,,philosophies ,,anci5t ,,& ,,mod]n     
,,s*op5hau]     ,,note   ,z a consequ5ce
 ( ! success ( ! s]ies ( ,religions     
,anci5t & ,mod]n1 ,messrs4 ,,con/able h 
decid$ to issue a set ( simil> prim]s1 )
 brief introductions1 li/s ( dates1 &   
select$ au?orities1 pres5t+ to ! wid]   
public ! sali5t features ( !            
,philosophies ( ,greece & ,rome & ( !   
,middle ,ages1 z well z ( mod]n ,europe4
 ,!y w appe> 9 ! same h&y ,%ill+        
volumes1 ) neat clo? b9d+s & pap]       
envelopes1 :i* h prov$ s attractive 9 ! 
case ( ! ,religions4 ,! writ+ 9 ea* case
 w be confid$ to an em95t au?ority1 & "o
 :o has already prov$ himself capable ( 
s*ol>ly yet popul> exposition )9 a small
 compass4  ,among ! fir/ volumes to     
appe> w be3--    ,e>ly ,greek           
,philosophy4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,b5n1 au?or ( 
,! ,philosophy     ( ,greece1           
,rationalism 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4      
,/oicism4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,/4 ,,george   
,,/ock1 au?or ( ,d$uctive     ,logic1   
editor ( ! ,apology ( ,plato1 etc4      

,plato4 ,by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 
,/4 ,&rews ,univ]sity1 au?or     ( ,!   
,problem ( ,conduct4    ,s*ola/icism4   
,by ,fa!r ,,rickaby1 ,s4,j4    ,hobbes4 
,by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,e4 ,,taylor4         
,locke4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,alex&]1 ( ,ow5s 
,college4    ,comte & ,mill4 ,by ,t4    
,,:ittak]1 au?or ( ,! ,neoplatoni/s1    
,apollonius ( ,tyana & o!r ,essays4     
,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson1    
au?or ( ,an ,introduction to            
,sp5c]'s ,philosophy4    ,s*op5hau]4 ,by
 ,t4 ,,:ittak]4    ,b]keley4 ,by        
,pr(essor ,,campbell ,,fras]1 ,d4,c4,l41
 ,,ll4,d4    ,b]gs54 ,by ,fa!r          
,,tyrrell4     ,,s*op5hau]   ,by        
,,?omas ,,:ittak]  ,,au?or ,,( ',,comte 
,,& ,,mill1' ,,etc4   ,,london          
,,ar*ibald ,,con/able  ,,co ,,ltd  #aiji
     ,,cont5ts     ,,*ap4               
,,page    ,i4   ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s1    
#a   ,,ii4  ,,!ory ,,( ,,k1             
#ae   ,,iii4 ,,metaphysics ,,( ,,! ,,w1 
#bi   ,,iv4  ,,ae/hetics1               
#di   ,v4   ,,e?ics1                    

#fe   ,,vi4  ,,hi/orical ,,significance1
       #hf        ,,select$ ,,works1    
#ic     ,,s*op5hau]     ,,*apt] ,i      
,,life ,,& ,,writ+s   ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau] 
may be di/9ctively describ$ z ! greate/ 
philosophic writ] ( 8 c5tury4 ,s evid5t 
is ?is t he has sometimes be5 reg>d$ z  
hav+ m importance 9 lit]ature ?an 9     
philosophy2 b ?is is an error4 ,z a     
metaphysician he is second to no "o s9ce
 ,kant4 ,o!rs ( 8 age h surpass$ him 9  
sy/em & 9 compreh5siv5ess2 b no "o has  
_h a firm] grasp ( ! ess5tial &         
fundam5tal problems ( philosophy4 ,on ! 
!ory ( k1 ! nature ( reality1 & ! mean+ 
( ! beautiful & ! good1 he has solutions
 to (f] t are all results ( a *>act]i/ic
 & orig9al way ( ?9k+4  ,9 "o respect1 z
 critics h not$1 8 _s is diff]5t f t (  
,european philosophy 9 g5]al4 ,:at      
preoccupies him 9 a special way is ! "q 
( evil 9 ! _w4 ,l ! philosophies ( !    
,ea/1 em]g+ z !y d )\t break f religion1
 ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy is 9 its       
outcome a doctr9e ( r$emption f s94 ,!  

"n ( pessimism commonly appli$ to x is 9
 "s respects mislead+1 ?\gh x 0 8 own   
t]m2 b x is correct if und]/ood z he    
expla9$ x4 ,z he 0 accu/om$ to insi/1 8 
f9al e?ical doctr9e co9cides ) t ( all !
 religions t aim1 = _! adepts or _!     
elect1 at deliv]ance f '?is evil _w4'   
,b1 z ! '_w-flee+' religions h _!       
mitigations & accommodations1 s also has
 ! philosophy ( ,s*op5hau]4 ,at v>i\s   
po9ts inde$ x seems z if a m]e *ange (  
acc5t w\ld turn x into optimism4  ,?is  
preoccupation does n mean indiff]5ce to 
! !oretical problems ( philosophy4 ,no  
"o has insi/$ m /rongly t ! end (       
philosophy is pure tru?1 & t only ! few 
:o c>e ab\t pure tru? h any conc]n ) x4 
,b = ,s*op5hau] ! desire = speculative  
tru? does n by itself suffice to expla9 
! impulse ( philosophical inquiries4 ,on
 "o side ( 8 complex "*1 he _h m        
resemblance to ! m5 :o turn f ! _w to   
religion1 l ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ?an to !      
normal type ( ,european ?9k]1 repres5t$ 
pre-em95tly by ,ari/otle4 ,he 0 a       

temp]am5tal pessimi/1 feel+ f ! fir/ !  
tr\ble ( exi/5ce2 & "h he f9ds ! deepe/ 
motive = ! desire to become cle> ab\t x4
 ,he saw 9 ! _w1 :at he felt 9 himself1 
a va9 ef=t aft] ev] new objects ( desire
 :i* give no p]man5t satisfaction2 & ?is
 view1 becom+ pr$om9ant1 det]m9$1 n     
inde$ all ! ideas ( 8 philosophy1 b its 
g5]al complexion z a 'philosophy (      
r$emption4'  ,) 8 pessimism1 p]sonal    
mis=tunes _h no?+ to d4 ,he 01 & always 
recognis$ t he 01 among ! mo/ =tunately 
plac$ ( mank9d4 ,he does n hesitate to  
speak sometimes ( 8 own happ9ess 9      
complete fre$om f ! ne$ to apply himself
 to any compulsory occupation4 ,?is     
fre$om1 z he has put gratefully on      
record1 he ow$ to 8 fa!r1 ,he9ri*       
,floris ,s*op5hau]1 :o 0 a ri* m]*ant ( 
,danzig1 :]e ! philosoph] 0 born on !   
#bbnd ( ,febru>y #aghh4 ,bo? 8 p>5ts 7 (
 ,dut* ance/ry4 ,8 "m1 ,johanna         
,s*op5hau]1 won celebrity z a noveli/2 &
 8 si/]1 ,adele1 also display$ "s lit]>y
 tal5t4 ,g5]alis+ f 8 own case1         

,s*op5hau] holds t m5 ( intellig5ce     
d]ive _! "* f _! fa!r & _! intellect f  
_! "m4 ,) 8 "m1 h[ev]1 he 0 n on        
sympa!tic t]ms1 z may be read 9 !       
biographies4 ,8 fa!r int5d$ him = a     
m]cantile c>e]1 & ) ?is view began to   
prep>e him f ! fir/ to be a cosmopolitan
 man ( ! _w4 ,! "n ( ,ar?ur 0 giv5 to   
him because x is spelt alike 9 ! lead+  
,european languages4 ,he 0 tak5 e>ly to 
,france1 :]e he resid$ f #agig to #agii1
 le>n+ ,fr5* s well t on 8 return he _h 
almo/ =gott5 8 ,g]man4 ,portions ( !    
ye>s #ahjc to #ahjd 7 sp5t 9 ,engl&1    
,france1 ,switz]l&1 & ,au/ria4 ,9 ,engl&
 he 0 ?ree mon?s at a ,wimbl$on         
bo>d+-s*ool kept by a cl]gyman4 ,?is    
exp]i5ce he f\nd extremely irksome4 ,he 
aft]w>ds became highly pr(ici5t 9       
,engli%3 0 always pleas$ to be tak5 = an
 ,engli%man1 & reg>d$ bo? ! ,engli% "* &
 intellig5ce z on ! :ole ! fir/ 9       
,europe2 b all ! m deplorable did he f9d
 ! oppressive pietism :i* 0 ! special =m
 tak5 9 ! ,engl& ( t p]iod by ! reaction

 aga9/ ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,he is nev] 
tir$ ( d5\nc+ t phase ( 'cold           
sup]/ition1' ! dom9ance ( :i* la/$ dur+ 
8 lifetime2 = ! publication ( ,mill's   
,lib]ty & ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species1  
:i* may be consid]$ z m>k+ ! close ( x1 
came only ! ye> be=e 8 dea?4  ,! only   
real break 9 ! con=mity ( ,s*op5hau]'s  
circum/ances to 8 future c>e] came 9    
#ahje1 :5 he 0 plac$ 9 a m]*ant's (fice 
at ,hamburg1 :i!r 8 fa!r _h migrat$ 9   
disgu/ at ! annexation ( 8 native       
,danzig1 !n "u a republican con/itution 
( its own1 by ,prussia 9 #agic4 ,soon   
aft]w>ds 8 fa!r di$2 b out ( loyalty he 
tri$ = "s "t long] to reconcile himself 
to comm]cial life4 ,f9d+ ?is at l5g?    
impossible1 he ga9$ p]mission f 8 "m1 9 
#ahjg1 to leave ! (fice = ! gymnasium4  
,at ?is "t he seems to h begun 8        
classical /udies1 8 education hav+      
hi!rto be5 exclusively mod]n4 ,!y 7     
c>ri$ on fir/ at ,go?a & !n at ,weim>4  
,9 #ahji he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,goett+5
 z a /ud5t ( m$ic9e4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 ) a 

view only to sci5tific /udies1 n to     
practice2 & he transf]r$ himself to !   
philosophical faculty 9 #ahaj4 ,g5]ally 
he 0 little reg>dful ( academical       
au?ority4 ,8 fa!r's delib]ately adopt$  
plan ( lett+ him mix e>ly ) ! _w _h giv5
 him a c]ta9 indep5d5ce ( judgm5t4 ,at  
,goett+51 h[ev]1 he receiv$ an important
 influ5ce f 8 tea*]1 ,g4 ,e4 ,s*ulze    
7kn[n by ! reviv$ scepticism ( 8        
,a,enesidemus71 :o advis$ him to /udy   
,plato & ,kant be=e ,ari/otle & ,sp9oza4
 ,f #ahaa to #ahac he 0 at ,b]l91 :]e he
 he>d ,fi*te1 b 0 n impress$4 ,9 #ahac !
 degree ( ,doctor ( ,philosophy 0       
conf]r$ on him at ,j5a = ! diss]tation  
,on ! ,f\rfold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple (    
,suffici5t ,reason 7,ueb] die vi]fa*e   
,wurzel des ,satzes vom zurei*5d5       
,grunde1 #bnd ed41 #ahdg74 ,?is 0 ! fir/
 result ( 8 ,kantian /udies4 ,9 ! same  
ye> he began to be acqua9t$ ) ,goe! at  
,weim>1 :]e 8 "m & si/] _h gone to      
reside 9 #ahjf4 ,a consequ5ce ( ?is     
acqua9tance 0 t he took up & fur!r      

develop$ ,goe!'s !ory ( col\rs4 ,8      
diss]tation ,ueb] das ,seh5 und die     
,f>b5 0 publi%$ 9 #ahaf4 ,a second      
edition did n appe> till #ahed2 b 9 !   
meantime he _h publi%$ a re/atem5t ( 8  
doctr9e 9 ,lat91 entitl$ ,!oria ,colorum
 ,physiologica 7#ahcj74 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0  
an outly+ "p ( 8 "w4 ,he _h already be5 
seiz$ by ! impulse to set =? ! sy/em (  
philosophy t took %ape 9 him1 z he says1
 by "s =mative process ( :i* he c\ld    
give no consci\s acc\nt4 ,8 great "w1   
,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vor/ellung1 0
 ready = publication be=e ! end ( #ahah1
 & 0 publi%$ ) ! date #ahai4 ,?us he is 
"o ( ! mo/ precoci\s philosoph]s on     
record4 ,= 9 t s+le volume1 writt5 be=e 
he 0 ?irty1 ! outl9es ( 8 :ole sy/em are
 fix$4 ,!re is "s developm5t lat]1 & !re
 are endless new applications & essays  
t[>ds confirmation f all s\rces4 ,8 m9d 
nev] re/$1 & 8 lit]>y p[] ga9$ by       
ex]cise4 ,/ill1 x has be5 said ) tru?1 t
 !re nev] 0 a great] illusion ?an :5 he 
?\ght t he seldom repeat$ himself4 ,9   

reality he did little b repeat 8        
fundam5tal positions ) inf9ite v>iations
 9 expression4  ,aft] complet+ 8 *ief   
"w1 ,s*op5hau] wrote "s v]ses 9 :i* he  
pr$ict$ t po/]ity w\ld erect a monum5t  
to him4 ,?is pr$iction 0 fulfill$ 9     
#ahie2 b1 = ! "t1 ! "w :i* he nev] d\bt$
 w\ld be 8 endur+ title to fame seem$1 l
 ,hume's ,treatise1 to h fall5 'deadborn
 f ! press4' ,?is he attribut$ to !     
ho/ility ( ! academical philosoph]s2 &1 
9 8 lat] works1 attacks on ! univ]sity  
pr(essors =m a *>act]i/ic feature4 ,!   
(ficial tea*]s ( ! ,hegelian s*ool1 he  
decl>$1 7 b5t only on obta9+ positions =
 !mselves by an appe>ance ( support+    
,*ri/ian dogma2 & !y res5t$ op5ness on !
 "p ( any "o else4 ,yet on "o side he   
ma9ta9$ t 8 own pessimism 0 m truly     
,*ri/ian ?an _! optimism4 ,! ess5tial _s
 ( ,*ri/ianity is t ( ,brahmanism &     
,buddhism1 ! great religions t sprang f 
,india1 ! fir/ home ( our race4 ,he is  
ev5 incl9$ to see 9 x traces ( ,indian  
influ5ce4 ,:at vitiates x 9 8 eyes is ! 

,jewi% elem5t1 :i* f9ds its expression 9
 ! flat mod]n ',prote/ant-rationali/ic  
optimism4' ,z optimi/ic religions1 he   
gr\ps toge!r ,judaism1 ,islam1 &        
,graeco-,roman ,poly!ism4 ,8 antipa?y1  
h[ev]1 only ext5ds to ! two =m]4 ,he 0  
himself 9 great "p a *ild ( ,humanism & 
( ! eighte5? c5tury1 rejoic+ ov] !      
approa*+ d[nfall ( all ! fai?s1 & hold+ 
t a weak religion 7entirely diff]5t f ^?
 he admires7 is fav\rable to            
civilisation4 ,no?+ c exce$ 8 scorn =   
ne>ly ev]y?+ t *>act]is$ ! ,middle      
,ages4 ,) ,ca?olicism z a political     
sy/em he has no sympa?y :atev]2 :ile on 
! religi\s side ! ,prote/ant are z      
sympa!tic to him z ! ,ca?olic my/ics4   
,:at is common to all prie/hoods1 he    
holds1 is to exploit ! metaphysical ne$ 
( mank9d 79 :i* he also believes7 = !   
sake ( _! own p[]4 ,cl]icalism1         
',pfaff5?um1' :e!r ,ca?olic or          
,prote/ant1 is ! object ( 8 unv>y+ hatr$
 & contempt4 ,if he _h c>$ to appreciate
 ,hegel1 he w\ld h f\nd on ?is po9t mu* 

community ( _s2 b ( c\rse !re 0 a real  
anti!sis betwe5 ! two z philosoph]s4 ,no
 'conspiracy' ne$ be invok$ to expla9 ! 
failure ( ,s*op5hau] to w9 e>ly         
recognition4 ,belief 9 ! ,/ate & 9      
progress 0 q ali5 to him2 & ,g]many 0 !n
 full ( political hopes1 :i* f\nd       
n\ri%m5t 9 optimi/ic pan!ism4 ,:at at   
l5g? gave 8 philosophy vogue 0 !        
collapse ( ?is en?usiasm on ! failure ( 
! revolution>y movem5t 9 #ahdh4 ,once   
kn[n1 x conta9$ en\gh ( p]man5t value to
 secure x f aga9 pass+ out ( sight ) !  
next *ange ( fa%ion4  ,! re/ (          
,s*op5hau]'s life 9 its ext]nal         
relations may be briefly summ$ up4 ,= a 
few ye>s1 x 0 div]sifi$ by travels 9    
,italy & else:]e1 & by an unsuccessful  
attempt at academical tea*+ 9 ,b]l94 ,9 
#ahca he mov$ to ,frank=t1 :]e he f9ally
 settl$ 9 #ahcc4 ,he liv$ unm>ri$ !re   
till 8 dea? on ! #ba/ ( ,septemb] #ahfj4
 ,! monum5t1 already spok5 (1 0 unveil$ 
at ,frank=t on ! #f? ( ,june #ahie4  ,! 
almo/ unbrok5 sil5ce ) :i* 8 great "w 0 

