,transcriber's ,note3 ,the original publication has been replicated faithfully except as shown in the ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments at the end of the text4 ,this etext presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device1 such as ,courier ,new4 ,words in italics are indicated like this4 ,text emphasized with bold characters or other treatment is shown like this4 ,superscripts are indicated like this3 ,sta ,maria4 ,subscripts are indicated like this3 ,h#b,o4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,he wrought a work upon the wheels1 and the vessel that he made of clay was marred in the hands of the ,potter3 so he made it again another vessel1 as seemed good to the ,potter to make it4--7,,jeremiah47 ,,pottery1 ,,for ,,artists ,,craftsmen ,,teachers ,,by ,,george ,j ,,cox1 ,,arca4 ,,instructor in ,,pottery ,,modelling ,,at ,,teachers ,,college--,,columbia ,,university ,,illustrated by the ,,author ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,november1 #aiad4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,o ,master1 pardon me1 if yet in vain ,thou art my ,master1 and ,i fail to bring ,before men's eyes the image of the thing ,my heart is filled with4 --,,william ,,morris4 ,,explanation ,in such a spacious craft as ,pottery it is difficult to steer a fair course between the empirical and the scientific4 ,with that in mind this book sets out to tell in simple terms some of the processes of ,potting1 practicable to the student and to the more finished craftsman4 ,it is an intricate task to combine successfully the view-points of the artist and the scientist2 but it seems that1 without neglecting the many benefits bestowed by the advance of science1 the ,potter should stand with the former4 ,the best in his craft has been produced by men that were artists rather than chemists4 ,and what has been accomplished by loving1 patient craftsmanship may surely be done again only in such ways4 ,to the artist craftsman1 for whom chiefly this book is intended1 a little scientific knowledge is a dangerous thing2 for that reason no great stress is laid on formulas and analysis4 ,unless thoroughly understood they are a hindrance rather than an aid4 ,although many schools teach elementary pottery1 the expense of equipment possibly delays its introduction on a larger scale4 ,for that reason ,i have preferred to err on the side of over-exactness of description and profuseness of illustration4 ,the slight historical review and introductory remarks are to be excused on the ground that they are intended to help to a study of the best work of the best periods1 and so to foster a taste for the finest ,ceramics4 ,this is a vital matter when laying the foundations of a craft so fascinating and so full of alluring avenues to beckon the student from the true path4 ,to the scientific critic ,i would offer a hundred books with a thousand different compounds2 amongst none of them will he find how to make a ,sung bowl or a ,rakka drug pot4 ,this book will achieve its purpose if it sets one or two sincere students to the making of some of the many beautiful objects of utility and art with which the craft abounds4 ,then it will have done something1 if never so little1 to accelerate the arrival of that time when the artist will come once more into his own in the most ancient and noble of ,crafts4 ,some of the many books consulted1 to which ,i am indebted1 are given at the end of the book4 ,among friends my thanks are especially due to ,richard ,lunn1 ,esq41 of the ,royal ,college of ,art1 ,london1 and to ,professor ,arthur ,wesley ,dow of ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 for my introduction to and opportunity of further study of the ,craft to which ,i subscribe myself an humble devotee4 ,g4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,explanation vii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,historical ,,summary #a ,,ii4 ,,clays ,,and ,,pastes #ai ,,iii4 ,,built ,,shapes #bf ,,iv4 ,,moulding1 ,,casting1 ,,and ,,pressing #cd ,v4 ,,jigger ,,and ,,jolley ,,work #ea ,,vi4 ,,thrown ,,shapes #ei ,,vii4 ,,turning ,,or ,,shaving #gc ,,viii4 ,,tile-,,making #hj ,,ix4 ,,drying3 ,,finishing #hi ,x4 ,,firing ,,biscuit #ic ,,xi4 ,,glost ,,firing #ajg ,,xii4 ,,glazes ,,and ,,lustres #aag ,,xiii4 ,,decoration #abi ,,xiv4 ,,figurines #ada ,,xv4 ,,kilns #aea ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,educational ,,value ,,of ,,pottery #agj ,,appendix ,i4 ,,equipment ,,for ,a ,,small ,,pottery ,,or ,a ,,school #agg ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,,glossary ,,and ,,general ,,information #ahe ,,pottery ,,for ,,artists1 ,,craftsmen1 ,,and ,,teachers ,,chapter ,i ,,historical ,,summary ,after this he led them into his garden1 where was great variety of ,flowers4 ,then said he again1 ,behold1 the ,flowers are diverse in stature1 in quality1 and colour1 and smell1 and virtue1 and some are better than some4 --,,bunyan4 ,without attempting a history of pottery which1 however brief1 would be somewhat out of place in a ,craft ,book1 a short summary of its evolution1 emphasizing those periods in which it was most beautifully developed1 seems essential to help the beginner in the selection and appreciation of good form1 colour1 and decoration4 ,these are very vital matters and easily overlooked in the struggle to acquire a craft that is full of fascination from the first fumbled shape upon the wheel to the finished product of time and art and craft4 ,too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of close study of the best work1 both ancient and modern2 for it is a truism that however handily a craftsman may work1 his output will be worthless if he has not1 with his increasing powers of technique1 developed a sound judgement and refined taste4 ,to-day1 these alone can replace the lost traditions of the old masters4 ,the ,potter's ,craft had a coeval birth in various parts of the earth1 but the obscurity is such that no clear idea can be gained of its antiquity4 ,it was1 probably1 the first form of handicraft1 if we except the fashioning of flints and clubs4 ,accident or the funeral pyre may have suggested the extraordinary durability the clay shape obtained when burned1 and doubtless siliceous glazes were first the result of chance4 ,all early work was built up by hand and for that reason possesses wide mouths and simple forms4 ,the introduction of the wheel is lost in a mist of time1 but drawings from the tombs of ,beni ,hassan show the potter at his wheel substantially as he works in ,asia to this day4 ,the wheel-made or thrown shape is distinguished by far more grace and symmetry than the built shape1 and by an infinitely greater variety of form4 ,in burial mounds from prehistoric ,egypt are found many bowls and platters rudely scratched1 and the earliest examples from mounds1 lake dwellings1 and tombs show the quick development of the pot1 not only as an object of utility1 but as a vehicle of art4 ,the first kinds of decoration were incised lines followed by strappings and bandings1 painted stripes and scrolls and hieroglyphs1 with later additions in slip and modelled clay4 ,primitive wares from their method of production exhibit an interesting similarity of shape and style in such widely divergent countries as ,china1 ,egypt1 and ,peru4 ,it was only when the craftsman had acquired considerable dexterity that we find his nationality influencing his shapes and producing the wonderful variety in form and decoration that characterizes and distinguishes the pottery of all nations4 ,once established1 the prevalence of type is strong4 ,this traditional style is particularly noticeable in ,egypt1 much modern work being identical with that of the early dynasties4 ,before turning to more sophisticated work it would be well to learn the lesson of simplicity and fitness here taught by primitive folks4 ,the simple beginning leads to the simple1 strong1 and satisfying end4 ,much of this primitive work is inspiring for its freshness or navet2 its unspoiled innate taste allied to downright common sense4 ,properly approached1 it should be a sure corrective to any desire for unsightly new shapes or extravagance in decoration4 ,a few careful studies will do much to drive home this valuable lesson in fine1 simple line and spacing4 ,in ,egypt the thrown shape was not distinguished by any extraordinary beauty or variety4 ,nevertheless their small ,ushabti1 glazed gods and demons1 show a very advanced knowledge of coloured enamels1 and their fabrication of a hard sandy paste for glazing shows the first great step in the science of pottery4 ,their glaze was purely alkaline4 ,the ,assyrians appear to have been the first to use coloured tin glazes1 and although few pieces of pottery survive1 the enamelled friezes from ,korsobad and ,sousa are striking evidence of their proficiency in tile-making4 ,from ,egypt and ,mesopotamia the craft spread east and west to ,phoenicia1 ,attica1 and ,greece2 through ,persia and ,arabia to ,india4 ,here it mingled with currents from ,china1 then invading ,korea1 ,japan1 and ,siam1 the united floods rising until the potter was a power in every land4 ,phoenician pottery forms1 with ,cretan and early ,grecian1 a beautiful sequence from the primitive work of early dynasties to the refinements of later ,grecian wares4 ,it will prove an interesting and instructive study to trace the developments that led finally to the zenith of ,greek pottery4 ,the primitive ,hissarlik ware leads through ,mycenaean1 ,dipylon1 ,phalron1 ,rhodian1 and ,corinthian right up to the wonderful figure vases of about #cjj ,b4,c4 ,although limited in paste and colour1 with a thin transparent glaze or lustre1 these vases were exquisitely fashioned4 ,large and small shapes of wide diversity were decorated in black1 red1 and white1 ornament and figures both drawn straight on to the body with a sureness of touch and refinement of line that excite the envy of a master4 ,many of their forms are strongly influenced by contemporary bronze work and for that reason are not the best guides for shapes4 ,their incomparable terra-cottas known as ,tanagras form a link between ,pottery and ,sculpture4 ,again1 from ,phoenician work one may see dimly by way of ,samian1 ,rhodian and old ,cairene wares the lineage of the royal wares of ,persia1 and recent investigations point to ,old ,cairo as the birthplace of lustre4 ,from ,persia come some of the finest pottery1 painted in colours and lustres1 that the world can show4 ,their wares stand pre-eminent in that class wherein the chief beauty is the painted decoration4 ,their one-colour pieces1 whilst not comparable with the ,chinese1 nevertheless reach a high standard4 ,their lustres have never been surpassed or rarely equalled4 ,their shapes are true potter's shapes1 and a delight to the eye4 ,the finest pieces were painted in simple blues1 greens1 reds1 and faint purples1 with black pencilling4 ,this appears to have been done on an engobe of finely ground flint1 and covered with an alkaline glaze giving a broken white ground4 ,this would account in some measure for the extraordinary freshness of both drawing and colour4 ,later on raised ornament1 finely conceived and used with restraint1 is seen along with pierced decoration having translucent effects4 ,rhodes and ,damascus produced a somewhat coarser ware1 but bold and free in brushwork and varied with a bright red4 ,syrian pottery abounds in virile individual shapes4 ,turkey also was not without a fine and vigorous style4 ,much time can be most profitably spent studying the masterpieces of ,persia4 ,a representative collection like that at ,south ,kensington will show vases1 bottles1 bowls1 pots1 and tiles in bewildering variety and of infinite freshness4 ,they are directly painted1 with free renderings of flowers within geometric forms and often with an inscription in rich ,arabic characters4 ,the exquisite ,moore ,collection in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york ,city1 is smaller but is remarkable for the unusually high standard of taste shown in its acquisition4 ,at its purest period human or animal figures were rarely or never represented and those shapes or tiles with such decoration belong to a more decadent but still fine period4 ,again we have the eternal lesson of simplicity and fitness4 ,again it will be borne in upon the student that originality does not mean weirdness1 but rather a fresh spontaneous treatment of simple1 well-known natural forms1 with1 above all1 a fine appreciation of good line and space4 ,no sincere student can fail to develop here a respect and veneration of a craft and of craftsmen capable of producing such glorious works4 ,from this teeming home the craft spread to ,arabia and west across the ,mediterranean to ,spain4 ,here in the twelfth century the ,moors were producing their famous ,hispano-,mooresque lustred wares4 ,their large plaques offer a wonderful variety of pure brushwork ornament with spirited heraldic additions4 ,sometimes the backs of these dishes are as beautifully lustred as the fronts4 ,for a proper appreciation of their purely geometric decoration and its possibilities in pottery we must turn to the ,alcazzar at ,madrid4 ,here the use of opaque tin glaze permitted the extensive use of a coarse body for tiles and bricks4 ,the ,moors1 however1 first introduced glazes with a lead base and from that time we begin to lose the fresh wet colour always associated with the alkaline glazes of the ,persians4 ,analysis shows that they used lead1 but only occasionally and in small quantities1 to aid their lustres4 ,the lustred wares of ,spain declined late in the thirteenth century1 but not before its exportation to ,italy by way of ,majorca had stimulated the production of ,italian ,majolica4 ,della ,robbia1 about #adae1 succeeded in colouring his tin glazes1 and his finely modelled but somewhat crudely coloured reliefs usher in the era of ,italian ,faience4 ,patronized by the nobles the craft quickly took root and was blossoming profusely at ,urbino1 ,gubbio1 ,pesaro1 ,faenza and other cities at the end of the fifteenth century4 ,here we break ground and leave the chaste simplicity of the golden age to riot a blaze of exuberant decoration4 ,scraffito1 slip1 inlaid1 applied1 incised1 raised1 embossed and modelled and painted embellishments2 all are here4 ,this era is chiefly notable for its splendid ruby lustres and the remarkable power and freedom1 amounting to absolute abandon1 of the brushwork and drawing shown by its artists4 ,they used their lustres to heighten the effects of their painting and the results are in keeping with that romantic age4 ,alongside of it our best modern work is apt to look spiritless and dull4 ,much splendid work was produced in ,italy at this period1 but in such a wide field there are naturally some places that exhibit technique rather than art4 ,the student must go into it with appreciative faculties alert lest mere splendour should sweep him off his feet4 ,the wares and the potters of ,italy penetrated north into ,europe1 to ,france1 the ,holy ,roman ,empire and ,britain1 starting or stimulating what was to prove an overwhelming flood of production4 ,in ,europe in pre-,roman times1 a coarse1 unglazed1 built-up ware was general1 it being of simple1 somewhat clumsy but vigorous form1 low-fired and friable4 ,it was used chiefly for cinerary purposes1 the ,germanic peoples having a decided preference for vessels of horn1 wood1 or metal4 ,the ,romans introduced the wheel and produced a far higher class of ware4 ,their importation of the fine red ,samian pottery resulted in the fabrication of the vigorous ,gallo-,roman and ,romano-,british pottery4 ,this was good in shape and paste and characteristically decorated with slip1 bosses1 dots1 and indentations4 ,the later ,gaulish work shows applied figures and highly finished scroll work4 ,after the decline of ,rome1 ,saxon and ,germanic work shows a distinctly retrograde tendency4 ,it is often built up1 strapped1 banded1 and bossed in imitation of the ,romano-,british4 ,though coarse and lacking in finish1 it is full of freshness and character4 ,in ,medival ,england1 when pottery making was at a low ebb1 the monasteries and travelling guilds of potters produced splendid encaustic tiles4 ,these were inlaid with simple yet striking geometric designs1 or animal or bird forms1 both heraldic and symbolic4 ,in ,europe for many years the domestic pottery remained coarse and primitive1 showing still the arresting hand of the barbarian conquerors