting of a round1 concave body covered with a parchment soundboard2 there is but one horse-hair string1 and the peg for tuning it is inserted in oriental fashion in the back of the head4 ,the gusla is played with a primitive bow called goudalo4 ,the gouslars or blind bards of ,servia and ,croatia use it to accompany their chants4 ,c4 ,g4 ,anton#a mentions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon strung with eighteen strings in use among the ,tatars4 ,prosper ,merimee#b has taken the gusla as the title for a book of ,servian poems1 which are supposed to have been collected by him among the peasants1 but which are thought to have been inspired by the ,viaggio in ,dalmazia of ,albarto ,fortis4 ,among the ,russians1 the gusli is an instrument of a different type1 a kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched across a flat1 shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing4 ,in the gusli the strings1 of graduated length1 are attached to little nails or pins at one end1 and at the other they are wound over a rod having screw attachments for increasing and slackening the tension4 ,there is no bridge to determine the vibrating length of the strings4 ,the body of the instrument is shaped roughly like the tail of the grand piano1 following the line of the strings2 the longest being at the left of the instrument4 ,matthew ,guthrie gives an illustration of the gusli4#c 7,k4 ,s47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,erste ,linien eines ,versuchs uber den ,ursprung der alten ,slaven 7,leipzig1 #aghc-aghi71 p4 #ade4 #b ,la ,guzla1 ou choix de poesies lyriques recueillies dans la ,dalmatie1 la ,bosnie1 la ,croatie1 c4 7,paris1 #ahbg74 #c ,dissertations sur les antiquites de ,russie 7,st ,petersburg1 #agie71 pl4 ii4 ,no4 #i1 p4 #ca4 ,,gustavus ,i4 ,,eriksson 7#adif-aefj71 king of ,sweden1 was born at his mother's estate at ,lindholm on ,ascension ,day #adif4 ,he came of a family which had shone conspicuously in #aeth-century politics1 though it generally took the anti-national side4 ,his father1 ,erik ,johansson of ,rydboholm1 a merry and jocose gentleman1 but1 like all the ,swedish ,vasas1 liable to sudden fierce gusts of temper1 was one of the senators who voted for the deposition of ,archbishop ,trolle1 at the riksdag of #aeag 7see ,,sweden1 ,history71 for which act of patriotism he lost his head4 ,gustavus's mother1 ,cecilia ,mansdatter1 was closely connected by marriage with the great ,sture family4 ,gustavus's youthful experiences impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything ,danish4 ,in his eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his cousin ,sten ,sture4 ,at the battle of ,brannkyrka1 when ,sture defeated ,christian ,,ii4 of ,denmark1 the young ,gustavus bore the governor's standard1 and in the same year 7#aeah7 he was delivered with five other noble youths as a hostage to ,king ,christian1 who treacherously carried him prisoner to ,denmark4 ,he was detained for twelve months in the island fortress of ,kalo1 on the east coast of ,jutland1 but contrived to escape to ,lubeck in ,september #aeai4 ,there he found an asylum till the #bjth of ,may #aebj1 when he chartered a ship to ,kalmar1 one of the few ,swedish fortresses which held out against ,christian ,,ii4 ,it was while hunting near ,lake ,malar that the news of the ,stockholm massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from the capital1 who told him1 at the same time1 that a price had been set upon his head4 ,in his extremity1 ,gustavus saw only one way of deliverance1 an appeal for help to the sturdy yeomen of the dales4 ,how the dalesmen set ,gustavus on the throne and how he and they finally drove the ,danes out of ,sweden 7#aeba-aebc7 is elsewhere recorded 7see ,,sweden3 ,history74 ,but his worst troubles only began after his coronation on the #fth of ,june #aebc4 ,the financial position of the crown was the most important of all the problems demanding solution1 for upon that everything else depended4 ,by releasing his country from the tyranny of ,denmark1 ,gustavus had made the free independent development of ,sweden a possibility4 ,it was for him to realize that possibility4 ,first of all1 order had to be evolved from the chaos in which ,sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the ,union2 and the shortest1 perhaps the only1 way thereto was to restore the royal authority1 which had been in abeyance during ninety years4 ,but an effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound financial basis2 and the usual revenues of the crown1 always inadequate1 were so diminished that they did not cover half the daily expenses of government4 ,new taxes could only be imposed with extreme caution1 while the country was still bleeding from the wounds of a long war4 ,and men were wanted even more than money4 ,the lack of capable1 trustworthy administrators in ,sweden was grievous4 ,the whole burden of government weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king1 a young man of seven and twenty4 ,half his time was taken up in travelling from one end of the kingdom to the other1 and doing purely clerical work for want of competent assistance4 ,we can form some idea of his difficulties when we learn that1 in #aecc1 he could not send an ambassador to ,lubeck because not a single man in his council1 except himself1 knew ,german4 ,it was this lack of native talent which compelled ,gustavus frequently to employ the services of foreign adventurers like ,berent von ,mehlen1 ,john von ,hoja1 ,konrad von ,pyhy and others4 ,it was not the least of ,gustavus's many anxieties that he had constantly to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival should encroach on his prerogative4 ,that rival was the ,swedish peasantry4 ,he succeeded indeed in putting down the four formidable rebellions which convulsed the realm from #aebe to #aedb1 but the consequent strain upon his resources was very damaging1 and more than once he was on the point of abdicating and emigrating1 out of sheer weariness4 ,moreover he was in constant fear of the ,danes4 ,necessity compelled him indeed 7#aecd-aecf7 to take part in ,grevens fejde 7,counts' ,war7 7see ,,denmark1 ,history71 as the ally of ,christian ,,iii41 but his exaggerated distrust of the ,danes was invincible4 ,we advise and exhort you1 he wrote to the governor of ,kalmar1 to put no hope or trust in the ,danes1 or in their sweet scribbling1 inasmuch as they mean nothing at all by it except how best they may deceive and betray us ,swedes4 ,such instructions were not calculated to promote confidence between ,swedish and ,danish negotiators4 ,a fresh cause of dispute was generated in #aedh1 when ,christian ,,iii4's daughter was wedded to ,duke ,augustus of ,saxony4 ,on that occasion1 apparently by way of protest against the decree of the diet of ,vesteras 7#aeth of ,january #aedd71 declaring the ,swedish crown hereditary in ,gustavus's family1 the ,danish king caused to be quartered on his daughter's shield not only the three ,danish lions and the ,norwegian lion with the axe of ,st ,olaf1 but also the three crowns of ,sweden4 ,gustavus1 naturally suspicious1 was much perturbed by the innovation1 and warned all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the worst4 ,in #aeeg he even wrote to the ,danish king protesting against the placing of the three crowns in the royal ,danish seal beneath the arms of ,denmark4 ,christian ,,iii4 replied that the three crowns signified not ,sweden in especial1 but the three ,scandinavian kingdoms1 and that their insertion in the ,danish shield was only a reminiscence of the union of ,kalmar4 ,but ,gustavus was not satisfied1 and this was the beginning of the three crowns dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms4 ,the events which led to the rupture of ,gustavus with the ,holy ,see are set forth in the proper place 7see ,,sweden3 ,history74 ,here it need only be added that it was a purely political act1 as ,gustavus1 personally1 had no strong dogmatic leanings either way4 ,he not unnaturally expressed his amazement when that very juvenile reformer ,olavus ,petri confidently informed him that the pope was antichrist4 ,he consulted the older and graver ,laurentius ,andreae1 who told him how ,doctor ,martinus had clipped the wings of the pope1 the cardinals and the big bishops1 which could not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who was never an admirer of episcopacy1 while the rich revenues of the church1 accumulated in the course of centuries1 were a tempting object to the impecunious ruler of an impoverished people4 ,subsequently1 when the ,protestant hierarchy was forcibly established in ,sweden1 matters were much complicated by the absolutist tendencies of ,gustavus4 ,the incessant labour1 the constant anxiety1 which were the daily portion of ,gustavus ,vasa during the seven and thirty years of his reign1 told at last even upon his magnificent constitution4 ,in the spring of #aefj1 conscious of an ominous decline of his powers1 ,gustavus summoned his last diet1 to give an account of his stewardship4 ,on the #afth of ,june #aefj the assembly met at ,stockholm4 ,ten days later1 supported by his sons1 ,gustavus greeted the estates in the great hall of the palace1 when he took a retrospect of his reign1 reminding them of the misery of the kingdom during the union and its deliverance from that unkind tyrant1 ,king ,christian4 ,four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming the hereditary right of ,gustavus's son1 ,prince ,eric1 to the throne4 ,the old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in peace4 ,he expired on the #bith of ,september #aefj4 ,gustavus was thrice married4 ,his first wife1 ,catherine1 daughter of ,magnus ,i41 duke of ,saxe-,lauenburg1 bore him in #aecc his eldest son ,eric4 ,this union was neither long nor happy1 but the blame for its infelicity is generally attributed to the lady1 whose abnormal character was reflected and accentuated in her unhappy son4 ,much more fortunate was ,gustavus's second marriage1 a year after the death of his first consort1 with his own countrywoman1 ,margaret ,lejonhufvud1 who bore him five sons and five daughters1 of whom three sons1 ,john1 ,magnus and ,charles1 and one daughter1 ,cecilia1 survived their childhood4 ,queen ,margaret died in #aeea2 and a twelvemonth later ,gustavus wedded her niece1 ,catharine ,stenbock1 a handsome girl of sixteen1 who survived him more than sixty years4 ,gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus described by a contemporary3 ,he was of the middle height1 with a round head1 light yellow hair1 a fine long beard1 sharp eyes1 a ruddy countenance 444 and a body as fitly and well proportioned as any painter could have painted it4 ,he was of a sanguine-choleric temperament1 and when untroubled and unvexed1 a bright and cheerful gentleman1 easy to get on with1 and however many people happened to be in the same room with him1 he was never at a loss for an answer to every one of them4 ,learned he was not1 but he had naturally bright and clear understanding1 an unusually good memory1 and a marvellous capacity for taking pains4 ,he was also very devout1 and his morals were irreproachable4 ,on the other hand1 ,gustavus had his full share of the family failings of irritability and suspiciousness1 the latter quality becoming almost morbid under the pressure of adverse circumstances4 ,his energy too not infrequently degenerated into violence1 and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical4 ,see ,a4 ,alberg1 ,gustavus ,vasa and his ,times 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,scandinavia1 chaps4 iii4 and v4 7,cambridge1 #aije72 ,p4 ,b4 ,watson1 ,the ,swedish ,revolution under ,gustavus ,vasa 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,o4 ,sjogren1 ,gustaf ,vasa 7,stockholm1 #ahif72 ,c4 ,m4 ,butler1 ,the ,reformation in ,sweden 7,new ,york1 #ahhc72 ,sveriges ,historia 7,stockholm1 #ahgg-ahha72 ,j4 ,weidling1 ,schwedische ,geschichte im ,zeitalter der ,reformation 7,gotha1 #ahhb74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,gustavus ,,ii4 ,,adolphus 7#aeid-afcb71 king of ,sweden1 the eldest son of ,charles ,,ix4 and of ,christina1 daughter of ,adolphus1 duke of ,holstein-,gottorp1 was born at ,stockholm castle on the #ith of ,december #aeid4 ,from the first he was carefully nurtured to be the future prop of ,protestantism by his austere parents4 ,gustavus was well grounded in the classics1 and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary4 ,he may be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues1 ,swedish and ,german2 at twelve he had mastered ,latin1 ,italian and ,dutch2 and he learnt subsequently to express himself in ,spanish1 ,russian and ,polish4 ,but his practical father took care that he should grow up a prince1 not a pedant4 ,so early as his ninth year he was introduced to public life2 at thirteen he received petitions and conversed officially with the foreign ministers2 at fifteen he administered his duchy of ,vestmanland and opened the ,orebro diet with a speech from the throne2 indeed from #afaj he may be regarded as his father's co-regent4 ,in all martial and chivalrous accomplishments he was already an adept2 and when1 a year later1 he succeeded to supreme power1 his superior ability was as uncontested as it was incontestable4 ,the first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal struggle with ,denmark by the peace of ,knared 7#bhth of ,january #afac74 ,simultaneously1 another war1 also an heritage from ,charles ,,ix41 had been proceeding in the far distant regions round lakes ,ilmen1 ,peipus and ,ladoga1 with ,great ,novgorod as its centre4 ,it was not1 however1 like the ,danish ,war1 a national danger1 but a political speculation meant to be remunerative and compensatory1 and was concluded very advantageously for ,sweden by the peace of ,stolbova on the #bgth of ,february #afag 7see ,,sweden3 ,history74 ,by this peace ,gustavus succeeded in excluding ,muscovy from the ,baltic4 ,i hope to ,god1 he declared to the ,stockholm diet in #afag1 when he announced the conclusion of peace1 that the ,russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over that little brook4 ,the war with ,poland which ,gustavus resumed in #afba was a much more difficult affair4 ,it began with an attack upon ,riga as the first step towards conquering ,livonia4 ,riga was invested on the #acth of ,august and surrendered on the #aeth of ,september2 on the #crd of ,october ,mitau was occupied2 but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign that the ,swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than #aj1jjj men4 ,a truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities were suspended till the summer of #afbe1 in the course of which ,gustavus took ,kokenhusen and invaded ,lithuania4 ,in ,january #afbf he attacked the ,poles at ,walhof and scattered the whole of their army after slaying a fifth part of it4 ,this victory1 remarkable besides as ,gustavus's first pitched battle1 completed the conquest of ,livonia4 ,as1 however1 it became every year more difficult to support an army in the ,dvina district1 ,gustavus now resolved to transfer the war to the ,prussian provinces of ,poland with a view to securing the control of the ,vistula1 as he had already secured the control of the ,dvina4 ,at the end of #afbf1 the ,swedish fleet1 with #ad1jjj men on board1 anchored in front of the chain of sand-dunes which separates the ,frische-,haff from the ,baltic4 ,pillau1 the only ,baltic port then accessible to ships of war1 was at once occupied1 and ,konigsberg shortly afterwards was scared into an unconditional neutrality4 ,july was passed in conquering the bishopric of ,ermeland4 ,the surrender of ,elbing and ,marienburg placed ,gustavus in possession of the fertile and easily defensible delta of the ,vistula1 which he treated as a permanent conquest1 making ,axel ,oxenstjerna its first governor-general4 ,communications between ,danzig and the sea were cut off by the erection of the first of ,gustavus's famous entrenched camps at ,dirschau4 ,from the end of ,august #afbf the city was blockaded1 and in the meantime ,polish irregulars1 under the capable ,stanislaus ,koniecpolski1 began to harass the ,swedes4 ,but the object of the campaign1 a convenient basis of operations1 was won2 and in ,october the king departed to ,sweden to get reinforcements4 ,he returned in ,may #afbg with #gjjj men1 which raised his forces to #ad1jjj1 against which ,koniecpolski could only oppose #ijjj4 ,but his superior strategy frustrated all the efforts of the ,swedish king1 who in the course of the year was twice dangerously wounded and so disabled that he could never wear armour again4 ,gustavus had made extensive preparations for the ensuing campaign and took the field with #cb1jjj men4 ,but once again1 though far outnumbered1 and unsupported by his own government1 the ,polish grand-hetman proved more than a match for ,gustavus1 who1 on the #ajth of ,september1 broke up his camp and returned to ,prussia2 the whole autumn campaign had proved a failure and cost him #ejjj men4 ,during the ensuing campaign of #afbi ,gustavus had to contend against the combined forces of ,koniecpolski and #aj1jjj of ,wallenstein's mercenaries4 ,the ,polish commander now showed the ,swedes what he could do with adequate forces4 ,at ,stuhm1 on the #bith of ,june1 he defeated ,gustavus1 who lost most of his artillery and narrowly escaped capture4 ,the result of the campaign was the conclusion of the six years' truce of ,altmark1 which was very advantageous to ,sweden4 ,and now ,gustavus turned his attention to ,germany4 ,the motives which induced the ,swedish king to intervene directly in the ,thirty ,years' ,war are told us by himself in his correspondence with ,oxenstjerna4 ,here he says plainly that it was the fear lest the emperor should acquire the ,baltic ports and proceed to build up a sea-power dangerous to ,scandinavia4 ,for the same reason1 the king rejected the chancellor's alternative of waging a simply defensive war against the emperor by means of the fleet1 with ,stralsund as his base4 ,he was convinced by the experience of ,christian ,,iv4 of ,denmark that the enemies' harbours could be wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land2 and1 while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the face of two large armies1 ,tilly's and ,wallenstein's1 each of them larger than his own1 he argued that the vast extent of territory and the numerous garrisons which the enemy was obliged to maintain1 more than neutralized his numerical superiority4 ,merely to blockade all the ,german ports with the ,swedish fleet was equally impossible4 ,the ,swedish fleet was too weak for that2 it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them4 ,in ,germany itself1 if he once got the upper hand1 he would not find himself without resources4 ,it is no enthusiastic crusader1 but an anxious and farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who thus opens his mind to us4 ,no doubt religious considerations largely influenced ,gustavus4 ,he had the deepest sympathy for his fellow-,protestants in ,germany2 he regarded them as ,god's peculiar people1 himself as their divinely appointed deliverer4 ,but his first duty was to ,sweden2 and1 naturally and rightly1 he viewed the whole business from a predominantly ,swedish point of view4 ,lutherans and ,calvinists were to be delivered from a soul-crushing tyranny2 but they were to be delivered by a foreign if friendly power2 and that power claimed as her reward the hegemony of ,protestant ,europe and all the political privileges belonging to that exalted position4 ,on the #aith of ,may #afcj ,gustavus solemnly took leave of the estates of the realm assembled at ,stockholm4 ,he appeared before them holding in his arms his only child and heiress1 the little princess ,christina1 then in her fourth year1 and tenderly committed her to the care of his loyal and devoted people4 ,then he solemnly took the estates to witness1 as he stood there in the sight of the ,almighty1 that he had begun hostilities out of no lust for war1 as many will certainly devise and imagine1 but in self-defence and to deliver his fellow-,christians from oppression4 ,on the #gth of ,june #afcj the ,swedish fleet set sail1 and two days after midsummer day1 the whole army1 #af1jjj strong1 was disembarked at ,peenemunde4 ,gustavus's plan was to take possession of the mouths of the ,oder ,haff1 and1 resting upon ,stralsund in the west and ,prussia in the east1 penetrate into ,germany4 ,in those days rivers were what railways now are1 the great military routes2 and ,gustavus's ,german war was a war waged along river lines4 ,the opening campaign was to be fought along the line of the ,oder4 ,stettin1 the capital of ,pomerania1 and the key of the ,oder line1 was occupied and converted into a first-class fortress4 ,he then proceeded to clear ,pomerania of the piebald imperial host composed of every nationality under heaven1 and officered by ,italians1 ,irishmen1 ,czechs1 ,croats1 ,danes1 ,spaniards and ,walloons4 ,gustavus's army has often been described by ,german historians as an army of foreign invaders2 in reality it was far more truly ,teutonic than the official defenders of ,germany at that period4 ,gustavus's political difficulties 7see ,,sweden3 ,history7 chained him to his camp for the remainder of the year4 ,but the dismissal of ,wallenstein and the declaration in ,gustavus's favour of ,magdeburg1 the greatest city in the ,lower ,saxon ,circle1 and strategically the strongest fortress of ,north ,germany1 encouraged him to advance boldly4 ,but first1 honour as well as expediency moved him to attempt to relieve ,magdeburg1 now closely invested by the imperialists1 especially as his hands had now been considerably strengthened by a definite alliance with ,france 7treaty of ,barwalde1 #acth of ,january #afca74 ,magdeburg1 therefore1 became the focus of the whole campaign of #afca2 but the obstructive timidity of the electors of ,brandenburg and ,saxony threw insuperable obstacles in his way1 and1 on the very day when ,john ,george ,i4 of ,saxony closed his gates against ,gustavus the most populous and prosperous city in ,north ,germany became a heap of smoking ruins 7#bjth of ,may74 ,gustavus1 still too weak to meet the foe1 entrenched himself at ,werben1 at the confluence of the ,havel and ,elbe4 ,only on the #abth of ,september did the elector of ,saxony1 alarmed for the safety of his own states1 now invaded by the emperor1 place himself absolutely at the disposal of ,gustavus2 and1 five days later1 at the head of the combined ,swedish-,saxon army1 though the ,swedes did all the fighting1 ,gustavus routed ,tilly at the famous battle of ,breitenfeld1 north of ,leipzig4 ,the question now was3 ,in what way should ,gustavus utilize his advantage8 ,should he invade the ,austrian crown lands1 and dictate peace to ,ferdinand ,,ii4 at the gates of ,vienna8 ,or should he pursue ,tilly westwards and crush the league at its own hearth and home8 ,oxenstjerna was the first alternative1 but ,gustavus decided in favour of the second4 ,his decision has been greatly blamed4 ,more than one modern historian has argued that if ,gustavus had done in #afca what ,napoleon did in #ahje and #ahji1 there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty years' war4 ,but it should be borne in mind that1 in the days of ,gustavus1 ,vienna was by no means so essential to the existence of the ,habsburg monarchy as it was in the days of ,napoleon2 and even ,gustavus could not allow so dangerous an opponent as ,tilly time to recover himself4 ,accordingly1 he set out for the ,rhine1 taking ,marienberg and ,frankfort on his way1 and on the #bjth of ,december entered ,mainz1 where he remained throughout the winter of #afca-afcb4 ,at the beginning of #afcb1 in order to bring about the general peace he so earnestly desired1 he proposed to take the field with an overwhelming numerical majority4 ,the signal for ,gustavus to break up from the ,rhine was the sudden advance of ,tilly from behind the ,danube4 ,gustavus pursued ,tilly into ,bavaria1 forced the passage of the ,danube at ,donauworth and the passage of the ,lech1 in the face of ,tilly's strongly entrenched camp at ,rain1 and pursued the flying foe to the fortress of ,ingolstadt where ,tilly died of his wounds a fortnight later4 ,gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed ,protestant cities of ,augsburg and ,ulm1 and in ,may occupied ,munich4 ,the same week ,wallenstein chased ,john ,george from ,prague and manoeuvred the ,saxons out of ,bohemia4 ,then1 armed as he was with plenipotentiary power1 he offered the elector of ,saxony peace on his own terms4 ,gustavus suddenly saw himself exposed to extreme peril4 ,if ,tilly had made ,john ,george such an offer as ,wallenstein was now empowered to make1 the elector would never have become ,gustavus's ally2 would he remain ,gustavus's ally now8 ,hastily quitting his quarters in ,upper ,swabia1 ,gustavus hastened towards ,nuremberg on his way to ,saxony1 but finding that ,wallenstein and ,maximilian of ,bavaria had united their forces1 he abandoned the attempt to reach ,saxony1 and both armies confronted each other at ,nuremberg which furnished ,gustavus with a point of support of the first order4 ,he quickly converted the town into an entrenched and fortified camp4 ,wallenstein followed the king's example1 and entrenched himself on the western bank of the ,regnitz in a camp twelve ,english miles in circumference4 ,his object was to pin ,gustavus fast to ,nuremberg and cut off his retreat northwards4 ,throughout ,july and ,august the two armies faced each other immovably4 ,on the #bdth of ,august1 after an unsuccessful attempt to storm ,alte ,veste1 the key of ,wallenstein's position1 the ,swedish host retired southwards4 ,towards the end of ,october1 ,wallenstein1 after devastating ,saxony1 was preparing to go into winter quarters at ,lutzen1 when the king surprised him as he was crossing the ,rippach 7#ast of ,november7 and a rearguard action favourable to the ,swedes ensued4 ,indeed1 but for nightfall1 ,wallenstein's scattered forces might have been routed4 ,during the night1 however1 ,wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action1 and at daybreak on the #fth of ,november1 while an autumn mist still lay over the field1 the battle began4 ,it was obviously ,gustavus's plan to drive ,wallenstein away from the ,leipzig road1 north of which he had posted himself1 and thus1 in case of success1 to isolate1 and subsequently1 with the aid of the ,saxons in the ,elbe fortresses1 annihilate him4 ,the king1 on the ,swedish right wing1 succeeded in driving the enemy from the trenches and capturing his cannon4 ,what happened after that is mere conjecture1 for a thick mist now obscured the autumn sun1 and the battle became a colossal melee the details of which are indistinguishable4 ,it was in the midst of that awful obscurity that ,gustavus met his death--how or where is not absolutely certain2 but it would seem that he lost his way in the darkness while leading the ,smaland horse to the assistance of his infantry1 and was despatched as he lay severely wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman4 ,by his wife1 ,marie ,eleonora1 a sister of the elector of ,brandenburg1 whom he married in #afbj1 ,gustavus ,adolphus had one daughter1 ,christina1 who succeeded him on the throne of ,sweden4 ,see ,sveriges ,historia 7,stockholm1 #ahgg1 #ha71 vol4 iv42 ,a4 ,oxenstjerna1 ,skrifter och ,brefvexling 7,stockholm1 #aijj1 c472 ,g4 ,bjorlen1 ,gustaf ,adolf 7,stockholm1 #ahij72 ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,scandinavia 7,cambridge1 #aije72 ,c4 ,r4 ,l4 ,fletcher1 ,gustavus ,adolphus 7,london1 #ahib72 ,j4 ,l4 ,stevens1 ,history of ,gustavus ,adolphus 7,london1 #ahhe72 ,j4 ,mankell1 ,om ,gustaf ,,ii4 ,adolfs politik 7,stockholm1 #ahha72 ,e4 ,bluemel1 ,gustav ,adolf1 ,konig von ,schweden 7,eisleben1 #ahid72 ,a4 ,rydfors1 ,de diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan ,sverige och ,england #afbd-afcj 7,upsala1 #ahij74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,gustavus ,,iii4 7#agdf-agib71 king of ,sweden1 was the eldest son of ,adolphus ,frederick1 king of ,sweden1 and ,louisa ,ulrica of ,prussia1 sister of ,frederick the ,great1 and was born on the #bdth of ,january #agdf4 ,gustavus was educated under the care of two governors who were amongst the most eminent ,swedish statesmen of the day1 ,carl ,gustaf ,tessin and ,carl ,scheffer2 but he owed most perhaps to the poet and historian ,olof von ,dalin4 ,the interference of the state with his education1 when he was quite a child1 was1 however1 doubly harmful1 as his parents taught him to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the diet1 and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation4 ,but even his most hostile teachers were amazed by the brilliance of his natural gifts1 and1 while still a boy1 he possessed that charm of manner which was to make him so fascinating and so dangerous in later life1 coupled with the strong dramatic instinct which won for him his honourable place in ,swedish literature4 ,on the whole1 ,gustavus cannot be said to have been well educated1 but he read very widely2 there was scarce a ,french author of his day with whose works he was not intimately acquainted2 while his enthusiasm for the new ,french ideas of enlightenment was as sincere as1 if more critical than1 his mother's4 ,on the #dth of ,november #agff1 ,gustavus married ,sophia ,magdalena1 daughter of ,frederick ,v4 of ,denmark4 ,the match was an unhappy one1 owing partly to incompatibility of temper1 but still more to the mischievous interference of the jealous queen-mother4 ,gustavus first intervened actively in politics in #agfh1 at the time of his father's interregnum1 when he compelled the dominant ,cap faction to summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the constitution in a monarchical direction4 ,but the victorious ,hats refused to redeem the pledges which they had given before the elections4 ,that we should have lost the constitutional battle does not distress us so much1 wrote ,gustavus1 in the bitterness of his heart2 but what does dismay me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its own felicity in absolute anarchy4 ,from the #dth of ,february to the #beth of ,march #agga1 ,gustavus was at ,paris1 where he carried both the court and the city by storm4 ,the poets and the philosophers paid him enthusiastic homage1 and all the distinguished women of the day testified to his superlative merits4 ,with many of them he maintained a lifelong correspondence4 ,but his visit to the ,french capital was no mere pleasure trip2 it was also a political mission4 ,confidential agents from the ,swedish court had already prepared the way for him1 and the duc de ,choiseul1 weary of ,swedish anarchy1 had resolved to discuss with him the best method of bringing about a revolution in ,sweden4 ,before he departed1 the ,french government undertook to pay the outstanding subsidies to ,sweden unconditionally1 at the rate of one and a half million livres annually2 and the comte de ,vergennes1 one of the great names of ,french diplomacy1 was transferred from ,constantinople to ,stockholm4 ,on his way home ,gustavus paid a short visit to his uncle1 ,frederick the ,great1 at ,potsdam4 ,frederick bluntly informed his nephew that1 in concert with ,russia and ,denmark1 he had guaranteed the integrity of the existing ,swedish constitution1 and significantly advised the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from violence4 ,on his return to ,sweden ,gustavus made a sincere and earnest attempt to mediate between the ,hats and ,caps who were ruining the country between them 7see ,,sweden3 ,history74 ,on the #bast of ,june #agga he opened his first parliament in a speech which awakened strange and deep emotions in all who heard it4 ,it was the first time for more than a century that a ,swedish king had addressed a ,swedish diet from the throne in its native tongue4 ,the orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the sacrifice of all party animosities to the common weal1 and volunteered1 as the first citizen of a free people1 to be the mediator between the contending factions4 ,a composition committee was actually formed1 but it proved illusory from the first1 the patriotism of neither of the factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial4 ,the subsequent attempts of the dominant ,caps still further to limit the prerogative1 and reduce ,gustavus to the condition of a roi faineant1 induced him at last to consider the possibility of a revolution4 ,of its necessity there could be no doubt4 ,under the sway of the ,cap faction1 ,sweden1 already the vassal1 could not fail to become the prey of ,russia4 ,she was on the point of being absorbed in that northern system1 the invention of the ,russian vice-chancellor1 ,count ,nikita ,panin1 which that patient statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize4 ,only a swift and sudden coup d'etat could save the independence of a country isolated from the rest of ,europe by a hostile league4 ,at this juncture ,gustavus was approached by ,jakob ,magnus ,sprengtporten1 a ,finnish nobleman of determined character1 who had incurred the enmity of the ,caps1 with the project of a revolution4 ,he undertook to seize the fortress of ,sveaborg by a coup de main1 and1 ,finland once secured1 ,sprengtporten proposed to embark for ,sweden1 meet the king and his friends near ,stockholm1 and surprise the capital by a night attack1 when the estates were to be forced1 at the point of the bayonet1 to accept a new constitution from the untrammelled king4 ,the plotters were at this juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger from ,scania 7,skane71 ,johan ,kristoffer ,toll1 also a victim of ,cap oppression4 ,toll proposed that a second revolt should break out in the province of ,scania1 to confuse the government still more1 and undertook personally to secure the southern fortress of ,kristianstad4 ,after some debate1 it was finally arranged that1 a few days after the ,finnish revolt had begun1 ,kristianstad should openly declare against the government4 ,prince ,charles1 the eldest of the king's brothers1 was thereupon hastily to mobilize the garrisons of all the southern fortresses1 for the ostensible purpose of crushing the revolt at ,kristianstad2 but on arriving before the fortress he was to make common cause with the rebels1 and march upon the capital from the south1 while ,sprengtporten attacked it simultaneously from the east4 ,on the #fth of ,august #aggb ,toll succeeded1 by sheer bluff1 in winning the fortress of ,kristianstad4 ,on the #afth ,sprengtporten succeeded in surprising ,sveaborg4 ,but contrary winds prevented him from crossing to ,stockholm1 and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made his presence there unnecessary4 ,on the #afth of ,august the ,cap leader1 ,ture ,rudbeck1 arrived at ,stockholm with the news of the insurrection in the south1 and ,gustavus found himself isolated in the midst of enemies4 ,sprengtporten lay weather-bound in ,finland1 ,toll was five hundred miles away1 the ,hat leaders were in hiding4 ,gustavus thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting for the arrival of ,sprengtporten4 ,he acted with military promptitude4 ,on the evening of the #ahth all the officers whom he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning4 ,at ten o'clock on the #aith ,gustavus mounted his horse and rode straight to the arsenal4 ,on the way his adherents joined him in little groups1 as if by accident1 so that by the time he reached his destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite4 ,after parade he reconducted them to the guard-room of the palace and unfolded his plans to them4 ,he then dictated a new oath of allegiance1 and every one signed it without hesitation4 ,it absolved them from their allegiance to the estates1 and bound them solely to obey their lawful king1 ,gustavus ,,iii4 ,meanwhile the senate and the governor-general1 ,rudbeck1 had been arrested and the fleet secured4 ,then ,gustavus made a tour of the city and was everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds1 who hailed him as a deliverer4 ,on the evening of the #bjth heralds perambulated the streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet in the ,rikssaal on the following day2 every deputy absenting himself would be regarded as the enemy of his country and his king4 ,on the #bast1 a few moments after the estates had assembled1 the king in full regalia appeared1 and taking his seat on the throne1 delivered that famous philippic1 one of the masterpieces of ,swedish oratory1 in which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality and licence in the past4 ,a new constitution was recited by the estates and accepted by them unanimously4 ,the diet was then dissolved4 ,gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness and welfare of ,sweden1 and worked in the same reformatory direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the age of enlightenment4 ,he took an active part in every department of business1 but relied far more on extra-official counsellors of his own choosing than upon the senate4 ,the effort to remedy the frightful corruption which had been fostered by the ,hats and ,caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice 7,gota ,hofratt7 on its trial4 ,measures were also taken to reform the administration and the whole course of judicial procedure1 and torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished4 ,in #aggd an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was even issued4 ,the national defences were at the same time developed on a ,great ,power scale1 and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in ,europe4 ,the dilapidated finances were set in good order by the currency realization ordinance of #aggg4 ,gustavus also introduced new national economic principles4 ,in #agge free trade in corn was promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished4 ,the poor law was also amended1 absolute religious liberty was proclaimed1 and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing a national costume which was in general use from #aggh till his death4 ,his one great economic blunder was the attempt to make the sale of spirits a government monopoly1 which was an obvious infringement upon the privileges of the estates4 ,his foreign policy1 on the other hand1 was at first both wise and wary4 ,thus1 when the king summoned the estates to assemble at ,stockholm on the #crd of ,september #aggh1 he could give a brilliant account of his six years' stewardship4 ,never was a parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious4 ,there was no room for a single ,no during the whole session4 ,yet1 short as the session was1 it was quite long enough to open the eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had departed4 ,they had changed places with the king4 ,he was now indeed their sovereign lord2 and1 for all his gentleness1 the jealousy with which he guarded1 the vigour with which he enforced the prerogative1 plainly showed that he meant to remain so4 ,even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the change by no means liked it4 ,the diet of #aggh had been obsequious2 the diet of #aghf was mutinous4 ,the consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected outright or so modified that ,gustavus himself withdrew them4 ,the diet of #aghf marks a turning-point in ,gustavus's history4 ,henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule without a parliament2 a passage1 cautious