receiv$1 ?\gh x _h a di/emp]+ effect on 
! man1 did n disc\rage ! ?9k]4 ,! :ole  
s]ies ( ,s*op5hau]'s works1 inde$1 0    
complet$ be=e he atta9$ any?+ t c\ld be 
call$ fame4 ,con/antly on ! al]t z he 0 
to seize ^u confirmations ( 8 sy/em1 he 
publi%$ 9 #ahcf 8 %ort "w ,on ! ,w 9    
,nature1 po9t+ out v]ifications ( 8     
metaphysics by rec5t sci5ce4 ,9 #ahci 8 
prize essay1 ,on ! ,fre$om ( ! ,human ,w
 7f9i%$ 9 #ahcg71 0 cr[n$ by ! ,royal   
,sci5tific ,society ( ,dron!im 9        
,norway4 ,?is & ano!r essay1 ,on !      
,basis ( ,morality1 n cr[n$ by ! ,royal 
,dani% ,society ( ,cop5hag5 9 #ahdj1 he 
publi%$ 9 #ahda1 ) ! inclusive title1   
,die beid5 ,grundprobleme d] ,e?ik4 ,9  
#ahdd appe>$ ! second edition ( 8       
pr9cipal "w1 to :i* !re 0 add$1 9 ! =m (
 a second volume1 a s]ies ( elucidations
 & ext5sions l>g] 9 bulk ?an ! fir/4    
,?is new volume conta9s mu* ( 8 be/ &   
mo/ effective writ+4 ,8 la/ "w1 ,p>]ga  
und ,p>alipom5a1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahea 7#b 
vols471 is f ! lit]>y po9t ( view ! mo/ 

brilliant4 ,x 0 only f ?is "t t he began
 to be well kn[n among ! g5]al public2  
?\gh ! philosophic 'apo/olate' ( ,julius
 ,frau5/a$t1 :o aft]w>ds edit$ 8 works1 
_h begun 9 #ahdj4 ,8 activity 0 h5ce=?  
conf9$ to modify+ & ext5d+ 8 works = new
 editions2 an employm5t 9 :i* he 0      
always assidu\s4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1   
all ( !m1 z !y /&1 conta9 ref]5ces f "o 
to ano!r2 b ! developm5t ( 8 ?9k+1 s f> 
z !re 0 su* a process aft] #ahah1 c be  
easily trac$ )\t ref]5ce to ! e>li]     
editions4 ,!re is "s gr[?2 b1 z has be5 
said1 x does n affect _m ( ! *ief po9ts4
 ,a brief exposition ( 8 philosophy c on
 ! :ole take x z some?+ fix$4 ,! heads  
"u :i* x mu/ fall are ^? assign$ to !   
orig9al f\r books ( ,die ,welt als      
,wille und ,vor/ellung4  ,al?\gh        
,s*op5hau] disc\nt5anc$ ! attempt to    
connect a philosoph]s biography ) 8 "w1 
some?+ has to be said ab\t 8 "*1 s9ce   
?is has be5 dwelt on to 8 disadvantage  
by oppon5ts4 ,!re is abundant mat]ial = 
a p]sonal e/imate 9 ! correspond5ce &   

rem9isc5ces publi%$ aft] 8 dea? by 8    
disciples ,julius ,frau5/a$t & ,wilhelm 
,gw9n]4 ,! app>5t contradiction is at   
once obvi\s betwe5 ! ascetic            
consummation ( 8 e?ics & 8 unascetic    
life1 c>efully occupi$ 9 its latt] "p ) 
rules = ! pres]vation ( 8 naturally     
robu/ heal?4 ,he 0 q aw>e ( ?is1 b holds
 x absurd to require t a morali/ %\ld   
comm5d only ! virtues :i* he possesses4 
,x is z if ! requirem5t 7 set up t a    
sculptor is to be himself a model (     
beauty4 ,a sa9t ne$ n be a philosoph]1  
nor a philosoph] a sa9t4 ,! sci5ce (    
morals is z !oretical z any o!r bran* ( 
philosophy4 ,fundam5tally "* is         
unmodifiable1 ?\gh k1 x is all[$1 may   
*ange ! mode ( action )9 ! limits ( !   
p>ticul> "*4 ,! passage to ! /ate (     
asceticism _c be effect$ by moral       
philosophy1 b dep5ds on a k9d ( 'grace4'
 ,aft] all1 x might be repli$1          
philosoph]s1 :e!r !y succe$ or n1 d     
usually make at lea/ an attempt to live 
9 accordance ) ! moral ideal !y set up4 

,! be/ apology 9 ,s*op5hau]'s case is t 
! fault may h be5 z mu* 9 8 ideal z 9 8 
failure to con=m to x4 ,! eloqu5t pages 
he has devot$ to ! subject ( hol9ess    
only make manife/ ! inconsequ5ce 7:i* he
 admits7 9 ! passage to x4 ,=1 z we %all
 see1 ?is has no?+ 9 common ) !         
ess5tially rational asceticism ( !      
s*ools ( lat] antiquity2 :i* 0 a rule ( 
self-limitation 9 view ( ! philosophic  
life4 ,he did 9 a way ( 8 own practise  
some?+ ( ?is2 &1 on occasion1 he sets =?
 ! !ory ( x2 b he q cle>ly sees !       
diff]5ce4 ,8 own ideal1 :i* he nev]     
attempt$ to practise1 is t ( !          
self-tortur+ ascetics ( ! ,*ri/ian      
,middle ,age4 ,)9 ! range ( prop]ly     
human virtue1 he c 9 _m respects hold 8 
own1 n only z a philosoph] b z a man4   
,if 8 egoism & vanity are und5iable1 he 
und\bt$ly possess$ ! virtues ( rectitude
 & compassion4 ,:at he w\ld h especially
 laid /ress on 0 ! consci5ti\s devotion 
to 8 "w4 ,) complete s+l5ess ( purpose  
he us$ = a dis9t]e/$ end ! leisure :i*  

he reg>d$ z ! mo/ =tunate ( end[m5ts4 ,z
 he said ne> ! close ( 8 life1 8        
intellectual consci5ce 0 cle>4  ,(      
,s*op5hau]'s expositions ( 8 pessimism x
 w\ld be true to say1 z ,sp9oza says ( !
 ,book ( ,job1 t ! matt]1 l ! /yle1 is n
 t ( a man sitt+ among ! a%es1 b ( "o   
m$itat+ 9 a libr>y4 ,?is ( c\rse does n 
prove t !y are n a g5u9e1 if "o-sid$1   
r5d]+ ( human exp]i5ce4 ,all t c be said
 is t !y did n turn him away f          
appreciation ( ! app>5t goods ( life4 ,8
 own practical pr9ciple 0 furni%$ by :at
 he reg>d$ z a l[] po9t ( view2 & ?is   
gives its direction to ! semi-popul>    
philosophy ( ! ,p>]ga4 ,f :at he takes  
to be ! high] po9t ( view1 ! belief t   
happ9ess is atta9able by man on e>? is  
an illusion2 b he holds t1 by keep+     
/eadily 9 view a k9d ( temp]$ happ9ess z
 ! end1 _m mi/akes may be avoid$ 9 !    
conduct ( life1 provid$ t ea* recognises
 at once ! /r5g? & weakness ( 8 own "*1 
& does n attempt ?+s t1 ) ! giv5        
limitations1 are impossible4 ,( ! highe/

 tru?1 z he conceiv$ x1 he c\ld !re=e   
make no use4 ,only by means ( a tru? t  
he 0 b\nd to hold half-illusory c\ld a  
work+ s*eme be con/ruct$ = himself &    
o!rs4 ,?is result may give u guidance 9 
seek+ to le>n :at we c f a ?9k] :o is 9 
reality no repres5tative ( a decad5ce1 b
 is fundam5tally sane & rational1 ev5 9 
spite ( himself4     ,,*apt] ,,ii       
,,!ory ,,( ,,k   ,! title ( ,s*op5hau]'s
 *ief "w is r5d]$ 9 ! ,engli%           
translation1 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea4 ,"h ! 
t]m 'idea' is us$ 9 ! s5se x _h = ,locke
 & ,b]keley2 namely1 any object ( m5tal 
activity4 ,?us x includes n m]ely       
imag]y1 b also p]ception4 ,s9ce ,hume   
di/+ui%$ ideas' f 'impressions1' x has  
t5d$ to be specialis$ 9 ! =m] s5se4 ,!  
,g]man ^w1 ,vor/ellung1 :i* x is us$ to 
r5d]1 conveys ! g5]alis$ mean+ ( !      
,lockian 'idea1' n[ frequ5tly express$ 9
 ,engli% & ,fr5* philosophical works by 
! m te*nical t]m 'pres5tation' or       
'repres5tation4' ,by ,s*op5hau] himself 
! ^w ',idea' 0 us$ exclusively 9 ! s5se 

( ! ,platonic ,idea1 :i*1 z we %all see1
 plays an important "p 9 8 philosophy4  
,! di/9ction is pres]v$ 9 ! translation 
by ! use ( a capital :5 ,idea has !     
latt] mean+2 b 9 a brief exposition x   
seems conv5i5t to adopt a m te*nical    
r5d]+ ( ,vor/ellung2 &1 f its common    
employm5t 9 psy*ological text-books1 ,i 
h select$ 'pres5tation' z ! mo/         
suitable4  ,! fir/ proposition (        
,s*op5hau]'s philosophical sy/em is1 ',!
 _w is my pres5tation4' ,by ?is he means
 t x pres5ts itself z appe>ance to !    
kn[+ subject4 ,?is appe>ance is 9 ! =ms 
( "t1 space & causality4 ,"u ^! =ms e   
ph5om5on necess>ily appe>s1 because !y  
are a priori =ms ( ! subject4 ,! _w z x 
pres5ts itself consi/s entirely (       
ph5om5a1 t is1 appe>ances1 relat$       
accord+ to ^! =ms4 ,! mo/ fundam5tal =m 
( all is ! relation betwe5 object &     
subject1 :i* is impli$ 9 all ( !m4 ,)\t 
a subject !re c be no pres5t$ object4   
,s*op5hau] is !re=e an ideali/ 9 ! s5se 
9 :i* we call ,b]keley's !ory ( !       

ext]nal _w idealism2 ?\gh ! expressions 
us$ are to "s ext5t diff]5t4 ,! diff]5ce
 proce$s f 8 foll[+ ( ,kant4 ,8         
,kantianism consi/s 9 ! recognition ( a 
priori =ms by :i* ! subject con/ructs = 
itself an 'objective' _w ( appe>ances4  
,) ,b]keley he agrees z aga9/ ,kant 9 n 
admitt+ any residue :atev]1 9 ! object z
 su*1 t is n :olly appe>ance4 ,b :ile he
 all[s t ,b]keley1 z reg>ds ! g5]al     
=mulation ( idealism1 0 m consi/5t ?an  
,kant1 he f9ds him1 9 work+ out !       
pr9ciple1 altoge!r inadequate4 ,= !     
mod]n m9d !re is h5ce=? no way 9        
philosophy except ?r\gh ,kant1 f :om    
dates ! revolution by :i* s*ola/ic      
dualism 0 f9ally ov]?r[n4 ,kant's       
sy/ematic con/ruction1 h[ev]1 he 9      
effect r$uces to v little4 ,8 is a mu*  
simplifi$ ',apriorism4' ,:ile accept+ ! 
'=ms ( s5sible intuition1' t is1 "t &   
space1 j z ,kant sets !m =?1 he cle>s   
away ne>ly all ! sup]impos$ me*anism4   
,kant's ',transc5d5tal ,a,esthetic1' he 
says1 0 a real discov]y 9 metaphysics2 b

 on ! basis ( ?is he = ! mo/ "p only    
gave free play to 8 ar*itectonic        
impulse4 ,( ! twelve 'categories ( !    
und]/&+1' :i* he pr(ess$ to d]ive f !   
logical =ms ( judgm5t1 all except       
causality are m]e 'bl9d w9d[s4' ,?is    
alone1 !re=e1 ,s*op5hau] adopts2 plac+  
x1 h[ev]1 n at a high] level b side by  
side ) "t & space1 ,kant's =ms (        
intuition4 ,^! ?ree =ms1 accord+ to     
,s*op5hau]1 make up ! und]/&+ ( m5 &    
animals4 ',all intuition is             
intellectual4' ,x is n fir/ m]e         
appe>ance relat$ 9 space & "t1 & wait+ =
 und]/&+ to organise x2 b1 9 animals z 9
 man1 x is put 9 ord] at once "u ! ?ree 
=ms t suffice to expla9 ! k all h ( !   
ph5om5al _w4  ,to ,reason z di/+ui%$ f  
,und]/&+1 ,s*op5hau] assigns no su*     
exalt$ function z 0 attribut$ to x 9    
portions ( 8 sy/em by ,kant1 & /ill m by
 "s ( 8 successors4 ,! "n ( 'reason1' he
 ma9ta9s1 ought on etymological gr\nds  
to be re/rict$ to ! faculty ( ab/ract   
concepts4 ,?is1 & n und]/&+1 is :at     

di/+ui%es man f animals4 ,x discov]s &  
inv5ts no?+1 b x puts 9 a g5]alis$ &    
available =m :at ! und]/&+ has discov]$ 
9 intuition4  ,= ! hi/orical e/imation (
 ,s*op5hau]1 x is necess>y to place him 
9 relation to ,kant1 z he himself always
 insi/$4 ,mu* also 9 8 *ief "w is made  
cle>] by k ( 8 diss]tation ,on !        
,f\rfold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple (          
,suffici5t ,reason1 to :i* he is        
con/antly ref]r+4 ,lat]1 8 mann] (      
exposition became m indep5d5t2 s t he c 
be read by ! g5]al read] ) pr(it simply 
by himself1 & )\t ref]5ce to antec$5ts4 
,/ill1 x w always be advisable = an     
expositor to foll[ 8 directions1 at lea/
 to ! ext5t ( giv+ "s %ort acc\nt ( !   
diss]tation4 ,?is ,i proce$ to give     
approximately 9 ! place to :i* he has   
assign$ x 9 8 sy/em4  ,! "n ( ! pr9ciple
 7pr9cipium rationis suffici5tis7 he    
took ov] f ,leibniz & 8 successor       
,wolff1 b gave x a new amplitude4 ,)    
him1 x /&s z an inclusive t]m = f\r     
modes ( connection by :i* ! ?or\ghgo+   

relativity ( ph5om5a to "o ano!r is     
con/itut$ = our intellig5ce4 ,! g5]al   
/atem5t adopt$ is1 ',no?+ is )\t a      
reason :y x %\ld be r ?an n be4' ,its   
f\r =ms are ! pr9ciples ( becom+        
7fi5di71 ( kn[+ 7cognosc5di71 ( be+     
7ess5di71 & ( act+ 7ag5di74 7#a7 ,"u !  
fir/ head come 'causes4' ,^! are divid$ 
into 'cause prop]1' = inorganic ?+s2    
'/imulus1' = ! vegetative life bo? (    
plants & animals1 & 'motive1' = animals 
& m54 ,! law ( causation is applicable  
only to *anges2 n to ! =ces ( nature1 to
 matt]1 or to ! _w z a :ole1 :i* are    
p]durable4 ,cause prec$es effect 9 "t4  
,n "o ?+1 b "o /ate ( a ?+1 is ! cause (
 ano!r4 ,f ! law ( causation !re results
 an inf9ite s]ies a p>te ante z well z a
 p>te po/4 7#b7 ,! pr9ciple ( suffici5t 
reason ( kn[+ is applicable to concepts1
 :i* are all d]iv$ f intuition1 t is1 f 
p]cepts4 ,! laws ( logic1 :i* come "u   
?is head1 c yield no?+ orig9al1 b c only
 r5d] explicit :at 0 9 ! und]/&+4 7#c7  
,"u ! ?ird head come ari?metical &      

geometrical relations4 ,^! are peculi>  
relations ( pres5tations1 di/9ct f all  
o!rs1 & only intelligible 9 virtue ( a  
pure a priori intuition4 ,= geometry ?is
 is space2 = ari?metic "t1 9 :i* c\nt+  
goes on4 ,sci5tifically1 ari?metic is   
fundam5tal4 7#d7 ,z ! ?ird =m (         
causality 0 enum]at$ 'motive' = ! w2 b 9
 t classification x 0 view$ f )\t1 z    
belong+ to ! _w ( objects4 ,?r\gh !     
direct k we h ( our own w1 we "k also f 
)9 ?is det]m9ation by ! pres5tation we  
call a motive4 ,h5ce em]ges ! f\r? =m ( 
! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,?is at a
 lat] /age makes possible ! transition f
 physics to metaphysics4  ,all ^! =ms   
alike are =ms ( necess>y det]m9ation4   
,necessity has no cle> & true s5se b    
c]ta9ty ( ! consequ5ce :5 ! gr\nd is    
posit$4 ,all necessity !re=e is         
conditional4 ,9 accordance ) ! f\r      
expressions ( ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t    
reason1 x takes ! f\rfold %ape (        
physical1 logical1 ma!matical1 & moral  
necessity4  ,! %>p di/9ction betwe5     

logical & ma!matical tru?1 ) ! assignm5t
 ( ! =m] to conceptual & ( ! latt] to   
intuitive relations1 comes to ,s*op5hau]
 directly f ,kant4 ,s also does 8 view t
 ! necess>y =m ( causation is sequ5ce2  
?\gh "h 8 po9ts ( contact ) ,engli%     
?9k]s1 e>li] & lat]1 are v m>k$4 ,only 9
 8 /atem5t ( ! 'law ( motivation' z     
'causality se5 f )9' does he h9t at 8   
own di/9ctive metaphysical doctr9e4     
,mean:ile1 x is evid5t t he is to be    
numb]$ ) ! gr\p ( mod]n ?9k]s :o h      
arriv$ 9 "o way or ano!r at a complete  
sci5tific ph5om5ism4 ,expositors h not$ 
t 9 8 e>li] /atem5ts ( ?is he t5ds to   
lay m /ress on ! "* ( ! visible &       
tangible _w z m]e appe>ance4 ,!         
imp]man5ce1 ! relativity1 ( all t exi/s 
9 "t & space1 leads him to describe x1 9
 a fav\rite t]m borr[$ f ,indian        
philosophy1 z ,maya1 or illusion4 ,lat]1
 he dwells m on ! relative reality ( ?+s
 z !y appe>4 ,8 position1 h[ev]1 does n 
ess5tially alt]1 b only f9ds v>y+       
expression z he turns m to ! sci5tific  