of ,rome4 ,the first signs of the ,italian ,renaissance are to be found in the rare ,henri ,deux or ,orion ware4 ,palissy's desperate and romantic search for enamels was the prelude to the development of ,rouen1 ,nevers1 ,lille1 ,moustiers1 ,svres1 ,marseilles1 and other less important potteries4 ,in ,france also early experiments led eventually to the fabrication of porcelain much on the lines of ,english porcelain1 a frit being used instead of kaolin4 ,in ,germany1 as early as the fifteenth century1 they produced fine stoneware highly decorated with relief patterns and colours4 ,after long research ,boettiger1 by a lucky accident1 discovered kaolin4 ,porcelain was made at ,dresden in #agji1 and many of the ,dresden figures show a remarkably sympathetic alliance of potting1 modelling and painting4 ,the success of the ,german ceramists led to a wide patronage of potters by kings and princes which quickly spread the knowledge of porcelain throughout ,europe4 ,long before this in the early part of the seventeenth century1 potteries were established at ,delft in ,holland4 ,here was made the well-known ware painted in blue camaien on a fine white ground4 ,this was for a time produced in great quantities1 and the process of painting directly on to an absorbent ground led to a surprisingly fresh and skilful style4 ,in the middle of the seventeenth century ,english wares commenced to rise from the stagnation in which they seemed sunk since ,saxon times4 ,toft1 with his tygs and platters1 ,dwight1 and his bellarmines1 and ,elers1 with turned shapes1 started a movement which was eventually to send ,english wares into all parts of ,europe1 even into the far ,russias1 to be known everywhere for its excellent workmanship4 ,and in this flood of production in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was much that was technically unrivalled despite the fact that the ,art of the potter is sometimes far to seek4 ,dwight is said to have produced a fritted porcelain in #afga1 before the discovery of kaolin4 ,this is doubtful1 but his persistent research eventually led up to the fine pastes of ,chelsea and ,bow and the unrivalled fine earthenwares of ,staffordshire4 ,this ,european revival gained tremendous impetus from the importation by the ,portuguese of the wares of ,,china4 ,the wide scope of its decoration1 both painted and modelled1 pointed the way to most potters of the ,west during the heyday of ,european pottery4 ,the magnificent single-colour pieces were not introduced until later when the break-up of the ,empire rendered them accessible to ,europeans4 ,it is to them that the student must turn to see the summit of the potter's art1 which1 it is logically contended1 commences on the wheel and ends at the glost oven with the potter1 the only attendant from the pot's inception to its finish4 ,painting or modelling is not essential to its perfection and unless applied by a true disciple detracts rather than adds to the beauty of the piece4 ,in ,china1 where tradition holds that earthenware was first made in #bfih ,b4,c41 the art of the potter1 in body1 shape1 glaze1 and colour1 through centuries reached perfection4 ,porcelain is said to have been first made about #bjj ,b4,c41 but this date is conjectural4 ,what we do know unmistakably1 however1 is that the best work of their best periods is unrivalled4 ,depending primarily on form and colour1 with here and there a subtle decoration in raised or incised line1 in crackle or simple brushwork1 it stands alone1 and despite the omnipotent chemistry of to-day1 defies imitation4 ,their forms are strong1 bold1 and dignified1 yet subtle and delicate1 too4 ,then1 added to a wonderful range of colours1 was a perfection of body that was for so long the despair of western imitators4 ,it is here at the altar of perfection amidst the chaste richness of ,tang and ,sung and ,ming that the true disciple must worship4 ,and to those who must eat bread as well as make pots it is to be pointed out that these pieces at the time of their production fetched prices that compare favourably with the fancy prices given to-day4 ,to the ,japanese also in great measure the same tribute is due4 ,although beginning later as disciples and scarcely getting so far as their masters1 their more limited range of colour and form is set off by their restrained and even more tasteful decoration4 ,the unique collection in the ,boston ,museum is an amplification of this bald statement4 ,they were often more concerned with the touch and texture of the pot than the more obvious appeal of decoration4 ,esoteric as it is to most occidentals it is rich in a pure stheticism and a deep and beautiful symbolism that is slowly but surely having an influence on western art1 just when it seems in some danger of dying out in ,japan4 ,the hermit kingdom of ,korea1 despite its midway position1 produced pottery that is strangely beautiful and distinctive and worth much more than a passing notice4 ,in ,china the art decadence of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 coupled with internal revolutions1 has sadly dimmed her plots1 dispersed her potters1 and all but destroyed her priceless traditions4 ,for the further development of pottery in ,europe and ,america and ,asia the student has many excellent books to consult4 ,from the seventeenth century the ramifications are rapid and all-embracing1 giving1 however1 more joy to the collector than to the artist4 ,modern work has made an enormous advance in the science of the craft4 ,since the ,eighties it shows signs of a renaissance in sthetics4 ,lustres of all shades1 crystalline1 star1 and crackle glazes with safe methods of oxidizing and reducing in the fire1 have been brought to perfection4 ,yet1 with some few exceptions1 commerce seems writ large upon them all and their very perfection of finish damns them in the eyes of an artist4 ,whichever way he looks1 he must return again and again to refresh his eyes with the inspiring examples of the best that has survived from the near and far ,,east4 ,only an antiquarian humbug would wish to go back to ancient conditions even to produce old pots4 ,but it is only by seeing in so far as we may in museums and books the works of these ancient yet ever modern potters2 by tracing their development1 appreciating their qualities and attempting to work as they worked1 honestly and unaffectedly1 that we shall begin to approach the excellence and originality of their art4 ,this study should not of course obey the direction it all too frequently follows4 ,the slavish measuring by module and fraction of classic styles1 the stark geometric analysis of ,moorish ornament or the laborious copying of ,chinese pattern is at best only art in cold storage4 ,it should be self-evident that where an alien style is consciously imitated the result is sterility for the imitator4 ,in others1 it is apt to produce a powerful reaction that results in ,futurism or some such self-conscious affectation4 ,the ,greeks did not draw from casts nor did the ,persians haunt museums1 says the harried student4 ,no4 ,but better than that1 they were surrounded1 if not by beauty1 at least by nature naked and unashamed4 ,they lived not easily maybe1 but surely more gracefully1 untrammelled by fashion1 cult1 or craze4 ,the earth his sober ,inn ,and quiet pilgrimage4 ,their best work seems ever fresh1 spontaneous1 and untired4 ,it must have been done with a spirit and real joy impossible to anyone but a true craftsman tremendously interested in his work1 we might also add1 his environment4 ,naturally1 present-day conditions must modify the struggle for existence4 ,they may mar our best aim at times4 ,yet some few have worked wonders even in this age4 ,to mention but two instances1 ,w4 ,de ,morgan and the ,martin brothers1 is to tell of high endeavour and great achievement4 ,but we must not expect to get rich that way4 ,pottery is an exacting and difficult craft1 abounding in as many trials and disappointments as excitements and rewards4 ,its true devotee must suffer4 ,yet the delightful tale of ,palissy's heroic battle should hearten the more fortunate student of to-day4 ,it is good to read of the spirit in which ,wedgwood1 scientist though he was1 approached his work4 ,in a trade catalogue he says1 ,a ,competition for ,cheapness1 and not for ,excellence of ,workmanship1 is the most frequent cause of rapid ,decay and entire ,destruction of ,art and of ,manufacture4 ,beautiful ,forms are not to be made by ,chance and they never were made nor can be made in any kind at small expense4 ,such sentiments rarely emanate from the modern commercial pottery4 ,tradition1 except the traditions of flawless glazes1 certain soulless results1 and commercial cheese paring2 seems dead perhaps1 but it will surely come to life again4 ,to see the potter thumping his wet clay1 and seated at the wheel of ancient lineage1 conjuring forth a wealth of gracious shapes1 is to renew one's faith in the ultimate survival of simple honest handicraft even in this machine-ridden age4 ,masterpieces were never conceived in factories1 and when we make pots primarily for love of them1 not to sell them1 we shall begin to beat back the manufacturer of debauched ,art pots into that domestic and hygienic realm wherein his efforts are particularly admirable and effective4 ,a craft that teems with such an endless variety of beautiful objects for such countless uses can never remain for all time the hand-maiden of commerce4 ,illustration3 ,hollowing the ,ball ,,chapter ,,ii ,,clays ,,and ,,pastes ,it is the ,art which gives the value1 and not the material4 --,,dresser4 ,clay being the chief material used by the potter1 it demands a description which1 without being too technical1 will give from the start a clear idea of the nature of clays or pastes in general use4 ,it would be a needless complication to enter here into a discussion of the chemical analysis of bodies and materials4 ,whilst the chemist can and does determine with exactitude the relative quantities of each component1 he cannot yet1 let us perhaps be thankful1 lay down with the same certainty the structural and molecular changes all these compounds will undergo in the fire4 ,the old potters' rule of thumb or1 rather1 common sense and experience1 still count for something4 ,clay is the word generally applied to the natural article when used without preparation1 or after picking and washing4 ,paste is the term used for all composite bodies that have been through a complicated process of washing1 grinding1 mixing1 and sieving1 or even fritting1 according to the desired quality of the ware for which it is required4 ,natural clays range from the pure white and very infusible kaolin1 containing only alumina and silica with a very small percentage of alkalies1 to the impure grey1 red1 or brown clays1 containing1 along with alumina and silica1 magnesia1 potash1 soda1 iron1 lime1 and carbon4 ,kaolin is used with ,china stone 7a combination of felspar and quartz7 to make porcelain1 the finest and hardest paste known to potters4 ,it has a very hard white translucent body1 only slightly vitreous at the highest fire 7around #agjj ,centigrade74 ,from this1 the highest grade1 we have almost insensible gradations to common earthenware4 ,old ,english and ,french porcelain were compounded of clay1 sand1 and alkalies ground together to make a frit1 re-ground and mixed with a stiffening material 7in ,english porcelain1 bone-ash71 to support the vitreous matter in the intense heat4 ,the finest earthenware does not differ greatly in its formula from soft porcelain1 but it is not so hard or transparent4 ,from this the scale descends to where the presence of lime or iron in the body colour it and render it easily fusible1 so that at any great heat it turns black and collapses to a slag4 ,clay on being dug up is usually weathered in the open1 and dried and broken up and the greater impurities picked out4 ,it is then thoroughly mixed with water in a blunger and passed through a succession of sieves until all foreign matter and impurities are left behind and it is the consistency of cream4 ,this was formerly done by hand1 the clay being raked into a thick slub and washed through a series of tanks until all impurities had settled1 leaving only the fine clay in suspension4 ,it is at this stage that any additions are made to form a paste4 ,the modifying ingredients1 ground and sieved to the requisite degree1 are thoroughly incorporated with the slip1 which is allowed to settle4 ,the clear water on top is siphoned off and the paste dried sufficiently to handle4 ,the modern method of preparation is to force the slip through a series of straining bags which remove most of the water and leave it stiff enough to work4 ,some of the hard pastes are so stiff or short that they require soap water to give plasticity1 but usually after a thorough wedging it is now ready for the thrower4 ,generally speaking1 kaolin1 ,china clay1 ball clay1 pipe clay1 ,china stone1 felspar1 flint1 quartz1 sand1 lime1 chalk1 and calcined bone are the ingredients of most modern pastes4 ,these supply the alumina1 silica1 lime1 potash1 and soda1 with traces of iron and magnesia1 that are found in all clays when analyzed4 ,carbon is only present in impure bodies fired at a low heat4 ,of these materials the clays rich in alumina and silica1 such as kaolin or ,china clay1 form the body-giving substance4 ,the felspar or ,china stone furnish the fluxing ingredients for fusing and binding4 ,the flint or bone supplies the stiffening matter for supporting and retaining the shape of the object in the fire4 ,porcelain1 though differing so widely in appearance and texture from the coarse medival earthenware or the pottery of the ancients1 is found to have a distinct relationship when all these bodies are submitted to analysis4 ,much of the difference in bodies1 apart from the impurities1 lies in the temperature of the fire to which it has been submitted4 ,at a low temperature such constituents as lime and iron are not much affected1 but at a greater heat they act as fluxing agents4 ,to generalize upon a complex and difficult subject one might say that porcelain1 both hard and soft 7pte dure and pte tendre71 is characterized by its pure white colour and by extreme hardness of body and glaze with transparency2 fine stoneware by a very hard1 opaque1 and heavy body which may be white1 buff1 or grey1 and salt-glazed or with a fine hard transparent glaze4 ,earthenware is softer and mostly opaque4 ,it may range from something a little softer than soft porcelain to the coarse ,majolica with a tin glaze1 differing widely in colour of body and hardness of glaze4 ,with porcelain and the finest high-fired wares a purity of materials and uniformity of mass is absolutely necessary4 ,it is here that one may well call in the aid of the chemist and manufacturer4 ,in any case it is advisable to call in the chemist and the manufacturer when working on a large scale4 ,with a small output1 as with all good craftsmen1 the fabrication of a good1 reliable stoneware or earthenware paste is only a matter of patience and hard work4 ,before commencing to produce finished work on any scale1 repeated experiments with different clays should be carried out4 ,notes of all trials1 with and without glaze1 are invaluable to the potter4 ,rich clays can be stiffened1 short clays enriched1 and colour modified without a mass of expensive machinery4 ,rich1 easily fusible clays tend to stunt or buckle at a high fire4 ,hard refractory clays often remain porous and are a fruitful source of crazing and breaking4 ,the addition of flint or fine washed sand1 finely powdered grog1 or pitchers1 or even refractory ,china clays1 in quantities varying from about #e per cent to #bj per cent1 but settled only by repeated trials1 will stiffen up or open out rich clays inclined to warp or burst4 ,rich fusible clays added to hard clays may stop the crazing1 or the fusing point may be lowered by the addition of spar4 ,stiff gravelly clay will require finer sieving or repeated washing to rid it of some of the grit or sand4 ,rich greasy clays are better when not too finely sieved1 but this point is of course dependent on the class of work to be undertaken4 ,slip can be settled in tubs1 the water siphoned off1 and then put to dry on plaster bats1 or dry clay1 powdered and sieved1 may be stirred in until the mass is stiff enough to wedge thoroughly by hand4 ,in mixing or modifying without machinery it is sometimes advisable to do it in the dry state1 otherwise some of the heavier