and gradual1 yet unflinching1 from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism4 ,his opportunity came in #aghh1 when the political complications arising out of his war with ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia enabled him by the ,act of ,unity and ,security 7on the #agth of ,february #aghi7 to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic gentry1 and1 with the approbation of the three lower estates1 establish a new and revolutionary constitution1 in which1 though the estates still held the power of the purse1 the royal authority largely predominated4 ,throughout #aghi and #agij ,gustavus1 in the national interests1 gallantly conducted the unequal struggle with ,russia1 finally winning in the ,svensksund 7#ith-#ajth ,july7 the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the ,swedish arms1 the ,russians losing one-third of their fleet and #gjjj men4 ,a month later1 on the #adth of ,august #agij1 peace was signed between ,russia and ,sweden at ,varala4 ,only eight months before1 ,catherine had haughtily declared that the odious and revolting aggression of the king of ,sweden would be forgiven only if he testified his repentance by agreeing to a peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels1 and consenting to a guarantee by the ,swedish diet 7as it would be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone7 for the observance of peace in the future4 ,the peace of ,varala saved ,sweden from any such humiliating concession1 and in ,october #agia ,gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of concluding an eight years' defensive alliance with the empress1 who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies amounting to #cjj1jjj roubles4 ,gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the ,jacobins1 and every other consideration was subordinated thereto4 ,his profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him1 alone among contemporary sovereigns1 accurately to gauge from the first the scope and bearing of the ,french ,revolution4 ,but he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other ,european ,powers1 and1 after showing once more his unrivalled mastery over masses of men at the brief ,gefle diet 7#bbnd of ,january-#bdth of ,february #agib71 he fell a victim to a widespread aristocratic conspiracy4 ,shot in the back by ,anckarstrom at a midnight masquerade at the ,stockholm opera-house1 on the #afth of ,march #agib1 he expired on the #bith4 ,although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances1 ,gustavus ,,iii4 was indisputably one of the greatest sovereigns of the #ahth century4 ,unfortunately his genius never had full scope1 and his opportunity came too late4 ,gustavus was1 moreover1 a most distinguished author4 ,he may be said to have created the ,swedish theatre1 and some of the best acting dramas in the literature are by his hand4 ,his historical essays1 notably the famous anonymous eulogy on ,torstenson crowned by the ,academy1 are full of feeling and exquisite in style1--his letters to his friends are delightful4 ,every branch of literature and art interested him1 every poet and artist of his day found in him a most liberal and sympathetic protector4 ,see ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,gustavus ,,iii4 and his ,contemporaries 7,london1 #aijd72 ,e4 ,g4 ,geijer1 ,konung ,gustaf ,,iii4's efterlemnade papper 7,upsala1 #ahdc-ahde72 ,c4 ,t4 ,odhner1 ,sveriges politiska historia under ,konung ,gustaf ,,iii4's regering 7,stockholm1 #ahhe-ahif72 ,b4 von ,beskow1 ,om ,gustaf ,,iii4 sasom ,konung och manniska 7,stockholm1 #ahfj-ahfa72 ,o4 ,levertin1 ,gustaf ,,iii4 som dramatisk forfattare 7,stockholm1 #ahid72 ,gustaf ,,iii4's bref till ,g4 ,m4 ,armfelt 7,fr47 7,stockholm1 #ahhc72 ,y4 ,k4 ,grot1 ,catharine ,,ii4 and ,gustavus ,,iii4 7,russ47 7,st ,petersburg1 #ahhd74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,gustavus ,,iv4 7#aggh-ahcg71 king of ,sweden1 the son of ,gustavus ,,iii4 and ,queen ,sophia ,magdalena1 was born at ,stockholm on the #ast of ,november #aggh4 ,carefully educated under the direction of ,nils von ,rosenstein1 he grew up serious and conscientious4 ,in ,august #agif his uncle the regent ,charles1 duke of ,sudermania1 visited ,st ,petersburg for the purpose of arranging a marriage between the young king and ,catherine ,,ii4's granddaughter1 the grand-duchess ,alexandra4 ,the betrothal was actually fixed for the #bbnd of ,september1 when the whole arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of ,gustavus to allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites of the ,greek ,orthodox ,church--a rebuff which undoubtedly accelerated the death of the ,russian empress4 ,nobody seems to have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement lay at the root of ,gustavus's abnormal piety4 ,on the contrary1 there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on the fact that ,sweden had now no disturbing genius1 but an economical1 ,god-fearing1 commonplace monarch to deal with4 ,gustavus's prompt dismissal of the generally detested ,gustaf ,reuterholm added still further to his popularity4 ,on the #cast of ,october #agig ,gustavus married ,frederica ,dorothea1 daughter of ,charles ,frederick1 grand-duke of ,baden1 a marriage which might have led to a war with ,russia but for the fanatical hatred of the ,french republic shared by the emperor ,paul and ,gustavus ,,iv41 which served as a bond of union between them4 ,indeed the king's horror of ,jacobinism was morbid in its intensity1 and drove him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone his coronation for some years1 so as to avoid calling together a diet2 but the disorder of the finances1 caused partly by the continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops in #agih and #agii1 compelled him to summon the estates to ,norrkoping in ,march #ahjj1 and on the #crd of ,april ,gustavus was crowned4 ,the notable change which now took place in ,sweden's foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere set forth 7see ,,sweden1 ,history74 ,by the end of #ahjh it was obvious to every thinking ,swede that the king was insane4 ,his violence had alienated his most faithful supporters1 while his obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts4 ,to remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient2 and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers of the western army1 headed by ,adlersparre1 the ,anckarsvards1 and ,adlercreutz1 who marched rapidly from ,skane to ,stockholm4 ,on the #acth of ,march #ahji seven of the conspirators broke into the royal apartments in the palace unannounced1 seized the king1 and conducted him to the chateau of ,gripsholm2 ,duke ,charles was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional government1 which was proclaimed the same day2 and a diet1 hastily summoned1 solemnly approved of the revolution4 ,on the #bith of ,march ,gustavus1 in order to save the crown for his son1 voluntarily abdicated2 but on the #ajth of ,may the estates1 dominated by the army1 declared that not merely ,gustavus but his whole family had forfeited the throne4 ,on the #eth of ,june the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of ,charles ,,xiii41 after accepting the new liberal constitution1 which was ratified by the diet the same day4 ,in ,december ,gustavus and his family were transported to ,germany4 ,gustavus now assumed the title of count of ,gottorp1 but subsequently called himself ,colonel ,gustafsson1 under which pseudonym he wrote most of his works4 ,he led1 separated from his family1 an erratic life for some years2 was divorced from his consort in #ahab2 and finally settled at ,st ,gall in ,switzerland in great loneliness and indigence4 ,he died on the #gth of ,february #ahcg1 and1 at the suggestion of ,king ,oscar ,,ii4 his body was brought to ,sweden and interred in the ,riddarholmskyrka4 ,from him descend both the ,baden and the ,oldenburg princely houses on the female side4 ,see ,h4 ,g4 ,trolle-,wachtmeister1 ,anteckningar och minnen 7,stockholm1 #ahhi72 ,b4 von ,beskow1 ,lefnadsminnen 7,stockholm1 #ahgj72 ,k4 ,v4 ,key-,aberg1 ,de diplomatiska forbindelserna mellan ,sverige och ,storbrittannien under ,gustaf ,,iv4's ,krig emot ,napoleon 7,upsala1 #ahij72 ,colonel ,gustafsson1 ,la ,journee du treize mars1 c4 7,st ,gall1 #ahce72 ,memorial des ,obersten ,gustafsson 7,leipzig1 #ahbi74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,gustavus ,v4 7#aheh- 71 king of ,sweden1 son of ,oscar ,,ii41 king of ,sweden and ,norway1 and ,queen ,sophia ,wilhelmina1 was born at ,drottningholm on the #afth of ,june #aheh4 ,he entered the army1 and was1 like his father1 a great traveller4 ,as crown prince he held the title of duke of ,warmland4 ,he married in #ahha ,victoria 7b4 #ahfb71 daughter of ,frederick ,william ,louis1 grand duke of ,baden1 and of ,louise1 princess of ,prussia4 ,the duchess of ,baden was the granddaughter of ,sophia1 princess of ,sweden1 and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union between the ,bernadotte dynasty and the ancient ,swedish royal house of ,vasa4 ,during the absence or illness of his father ,gustavus repeatedly acted as regent1 and was therefore already thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the ,swedish throne on the #hth of ,december #aijg1 the crown of ,norway having been separated from that of ,sweden in #aije4 ,he took as his motto ,with the people for the ,fatherland4 ,the crown prince1 ,oscar ,frederick ,william ,gustavus ,adolphus1 duke of ,scania 7b4 #ahhb71 married in #aije ,princess ,margaret of ,connaught 7b4 #ahhb71 niece of ,king ,edward ,,vii4 ,a son was born to them at ,stockholm on the #bbnd of ,april #aijf1 and another son in the following year4 ,the king's two younger sons were ,william1 duke of ,sudermania 7b4 #ahhd71 and ,eric1 duke of ,westmanland 7b4 #ahhi74 ,,gustavus ,,adolphus ,,union 7,,gustav-,,adolf-,,stiftung1 ,,gustav-,,adolf-,,verein1 ,,evangelischer ,,verein ,,der ,,gustav-,,adolf-,,stiftung71 a society formed of members of the ,evangelical ,protestant churches of ,germany1 which has for its object the aid of feeble sister churches1 especially in ,roman ,catholic countries4 ,the project of forming such a society was first broached in connexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of ,lutzen on the #fth of ,november #ahcb2 a proposal to collect funds for a monument to ,gustavus ,adolphus having been agreed to1 it was suggested by ,superintendent ,grossmann that the best memorial to the great champion of ,protestantism would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas4 ,for some years the society was limited in its area and its operations1 being practically confined to ,leipzig and ,dresden1 but at the ,reformation festival in #ahda it received a new impulse through the energy and eloquence of ,karl ,zimmermann 7#ahjc-ahgg71 court preacher at ,darmstadt1 and in #ahdc a general meeting was held at ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 where no fewer than twenty-nine branch associations belonging to all parts of ,germany except ,bavaria and ,austria were represented4 ,the want of a positive creed tended to make many of the stricter ,protestant churchmen doubtful of the usefulness of the union1 and the stricter ,lutherans have always held aloof from it4 ,on the other hand1 its negative attitude in relation to ,roman ,catholicism secured for it the sympathy of the masses4 ,at a general convention held in ,berlin in ,september #ahdf a keen dispute arose about the admission of the ,konigsberg delegate1 ,julius ,rupp 7#ahji-ahhd71 who in #ahde had been deprived for publicly repudiating the ,athanasian ,creed and became one of the founders of the ,free ,congregations2 and at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely broken up4 ,amid the political revolutions of the year #ahdh the whole movement fell into stagnation2 but in #ahdi another general convention 7the seventh71 held at ,breslau1 showed that1 although the society had lost both in membership and income1 it was still possessed of considerable vitality4 ,from that date the ,gustav-,adolf-,verein has been more definitely evangelical in its tone than formerly2 and under the direction of ,karl ,zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth4 ,it has built over #bjjj churches and assisted with some two million pounds over #ejjj different communities4 ,apart from its influence in maintaining ,protestantism in hostile areas1 there can be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the various ,protestant churches of ,germany to realize the number and importance of their common interests4 ,see ,k4 ,zimmermann1 ,geschichte des ,gustav-,adolf-,vereins 7,darmstadt1 #ahgg74 ,,gustrow1 a town of ,germany1 in the grand duchy of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin1 on the ,nebel and the railway from ,lubeck to ,stettin1 #bj m4 ,s4 of ,rostock4 ,pop4 7#ahge71 #aj1ibc2 7#aije7 #ag1afc4 ,the principal buildings are the castle1 erected in the middle of the #afth century and now used as a workhouse2 the cathedral1 dating from the #acth century and restored in #ahfh1 containing many fine monuments and possessing a square tower #ajj ft4 high2 the ,pfarrkirche1 with fine altar-paintings2 the town hall 7,rathaus71 dating from the #afth century2 the music hall1 and the theatre4 ,among the educational establishments are the ducal gymnasium1 which possesses a library of #ae1jjj volumes1 a modern and a commercial school4 ,the town is one of the most prosperous in the duchy1 and has machine works1 foundries1 tanneries1 sawmills1 breweries1 distilleries1 and manufactories of tobacco1 glue1 candles and soap4 ,there is also a considerable trade in wool1 corn1 wood1 butter and cattle1 and an annual cattle show and horse races are held4 ,gustrow1 capital of the ,mecklenburg duchy of that name1 or of the ,wend district1 was a place of some importance as early as the #abth century1 and in #abai it became the residence of ,henry ,borwin ,,ii41 prince of ,mecklenburg1 from whom it received ,schwerin privileges4 ,from #acaf to #adcf the town was the residence of the princes of the ,wends1 and from #aeef to #afie of the dukes of ,mecklenburg-,gustrow4 ,in #afbh it was occupied by the imperial troops1 and ,wallenstein resided in it during part of the years #afbh and #afbi4 ,,gutenberg1 ,,johann 7c4 #acih-adfh71 ,german printer1 is supposed to have been born c4 #acih-acii at ,mainz of well-to-do parents1 his father being ,friele zum ,gensfleisch and his mother ,elsgen ,wyrich 7or1 from her birthplace1 zu ,gutenberg1 the name he adopted74 ,he is assumed to be mentioned under the name of ,henchen in a copy of a document of #adbj1 and again in a document of c4 #adbg-adbh1 but it is not stated where he then resided4 ,on ,january #af1 #adcj1 his mother arranged with the city of ,mainz about an annuity belonging to him2 but when1 in the same year1 some families who had been expelled a few years before were permitted to return to ,mainz1 ,gutenberg appears not to have availed himself of the privilege1 as he is described in the act of reconciliation 7dated ,march #bh7 as not being in ,mainz4 ,it is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in ,strassburg1 where ,gutenberg was residing later4 ,there he is said to have been in #adcd1 and to have seized and imprisoned the town clerk of ,mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of that city1 releasing him1 however1 at the representations of the mayor and councillors of ,strassburg1 and relinquishing at the same time all claims to the money 7#caj ,rhenish guilders about #bdjj mark74#a ,between #adcf and #adci certain documents represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments requiring money1 with ,andreas ,dritzehn1 a fellow-citizen1 who became not only security for him but his partner to carry out ,gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of looking-glasses1 for which a lucrative sale was expected at the approaching pilgrimage of #addj 7subsequently postponed1 according to the documents1 although there is no evidence for this postponement7 to ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,money was lent for this purpose by two other friends4 ,in #adch another partnership was arranged between ,gutenberg1 ,andreas ,dritzehn1 and ,andreas and ,anton ,heilmann1 and that this had in view the art of printing has been inferred from the word drucken used by one of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed4 ,an action was brought1 after the death of ,dritzehn1 by his two brothers to force ,gutenberg to accept them as partners in their brother's place1 but the decision was in favour of the latter4 ,in #adda ,gutenberg became surety to the ,st ,thomas ,chapter at ,strassburg for ,johann ,karle1 who borrowed #ajj guilders 7about ,l#af7 from the chapter1 and on ,november #ag1 #addb1 he himself borrowed #hj livres through ,martin ,brechter 7or ,brehter7 from the same chapter4 ,of his whereabouts from the #abth of ,march #addd 7when he paid a tax at ,strassburg7 to the #agth of ,october #addh nothing certain is known4 ,but on the latter date we find him at ,mainz1 borrowing #aej gold guilders of his kinsman1 ,arnold ,gelthus1 against an annual interest of #g-a_/b gold guilders4 ,we do not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid1 but the debt itself appears never to have been paid off1 as the contract of this loan was renewed 7vidimused7 on ,august #bc1 #aejc1 for other parties4 ,it is supposed that soon afterwards ,gutenberg must have been able to show some convincing results of his work1 for it appears that about #adej ,johann ,fust 7q4v47 advanced him #hjj guilders to promote it1 on no security except that of tools still to be made4 ,fust seems also to have undertaken to advance him #cjj guilders a year for expenses1 wages1 house-rent1 parchment1 paper1 ink1 c41 but he does not appear to have ever done so4 ,if at any time they disagreed1 ,gutenberg was to return the #hjj guilders1 and the tools were to cease to be security4 ,it is not known to what purpose ,gutenberg devoted the money advanced to him4 ,in the minutes of the law-suit of #adee he himself says that he had to make his tools with it4 ,but he is presumed to have begun a large folio ,latin ,bible1 and to have printed during its progress some smaller books#b and likewise the ,letter of ,indulgence 7granted on the #abth of ,april #adea by ,pope ,nicholas ,v4 in aid of ,john ,,ii41 king of ,cyprus1 against the ,turks71 of #ca lines1 having the earliest printed date #aded1 of which several copies are preserved in various ,european libraries4 ,a copy of the #adee issue of the same ,indulgence is in the ,rylands ,library at ,manchester 7from the ,althorp ,library74 ,it is not known whether any books were printed while this partnership between ,gutenberg and ,fust lasted4 ,trithemius 7,ann4 ,hirsaug4 ii4 #dba7 says they first printed1 from wooden blocks1 a vocabulary called ,catholicon1 which cannot have been the ,catholicon of ,johannes de ,janua1 a folio of #gdh pages in two columns of #ff lines each1 printed in #adfj1 but was perhaps a small glossary now lost4#c ,the ,latin ,bible of #db lines1 a folio of #abhb printed pages1 in two columns with spaces left for illuminated initials 7so called because each column contains #db lines1 and also known as the ,mazarin ,bible1 because the first copy described was found in the library of ,cardinal ,mazarin71 was finished before the #aeth of ,august #adef2d ,german bibliographers now claim this ,bible for ,gutenberg1 but1 according to bibliographical rules1 it must be ascribed to ,peter ,schoffer1 perhaps in partnership with ,fust4 ,it is in smaller type than the ,bible of #cf lines1 which latter is called either 7a7 the ,bamberg ,bible1 because nearly all the known copies were found in the neighbourhood of ,bamberg1 