or to ! metaphysical side4 ,f ,hume's   
view on causation he diff]s n by oppos+ 
its pure ph5om5ism1 b only by recognis+1
 z ,kant does1 an a priori elem5t 9 ! =m
 ( its law4 ,g]man critics h se5 9 8 own
 =mulation an anticipation ( ,mill1 &   
?is is c]ta9ly /rik+ z reg>ds ! g5]al   
conception ( ! causal ord]1 al?\gh !re  
is no anticipation ( ,mill's inductive  
logic4 ,on ! same side !re is a close   
agreem5t ) ,malebran*e & !              
,occasionali/s1 po9t$ out by ,s*op5hau] 
himself4 ,! causal explanations (       
sci5ce1 he is at "o ) !m 9 insi/+1 give 
no ultimate acc\nt ( any?+4 ,all its    
causes are no m ?an 'occasional         
causes1'--m]ely in/ances1 z ,mill       
express$ x aft]w>ds1 ( 'inv>iable &     
unconditional sequ5ce4' ,f ,mill ( c\rse
 he diff]s 9 hold+ its =m to be necess>y
 & a priori1 n ultimately d]iv$ f a     
summation ( exp]i5ces2 &1 ) !           
,occasionali/s1 he goes on to           
metaphysics 9 its s5se ( ontology1 z    
,mill nev] did4 ,! diff]5ce "h is t he  

does n clo! 8 metaphysics 9 a !ological 
dress4  ,9 ! lat] developm5t ( 8 ?\ght1 
,s*op5hau] dealt m expressly ) ! "q1 h[ 
?is k9d ( ph5om5ism is reconcilable ) a 
sci5tific cosmogony4 ,on "o side !      
proposition1 ',no object )\t subject1'  
makes mat]ialism = ev] impossible2 = !  
mat]iali/ tries to expla9 f relations   
among pres5tations :at is ! condition ( 
all pres5tation4 ,on ! o!r side1 we are 
all compell$ to agree ) ! mat]iali/s t k
 ( ! object comes late 9 a long s]ies ( 
mat]ial ev5ts4 ,inorganic ?+s exi/$ 9 "t
 be=e life2 vegetative life be=e animal 
life2 & only ) animal life does k em]ge4
 ,reason$ k ( ! :ole s]ies comes only at
 ! end ( x 9 ! human m9d4 ,?is app>5t   
contradiction he solves by leav+ a place
 = metaphysics4 ,our repres5tation ( !  
_w z x exi/$ be=e ! appe>ance ( life 0  
inde$ non-exi/5t at ! "t to :i* we      
assign x2 b ! real be+ ( ! _w _h a      
manife/ation n imag9able by u4 ,= ?is1  
we sub/itute a picture ( a _w su* z we  
%\ld h be5 aw>e ( _h our 'subject1' )   

its a priori =ms ( "t1 space1 &         
causality1 be5 !n pres5t4 ,:at ! reality
 is1 is ! problem ( ! ?+-9-itself 7to   
use ! ,kantian t]m74 ,?is problem rema9s
 ov]2 b we "k t ! metaphysical reality  
_c be matt]2 = matt]1 ) all its         
qualities1 is ph5om5al4 ,x exi/s only '=
 und]/&+1 ?r\gh und]/&+1 9 und]/&+4' ,^!
 discrim9ations made1 ,s*op5hau] (f]s u 
a sci5tific cosmogony beg9n+ ) ! nebul> 
hypo!sis & end+ ) an outl9e ( organic   
evolution4 ,?is la/ diff]s f ! ,d>w9ian 
!ory 9 suppos+ a production ( species by
 def9ite /eps in/ead ( by accumulation (
 small individual v>iations4 ,at a c]ta9
 "t1 a =m t has all ! *>act]s ( a new   
species appe>s among ! prog5y ( an exi/+
 species4 ,man is ! la/ & highe/ =m to  
be evolv$4 ,f ,s*op5hau]'s metaphysics1 
z we %all see1 x foll[s t no high] =m ( 
life w ev] appe>4  ,a ^w may be said "h 
on a mat]iali/ic-s\nd+ phrase :i* is v  
prom95t 9 ,s*op5hau]'s lat] expositions1
 & has be5 rem>k$ on z p>adoxical = an  
ideali/4 ,! _w z pres5tation1 he (t5    

says1 is '9 ! bra94' ,?is1 x mu/ be     
all[$1 is n fully def5sible f 8 own po9t
 ( view1 except ) ! aid ( a lat]        
di/9ction4 ,! bra9 z we "k x is ( c\rse 
only a "p ( ! ph5om5on ( ! subject1--a  
gr\p+ ( possible p]ceptions4 ,h[ !n1    
s9ce x is itself only appe>ance1 c x be 
! be>] ( ! :ole univ]se z appe>ance8 ,! 
answ] is t ,s*op5hau] meant 9 reality '!
 be+ ( ! bra91' & n ! bra9 z ph5om5on4  
,he _h a gr[+ s5se ( ! importance (     
physiology = ! inve/igation ( m9d2 & 8  
pr$ilection l$ him to adopt a n q       
satisfactory %or?& expression = !       
correspond5ce we "k sci5tifically to    
exi/ betwe5 our m5tal processes & *anges
 capable ( objective inve/igation 9 !   
matt] ( ! bra94  ,9 sci5ce 8 di/9ctive  
b5t 0 to ! bord]l& betwe5 psy*ology &   
physiology4 ,h5ce came ! attraction     
ex]cis$ on him by ,goe!'s !ory ( col\rs4
 ,to 8 own !ory1 ?\gh1 unlike 8         
philosophical sy/em1 x has always fail$ 
to ga9 ! att5tion he pr$ict$ = x1 ! m]it
 mu/ be all[$ ( treat+ ! problem z      

ess5tially "o ( psy*ophysics4 ,:at he   
does is to attempt to asc]ta9 !         
conditions 9 ! s5sibility ( ! ret9a t   
acc\nt = our actual col\r-s5sations4    
,?is problem 0 unt\*$ by ! ,newtonian   
!ory2 b ,s*op5hau] foll[$ ,goe! 9 !     
error ( try+ to ov]?r[ ?is on its own   
gr\nd4 ,he _h no aptitude = ! special   
inquiries ( ma!matics & physics1 ?\gh he
 _h ga9$ a cle> insight into _! g5]al   
nature z sci5ces4 ,on ! psy*o-physical  
side !re is to-day no fully au?oris$    
!ory4 ,! problem inde$ has become ev] m 
complex4 ,s*op5hau]'s attempt1 by       
comb9ation ( s5sibilities to 'light' &  
'd>kness1' to expla9 ! ph5om5a (        
complem5t>y col\rs1 des]ves at lea/ a   
record 9 ! long s]ies ( essays ( :i* !  
be/ kn[n are ! ',"y-,helmholtz !ory' & t
 ( ,h]+4 ,x m>ks an indubitable advance 
on ,goe! 9 ! cle> di/9ction drawn betwe5
 ! mixture1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 t c only   
result 9 dilution to diff]5t %ades (    
grey1 & ! k9ds ( mixture f :i*1 9 _!    
view1 true col\rs arise4  ,a *>act]i/ic 

position 9 ,s*op5hau]'s !ory ( k1 & "o t
 is con/antly f9d+ new expression 9 8   
writ+s1 is ! di/9ction betwe5 ab/ract & 
intuitive k already t\*$ on4 ,intuitive 
k ( ! k9d t is common to m5 & animals1 z
 we h se51 makes up1 9 8 t]m9ology1 !   
'und]/&+'2 :ile 'reason' is !           
di/9ctively human faculty ( concepts4   
,:5 he depreciates ?is1 z he (t5 does1 9
 comp>ison ) 'intuition1' x mu/ be      
rememb]$ t he does n limit ?is t]m to   
p]ception ( p>ticul>s1 b ascribes to :at
 he calls ! ',platonic ,idea' a c]ta9   
k9d ( union betwe5 reason & 'phantasy1' 
:i* gives x an intuitive "* ( its own4  
,?us intuition c /&1 ?\gh n 9 e case =  
:at is high]1 yet always = t :i* is wid]
 & great] & m imm$iate4 ,:atev] may be  
done ) reflective reason & its          
ab/ractions1 e effectual process ( ?\ght
 mu/ end1 alike = k & art & virtue1 9 "s
 intuitive pres5tation4 ,! importance ( 
reason = practice is due to its         
g5]ality4 ,its function is subord9ate4  
,x does n furni% ! gr\nd ( virtu\s      

action any m ?an ae/hetic precepts c    
enable any "o to produce a "w ( art2 b x
 c help to pres]ve con/ancy to c]ta9    
maxims1 z also 9 art a reason$ plan is  
necess>y because ! inspiration ( g5ius  
is n e mom5t at comm&4 ,virtue & arti/ic
 g5ius alike1 h[ev]1 dep5d ultimately on
 intuition3 & s also does e true        
discov]y 9 sci5ce4 ,! nature ( p$antry  
is to try to be guid$ ev]y:]e by        
concepts1 & to tru/ no?+ to p]ception 9 
! p>ticul> case4 ,philosophy also       
,s*op5hau] reg>ds z dep5d+ ultimately on
 a c]ta9 intuitive view2 b he all[s t x 
has to translate ?is into ab/ractions4  
,its problem is to express ! :at ( ! _w 
9 ab/ract =m3 sci5ce deal+ only ) ! :y (
 ph5om5a relat$ )9 ! _w4 ,?is "* (      
philosophy z a sy/em ( ab/ract concepts 
deprives x ( ! imm$iate attractiv5ess ( 
art2 s t1 z he says 9 "o place1 x is m  
=tunate to be a poet ?an a philosoph]4  
,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,metaphysics ,,( ,,! ,,w
   ,we h se5 t sci5tific explanation    
does n g beyond pres5tations ord]$ 9    

space & "t4 ,?is is j z true ( ! sci5ces
 ( causation--! 'aetiological'          
sci5ces--z x is ( ma!matical sci5ce4    
,all t we le>n f ,me*anics1 ,physics1   
,*emi/ry & ,physiology1 is 'h[1 9       
accordance ) an infallible rule1 "o     
det]m9ate /ate ( matt] necess>ily foll[s
 ano!r3 h[ a det]m9ate *ange necess>ily 
conditions & br+s on ano!r det]m9ate    
*ange4' ,?is k does n satisfy u4 ,we wi%
 to le>n ! significance ( ph5om5a2 b we 
f9d t f outside1 :ile we view !m z      
pres5tations1 _! inn] mean+ is = ev]    
inaccessible4  ,! />t+-po9t = !         
metaphysical k we seek is giv5 u 9 our  
own body4 ,! animal body is '! imm$iate 
object ( ! subject'3 9 x z pres5tation !
 'effects' ( 'causes' 9 ! ord] (        
pres5tations ext]nal to x are fir/      
recognis$4 ,n[ 9 virtue ( 8 body !      
inve/igator is n pure kn[+ subject /&+  
ap>t f t :i* he kn[s4 ,9 ! case ( !     
p>ticul> sy/em ( pres5tations con/itut+ 
8 organism1 he kn[s :at ^! pres5tations 
signify1 & t is 8 w 9 a c]ta9           

modification4 ,! subject appe>s z       
individual ?r\gh its id5tity ) ! body1 &
 ?is body is giv5 to x 9 two diff]5t    
ways3 on "o side z object among objects1
 & subject$ to _! laws2 on ! o!r side z 
! w imm$iately kn[n to ea*4 ,! act ( w &
 ! movem5t ( ! body are n two diff]5t   
/ates relat$ z cause & effect2 = !      
relation ( cause & effect belongs only  
to ! object1 ! ph5om5on1 ! pres5tation4 
,!y are "o & ! same act giv5 9 diff]5t  
mann]s3 ! w1 imm$iately to ! subject2 ! 
movem5t1 9 s5sible intuition = und]/&+4 
,! action ( ! body is ! objectifi$ act (
 w4 ,call$ at fir/ ! imm$iate object (  
pres5tation1 ! body may n[1 f ! o!r     
side1 be call$ '! objectivity ( ! w4'   
,?us1 z 0 said1 ! 'law ( motivation'    
discloses ! inn] nature ( causality4 ,9 
causality 9 g5]al we "k only relations (
 ph5om5a2 b 9 ! case ( our own body we  
"k some?+ else t ^? relations express2  
namely1 ! act ( w det]m9$ by motives4   
,n[ !re are 9 ! _w z pres5tation o!r    
sy/ems l t :i* we call our body4 ,unless

 all ^! are to be suppos$ m]e phantoms  
)\t inn] reality1 we mu/ inf] by        
analogy1 9 correspond5ce ) l ph5om5a1   
o!r individual wills simil> to t :i* we 
"k 9 ourselves4 ,?is inf]5ce f analogy1 
univ]sally admitt$ 9 ! case ( human &   
animal bodies1 mu/ be ext5d$ to ! :ole  
corporeal _w4 ,! failure to take ?is /ep
 is :]e ! purely intellectual =ms (     
idealism h come %ort4 ,kant's           
'?+-9-itself1' :i* is n subject to ! =ms
 by :i* pres5tations become exp]i5ce1 b 
:i* exp]i5ce & its =ms indicate z !     
reality1 has be5 wrongly condemn$ by 8  
successors z ali5 to idealism4 ,x is    
true t ,kant did 9 "s respects fail to  
ma9ta9 ! ideali/ic position ) ! cle>ness
 ( ,b]keley2 b 8 %ortcom+ 0 n 9 affirm+ 
a ?+-9-itself beyond ph5om5a4 ,"h1 9    
,s*op5hau]'s view1 is ! metaphysical    
problem t he left a place = b did n     
solve4 ,! ^w ( ! riddle has n[ be5      
pron\nc$4 ,beyond pres5tation1 t is1 9  
itself & accord+ to its inn]mo/ ess5ce1 
! _w is t :i* we f9d 9 ourselves        

imm$iately z w4 ,by ?is x is n meant t a
 fall+ /one1 = example1 acts f a motive2
 k & ! consequ5t action f motives       
belongs only to ! det]m9ate =m t ! w has
 9 animals & m52 b ! reality 9 ! /one   
also is ! same 9 ess5ce z t to :i* we   
apply ! "n ( w 9 ourselves4 ,he :o      
possesses ?is key to ! k ( nature's     
inn]mo/ be+ w int]pret ! =ces (         
vegetation1 ( cry/allisation1 (         
magnetism1 ( *emical aff9ity1 ev5 (     
weight itself1 z diff]5t only 9 ph5om5al
 manife/ation b 9 ess5ce ! same2 namely1
 t :i* is bett] kn[n to ea* ?an all     
else1 & :]e x em]ges mo/ cle>ly is call$
 w4 ,only ! w is ?+-9-itself4 ,x is     
:olly diff]5t f pres5tation1 & is t (   
:i* pres5tation is ! ph5om5on1 !        
visibility1 ! objectivity4 ,diff]5ces   
affect only ! degree ( ! appe>+1 n !    
ess5ce ( t :i* appe>s4  ,:ile ! reality 
ev]y:]e pres5t is n w z specifically    
kn[n 9 man1 ! mode ( indicat+ its ess5ce
 by ref]5ce to ?is1 ,s*op5hau] cont5ds1 
is a ga9 9 insight4 ,! ?+-9-itself ought

 to receive its "n f t among all its    
manife/ations :i* is ! cle>e/1 ! mo/    
p]fect1 ! mo/ imm$iately illum9$ by k2 &
 ?is is man's w4 ,:5 we say t e =ce 9   
nature is to be ?\ght ( z ,w1 we are    
subsum+ an unkn[n "u a kn[n4 ,= !       
conception ( ,=ce is ab/ract$ f ! realm 
( cause & effect1 & indicates ! limit ( 
sci5tific explanation4 ,hav+ arriv$ at !
 =ces ( nature on ! "o side & ! =ms ( ! 
subject on ! o!r1 sci5ce c g no fur!r4  
,! conception ( ,w c make kn[n t :i* 0 s
 f> conceal$1 because x proce$s f ! mo/ 
intimate consci\sness t ea* has (       
himself1 :]e ! kn[] & ! kn[n co9cide4   
,by ?is consci\sness1 9 :i* subject &   
object are n yet set ap>t1 we rea*      
some?+ univ]sal4 ,9 itself ! ,w is n    
individualis$1 b exi/s :ole & undivid$ 9
 e s+le ?+ 9 nature1 z ! ,subject (     
contemplation exi/s :ole & undivid$ 9   
ea* cognitive be+4 ,x is entirely free f
 all =ms ( ! ph5om5on4 ,:at makes       
plurality possible is subjection to !   
=ms ( "t & space1 by :i* only ! ph5om5on

 is affect$4 ,"t & space may !re=e be   
call$1 9 s*ola/ic t]m9ology1 ! 'pr9ciple
 ( individuation4' ,:ile ea* ( its      
ph5om5a is subject to ! law ( suffici5t 
reason1 :i* is ! law ( appe>ance 9 ^!   
=ms1 !re is = ! ,w z ?+-9-itself no     
rational gr\nd3 x is 'grundlos4' ,x is  
free f all plurality1 al?\gh its ph5om5a
 9 space & "t are innum]able4 ,x is "o1 
n ) ! unity ( an object or ( a concept1 
b z t :i* lies outside ( space & "t1    
beyond ! pr9cipium individuationis1 t   
is1 ! possibility ( plurality4 ,!       
individual1 ! p]son1 is n w z           
?+-9-itself1 b ph5om5on ( ! w1 & z su*  
det]m9$4 ,! w is 'free' because !re is  
no?+ beyond itself to det]m9e x4 ,fur!r1
 x is 9 itself m]e activity )\t end1 a  
bl9d /riv+4 ,k appe>s only z !          
accompanim5t ( its asc5d+ /ages4  ,"h we
 h arriv$ at ! ?\ght :i*1 9 its v>i\s   
expressions1 con/itutes ,s*op5hau]'s    
metaphysics4 ,t ?is _c be sci5tifically 
d$uc$ he admits2 b he reg>ds x z furni%+
 su* explanation z is possible ( sci5ce 

itself4 ,= sci5ce !re is 9 ev]y?+ an    
inexplicable elem5t to :i* x runs back1 
& :i* is real1 n m]ely ph5om5al4 ,f ?is 
reality we are mo/ remote 9 pure        
ma!matics & 9 ! pure a priori sci5ce (  
nature z x 0 =mulat$ by ,kant4 ,^! owe  
_! transp>5t cle>ness precisely to _!   
abs5ce ( real cont5t1 or to ! slightness
 ( ?is4 ,! attempt to r$uce organic life
 to *emi/ry1 ?is aga9 to me*anism1 & at 
la/ ev]y?+ to ari?metic1 c\ld x succe$1 
w\ld leave m]e =m beh9d1 f :i* all !    
cont5t ( ph5om5a w\ld h vani%$4 ,& ! =m 
w\ld 9 ! end be =m ( ! subject4 ,b !    
ent]prise is va94 ',= 9 ev]y?+ 9 nature 
!re is some?+ ( :i* no gr\nd c ev] be   
giv51 ( :i* no explanation is possible1 
no cause fur!r is to be s\ght4' ,:at =  
man is 8 inexplicable "*1 presuppos$ 9 e
 explanation ( 8 de$s f motives1 t = e  
inorganic body is its inexplicable      
quality1 ! mann] ( its act+4  ,! basis (
 ?is too is w1 & 'gr\ndless1'           
inexplicable w2 b evid5tly ! conception 
"h is n id5tical ) t ( ! ,w t is "o &   

all4 ,h[ d we pass f ! univ]sal to t :i*
 has a p>ticul> "* or quality8 ,= ( ! ,w
 z ?+-9-itself we are told t !re is n a 
great] portion 9 a man & a less 9 a     
/one4 ,! relation ( "p & :ole belongs   
exclusively to space4 ,! m & less t\*es 
only ! ph5om5on1 t is1 ! visibility1 !  
objectivation4 ,a high] degree ( ?is is 
9 ! plant ?an 9 ! /one1 9 ! animal ?an 9
 ! plant1 & s =?2 b ! ,w t is ! ess5ce (
 all is unt\*$ by degree1 z x is beyond 
plurality1 space & "t1 & ! relation (   
cause & effect4  ,! answ] to ! "q "h    
rais$ is giv5 9 ,s*op5hau]'s            
int]pretation ( ! ,platonic ,ideas4 ,^! 
he reg>ds z /ages ( objectivation ( !   
,w4 ,!y are1 z ,plato call$ !m1 et]nal  
=ms relat$ to p>ticul> ?+s z models4 ,! 
l[e/ /age ( objectivation ( ! ,w is     
repres5t$ by ! =ces ( inorganic nature4 
,"s ( ^!1 su* z weight & imp5etrability1
 appe> 9 all matt]4 ,"s are divid$ among
 its diff]5t k9ds1 z rigidity1 fluidity1
 ela/icity1 electricity1 magnetism1     
*emical prop]ties4 ,!y are n subject to 