materials are likely to sink and are thus not thoroughly incorporated with the body4 ,the dry mass when well mixed is wetted enough to be wedged4 ,when the body is coloured and a white ground is indispensable1 an engobe1 or dip1 of white clay slip must be resorted to4 ,these processes are certainly tedious1 but that will not deter a craftsman searching for the right clay in which best to shape his ideas4 ,to the craftsman working alone it is the only way by which he can accommodate his clays to the various necessities of throwing1 casting1 or modelling4 ,each process will require a slightly different nature in the clay if the finest results are to be obtained4 ,although in this craft book we shall not approach porcelain1 a good1 hard1 true-ringing body with a tough well-fitting glaze should be a sine qua non with all craftsmen2 and it is only in the fire that any true idea can be gained of the important influences clays and pastes have on the finished work4 ,here we have tried to indicate the chief characteristics of clays and to make clear the inevitable tendency of all potters who seek an imperishable medium for their craft towards a purer body and a higher fire4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,built ,,shapes ,every moment think steadily3 to do what thou hast in hand with perfect and simple dignity4 --,m4 ,,antoninus4 ,with good plastic clay and with the aid of a few simple tools1 the fingers can fashion shapes of considerable diversity and some refinement4 ,in elementary schools this is by far the best method of teaching the beginner4 ,in any case the student who has no knowledge of clay work would do well to start by building a few shapes in the manner still used by primitive peoples4 ,the clay1 which must be in good condition and not short1 is rolled out on a wet plaster slab or some non-sticky surface1 into ropes of something less than half an inch in diameter for small shapes4 7,fig4 #a47 ,the best way to commence is to knead up a double handful of soft clay until thoroughly mixed1 ball it1 and then form a stumpy cylinder1 gradually elongating by rolling out on the bat4 ,too much pressure will flatten the rope and there should be a distinct pull or stretch on it in addition to the downward pressure1 varying as necessary to insure even thickness4 ,as the rope becomes thinner the fingers should be held diagonally to avoid ridges4 ,this rope should be fairly firm and yet bend easily without cracking4 ,with a little practice1 long pliable rolls can be easily and rapidly produced and then a start is made with the base4 ,this is coiled as in ,fig4 #b1 pressed flat1 and welded together4 ,it is finished both sides before commencing the walls of the shape4 ,these are coiled round and up1 each ring being pressed firmly on the one below1 care being taken to avoid air cavities which may blow out on firing4 ,the top is levelled off and the sides welded together and smoothed with the fingers4 7,fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--,,rolling ,,out ,,clay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--;,,forming ,,coil ,,for ,,base4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--,,welding ,,smoothing ,,the ,,sides4 ,at first1 simple and almost straight-sided shapes should be attempted2 each ring may be added separately1 while the finishing should not be unduly prolonged4 ,as the technique improves1 curves with slight returns may be attained4 ,where the size is so great as to prevent finishing at one sitting1 it can be very carefully reversed2 this will allow the base to harden and still keep the top moist for further coiling4 ,with big pieces much attention must be paid to the correct shaping when coiling1 otherwise the finishing will be laborious and quite possibly useless4 ,large shapes with difficult curves are best built in two sections or parts and then carefully welded together4 ,to keep the parts damp during prolonged operations1 use water blown from a spray diffuser4 ,ash trays1 bulb bowls1 flower pots1 salt cellars1 and ink wells are a few of the things that are suitable to be made by this method4 ,they may be decorated with incised lines1 raised-ornament handles1 and feet4 ,additional interest is obtained by slight banding1 or the incised lines filled in with a coloured clay pressed firmly in when the shape is tough4 ,although built forms may be quite highly finished1 it is obvious that any elaborate decoration is out of place on shapes that by their origin must be simple and somewhat heavy4 ,enough has been said to indicate the process4 ,for its logical development and suitable enrichment we must study the work of primitive peoples4 ,for its possibilities we must turn to the vast jars made even to this day in ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d--;,,attaching ,,the ,,foot4 ,with great care and much taste pieces can be pinched and welded together into delightful forms1 best shown in the refinements of the ,cha ,noya pottery of ,japan4 ,this pinching must be done carefully and above all sympathetically4 ,to those that know or feel the possibilities of the clay it will respond readily4 ,much more taste and judgement is required in the making of a really satisfactory pinched shape1 than is needed in forming one with coils4 ,square1 polyhedral1 or irregular shapes other than circular may be stuck up or pieced together in the following manner3 ,upon a table nail two strips of wood one quarter of an inch thick1 ten or twelve inches apart4 ,sprinkle between the strips with flint or fine sand and batter out some soft clay thereon4 ,scrape the surplus clay off with a straight-edge and then roll the clay between the strips flat with a rolling pin4 ,upon this thin slab mark out the sides1 base1 top1 etc41 of the shape to be built4 ,run a thin knife round each shape1 but do not cut quite down to the table4 ,cut along the inside edge of each strip to allow the whole slab to contract evenly and allow it to toughen slightly4 ,carefully remove and reverse the slab and separate the pieces1 being careful not to distort the shapes in the process4 ,the shape must be stuck up before the pieces become brittle or too stiff to bend4 ,roughen each opposing edge and moisten with slip1 that is1 clay mixed with water to the consistency of thick cream4 ,press the edges firmly together and weld well each joint with soft clay4 7,fig4 #e47 ,this operation should be most thorough1 as any weak joint will inevitably open when fired4 ,lids should be cut slightly larger than the shapes they have to fit and sandpapered true when dry4 ,sharp edges and angles should be smoothed with the fingers before the shape gets hard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e--,,sticking ,,up ,,flat-,,sided ,,pot4 ,the chief pitfall to avoid in this process is a hard wooden look4 ,the ductile plastic qualities of the clay should be remembered and such additions as feet or handles should emphasize this important point4 ,finally1 the careful sympathetic craftsman1 with infinite patience1 by utilizing all three methods1 can build vessels of almost any shape1--square1 round1 elliptical1 banded1 strapped1 bossed1 fluted1 and embellished with handles1 spouts1 and feet4 ,ancient and medival pottery is rich in such forms4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,for ,,clay ,,work4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,moulding1 ,,casting1 ,,and ,,pressing ,our soundes is good1 ,our shapes is neat1 ,its ,davis cast us so compleat4 --,from an old bell at ,stoke ,rivers4 ,the casting process1 employed so extensively in commercial work1 is in its essence mechanical and therefore can never have the spontaneity or character of thrown work4 ,to-day when the thrower and turner with hand and eye trained for good shapes is rare indeed1 it is often the only method by which the student can obtain large shapes of high finish for painting or glazing in transparent colours4 ,in the process the shape is first designed and carefully drawn on paper1 allowance being made for the shrinkage of the finished pot which may be as much as #a in #f with some kinds of slip4 ,it should be refined in profile with no returns that may bind or hold in the mould when drying1 yet it is obvious that simple shapes that can be built or thrown by the beginner are not suitable for casting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,,mandrel1 ,,rolled ,,in ,,paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g--,,one ,,piece ,,mould ,,for ,,bowl--,,method ,,of ,,releasing ,,original4 ,the shape correctly drawn1 a mandrel1 a steel tapering to a point1 the butt wormed to screw on a lathe1 and long enough to give some play at either end1 is rolled in stout paper1 gummed at the edges1 as in ,fig4 #f4 ,this is removed and allowed to set1 thus giving a paper shell just fitting the mandrel4 ,trim this square at the base and stick it upright by means of a piece of clay on a well-oiled portion of a table4 ,around this as a centre is fitted a roll of linoleum1 oiled inside and secured with string1 with all its joints caulked with clay4 ,the inside diameter of this cylinder should be about #a_/b larger than the greatest diameter of the drawn shape4 ,enough superfine plaster to fill this is now mixed4 ,to do this shake plaster by handfuls into a bowl of water until it appears to refuse more1 pour off any surplus water1 and stir with a wooden ladle or the hand1 avoiding air bubbles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h--;,a ,,two-,,piece ,,mould4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i--,,pouring ,,in ,,plaster4 ,a little practice in casting plaster bats will give the experience necessary for mixing plaster4 ,when well mixed and a slight thickening is perceptible1 it is poured very carefully into the cylinder1 the paper shell being kept upright in the centre4 7,fig4 #i47 ,in about #bj minutes the surface of the plaster will feel warm4 ,it is now set and the linoleum is removed4 ,the plaster cylinder1 when dry1 is fitted on the mandrel1 and this screwed to the lathe head4 ,two or three chisels are now required4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,the rest on the lathe is clamped in a convenient position and a cutting chisel held as shown 7,fig4 #aa71 cutting edge up4 ,the cylinder is revolved briskly as indicated by arrow1 and the shape is roughly hollowed out4 ,proceed gradually until the shape begins to emerge1 taking care not to cut too deeply4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,towards the finish use the calipers frequently to check the measurements4 ,at top and bottom about #a_/b waste is left 7,fig4 #ac ,a71 turned straight1 the actual line of top and base being slightly grooved in the plaster4 ,the form may be pretty accurately finished with the chisels and then nicely smoothed with sandpaper4 ,for this process the rotary movement is reversed4 ,illustration3 ,,turning ,,tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj--;,,chisel ,,points4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--,,position ,,of ,,tool4 ,the shape is now removed from the lathe and is ready for moulding4 ,with a kick wheel having a removable head the mandrel can be screwed on and the block turned down in an upright position4 ,the difficulty of steadying the tool renders this method somewhat unsuitable for this process1 where perfect symmetry and a high finish are required4 ,the plaster should not be so dense for turning on the wheel or the kicking is apt to become very arduous and this tends to dislocate the set of the spindle4 ,one of the best of ways is to draw a quantity of shapes1 cast their blocks1 and turn them on a hired lathe1 preferably run by power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab--,,partly ,,turned ,,block ,,on ,,lathe4 ,the finished shape is now well lathered with parting or stopping4 ,this is made by boiling #a lb4 soft soap1 #a_/d lb4 ,russian tallow1 and a small piece of soda4 ,another stopping is made by dissolving #a lb4 soft soap in #a qt4 water and stirring in #a_/d pt4 paraffin oil4 ,several coatings may be necessary to impart a waxy surface4 ,when no longer absorbent1 it is dried and slightly polished with a bit of cotton waste4 ,at the finish the form should be clean1 smooth1 glossy1 and non-absorbent4 ,with simple shapes1 as in ,figs4 #g and #h1 a one-piece or a two-piece mould can be made1 and here the bottom waste is not necessary1 but with any return or foot a three-piece mould will be required4 ,the waxed shape is now divided perpendicularly exactly in half1 by a pencil line4 7,a1 ,fig4 #ac47 ,it is then laid on its side and bedded in clay up to the pencil lines1 the clay being sloped slightly down from the marks4 7,f1 ,fig4 #ac47 ,box in now with well-soaped boards tight against top and bottom but allowing about #a-a_/b at sides4 ,wipe the shape over with waste dipped in olive oil but leave no surplus oil on the surface4 ,plaster well mixed as before is poured in until about #a-a_/b to #b above the greatest projection of the shape1 great care being taken to avoid or dislodge air bubbles4 7,b1 ,fig4 #ac47 ,when the plaster is set but still warm1 the shape is removed and the side of the plaster that rested on the clay trimmed flat and several joggles or natches are made4 7,c1 ,fig4 #ac47 ,the shape is now replaced exactly as cast and the new surfaces treated with parting and the whole slightly filmed with oil as before4 ,great care must be used1 for any oil on the actual surface of the mould spoils the suction of the plaster at that spot4 ,box in and then cast just as before4 ,this gives two halves with waste top and bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac--;,a3 ,,method ,,of ,,dividing4 ,b3 ,,moulding #a,,st ,,half4 ,c3 ,,moulding #b,,nd ,,half4 ,d3 ,a ,,method ,,of ,,securing ,,boards4 ,e3 ,,moulding ,,base4 ,f3 ,,moulding #a,,st ,,half4 ,the shape is now placed on the lathe and the bottom waste turned off1 the base of the shape being slightly hollowed4 ,the creator having arrived so far successfully may now unbend and scratch his mark on this new surface before well waxing it4 ,dowels are cut in the waste of the two halves as shown1 the fresh parts soaped1 all fitted together and slightly oiled1 then boxed in as in ,d and ,e1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,plaster about #b thick at the thinnest part is poured on and the mould is complete4 ,when set1 the shape is removed and the three parts trimmed on all the outside edges4 7,fig4 #ad47 ,the three pieces are assembled1 firmly tied up to prevent warping1 and thoroughly dried4 ,if preferred1 the mould can be made cylindrical instead of square4 ,this will give a more even suction to the slip and may be worth the extra trouble4 ,for casting purposes a refractory clay containing a good percentage of ,china clay1 maturing at about #jc-ja but remaining perfectly white and porous1 will be required4 ,slip for casting is made thus3 ,clay1 picked or broken into small pieces1 is thrown into a bucket of warm water well slubbed up by hand and passed through a fine sieve 7,no4 #hj7 with the aid of a stout brush and thinned to the consistency of thick cream4 ,this should be matured for some days1 frequently stirred1 and again sieved before using4 ,for very small or fragile shapes1 a finer sieve 7#abj7 is advisable4 ,the mould1 quite dry and clean1 is now slightly moistened with a scrupulously clean sponge and water1 the parts assembled1 corded1 and firmly wedged1 leaving the top free as in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the slip1 thoroughly stirred1 is poured in very gently to avoid bubbles4 ,with awkward moulds1 a tube or funnel should be used to prevent splashing4 ,if the mould be placed on a whirler and turned to and fro1 it will prevent the heavier matter in the slip settling too quickly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad--,,the ,,three ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,mould4 ,as the slip sinks in the mould1 the subsidence being due to the absorption of the water by the plaster1 the mould should be continually filled up4 ,after a few minutes the mouth is scraped free to test the deposit4 ,when this is thick enough1 varying1 of course1 with the size of the shape1 the slip is poured out into another bucket4 ,an unorthodox but often useful trick for strengthening long necks is to slide a piece of glass over the mouth and reverse the mould for a minute or so4 ,the neck full of slip thus allows a slight extra deposit on the part that most needs it when we come to