or 7b7 ,schelhorn's ,bible1 because ,j4 ,g4 ,schelhorn was the first who described it in #agfj1 or 7c7 ,pfister's ,bible1 because its printing is ascribed to ,albrecht ,pfister of ,bamberg1 who used the same type for several small ,german books1 the chief of which is ,boner's ,edelstein 7#adfa1 #dto71 #hh leaves1 with #he woodcuts1 a book of fables in ,german rhyme4 ,some bibliographers believe this #cf-line ,bible to have been begun1 if not entirely printed1 by ,gutenberg during his partnership with ,fust1 as its type occurs in the #ca-line ,letters of ,indulgence of #aded1 was used for the #bg-line ,donatus 7of #adea871 and1 finally1 when found in ,pfister's possession in #adfa1 appears to be old and worn1 except the additional letters k1 w1 z required for ,german1 which are clear and sharp like the types used in the ,bible4 ,again1 others profess to prove 7,dziatzko1 ,gutenberg's fruheste ,druckerpraxis7 that ,b#cf was a reprint of ,b#db4 ,gutenberg's work1 whatever it may have been1 was not a commercial success1 and in #adeb ,fust had to come forward with another #hjj guilders to prevent a collapse4 ,but some time before ,november #adee the latter demanded repayment of his advances 7see the ,helmasperger ,notarial ,document of ,november #f1 #adee1 in ,dziatzko's ,beitrage zur ,gutenbergfrage1 ,berlin1 #ahhi71 and took legal proceedings against ,gutenberg4 ,we do not know the end of these proceedings1 but if ,gutenberg had prepared any printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield up the whole of them to ,fust2 that the latter removed them to his own house at ,mainz1 and there1 with the assistance of ,peter ,schoffer1 issued various books until the sack of the city in #adfb by ,adolphus ,,ii4 caused a suspension of printing for three years1 to be resumed again in #adfe4 ,we have no ,information as to ,gutenberg's activity1 and very little of his whereabouts1 after his separation from ,fust4 ,in a document dated ,june #ba1 #adeg1 he appears as witness on behalf of one of his relatives1 which shows that he was then still at ,mainz4 ,entries in the registers of the ,st ,thomas ,church at ,strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money which ,gutenberg on the #agth of ,november #addb 7see above7 had borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid till the #aath of ,november #adeg1 either by himself or by his surety1 ,martin ,brechter4 ,but the payment due on the latter date appears to have been delayed1 as an entry in the register of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in taking steps to have both ,gutenberg and ,brechter arrested4 ,this time the difficulties seem to have been removed1 but on and after the #aath of ,november #adeh ,gutenberg and ,brechter remained in default4 ,the chapter made various efforts1 all recorded in their registers1 to get their money1 but in vain4 ,every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters1 till at last in #adgd 7six years after ,gutenberg's death7 their names are no longer mentioned4 ,meantime ,gutenberg appears to have been printing1 as we learn from a document dated ,february #bf1 #adfh1 that a syndic of ,mainz1 ,dr ,conrad ,homery 7who had formerly been in the service of the elector ,count ,diether of ,ysenburg71 had at one time supplied him1 not with money1 but with some formes1 types1 tools1 implements and other things belonging to printing1 which ,gutenberg had left after his death1 and which had1 and still1 belonged to him 7,homery72 this material had come into the hands of ,adolf1 the archbishop of ,mainz1 who handed or sent it back to ,homery1 the latter undertaking to use it in no other town but ,mainz1 nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of ,mainz1 even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the things4 ,this material has never yet been identified1 so that we do not know what types ,gutenberg may have had at his disposal2 they could hardly have included the types of the ,catholicon of #adfj1 as is suggested1 this work being probably executed by ,heinrich ,bechtermunze 7d4 #adfg71 who afterwards removed to ,eltville1 or perhaps by ,peter ,schoffer1 who1 about #adgj1 advertises the book as his property 7see ,k4 ,burger1 ,buchhandler-,anzeigen74 ,it is uncertain whether ,gutenberg remained in ,mainz or removed to the neighbouring town of ,eltville1 where he may have been engaged for a while with the brothers ,bechtermunze1 who printed there for some time with the types of the #adfj ,catholicon4 ,on the #agth of ,january #adfe he accepted the post of salaried courtier from the archbishop ,adolf1 and in this capacity received annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn and wine4 ,gutenberg seems to have died at ,mainz at the beginning of #adfh1 and was1 according to tradition1 buried in the ,franciscan church in that city4 ,his relative ,arnold ,gelthus erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave1 and forty years afterwards ,ivo ,wittig set up a memorial tablet at the legal college at ,mainz4 ,no books bearing the name of ,gutenberg as printer are known1 nor is any genuine portrait of him known1 those appearing upon medals1 statues or engraved plates being all fictitious4 ,in #ahih the firm of ,l4 ,rosenthal1 at ,munich1 acquired a ,missale speciale on paper1 which ,otto ,hupp1 in two treatises published in #ahih and #aijb1 asserts to have been printed by ,gutenberg about #adej1 seven years before the #adeg ,psalter4 ,various ,german bibliographers1 however1 think that it could not have been printed before #adhj1 and1 judging from the facsimiles published by ,hupp1 this date seems to be approximately correct4 ,on the #bdth of ,june #aijj the five-hundredth anniversary of ,gutenberg's birth was celebrated in several ,german cities1 notably in ,mainz and ,leipzig1 and most of the recent literature on the invention of printing dates from that time4 ,so we may note that in #aijb a vellum fragment of an ,astronomical ,kalendar was discovered by the librarian of ,wiesbaden1 ,dr ,g4 ,zedler 7,die alteste ,gutenbergtype1 ,mainz1 #aijb71 apparently printed in the #cf-line ,bible type1 and as the position of the sun1 moon and other planets described in this document suits the years #adbi1 #addh and #adfg1 he ascribes the printing of this ,kalendar to the year #addg4 ,a paper fragment of a poem in ,german1 entitled ,weltgericht1 said to be printed in the #cf-line ,bible type1 appears to have come into the possession of ,herr ,eduard ,beck at ,mainz in #ahib1 and was presented by him in #aijc to the ,gutenberg ,museum in that city4 ,zedler published a facsimile of it in #aijd 7for the ,gutenberg ,gesellschaft71 with a description1 in which he places it before the #addg ,kalendar1 c4 #addd-addg4 ,moreover1 fragments of two editions of ,donatus different from that of #adea 787 have recently been found2 see ,schwenke in ,centralbl4 fur ,bibliothekwesen 7#aijh74 ,the recent literature upon ,gutenberg's life and work and early printing in general includes the following3 ,a4 von der ,linde1 ,geschichte und ,erdichtung 7,stuttgart1 #ahgh72 id4 ,geschichte der ,buchdruckerkunst 7,berlin1 #ahhf72 ,j4 ,h4 ,hessels1 ,gutenberg1 ,was he the ,inventor of ,printing8 7,london1 #ahhb72 id4 ,haarlem1 the ,birthplace of ,printing1 not ,mentz 7,london1 #ahhf72 ,o4 ,hartwig1 ,festschrift zum funfhundertjahrigen ,geburtstag von ,johann ,gutenberg 7,leipzig1 #aijj71 which includes various treatises by ,schenk zu ,schweinsberg1 ,k4 ,schorbach1 c42 ,p4 ,schwenke1 ,untersuchungen zur ,geschichte des ersten ,buchdrucks 7,berlin1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,borckel1 ,gutenberg1 sein ,leben1 c4 7,giessen1 #ahig72 id4 ,gutenberg und seine beruhmten ,nachfolger im ersten ,jahrhundert der ,typographie 7,frankfort1 #aijj72 ,f4 ,schneider1 ,mainz und seine ,drucker 7#aijj72 ,g4 ,zedler1 ,gutenberg-,forschungen 7,leipzig1 #aija72 ,j4 ,h4 ,hessels1 ,the so-called ,gutenberg ,documents 7,london1 #aiaj74 ,for other works on the subject see ,,typography4 7,j4 ,h4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is difficult to know which of the ,gutenberg documents can be trusted and which not4 ,schorbach1 in his recent biography of ,gutenberg1 accepts and describes #bg of them 7,festschrift1 #aijj1 p4 #afc sqq471 #ag of which are known only from 7not always accurate7 copies or transcripts4 ,under ordinary circumstances history might be based on them4 ,but it is certain that some so-called ,gutenberg documents1 not included in the above #bg1 are forgeries4 ,fr4 ,j4 ,bodmann 7#aged-ahbj71 for many years professor and librarian at ,mainz1 forged at least two2 one 7dated ,july #bj1 #adei7 he even provided with four forged seals2 the other 7dated ,strassburg1 ,march #bd1 #adbd7 purported to be an autograph letter of ,gutenberg to a fictitious sister of his named ,bertha4 ,of these two documents ,french and ,german texts were published about #ahjj-ahjb2 the forger lived for twenty years afterwards but never undeceived the public4 ,he enriched the ,gutenberg literature with other fabrications4 ,in fact ,bodmann had trained himself for counterfeiting ,,mss4 and documents2 he openly boasted of his abilities in this respect1 and used them1 sometimes to amuse his friends who were searching for ,gutenberg documents1 sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in ,gutenberg's life4 7,for two or three more specimens of his capacities see ,a4 ,wyss in ,zeitschr4 fur ,altert4 u4 ,gesch4 ,schlesiens1 xv4 #i sqq47 ,to one of his friends 7,professor ,gotthelf ,fischer1 who preceded him as librarian of ,mainz7 one or two other fabrications may be ascribed4 ,there are1 moreover1 serious misgivings as to documents said to have been discovered about #agdj 7when the citizens of ,strassburg claimed the honour of the invention for their city7 by ,jacob ,wencker 7the then archivist of ,strassburg7 and ,j4 ,d4 ,schoepflin 7professor and canon of ,st ,thomas's at ,strassburg74 ,for instance1 of the above document of #adcd no original has ever come to light2 while the draft of the transaction1 alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts1 and to have been found about #agdj by ,wencker1 has also disappeared with the register itself4 ,the document 7now only known from a copy said to have been taken by ,wencker from the draft7 is upheld as genuine by ,schorbach1 who favours an invention of printing at ,strassburg1 but ,bockenheimer1 though supporting ,gutenberg and ,mainz1 declares it to be a fiction 7,gutenberg-,feier1 ,mainz1 #aijj1 pp4 #bd-cc74 ,again1 suspicions are justified with respect to the documents recording ,gutenberg's lawsuit of #adci at ,strassburg4 ,bockenheimer explains at great length 7l4c4 pp4 #da-gb7 that they are forgeries4 ,he even explains 7ibid4 pp4 #ig-ajg7 that the so-called ,helmasperger document of ,november #f1 #adee1 may be a fabrication of the ,faust von ,aschaffenburg family1 who endeavoured to claim ,johann ,fust as their ancestor4 ,there are also 7#a7 a fragment of a fictitious press1 said to have been constructed by ,gutenberg in #adda1 and to have been discovered 767 at ,mainz in #ahef2 7#b7 a forged imprint with the date #adeh in a copy of ,pope ,gregory's ,dialogues1 really printed at ,strassburg about #adgj2 7#c7 a forged rubric in a copy of the ,tractatus de celebratione missarum1 from which it would appear that ,johann ,gutenberg and ,johann ,nummeister had presented it on ,june #ai1 #adfc1 to the ,carthusian monastery near ,mainz3 7#d7 four forged copies of the ,indulgence of #adee1 in the ,culemann ,collection in the ,kastner ,museum at ,hanover1 c4 7see further1 ,hessels1 ,the so-called ,gutenberg ,documents1 in ,the ,library1 #aiji74 #b ,among these were perhaps 7#a7 one or two editions of the work of ,donatus1 ,de octo partibus orationis1 #bg lines to a page1 of one of which two leaves1 now in the ,paris ,national ,library1 were discovered at ,mainz in the original binding of an account book1 one of them having1 but in a later hand1 the year #adea 7872 7#b7 the ,turk-,kalendar for #adee 7preserved in the ,hof-,bibliothek at ,munich72 7#c7 the ,cisianus 7preserved in the ,cambridge ,univ4 ,libr471 and perhaps others now lost4 #c ,ulric ,zell states1 in the ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii1 that ,gutenberg and ,fust printed a ,bible in large type like that used in missals4 ,it has been said that this description applies to the #db-line ,bible1 as its type is as large as that of most missals printed before #aejj1 and that the size now called missal type 7double pica7 was not used in missals until late in the #afth century4 ,this is no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before #aejj1 some of which are in even smaller type than the #db-line ,bible4 ,but many of the large folio missals1 as that printed at ,mainz by ,peter ,schoffer in #adhc1 the ,carthusian missal printed at ,spires by ,peter ,drach about #adij1 and the ,dominican missal printed by ,andrea de ,torresanis at ,venice in #adif1 are in as large type as the #cf-line ,bible4 ,peter ,schoffer 7#adbe-aejb7 of ,gernsheim1 between ,mainz and ,mannheim1 who was a copyist in ,paris in #addi1 and whom ,fust called his servant 7famulus71 is said by ,trithemius to have discovered an easier way of founding characters1 whence ,lambinet and others concluded that ,schoffer invented the punch4 ,schoffer himself1 in the colophon of the ,psalter of #adeg1 a work which some suppose to have been planned and partly printed by ,gutenberg1 claims only the mode of printing rubrics and coloured capitals4 #d ,the ,leipzig copy of this ,bible 7which formerly belonged to ,herr ,klemm of ,dresden7 has at the end the ,,ms4 year #adec in old ,arabic numerals4 ,but certain circumstances connected with this date make it look very suspicious4 ,,gutersloh1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,westphalia1 #aa m4 ,s4,w4 from ,bielefeld by the railway to ,dortmund4 ,pop4 7#aije71 #gcge4 ,it is a seat of silk and cotton industries1 and has a large trade in ,westphalian hams and sausages4 ,printing1 brewing and distilling are also carried on1 and the town is famous for its rye-bread 7,pumpernickel74 ,gutersloh has two ,evangelical churches1 a ,roman ,catholic church1 a synagogue1 a school and other educational establishments4 ,see ,eickhoff1 ,geschichte der ,stadt und ,gemeinde ,gutersloh 7,gutersloh1 #aijd74 ,,guthrie1 ,,sir ,,james 7#ahei- 71 ,scottish painter1 and one of the leaders of the so-called ,glasgow school of painters1 was born at ,greenock4 ,though in his youth he was influenced by ,john ,pettie in ,london1 and subsequently studied in ,paris1 his style1 which is remarkable for grasp of character1 breadth and spontaneity1 is due to the lessons taught him by observation of nature1 and to the example of ,crawhall1 by which he benefited in ,lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century4 ,in his early works1 such as ,the ,gipsy ,fires are ,burning1 for ,daylight is ,past and ,gone 7#ahhb71 and the ,funeral ,service in the ,highlands1 he favoured a thick impasto1 but with growing experience he used his colour with greater economy and reticence4 ,subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to portraiture4 ,sir ,james ,guthrie1 like so many of the ,glasgow artists1 achieved his first successes on the ,continent1 but soon found recognition in his native country4 ,he was elected associate of the ,royal ,scottish ,academy in #ahhh1 and full member in #ahib1 succeeded ,sir ,george ,reid as president of the ,royal ,scottish ,academy in #aijb1 and was knighted in #aijc4 ,his painting ,schoolmates is at the ,ghent ,gallery4 ,among his most successful portraits are those of his mother1 ,mr ,r4 ,garroway1 ,major ,hotchkiss1 ,mrs ,fergus1 ,professor ,jack1 and ,mrs ,watson4 ,,guthrie1 ,,thomas 7#ahjc-ahgc71 ,scottish divine1 was born at ,brechin1 ,forfarshire1 on the #abth of ,july #ahjc4 ,he entered the university of ,edinburgh at the early age of twelve1 and continued to attend classes there for more than ten years4 ,on the #bnd of ,february #ahbe the presbytery of ,brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the ,church of ,scotland1 and in #ahbf he was in ,paris studying natural philosophy1 chemistry1 and comparative anatomy4 ,for two years he acted as manager of his father's bank1 and in #ahcj was inducted to his first charge1 ,arbirlot1 in ,forfarshire1 where he adopted a vivid dramatic style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants1 farmers and weavers4 ,in #ahcg he became the colleague of ,john ,sym in the pastorate of ,old ,greyfriars1 ,edinburgh1 and at once attracted notice as a great pulpit orator4 ,towards the close of #ahdj he became minister of ,st ,john's church1 ,victoria ,street1 ,edinburgh4 ,he declined invitations both from ,london and from ,india4 ,he was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement which led to the ,disruption of #ahdc2 and his name is thenceforth associated with the ,free ,church1 for which he collected ,l#aaf1jjj from ,july #ahde to ,june #ahdf to provide manses for the seceding ministers4 ,in #ahdd he became a teetotaller4 ,in #ahdg he began the greatest work of his life by the publication of his first ,plea for ,ragged ,schools4 ,this pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from ,lord ,jeffrey4 ,a ,ragged ,school was opened on the ,castle ,hill1 which has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere1 though ,guthrie's relation to the movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder4 ,he insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as ,protestants2 and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions4 ,this interference with religious liberty led to some controversy2 and ultimately those who differed from ,guthrie founded the ,united ,industrial ,school1 giving combined secular and separate religious instruction4 ,in ,april #ahdg the degree of ,d4,d4 was conferred on ,guthrie by the university of ,edinburgh2 and in #ahej ,william ,hanna 7#ahjh-ahhb71 the biographer and son-in-law of ,thomas ,chalmers1 was inducted as his colleague in ,free ,st ,john's ,church4 ,in #ahej ,guthrie published ,a ,plea on behalf of ,drunkards and against ,drunkenness1 which was followed by ,the ,gospel in ,ezekiel 7#ahee72 ,the ,city3 its ,sins and ,sorrows 7#aheg72 ,christ and the ,inheritance of the ,saints 7#aheh72 ,seedtime and ,harvest of ,ragged ,schools 7#ahfj71 consisting of his three ,pleas for ,ragged ,schools4 ,these works had an enormous sale1 and portions of them were translated into ,french and ,dutch4 ,his advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the ,forbes ,mackenzie ,act1 which secured ,sunday closing and shortened hours of sale for ,scotland4 ,mr ,gladstone specially quoted him in support of the ,light ,wines ,bill 7#ahfj74 ,in #ahfb he was moderator of the ,free ,church ,general ,assembly2 but he seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church courts4 ,his remarkable oratorical talents1 rich humour1 genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling1 enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement4 ,he was one of the vice-presidents of the ,evangelical ,alliance4 ,in #ahfd1 his health being seriously impaired1 he resigned public work as pastor of ,free ,st ,john's 7,may #ag71 although his nominal connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death4 ,guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to ,good ,words1 and1 about the time of his retirement from the ministry1 he became first editor of the ,sunday ,magazine1 himself contributing several series of papers which were afterwards published separately4 ,in #ahfe he was presented with ,l#ejjj as a mark of appreciation from the public4 ,his closing years were spent mostly in retirement2 and after an illness of several months' duration he died at ,st ,leonards-on-,sea on the #bdth of ,february #ahgc4 ,in addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of books which had a remarkable circulation in ,england and ,america1 such as ,speaking to the ,heart 7#ahfb72 ,the ,way to ,life 7#ahfb72 ,man and the ,gospel 7#ahfe72 ,the ,angel's ,song 7#ahfe72 ,the ,parables 7#ahff72 ,our ,father's ,business 7#ahfg72 ,out of ,harness 7#ahfg72 ,early ,piety 7#ahfh72 ,studies of ,character from the ,old ,testament 7#ahfh-ahgj72 ,sundays ,abroad 7#ahga74 ,see ,autobiography of ,thomas ,guthrie1 ,d4,d41 and ,memoir1 by his sons 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahgd-ahge74 ,,guthrie1 ,,thomas ,,anstey 7#ahef- 71 known by the pseudonym of ,f4 ,anstey1 ,english novelist1 was born in ,kensington1 ,london1 on the #hth of ,august #ahef4 ,he was educated at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 and at ,trinity ,hall1 ,cambridge1 and was called to the bar in #ahhj4 ,but the popular success of his story ,vice-,versa 7#ahhb7 with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father for his schoolboy son1 at once made his reputation as a humorist of an original type4 ,he published in #ahhc a serious novel1 ,the ,giant's ,robe2 but1 in spite of its excellence1 he discovered 7and again in #ahhi with ,the ,pariah7 that it was not as a serious novelist but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him4 ,as such his reputation was further confirmed by ,the ,black ,poodle 7#ahhd71 ,the ,tinted ,venus 7#ahhe71 ,a ,fallen ,idol 7#ahhf71 and other works4 ,he became an important member of the staff of ,punch1 in which his ,voces populi and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece 7,burglar ,bill1 c47 represent his best work4 ,in #aija his successful farce ,the ,man from ,blankley's1 based on a story which originally appeared in ,punch1 was first produced at the ,prince of ,wales's ,theatre1 in ,london4 ,,guthrie1 the capital of ,oklahoma1 ,u4,s4,a41 and the county-seat of ,logan county1 extending on both sides of ,cottonwood creek1 and lying one mile south of the ,cimarron river4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #eccc1 7#aijj7 #aj1jjf1 7#aijg7 #aa1feb 7#bhga negroes72 7#aiaj7 #aa1fed4 ,it is served by the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,fe1 the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,pacific1 the ,missouri1 ,kansas ,texas1 the ,fort ,smith ,western1 and the ,st ,louis1 ,el ,reno ,western railways4 ,the city is situated about #idj ft4 above the sea1 in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of ,indian corn1 wheat1 cotton and various fruits1 particularly peaches4 ,guthrie is one of the headquarters of the ,federal courts in the state1 the other being ,muskogee4 ,the principal public buildings at ,guthrie are the state ,capitol1 the ,federal building1 the ,city hall1 the ,carnegie library1 the ,methodist hospital and a large ,masonic temple4 ,among the schools are ,st ,joseph's ,academy and a state school for the deaf and dumb4 ,guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and has cotton gins1 a cotton compress1 and foundries and machine shops2 among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil1 cotton goods1 flour1 cereals1 lumber1 cigars1 brooms and furniture4 ,the total value of the factory product in #aije was #a1bjj1ffb4 ,the municipality owns and operates the waterworks4 ,the city was founded in #ahhi1 when ,oklahoma was opened for settlement2 in #ahij it was made the capital of the ,territory1 and in #aijg when ,oklahoma was made a state1 it became the state capital4 ,,guthrum 7,,godrum7 7d4 #hij71 king of ,east ,anglia1 first appears in the ,english ,annals in the year #hge1 when he is mentioned as one of three ,danish kings who went with the host to ,cambridge4 ,he was probably engaged in the campaigns of the next three years1 and after ,alfred's victory at ,edington in #hgh1 ,guthrum met the king at ,aller in ,somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of ,aethelstan4 ,he stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather ,alfred4 ,in #hij ,guthrum-,aethelstan died3 he is then spoken of as se nor,pderna cyning 7probably7 the ,norwegian king1 referring to the ultimate origin of his family1 and we are told that he was the first 7,scandinavian7 to settle ,east ,anglia4 ,guthrum is perhaps to be identified with ,gormr 7 ,guthrum7 hinn heimski or hinn riki of the ,scandinavian sagas1 the foster-father of ,hor,pdaknutr1 the father of ,gorm the old4 ,there is a treaty known as the peace of ,alfred and ,guthrum4 ,,gutschmid1 ,,alfred1 ,,baron ,,von 7#ahce-ahhg71 ,german historian and ,orientalist1 was born on the #ast of ,july at ,loschwitz 7,dresden74 ,after holding chairs at ,kiel 7#ahff71 ,konigsberg 7#ahgc71 and ,jena 7#ahgf71 he was finally appointed professor of history at ,tubingen1 where he died on the #bnd of ,march #ahhg4 ,he devoted himself to the study of ,eastern language and history in its pre-,greek and ,hellenistic periods and contributed largely to the literature of the subject4 ,,works4--,uber die ,fragmente des ,pompeius ,trogus 7supplementary vol4 of ,jahrbucher fur klass4 ,phil41 #aheg72 ,die makedonische ,anagraphe 7#ahfd72 ,beitrage zur ,gesch4 des alten ,orients 7,leipzig1 #aheh72 ,neue ,beitrage zur ,gesch4 des alt4 ,or41 vol4 i41 ,die ,assyriologie in ,deutschland 7,leipzig1 #ahgf72 ,die ,glaubwurdigkeit der armenischen ,gesch4 des ,moses von ,khoren 7#ahgg72 ,untersuchungen uber die syrische ,epitome des eusebischen ,canones 7#ahhf72 ,untersuch4 uber die ,gesch4 des ,konigreichs ,osraene 7#ahhg72 ,gesch4 ,irans 7,alexander the ,great to the fall of the ,arsacidae7 7,tubingen1 #ahhg74 ,he wrote on ,persia and ,phoenicia in the #ith edition of the ,ency4 ,brit4 ,a collection of minor works entitled ,kleine ,schriften was published by ,f4 ,ruhl at ,leipzig 7#ahhi-ahid1 #e vols471 with complete list of his writings4 ,see article by ,ruhl in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 xlix4 7#aijd74 ,,guts-,,muths1 ,,johann ,,christoph ,,friedrich 7#agei-ahci71 ,german teacher and the principal founder of the ,german school system of gymnastics1 was born at ,quedlinburg on the #ith of ,august #agei4 ,he was educated at the gymnasium of his native town and at ,halle ,university2 and in #aghe he went to ,schnepfenthal1 where he taught geography and gymnastics4 ,his method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks2 and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy such an important position in the school system of ,germany4 ,he also did much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography4 ,he died on the #bast of ,may #ahci4 ,his principal works are ,gymnastik fur die ,jugend 7#agic72 ,spiele zur ,ubung und ,erholung des ,korpers und ,geistes fur die ,jugend 7#agif72 ,turnbuch 7#ahag72 ,handbuch der ,geographie 7#ahaj72 and a number of books constituting a ,bibliothek fur ,padagogik1 ,schulwesen1 und die gesammte padagogische ,literatur ,deutschlands4 ,he also contributed to the ,vollstandiges ,handbuch der neuesten ,erdbeschreibung1 and along with ,jacobi published ,deutsches ,land und deutsches ,volk1 the first part1 ,deutsches ,land1 being written by him4 ,,gutta 7,latin for drop71 an architectural term given to the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the ,doric ,order4 ,they are sometimes known as trunnels1 a corruption of tree-nail1 and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces of wood2 these are supposed to be derived from the original timber construction of the ,doric temple1 in which the pins1 driven through the regula1 secured the latter to the taenia1 and1 according to ,c4 ,chipiez and ,f4 ,a4 ,choisy1 passed through the taenia to hold the triglyphs in place4 ,in the earliest examples of the ,doric ,order at ,corinth and ,selinus1 the guttae are completely isolated from the architrave1 and in ,temple ,c4 at ,selinus the guttae are #c or #d in4 in front of it1 as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily4 ,in later examples they are partly attached to the architrave4 ,similar guttae are carved under the mutules of the ,doric cornice1 representing the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters4 ,in the temples at ,bassae1 ,paestum and ,selinus1 instances have been found where the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the soffit of the mutules and the regula4 ,their constant employment in the ,doric temples suggests that1 although originally of constructive origin1 they were subsequently employed as decorative features4 ,,gutta ,,percha1 the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the name is derived from two ,malay words1 getah meaning gum1 and pertja being the name of the tree--probably a ,bassia--from which the gum was 7erroneously7 supposed to be obtained4 ,botanical ,origin and ,distribution4--,the actual tree is known to the ,malays as taban1 and the product as getah taban4 ,the best gutta percha of ,malaya is chiefly derived from two trees1 and is known as getah taban merah 7red7 or getah taban sutra 7silky74 ,the trees in question1 which belong to the natural order ,sapotaceae1 have now been definitely identified1 the first as ,dichopsis gutta 7,bentham and ,hooker71 otherwise ,isonandra gutta 7,hooker7 or ,palaquium gutta 7,burck71 and the second as ,dichopsis oblongifolia 7,burck74 ,allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but usually inferior products4 ,among them may be mentioned species of ,payena 7getah soondie74 ,gutta percha trees often attain a height of #gj to #ajj ft4 and the trunk has a diameter of from #b to #c ft4 ,they are stated to be mature when about thirty years old4 ,the leaves of ,dichopsis1 which are obovate-lanceolate1 with a distinct pointed apex1 occur in clusters at the end of the branches1 and are bright green and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs4 ,the leaves are usually about #f in4 long and about #b in4 wide at the centre4 ,the flowers are white1 and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry about #a in4 long4 ,the geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost entirely confined to the ,malay ,peninsula and its immediate neighbourhood4 ,it includes a region within #f degrees north and south of the equator and #ic deg4-#aai deg4 longitude1 where the temperature ranges from #ff deg4 to #ij deg4 ,f4 and the atmosphere is exceedingly moist4 ,the trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings4 ,some planting has taken place in ,malaya1 but little has so far been done to acclimatize the plant in other regions4 ,recent information seems to point to the possibility of growing the tree in ,ceylon and on the west coast of ,africa4 ,preparation of ,gutta ,percha4--,the gutta is furnished by the greyish milky fluid known as the latex1 which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex1 that is1 between the bark and the wood 7or cambium74 ,latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about #i of the dried leaves1 and this may be removed from the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents1 but the process is not practicable commercially4 ,the latex flows slowly where an incision is made through the bark1 but not nearly so freely1 even in the rainy season1 as the india-rubber latex4 ,on this account the ,malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex1 which is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark1 forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot apart down the trunk4 ,the latex exudes and fills these channels1 from which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires4 ,the work is usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more fluid and more abundant4 ,sometimes when the latex is thick water is added to it before boiling4 ,the best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty years old1 which furnish about #b to #c lb4 of gutta4 ,older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta1 whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior quality4 ,the trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution in the total number during recent years1 which has not been compensated for by the new plantations which have been established4 ,uses of ,gutta ,percha4--,the ,chinese and ,malays appear to have been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold1 but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes1 the construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips1 c4 ,the brothers ,tradescant brought samples of the curious material to ,europe about the middle of the #agth century4 ,it was then regarded as a form of wood1 to which the name of mazer wood was given on account of its employment in making mazers or goblets4 ,a description of it is given in a book published by ,john ,tradescant in #afef entitled ,musaeum ,tradescantianum or a ,collection of ,rarities preserved at ,south ,lambeth near ,london4 ,many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the world by the ,tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the ,ashmolean ,museum at ,oxford which was opened in #afhc1 but the specimen of mazer wood no longer exists4 ,in #ahdc samples of the material were sent to ,london by ,dr ,william ,montgomerie of ,singapore1 and were exhibited at the ,society of ,arts1 and in the same year ,dr ,jose d',almeida sent samples to the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,gutta percha was also exhibited at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,dr ,montgomerie's communication to the ,society of ,arts led to many experiments being made with the material4 ,casts of medals were successfully produced1 and ,sir ,william ,siemens1 in conjunction with ,werner von ,siemens1 then made the first experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires1 which led to the discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial demand for the substance4 ,the value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality1 that is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which interfere with its physical characters1 and especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity4 ,the chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes4 ,other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of medals1 c4 ,it has also found application in the preparation of belting for machinery1 as well as for the construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments1 whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing4 ,commercial ,production4--,the amount of gutta percha exported through ,singapore from ,british and ,dutch possessions in the ,east is subject to considerable fluctuation1 depending chiefly on the demand for cable and telegraph construction4 ,in #ahhf the total export from ,singapore was #dj1daa cwt41 of which ,great ,britain took #ca1fff cwt42 in #ahif the export was #ea1ihb cwt4 of which #bi1gbb cwt4 came to ,great ,britain2 while in #aije1 #db1jhh cwt4 were exported 7#ai1eag cwt4 to ,great ,britain74 ,it has to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products sold under the name of gutta percha1 some of which are referred to below under the head of substitutes4 ,the value of gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports4 ,in the ten years #ahif-aijf the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from #ds4 to about #gs4 per lb4 ,gutta percha1 however1 is used for few and special purposes1 and there is no free market1 the price being chiefly a matter of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers4 ,characters and ,properties4--,gutta percha appears in commerce in the form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance1 often exhibiting a reddish tinge1 and just soft enough to be indented by the nail4 ,it is subject to considerable adulteration1 various materials1 such as coco-nut oil1 being added by the ,malays to improve its appearance4 ,the solid1 which is fibrous in texture1 hard and inelastic but not brittle at ordinary temperature1 becomes plastic when immersed in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about #fe deg4-#ff deg4 ,c4 in the case of gutta of the first quality1 the temperature of softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed4 ,in this condition it can be drawn out into threads1 but is still inelastic4 ,on cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without becoming brittle4 ,in this respect gutta percha differs from india-rubber or caoutchouc1 which does not become plastic and unlike gutta percha is elastic4 ,this property of softening on heating and solidifying when cooled again1 without change in its original properties1 enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms1 rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes4 ,the specific gravity of the best gutta percha lies between #j4if and #a4 ,gutta percha is not dissolved by most liquids1 although some remove resinous constituents2 the best solvents are oil of turpentine1 coal-tar oil1 carbon bisulphide and chloroform1 and light petroleum when hot4 ,gutta percha is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids4 ,strong sulphuric acid chars it when warm1 and nitric acid effects complete oxidation4 ,when exposed to air and light1 gutta percha rapidly deteriorates1 oxygen being absorbed1 producing a brittle resinous material4 ,chemical ,composition4--,chemically1 gutta percha is not a single substance but a mixture of several constituents4 ,as the proportions of these constituents in the crude material are not constant1 the properties of gutta percha are subject to variation4 ,for electrical purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric strength and a low inductive capacity2 the possession of these properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present4 ,the principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta1 a hydrocarbon of the empirical formula ,c#aj;,h#af4 ,it is therefore isomeric with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine4 ,accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous constituents--albane ,c#aj;,h#af,o and fluavil ,c#bj;,h#cb,o--which can be separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents4 ,pure gutta is not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold1 whereas the resinous constituents are removed by these liquids4 ,the true gutta exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta percha1 and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present1 the higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha4 ,the following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees of the genus ,dichopsis or ,palaquium3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,gutta ,resin per cent4 per cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,dichopsis 7or ,palaquium7 oblongifolia #hh4h #aa4b gutta #hb4j #ah4j polyantha #di4c #ej4g pustulata #dg4h #eb4b ,maingayi #bd4d #ge4f ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the hydrocarbon of gutta percha1 gutta1 is closely related in chemical constitution to caoutchouc4 ,when distilled at a high temperature both are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons1 isoprene 7,c#e;,h#h7 and caoutchoucine or dipentene 7,c#aj;,h#af71 and the latter by further heating can be resolved into isoprene1 a hydrocarbon of known constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously reverts to caoutchouc4 ,the precise relationship of isoprene to gutta has not been ascertained1 but recently ,harries has further elucidated the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide1 but differ in the proportions of these products they furnish4 ,the two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely related in chemical constitution4 ,like caoutchouc1 gutta percha is able to combine with sulphur1 and this vulcanized product has found some