! relation ( cause & effect1 b are      
presuppos$ by x4 ,a =ce is nei!r cause (
 an effect nor effect ( a cause4        
,philosophically1 x is imm$iate         
objectivity ( ! w2 9 aetiology1 qualitas
 occulta4 ,at ! l[e/ /ages (            
objectivation1 !re is no individuality4 
,?is does n appe> 9 inorganic ?+s1 nor  
ev5 9 m]ely organic or vegetative life1 
b only z we asc5d ! scale ( animals4    
,ev5 9 ! high] animals ! specific       
enorm\sly pr$om9ates ov] ! individual   
"*4 ,only 9 man is ! ,idea objectifi$ 9 
! individual "* z su*4 ',! "* ( ea*     
individual man1 s f> z x is ?or\ghly    
individual & n entirely compreh5d$ 9 t (
 ! species1 may be reg>d$ z a p>ticul>  
,idea1 correspond+ to a peculi> act (   
objectivation ( ! ,w4'  ,s*op5hau] w>ns 
u aga9/ sub/itut+ ?is philosophical     
explanation = sci5tific aetiology4 ,!   
*a9 ( causes & effects1 he po9ts out1 is
 n brok5 by ! diff]5ces ( ! orig9al1    
irr$ucible =ces4 ,! aetiology & !       
philosophy ( nature g side by side1     

reg>d+ ! same object f diff]5t po9ts (  
view4 ,yet he also gives u 9 relation to
 8 philosophy mu* t is n unsugge/ive    
sci5tifically4 ,8 doctr9e is n prop]ly  
evolution>y1 s9ce ! ,ideas are et]nal2 b
 he has gu>d$ incid5tally aga9/ our     
suppos+ t all ! natural k9ds t manife/ !
 ,ideas ph5om5ally mu/ be always        
repres5t$ 9 e _w4 ,= our p>ticul> _w1   
compris+ ! sun & planets ( ! sol> sy/em1
 he sets =? 9 ! ,p>]ga an acc\nt ( !    
process by :i* x develops f ! nebula to 
man4 ,?is 0 ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 
,9 8 fundam5tal "w he describes a       
/ruggle1 pres5t ?r\gh ! :ole ( nature1 9
 :i* ! ph5om5al manife/ations ( ! high] 
,ideas conqu] & subjugate ^? ( ! l[]1   
?\gh !y leave !m /ill exi/5t & ev] /riv+
 to get loose4 ,"h has be5 se5 an       
adumbration ( natural selection3 he     
himself admits ! difficulty he has 9    
mak+ x cle>4 ,we mu/ rememb] t x is     
pre-,d>w9ian4  ,k or intellig5ce he     
seeks to expla9 z an aid to ! individual
 organism 9 its /ruggle to subsi/ & to  

propagate its k9d4 ,x fir/ appe>s 9     
animal life4 ,x is repres5t$ by ! bra9  
or a l>ge ganglion1 z e endeav\r ( ! ,w 
9 its self-objectivation is repres5t$ by
 "s organ2 t is1 displays itself =      
pres5tation z su* & su* an appe>ance4   
,sup]9duc$ along ) ?is contrivance = aid
 9 ! /ruggle1 ! _w z pres5tation1 ) all 
its =ms1 subject & object1 "t1 space1   
plurality & causality1 is all at once   
!re4 ',hi!rto only w1 x is n[ at ! same 
"t pres5tation1 object ( ! kn[+         
subject4' ,!n 9 man1 z a high] p[]      
beyond m]ely intuitive intellig5ce1     
appe>s reason z ! p[] ( ab/ract         
conception4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 rational z well
 z intuitive k1 evolv$ orig9ally z a m]e
 means to high] objectivation ( ! ,w1   
rema9s :olly 9 its s]vice4 ,h[1 9       
exceptional cases1 intellect emancipates
 itself1 w be discuss$ "u ! heads (     
,a,esthetics & ,e?ics4  ,t ?is view     
implies a teleology ,s*op5hau] expressly
 recognises4 ,inde$ he is a v decid$    
teleologi/ on l9es ( 8 own1 &1 9        

physiology1 takes sides /rongly )       
'vitalism' z aga9/ pure me*anicism4     
,true1 ! ,w is 'endless' bl9d /riv+1 &  
is ess5tially divid$ aga9/ itself4      
,ev]y:]e 9 nature !re is /rife1 & ?is   
takes ! mo/ horrible =ms4 ,yet someh[   
!re is 9 ea* individual manife/ation ( w
 a pr9ciple by :i* fir/ ! organism ) its
 vital processes1 & !n ! portion ( x    
call$ ! bra91 9 :i* is repres5t$ !      
intellect ) its a priori =ms1 are evolv$
 z aids 9 ! /rife4 ,&1 adapt+ all !     
manife/ations to "o ano!r1 !re is a     
teleology ( ! univ]se4 ,! :ole _w1 ) all
 its ph5om5a1 is ! objectivity ( ! "o & 
indivisible ,w2 ! ,idea :i* is relat$ to
 all o!r ,ideas z ! h>mony to ! s+le    
voices4 ,! unity ( ! ,w %[s itself 9 !  
unison ( all its ph5om5a z relat$ to "o 
ano!r4 ,man1 its cle>e/ & complete/     
objectivation1 is ! summit ( a pyramid1 
& c\ld n exi/ )\t ?is4 ,inorganic &     
organic nature1 !n1 7 adapt$ to ! future
 appe>ance ( man1 z man is adapt$ to !  
developm5t t prec$$ him4 ,b 9 ?9k+ !    

reality1 "t is to be ab/ract$ f4 ,!     
e>li]1 we are oblig$ to say1 is fitt$ to
 ! lat]1 z ! lat] is fitt$ to ! e>li]2 b
 ! relation ( means to end1 "u :i* we _c
 help figur+ ! adaptation1 is only      
appe>ance = our mann] ( k4 ,& ! h>mony  
describ$ does n get rid ( ! conflict    
inh]5t 9 all w4  ,9 ?is acc\nt (        
,s*op5hau]'s metaphysical doctr9e1 ,i h 
tri$ to make ! exposition z smoo? z     
possible2 b at two po9ts ! discont9uity 
c sc>cely be conceal$4 ,fir/1 ! relation
 ( ! univ]sal ,w to ! individual w is n 
made cle>2 &1 secondly1 ! em]g5ce ( ! _w
 ( pres5tation1 ) ! k 9 :i* x culm9ates1
 is left un9telligible because ! w is   
conceiv$ z m]e bl9d /riv+ )\t an aim4 ,z
 reg>ds ! fir/ po9t1 disciples &        
expositors h be5 able to %[ t1 by means 
( di/9ctions 9 8 lat] writ+s1 app>5t    
contradictions are to "s ext5t cle>$    
away2 &1 moreov]1 t he came to recognise
 m reality 9 ! individual w4 ,on !      
second po9t1 ,i ?9k x w be necess>y to  
admit t 8 sy/em z su* breaks d[n4 ,b bo?

 po9ts mu/ be consid]$ 9 _! connection4 
,"o ( ! mo/ notewor?y features (        
,s*op5hau]'s philosophy is1 z he himself
 ?\ght1 ! acceptance f fir/ to la/ (    
,kant's di/9ction betwe5 ! 'empirical' &
 ! 'intelligible' "* ( ! individual4 ,e 
act ( w ( e human be+ foll[s ) necessity
 z ph5om5on f its ph5om5al causes2 s t  
all ! ev5ts ( ea* p]son's life are      
det]m9$ 9 accordance ) sci5tific law4   
,nev]!less1 ! "* empirically manife/$ 9 
! ph5om5al _w1 :ile x is completely     
necessitat$1 is ! expression ( some?+ t 
is free f necessitation4 ,?is           
'intelligible "*' is out ( "t1 &1 itself
 undet]m9$1 manife/s itself ?r\gh t :i* 
develops 9 "t z a *a9 ( necess>y causes 
& effects4 ,t ?is doctr9e _h be5 tak5   
up1 )\t any ambiguity z reg>ds !        
det]m9ism1 by ,s*ell+ z well z by       
himself1 he expressly ackn[l$ges2 & he  
f9ds x1 z he also f9ds mod]n idealism1  
anticipat$ 9 v>i\s passages by !        
,neo-,platoni/s4 ,8 adaptation ( x to 8 
doctr9e ( ! ,ideas is di/9ctly          

,neo-,platonic 9 s f> z he recognises   
',ideas ( individuals'2 b ( c\rse to    
make ,w ! ess5ce belongs to 8 own sy/em4
 ',! intelligible "*1' he says1         
'co9cides ) ! ,idea1 or1 yet m          
precisely1 ) ! orig9al act ( w t        
manife/s itself 9 x3 9 s f>1 n only is !
 empirical "* ( ea* man1 b also ( ea*   
animal species1 nay1 ( ea* plant        
species1 & ev5 ( ea* orig9al =ce (      
inorganic nature1 to be reg>d$ z        
ph5om5on ( an intelligible "*1 t is1 (  
an indivisible act ( w out ( "t4' ,?is  
is :at he call$ ! 'aseitas' ( ! w2      
borr[+ a s*ola/ic t]m to indicate its   
d]ivation 7if we may speak ( x z d]iv$7 
f itself 7a se71 & n f a suppos$        
creative act4 ,only if we adopt ?is view
 are we entitl$ to reg>d actions z wor?y
 ( moral approval or disapproval4 ,!y   
are su* n because !y are n necessitat$1 
b because !y necess>ily %[ =? ! nature (
 an ess5ce ! fre$om ( :i* consi/s 9 be+ 
:at x is4 ,yet he c\ld n b f9d a        
difficulty 9 reconcil+ ?is ) 8 position 

t ! "o univ]sal ,w is id5tical 9 all    
?+s1 & 9 ea* is 'individuat$' only by   
space & "t4 ,= ! ,ideas1 l !            
?+-9-itself1 are et]nal1 t is1 outside (
 "t z well z space2 & all ! ?+s n[      
enum]at$1 =ces ( nature1 plant & animal 
species1 & individual *>act]s ( m51 are 
decl>$ to be 9 !mselves ,ideas4  ,he 9  
"p meets ?is difficulty by ! subtlety t 
"t & space d n1 /rictly speak+1 det]m9e 
individuality1 b arise along ) x4 ,!    
diremption ( individualities becomes    
explicit 9 ^? =ms4 ,yet he mu/ h p]ceiv$
 t ?is is n a complete answ]1 & v>i\s   
modifications c be se5 go+ on4 ,8 fir/  
view cle>ly 0 t ! individual is :olly   
imp]man5t1 & at dea? simply disappe>s2  
no?+ is left b ! "o ,w & ! univ]sal     
,subject ( contemplation id5tical 9 all4
 ,metempsy*osis is ! be/ my?ological    
r5d]+ ( :at happ5s1 b x is no m4 ,lat]1 
he puts =w>d ! n v cle>ly def9$ !ory ( a
 'pal+5esia' by :i* a p>ticul> w1 b n ! 
intellect t =m]ly accompani$ x1 may     
reappe> 9 ! ph5om5al _w4 ,& !           

hospitality he %[$ to /ories ( magic1   
clairvoyance1 & gho/-see+1 is sc>cely   
compatible ) ! view t ! individual w is 
no m ?an a ph5om5al diff]5tiation ( !   
univ]sal w4 ,a speculation 7n put =w>d z
 any?+ m7 on ! appe>ance ( a special    
provid5ce 9 ! de/9y ( ! individual1     
po9ts1 z ,pr(essor ,volkelt has not$1 to
 ! idea ( a guidance1 n f )\t1 b by a   
k9d ( good daemon or g5ius t is !       
ultimate reality ( ! p]son4 ,on all ?is 
we mu/ n lay too mu* /ress2 b !re is    
c]ta9ly "o passage t c only be describ$ 
z a def9ite concession t ! individual is
 real 9 a s5se n at fir/ all[$4         
,individuality1 x is said 9 s _m words  
7,p>]ga1 ii4 ,sec4 #aag71 does n re/    
only on ! 'pr9ciple ( individuation' 7"t
 & space71 & is !re=e n ?r\gh & ?r\gh   
ph5om5on1 b is root$ 9 ! ?+-9-itself4   
',h[ deep its roots g belongs to !      
que/ions :i* ,i d n und]take to         
answ]4'#a    #a ,w]ke1 ed4 ,frau5/a$t1  
vol4 vi4 p4 #bdc4  ,?is t5ds to modify  
consid]ably1 b does n ov]?r[1           

,s*op5hau]'s orig9al sy/em4 ,9 v g5]al  
t]ms1 he is 9 ! numb] ( ! 'pan!i/ic'    
?9k]s2 & x is rem>kable1 on exam9ation1 
h[ ^!1 9 ,europe at lea/1 h ne>ly always
 recognis$ 9 ! end "s p]man5t reality 9 
! individual4 ,?is is contr>y to fir/   
impressions3 b ! great names may be cit$
 ( ,plot9us1 ,john ,scotus ,erig5a1     
,giordano ,bruno1 ,sp9oza 79 ,"p v4 ( ! 
,e?ics71 & f9ally ( ,s*op5hau]'s special
 av]sion1 ,hegel1 :o has be5 suppos$ mo/
 unfav\rable ( all to any recognition ( 
individuality z real4 ,x is m true1     
,hegel ma9ta9s1 t ! individuality       
det]m9es its _w ?an t x is det]m9$ by x2
 & !re is no explanation :y !           
det]m9ation %\ld be su* & su* except t !
 individuality 0 already :at x is4#b ,&1
 if ,s*op5hau]'s m imag9ative           
speculations seek c\nt5ance f ! side (  
empiricism1 !re is no?+ 9 !m q s        
audaci\s z a speculation ( ,j4 ,s4 ,mill
 on disembodi$ m9d1 ?r[n out dur+ ! "t  
:5 he 0 writ+ 8 ,logic4#c    #b         
,pha5om5ologie des ,gei/es1             

,jubilaeumsausgabe1 ed4 ,g4 ,lasson1 pp4
   #bja-c4    #c ,lett] to ,rob]t       
,b>clay ,fox1 ,may #aj1 #ahdb4 ,pr9t$ 9 
,app5dix to   ,lett]s & ,j\rnals (      
,c>ol9e ,fox1 ?ird ed41 vol4 ii4 pp4    
#cca-b4   ',to suppose t ! eye is       
necess>y to sight1' says ,mill1 'seems  
to   me ! notion ( "o imm]s$ 9 matt]4   
,:at we call our bodily   s5sations are 
all 9 ! m9d1 & w\ld n necess>ily or     
probably   cease1 because ! body        
p]i%es4'  ,! association ) pan!ism      
,s*op5hau] accepts 9 pr9ciple1 ?\gh ! "n
 is n cong5ial to him4 ,9 8 sy/em ! ,w  
is "o & all1 l ! ',deus' ( ,sp9oza4 ,!  
diff]5ce is t1 in/ead ( ascrib+         
p]fection to ! univ]se t is its         
manife/ation1 he reg>ds ! production ( a
 _w z a lapse f :i* r$emption is to be  
s\ght4 ,8 doctr9e has be5 rightly       
describ$1 9 common ) ! pr$om9ant        
philosophical doctr9es ( 8 p]iod1 z a   
resultant ( ! deep5$ subjective analysis
 br\ght by ,kant into mod]n philosophy  
on ! "o side1 & ( ! return to ,sp9oza 9 