finishing off the lip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae--,,mould ,,ready ,,for ,,slip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af--;,,freeing ,,top4 ,let the mould drain a little over the slip bucket and then reverse to dry slowly4 ,when the wet look has disappeared from the surface of the slip1 scrape the top free and run a knife around to prevent sticking as the shape contracts4 7,fig4 #af47 ,in a few hours it will be dry enough to permit of the sides being eased off and the shape left to dry on the base4 7,fig4 #ag47 ,when tough enough to handle with safety1 the waste and cast lines are trimmed and finished off1 any air bubbles or holes broken down and filled with clay scraped from the waste or base4 ,if this finishing is left until the shape be dry1 it is impossible to hide such defects4 ,the greatest care must be exercised in handling cast shapes1 as they are exceptionally fragile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag--,,shape ,,ready ,,for ,,trimming4 ,when quite dry1 the whole form should be carefully gone over with a very fine sandpaper4 ,a superfine surface should be imparted by rubbing with the hands4 ,when using transparent glazes1 as with under-glaze painting1 it is essential that all scratches be removed1 and especially must all sharp edges be eliminated on neck or shoulder1 for the glaze running away from these places imparts a hideously cheap look to what otherwise may be a fine shape4 ,all these points having received attention1 the date is scratched on the bottom of the shape and it is now ready to biscuit4 ,generally speaking1 it will be found that slip the consistency of cream is right for casting1 possibly thicker for big open shapes1 and after the right proportion is settled it is as well to test what it weighs to the pint4 ,as will be readily seen1 this process1 whilst open to many objections1 lends itself to shapes that are refined and delicate and to those that have flutings or raised ornament4 ,such decorations1 or the spouts of jugs1 may be modelled in wax on the plaster shape before casting and appear in reverse on the mould4 ,designs may be scratched on the mould or shape and show as a delicate tracery beneath the glaze4 ,all these things1 however1 add to the difficulty of casting and should be approached by degrees and with restraint4 ,for in unskilled hands the process lends itself to soulless and mechanical repetition4 ,,pressing ,moulds having moderately wide mouths enable the potter to press his shapes instead of cast them4 ,this method in expert hands is even quicker than casting and has the advantage of imparting a sturdier look to large shapes4 ,pressing is also resorted to for those shapes to which it would be difficult for the slip to obtain free access4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah--,,rolling ,,out ,,clay4 ,for the ordinary three-piece mould the procedure would be thus3 ,the clay1 well wedged and quite plastic1 is rolled out as described in ,jigger and ,jolley work1 to a suitable thickness4 7,fig4 #ah47 ,butter cloth or fine linen will do instead of leather to roll the clay on4 ,the insides of the three parts of the mould are sponged and pieces of the thin rolled clay roughly cut to fit them4 ,these pieces are now fitted and well applied to the three parts by dabbing with the damp sponge4 ,a soft close-textured sponge1 or a soft felt dabber1 is best for this operation4 ,when closely setting1 the edges are trimmed and given a slight bevel4 ,the top is cut straight4 ,then the mould is assembled and firmly tied4 ,some of the waste clay is rolled into thin ropes4 ,with the bevelled edges slightly moistened1 these ropes are firmly wedged into the two side junctions and round the base4 ,where the mouth is large enough for the insertion of the hand this is not a difficult operation4 ,if it be narrow1 the two halves of the mould may be tied up and the joints welded together before they are assembled on the base4 ,a coil of clay can then be placed on the edge of the base just clear of the two sides which are now fitted over and tied up4 ,then a stick sponge is used to join up the base to the sides4 7,fig4 #ai47 ,after a little while the shape is fit to be removed and is finished in the usual way4 ,nothing can rival large thrown shapes for vigour or variety1 but unfortunately they are not always within reach of even the good craftsman4 ,then this method offers the least objectionable substitute for them and in clever hands is capable of many fine results4 ,the following method is used to mould handles or simple applied ornament4 ,handles1 feet1 masks1 etc41 are usually pressed and stuck on the dry shape with slip4 ,to mould them some skill is necessary if the press is to be quite accurate and free from twist or ugly seams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai--,,section ,,of ,a ,,mould4 ,,stick-,,sponge ,,welding ,,base ,,to ,,sides4 ,one way1 when the handle or foot is symmetrical1 is to cut the model exactly in half4 ,this must be done when the model is tough enough to handle without bending or distorting it4 ,one half is laid cut side down upon a sheet of glass1 and surrounded at a convenient distance with clay walls4 ,plaster is now poured on to form one half of the mould1 and allowed to set4 ,it is then removed and the smooth surface joggled and claywashed 7brushed over with claywater74 ,the other half is then very carefully applied to the half still embedded in the mould1 the walls built round and the other part of the mould cast4 ,then all is trimmed up and a groove run round the form as shown4 7,fig4 #bj47 ,for pressing1 the form is well filled with clay and the two halves of the mould strongly pressed together4 ,any surplus clay will squeeze into the groove and when tough enough to remove the whole is fettled and finished before drying and sticking up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj--;,,half ,,of ,,mould ,,for ,,pressing ,,handle4 ,with care and practice this method is possible3 ,build walls and pour in enough plaster to form one half of the mould4 ,before it stiffens1 very carefully press in the handle or ornament just up to the halfway line and allow to set4 ,joggle1 claywash1 and cast the second half4 ,finally1 when the object is of any size1 clay walls may be used as described in the chapter on ,figurines4 ,,chapter ,v ,,jigger ,,and ,,jolley ,,work ,earth ,i am1 et is most trwe1 desdan me not1 for so ar you4 --,from an old platter4 ,dishes1 platters1 and to some extent bowls1 are usually made on a ,jigger and ,jolley4 ,the jigger has a revolving head1 fitted to receive moulds4 ,the jolley has a pivoted arm to which different profiles may be clamped4 ,in factories these things are complicated and go by power1 but in a studio where the output of platters and dishes is likely to be limited something simple will do4 ,where the wheel is strong1 well-hung1 and fitted with a removable head1 a contrivance as shown at ,fig4 #ba can be fitted by any carpenter1 that should serve all purposes4 ,the vertical supports of the jolley arm should be quite rigid4 ,the arm itself must so pivot that the face of any profile screwed onto it will cross the head of the jigger1 or wheel if one be used1 through the centre4 ,in other words1 the cutting profile must form a diagonal of the circular head4 ,then1 too1 it must be hung at a height sufficient to allow a fairly thick block of plaster being used for a mould4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba--,,making ,a ,,dish4 ,when making these moulds1 the slotted wheel head or the jigger head is removed and soaped or oiled4 ,then a circular block of plaster is cast to fit4 ,this may be done with the aid of a roll of linoleum1 much in the way described in casting4 ,the paper cone will1 of course1 be replaced by the wheel head1 bedded face up in clay4 ,this plaster block has to be moulded to the exact size of the dish or plaque required4 ,to do this a profile of zinc is necessary4 ,the true section of the dish is drawn full size1 and profiles giving one half of the back and front are traced on a stout sheet of zinc4 ,the zinc is roughly cut to shape with shears and then finished with a file to a chisel edge 7see cut74 ,the two profiles are then firmly backed with shaped wooden forms1 slotted to screw onto the arm of the jolley4 ,the profile giving the face of the plaque is securely adjusted in a horizontal position1 the inner point1 giving the centre of the platter1 being exactly over the centre of the jigger head4 ,the plaster block1 which should be turned down before it sets hard1 is shipped back into position1 the jigger revolved and the profile gradually pressed down until the true section is obtained1 i4e4 when the profile is exactly horizontal again4 ,the mould is now removed1 trimmed at the sides if necessary1 and set apart to dry4 ,it is then ready to use4 ,the mould is slipped into position and revolved to insure even rotation4 ,then the profile giving the back of the platter screwed onto the arm and both adjusted until the stop allows the profile to rest at just that distance from the mould required by the thickness of the platter4 7,fig4 #bb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb--,,profile ,,in ,,position ,,above ,,plate ,,mould4 ,the arm is then swung clear of the mould1 which is well sponged with water to receive the clay4 ,this is carefully wedged and then rolled out or batted flat on a piece of leather until it is a little thicker than the thickest part of the platter 7see ,fig4 #bc74 ,the slab so made is smoothed with a palette knife1 taken up1 leather and all1 slapped onto the mould1 clay side down1 and the leather removed4 ,the clay is now well dabbed down with a wet sponge or dabber1 to take out all wrinkles1 pressed firmly onto the mould and the waste cut off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc--;,,cutting ,,edge ,,of ,,profile4 ,now the jigger or head is set spinning1 the jolley pulled over it1 and the profile gently pressed into the clay4 ,water is used freely to prevent the profile sticking1 and as it becomes clogged the clay is removed4 ,the turning is continued until the profile comes to a stop on the rest4 ,holes that may appear should be filled up before the finish1 at which time the surface should present a smooth unscratched appearance4 ,the shape is allowed to dry on the mould until tough enough to be slipped face down onto a perfectly flat slab dusted with fine sand or flint to prevent sticking4 ,in this position it is left to dry1 when the edges are nicely trimmed with fine sandpaper4 ,for bowls the process is similar1 but the mould here gives the outside and the profile the inside as in cut4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,if made on the outside1 they split before they can be removed4 ,with small bowls the clay is wedged and a lump pressed into the mould by hand4 ,with large bowls requiring a deep foot this must be turned separately and stuck on after the bowl is removed from the mould4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--;,,bowl4 ,where a jigger and jolley is not available1 plates and bowls may be duplicated as follows3 ,place the plate bottom up on a well-soaped surface or a piece of glass4 ,should the plate not lie quite flat1 caulk the apertures with clay1 then all round and distant one and one half inches from the rim1 build clay walls1 or fix a containing band of linoleum1 of sufficient height to allow plaster being poured in an inch and a half above the base or foot of the model4 ,mix fairly stiff plaster and pour in4 ,let it set1 and then remove walls and the model4 ,this gives a mould of the reverse of the plate or bowl4 ,the mould is thoroughly dried before using and then sponged with clean water4 ,clay of the desired thickness is then rolled out as described and applied to the mould and dabbed flat with a sponge or dabber4 ,the finish is imparted with the fingers and the surplus at edges trimmed with a knife4 ,when tough1 the press is slipped out and reversed to dry on a piece of sanded glass4 ,where there is a rim to the plate or bowl1 this should be filled in cleanly with clay before the whole is pressed4 ,it is of course impossible to mould thus bowls that possess a deep or under-cut foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be--,,plate ,,moulded ,,to ,,give ,,back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf--,,mould4 ,,to ,,give ,,face ,,of ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kick ,,wheel4 ,illustration3 ,egypt4 ,b4,c4 #bjjj ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,potter4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,thrown ,,shapes ,the lyf so short1 the craft so longe to learne4 --,,chaucer4 ,the wheel is the true fountain head of all beautiful shapes1 and the student who would become a potter cannot get on the wheel too soon4 ,throwing1 sometimes spinning1 is the term applied to the making of shapes on the wheel4 ,interesting and really fine pots may be built or cast1 but the ultimate appeal rests with the thrown shape4 ,unfortunately1 a complete mastery of throwing is not to be gained by a few spasmodic wrestles with the wheel4 ,it comes only with long hours of concentrated effort4 ,having watched an accomplished thrower and seen the full round shapes rise so easily between his dexterous fingers1 it is with a severe shock that one realizes at the first attempt the skill and practice that will be required before such a desirable proficiency is attained4 ,the best kind of wheel is the kick wheel shown in the illustration4 ,with this the feet1 hands1 and head work in harmony1 accelerating or retarding the motions as required4 ,it is a not distant relation of the earliest wheel1 which was a heavy head on a short shaft1 pivoted in a stone socket4 ,set spinning by hand1 it was kept revolving some time by its own momentum4 ,this form of wheel is used even to this day in the near and far ,east4 ,its first development was a secondary wheel and driving band turned by hand4 ,this led to the wheel shown in the frontispiece and to the kick wheel and again on to the factory wheel4 ,this in its turn is being superseded by the steam wheel1 which gears onto a running band1 the foot being used to start1 stop1 and regulate the speed4 ,the two last named were introduced with the idea of accelerating the production rather than the improvement of the shapes4 ,no doubt the now primitive kick wheel1 much as used by the potters of the ,renaissance1 will be found good enough for us4 ,the tools required for throwing1 after the wheel itself is secured1 are as follows3 a thin copper wire twisted between two bits of wood1 a pricker1 a fine soft sponge1 another bit of sponge tied to a stick1 one or two modelling tools and a rib 7see ,fig4 #bg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg--a1 ,rib2 #b1 ,modelling ,tools2 #c1 ,pricker2 #d1 ,sponge2 #e1 ,wire2 #f1 #g1 and #h1 ,shaving ,tools2 #i1 ,leather4 ,,throwing ,,shaving ,,tools4 ,the clay is first knocked up into shape ready for the throwing4 ,to do this it is wedged1 a fair-sized piece being taken in both hands and thrown violently down on the bench1 cut across1 and smashed together again4 ,this process is repeated until all air bubbles are expelled4 ,this is ascertained by cutting with a wire4 ,the finger is then passed across the surface to tell if it is well together1 and not hard and soft in streaks4 ,if1 as must happen in a small pottery1 the clay is out of condition1 it is best remedied by cutting it with the wire into thin slabs1 piling them criss-cross and then wedging the mass4 ,if still streaky1 it can be quickly tempered1 piece by piece4 ,a double handful is torn across1 wedged together at a different angle between the hands1 re-torn1 and re-wedged1 until hard and soft are welded indistinguishably together4 ,this thorough wedging is essential1 as with beginners a small lump or bubble will usually be sufficient to bring about the collapse of the shape4 ,the clay being thoroughly wedged is rolled into balls of a convenient size4 ,for first practice they should be on the small side and moderately tough1 as this allows a little more play before the ball becomes too soft4 ,the wheel is now started revolving from right to left 7see cut74 ,the head being clean1 the ball is thrown smartly onto its centre4 ,the hands are now wetted in a bowl of water1 which is put1 together with the tools1 on the shelf to the right4 ,then gently but firmly1 with hands placed as shown in ,fig4 #bh1 the ball is centred4 ,at