commercial applications4 ,manufacture of ,gutta ,percha4--,among the earliest patents taken out for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of ,charles ,hancock1 the first of which is dated #ahdc4 ,before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state4 ,the chopped or sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt4 ,it is then kneaded or masticated by machinery to remove the enclosed water1 and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the rolling-machine1 from which it emerges in sheets of different thickness4 ,sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum4 ,substitutes for ,gutta ,percha4--,for some purposes natural and artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed4 ,the similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes1 of which the material known as balata or ,surinam gutta percha1 is the most valuable4 ,this is derived from a tree1 ,mimusops balata 7bullet tree71 belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha trees1 viz4 ,sapotaceae4 ,it is a large tree1 growing to a height of #hj to #ajj ft4 or more1 which occurs in the ,west ,indies1 in ,south ,america1 and is especially abundant in ,dutch and ,british ,guiana4 ,the latex which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and wood of the tree4 ,as the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees1 and the balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid4 ,crude balata varies in composition4 ,it usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin and true gutta4 ,the latter appears to be identical with the chief constituent of gutta percha4 ,the properties of balata correspond with its composition1 and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta percha4 ,balata fetches from #as4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #h;d4 per lb4 ,among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the evaporated latices derived from ,butyrospermum ,parkii 7shea-butter tree of ,west ,africa or karite of the ,sudan71 ,calotropis gigantea 7,madar tree of ,india71 and ,dyera costulata of ,malaya and ,borneo1 which furnishes the material known as ,pontianac4 ,all these contain a small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities of resinous and other constituents4 ,they fetch only a few pence per lb41 and are utilized for waterproofing purposes4 ,various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented chiefly for use as insulating materials4 ,these often consist of mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils1 resins1 c41 in some cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha4 ,for further information respecting gutta percha1 and for figures of the trees1 the following works may be consulted3 ,jumelle1 ,les ,plantes a caoutchouc et a gutta 7,paris1 ,challamel1 #aijc72 ,obach1 ,cantor ,lectures on ,gutta ,percha1 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 #ahih4 7,w4 ,r4 ,d47 ,,gutter 7,o4 ,fr4 goutiere1 mod4 gouttiere1 from ,lat4 gutta1 drop71 in architecture1 a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle2 more specifically1 but loosely1 the similar channel at the side of a street1 below the pavement4 ,in ,greek and ,roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter1 and the water was discharged through the mouths of lions1 whose heads were carved on the same4 ,sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the flanks of a temple1 in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of the roof tiles4 ,in medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables1 and the water was discharged through gargoyles4 ,sometimes1 however1 a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter4 ,in buildings of a more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall below1 and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the roof timbers4 ,the safest course is to have an eaves gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to and carried by the rafters of the roof4 ,in ,renaissance architecture generally the pierced balustrade of the ,gothic and transition work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters4 ,in ,france a compromise was effected1 whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed1 of which the earliest example is in the first court of the ,louvre by ,pierre ,lescot4 ,this exists throughout the ,french ,renaissance1 and it is one of its chief characteristic features4 ,,gutzkow1 ,,karl ,,ferdinand 7#ahaa-ahgh71 ,german novelist and dramatist1 was born on the #agth of ,march #ahaa at ,berlin1 where his father held a clerkship in the war office4 ,after leaving school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of his native town1 and while still a student1 began his literary career by the publication in #ahca of a periodical entitled ,forum der ,journalliteratur4 ,this brought him to the notice of ,wolfgang ,menzel1 who invited him to ,stuttgart to assist in the editorship of the ,literaturblatt4 ,at the same time he continued his university studies at ,jena1 ,heidelberg and ,munich4 ,in #ahcb he published anonymously at ,hamburg ,briefe eines ,narren an eine ,narrin1 and in #ahcc appeared at ,stuttgart ,maha-,guru1 ,geschichte eines ,gottes1 a fantastic and satirical romance4 ,in #ahce he went to ,frankfort1 where he founded the ,deutsche ,revue4 ,in the same year appeared ,wally1 die ,zweiflerin1 from the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers who1 from their opposition to the literary1 social and religious traditions of romanticism1 received the name of ,young ,germany4 ,the work was directed specially against the institution of marriage and the belief in revelation2 and whatever interest it might have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the ,german federal diet1 which condemned ,gutzkow to three months' imprisonment1 decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet write1 and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within the ,german confederation4 ,during his term of imprisonment at ,mannheim1 ,gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise ,zur ,philosophie der ,geschichte 7#ahcf74 ,on obtaining his freedom he returned to ,frankfort1 whence he went in #ahcg to ,hamburg4 ,here he inaugurated a new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy ,richard ,savage 7#ahci71 which immediately made the round of all the ,german theatres4 ,of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected2 but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the ,german theatre--especially the comedies ,zopf und ,schwert 7#ahdd71 ,das ,urbild des ,tartuffe 7#ahdg71 ,der ,konigsleutnant 7#ahdi7 and the blank verse tragedy1 ,uriel ,acosta 7#ahdg74 ,in #ahdg ,gutzkow went to ,dresden1 where he succeeded ,tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre4 ,meanwhile he had not neglected the novel4 ,seraphine 7#ahch7 was followed by ,blasedow und seine ,sohne1 a satire on the educational theories of the time4 ,between #ahej and #aheb appeared ,die ,ritter vom ,geiste1 which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern ,german social novel4 ,der ,zauberer von ,rom is a powerful study of ,roman ,catholic life in southern ,germany4 ,the success of ,die ,ritter vom ,geiste suggested to ,gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model of ,dickens' ,household ,words1 entitled ,unterhaltungen am hauslichen ,herd1 which first appeared in #aheb and was continued till #ahfb4 ,in #ahfd he had an epileptic fit1 and his productions show henceforth decided traces of failing powers4 ,to this period belong the historical novels ,hohenschwangau 7#ahfh7 and ,fritz ,ellrodt 7#ahgb71 ,lebensbilder 7#ahgj-ahgb71 consisting of autobiographic sketches1 and ,die ,sohne ,pestalozzis 7#ahgj71 the plot of which is founded on the story of ,kaspar ,hauser4 ,on account of a return of his nervous malady1 ,gutzkow in #ahgc made a journey to ,italy1 and on his return took up his residence in the country near ,heidelberg1 whence he removed to ,frankfort-on-,main1 dying there on the #afth of ,december #ahgh4 ,with the exception of one or two of his comedies1 ,gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect4 ,but he exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern ,germany2 and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected4 ,an edition of ,gutzkow's collected works appeared at ,jena 7#ahgc-ahgf1 new ed41 #ahgi74 ,e4 ,wolff has published critical editions of ,gutzkow's ,meisterdramen 7#ahib7 and ,wally die ,zweiflerin 7#aije74 ,his more important novels have been frequently reprinted4 ,for ,gutzkow's life see his various autobiographical writings such as ,aus der ,knabenzeit 7#aheb71 ,ruckblicke auf mein ,leben 7#ahgf71 c4 ,for an estimate of his life and work see ,j4 ,proelss1 ,das junge ,deutschland 7#ahib72 also ,h4 ,h4 ,houben1 ,studien uber die ,dramen ,gutzkows 7#ahih7 and ,gutzkow-,funde 7#aija74 ,,gutzlaff1 ,,karl ,,friedrich ,,august 7#ahjc-ahea71 ,german missionary to ,china1 was born at ,pyritz in ,pomerania on the #hth of ,july #ahjc4 ,when still apprenticed to a saddler in ,stettin1 he made known his missionary inclinations to the king of ,prussia1 through whom he went to the ,padagogium at ,halle1 and afterwards to the mission institute of ,janike in ,berlin4 ,in #ahbf1 under the auspices of the ,netherlands ,missionary ,society1 he went to ,java1 where he was able to learn ,chinese4 ,leaving the society in #ahbh1 he went to ,singapore1 and in ,august of the same year removed to ,bangkok1 where he translated the ,bible into ,siamese4 ,in #ahbi he married an ,english lady1 who aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of ,cochin ,chinese1 but she died in ,august #ahca before its completion4 ,shortly after her death he sailed to ,macao in ,china1 where1 and subsequently at ,hong ,kong1 he worked at a translation of the ,bible into ,chinese1 published a ,chinese monthly magazine1 and wrote in ,chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge4 ,in #ahcd he published at ,london a ,journal of ,three ,voyages along the ,coast of ,china in #ahca1 #ahcb and #ahcc4 ,he was appointed in #ahce joint ,chinese secretary to the ,english commission1 and during the opium war of #ahdj-db and the negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable service by his knowledge of the country and people4 ,the ,chinese authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior1 ,gutzlaff in #ahdd founded an institute for training native missionaries1 which was so successful that during the first four years as many as forty-eight ,chinese were sent out from it to work among their fellow-countrymen4 ,he died at ,hong ,kong on the #ith of ,august #ahea4 ,gutzlaff also wrote ,a ,sketch of ,chinese ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern 7,london1 #ahcd71 and a similar work published in ,german at ,stuttgart in #ahdg2 ,china ,opened 7#ahch72 and the ,life of ,taow-,kwang 7#ahea2 ,german edition published at ,leipzig in #aheb74 ,a complete collection of his ,chinese writings is contained in the library at ,munich4 ,,guy ,,of ,,warwick1 ,english hero of romance4 ,guy1 son of ,siward or ,seguard of ,wallingford1 by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage ,felice 7the ,phyllis of the well-known ballad71 daughter and heiress of ,roalt1 earl of ,warwick4 ,soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of his past life1 and1 by way of penance1 leaves his wife and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land4 ,after years of absence he returns in time to deliver ,winchester for ,king ,aethelstan from the invading northern kings1 ,anelaph 7,anlaf or ,olaf7 and ,gonelaph1 by slaying in single fight their champion the giant ,colbrand4 ,local tradition fixes the duel at ,hyde ,mead near ,winchester4 ,making his way to ,warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen1 and presently retires to a hermitage in ,arden1 only revealing his identity at the approach of death4 ,the versions of the ,middle ,english romance of ,guy which we possess are adaptations from the ,french1 and are cast in the form of a roman d'aventures1 opening with a long recital of ,guy's wars in ,lombardy1 ,germany and ,constantinople1 and embellished with fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms4 ,the kernel of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with ,colbrand1 which represents1 or at least is symbolic#a of an historical fact4 ,the religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of ,st ,eustachius and ,st ,alexius1#b and makes it probable that the ,guy-legend1 as we have it1 has passed through monastic hands4 ,tradition seems to be at fault in putting ,guy's adventures under ,aethelstan4 ,the ,anlaf of the story is probably ,olaf ,tryggvason1 who1 with ,sweyn of ,denmark1 harried the southern counties of ,england in #iic and pitched his winter quarters in ,southampton4 ,winchester was saved1 however1 not by the valour of an ,english champion1 but by the payment of money4 ,this ,olaf was not unnaturally confused with ,anlaf ,cuaran or ,havelok 7i4e474 ,the name ,guy 7perhaps a ,norman form of ,a4 ,s4 wig war7 may be fairly connected with the family of ,wigod1 lord of ,wallingford under ,edward the ,confessor1 and a ,filicia1 who belongs to the #abth century and was perhaps the ,norman poet's patroness1 occurs in the pedigree of the ,ardens1 descended from ,thurkill of ,warwick and his son ,siward4 ,guy's ,cliffe1 near ,warwick1 where in the #adth century ,richard de ,beauchamp1 earl of ,warwick1 erected a chantry1 with a statue of the hero1 does not correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance4 ,the bulk of the legend is obviously fiction1 even though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of the ,ardens and the ,wallingford family1 but it was accepted as authentic fact in the chronicle of ,pierre de ,langtoft 7,peter of ,langtoft7 written at the end of the #acth century4 ,the adventures of ,reynbrun1 son of ,guy1 and his tutor ,heraud of ,arden1 who had also educated ,guy1 have much in common with his father's history1 and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate romance4 ,there is a certain connexion between ,guy and ,count ,guido of ,tours 7fl4 #hjj71 and ,alcuin's advice to the count is transferred to the ,english hero in the ,speculum ,gy of ,warewyke 7c4 #acbg71 edited for the ,early ,english ,text ,society by ,g4 ,l4 ,morrill1 #ahih4 ,the ,french romance 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #cgge7 has not been printed1 but is described by ,emile ,littre in ,hist4 litt4 de la ,france 7xxii41 #hda-hea1 #aheb74 ,a ,french prose version was printed in ,paris1 #aebe1 and subsequently 7see ,g4 ,brunet1 ,manuel du libraire1 s4v4 ,guy de ,warvich72 the ,english metrical romance exists in four versions1 dating from the early #adth century2 the text was edited by ,j4 ,zupitza 7#ahge-ahgf7 for the ,e4,e4,t4,s4 from ,cambridge ,university ,lib4 ,paper ,,ms4 ,ff4 #b1 #ch1 and again 7#c pts4 #ahhc-ahia1 extra series1 ,nos4 #db1 #di1 #ei71 from the ,auchinleck and ,caius ,college ,,mss4 ,the popularity of the legend is shown by the numerous versions in ,english3 ,guy of ,warwick1 translated from the ,latin of ,girardus ,cornubiensis 7fl4 #acej7 into ,english verse by ,john ,lydgate between #addb and #adfh2 ,guy of ,warwick1 a poem 7written in #afag and licensed1 but not printed7 by ,john ,lane1 the ,,ms4 of which 7,brit4 ,mus47 contains a sonnet by ,john ,milton1 father of the poet2 ,the ,famous ,historie of ,guy1 ,earl of ,warwick 7c4 #afjg71 by ,samuel ,rowlands2 ,the ,booke of the ,moste ,victoryous ,prince ,guy of ,warwicke 7,william ,copland1 no date72 other editions by ,j4 ,cawood and ,c4 ,bates2 chapbooks and ballads of the #agth and #ahth centuries3 ,the ,tragical ,history1 ,admirable ,achievements and ,curious ,events of ,guy1 ,earl of ,warwick1 a tragedy 7#affa7 which may possibly be identical with a play on the subject ,written by ,john ,day and ,thomas ,dekker1 and entered at ,stationers' ,hall on the #aeth of ,january #afah_/ai2 three verse fragments are printed by ,hales and ,furnivall in their edition of the ,percy ,folio ,,ms4 vol4 ii42 an early ,french ,,ms4 is described by ,j4 ,a4 ,herbert 7,an ,early ,,ms4 of ,gui de ,warwick1 ,london1 #aije74 ,see also ,m4 ,weyrauch ,die mittelengl4 ,fassungen der ,sage von ,guy 7#b pts41 ,breslau1 #ahii and #aija72 ,j4 ,zupitza in ,silzungsber4 d4 phil4-hist4 ,kl4 d4 kgl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 7vol4 lxxiv41 ,vienna1 #ahgd71 and ,zur ,literaturgeschichte des ,guy von ,warwick 7,vienna1 #ahgc72 a learned discussion of the whole subject by ,h4 ,l4 ,ward1 ,catalogue of ,romances 7i4 #dga-eja1 #ahhc72 and an article by ,s4 ,l4 ,lee in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,some writers have supposed that the fight with ,colbrand symbolizes the victory of ,brunanburh4 ,anelaph and ,gonelaph would then represent the cousins ,anlaf ,sihtricson and ,anlaf ,godfreyson 7see ,,havelok74 #b ,see the ,english legends in ,c4 ,horstmann1 ,altenglische ,legenden1 ,neue ,folge 7,heilbronn1 #ahha74 ,,guy1 ,,thomas 7#afdd-agbd71 founder of ,guy's ,hospital1 ,london1 was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at ,southwark4 ,after serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a bookseller1 he in #affh began business on his own account4 ,he dealt largely in ,bibles1 which had for many years been poorly and incorrectly printed in ,england4 ,these he at first imported from ,holland1 but subsequently obtained from the university of ,oxford the privilege of printing4 ,thus1 and by an extremely thrifty mode of life1 and more particularly by investment in government securities1 the subscription of these into the ,south ,sea ,company1 and the subsequent sale of his stock in #agbj1 he became master of an immense fortune4 ,he died unmarried on the #agth of ,december #agbd4 ,in #agjg he built three wards of ,st ,thomas's ,hospital1 which institution he otherwise subsequently benefited2 and at a cost of ,l#ah1gic1 #afs4 he erected ,guy's ,hospital1 leaving for its endowment ,l#bai1dii2 he also endowed ,christ's ,hospital with ,l#djj a year1 and in #afgh endowed almshouses at ,tamworth1 his mother's birthplace1 which was represented by him in parliament from #afie to #agjg4 ,the residue of his estate1 which went to distant relatives1 amounted to about ,l#hj1jjj4 ,see ,a ,true ,copy of the ,last ,will and ,testament of ,thomas ,guy1 ,esq4 7,london1 #agbe72 ,j4 ,noorthouck1 ,a ,new ,hist4 of ,london1 bk4 iii4 ch4 i4 p4 #fhd 7#aggc72 ,nichols1 ,literary ,anecdotes1 iii4 #eii 7#ahab72 ,charles ,knight1 ,shadows of the ,old ,booksellers1 pp4 #c-bc 7#ahfe72 and ,a ,biographical ,history of ,guy's ,hospital1 by ,s4 ,wilkes and ,g4 ,t4 ,bettany 7#ahib74 ,,guyon1 ,,jeanne ,,marie ,,bouvier ,,de ,,la ,,mothe 7#afdh-agag71 ,french quietist writer1 was born at ,montargis1 where her family were persons of consequence1 on the #acth of ,april #afdh4 ,if her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be trusted she was much neglected in her youth2 most of her time was spent as a boarder in various convent schools4 ,here she went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic young women2 these were turned in a definitely mystical direction by the duchesse de ,bethune1 daughter of the disgraced minister1 ,fouquet1 who spent some years at ,montargis after her father's fall4 ,in #affd ,jeanne ,marie was married to a rich invalid of the name of ,guyon1 many years her senior4 ,twelve years later he died1 leaving his widow with three small children and a considerable fortune4 ,all through her unhappy married life the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence2 it now attached itself to a certain ,father ,lacombe1 a ,barnabite monk of weak character and unstable intellect4 ,in #afha she left her