! que/ = unity ( pr9ciple on ! o!r4 ,:y1
 !n1 x may be ask$1 are ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1
 & ,hegel ! con/ant objects ( 8 attack8 
,! true explanation is n ! m]ely ext]nal
 "o1 t !y 7 8 successful rivals = public
 fav\r1 b is to be f\nd 9 a real        
anti!sis ( ?\ght4 ,)9 ! limits ( !      
idealism !y all hold 9 common1          
,s*op5hau] is at ! opposite pole4 ,9    
spite ( 8 attempt to incorporate !      
,platonic ,ideas1 & 9 spite ( 8 foll[+ (
 ,kant1 ^: 'intelligible _w' 0 9 ess5ce 
,platonic or neo-,platonic1 he c\ld f9d 
no place 9 8 sy/em = a rational ord] at 
! summit4 ,n[ ?is ord] 0 precisely :at  
,fi*te & ,hegel aim$ at demon/rat+4 ,if 
,s*op5hau] is less unsympa!tic 9 8      
ref]5ces to ,s*ell+1 t is because       
,s*ell+'s _w-s\l appe>$ to him to       
prefigure 8 own attempt to discov] 9    
nature ! manife/ation ( a bl9dly /riv+ w
 or feel+ r ?an reason4 ,suspici\s z he 
%[s himself ( possible plagi>isms by    
o!rs1 ! *>ge _c be retort$ aga9/        
himself4 ,! supreme pr9ciple ( ,fi*te1 x

 has be5 po9t$ out1 has an actively     
volitional "* & 0 =mulat$ be=e          
,s*op5hau]'s3 b !n x is ess5tially      
rational4 ,= ,hegel1 :at is supreme is !
 _w-reason4 ,h5ce !y are at "o ) ,plato 
9 hold+ t 9 "s s5se 'm9d is k+4' ,=     
,s*op5hau]1 on ! contr>y1 m9d1 or pure  
intellect1 is an emancipat$ slave4 ,hav+
 rea*$ its highe/ po9t1 & se5 ?r\gh ! "w
 ( ! w1 x does n turn back & organise x1
 b aboli%es x z f> z its insight ext5ds4
  ,yet to say m]ely ?is is to give a    
wrong impression ( ,s*op5hau]4 ,/>t+    
?\gh he does ) bl9d w1 & end+ ) ! flight
 ( ! ascetic f ! suff]+ inh]5t 9 ! _w t 
is ! manife/ation ( su* a w1 he         
nev]!less1 9 ! int]m$iate /ages1 makes !
 _w a cosmos & n a *aos4 ,& ! ,platoni/s
 on _! side h to admit t '! _w ( all (  
u' does n pres5t itself on ! surface z a
 manife/ation ( pure reason1 & t x is a 
s]i\s task to 'rationalise' x4 ,:]e he  
completely fails is :]e ! ,platonic     
sy/ems also fail1 ?\gh f ! opposite     
/>t+-po9t4 ,8 attempt to d]ive          

pres5tation1 intellect1 k1 f bl9d /riv+1
 is und\bt$ly a failure4 ,b s also is ! 
attempt ( ! ,platonis+ ?9k]s to d$uce a 
_w ( mixture f a pr9ciple ( pure reason 
)\t aid f any?+ else empirically assum$4
 ,n t 9 ei!r case !re is failure to give
 explanations 9 detail2 b 9 bo? cases   
mu* is tak5 f exp]i5ce )\t r$uction to !
 pr9ciples ( ! sy/em4 ,:at we may say by
 way ( comp>ison is ?is3 t if ,s*op5hau]
 _h 9 s _m words recognis$ an imman5t   
,reason z well z ,w 9 ! reality ( !     
univ]se1 he w\ld h =mally r5\nc$ 8      
pessimism2 :ile x _c be said t on ! o!r 
side a m explicit empiricism 9 ! acc\nt 
( ! self-manife/ation ( ,reason w\ld    
necess>ily de/roy ! optimism4           
,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,ae/hetics   ,a portion (
 ,s*op5hau]'s sy/em by :i* its pessimism
 is consid]ably mitigat$ is 8 !ory ( !  
,beautiful & ( ,f9e ,art4 ,! *>act]i/ic 
( ae/hetic contemplation is1 he f9ds1 t 
intellect ?r[s (f ! yoke & subsi/s      
purely = itself z cle> mirror ( ! _w1   
free f all subjection to practical      

purposes ( ! w4 ,9 ?is /ate ( fre$om1   
tempor>y pa9lessness is atta9$4  ,! !ory
 />ts f 8 adaptation ( ! ,platonic      
,ideas4 ,reg>d$ purely z an ae/hetic    
!ory1 x dep>ts f ,plato1 z he notes2 =1 
) ! lat] ,platoni/s1 :o took up ! def5ce
 ( poetic my?s & ( ! imitative arts z   
aga9/ _! ma/]1 he holds t ,art p5etrates
 to ! g5]al ,idea ?r\gh ! p>ticul>1 &   
h5ce t ! "w ( art is no m]e 'copy ( a   
copy4' ,! diff]5ce ( ! ,idea f !        
,concept is t x is n m]ely ab/ract &    
g5]al1 b comb9es ) g5]ality ! *>act]s ( 
an intuition4  ,! ,ideas1 z we h se51   
con/itute ! det]m9ate /ages (           
objectivation ( ! ,w4 ,! innum]able     
individuals ( :i* ! ,ideas are ! patt]ns
 are subject to ! law ( suffici5t       
reason4 ,!y appe>1 t is to say1 "u ! =ms
 ( "t1 space1 & causality4 ,! ,idea is  
beyond ^! =ms1 & !re=e is cle> (        
plurality & *ange4 ,s9ce ! law (        
suffici5t reason is ! common =m "u :i*  
/&s all ! subject's k s f> z ! subject  
kn[s z individual1 ! ,ideas lie outside 

! sph]e ( k ( ! individual z su*4 ,if1  
!re=e1 ! ,ideas are to be ! object ( k1 
?is c only be by annull+ individuality 9
 ! kn[+ subject4  ,z ?+-9-itself1 ! ,w  
is exempt ev5 f ! fir/ ( ! =ms ( k1 ! =m
 ( be+ 'object = a subject4' ,!         
,platonic ,idea1 on ! o!r h&1 is        
necess>ily an object1 some?+ kn[n1 a    
pres5tation4 ,x has laid aside1 or r has
 n tak5 on1 ! subord9ate =ms2 b x has   
reta9$ ! fir/ & mo/ g5]al =m4 ,x is !   
imm$iate & mo/ adequate possible        
objectivity ( ! ,w2 :]eas p>ticul> ?+s  
are an objectivation tr\bl$ by ! =ms (  
:i* ! law ( suffici5t reason is ! common
 expression4  ,:5 intellect breaks loose
 f ! s]vice ( ! w1 = :i* x 0 orig9ally  
de/9$ 9 ! teleology ( nature1 !n !      
subject ceases to be m]ely individual & 
becomes pure w-less subject ( k4 ,9 ?is 
/ate ! behold] no long] tracks out      
relations 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple (   
suffici5t reason--:i* is ! mode (       
sci5tific z well z ( common k--b re/s 9 
fix$ contemplation ( ! giv5 object ap>t 

f its connection ) any?+ else4 ,!       
contemplator ?us 'lo/' 9 ! object1 x is 
n ! s+le ?+ z su* t is kn[n1 b ! ,idea1 
! et]nal =m1 ! imm$iate objectivity ( ! 
,w at ?is /age4 ,! correlate ( ?is      
object--! pure ,subject exempt f !      
pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason--is et]nal1 
l ! ,idea4  ,! objectivation ( ! ,w     
appe>s fa9tly 9 inorganic ?+s1--cl\ds1  
wat]1 cry/als1--m fully 9 ! plant1 yet m
 fully 9 ! animal1 mo/ completely 9 man4
 ,only ! ess5tial 9 ^! /ages (          
objectivation con/itutes ! ,idea4 ,its  
developm5t into manifold ph5om5a "u !   
=ms ( ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason1 is 
uness5tial1 lies m]ely 9 ! mode ( k = ! 
individual1 & has reality only = ?is4 ,x
 is n o!rwise ) ! unfold+ ( t ,idea :i* 
is ! complete/ objectivation ( ! ,w4 ,to
 ! ,idea ( ,man1 ! occurr5ces ( human   
hi/ory are z uness5tial z ! %apes !y    
assume to ! cl\ds1 z ! figures ( its    
:irlpools & foam-drift to ! /ream1 z its
 fro/-fl[]s to ! ice4 ,! same und]ly+   
passions & dispositions ev]la/+ly recur 

9 ! same modes4 ,x is idle to suppose t 
any?+ is ga9$4 ,b also no?+ is lo/3 s ! 
,e>?-_s might reply to "o :o compla9$ ( 
high endeav\rs fru/rat$1 faculties wa/$1
 promises ( _w-enlight5m5t br\ght to    
n\ght2 = !re is inf9ite "t to dispose (1
 & all possibilities are = ev] r5ew$4   
,! k9d ( k = :i* ! ,ideas are ! object (
 contemplation f9ds its expression 9    
,art1 ! "w ( g5ius4 ,art repeats 9 its  
v>i\s m$ia ! ,ideas grasp$ by pure      
contemplation4 ,its only end is !       
communication ( ^!4 ,:ile ,sci5ce1      
foll[+ ! /ream ( ev5ts accord+ to _!    
det]m9ate relations1 nev] rea*es an     
ultimate end1 ,art is always at ! end4  
',x /ops ! :eel ( "t2 relations vani% = 
x3 only ! ess5ce1 ! ,idea1 is its       
object4' ,! *>act]i/ic ( g5ius is a     
pr$om9ant capacity = ?us contemplat+ ?+s
 indep5d5tly ( ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t   
reason4 ,s9ce ?is requires a =gett+ (   
"o's own p]son & ! relations betwe5 x & 
?+s1 ! attitude ( g5ius is simply !     
complete/ 'objectivity4' ,!             

'subjectivity' oppos$ to ?is1 9         
,s*op5hau]'s phraseology1 is            
preoccupation ) ! int]e/s ( "o's own w4 
,x is1 he says1 z if !re fell to ! %>e (
 g5ius a measure ( intellig5ce f> beyond
 ! ne$s ( ! individual w3 & ?is makes   
possible ! sett+ aside ( individual     
int]e/s1 ! /ripp+ (f ( ! p>ticul>       
p]sonality1 s t ! subject becomes 'pure 
kn[+ subject1' 'cle> _w-eye1' 9 a mann] 
suffici5tly su/a9$ = t :i* has be5      
grasp$ to be repeat$ 9 ! "w ( art4 ,a   
necess>y elem5t 9 g5ius is !re=e        
,imag9ation4 ,= )\t imag9ation to       
repres5t1 9 a %ape n m]ely ab/ract1 ?+s 
t h n come )9 p]sonal exp]i5ce1 g5ius   
w\ld rema9 limit$ to imm$iate intuition1
 & c\ld n make its vision appreh5sible  
by o!rs4 ,nor )\t imag9ation c\ld !     
p>ticul> ?+s t express ! ,idea be cle>$ 
( ! imp]fections by :i* _! limit$       
expression ( x falls %ort ( :at nature 0
 aim+ at 9 _! production4 ',inspiration'
 is ascrib$ to g5ius because its        
*>act]i/ic attitude is int]mitt5t4 ,!   

man ( g5ius _c always rema9 on a height1
 b has to fall back to ! level ( !      
common man1 :o c sc>cely at all reg>d   
?+s except z !y affect 8 int]e/s1--h a  
relation to 8 w1 direct or indirect4    
,?is is ! /atem5t 9 its fir/ outl9e ( a 
!ory t became "o ( ,s*op5hau]'s mo/     
fruitful topics4 ,_m are ! pages he has 
devot$ to ! contra/ betwe5 ! man ( g5ius
 & '! :olesale w>e ( nature1 :i* %e     
turns out daily by ?\s&s4' ,! g5ius is =
 him prim>ily ! arti/4 ,sci5tific g5ius 
z a di/9ctive ?+ he does n fully        
recognise2 & he reg>ds m5 ( action1 &   
especially /atesm51 r z m5 ( highly     
compet5t ability end[$ ) an             
exceptionally good physical con/itution 
?an z m5 ( g5ius 9 ! prop] s5se4        
,philosoph]s l himself1 :o1 z he frankly
 says1 appe> ab\t once 9 a hundr$ ye>s1 
he classes 9 ! end ) ! arti/s2 ?\gh ?is 
0 left some:at indet]m9ate 9 8 fir/     
exposition4 ,! weakness ( ! man ( g5ius 
9 deal+ ) ! ord9>y circum/ances ( life  
he all[s1 & ev5 insi/s on4 ,g5ius1      

grasp+ ! ,idea 9 its p]fection1 fails to
 und]/& individuals4 ,a poet may "k man 
pr(\ndly1 & m5 v ill4 ,he admits !      
proximity ( g5ius to madness on "o side1
 & expla9s x 9 ?is way4 ,:at m>ks ! /age
 ( actual madness1 z di/+ui%$ f illusion
 or halluc9ation1 is complete disruption
 ( ! memory ( pa/ life1 ( ! hi/ory ( !  
p]sonality z some?+ cont9u\s2 s t !     
p>ticul> ?+ is view$ by itself1 out (   
relation4 ,?is gives a k9d ( resemblance
 to ! attitude ( g5ius1 = :i* pres5t    
intuition excludes f view ! relations ( 
?+s to ea* o!r4 ,or1 z we may p]haps sum
 up 8 ?\ght 9 its mo/ g5]al =m1         
'ali5ation' or dissolution ( p]sonality 
has ! resemblance (t5 not$ betwe5       
extremes to ! imp]sonality1 or1 z he    
calls x1 'objectivity1' t is            
sup]-p]sonal4  ,9 spite ( 8 contempt = !
 cr[d1 he has to admit1 ( c\rse1 t !    
capacity ( g5ius to recognise ! ,ideas (
 ?+s & to become mom5t>ily imp]sonal mu/
 9 "s measure belong to all m52 o!rwise1
 !y c\ld n ev5 enjoy a "w ( art :5      

produc$4 ,g5ius has ! advantage only 9 !
 mu* high] degree & ! great]            
prolongation ( ! insight4 ,s9ce1 !n1 !  
actual a*ievem5t ( ! arti/ is to make u 
look into ! _w ?r\gh 8 eyes1 ! feel+s = 
! beautiful & ! sublime may be treat$   
irrespectively ( ! "q :e!r !y are ar\s$ 
by nature & human life directly or by   
means ( art4  ,a,esthetic pleasure 9    
contemplation ( ! beautiful proce$s     
p>tly f recognition ( ! individual      
object n z "o p>ticul> ?+ b z ,platonic 
,idea1 t is1 z ! endur+ =m ( ?is :ole   
k9d ( ?+s2 p>tly f ! consci\sness ! kn[]
 has ( himself n z individual1 b z pure1
 w-less ,subject ( ,k4 ,all volition    
spr+s out ( ne$1 !re=e out ( want1 !re=e
 out ( suff]+4 ,no atta9$ object ( w c  
give p]man5t satisfaction4 ,?us1 !re c  
be no durable happ9ess or re/ = u z long
 z we are subjects ( w4 ',! ,subject (  
,w lies cont9ually on ! turn+ :eel (    
,ixion1 draws ev] 9 ! sieve ( !         
,danaides1 is ! et]nally ?ir/+          
,tantalus4 ,b 9 ! mom5t ( pure objective

 contemplation1 free f all int]e/ ( !   
p>ticul> subjectivity1 we ent] a pa9less
 /ate3 ! :eel ( ,ixion /&s /ill4 ,!     
,flemi% pa9t]s produce ?is ae/hetic     
effect by ! s5se ( dis9t]e/$            
contemplation convey$ 9 _! treatm5t (   
insignificant objects4 ,!re are c]ta9   
natural sc5es t h p[] 9 !mselves1 ap>t f
 arti/ic treatm5t1 to put u 9 ?is /ate2 
b ! slighte/ obtrusion ( individual     
int]e/ de/roys ! magic4 ,pa/ & di/ant   
objects1 ?r\gh _! app>5t deta*m5t1 h !  
same p[]4 ,! ess5tial ?+ ae/hetically1  
:e!r we contemplate ! pres5t or ! pa/1 !
 ne> or ! di/ant1 is t only ! _w (      
pres5tation rema9s2 ! _w z w has vani%$4
  ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! feel+s ( !       
,beautiful & ( ! ,sublime is ?is4 ,9 !  
feel+ ( ! beautiful1 pure intellig5ce   
ga9s ! victory )\t a /ruggle1 leav+ 9   
consci\sness only ! pure subject ( k1 s 
t no rem9isc5ce ( ! w rema9s4 ,9 ! feel+
 ( ! sublime1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /ate ( pure
 intellig5ce has to be won by a consci\s
 break+ loose f relations 9 ! object t  

sugge/ some?+ ?reat5+ to ! w2 ?\gh !re  
mu/ n be actual dang]2 = 9 t case !     
individual w itself w\ld come into play1
 & ae/hetic deta*m5t w\ld cease4        
,elevation above ! s5se ( t]ror has n   
only to be consci\sly won b consci\sly  
ma9ta9$1 & involves a cont9u\s          
rem9isc5ce1 n inde$ ( any individual w1 
b ( ! w ( man 9 g5]al1 s f> z x is      
express$ ?r\gh its objectivity1 ! human 
body1 confront$ by =ces ho/ile to x4    
,pre-em95tly ?is feel+ arises f contra/ 
betwe5 ! imm5sities ( space & "t & !    
app>5t insignificance ( man4 ,x means 9 
! la/ resort t ! behold] is upheld by ! 
consci\sness t z pure subject ( k 7n z  
individual subject7 he himself be>s )9  
him all ! worlds & all ! ages1 & is     
et]nal z ! =ces t va9ly seem to ?reat5  
him ) annihilation4  ,on ! objective    
side1 & ap>t f ! subjective di/9ction j 
set =?1 ! sublime & ! beautiful are n   
ess5tially diff]5t4 ,9 bo? cases alike1 
! object ( ae/hetic contemplation is n !
 s+le ?+1 b ! ,idea t is /riv+ t[>ds    