this stage1 perhaps the most critical of all1 the wheel should revolve quite briskly4 ,the hands should be moistened if inclined to stick and the left hand held steady1 the elbow pressed into the side1 the forearm hard on the rest4 ,the right hand has more freedom and coaxes the ball into a half sphere4 ,this when dead centred is elongated1 pressed down again1 and re-formed into a truncated cone4 ,the left hand still steadying1 the thumb of the right is pressed firmly into the centre of the top1 down and out1 to hollow the ball 7see page #ah71 but stopping short of the lathe head4 ,at this stage the most convenient shape to form is a cylinder1 its walls gradually diminishing upwards with a little fatness at the rim4 ,to do this the wheel is slowed down a little and the fingers of the left hand inserted4 ,the sides are felt and gently pulled up1 between the left index finger and the two first fingers of the right hand1 gradually higher and thinner1 always endeavouring to keep the walls at an even but slightly tapering thickness4 7,fig4 #bi47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh--;,,centring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi--,,pulling ,,up4 ,at first two fingers only will be inserted1 but as the shapes grow in size the whole of the left hand will gain admittance4 ,then the perfect cylinder may be modified to almost any required form4 ,with narrow-mouthed shapes the opening must be kept as small as possible1 for the clay once pulled out it is difficult if not impossible to compress it again4 ,the centring and hollowing once mastered1 the chief difficulties to avoid are getting the bottom of the walls too thin before the top is pulled up1 and making the top wavy and irregular4 ,if the latter happens1 it should be at once cut back with the pricker1 which is also used to test the thickness of the sides and base4 ,when the shape has been pulled up to the required form and is sufficiently thin1 the top is smoothed and fattened between the fingers4 ,this not only imparts a look of substance to the vase and takes away any cast look1 but gives strength where it is most needed4 ,the inside1 if wet1 can be cleaned out with the stick sponge and the outside lightly smoothed with the other sponge4 ,for the insides of bowls or wide-mouthed shapes1 a rib of slate or zinc 7see ,fig4 #cj7 will be useful for obliterating ridges4 ,the last operation is to pass the wire1 held firmly to the wheel head1 beneath the pot and lift it off and place it on one of the pot boards or plaster discs4 7,fig4 #cb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj--,,rib ,,of ,,metal ,,for ,,outside4 ,,rib ,,of ,,slate ,,or ,,bone ,,for ,,inside4 ,the first primitive forms are far better left frankly for what they are4 ,afterwards when bigger and more finished shapes are attempted1 they can be thinned and refined with the aid of the rib and a modelling tool1 a considerable finish being put on before they are removed from the wheel4 ,with bowls or large shapes it will be found impossible to lift them off without destroying the shape in some degree4 ,for these wood or plaster discs will be required4 ,the plaster bats need soaking in water before use and the wood must be three-ply to prevent warping4 ,these discs are centred on and firmly stuck to a layer of clay run out on the wheel head1 and when the pot is finished they are removed with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca--;,,finishing ,,with ,,rib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb--,,passing ,,wire ,,under ,,to ,,remove4 ,all this sounds very simple1 but the beginner will do well first to practise and master centring the ball4 ,until this be done1 the rest of the work is worthless4 ,after this must be practised the pulling up1 the pressing down1 and the forming of truncated cones1 then hollowing the ball and pulling up into a cylinder4 ,a true cylinder accomplished1 it is easy to branch out into simple wide-mouthed vase forms4 ,as the skill increases1 shapes with double curves and long or narrow necks may eventually be achieved4 ,throwing to a set copy induces a necessary concentration at this stage1 but once a mastery is attained1 shapes seem to suggest themselves4 ,a small mirror placed so as to reflect the true form will be found of great service4 ,when pairs or several duplicates are required1 a drawing of the exact profile must be made and a rib1 of zinc or slate1 filed to fit4 ,without such a guide the matching up is well-nigh impossible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc--,,stages ,,from ,,centred ,,ball ,,to ,,turned ,,shape4 ,when watching a clever thrower in a factory making some difficult and probably horrible vase1 it is intensely interesting to see the fine forms evolved in the process4 ,to the artist the impulse to stop him is almost irresistible4 ,it was there that the old masters showed their wisdom and restraint4 ,they stopped at the right moment and none of their shapes descend to the merely clever4 ,there is a nobility about a large vase lacking in a small one4 ,once the appetite be whetted for big pots the desire for size seems insatiable4 ,the only way out1 except for the born thrower1 is the two- or three-piece vase4 ,the ,chinese were masters of this as of every other process and we find that they frequently made vases of quite moderate size in two or three parts1 sticking the pieces together with consummate skill4 ,this process1 however1 should never be attempted until considerable proficiency has been gained in throwing to a drawing1 for in any but expert hands it is doomed to failure4 ,the shape must be carefully drawn out on paper and the sections marked off and then thrown exactly to size4 ,any deviation means endless trouble1 with eventual disappointment4 ,for this difficult work the student unable to devote a lifetime to throwing will find a removable wheel head a necessity4 ,then a slotted one can be screwed on which will allow a plaster disc to be shipped back into exactly the same position1 thus saving the difficult task of re-centring4 ,for prolonged operations these plaster discs require to be shellacked to prevent the work leaving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd--;,,assembly ,,of ,,the ,,parts4 ,to start with a shape as shown in the illustration might be attempted4 7,fig4 #cd47 ,the drawing made full size is hung in full view4 ,then the gauge is set to the exact width of the joint4 ,the bottom half is first made1 being cut square and true with the pricker4 ,the drawing is reversed and the upper half thrown1 the neck being at the bottom with a fair amount of waste beneath4 ,when each part is trimmed accurately to measure1 they are put aside to toughen4 ,the top portion will stiffen just as required1 leaving the neck still moist4 ,the bottom half will need watching to prevent the upper edge drying before the base gets firm enough to support the top when attached4 ,a damp cloth lightly wrapped round it will help to insure the ideal condition for sticking up1 which is a gradually diminishing state of toughness from the base up to lip1 the junction of the parts being in exactly the same state4 ,when fit to handle1 the top half is cut through at the lip1 allowing a trifle for finishing off4 ,next the bottom half1 still firmly fixed to the bat1 is slotted back into its original position on the wheel4 ,the flat surfaces that have to be applied and stuck are now very carefully and slightly roughened1 then painted with thick slip made from the same body4 ,these two wet edges are now applied and gently and firmly pressed into position1 the wheel being slowly revolved to see if the two halves run true4 ,when well together and apparently sticking1 a little wedge of soft clay can be carefully run in all around the joint4 ,this operation should be very thorough1 and the clay wedge must be carefully welded into the sides of the joint4 ,this is finished off on the outside with the rib and the inside very lightly smoothed with the fingers4 ,during this process the top should be covered with a soft wet cloth1 then when the joint has been made good and will stand the slight strain1 the lip is finished off in the ordinary way4 ,with three-pieced shapes the lip can be finished before sticking up1 as the last part is thrown in its right position4 ,if at any time the shape shows a disposition to leave the plaster bat1 it should be stuck down with wet clay4 ,the toughened shape can now be turned down in its upright position1 cut off the bat1 and the base hollowed in a chuck 7see next chapter74 ,illustration3 ,india4 ,b4,c4 #bjjj ,,chapter ,,vii ,,turning ,,or ,,shaving ,a sharp spear needs no polish4--,zulu proverb4 ,the turning or shaving operation takes place when the green shape has dried to a leathery condition4 ,it consists in shaving the sides and hollowing the base until the thickness is uniform4 ,the shape is thus made much lighter and rendered less liable to crack from unequal contraction4 ,at the same time a fine finish is imparted to the surface4 ,one of the handiest tools for shaving is shown in ,fig4 #bg1 no4 #f1 but a piece of hoop iron bent at right angles and shaped with a file will serve4 ,small hollows can be finished with a modelling tool4 ,an old piece of leather will close up and finish the surface4 ,in factories a horizontal lathe is usually employed1 the shape being fitted over a chum or chuck4 ,skilled men can turn shapes down until they are scarcely thicker than tin1 but this1 it is needless to add1 is an abuse of method even with porcelain1 and quite out of place with stoneware or earthenware4 ,all that is necessary is to trim the thick sides1 hollow the base1 and smooth the surface4 7,fig4 #ce47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce--,,section ,,shewing ,,turned ,,thrown ,,wall ,,of ,a ,,shape4 ,a simple way to arrive at this is to throw on the wheel a chuck of stiff clay to fit the shape1 wide-mouthed ones being fitted over and ordinary shapes within the chuck4 7,figs4 #cf and #cg47 ,a piece of soft linen is placed over this chuck to prevent sticking and the shape fitted and centred4 ,when spinning quite truly from right to left and steadied with the left hand1 the tool should be gently applied as shown in the illustration4 ,hollow the base and then shave the sides1 turning all down very gradually and improve the outline as much as possible in the process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf--,,shaving ,,the ,,base4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg--,,shaving ,,the ,,sides4 ,care must be taken with the base4 ,if it is not quite true it should be sandpapered to stand flat4 ,a little experience will soon show when it is in the best state for shaving4 ,if the clay is too soft1 the tool jumps1 forming ridges1 or possibly cuts deeply into the form4 ,if it is too dry1 the surface crumbles and the pot is liable to break4 ,when turned in the right leathery condition1 the shavings curl off like peel from an apple and all tool marks are easily removed4 ,a beautiful finish may then be imparted with the leather4 ,to end the process the shape is reversed in the chuck4 ,those most important parts1 the shoulders and lip1 are carefully rounded with a piece of felt and polished with the leather4 ,properly attended to1 this will save much work and disappointment later on4 ,then with all holes filled up1 all ridges1 bumps1 and sharp edges removed1 the shape is signed and put to dry4 ,for very delicate work in transparent glaze or under-glaze painting1 the whole surface may be gone over with very fine sandpaper and polished with the hand4 ,this may be done provided the body is a fine one1 for with a coarse body this is apt to leave the surface looking gritty4 ,some little practice will be necessary in throwing stiff chucks and centring the shape securely1 but this once mastered1 the method here described will be found to be expeditious and satisfactory for turning shapes4 ,a proper regard for process points to the desirability of leaving built shapes without a high finish4 ,yet they also1 if built carefully and stoutly1 may be turned down in the above manner4 ,the building up and turning down is somewhat tedious1 but it is sometimes the only way by which a craftsman can obtain large shapes4 ,a rather more simple process is to centre the shape upon a whirler and turn down with a sharp wire tool1 finishing off lightly with a sponge and soft leather4 ,to accomplish this satisfactorily the shape must be fairly soft1 as there can be no quick spinning motion to enable the tool to cut cleanly as in the chuck or the wheel4 ,when the head of the whirler is of plaster1 it should be well soaked in water and the centred shape stuck down with soft clay4 ,the hand holding the cutting wire tool must be held steady at a fixed distance from the centred shape and the pot may be sprayed with water blown through a diffuser from time to time1 to keep it moist4 ,some clays will not1 however1 stand much re-wetting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch--,,position ,,of ,,tools ,,when ,,shaving4 ,it should not be necessary to caution the craftsman against angular profiles1 splayed feet1 or sharp mouldings4 ,such features are foreign to good pottery1 however suited to metal or stone4 ,with taste and judgement the irregular grooving caused by the tool can be made of high decorative value4 ,in no case should the built shape try to masquerade as a thrown shape4 ,when the whirler is used to shave down built shapes1 they may be coiled very thick at the base1 thus allowing more rapid work4 ,the attention must then be concentrated on the profile of the inside4 ,in this way many shapes that splay out or curve boldly from the foot may be built1 which would otherwise present many difficulties in coiling4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,tile-,,making ,,vi thousand and fourscore of pavynge tiles delivered at ,hampton ,court1 for to pave the ,kinges new hall at ,x,x,v,js4 ,v,i,i,jd4 the thousand4 --,sixteenth century memorandum4 ,tiles may be made of various kinds and sizes1 but in every case they show an inclination to buckle in drying and firing4 ,the larger the tile the stronger is this tendency to warp4 ,the clay must not be so rich as that which is used for throwing and should be tempered to counteract the tendency to curl4 ,a tile box as shown in ,fig4 #ci1 or a variant of it1 will be required for pressing tiles by hand2 for plain tiles #e_/h deep1 for others #a-a_/d deep1 the size being calculated to allow for shrinking4 ,the sides hinge and the thumb screws keep it steady on the bench during work4 ,for rough tiles1 two strips nailed to the table will serve1 the clay being rolled out between and cut in lengths as required4 ,for plain tiles the wedged and tempered clay is batted out into a slab a full #c_/d thick4 ,the mould is dusted with ,french chalk1 flint1 or very finely sifted clay dust1 to prevent sticking1 and into it is pressed a piece cut to fit easily in the tile box1 from the slab4 ,this is firmly pressed into the box1 considerable pressure being used4 ,the surplus is scraped off and the top trued with an iron straight-edge4 ,the knife can be run round the sides1 then with the frame reversed a smart tap on the back will release the tile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci--,,tile ,,frame--#f-a_/b x #ac4 ,let the tiles toughen and then pile in stacks with flat pieces of clay or old tile between each corner and a true biscuit tile at bottom and the top4 ,they can be piled one on the other with sand between or stacked like bricks with alternate holes for the air to circulate4 ,this retards the drying1 but in any case they must be dried slowly4 ,with plain glazed tiles a little coarse dust sprinkled over the surface before the tile is removed from the box1 and well pressed in1 will give a slight interest to the surface and take away any mechanical look4 ,if required for painting1 the clay must be very finely sieved and the surface will need careful finishing by hand when dry4 ,with coarse clay1 a fine surface can be imparted with a flexible broad palette knife4 ,for raised outline tiles a frame #a-a_/d deep is required4 ,this allows a plaster bat #e_/h thick to be placed at the bottom4 ,the best way1 perhaps1 is to oil the frame and cast the bat in it1 removing it when set and sandpapering the upper surface flat and true4 ,the design for the tile drawn the exact size on paper is now traced on this surface4 ,it is far better to sketch it directly onto the slab1 but this demands