family and joined him2 for five years the two rambled about together in ,savoy and the south-east of ,france1 spreading their mystical ideas4 ,at last they excited the suspicion of the authorities2 in #afhf ,lacombe was recalled to ,paris1 put under surveillance1 and finally sent to the ,bastille in the autumn of #afhg4 ,he was presently transferred to the castle of ,lourdes1 where he developed softening of the brain and died in #agae4 ,meanwhile ,madame ,guyon had been arrested in ,january #afhh1 and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic4 ,thence she was delivered in the following year by her old friend1 the duchesse de ,bethune1 who had returned from exile to become a power in the devout court-circle presided over by ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,before long ,madame ,guyon herself was introduced into this pious assemblage4 ,its members were far from critical2 they were intensely interested in religion2 and even ,madame ,guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner1 her imposing appearance1 and the force and eloquence with which she explained her mystical ideas4 ,so much was ,madame de ,maintenon impressed1 that she often invited ,madame ,guyon to give lectures at her girls' school of ,st ,cyr4 ,but by far the greatest of her conquests was ,fenelon1 now a rising young director of consciences1 much in favour with aristocratic ladies4 ,dissatisfied with the formalism of average ,catholic piety1 he was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own2 and between #afhi and #afic they corresponded regularly4 ,but as soon as ugly reports about ,lacombe began to spread1 he broke off all connexion with her4 ,meanwhile the reports had reached the prudent ears of ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,in ,may #afic she asked ,madame ,guyon to go no more to ,st ,cyr4 ,in the hope of clearing her orthodoxy1 ,madame ,guyon appealed to ,bossuet1 who decided that her books contained much that was intolerable1 alike in form and matter4 ,to this judgment ,madame ,guyon submitted1 promised to dogmatize no more1 and disappeared into the country 7#afic74 ,in the next year she again petitioned for an inquiry1 and was eventually sent1 half as a prisoner1 half as a penitent1 to ,bossuet's cathedral town of ,meaux4 ,here she spent the first half of #afie2 but in the summer she escaped without his leave1 bearing with her a certificate of orthodoxy signed by him4 ,bossuet regarded this flight as a gross act of disobedience2 in the winter ,madame ,guyon was arrested and shut up in the ,bastille4 ,there she remained till #agjc4 ,in that year she was liberated1 on condition she went to live on her son's estate near ,blois1 under the eye of a stern bishop4 ,here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious exercises2 she died on the #ith of ,june #agag4 ,during these latter years her retreat at ,blois became a regular place of pilgrimage for admirers1 foreign quite as often as ,french4 ,indeed1 she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has stood highest out of their own country4 ,french critics of all schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical degenerate2 in ,england and ,germany she has as often roused enthusiastic admiration4 ,,authorities4--,vie de ,madame ,guyon1 ecrite par elle-meme 7really a compilation made from various fragments7 7#c vols41 ,paris1 #agia74 ,there is a life in ,english by ,t4 ,c4 ,upham 7,new ,york1 #ahed72 and an elaborate study by ,l4 ,guerrier 7,paris1 #ahha74 ,for a remarkable review of this latter work see ,brunetiere1 ,nouvelles ,etudes critiques1 vol4 ii4 ,the complete edition of ,madame ,guyon's works1 including the autobiography and five volumes of letters1 runs to forty volumes 7#agfg-agia72 the most important works are published separately1 ,opuscules spirituels 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #agij74 ,they have been several times translated into ,english4 ,see also the literature of the article on ,,quietism2 and ,h4 ,delacroix1 ,etudes sur le mysticisme 7,paris1 #aijh74 7,st ,c47 ,,guyon1 ,,richard ,,debaufre 7#ahjc-ahef71 ,british soldier1 general in the ,hungarian revolutionary army and ,turkish pasha1 was born at ,walcot1 near ,bath1 in #ahjc4 ,after receiving a military education in ,england and in ,austria he entered the ,hungarian hussars in #ahbc1 in which he served until after his marriage with a daughter of ,baron ,spleny1 a general officer in the imperial service4 ,at the outbreak of the ,hungarian ,war in #ahdh1 he re-entered active service as an officer of the ,hungarian ,honveds1 and he won great distinction in the action of ,sukoro 7,september #bi1 #ahdh7 and the battle of ,schwechat 7,october #cj74 ,he added to his reputation as a leader in various actions in the winter of #ahdh-ahdi1 and after the battle of ,kapolna was made a general officer4 ,he served in important and sometimes independent commands to the end of the war1 after which he escaped to ,turkey4 ,in #aheb he entered the service of the sultan4 ,he was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being required to change his faith1 and rendered distinguished service in the campaign against the ,russians in ,asia ,minor 7#ahed-ee74 ,general ,guyon died of cholera at ,scutari on the #abth of ,october #ahef4 ,see ,a4 ,w4 ,kinglake1 ,the ,patriot and the ,hero ,general ,guyon 7#ahef74 ,,guyot1 ,,arnold ,,henry 7#ahjg-ahhd71 ,swiss-,american geologist and geographer1 was born at ,boudevilliers1 near ,neuchatel1 ,switzerland1 on the #bhth of ,september #ahjg4 ,he studied at the college of ,neuchatel and in ,germany1 where he began a lifelong friendship with ,louis ,agassiz4 ,he was professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived ,neuchatel ,academy from #ahci to #ahdh1 when he removed1 at ,agassiz's instance1 to the ,united ,states1 settling in ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts4 ,for several years he was a lecturer for the ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,education1 and he was professor of geology and physical geography at ,princeton from #ahed until his death there on the #hth of ,february #ahhd4 ,he ranked high as a geologist and meteorologist4 ,as early as #ahch1 he undertook1 at ,agassiz's suggestion1 the study of glaciers1 and was the first to announce1 in a paper submitted to the ,geological ,society of ,france1 certain important observations relating to glacial motion and structure4 ,among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the centre than of the sides1 and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom of glaciers2 described the laminated or ribboned structure of the glacial ice1 and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de ,saussure4 ,he subsequently collected important data concerning erratic boulders4 ,his extensive meteorological observations in ,america led to the establishment of the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau1 and his ,meteorological and ,physical ,tables 7#aheb1 revised ed4 #ahhd7 were long standard4 ,his graded series of text-books and wall-maps were important aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in ,america4 ,in addition to text-books1 his principal publications were3 ,earth and ,man1 ,lectures on ,comparative ,physical ,geography in its ,relation to the ,history of ,mankind 7translated by ,professor ,c4 ,c4 ,felton1 #ahdi72 ,a ,memoir of ,louis ,agassiz 7#ahhc72 and ,creation1 or the ,biblical ,cosmogony in the ,light of ,modern ,science 7#ahhd74 ,see ,james ,d4 ,dana's ,memoir in the ,biographical ,memoirs of the ,national ,academy of ,science1 vol4 ii4 7,washington1 #ahhf74 ,,guyot1 ,,yves 7#ahdc- 71 ,french politician and economist1 was born at ,dinan on the #fth of ,september #ahdc4 ,educated at ,rennes1 he took up the profession of journalism1 coming to ,paris in #ahfg4 ,he was for a short period editor-in-chief of ,l',independant du midi of ,nimes1 but joined the staff of ,la ,rappel on its foundation1 and worked subsequently on other journals4 ,he took an active part in municipal life1 and waged a keen campaign against the prefecture of police1 for which he suffered six months' imprisonment4 ,he entered the chamber of deputies in #ahhe as representative of the first arrondissement of ,paris and was rapporteur general of the budget of #ahhh4 ,he became minister of public works under the premiership of ,p4 ,e4 ,tirard in #ahhi1 retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of ,c4 ,l4 de ,freycinet until #ahib4 ,although of strong liberal views1 he lost his seat in the election of #ahic owing to his militant attitude against socialism4 ,an uncompromising free-trader1 he published ,la ,comedie protectionniste 7#aije2 ,eng4 trans4 ,the ,comedy of ,protection72 ,la ,science economique 7#ast ed4 #ahha2 #crd ed4 #aijg72 ,la ,prostitution 7#ahhb72 ,la ,tyrannie socialiste 7#ahic71 all three translated into ,english2 ,les ,conflits du travail et leur solution 7#aijc72 ,la ,democratie individualiste 7#aijg74 ,,guyton ,,de ,,morveau1 ,,louis ,,bernard1 ,,baron 7#agcg-ahaf71 ,french chemist1 was born on the #dth of ,january #agcg1 at ,dijon1 where his father was professor of civil law at the university4 ,as a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical mechanics1 but on leaving school he studied law in the university of ,dijon1 and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general in the parlement of ,dijon4 ,this office he held till #aghb4 ,devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry1 he published in #aggb his ,digressions academiques1 in which he set forth his views on phlogiston1 crystallization1 c41 and two years later he established in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica1 mineralogy and chemistry4 ,an essay on chemical nomenclature1 which he published in the ,journal de physique for ,may #aghb1 was ultimately developed with the aid of ,a4 ,l4 ,lavoisier1 ,c4 ,l4 ,berthollet and ,a4 ,f4 ,fourcroy1 into the ,methode d'une nomenclature chimique1 published in #aghg1 the principles of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout ,europe4 ,constantly in communication with the leaders of the ,lavoisierian school1 he soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine2 and he published his reasons in the first volume of the section ,chymie1 ,pharmacie et ,metallurgie of the ,encyclopedie methodique 7#aghf71 the chemical articles in which were written by him1 as well as some of those in the second volume 7#agib74 ,in #agid he was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for military purposes1 being known as the author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at ,dijon some ten years previously4 ,in #agia he became a member of the ,legislative ,assembly1 and in the following year of the ,national ,convention1 to which he was re-elected in #agie1 but he retired from political life in #agig4 ,in #agih he acted as provisional director of the ,polytechnic ,school1 in the foundation of which he took an active part1 and from #ahjj to #ahad he held the appointment of master of the mint4 ,in #ahaa he was made a baron of the ,french ,empire4 ,he died in ,paris on the #bnd of ,january #ahaf4 ,besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of the day1 ,guyton wrote ,memoire sur l'education publique 7#agfb72 a satirical poem entitled ,le ,rat iconoclaste1 ou le ,jesuite croque 7#agfc72 ,discours publics et eloges 7#agge-aghb72 ,plaidoyers sur plusieurs questions de droit 7#aghe72 and ,traite des moyens de desinfecter l'air 7#ahja71 describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine1 and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at ,dijon in #aggc4 ,with ,hugues ,maret 7#agbf-aghe7 and ,jean ,francois ,durande 7d4 #agid7 he also published the ,elemens de chymie theorique et pratique 7#aggf-aggg74 ,,guzmics1 ,,izidor 7#aghf-ahci74 ,hungarian theologian1 was born on the #gth of ,april #aghf at ,vamos-,csalad1 in the county of ,sopron4 ,at ,sopron 7,oedenburg7 he was instructed in the art of poetry by ,paul ,horvath4 ,in ,october #ahje he entered the ,benedictine order1 but left it in ,august of the following year1 only again to assume the monastic garb on the #ajth of ,november #ahjf4 ,at the monastery of ,pannonhegy he applied himself to the study of ,greek under ,farkas ,toth and in #ahab he was sent to ,pesth to study theology4 ,here he read the best ,german and ,hungarian authors1 and took part in the editorship of the ,nemzeti 7,national7 ,plutarkus1 and in the translation of ,johann ,hubner's ,lexicon4 ,on obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity in #ahaf1 he returned to ,pannonhegy1 where he devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature1 and contributed largely to ,hungarian periodicals4 ,the most important of his theological works are3 ,a kath4 anyaszentegyhaznak hitbeli tanitasa 7,the ,doctrinal ,teaching of the ,holy ,catholic ,church71 and ,a keresztenyeknek vallasbeli egyesulesokrol 7,on ,religious ,unity among ,christians71 both published at ,pesth in #ahbb2 also a ,latin treatise entitled ,theologia ,christiana fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica 7#d vols41 ,gyor1 #ahbh-ahbi74 ,his translation of ,theocritus in hexameters was published in #ahbd4 ,his versions of the ,oedipus of ,sophocles and of the ,iphigenia of ,euripides were rewarded by the ,hungarian ,academy1 of which in #ahch he was elected honorary member4 ,in #ahcb he was appointed abbot of the wealthy ,benedictine house at ,bakonybel1 a village in the county of ,veszprem4 ,there he built an asylum for #aej children1 and founded a school of harmony and singing4 ,he died on the #ast of ,september #ahci4 ,,gwadar1 a port on the ,makran coast of ,baluchistan1 about #bij m4 ,w4 of ,karachi4 ,pop4 7#aijc71 #dcej4 ,in the last half of the #ahth century it was handed over by the khan of ,kalat to the sultan of ,muscat1 who still exercises sovereignty over the port1 together with about #cjj sq4 m4 of the adjoining country4 ,it is a place of call for the steamers of the ,british ,india ,navigation ,company4 ,,gwalior1 a native state of ,india1 in the ,central ,india agency1 by far the largest of the numerous principalities comprised in that area4 ,it is the dominion of the ,sindhia family4 ,the state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly be called the northern and the southern4 ,the former is a compact mass of territory1 bounded ,n4 and ,n4,w4 by the ,chambal river1 which separates it from the ,british districts of ,agra and ,etawah1 and the native states of ,dholpur1 ,karauli and ,jaipur of ,rajputana2 ,e4 by the ,british districts of ,jalaun1 ,jhansi1 ,lalitpur and ,saugor2 ,s4 by the states of ,bhopal1 ,tonk1 ,khilchipur and ,rajgarh2 and ,w4 by those of ,jhalawar1 ,tonk and ,kotah of ,rajputana4 ,the southern1 or ,malwa1 portion is made up of detached or semi-detached districts1 between which are interposed parts of other states1 which again are mixed up with each other in bewildering intricacy4 ,the two portions together have a total area of #be1jda sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #b1icc1jja1 showing a decrease of #ac in the decade4 ,the state may be naturally divided into plain1 plateau and hilly country4 ,the plain country extends from the ,chambal river in the extreme southwards for about #hj m41 with a maximum width from east to west of about #abj m4 ,this plain1 though broken in its southern portion by low hills1 has generally an elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level4 ,in the summer season the climate is very hot1 the shade temperature rising frequently to #aab deg4 ,f41 but in the winter months 7from ,november to ,february inclusive7 it is usually temperate and for short periods extremely cold4 ,the average rainfall is #cj in41 but the period #ahia-aija was a decade of low rainfall1 and distress was caused by famine4 ,south of this tract there is a gradual ascent to the ,central ,india plateau1 and at ,sipri the general level is #aejj ft4 above the sea4 ,on this plateau lies the remainder of the state1 with the exception of the small district of ,amjhera in the extreme south4 ,the elevation of this region gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared with the plain country1 while the winter is warmer and more equable4 ,the average rainfall is #bh in4 ,the remaining portion of the state1 classed as hilly1 comprises only the small district of ,amjhera4 ,this is known as the ,bhil country1 and lies among the ,vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about #ahjj ft4 ,the rainfall averages #bc in4 ,in the two years #ahii and #aijj the monsoon was very weak1 the result being a severe famine which caused great mortality among the ,bhil population4 ,of these three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile soil1 generally of the kind known as black cotton1 but the low-lying plain has the densest population4 ,the state is watered by numerous rivers4 ,the ,nerbudda1 flowing west1 forms the southern boundary4 ,the greater part of the drainage is discharged into the ,chambal1 which forms the north-western and northern and eastern boundary4 ,the ,sind1 with its tributaries the ,kuwari1 ,asar and ,sankh1 flows through the northern division4 ,the chief products are wheat1 millets1 pulses of various kinds1 maize1 rice1 linseed and other oil-seeds2 poppy1 yielding the ,malwa opium2 sugar-cane1 cotton1 tobacco1 indigo1 garlic1 turmeric and ginger4 ,about #fj of the population are employed in agricultural and only #ae in industrial occupations1 the great majority of the latter being home workers4 ,there is a leather-factory at ,morar2 cotton-presses at ,morena1 ,baghana and ,ujjain2 ginning factories at ,agar1 ,nalkhera1 ,shajapur and ,sonkach2 and a cotton-mill at ,ujjain4 ,the cotton industry alone shows possibilities of considerable development1 there being #ee1jjj persons engaged in it at the time of the census of #aija4 ,the population is composed of many elements1 among which ,brahmans and ,rajputs are specially numerous4 ,the prevailing religion is ,hinduism1 #hd of the people being ,hindus and only #f ,mahommedans4 ,the revenue of the state is about one million sterling2 and large reserves have been accumulated1 from which two millions were lent to the government of ,india in #ahhg1 and later on another million for the construction of the ,gwalior-,agra and ,indore-,neemuch railways4 ,the railways undertaken by the state are3 7#a7 from ,bina on the ,indian ,midland to ,goona2 7#b7 an extension of this line to ,baran1 opened in #ahii2 7#c7 from ,bhopal to ,ujjain2 7#d7 two light railways1 from ,gwalior to ,sipri and ,gwalior to ,bhind1 which were opened by the viceroy in ,november #ahii4 ,on the same occasion the viceroy opened the ,victoria ,college1 founded to commemorate the ,diamond ,jubilee2 and the ,memorial ,hospital1 built in memory of the maharaja's father4 ,british currency has been introduced instead of ,chandori rupees1 which were much depreciated4 ,the state maintains three regiments of ,imperial ,service cavalry1 two battalions of infantry and a transport corps4 ,history4--,the ,sindhia family1 the rulers of the ,gwalior state1 belong to the ,mahratta nation and originally came from the neighbourhood of ,poona4 ,their first appearance in ,central ,india was early in the #ahth century in the person of ,ranoji 7d4 #agde71 a scion of an impoverished branch of the family1 who began his career as the peshwa's slipper-carrier and rose by his military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard4 ,in #agbf1 together with ,malhar ,rao ,holkar1 the founder of the house of ,indore1 he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute 7chauth7 in the ,malwa districts4 ,he established his headquarters at ,ujjain1 which thus became the first capital of ,sindhia's dominions4 ,ranoji's son and