manife/ation 9 x4 ,:atev] is view$      
ae/hetically is view$ out ( relation to 
"t & space3 'along ) ! law ( suffici5t  
reason ! s+le ?+ & ! kn[+ individual are
 tak5 away1 & no?+ rema9s ov] b ! ,idea 
& ! pure ,subject ( ,k1 :i* toge!r make 
up ! adequate objectivity ( ! ,w at ?is 
/age4' ,!re is ?us a s5se 9 :i* ev]y?+  
is beautiful2 s9ce ! ,w appe>s 9 ev]y?+ 
at "s /age ( objectivity1 & ?is means t 
x is ! expression ( "s ,idea4 ,b "o ?+ c
 be m beautiful ?an ano!r by facilitat+ 
ae/hetic contemplation4 ,?is            
facilitation proce$s ei!r f ! great]    
cle>ness & p]fection ) :i* ! p>ticul> ?+
 %[s =? ! ,idea ( its k9d1 or f ! high] 
/age ( objectivation to :i* t ,idea     
corresponds4 ,man be+ ! highe/ /age (   
objectivation ( ! ,w1 ! revelation ( 8  
ess5ce is ! highe/ aim ( art4 ,9        
ae/hetic contemplation ( inorganic      
nature & vegetative life1 :e!r 9 !      
reality or ?r\gh ! m$ium ( art1 & 9     
appreciation ( ar*itecture1 ! subjective
 aspect1 t is to say1 ! enjoym5t ( pure 

w-less k1 is pr$om9ant2 ! ,ideas        
!mselves be+ "h l[] /ages ( objectivity4
 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 animals & m5 are !    
object ( ae/hetic contemplation or      
repres5tation1 ! enjoym5t consi/s m 9 ! 
objective appreh5sion ( ^? ,ideas 9 :i* 
! ess5ce ( ! ,w is mo/ cle>ly & fully   
manife/$4  ,( all ,s*op5hau]'s "w1 its  
ae/hetic "p has met ) ! mo/ g5]al       
appreciation4 ,"h especially he ab\nds 9
 obs]vations drawn directly1 9 8 own    
phrase1 f intuition4 ,to make a         
selection ( ^!1 h[ev]1 is n appropriate 
to a brief sket* l ! pres5t4 ,i pass on1
 !re=e1 to ^? portions ( 8 !ory ( ,art  
by :i* he makes ! transition1 9 t]ms ( 8
 sy/em1 to ,morality4  ,f ,ar*itecture  
onw>d ! arts are oblig$ to repres5t ! ,w
 z divid$4 ,"h1 at ! fir/ /age1 its     
division subsi/s only 9 a conflict (    
inorganic =ces :i* h to be br\ght to    
equilibrium4 ,! conflict betwe5 weight &
 rigidity is 9 tru? ! only ae/hetic     
mat]ial ( ar*itecture z a f9e art4 ,:5  
we come to animal & la/ly to human life1

 :i*1 9 ! ,pla/ic ,arts & 9 ,poetry1 z  
=m1 individualis$ expression1 & action1 
is ! highe/ object ( ae/hetic           
repres5tation1 ! vehem5ce ( divid$ w is 
fully reveal$2 & "h too is reveal$ !    
ess5tial id5tity ( e w ) our own4 ,9 !  
words ( ! ,indian wisdom1 ',tat twam    
asi'2 't ?\ art4' ,"u ! head ( ,e?ics x 
w be %[n expressly t by ?is insight1 :5 
x reacts on ! w1 ! w c d5y itself4 ,= ! 
tempor>y release f its /riv+1 giv5 9    
ae/hetic contemplation1 is !n sub/itut$ 
p]man5t release4 ,to ?is 'resignation1' 
! inn]mo/ ess5ce ( all virtue & hol9ess1
 & ! f9al r$emption f ! _w1 ,art itself1
 at its highe/ /ages1 po9ts ! way4  ,!  
summits ( pictorial & poetic art        
,s*op5hau] f9ds 9 ! great ,italian      
pa9t]s s f> z !y repres5t ! e?ical _s ( 
,*ri/ianity1 & 9 ! tragic poets1 anci5t 
& mod]n4 ,x is true t ! pov]ty ( _!     
sacr$ hi/ory or my?ology puts ! ,*ri/ian
 arti/s at a disadvantage2 b ev5ts are  
m]ely ! accid5ts ( _! art4 ,n 9 ^!1 z   
relat$ accord+ to ! law ( suffici5t     

reason1 is ! ess5ce1 b 9 ! _s we div9e  
?r\gh ! =ms portray$4 ,9 _!             
repres5tation ( m5 full ( t _s1 &       
especially 9 ! eyes1 we see mirror$ ! k 
t has seiz$ ! :ole ess5ce ( ! _w & (    
life1 & t has react$ on ! w1 n s z to   
give x motives1 b z a 'quietive'2 :5ce  
proce$s complete resignation1 & ) x !   
annull+ ( ! w & ( ! :ole ess5ce ( ?is   
_w4 ,( trag$y1 ! subject-matt] is !     
conflict ( ! w ) itself at its highe/   
/age ( objectivity4 ,"h also ! end is ! 
resignation br\ght on by complete k ( ! 
ess5ce ( ! _w4 ,! h]o1 on :om at la/ ?is
 k has act$ z a quietive1 gives up1 n   
m]ely life1 b ! :ole w to live4 ',! true
 mean+ ( trag$y is ! deep] insight1 t   
:at ! h]o expiates is n 8 p>ticul> s9s1 
b orig9al s91 t is1 ! guilt ( exi/5ce   
itself4' ,to illu/rate ?is position     
,s*op5hau] is fond ( quot+ a passage f  
,cald]on :i* decl>es t ! greate/ s9 (   
man is to h be5 born4  ,x seems /range  
t1 aft] d]id+ z he does ! popul> notion 
( 'poetic ju/ice' s deta*$ a ?9k] %\ld  

imag9e an at lea/ equally "o-sid$ view  
to receive its f9al confirmation f !    
,spani% dramati/'s poetic phras+ ( a    
,*ri/ian dogma4 ,! great tragic poets1 =
 ,s*op5hau] also1 are ,a,eschylus1      
,sophocles & ,%akespe>e4 ,n[ x is safe  
to say t by none ( ^! 0 any su* g5]al   
doctr9e held ei!r 9 conceptual or 9     
intuitive =m4 ,! :ole effect ( any k9d (
 art1 ( c\rse he w\ld admit1 _c be pack$
 into a =mula2 b if we seek "o z an aid 
to und]/&+1 "s adaptation ( 8 own !ory (
 ! sublime w\ld probably s]ve mu* bett] 
z appli$ to trag$y ?an 8 direct !ory ( !
 drama4 ,9 ! case ( pictorial art1 all t
 is prov$ by :at he says ab\t !         
repres5tation ( ascetic sa9tl9ess1 is t 
?is1 l _m o!r ?+s1 c be s br\ght )9 !   
scope ( art z to make u mom5t>ily       
id5tify ourselves ) its ,idea 9 !       
imp]sonal mann] he has himself describ$4
 ,8 purely ae/hetic !ory is q adequate  
to ! case1 )\t any assumption t ?is is !
 repres5tation ( :at is be/4 ,art1      
pictorial or poetic1 c no m prove       

pessimism ?an optimism4 ,we pick out    
expressions ( "o or ! o!r = quotation   
accord+ to our moods or subjective      
pref]5ces2 b1 if we h ! feel+ = art     
itself1 our s5se ( actual ae/hetic value
 ought to be indep5d5t ( ^!4            
,s*op5hau]'s ae/hetic !ory1 h[ev]1 does 
n end "h4 ,!re foll[s ! "p ( x by :i* he
 has _h an influ5ce on arti/s !mselves4 
,= him1 a position sep>ate f all ! o!r  
arts is held by music4 ,:ile ! re/      
objectify ! ,w m$iately1 t is to say1 by
 means ( ! ,ideas1 ,music is z imm$iate 
an objectivation ( ! :ole ,w z ! _w     
itself1 or z ! ,ideas1 ( :i* ! pluralis$
 ph5om5on con/itutes ! sum ( p>ticul>   
?+s4 ,! o!r arts speak ( ! %ad[1 music (
 ! sub/ance4 ,!re is inde$ a p>allelism1
 an analogy1 betwe5 ,music & ! ,ideas2  
yet ,music nev] expresses ! ph5om5on 9  
:i* ^! are manife/$1 b only ! inn]      
ess5ce beh9d ! appe>ance1 ! ,w itself4  
,9 a s5se x r5d]s n feel+ 9 its         
p>ticul>ity1 b feel+ 9 ab/racto2 joy1   
sorr[1 n a joy1 a sorr[4 ,! ph5om5al _w 

& music are to be reg>d$ z two diff]5t  
expressions ( ! same ?+4 ,! _w might be 
call$ embodi$ ,music z well z embodi$   
,w4 ',melodies are to a c]ta9 ext5t l   
g5]al concepts1 an ab/ract ( reality4'  
,a complete explanation ( music1 t is1 a
 detail$ repetition ( x 9 concepts1 7   
?is possible1 w\ld be a complete        
explanation ( ! _w 7s9ce bo? express !  
same ?+7 & !re=e a true & f9al          
philosophy4 ,z music only rea*es its    
p]fection 9 ! full h>mony1 's ! "o ,w   
out ( "t f9ds its p]fect objectivation  
only 9 complete union ( all ! /ages :i* 
9 innum]able degrees ( height5$         
di/9ctness reveal its ess5ce4' ,b "h1   
too1 ,s*op5hau] adds1 ! ,w is felt1 & c 
be prov$1 to be a divid$ w2 & !         
deliv]ance wr\ght by ?is supreme art1 z 
by all ! o!rs1 is only tempor>y4        
,,*apt] ,v  ,,e?ics   ,p]man5t r$emption
 f ! suff]+ ( ! _w is to be f\nd only 9 
! hol9ess ( ! ascetic2 b to ?is !re are 
_m /ages1 con/itut+ ! g5]ally accept$   
human virtues4 ,( ^! ,s*op5hau] has a   

rational acc\nt to give 9 t]ms ( 8      
philosophy2 & if ! la/ /age does n seem 
to foll[ by logical sequ5ce f ! o!rs1   
?is is only :at is to be expect$2 = x is
 rea*$1 9 8 view1 by a sort ( miracle4  
,to ! highe/ k9d ( intuitive k1 f :i* ! 
ascetic d5ial ( ! w proce$s1 arti/ic    
contemplation ought to prep>e ! way2 & s
 also1 on 8 pr9ciples1 ought ! practice 
( ju/ice & goodness4 ,yet he is oblig$  
to admit t few ?us rea* ! goal4 ,( ^? t 
d rea* x1 ! mo/ arrive ?r\gh p]sonal    
suff]+1 :i* may be des]v$4 ,a true      
miracle is (t5 work$ 9 ! rep5tant       
crim9al1 by :i* f9al deliv]ance is      
a*iev$4 ,?\gh ! 'intelligible "*' is    
unalt]able1 & ! empirical "* c only be !
 unfold+ ( ?is1 z e great dramati/      
intuitively recognises1 yet !           
'conv]tites1' l ,duke ,fr$]ick 9 ,z ,y  
,l ,x1 are n to be reg>d$ z hypocrites4 
,! 'second voyage' to ! h>b\r1 t ( !    
disappo9t$ egoi/1 on condition ( ?is    
miracle1 br+s ! pass5g] to x z surely z 
! fir/1 t ( ! true sa9ts1 :i* is only = 

! few4 ,& 9 ^! equally a miracul\s      
conv]sion ( ! w has to be f9ally work$4 
,at ! entrance to 8 di/9ctive !ory (    
e?ics1 ,s*op5hau] places a re/atem5t ( 8
 metaphysics z ! possible basis ( a mode
 ( contemplat+ life :i*1 he admits1 has 
"s community ) an optimi/ic pan!ism4 ,! 
,w1 ?r\gh ! pres5tation & ! accompany+  
intellig5ce develop$ 9 its s]vice1      
becomes consci\s t t :i* x wills is     
precisely ! _w1 life z x is4 ,to call x 
'! w to live' is !re=e a pleonasm4 ',w' 
& 'w to live' are equival5t4 ,= ?is w1  
life is ev]la/+ly a c]ta9ty4 ',nei!r !  
w1 ! ?+-9-itself 9 all ph5om5a1 nor !   
subject ( k1 ! spectator ( all ph5om5a1 
is ev] t\*$ by bir? & dea?4' ,x is true 
t ! individual appe>s & disappe>s2 b    
individuality is illusory4 ,pa/ & future
 exi/ only 9 conceptual ?\ght4 ',! =m ( 
life is a pres5t )\t end1 h[soev] !     
individuals1 ph5om5a ( ! ,idea1 come    
into exi/5ce & vani% 9 "t1 l fugitive   
dreams4' ,only z ph5om5on is ea* man    
diff]5t f ! o!r ?+s ( ! _w3 z           

?+-9-itself he is ! ,w1 :i* appe>s 9    
all1 & dea? takes away ! illusion t     
divides 8 consci\sness f ! re/4 ',dea?  
is a sleep 9 :i* ! individuality is     
=gott53 ev]y?+ else wakes aga91 or r has
 rema9$ awake4' ,x is1 9 ! expression   
adopt$ by ,s*op5hau] lat]1 an awak5+ f !
 dream ( life3 ?\gh ?is be>s ) x some:at
 diff]5t implications2 &1 z has be5     
said1 8 !ory ( individuality became     
modifi$4  ,) ! doctr9e ( ! et]nal life (
 ! ,w are connect$ ,s*op5hau]'s !ories1 
develop$ lat]1 ( ! immortality ( !      
species & ( individualis$ sexual love4  
,! latt] is by itself a rem>kable       
a*ievem5t1 & con/itutes ! "o di/9ctly   
new developm5t br\ght to completion 9 8 
lat] ye>s2 = ! modifications 9 8 !ory ( 
individuality are only t5tative4 ,8 !ory
 ( love has a det]m9ate conclusion1 (   
great value = sci5ce1 & n really        
compatible1 x seems to me1 ) 8          
pessimism4 ,9 its relation to e?ics1 on 
:i* he insi/$1 x is rightly plac$ 9 !   
position x occupies1 betwe5 ! g5]alis$  

/atem5t ( 8 metaphysics j n[ set =? on !
 "o side1 & 8 !ory ( human virtue on !  
o!r4  ,! teleology t manife/s itself 9  
individualis$ love is1 9 8 view1 n      
relat$ 9 reality to ! int]e/s ( !       
individual life1 b to ^? ( ! species4 ,t
 ?is is immortal foll[s f ! et]nity ( ! 
,idea x unfolds4#d ,! end s\ght is aim$ 
at unconsci\sly by ! p]son4             
,fundam5tally1 = ,s*op5hau]1 teleology  
mu/ ( c\rse be unconsci\s1 s9ce ! w is  
bl9d1 & w1 n intellig5ce1 is primordial4
 ,its typical case is ! in/9ct (        
animals2 b ! 'in/9ctive' "* belongs also
 to ! accompli%m5t ( ! highe/ aims1 z 9 
art & virtue4 ,:at *>act]ises           
individualis$ love int]nally is ! aim1  
attribut$ to 'nature' or '! species1' at
 a c]ta9 typical beauty or p]fection ( !
 (fspr+4 ,! lov] is !re=e delud$ 9 ?9k+ 
t he is seek+ 8 own happ9ess4 ,:at looks
 ?r\gh ! eyes ( lov]s is ! g5ius ( !    
race1 m$itat+ on ! composition ( ! next 
g5]ation4 ,x may1 9 ! complexity (      
circum/ances1 be ?w>t$4 ,:5 x rea*es its

 end1 (t5 p]sonal happ9ess is sacrific$4
 ,m>riages dictat$ by int]e/ t5d to be  
happi] ?an love-mat*es4 ,yet1 ?\gh !    
sacrifice ( ! individual to ! race is   
involunt>y 9 ^!1 egoism is aft] all     
ov]come2 h5ce !y are q rightly ! object 
( a c]ta9 admiration & sympa?y1 :ile !  
prud5tial ones are look$ ^u ) a t+e (   
contempt4 ,= "h too t elem5t appe>s :i* 
alone gives nobility to ! life ei!r (   
intellect or ( art or ( moral virtue1   
namely1 ! ris+ above a subjective int]e/
 ( ! individual w4    #d ,! disappe>ance
 ( species 9 "t raises difficulties 9 m 
?an "o way = 8 philosophy2 b he =mally  
escapes refutation by   ! sugge/ion1    
already not$1 t ! ,idea ne$ n always be 
manife/$ ph5om5ally 9 ! same _w4 ,?is1  
h[ev]1 he did n   "w out4  ,no d\bt !re 
are t\*es ( pessimism 9 ?is /atem5t2 b !
 g5]al !ory does n seem reconcilable    
f9ally ) pessimism z ,s*op5hau] und]/&s 
x4 ,= x is a def9itely /at$ position ( 8
 t nature keeps up ! process ( ! _w by  
yield+ j en\gh to prev5t discont9uance (