some proficiency if the surface is to be preserved4 ,the design is then incised with a firm sharp point1 clay squeezes being taken from time to time to show the progress of the work4 ,the plaster should be wetted to insure easy working4 ,at the finish the design should stand out in a fairly strong and deep line--square--not round or angular in section4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,a chisel-pointed hard pencil will be found best for finishing4 ,this gives a clear-cut line1 not too round4 ,the bat1 sponged clean and porous1 is then placed in the frame and the tile pressed as before4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj--;,a3 ,,point ,,for ,,first ,,outline4 ,b3 ,,do4 ,,for ,,final ,,incised ,,line4 ,c3 ,,section ,,of ,,incorrect ,,cloissons4 ,d3 ,,correct4 ,raised outline tiles can be even more satisfactorily made by means of outlining slip squeezed from a tube or tracer in the same manner that inscriptions are made on sugared cakes1 but this requires much practice to obtain good results4 ,when glazing1 the coloured glazes are applied to the different compartments with a brush4 ,as the glaze fuses to about one third of its bulk when dry1 it should be applied very liberally4 ,it will be found that large or elaborate designs are to be avoided1 as in this process they tend to become mechanical and look thin4 ,the old ,spanish and ,moorish tiles in this style with jewel-like bits of colour are excellent guides and might be studied with advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da--,,slip ,,tracer4 ,the process of making encaustic tiles is a little more complicated4 ,within the frame is placed a well-lathered or soaped plaster bat 7or tile7 high enough to allow only a thin layer of clay #a_/h thick being run out on top4 ,on this when firm the design is traced or pounced4 ,then with a thin sharp blade it is cut down vertically to the plaster bat1 and the clay removed until the whole design shows in white plaster beneath 7see illustration #db74 ,the face of the clay left must be preserved carefully1 as it forms the surface of the subsequent press4 ,the bat with clay is now placed on the bottom of the frame to allow a cast #e_/h thick to be made4 ,the plaster and the sides of the frame are slightly oiled and the plaster mixed and poured in4 ,a soft hair brush will be useful to dislodge the air bubbles that are certain to hide in some of the many odd corners4 ,when nearly set1 the surface of the plaster can be scraped flat1 and when set taken out of the frame and detached4 ,the clay is picked out and the whole surface of the design cleaned and trimmed so that it will not hold or bind in pressing4 ,this in turn is placed in the frame and a careful press taken4 ,the result is a sunk design into which a different coloured clay is pressed1 the tile being first allowed to toughen4 ,the surface is lightly scraped flat and the tile slowly dried4 ,when hard1 the face is scraped again with a steel straight-edge1 sandpapered1 and dusted1 when the design appears in two colours4 7,fig4 #dc47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db--;,,clay ,,layer ,,cut ,,out ,,on ,,bat ,,plaster ,,die4 ,the most effective clays are fairly siliceous reds1 buffs1 browns1 and greys4 ,when tempered with flint or quartz sand to a uniform degree1 they offer a splendid opportunity for counterchange pattern4 ,if a soft clay that contracts considerably is inlaid in a refractory clay1 cracks will appear round the edges of the inlay4 ,thus it is found best to have the body of the tile made of the clay that contracts most4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc--,,striking ,,off ,,face ,,of ,,tile ,,in ,,frame--,,section ,,on ,a-,b4 ,where only a single tile is required a more direct method is possible4 ,the tile is pressed and allowed to toughen slightly1 the design being transferred as before4 ,it is then cut round with a sharp knife and the waste removed with a wire tool4 ,a certain facility of handling is required1 for great care must be taken to preserve the edges and angles4 ,this method is1 however1 productive of much fresh and vigorous work4 ,encaustic tiles must necessarily be simple and bold in character1 for anything complicated invites confusion2 the best possible guides are the encaustic tiles of medival times1 especially the simple and spirited ,english and ,german ,gothic4 ,the most satisfactory way to make modelled tiles or panels is to run out upon a stout board1 cross battened to prevent warping1 a flat slab of clay of the required thickness4 ,sketch in the design with a point and model straight away onto the clay4 ,care must be taken1 if the panel is to be fired1 to see that all the added work adheres firmly to the background4 ,where several presses are to be made1 the edges of the modelled slab should be carefully trimmed with a bevel1 the board oiled1 and the mould made directly after the modelling is finished4 ,the mould may be worked on in moderation4 ,lettering is much more easily incised in the mould than raised in the clay4 ,for tiles needing much sharpness of detail almost the whole can be carved in the plaster4 ,unless done with great sympathy1 however1 this leads to a certain harshness and angularity that should be foreign to clay4 ,where a moulded frame for a panel is required1 a strickle1 or profile1 is cut in zinc4 ,for short use one made from a thin slab of plaster will serve4 ,the strickle is keyed to a straight-edge and dragged over the clay until the correct moulding emerges4 ,this is then cut into lengths and very carefully dried4 ,the tendency of all transparent glassy glazes to pool in hollows and run off at high points must be borne in mind4 ,with thick matt glazes any delicacy of detail is apt to be lost labour4 ,these problems should be faced before the design is made1 as in this process there is a certain quality of surface required by the glaze4 ,on the other hand1 in endeavouring to make a good surface for the glaze to enhance1 it is easy to slip into the over-round and slimy treatment that characterizes so much modelled pottery4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,drying3 ,,finishing ,there nis no workeman whosoever he be ,that can werke bothe welle and hastile4 --,merchants ,tale4 ,drying out is quite an important part of pot making4 ,for this a drying cupboard is a necessity4 ,it is easily erected1 if the front and sides of wood be backed against a wall4 ,across the bottom1 which should be open1 run a row of gas jets protected above by perforated zinc or iron4 ,at the top1 which is boarded in1 place a small sliding panel to insure a draught4 ,with side brackets and removable shelves it should answer all purposes4 ,a cupboard may be built over a radiator1 but here the heat is not so easily regulated4 ,a thermometer inside the cupboard will be an advantage1 for a wet pot straight from the wheel will warp in a warmth that would be quite suited to tough shapes4 ,the green or damp wares should be put on the top shelves and brought nearer the heat as they dry4 ,large shapes put into the cupboard to dry quickly are very liable to crack across the base4 ,any flush of heat upon them through any aperture in the shelves will cause them to dry streakily4 ,turning then becomes difficult or impossible4 ,bowls1 if not too fragile1 may with care be piled one within the other4 ,this helps to retain their shape4 ,tiles are best stacked in piles dusted with flint or with a piece of clay at each corner between them4 ,tiles should never be placed in the cupboard until quite dry and straight4 ,flat platters or dishes require very careful drying to prevent buckling and should be reversed on a piece of sanded glass4 ,when shapes are dried in the open air1 they often get hard at the rim before the bottom stiffens4 ,they need reversing to counteract this tendency4 ,to retard drying1 which may often be necessary1 a damp-box is needed4 ,a large box1 zinc-lined and fitted with plaster slabs1 is an excellent device4 ,the plaster must be kept moist with water4 ,a well-tarred box with a close-fitting lid is more easily constructed and will serve most purposes4 ,all work to be stuck up or modelled on should be kept in the damp-box until quite finished and then dried very gradually4 ,in all kinds of sticking up the body and the addition should be of the same consistency4 ,re-wetting is dangerous but may be resorted to in moderation with stout thrown shapes4 ,ornament added when the shape is nearly dry is very likely to leave in the biscuiting1 although apparently quite firm in the green state4 ,cast shapes dry very rapidly and should be finished before they become white dry4 ,with practice handles1 masks1 and the like can be affixed in the dry state with slip1 but it demands its careful and sparing use4 ,cracks or holes in dried shapes can with great care be filled1 a stiff wedge of clay being firmly pressed in and welded to the slightly moistened sides of the crack4 ,the plaster tools 7,fig4 #dd7 will be found very handy for working on the dry clay4 ,with skill and patience much repairing may be done on unfired shapes1 but it is a waste of time to attempt it unless the beauty of the piece warrants it4 ,it is far better if the piece be faulty to throw it back into the bin at this stage4 ,once fired1 it is likely to remain an irremediable eyesore4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd--,,plaster ,,tools4 ,one or two other points bearing on finish have been mentioned before in previous chapters1 but these last touches are so important that they will bear some reiteration4 ,the finality burned in by the biscuiting should induce a careful and sound completion of each object2 yet paradoxical as it may seem1 the less finishing1 the better for the piece4 ,it is no part of a craftsman's work to go finnicking with file and sandpaper2 too frequently nothing remains of what might have been a vigorous shape but a meticulous finish4 ,the best ,japanese work was superb in this respect and despite the many quaint and surprising shapes into which they fashioned the clay1 it very rarely seems to lose its plastic character1 it never assumes forms more suited to metal1 wood1 or stone4 ,again the character that comes with correct treatment is never smothered4 ,often the ribs or ridges made by the fingers or the tool in forming the shape are frankly left to contribute their quota to the general effect4 ,the lips are rounded with scrupulous care and angles removed without a suggestion of weakness4 ,where large utensils1 ewers and the like1 are in question1 medival pottery is rich in suggestion for handles1 spouts1 and such added forms4 ,it is only when such additions are affixed that one realizes the nicety of adjustment required between the size1 shape1 and situation of the handle or spout and the vessel to which it is attached4 ,it is here that an appreciation and an intelligent use of historic ornament is necessary4 ,,chapter ,x ,,firing ,,biscuit ,the ,pope1 the ,cardinals1 and the ,princes of the ,world are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made out of the earth4 --,,eximenus4 ,fifteenth century4 ,when sufficient green shapes have been accumulated and are white dry1 the next stage will be biscuiting4 ,this process is the firing of the clay to a primrose or a white heat according to its fusibility4 ,this permanently expels the water that is always present1 even when dry1 and converts the friable clay into a hard unalterable body4 ,this may vary in colour from the white of kaolin to ivory1 grey1 buff1 red1 or brown1 according to the composition of the clay2 it may be vitreous or porous2 soft like common flower pots or so hard that it will spark when struck with steel4 ,the fire is the ultimate test of the pot and of the potter4 ,it is indispensable to both4 ,with but a small kiln the craftsman will begin to appreciate many things that can be learned only at the fire hole4 ,without a kiln he will not commence to be a potter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de--;,,gas ,,kiln4 ,,section ,,showing ,,close ,,packed ,,biscuit4 ,the kinds of kilns usually found in schools are the gas and the oil kiln4 ,the ,english gas kiln has an arrangement of nine or twelve burners beneath the muffle4 7,fig4 #de47 ,this is a fire-clay box1 open at the front1 set on fire bricks and cased round with fire tiles within an iron frame 7see cut74 ,there is an air space all round1 except at the open end1 leading to the flues on top which have dampers to regulate the draught4 ,the open end may be closed by a hinged door or bricked up with fire tiles cut to fit4 ,the defects of this kind of kiln are too sudden access of flame to the bottom of the muffle1 causing it to split1 and the impossibility of getting the front1 where trials are usually placed1 fired up equally with the back4 ,an ideal muffle of this kind would be one with flues all round1 gradual access of flame on all sides1 spy holes each end1 and the top to lift off1 for placing4 ,american kilns have flues in the door1 and the chimney at the top is placed slightly forward1 thus making it easy to fire the front up hard4 ,they are usually fitted with two large burners1 with air mixers1 and a handy mica spy hole4 ,the oil kiln differs considerably from the gas kiln4 ,the oil is fed through tubes into fire boxes some distance below the bottom of the muffle4 ,it burns on asbestos fibre in an iron pan to which the draught can be admitted4 ,the flames strike the bottom of the muffle and pass up through fire-clay pipes1 which project into the muffle1 then pass off through a twin flue regulated by dampers4 ,with this kiln a long flue is necessary and any excess of carbon is liable to choke the pipes1 and further it cannot be sweated up at the finish so easily as a gas kiln having a large number of burners4 ,it is a good plan when a coarse fire-clay muffle is used for glaze and biscuit to give the sides and top a sagger wash of lead and stone4 ,this renders the muffle less liable to absorb glaze from the pots in glost firing4 ,it also lessens the danger of small bits scaling off and sticking to the finished ware4 ,the bottom should always be kept dusted with finely powdered flint4 ,when cracks appear or joints open1 they should be stopped with a pugging of fire clay and grog4 ,a mixture of egg silica or water glass with fine grog and quartz sand will stop small cracks4 ,siluma1 a fire-proof cement1 with equal parts of sand1 answers admirably for patching4 ,in biscuit firing the green shapes may be packed close together1 with the lighter shapes on top of the stronger1 but all must be #a_/b to #c_/d away from the sides of the muffle4 ,triangular pieces of biscuit1 called saddles1 are used to raise the shapes off the bottom1 but often a fired tile1 sanded and placed on a spur or saddles1 gives the best foundation4 ,where two layers are required1 small props and fire bats1 perforated to let the heat through1 will be necessary4 ,these form shelves as the exigencies of the packing dictate4 7,fig4 #dg47 ,for light shapes1 thimbles and fired tiles will serve the purpose4 7,fig4 #dh47 ,where a shelf or prop rocks insecurely1 a small wad of pugging 7grog and clay7 will give a steady bearing4 ,thrown bowls1 if dried together and well fitting1 may be fired together1 and large thrown pots may be filled with little ones4 ,cast shapes can be placed on top of thrown ones1 but no liberty is to be taken with them4 ,flint should be used liberally to prevent sticking1 which may happen if the biscuit be over-fired4 ,tiles can be fired two together in tile boxes or stacked as dried4 ,flat ware fired in a small muffle requires very careful handling4 ,whenever possible1 it should be placed in the centre1 on a flat flint-covered fire tile or bat4 ,one soon learns to pack a biscuit kiln1 using saddles1 spurs1 stilts1 thimbles1 bits of tile or biscuit1 and sand or flint as necessary4 ,the thing that is a little difficult to realize at first is that built or thrown shapes1 and still less tiles or modelled work1 should not be hurried4 ,twelve hours is none too long to give to a #e_/h tile in the biscuit kiln4 ,although to all appearances thoroughly dry1 the least hurry generates steam which will ruthlessly blow our best effects to bits4 ,in packing1 two cones or temperature indicators 7,fig4 #df7 are placed somewhere near the middle in a position easily seen during the firing from the spy hole4 ,these cones are made of different compositions which melt at varying temperatures4 ,thus if the firing point of a body is