successor1 ,jayapa ,sindhia1 was killed at ,nagaur in #agei1 and was in his turn succeeded by his son ,jankoji ,sindhia4 ,but the real founder of the state of ,gwalior was ,mahadji ,sindhia1 a natural son of ,ranoji1 who1 after narrowly escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of ,panipat in #agfa 7when ,jankoji was killed71 obtained with some difficulty from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions in ,central ,india 7#agfi74 ,during the struggle which followed the death of ,madhu ,rao ,peshwa in #aggb ,mahadji seized every occasion for extending his power and possessions4 ,in #agge1 however1 when ,raghuba ,peshwa threw himself on the protection of the ,british1 the reverses which ,mahadji encountered at their hands--,gwalior being taken by ,major ,popham in #aghj--opened his eyes to their power4 ,by the treaty of ,salbai 7#aghb7 it was agreed that ,mahadji should withdraw to ,ujjain1 and the ,british retire north of the ,jumna4 ,mahadji1 who undertook to open negotiations with the other belligerents1 was recognized as an independent ruler1 and a ,british resident was established at his court4 ,mahadji1 aided by the ,british policy of neutrality1 now set to work to establish his supremacy over ,hindustan proper4 ,realizing the superiority of ,european methods of warfare1 he availed himself of the services of a ,savoyard soldier of fortune1 ,benoit de ,boigne1 whose genius for military organization and command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing the ,mahratta power4 ,mahadji's disciplined troops made him invincible4 ,in #aghe he re-established ,shah ,alam on the imperial throne at ,delhi1 and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the title of vakil-ul-mutlak or vicegerent of the empire1 contenting himself with that of his deputy4 ,in #aghh he took advantage of the cruelties practised by ,ghulam ,kadir on ,shah ,alam1 to occupy ,delhi1 where he established himself as the protector of the aged emperor4 ,though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he was now ruler of a vast territory1 including the greater part of ,central ,india and ,hindustan proper1 while his lieutenants exacted tribute from the chiefs of ,rajputana4 ,there can be no doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of the ,british2 but he wisely avoided any serious collision with them4 ,mahadji died in #agid1 and was succeeded by his adopted son1 ,daulat ,rao ,sindhia1 a grandson of his brother ,tukoji4 ,when1 during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the peshwa1 ,madhu ,rao ,,ii41 in #agie and of ,tukoji ,holkar in #agig1 the ,mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy1 the peshwa1 ,baji ,rao ,,ii41 the titular head of the ,mahratta confederation1 fled from his capital and placed himself under ,british protection by the treaty of ,bassein 7,december #ca1 #ahjb74 ,this interposition of the ,british government was resented by the confederacy1 and it brought on the ,mahratta ,war of #ahjc4 ,in the campaign that followed a combined ,mahratta army1 in which ,daulat ,rao's troops furnished the largest contingent1 was defeated by ,general ,arthur ,wellesley at ,assaye and ,argaum in ,central ,india2 and ,lord ,lake routed ,daulat ,rao's ,european-trained battalions in ,northern ,india at ,agra1 ,aligarh and ,laswari4 ,daulat ,rao was then compelled to sign the treaty of ,sarji ,anjangaon 7,december #cj1 #ahjc71 which stripped him of his territories between the ,jumna and ,ganges1 the district of ,broach in ,gujarat and other lands in the south4 ,by the same treaty he was deprived of the forts of ,gwalior and ,gohad2 but these were restored by ,lord ,cornwallis in #ahje1 when the ,chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state4 ,by a treaty signed at ,burhanpur in #ahjc ,daulat ,rao further agreed to maintain a subsidiary force1 to be paid out of the revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of ,sarji ,anjangaon4 ,when1 however1 in #ahaf he was called upon to assist in the suppression of the ,pindaris1 though by the treaty of ,gwalior 7#ahag7 he promised his co-operation1 his conduct was so equivocal that in #ahah he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by which he ceded ,ajmere and other lands4 ,daulat ,rao died without issue in #ahbg1 and his widow1 ,baiza ,bai 7d4 #ahfb71 adopted ,mukut ,rao1 a boy of eleven belonging to a distant branch of the family1 who succeeded as ,jankoji ,rao ,sindhia4 ,his rule was weak2 the state was distracted by interminable palace intrigues and military mutinies1 and affairs went from bad to worse when1 in #ahdc1 ,jankoji ,rao1 who left no heir1 was succeeded by another boy1 adopted by his widow1 ,tara ,bai1 under the name of ,jayaji ,rao ,sindhia4 ,the growth of turbulence and misrule now induced ,lord ,ellenborough to interpose1 and a ,british force under ,sir ,hugh ,gough advanced upon ,gwalior 7,december #ahdc74 ,the ,mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously at ,maharajpur and ,punniar 7,december #bi71 with the result that the ,gwalior government signed a treaty ceding territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a contingent force to be stationed at the capital1 and limiting the future strength of the ,gwalior army1 while a council of regency was appointed during the minority to act under the resident's advice4 ,in #aheg the ,gwalior contingent joined the mutineers2 but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the ,british1 and fled from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority restored by ,sir ,hugh ,rose 7,lord ,strathnairn7 on the #aith of ,june #aheh4 ,he was rewarded with the districts of ,neemuch and ,amjhera1 but ,gwalior fort was occupied by ,british troops and was only restored to his son in #ahhf by ,lord ,dufferin4 ,jayaji ,rao1 who died in #ahhf1 did much for the development of his state4 ,he was created a ,g4,c4,s4,i in #ahfa1 and subsequently became a counsellor of the empress1 a ,g4,c4,b4 and ,c4,i4,e4 ,his son1 the maharaja1 ,madhava ,rao ,sindhia1 ,g4,c4,s4,i41 was born in #ahgg4 ,during his minority the state was administered for eight years by a council of regency4 ,he was entrusted with ruling powers in #ahid1 and in all respects continued the reforming policy of the council1 while paying personal attention to every department1 being a keen soldier1 an energetic administrator1 and fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position4 ,he was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and an honorary colonel in the ,british army4 ,he went to ,china as orderly officer to ,general ,gaselee in #aija1 and provided the expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense1 while his ,imperial ,service ,transport ,corps proved a useful auxiliary to the ,british army in the ,chitral and ,tirah expeditions4 ,the ,,city ,,of ,,gwalior is #gf m4 by rail ,s4 of ,agra1 and had a population in #aija of #aai1dcc4 ,this total includes the new town of ,lashkar or the ,camp which is the modern capital of the state and old ,gwalior4 ,the old town has a threefold interest3 first as a very ancient seat of ,jain worship2 secondly for its example of palace architecture of the best ,hindu period 7#adhf-aeaf72 and thirdly as an historic fortress4 ,there are several remarkable ,hindu temples within the fort4 ,one1 known as the ,sas ,bahu1 is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs4 ,it was finished in ,a4,d4 #ajic1 and1 though much dilapidated1 still forms a most picturesque fragment4 ,an older ,jain temple has been used as a mosque4 ,another temple in the fortress of ,gwalior is called the ,teli-,mandir1 or ,oilman's ,temple4 ,this building was originally dedicated to ,vishnu1 but afterwards converted to the worship of ,siva4 ,the most striking part of the ,jain remains at ,gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures1 excavated in the rock on all sides1 and numbering nearly a hundred1 great and small4 ,most of them are mere niches to contain statues1 though some are cells that may have been originally intended for residences4 ,one curious fact regarding them is that1 according to inscriptions1 they were all excavated within the short period of about thirty-three years1 between #adda and #adgd4 ,some of the figures are of colossal size2 one1 for instance1 is #eg ft4 high1 which is taller than any other in northern ,india4 ,the palace built by ,man ,singh 7#adhf-aeaf7 forms the most interesting example of early ,hindu work of its class in ,india4 ,another palace of even greater extent was added to this in #aeaf2 both ,jehangir and ,shah ,jahan added palaces to these two--the whole making a group of edifices unequalled for picturesqueness and interest by anything of their class in ,central ,india4 ,among the apartments in the palace was the celebrated chamber1 named the ,baradari1 supported on #ab columns1 and #de ft4 square1 with a stone roof1 forming one of the most beautiful palace-halls in the world4 ,it was1 besides1 singularly interesting from the expedients to which the ,hindu architect was forced to resort to imitate the vaults of the ,moslems4 ,of the buildings1 however1 which so excited the admiration of the emperor ,baber1 probably little now remains4 ,the fort of ,gwalior1 within which the above buildings are situated1 stands on an isolated rock4 ,the face is perpendicular and where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been scarped4 ,its greatest length from north-east to south-west is a mile and a half1 and the greatest breadth #ijj yds4 ,the rock attains its maximum height of #cdb ft4 at the northern end4 ,a rampart1 accessible by a steep road1 and farther up by huge steps cut out of the rock1 surrounds the fort4 ,the citadel stands at the north-eastern corner of the enclosure1 and presents a very picturesque appearance4 ,the old town of ,gwalior1 which is of considerable size1 but irregularly built1 and extremely dirty1 lies at the eastern base of the rock4 ,it contains the tomb of ,mahommed ,ghaus1 erected during the early part of ,akbar's reign4 ,the fort of ,gwalior was traditionally built by one ,surya ,sen1 the raja of the neighbouring country4 ,in #aaif ,gwalior was captured by ,mahommed ,ghori2 it then passed into the hands of several chiefs until in #aeei ,akbar gained possession of it1 and made it a state prison for captives of rank4 ,on the dismemberment of the ,delhi empire1 ,gwalior was seized by the ,jat rana of ,gohad4 ,subsequently it was garrisoned by ,sindhia1 from whom it was wrested in #aghj by the forces of the ,east ,india ,company1 and to whom it was finally restored by the ,british in #ahhf4 ,the modern town contains the palace of the chief1 a college1 a high school1 a girls' school1 a service school to train officials1 a law school1 hospitals for men and for women1 a museum1 paper-mills1 and a printing-press issuing a state gazette4 ,,gwalior ,,residency1 an administrative unit in the ,central ,india agency1 comprises ,gwalior state and eleven smaller states and estates4 ,its total area is #ag1hbe sq4 m41 and its population in #aija was #b1ahg1fab4 ,of the area1 #ag1jbj sq4 m4 belong to ,gwalior ,state1 and the agency also includes the small states of ,raghugarh1 ,khaniadhana1 ,paron1 ,garha1 ,umri and ,bhadaura1 with the ,chhabra pargana of ,tonk4 ,,gweedore1 a hamlet and tourist resort of ,co4 ,donegal1 ,ireland1 on the ,londonderry ,lough ,swilly ,letterkenny railway4 ,the river ,clady1 running past the village from the ,nacung ,loughs1 affords salmon and trout fishing4 ,the fine surrounding scenery culminates to the east in the wild mountain ,errigal 7#bdff ft47 at the upper end of the loughs4 ,the place owes its popularity as a resort to ,lord ,george ,hill 7d4 #ahgi71 who also laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry on his estate1 and combated the ,rundale system of minute repartition of property4 ,in #ahhi1 during the troubles which arose out of evictions1 ,gweedore was the headquarters of the ,irish constabulary1 when ,district ,inspector ,martin was openly murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on his way to ,mass4 ,,gwilt1 ,,joseph 7#aghd-ahfc71 ,english architect and writer1 was the younger son of ,george ,gwilt1 architect surveyor to the county of ,surrey1 and was born at ,southwark on the #aath of ,january #aghd4 ,he was educated at ,st ,paul's school1 and after a short course of instruction in his father's office was in #ahja admitted a student of the ,royal ,academy1 where in the same year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and steeple of ,st ,dunstan-in-the-,east4 ,in #ahaa he published a ,treatise on the ,equilibrium of ,arches1 and in #ahae he was elected ,f4,s4,a4 ,after a visit to ,italy in #ahaf1 he published in #ahah ,notitia architectonica italiana1 or ,concise ,notices of the ,buildings and ,architects of ,italy4 ,in #ahbe he published an edition of ,sir ,william ,chambers's ,treatise on ,civil ,architecture2 and among his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession are a translation of the ,architecture of ,vitruvius 7#ahbf71 a ,treatise on the ,rudiments of ,architecture1 ,practical and ,theoretical 7#ahbf71 and his valuable ,encyclopaedia of ,architecture 7#ahdb71 which was published with additions by ,wyatt ,papworth in #ahfg4 ,in recognition of ,gwilt's advocacy of the importance to architects of a knowledge of mathematics1 he was in #ahcc elected a member of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society4 ,he took a special interest in philology and music1 and was the author of ,rudiments of the ,anglo-,saxon ,tongue 7#ahbi71 and of the article ,music in the ,encyclopaedia metropolitana4 ,his principal works as a practical architect were ,markree ,castle near ,sligo in ,ireland1 and ,st ,thomas's church at ,charlton in ,kent4 ,he died on the #adth of ,september #ahfc4 ,,gwyn1 ,,nell ,,eleanor 7#afej-afhg71 ,english actress1 and mistress of ,charles ,,ii41 was born on the #bnd of ,february #afej_/a1 probably in an alley off ,drury ,lane1 ,london1 although ,hereford also claims to have been her birthplace4 ,her father1 ,thomas ,gwyn1 appears to have been a broken-down soldier of a family of ,welsh origin4 ,of her mother little is known save that she lived for some time with her daughter1 and that in #afgi she was drowned1 apparently when intoxicated1 in a pond at ,chelsea4 ,nell ,gwyn1 who sold oranges in the precincts of ,drury ,lane ,theatre1 passed1 at the age of fifteen1 to the boards1 through the influence of the actor ,charles ,hart and of ,robert ,duncan or ,dungan1 an officer of the guards who had interest with the management4 ,her first recorded appearance on the stage was in #affe as ,cydaria1 ,montezuma's daughter1 in ,dryden's ,indian ,emperor1 a serious part ill-suited to her4 ,in the following year she was ,lady ,wealthy in the ,hon4 ,james ,howard's comedy ,the ,english ,monsieur4 ,pepys was delighted with the playing of pretty1 witty ,nell1 but when he saw her as ,florimel in ,dryden's ,secret ,love1 or the ,maiden ,queen1 he wrote so great a performance of a comical part was never1 ,i believe1 in the world before and1 so done by ,nell her merry part as cannot be better done in nature 7,diary1 ,march #be1 #affg74 ,her success brought her other leading roles--,bellario1 in ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,philaster2 ,flora1 in ,rhodes's ,flora's ,vagaries2 ,samira1 in ,sir ,robert ,howard's ,surprisal2 and she remained a member of the ,drury ,lane company until #affi1 playing continuously save for a brief absence in the summer of #affg when she lived at ,epsom as the mistress of ,lord ,buckhurst1 afterwards #fth earl of ,dorset 7q4v474 ,her last appearance was as ,almahide to the ,almanzor of ,hart1 in ,dryden's ,the ,conquest of ,granada 7#afgj71 the production of which had been postponed some months for her return to the stage after the birth of her first son by the king4 ,as an actress ,nell ,gwyn was largely indebted to ,dryden1 who seems to have made a special study of her airy1 irresponsible personality1 and who kept her supplied with parts which suited her4 ,she excelled in the delivery of the risky prologues and epilogues which were the fashion1 and the poet wrote for her some specially daring examples4 ,it was1 however1 as the mistress of ,charles ,,ii4 that she endeared herself to the public4 ,partly1 no doubt1 her popularity was due to the disgust inspired by her rival1 ,louise de ,keroualle1 duchess of ,portsmouth1 and to the fact that1 while the ,frenchwoman was a ,catholic1 she was a ,protestant4 ,but very largely it was the result of exactly those personal qualities that appealed to the monarch himself4 ,she was piquante rather than pretty1 short of stature1 and her chief beauty was her reddish-brown hair4 ,she was illiterate1 and with difficulty scrawled an awkward ,e4 ,g4 at the bottom of her letters1 written for her by others4 ,but her frank recklessness1 her generosity1 her invariable good temper1 her ready wit1 her infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living antithesis of ,puritanism4 ,a true child of the ,london streets1 she never pretended to be superior to what she was1 nor to interfere in matters outside the special sphere assigned her2 she made no ministers1 she appointed to no bishoprics1 and for the high issues of international politics she had no concern4 ,she never forgot her old friends1 and1 as far as is known1 remained faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their intimacy to his death1 and1 after his death1 to his memory4 ,of her two sons by the king1 the elder was created ,baron ,hedington and earl of ,burford and subsequently duke of ,st ,albans2 the younger1 ,james1 ,lord ,beauclerk1 died in #afhj1 while still a boy4 ,the king's death-bed request to his brother1 ,let not poor ,nelly starve1 was faithfully carried out by ,james ,,ii41 who paid her debts from the ,secret ,service fund1 provided her with other moneys1 and settled on her an estate with reversion to the duke of ,st ,albans4 ,but she did not long survive her lover's death4 ,she died in ,november #afhg1 and was buried on the #agth1 according to her own request1 in the church of ,st ,martin-in-the-,fields1 her funeral sermon being preached by the vicar1 ,thomas ,tenison1 afterwards archbishop of ,canterbury1 who said much to her praise4 ,tradition credits the foundation of ,chelsea ,hospital to her influence over the king4 ,see ,peter ,cunningham1 ,the ,story of ,nell ,gwyn1 edited by ,gordon ,goodwin 7#aijc72 ,waldron's edition of ,john ,downes's ,roscius ,anglicanus 7#aghi72 ,osmund ,airy1 ,charles ,,ii4 7#aijd72 ,pepys1 ,diary2 ,evelyn1 ,diary and ,correspondence2 ,origin and ,early ,history of the ,royal ,hospital at ,chelsea1 edited by ,major-,general ,g4 ,hutt 7#ahgb72 ,memoirs of the ,life of ,eleanor ,gwinn 7#ageb72 ,burnet1 ,history of ,my ,own ,time1 part i41 edited by ,osmund ,airy 7,oxford1 #ahig72 ,louise de ,keroualle1 ,duchess of ,portsmouth1 by ,h4 ,forneron1 translated by ,mrs ,crawford 7#ahhg74 ,,gwyniad1 the name given to a fish of the genus ,coregonus or ,white fish 7,c4 clupeoides71 inhabiting the large lakes of ,north ,wales and the north of ,england4 ,at ,ullswater it is known by the name of schelly1 at ,loch ,lomond by that of powen4 ,it is tolerably abundant in ,lake ,bala1 keeping to the deepest portion of the lake for the greater part of the year1 but appearing in shoals near the shores at certain seasons4 ,it is well flavoured1 like all the species of ,coregonus1 but scarcely attains to the weight of a pound4 ,the name gwyniad is a ,welsh word1 and signifies shining2 and it is singular that a similar fish in ,british ,columbia1 also belonging to the family of ,salmonoids1 is called by the natives quinnat1 from the silvery lustre of its scales1 the word having in their language the same meaning as the ,welsh gwyniad4