 ! /riv+ = an illusory end4 ,yet he     
admits "h 9 ! result some?+ beyond b>e  
cont9uance ( life2 = ?is is already     
secur$ )\t ! p>ticul> modification (    
feel+ describ$4 ,:at ! feel+ is br\ght 9
 to secure is a bett] realisation ( !   
type 9 actual individuals2 & su*        
realisation is c]ta9ly m ?an b>e        
subsi/5ce ) ! lea/ possible exp5diture (
 nature's res\rces4  ,z ! imm$iate      
prelim9>y to 8 e?ics prop]1 ,s*op5hau]  
re/ates 8 doctr9e on ! intelligible & ! 
empirical "* 9 man1 & lays d[n a        
g5]alis$ psy*ological position reg>d+ ! 
suff]+ inh]5t 9 life4 ,ev]y?+ z         
ph5om5on1 we h se5 already1 is det]m9$  
because x is subject to ! law (         
suffici5t reason4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ev]y?+ z
 ?+-9-itself is free2 = 'fre$om' means  
only non-subjection to t law4 ,!        
intelligible "* ( ea* man is an         
indivisible1 unalt]able act ( w out (   
"t2 ! develop$ & explicit ph5om5on ( ?is
 9 "t & space is ! empirical "*4 ,man is
 8 own "w1 n 9 ! light ( k1 b be=e all  

k2 ?is is second>y & an in/rum5t4       
,ultimately1 fre$om is a my/]y1 & takes 
u beyond ev5 w z ! "n = ! ?+-9-itself4  
,9 reality1 t :i* is 'w to live' ne$ n h
 be5 su* 7?\gh we _c see h[ ?is is s71 b
 has become su* f itself & f no?+ else4 
,?is is its 'aseitas4' ,h5ce x is 9 its 
p[] to d5y itself z w to live4 ,:5 x    
does ?is1 ! r$emption 7l ! fall7 comes f
 itself4 ,?is d5ial does n mean         
annihilation1 except relatively to all t
 we "k "u ! =ms ( our und]/&+4 ,= ! w1  
?\gh ! ne>e/ we c get to ! ?+-9-itself1 
is 9 tru? a p>tially ph5om5alis$        
expression ( ?is4 ,z ! w to live        
expresses itself ph5om5ally1 s also does
 ! d5ial ( ! w to live1 :5 ?is1 by      
special 'grace1' is a*iev$4 ,only 9 man 
does ! fre$om ?us atta9$ f9d ph5om5al   
expression4 ,t man c atta9 to x proves t
 9 him ! w has rea*$ its highe/ possible
 /age ( objectivation2 =1 aft] x has    
turn$ back & d5i$ itself1 !re is        
evid5tly no?+ m t we c call exi/5ce1 t  
is to say1 ph5om5al exi/5ce1 beyond4    

,:at !re is beyond 9 ! tru? ( be+ is    
some?+ t ! my/ics "k--or r1 possess1 = x
 is beyond k--b _c communicate4  ,!     
psy*ological reason t c be assign$ = !  
ascetic flight f ! _w is t all pleasure1
 happ9ess1 satisfaction1 is m]ely       
negative4 ,! w is a /riv+ t has no      
ultimate aim4 ,x is su/a9$ only by      
h9drances4 ,h9drance means suff]+2 & e  
satisfaction atta9$ is only tempor>y1 a 
m]e lib]ation f ne$1 want1 pa91 :i* is  
positive4 ,suff]+ increases ) ! degree (
 consci\sness4 ,! life ( civilis$ man is
 an alt]nation betwe5 pa9 & ennui1 :i* c
 itself become z intol]able a suff]+ z  
any?+4 ,! problem ( moral philosophy1   
!n1 is ultimately h[ r$emption f su* a  
_w is to be atta9$1 b only s f> z ?is is
 a matt] ( conceptual k4 ,= philosophy1 
be+ f beg9n+ to end !oretical1 _c "w !  
practical miracle by :i* ! w d5ies      
itself4  ,! intuitive1 z di/+ui%$ f     
m]ely conceptual1 k by :i* ! return is  
made1 consi/s ess5tially 9 a cle>       
insight into ! id5tity ( ! suff]+ w 9   

all ?+s & ! necessity ( its suff]+ z    
long z x is w to live4 ,?is1 !n1 is !   
true f\ndation ( morality4 ,! univ]se z 
metaphysical ?+-9-itself1 z n\m5on1 has 
an e?ical mean+4 ,all its /ages (       
objectivation1 ?\gh 9 ! process :at     
seems to be aim$ at is pres]vation ( ! w
 z manife/$1 h 9 tru? = _! ultimate aim 
its r$emption by suppression ( !        
ph5om5al _w 9 :i* x manife/s itself4    
,affirmation ( ! w is affirmation ( !   
body1 :i* is ! objectivity ( ! w4 ,!    
sexual impulse1 s9ce x affirms life     
beyond ! dea? ( ! individual1 is !      
/ronge/ ( self-affirmations4 ,9 x is    
f\nd ! mean+ ( ! my?ical repres5tation t
 has tak5 %ape 9 ! !ological dogma (    
orig9al s94 ,= by ?is affirmation go+   
beyond ! individual body1 suff]+ & dea?1
 z ! necess>y accompanim5t ( ! ph5om5on 
( life1 are reaffirm$1 & ! possibility (
 r$emption ?is "t decl>$ fruitless4 ,b  
?r\gh ! :ole process !re runs et]nal    
ju/ice4 ,! ju/ification ( suff]+ is t ! 
w affirms itself2 & ! self-affirmation  

is ju/ifi$ by paym5t ( ! p5alty4  ,be=e 
! f9al r$emption--:i* is n = ! _w b = ! 
individual--!re are _m /ages ( e?ical   
progress4 ,^! consi/ 9 ! gradual ov]com+
 ( egoism by sympa?y4 ,& "h ,s*op5hau]  
proce$s to set =? a practical s*eme = ! 
social life ( man1 diff]+ f ord9>y      
utilit>ianism only by r$uc+ all sympa?y 
to pity1 9 accordance ) 8 view t !re c  
be no su* ?+ z positive happ9ess4  ,he  
beg9s ) a !ory ( ju/ice1 legal & moral1 
v mu* on ! l9es ( ,hobbes1 except t he  
reg>ds x z up to a c]ta9 po9t a priori4 
,"h he is consi/5t ?r\gh\t4 ,z 9 8      
philosophical acc\nt ( ma!matics &      
physics1 s also 9 8 ae/hetics & e?ics1  
he reta9$1 side by side ) a /rong       
empirical t5d5cy1 belief 9 c]ta9        
irr$ucible a priori =ms )\t :i* our k _c
 be con/itut$4 ,! pure e?ical !ory (    
ju/ice1 he says1 be>s to ! political    
!ory ! relation ( pure to appli$        
ma!matics4 ,inju/ice he holds to be !   
positive conception4 ,x means ! break+  
into ! sph]e ( ano!r p]son's w to live4 

,! self-affirmation ( ! w t appe>s 9 "o 
individual body is ext5d$ to d5ial ( ! w
 t appe>s 9 o!r bodies4 ,ju/ice consi/s 
9 non-encroa*m5t4 ,!re is a 'natural    
"r1' or 'moral "r1' ( resi/ance to      
inju/ice by infliction ( :at1 ap>t f !  
attempt$ encroa*m5t1 w\ld be wrong4     
,ei!r =ce or deception may be us$2 z    
ei!r may be ! in/rum5t ( inju/ice4 ,!   
purely e?ical doctr9e ( ju/ice applies  
only to action2 s9ce only ! n do+ (     
inju/ice dep5ds on u4 ,) ! ,/ate & its  
laws1 ! relation is rev]s$4 ,! object ( 
^! is to prev5t ! suff]+ ( inju/ice4 ,! 
,/ate is n direct$ aga9/ egoism1 b has  
sprung out ( a rationalis$ collective   
egoism4 ,x has = its purpose only to    
avoid ! inconv5i5t consequ5ces (        
individual aggressions on o!rs4 ,outside
 ( ! ,/ate1 !re is a "r ( self-def5ce   
aga9/ inju/ice1 b no "r ( puni%m5t4 ,!  
puni%m5t ?reat5$ by ! ,/ate is          
ess5tially a motive aga9/ committ+      
wrong1 int5d$ to supply ! place ( e?ical
 motives = ^? :o are insuffici5tly      

accessible to !m4 ,actual infliction ( x
 is ! c>ry+ out ( ! ?reat :5 x has      
fail$1 s t 9 g5]al ! expectation ( !    
p5alty may be c]ta94 ,rev5ge1 :i* has a 
view to ! pa/1 _c be ju/ifi$ e?ically3  
puni%m5t is direct$ only to ! future4   
,!re is no "r 9 any "o to set himself up
 z a moral judge & inflict pa92 b man   
has a "r to d :at is ne$ful = social    
security4 ,! crim9al's acts are ( c\rse 
necessitat$2 b he _c ju/ly compla9 ( be+
 puni%$ = !m1 s9ce x is ultimately f    
himself1 f :at he is1 t !y sprang4  ,) !
 doctr9e ( 'et]nal ju/ice1' t\*$ on     
above1 we pass into a diff]5t region (  
?\ght4 ,:at is responsible = ! guilt 9 !
 _w is ! ,w by :i* ev]y?+ exi/s1 & !    
suff]+ ev]la/+ly falls :]e ! guilt is4  
,take ! case ( app>5tly unpuni%$        
inju/ice 7f ! human po9t ( view7        
express+ itself 9 ! extreme =m (        
delib]ate cruelty4 ,?r\gh ?is also1     
et]nal ju/ice1 f :i* !re is no escape1  
is fulfill$4 ',! tortur] & ! tortur$ are
 "o4 ,! =m] errs 9 ?9k+ he has no %>e 9 

! torture2 ! latt] 9 ?9k+ he has no %>e 
9 ! guilt4' ,= all ! pa9 ( ! _w is !    
expiation ( ! s9 involv$ 9 !            
self-affirmation ( w1 & ! ,w z          
?+-9-itself is "o & ! same 9 all4  ,if  
?is c\ld satisfy any "o1 !re w\ld be no 
ne$ to g fur!r4 ,! :ole be+ z x ought to
 be1 :y try to rectify details t are    
absolutely indiff]5t8 ,b ( c\rse !      
implication is t individuality is simply
 illusory2 & ?is1 z has be5 said1 0 a   
position t ,s*op5hau] nei!r c\ld nor did
 consi/5tly ma9ta94 ,inde$1 imm$iately  
aft] sett+ =? ?is !ory ( 'et]nal        
ju/ice1' he goes on to a relative       
ju/ification ( ^? acts ( dis9t]e/$      
v5geance by :i* a p]son kn[+ly          
sacrifices 8 own life = ! sake (        
retribution on "s extraord9>y crim9al4  
,?is1 he says1 is a =m ( puni%m5t1 n m]e
 rev5ge1 al?\gh x involves an error     
conc]n+ ! nature ( et]nal ju/ice4       
,suicide involves a simil> error1 9 s f>
 z x supposes t ! real be+ ( !          
individual c be assail$ ?r\gh its       

ph5om5al manife/ation4 ,x is n a d5ial (
 ! w to live1 b a /rong affirmation ( x1
 only n 9 ! giv5 circum/ances3 diff]5t  
circum/ances are desir$ ) su* int5sity t
 ! pres5t _c be borne4 ,!re=e !         
individual manife/ation ( ! w is n      
suppress$4 ,yet1 "o might reply1 if     
individuality is an illusion atta*$ to !
 appe>ance 9 "t & space ( a p>ticul>    
organism1 x w\ld seem t1 ) !            
disappe>ance ( ?is1 all t di/+ui%es !   
individual mu/ disappe> also4           
,s*op5hau] _h no w ?us to escape f life2
 nor did he aft]w>ds devote himself to  
exp\nd+ fur!r 8 !ory ( et]nal ju/ice4   
,:at he wrote lat]1 ei!r positively or z
 m]e speculation1 implies bo? great]    
reality 9 ! individual & m ( cosmic     
equity to correspond4 ,8 next /ep1 ev5  
at 8 fir/ /age1 is to cont9ue !         
exposition ( a practicable e?ics = human
 life4 ,8 proc$ure consi/s 9 add+       
b5efic5ce to ju/ice1 ) ! proviso already
 m5tion$1 :i* is requir$ by 8 psy*ology1
 t all b5efic5ce c consi/ only 9 !      

relief ( pa94 ,= ,s*op5hau]1 z = ,comte1
 :at is to be ov]come is 'egoism1' an   
excessive degree ( :i* is ! m>k ( ! "*  
we call 'bad4' ,! 'good' is :at ,comte &
 ,sp5c] call ! 'altrui/ic' "*4 ,?is     
diff]5ce betwe5 *>act]s ,s*op5hau] goes 
on to expla9 9 t]ms ( 8 metaphysics4 ,! 
egoi/ is s delud$ by ! pr9ciple (       
individuation t he supposes an absolute 
cleft betwe5 8 own p]son & all o!rs4 ,! 
remorse ( consci5ce f :i* he suff]s     
proce$s 9 "p f an obscure p]ception t ! 
pr9ciple ( individuation is illusory4   
,g5u9e virtue spr+s out ( ! intuitive 7n
 m]ely ab/ract7 k t recognises 9 ano!r  
individuality ! same ess5ce z 9 "o's    
own4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ! good man is t he 
makes less diff]5ce ?an is cu/om>y      
betwe5 himself & o!rs4 ,ju/ice is an    
int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! encroa*+ egoism
 ( ! bad & positive goodness4 ,9 !      
r5unciation ( rights ( prop]ty1 &       
provision = all p]sonal ne$s )\t aid f  
o!rs1 practis$ by "s religi\s &         
philosophical ascetics1 x is pass+ ov]  

into some?+ m4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9  
misund]/&+ involv$ 9 s int]pret+ /rict  
ju/ice2 = !re are _m ways 9 :i* ! ri* & 
p[]ful c be positively b5efic5t4 ,at !  
o!r extreme1 :5 !y simply live on _!    
inh]it$ weal?1 )\t do+ any?+ 9 return1  
_! mode ( life is morally1 ?\gh n       
legally1 unju/4 ,rights ( prop]ty       
,s*op5hau] d]iv$ f lab\r sp5t on ! ?+s  
appropriat$4 ,! inju/ice1 9 _m ways1 ( !
 pres5t social ord] he q recognises4 ,if
 he has no sympa?y ) revolutions1 x is  
because he has no belief 9 ! realisation
 ( an ideal /ate4 ,?is foll[s f 8 view (
 hi/ory4 ,human life1 x is 8 conviction1
 nev] has be5 & nev] w be diff]5t z a   
:ole4 ,r$emption f evil c be atta9$ only
 by ! individual4 ,all t ! ,/ate c d is 
to provide c]ta9 v g5]al conditions (   
security "u :i* !re w be no h9drance to 
^? :o desire to live 9 accordance ) a   
moral ideal4  ,yet !re are              
qualifications to make4 ,_m passages 9  
,s*op5hau]'s writ+s prove 8 firm belief 
9 ! future triumph ( reason ov]         

sup]/ition4 ,x is to ! hon\r ( humanity1
 he says1 t s dete/able a =m ( evil z   
organis$ religi\s p]secution has appe>$ 
only 9 "o section ( hi/ory4 ,&1 9 8 own 
p]sonal case1 he has ! mo/ complete     
confid5ce t ! tru?s he has put =? _c    
fail sometime to ga9 a he>+4 ,9 all     
cases1 error is only tempor>y1 & tru? w 
prevail4 ,8 language on ?is subject1 &  
inde$ (t5 on o!rs1 is indi/+ui%able f t 
( an optimi/4  ,9 ! la/ resort1 8       
pessimism entr5*es itself beh9d !       
psy*ological proposition t e            
satisfaction is negative1 be+ only !    
removal ( a pa94 ,if ?is is unsu/a9able1
 !re is no?+ f9ally 9 8 ,metaphysics (  
,w to necessitate ! pessimi/ic          
conclusion drawn4 ,! mode ( d$uction by 
:i* he proce$s is to argue fir/ to !    
position already notic$3 t all t love ( 
o!rs on :i* morality is bas$ is         
fundam5tally pity4 ,true b5evol5ce c    
only be ! desire to relieve o!rs' pa91  
spr++ f ! id5tification ( ?is ) our own4
 ,= t reason1 moral virtue mu/ f9ally   

pass ov] into asceticism--! d5ial ( ! w 
to live4 ,9 o!rs1 if we are able to see 
?r\gh ! pr9ciple ( individuation1 we    
recognise ! same ess5ce z 9 ourselves1 &
 we p]ceive t z long z ?is wills x mu/  
necess>ily suff]4 ,! end !n is to de/roy
 ! w to live4 ,?is is to be done by     
askesis1 self-mortification4 ,! fir/ /ep
 is complete *a/ity4 ,if1 says          
,s*op5hau]1 ! highe/ ph5om5on ( w1 t is1
 man1 7 to disappe> ?r\gh a g5]al       
refusal to affirm life beyond !         
individual body1 man's weak] reflexion 9
 ! animal _w w\ld disappe> also1 & !    
consci\sness ( ! :ole w\ld cease4 ,k be+
 tak5 away1 ! re/ w\ld vani% into       
no?+ness1 s9ce !re is 'no object )\t    
subject4' ,t ?is w come to pass1 h[ev]1 
he c]ta9ly did n believe4 ,he has no    
cosmogony1 l t ( ,h>tmann1 end+ 9 a     
g5]al r$emption ( ! univ]se by su* a    
collective act4 ,nor did he hold1 l 8   
lat] successor ,ma9la5d]1 t ?r\gh !     
conflict & gradual ext9ction (          
individualities1 '?is great _w %all s   

we> out to n\ght4' ,! _w = him is )\t   
beg9n+ & )\t end4 ,b ! exceptional      
individual c r$eem himself4 ,:at he does
 :5 he has rea*$ ! height ( hol9ess is  
by volunt>y pov]ty & all o!r privations1
 inflict$ = _! own sake1 to break & kill
 ! w1 :i* he recognises z ! s\rce ( 8   
own & ( ! _w's suff]+ exi/5ce4 ,9 8 case
 n m]ely ! ph5om5on ends at dea?1 z )   
o!rs1 b ! be+ is tak5 away4 ,to be a    
'_w-ov]com]' 9 ?is s5se 7z oppos$ to a  
'_w-conqu]or'7 is ! ess5ce ( sanctity :5
 cle>$ ( all ! sup]/iti\s dogmas by :i* 
! sa9ts try to expla9 _! mode ( life to 
!mselves4  ,! absolutely pure expression
 ( ?is tru? is to be f\nd only 9        
philosophy2 b ( ! religions ,buddhism   
comes ne>e/ to express+ x )\t admixture4
 ,= ! ,buddhi/ sa9t asks aid f no god4  
,true ,*ri/ianity1 h[ev]1--! ,*ri/ianity
 ( ! ,new ,te/am5t & ( ! ,*ri/ian       
my/ics1--agrees bo? ) ,buddhism & )     
,brahmanism 9 ultimate aim4 ,:at spoils 
x = ,s*op5hau] is ! ,judaic elem5t4     
,?is1 on "o side1 infects x ) ! optimism