known1 a cone of that degree is used and the firing continued until the cone bends4 ,this it does soon after it assumes the colour of the surrounding muffle4 ,to eliminate the uncertainty that is likely to be present at the first few firings it is as well to use two or even three cones1 one just above and one below the correct temperature4 ,placed in order there is little chance then of over- or under-firing unless so much sulphur gets into the kiln that the cones harden and refuse to turn4 ,calorites are sometimes used but are not so reliable4 ,the cones may be sloped to insure bending to right or left1 as a cone bending towards the spy is deceptive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df--;,,cones4 ,a trial piece of biscuit being placed near the spy hole1 the next thing is to close the muffle4 ,in a kiln with hinged doors the spy hole is fixed and this fact has to be taken into account4 ,but with a bricked-up door the spy and vent may be left where it is most convenient4 ,these orifices have plugs that fit them loosely so that if necessary they can be pulled without disturbing the clamming4 ,this clamming or stopping is a mixture of sand1 sieved dust1 ground pitchers1 or other infusible siftings held together with a very little waste glaze and water4 ,where much is required1 moist sand will suffice4 ,this is plastered into the cracks that would otherwise let heat out of1 or air into1 the muffle1 and so seals up the door4 ,with hinged doors little stopping is required1 except round the spy or vent4 ,the crack above the door should not be clammed until the muffle begins to get warm4 ,with this done and the two plugs out1 all is now ready to light up4 ,with an ,english kiln1 a good middle course is as follows3 ,for cone 4#ja1 taking #ab-ad hours4 ,see that all the burner taps are off with the main cock on one third to one half4 ,take the reading of the metre4 ,pull the air regulators right back and the dampers out nearly half4 ,then take out the plug of the lighting hole and insert a taper4 ,turn on tap number #a4 ,when lit1 withdraw the taper and turn on tap number #b4 ,turn down to about one half and continue until every burner is lit1 making sure that each one is burning freely with a yellow flame4 ,with a kiln having twelve burners turn out all but numbers #c1 #f1 and #i4 ,with these on one third1 very gently push forward the air regulators until a roaring noise tells that air is being admitted to the bunsen burners4 ,the flame at this time should be blue1 and the stopper should be replaced4 ,if the flame appears at all fierce1 turn the taps down a little4 ,if turned down too much1 the gas lights back and will have to be turned out and relighted4 ,the same thing happens when too much air is admitted4 ,the burners require watching until the right pressure is known4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg--,,the ,,use ,,of ,,bats ,,props4 ,for biscuit of any thickness three hours on the three burners is not too much1 the taps being gradually turned on to increase the length of the flame until at the end of the three hours the taps are at three fourths4 ,at the end of the first half hour the bottom spy hole is plugged and when all steam has stopped issuing from the top vent1 that is stopped also and the whole clammed1 leaving just a small crack as vent4 ,when three hours are up1 the regulators are pulled back and all burners lit at half cock4 ,then all but #b1 #e1 #g1 #i1 and #aa are turned out4 ,starting at the half1 they are gradually increased to three fourths in two hours4 ,then numbers #a1 #b-d1 #e-g1 #h-aj1 #aa are lighted in the same way4 ,colour will begin to show inside the muffle about the fifth or sixth hour1 and the top dampers can come out a little1 the front one more than the back1 to draw the flame towards the door4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh--,,tile ,,thimbles4 ,when the eight burners have been on about one and one half hours the muffle will probably show a dull red inside and all danger of blowing will be passed4 ,two more burners at three fourths may now be put on and at the expiration of another one and one half hours the remaining two may be turned on4 ,if the pressure weakens and the flame shortens1 the main cock should be turned on4 ,just above the base of each chimney is a small hole and the flame should show through these towards the finish4 ,if the flame flaps out of the chimney tops1 it is so much waste and it should be checked at the taps4 ,the dampers can come right out towards the end1 being used to sweat the flame to the front if the back appears to come up too fast4 ,as white heat approaches1 the cones should be observed occasionally4 ,they turn the colour of their surroundings when about to topple over and as the first begins to curl the trial near the spy can be hooked out quickly and tested4 ,when the right cone is well down1 the main cock and then the burner taps are turned off4 ,the air regulators are now pulled back and after a few minutes the dampers are closed4 ,the metre is then checked and entered in the firing book4 ,the kiln should be allowed to cool slowly for at least #ab hours1 but the clamming at the top may come away and this will expedite the cooling without risk to the muffle4 ,this time applies to a muffle of about #bj #ae #cj dimensions4 ,a smaller kiln will fire up and cool in a shorter time4 ,gas kilns as made in ,america vary in the arrangement of their burners1 but the principle is the same4 ,they are simple to manipulate and especially handy for firing on decoration1 as they are fitted with shelves and uprights4 ,the burners once alight1 the flame is gradually increased1 but where the pressure is uncertain1 it is well to keep something in reserve4 ,firing with oil is somewhat different4 ,the asbestos fibre in the pans is well saturated with kerosene1 the tanks filled1 and the taps turned off4 ,a light is applied to the burners and when both are burning freely the taps are turned on to allow a thin stream of oil to flow into the pans4 ,from the merest trickle at first1 the flow should be gradually increased as the heat develops4 ,this is observed through the mica spy hole in the door and the one above tells when the flame is reaching its maximum4 ,should it flare over irregularly before the finish it means that the combustion is not perfect and there is danger of clogging4 ,the supply of oil should be reduced and the draught regulated until the flame in the combustion chamber burns clear4 ,all soot or carbon forming in the fire box should be raked out and the oil supply checked1 as it indicates a too liberal supply4 ,as the oil in the tank subsides it should be refilled and the taps checked1 as the increase in pressure is apt to vary the flow4 ,the later patterns of oil kilns have several advantages over the kiln described4 ,the muffle construction and the burner arrangements are ingenious and practical1 and need little manipulation to insure even distribution of heat4 ,the oil tanks and taps will need attention at each firing1 otherwise sediment will collect and choke the even flow of paraffin oil or kerosene4 ,with both gas or oil kilns the amount of fuel consumed should be recorded1 together with the time1 weather conditions1 cones1 and results of firing1 in the ,kiln ,log4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di--,,sketch ,,sec',,tn ,,of ,,oil ,,kiln ,,to ,,show ,,packing ,,of ,,glazed ,,pots4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,glost ,,firing ,when ,fortune bringeth thee affliction1 console thyself by remembering that one day thou must see prosperity1 and another day difficulty4 --,from ,,el ,,koran4 ,the hard porous biscuit shape will now need a coat of glaze and a subsequent glost fire4 ,raw glazes for green shapes are now seldom used except for the coarser wares or peasant pottery4 ,in commerce it is1 however1 largely used on tiles1 mouldings1 and big sanitary appliances4 ,for common cheap crockery a soft lead glaze1 often galena1 is generally used4 ,it is applied with a brush1 or the pot still leathery and tough is dipped in the glaze4 ,raw glazes have a strong inclination to leave in the firing4 ,they are very difficult to manipulate unless they are of the simplest formula and fired very slowly4 ,the addition of a little clay in the form of slip to the glaze will often counteract the tendency to leave the pot4 ,the ordinary glazes in dry powder form are mixed with water to the consistency of cream and passed with the aid of a stout brush through a phosphor bronze sieve into a large basin or tub4 ,the sieves may range from eighty to two hundred mesh1 according to the delicacy of the work4 ,for ordinary work ,no4 #ajj suffices4 ,the biscuit to receive the glaze should be quite clean and free from dust or dirt with the insides carefully dusted or blown out4 ,grease will stop absorption1 but with opaque glazes discoloration is not of great importance4 ,if the biscuit is hard and inclined to be non-porous1 the glaze will need to be mixed fairly thick before it will cling2 with soft and porous shapes a comparatively thin mixture will take readily4 ,no immutable law can be laid down for the exact thickness of the coat of glaze4 ,all glazes vary4 ,one sixteenth inch may be enough for one and far too thin for another4 ,from one twentieth inch for thin transparent glaze to one eighth inch for matts is a fair average4 ,it is well to err on the thick side to avoid an impoverished look4 ,trials on odd pieces of biscuit fired in horizontal and vertical positions will best settle the point4 ,in all cases the inside is first half filled with glaze which is rolled quickly round and out4 ,the deposit is then tested with a knife4 ,the glaze for the inside should be slightly thinner in composition than for the outside1 as it is inclined to pool in the bottom if too thick4 ,the outside and the neck are then scraped free of all splashes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej--,,pouring4 ,to glaze the outside of the pot the methods employed are painting1 spraying1 dipping1 and pouring4 ,in painting1 two or three coats applied with a flat soft brush may be necessary4 ,in spraying1 the glaze is thinned considerably and blown through a vaporizer by means of a foot pump4 7,fig4 #ea47 ,the shape1 its mouth closed with a small bowl or saucer1 is placed on a whirler in a draught box and slowly revolved4 ,the draught draws the waste spray away from the operator1 who should wear a respirator4 ,this method is excellent where any gradation is required4 ,it is easily learned4 ,unfortunately1 it requires expensive apparatus to render it safe with lead glazes4 ,unless it is done on a big scale and the waste glaze retained1 it is also wasteful4 ,in dipping1 the pot is plunged right under in a tub of glaze which is kept well stirred to prevent the heavy constituents settling4 7,figs4 #eb and #ec47 ,this requires considerable dexterity4 ,in a school1 glaze is seldom mixed in sufficient quantities to permit of this being acquired4 ,perhaps the most satisfactory method is pouring4 7,fig4 #ej47 ,the shape is reversed and stood upon a big stilt or two strips of wood over a bowl or tub4 ,then the glaze is poured from a jug round the edge of the base1 until every part is covered4 ,with a little practice a quite even coat can be thus applied4 ,owing to the inversion of the shape it is slightly thicker at the shoulder and neck1 an excellent point in glazing4 ,when dry1 the base is scraped and wiped clean with a sponge and the lip touched up with a brush4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea--,,spraying4 ,with matt glazes1 as has been noted1 a thick coat is necessary4 ,if very porous1 the shape may be soaked first in clean water to take some of the suction out of the biscuit4 ,when glazed1 it is essential that all dips and inequalities be removed4 ,if thinly coated1 the glaze will assume a glossy surface when fired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb--;,,dipping4 ,whatever process is used1 the lip and base of a pot should receive careful attention1 the rims especially should be thickly and evenly coated with glaze4 ,the thickness can be tested with the point of a knife and any scratches or bare spots should be filled in and rubbed flat as they are apt to show at the finish if the glaze is at all refractory4 ,never starve the glaze1 for a thin coat imparts a poor cheap look to any pot that is seldom remedied with entire success4 ,when only one kind of glaze is used1 the application is quickly learned4 ,with hard and soft1 lead and leadless glazes1 both opaque and transparent1 and possibly a combination of spraying1 painting1 and pouring1 the difficulties are greatly increased4 ,practical experience will be the only safe guide4 ,but speaking generally1 a sprayed coat can be thicker than a poured coat4 ,hard glazes give less trouble than soft if too liberally applied4 ,tin glazes will stand a lot of over-firing even when thin and the reverse holds good of matt glazes4 ,raw borax glazes require much more careful firing than raw lead glazes but often give better colour results and are less liable to sulphuring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec--;,,dipping4 ,when glazing with a transparent glaze over under-glaze painting a thin coat is advisable4 ,if it be thick and run1 the painting is spoiled2 but if1 after firing1 it appears thin1 another light spray may be tried4 ,but whole chapters of writing will never settle these points4 ,repeated trials on odd pieces of biscuit will elucidate more than many books4 ,in packing a glost or glaze kiln stilts and spurs instead of saddles must be used to prevent the pots from sticking to the floor or shelves4 7,figs4 #di and #ed47 ,for the same reason the pots must not touch each other4 ,with glazes requiring a high temperature the space between pots of different colour should be considerable4 ,an appreciable amount of glaze is liberated in the intense heat and a blue pot will often leave a distinct blue patch on any light pot placed too near4 ,soft glazes liable to run or drip should be placed on separate bats well flinted beneath4 ,any crack in the muffle should be well stopped and lime may be used to neutralize the effects of any sulphur that may enter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed--,,stilts1 ,,bits ,,and ,,spurs4 ,as the back is usually hotter than the front the hard glazes should be packed first1 and by selecting suitable shapes a good setter will pack a surprising amount into even a small kiln4 ,the clamming should be done with care1 as bits are liable to flake off and stick to the glaze4 ,the top plug only need be left out and the lighting up proceeded with as before4 ,the gradual increase of heat is very essential in firing glaze1 for any sudden jump or reduction will play all manner of games in a glost oven4 ,the slow start is not so important1 there being no risk of blowing4 ,indeed the glaze is best in a sharp quick fire4 ,although cones should always be used and are excellent indicators1 experience will soon show when a kiln is fired up4 ,it may be advisable to go on a little after the cone is over until all looks fluxed so as to get rid of bubbles4 ,these appear in some glazes until the last4 ,they do not always go down on cooling1 but those glazes that bubble through over-firing should be avoided4 ,possibly the trouble will arise from sulphur in the body which must be corrected4 ,trials are always useful but they must be small and easily hooked out1 as constant poking about at the spy hole lowers the temperature of the muffle at the front1 just where it is most difficult to get it up4 ,when fired1 a glost kiln should cool very slowly1 for any sudden access of cold air is liable to stunt or crack the pots4 ,when firing over glaze decoration where the glaze does not run1 the packing is much simplified4 ,with low-firing lustres the pots may even touch each other4 ,all this has been set out at great length but we shall find over and above this that each kiln has its own little ways which must be studied and humoured before the best results can be obtained4 ,the chief thing to avoid is a sudden flush or jump in the heat4 ,the main thing to aim at is a slow start steadily increasing to a sharp finish4 ,the state of the muffle1 a dry or a damp day1 will modify each firing a little1 but the above generalization will have a fairly wide application to the working of a small kiln4 ,unpacking is a compound of despair and delight1 and is best done slowly4 ,as the colour dies the