 ( ! ,biblical /ory ( creation1 9 :i*   
,god 'saw ev]y?+ t he _h made1 &1       
behold1 x 0 v good4' ,on ! o!r side1 x  
contam9ates ! my? ( orig9al s91 :i* be>s
 9 itself a pr(\nd philosophical tru?1  
by ?is same doctr9e ( a creative ,god2 f
 :i* foll[s all ! inju/ice &            
irrationality necess>ily involv$ 9 !    
,augu/9ian !ology1 & n to be expell$    
except ) its !ism4 ,nev]!less1 ! /ory ( 
! ,fall ( ,man1 ( :i* t !ology1 9 its   
fundam5tally true "p1 is a reason$      
expression1 is ! "o ?+1 ,s*op5hau] av[s1
 t reconciles him to ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,!
 tru? t x clo!s he f9ds also among !    
,greeks2 ,emp$ocles1 aft] ! ,orphics &  
,py?agoreans1 hav+ taught t ! s\l _h be5
 doom$ to w&] because ( "s ant5atal s94 
,& ! my/icism t accompanies all ^! m or 
less pure expressions ( "o metaphysical 
tru? he f9ds repres5t$ by ! ,sufis ev5 9
 optimi/ic ,islam2 s t he c claim = 8   
philosophy a _w-wide cons5t4  ,religion1
 if we take ?is to include my/icism1 at 
once rises above philosophy & falls bel[

 x4 ,z 'metaphysics ( ! p1' x is a      
my?ological expression ( philosophical  
tru?3 z my/icism1 x is a k9d (          
'epi-philosophy4' ,beyond pure          
philosophy ,s*op5hau] does n pr(ess to  
g2 b he accepts :at ! my/ics say z !    
description ( a positive exp]i5ce :i*   
becomes accessible :5 supreme insight is
 atta9$ intuitively4 ,= ! philosoph] z  
su*1 insight into t :i* is beyond ! =ms 
( our k & ev5 beyond ! w itself1 rema9s 
only conceptual2 ?\gh x is )9 ! prov9ce 
( philosophy to m>k out ! place = ?is4  
,! 'some?+ else' t is left :5 ! w has   
be5 d5i$1 is indicat$ by ! 'ec/asy1'    
'illum9ation1' 'union ) ,god1' spok5 (  
by ! my/ics4 ,p>adoxically1 "s ( !      
my/ics !mselves ev5 h id5tifi$ x )      
'no?+'2 b ! result ( ! d5ial ( ! w to   
live is to be call$ no?+ only 9 relation
 to ! _w z we "k x4 ',on ! o!r h&1 to ^?
 9 :om ! w has turn$ back & d5i$ itself1
 ?is s v real _w ( ours ) all its suns &
 milky ways is--no?+4'  ,9 ?is t]m9us ( 
8 philosophy1 ,s*op5hau] recognis$ 8    

k9%ip ) ,indian ?\ght1 ( :i* he 0 a     
lifelong /ud5t4 ,to call 8 doctr9e a k9d
 ( ,buddhism is1 h[ev]1 9 "s ways a     
misappreh5sion4 ,und\bt$ly he accepts z 
8 ideal ! e?ical attitude t he f9ds to  
be common to ,buddhism & ! ,*ri/ianity (
 ! ,new ,te/am5t2 b metaphysical        
diff]5ces m>k him (f f bo?4 ,we h se5 t 
he rejects ! extra-mundane ,god (       
,semitic d]ivation1 adopt$ by hi/orical 
,*ri/ianity4 ,inde$ he is "o ( ! mo/    
pron\nc$ anti-,jehovi/s ( all lit]ature4
 ,b equally 8 belief 9 a positive       
metaphysical doctr9e m>ks him (f f      
,buddhism1 accord+ to ! acc\nt giv5 ( x 
by its mo/ rec5t /ud5ts1 :o reg>d x ei!r
 z ultimately nihili/ic or z hav+ no    
metaphysics at all1 b only a psy*ology &
 e?ics4 ,nor c he be precisely id5tifi$ 
) ! ,v$anti/s ( or?odox ,h9duism4 ,_!   
ultimate reality1 if we are to f9d an   
analogue = x 9 ,european metaphysics1   
seems to resemble ! hypo/asis$ ego (    
,fi*te1 or ! ,kantian 'transc5d5tal     
unity ( app]ception'1 mu* m ?an x       

resembles ,s*op5hau]'s bl9dly /riv+ w z 
?+-9-itself4 ,ev5 9 practical e?ics1 he 
does n foll[ ! ,indian sy/ems at all    
closely4 ,philosophical doctr9es (      
ju/ice are ( c\rse purely ,european2 &  
,s*op5hau] himself po9ts out ! s\rces ( 
8 own !ory4 ,9 8 ext5sion ( e?ics to    
animals1 on :i* he lays mu* /ress1 he   
cites ! tea*+s ( ,ea/]n non-,semitic    
religions z sup]ior to ! re/2 b he does 
n foll[ ! ,indians1 nor ev5 !           
,py?agoreans1 s f> z to make ab/95ce f  
fle% "p ( ! ideal4 ,he condemns         
vivisection on ! gr\nd t animals h      
rights3 c]ta9 ways ( treat+ !m are      
unju/1 n simply uncompassionate4 ,!     
discussion "h aga9 is ( c\rse :olly )9  
,european ?\ght4 ,?us1 9 try+ to det]m9e
 8 significance = mod]n philosophy1 we  
may consid] 8 sy/em 9 its imm$iate      
environm5t1 leav+ x to m special /ud5ts 
to det]m9e h[ f> x receiv$ a peculi>    
col\r+ f ! ,ori5tal philosophies1 ( :i*1
 9 8 "t1 ! m exact k 0 j beg9n+ to      
p5etrate to ! ,we/4     ,,*apt] ,,vi    

,,hi/orical ,,significance   ,s*op5hau] 
is n "o ( ! philosoph]s :o h f\nd$ a    
s*ool1 ?\gh he has _h _m disciples &    
en?usia/ic admir]s4 ,! pessimism t 0 = a
 "t a wat*word ) c]ta9 lit]>y gr\ps has 
pass$ z a mode1 & 8 true significance   
mu/ be s\ght else:]e4 ,( ! ?9k]s :o h   
foll[$ him 9 8 pessimism1 two inde$ /&  
out z ! ar*itects ( di/9ct sy/ems1      
,edu>d von ,h>tmann & ,philipp ,ma9la5d]
 7bo? already incid5tally ref]r$ to72 b 
:ile !y are to be class$ unque/ionably z
 philosoph]s1 _! sy/ems conta9 an elem5t
 t _! ma/] w\ld h reg>d$ z my?ological4 
,s*op5hau] decl>$ z cle>ly z any ( !    
,greeks t ! ph5om5al _w is )\t beg9n+ & 
)\t end4 ,kant's posit+ ( an 'ant9omy'  
on ?is po9t he reg>d$ z :olly )\t       
rational ju/ification4 ,:at ,kant calls 
! 'anti!sis1' namely1 ! inf9ite s]ies1 c
 be logically prov$ = ph5om5a4 ,!       
'!sis1' :i* ass]ts a beg9n+ 9 "t1 is    
def5d$ by m]e fallacies4 ,n[ ,h>tmann & 
,ma9la5d] bo? hold1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t      
fa%ions1 t !re is a _w-process f a      

beg9n+ to an end1 namely1 ! ext9ction ( 
consci\sness4 ,?is is ! r$emption ( !   
_w4 ,_! aff9ity1 !re=e1 seems to be ) ! 
,*ri/ian ,gno/ics r ?an ) ! pure        
philosoph]s ( ! ,greek tradition1       
cont9u$ 9 mod]n times by ,bruno1        
,sp9oza1 & ,s*op5hau]4  ,:atev] may be  
?\ght ( ! pessimism by :i* ,s*op5hau]'s 
mood is di/+ui%$ f t ( 8 precursors1 few
 w fail to recognise t special doctr9es 
( 8 sy/em conta9 at lea/ a l>ge portion 
( tru?4 ,8 !ories ( ,art1 ( ,g5ius1 & ( 
,love are en\gh to f\nd an endur+       
reputation = any ?9k]1 ev5 if !re 7 no?+
 else ( value 9 8 writ+s4 ,b !re is mu* 
else1 bo? 9 sy/ematic con/ruction & 9 ! 
illum9ation ( detail4 ,i h be5 incl9$ to
 put =w>d fir/ ( all ! translation into 
ideali/ic t]ms ( ! univ]sal s5ti5cy held
 by ! ,ionian ?9k]s to be inh]5t 9 !    
primordial elem5ts ( nature4 ,:ile !y   
view$ ! _w z an objective ?+ hav+       
psy*ological qualities1 ,s*op5hau]1 aft]
 ! long int]m$iate process ( ?\ght1 c\ld
 treat x z ph5om5al object ) a          

psy*ological or subjective ess5ce4 ,=   
bo? doctr9es alike1 h[ev]1 m9d or s\l is
 imman5t4 ,/ill1 x mu/ be all[$ t a     
diff]5ce rema9s by :i* ,s*op5hau] 0 ev5 
m remote ?an !y 7 f ! lat] ,greek       
idealism4 ,z !y 7 n mat]iali/s1 s !y did
 n exclude reason f ! psy*ical prop]ties
 ( _! sub/ances4 ,s*op5hau]1 :ile he    
reject$ ! mat]ialism ( _! anci5t & mod]n
 successors alike1 took ! /ep ( =mally  
d]ationalis+ ! elem5ts ( m9d4 ,?is1 no  
d\bt1 is unsu/a9able ultimately1 if     
reason is ev] to em]ge f !m4 ,yet !     
"o-sid$ness ( ! position has _h a       
peculi> value 9 combat+ an equally      
"o-sid$ rationali/ic idealism4 ,?is is  
recognis$ by cle>-sight$ oppon5ts4 ,&   
,s*op5hau]'s call+ ! non-rational or    
anti-rational elem5t 9 ! _w 'w' helps to
 make pla9] ! real problem ( evil4 ,!re 
is tru? 9 ! ,hegelian p>adox t          
'pessimism is an excell5t basis =       
optimism4' ,an optimi/ l ,plot9us saw t1
 ev5 if good comes ( evil1 ! case ( !   
optimi/ mu/ fail unless evil c be %[n to

 be a necess>y con/itu5t ( ! _w4 ,!     
,platonic & ,neo-,platonic 'matt]1' a   
pr9ciple ( diremption or individuation1 
l "t & space = ,s*op5hau]1 0 an attempt 
to solve ?is problem2 b some?+ m        
positive seem$ to be ne$$ z ! s\rce ( ! 
/rong] manife/ations ( evil4 ,to ! /r5g?
 ( ^! ,plato drew att5tion 9 a passage  
7,republic1 x4 #faje7 :]e x is ackn[l$g$
 t inju/ice conf]s a "* ( vitality &    
sleeplessness ^u its possessor4 ,9 !    
notion ( a bl9d & vehem5t /riv+1        
,s*op5hau] supplies some?+ adequate2    
only1 to ma9ta9 a rational optimism1 x  
mu/ be reg>d$ z a necess>y elem5t 9 a   
mixture1 n z ! spr+ ( ! :ole4    #e     
,cit$ 9 "o ( ! introductory essays to   
,j[ett & ,campbell's   edition1 vol4 ii4
  ,mu* might be said on ! teleology by  
:i* he tries to educe intellig5ce f !   
primordial /rife4 ,aga9/ 8 view1 t x is 
evolv$ z a m]e in/rum5t = pres]v+ races 
9 a /ruggle1 ano!r may be set t is ready
 to h& 9 a dialogue ( ,plut>*4#f ,!     
/ruggle among animals1 x is !re         

incid5tally argu$1 has = its end to %>p5
 _! intellig5ce4 ,bo? ^! !ories are on !
 surface compatible ) evolution4 ,if1   
leav+ aside ! problem ( me*anism1 we try
 to v]ify !m by ! te/ ( results1 ! latt]
 und\bt$ly seems ! m plausible4 ,= if ! 
/ruggle 0 a means to ! improvem5t (     
intellig5ce1 nature has succe$$ m & m2  
:]eas1 if h] int5tion 0 to pres]ve      
races1 %e has cont9ually fail$4 ,?is    
argum5t is at any rate p]fectly valid   
aga9/ ,s*op5hau] himself2 = he holds 9  
common ) ! optimi/ic teleologi/s t      
'nature does no?+ 9 va94'    #f ,de     
,soll]tia ,animalium1 #bg4  ,i w        
conclude ) a few deta*$ criticisms on ! 
e?ical doctr9e :i* he reg>d$ z !        
culm9ation ( 8 sy/em4 ,! anti!sis1 x may
 fir/ be not$1 betwe5 ! tempor>y release
 f ! vehem5ce ( ! w t is ga9$ ?r\gh art1
 & ! p]man5t release ?r\gh asceticism1  
is n consi/5tly ma9ta9$4 ,s*op5hau]     
admits t ! k :i* = ! ascetic is !       
'quietive' ( ! w has to be won anew 9 a 
p]petual conflict4 ',no "o c h endur+   

re/ on e>?4' ,aga91 revision ( 8 doctr9e
 conc]n+ ! reality ( ! individual w\ld1 
,i ?9k1 necessitate revision also ( !   
position t n only asceticism b 'all true
 & pure love1 nay1 ev5 freely r5d]$     
ju/ice1 proce$s f see+ ?r\gh ! pr9cipium
 individuationis4' ,if ! individual is 9
 "s s5se ultimately real1 !n love mu/ be
 to a c]ta9 ext5t lit]ally altruism4 ,we
 are br\ght d[n to ! elem5t>y fact1 9   
t]ms ( ! metaphysics ( e?ics1 t ! object
 ( love is a real be+ t is itself & n   
ourselves1 ?\gh hav+ "s resemblance to u
 & unit$ 9 a l>g] :ole4 ,an objection n 
m]ely v]bal might inde$ be tak5 to      
,s*op5hau]'s metaphysics ( e?ics /rictly
 on 8 own gr\nd4 ,if x is purely &      
simply ! ess5ce ( ourselves t we        
recognise 9 ev]y?+1 does n ?is r$uce all
 love f9ally to a well-und]/ood egoism8 
,! g5u9e fact ( sympa?y seems to escape 
8 mode ( =mulation4 ,&1 9 ! end1 we %all
 p]haps n f9d ! ascetic to be ! supreme 
e?ical type4 ,( ! self-torm5t+ k9d (    
asceticism1 x is n en\gh to say )       

,s*op5hau] t1 s9ce x is a _w-wide       
ph5om5on ( human nature1 x calls = "s   
acc\nt f philosophy4 ,! acc\nt may be   
suffici5tly r5d]$ by hi/orical          
psy*ology2 ! result be+ to class x z an 
ab]ration born ( ! illusions incid5t to 
a c]ta9 type ( m9d at a c]ta9 /age4     
,inde$1 t seems to be ! conclusion ( !  
,buddhi/s1 :o claim to h transc5d$ x by 
f9d+ x sup]flu\s = ! end x aims at4 ,let
 u !n take1 z our example ( ! complet$  
type1 n ! monks ( ! ,!baid1 b ! mild    
ascetics ( ! ,buddhi/ communities4 ,does
 n ?is type1 ev5 9 its mo/ attractive   
=m1 repres5t a 'second be/'8 ,is n !    
f9al judgm5t t ( ,plato1 t to save      
oneself is some?+1 b t !re is no full   
a*ievem5t unless = ! life ( ! ,/ate also
 ! ideal has be5 br\ght ne>]            
realisation8 ,:5 !re is no?+ 9 ! _w b   
irr$eemable tyranny or an>*y1 flight f x
 may be ! greate/ success possible z f> 
z ! individual life is conc]n$2 b ?is is
 n ! normal condition ( humanity4       
,f9ally1 may n "s actual a*ievem5t1 ei!r

 practical or1 l t ( ,s*op5hau]1        
speculative1 ev5 if accompani$ by real  
imp]fections ( "*1 possess a high] human
 value ?an ! sanctity t re/s always 9   
itself8     ,,select$ ,,works   ,engli% 
,translations    ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea4   
,translat$ by ,r4 ,b4 ,,haldane & ,j4   
,,kemp4 #c     vols4 #ahhc-f4    ,two   
,essays3 ,i4 ,on ! ,f\rfold ,root ( !   
,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t     ,reason4     
,,ii4 ,on ! ,w 9 ,nature4 ,bohn's       
,philosophical ,libr>y1     #ahhi4      
,religion3 ,a ,dialogue1 & o!r ,essays4 
,select$ & translat$ by ,t4     ,,bailey
 ,,saund]s4 #crd ed41 #ahia4 ,a s]ies ( 
o!r volumes (     selections excell5tly 
translat$ by ,mr4 ,saund]s has foll[$4  
,select$ ,essays ( ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]4 ,)
 a ,biographical     ,introduction &    
,sket* ( 8 ,philosophy4 ,by ,e4 ,,bel=t 
,,bax4 #ahia4    ,! ,basis ( ,morality4 
,translat$ ) ,introduction & ,notes by  
,a4 ,b4     ,,bullock4 #aijc4           
,biographical & ,expository    ,ar?ur   
,s*op5hau]3 ,8 ,life & ,philosophy4 ,by 

,,hel5 ,,zimm]n4 #ahgf4    ,life (      
,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]4 ,by ,pr(essor ,w4    
,,wallace4 #ahij4    ,la ,philosophie de
 ,s*op5hau]4 ,p> ,,?4 ,,ribot4 #bnd ed41
 #ahhe4    ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]4 ,se9e     
,p]so5li*keit1 se9e ,lehre1 se9 ,glaube4
     ,von ,,johannaes ,,volkelt4 #crd   
ed41 #aijg4    ,s*op5hau]-,lexikon4 ,von
 ,,julius ,f,r,a,d,e,n,s,t,ae,d,t4 #b   
vols41 #ahga4   ,pr9t$ by ,t4 & ,a4     
,,con/able1 ,pr9t]s to ,8 ,maje/y at !  
,ed9burgh ,univ]sity ,press