clamming1 if any1 may be knocked away1 and later on the spy plugs removed4 ,when comparatively cold1 the door may be opened slightly1 and left so for one or two hours4 ,then the front pots can be extracted but those at the back should be allowed another half hour4 ,be very careful of the razor edges of broken stilts or glaze dips4 ,a steel chisel should be used for chopping rough edges or removing refractory stilts4 ,if necessary the bases may be ground on an emery wheel until the pot stands true4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,glazes ,,and ,,lustres ,i began to think that if ,i should discover how to make enamels ,i could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily1 because ,god had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing4 --,,palissy4 ,it is in this department of potting1 with its surprises1 difficulties1 and disappointments1 its rare but exciting successes1 that for most potters the greatest interest lies4 ,to those of a scientific bent it is perhaps the summit of the craft1 but the artist groping amidst formulas and methods may take heart4 ,the finest work in pottery was not produced by scientists alone and does not depend altogether upon the quality of its paste1 its unique colour1 or strange lustre4 ,the last word1 the form1 decoration1 and craftsmanship1 is with the artist4 ,it is beyond the scope of a book of this description to enter into a necessarily long and complicated account of the different processes concerned in the composition of glazes4 ,it will be sufficient to indicate their leading characteristics plainly enough to enable the student to start experimenting4 ,none can afford to miss opportunities for experiment1 just as surely as none can afford to be always experimenting4 ,for a full description of materials and glazes and their manufacture such books as those of ,drs4 ,shaw1 ,furnival1 and ,hainbach are recommended4 ,putting aside salt glaze we find a countless number of both lead and leadless glazes4 ,they range from the thin silicious coating of the ancients up to the rich alkaline glazes of the ,persians and ,chinese2 from the raw galena of peasant pottery to the rich ,majolicas and fine hard glazes of modern commerce4 ,salt glaze is obtained by the vaporizing of salt inside the kiln at a great heat4 ,the sodium oxide so formed combines with the silicates in the clay to form a very thin coat of refractory glass1 intimately connected with the body4 ,porcelain glazes1 though not differing so much in composition from the ordinary fine earthenware glazes1 are extremely hard1 being compounded of kaolin1 felspar1 and quartz1 with possibly limestone and ground sherds4 ,it has in common with the salt glaze the close union with the body1 so that when fractured the line of demarcation between glaze and body is indeterminable4 ,with a few minor exceptions the following list comprises the ingredients of all colourless glazes3 ,kaolin ,quartz ,cornish stone ,felspar ,fluorspar ,flint ,sand ,barytes ,bismuth ,gypsum ,limestone ,nitre ,borax ,bone-ash ,white lead ,red lead ,zinc oxide ,tin oxide ,salt ,soda ,potash ,these materials must be free from all trace of iron4 ,they are pulverized and some are calcined or oxidized4 ,then they are mixed in varying quantities to form the glaze mass4 ,this mass is easily fusible when lead or borax is present in large proportions1 more infusible or harder the more silica it contains1 and very refractory if alumina is present in any quantity4 ,the silica forming the glassy part of the glaze is stiffened by the presence of alumina1 which stops any tendency to run4 ,lead is very largely used as a powerful flux at low temperatures but is unsuited to hard glazes4 ,borax and boracic acid are important constituents of leadless glazes4 ,they are used to replace some of the silica1 than which they are more fusible4 ,matt or non-reflective glazes are opaque and less vitreous than the glassy glazes4 ,they do not flux or run4 ,all these minerals are finely ground before mixing4 ,then those insoluble are mixed and fritted2 that is1 fused in a crucible or fritting furnace to a greater or less degree1 according to the hardness of the glaze4 ,if fused into a glass1 the melted mass is poured into water to facilitate the next process1 which is its reduction to a fine powder by re-grinding4 ,then the completing ingredients are added and the mass coloured by the addition of metallic oxides4 ,of these the chief are3 ,iron ,copper ,nickel ,antimony ,cobalt ,chrome ,manganese ,titanium and the more precious metals1 in various forms1 as oxides1 carbonates1 sulphates1 and nitrates soluble in the glaze at great heat4 ,these metals impart the many varied colours found in pottery4 ,zinc oxide is used to brighten a glaze or to stabilize colour4 ,tin oxide1 which is insoluble at great heat but remains in suspension1 gives opacity4 ,this is no more than a skeleton outline of the intricate processes often used in the fabrication of a glaze4 ,the manifold minerals1 metals1 oxides1 acids1 and alkalies are used in a variety of ways by the modern chemical potter4 ,to all this seeming complication is added the question of pastes and bodies4 ,there then arises the great problem of fitting one to the other4 ,salt glaze and porcelain excepted1 the finished pot presents three stratas4 ,outside is the glaze1 next the body1 then inside the glaze again4 ,if the coefficient of expansion of these three layers differs1 in other words1 if the glaze does not fit1 the result is crazing1 that bugbear of the potter4 ,this crazing1 which has been followed up and developed into their delightful crackle by the ,chinese1 may show itself at once or only after a lapse of months4 ,it appears as a minute network of fine cracks over the entire surface of the pot4 ,it is often not unsightly1 but sooner or later it must cause devitrification4 ,the glaze after a time assumes an evanescent iridescence followed by a dull smoky appearance2 finally1 perhaps not for many years1 it decomposes and peels off4 ,with low-firing natural clays rich in silica and iron1 the craze is not of much consequence4 ,the body itself at a moderately high temperature becomes non-porous4 ,with hard short bodies containing lime or chalk it may have quite disastrous consequences4 ,water placed inside will eventually percolate through leaving a network of grey lines all over the pot and completely spoiling its appearance4 ,it will be readily granted that1 whether porous or non-porous1 a craze is most undesirable on any piece of pottery that may be used for food or drink4 ,it is here that the commercial potter is such an admirable fellow4 ,many of the glazes on modern tablewares are perfect for their purposes4 ,sometimes only a little more fire is needed to stop the nuisance1 but a bad craze usually needs more attention4 ,the glaze requires stiffening1 and the addition of ground flint or quartz1 ,china stone or clay and felspar introduces alumina and silica and raises the fusing point4 ,the substitution of borax for a portion of the silica can also be tried and will permit the use of slightly lower firing point4 ,if the glazes are bought ready mixed1 the body must be altered instead4 ,refractory ,china clays should be replaced by more fusible clays or some reduction made in the amount of infusible materials4 ,the addition of ground sherds or flint will have a contrary effect should the glaze peel or crack at the edges1 as it may do on a very silicious body4 ,in working with natural clays on a moderate scale it will be found best to mix fat or rich natural clays with those of a more porous or hard nature4 ,a few graded mixtures submitted to a thorough trial should soon show when a sympathy has been established between the body and glaze4 ,the receipts given on pages #ahc and #ahd will make good colourless glazes without fritting if thoroughly ground in a mortar and passed through a sieve4 ,numbers #c and #g1 when calcined1 will give much more even results and they can be coloured by the addition of the oxides named4 ,but simple as it sounds1 the washing1 grinding1 fritting1 re-grinding1 and sieving is a long and laborious process demanding machinery1 and on that account is unsuited to schools or potters of moderate means4 ,glazes like ,nos4 #a and #b will do quite well for elementary work but unless the appliances are to hand the manufactured article will have to be relied on for more finished and ambitious work4 ,if1 indeed1 you are already in possession of a good receipt for a fine colour and glaze1 one quite worth while1 so much the better4 ,mix it and feel the joy of the ,compleat ,potter unafraid of spoiling his own good shapes with a faulty or unknown glaze4 ,admittedly1 to get anywhere in an original direction systematic research is essential4 ,one must keep on experimenting1 keep on hoping1 and keep on taking notes2 but at the start let us not be too impatient or independent if we wish to produce good pots4 ,there is often among young potters a false pride that prevents them using1 and among old potters acknowledging the use of1 the manufactured article4 ,why this should be is a little difficult to understand4 ,a painter might far more reasonably be ashamed to use modern tube colours or a stained-glass craftsman as logically insist on making his own glass1 as a potter in the twentieth century refuse to avail himself of the wonderful range of glazes that modern research has placed at his disposal4 ,these resources should be used intelligently1 not mechanically1 or by the book--artistically1 inventively1 secretly1 if you will1 but they should be used--until the multitudinous experiments have borne fruit and repeated trials convince you that at last you possess some gem of research worth1 as well it may be1 the months of patient toil engendered in its production4 ,the various receipts are given on pages #ahc and #ahd without analysis of the composition of the paste or body to which they were applied4 ,the first group have been used on common earthenware clays with complete satisfaction4 ,they are to be considered as points of departure for future experiments in which they may be modified at will1 and not regarded as a contribution to the science of glaze making4 ,in colouring it will be found that combinations of cobalt1 iron1 and copper oxides give an interesting range of simple blues or greens2 iron and manganese browns2 and so forth4 ,the colour mass or stain is ground fine and lawned1 and from about #b to #g per cent mixed with the colourless glaze mass1 according to the depth of colour required4 ,the ordinary under-glaze colours may be used to stain glazes1 the percentage being fixed by small trials4 ,for the rare colours--turquoise1 crimson1 or purple--a more complicated process is necessary and only perfected after many trials4 ,the ingredients of these fine colours are naturally kept secret by their fortunate possessors4 ,it must be noted that a glaze suited to one body may peel or run off an unsuitable one4 ,then a colourant is affected differently by a lead or an alkaline base in the glaze4 ,again1 copper and iron oxides may help to flux a glaze1 whilst cobalt or nickel will exert a contrary effect4 ,cobalt1 being a strong colourant1 will need a sparing use1 whereas a similar percentage of iron will merely tinge the glaze mass4 ,and so ad infinitum4 ,it is self-evident that any attempt to emulate the vast range of the modern ceramic chemist is doomed to failure4 ,to a craftsman the fabrication of one fine individual glaze or lustre is an achievement of which he may be proud1 and for which he will find abundant and varied uses4 ,in this connection it is encouraging to the craftsman to learn from so high an authority as ,w4 ,burton1 ,esq41 ,f4,c4,s41 that it is impossible to obtain with purified oxides the fine tones got by the ,orientals with impure materials4 ,further1 that the simple glaze of the ,persians--a mixture of clean white sand with soda or wood ash or potash--is still the best for under-glaze painting4 ,although tastes differ so widely1 invariably it will be found that more and more heat will be the cry4 ,imperceptibly this leads to the desire for hard1 cold1 fat translucent glazes1 neither matt nor glossy4 ,and on the summit1 far out of reach1 stand the wonders of the ,old ,chinese4 ,,lustres ,there are several kinds of lustres1 but the true lustres possess a pearly iridescence in addition to their colour4 ,the copper and silver lustres of the eighteenth-century ,staffordshire potters were thin metallic films over the whole surface of the glaze4 ,gold or silver solutions were used4 ,only where the gold was fired on a white clay is there any iridescence1 and then hardly so pronounced as to deserve the name of lustre4 ,the bismuth and other lustres made by the modern potter are combinations of metallic oxides and resinates dissolved in ethereal oils4 ,these are painted on the glaze1 transparent or opaque1 but having almost invariably a lead base1 and then fired at a dull-red heat4 ,the medium disappears1 and the metal in a finely divided state is deposited on the surface of the glaze4 ,this1 however1 gives a painted look very different from the lovely irradiance of the ,persian ,hispano-,mooresque or ,italian work4 ,with these the lustres were fired in a reducing atmosphere1 one supercharged with combustible gases1 the metals decomposed and fixed to the semifluxed glaze4 ,the manipulation was not infallible and was attended with much risk2 but the successful pieces are unrivalled1 and according to ,piccolpasso paid in gold4 ,de ,morgan1 who more nearly approached the works of the ,italian masters than any other modern potter1 used a very similar medium and method with his fine lustres4 ,in the last few years lustres have been brought to such perfection1 in preparation1 application1 and firing1 that accident is practically eliminated4 ,glorious colours and gorgeous effects are obtained4 ,yet it may be said without senseless adulation of the merely medival that nothing has been produced superior1 or even akin in spirit1 to the work sent out from ,persia1 ,spain1 or the botega of the inimitable ,maestro ,georgio of ,gubbio4 ,lustres may be bought ready to apply4 ,they are then painted on the glazed pot1 which is re-fired at a dull-red heat in the ordinary oxidizing atmosphere4 ,once the painted look has been contrasted with the lustrous appearance of the reduced effects there is only one kind of lustre for the artist4 ,fortunately1 perhaps1 their preparation is not easy1 and the correct method of reducing is a difficulty to be overcome by practical experiment alone4 ,hainbach gives many practical receipts for lustres that are not beyond the scope of a craftsman4 ,the reducing atmosphere can be obtained in an open kiln by the introduction at the right moment of any combustible giving smoke free from all traces of sulphur4 ,in firing with a muffle kiln the introduction of coal-gas free from sulphur is a matter attended with some risk at the necessarily low temperatures required by the lustres4 ,it should be approached with caution1 and each mixture will have a varied firing point1 the correctness of which is established only by trials4 ,lustres applied with skill and restraint enhance the most beautiful glaze1 but in unskilled hands they inevitably vulgarize and cheapen4 ,the fresh1 unsophisticated renderings of the ,persians or the ,moors and the virility of the ,italians should be studied1 but not merely imitated before working in this medium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee--,,painting ,,outfit4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,decoration ,the world is still deceiv'd with ornament4 --,merchant of ,venice4 ,decoration has been touched upon briefly in one or two of the preceding chapters4 ,to attempt a description of the various kinds of decoration which it is possible to place on a pot1 another book would be needed4 ,their name is legion4 ,they range from the simple and entirely satisfactory work of primitive and peasant peoples to the wonderful enamel decorations of the ,chinese4 ,with such an enormous field and varied choice it is difficult to particularize and foolish to dogmatize4 ,the hints below are intended but to stimulate interest in the at present unexplored fields that lie beyond the beaten track4 ,any representative collection of ceramics will prove a veritable treasure house of suggestion to the student4 ,all will be there4 ,the difficulty is to choose1 and choose aright4 ,the bold brushwork of ,cyprus foils the marvellous familles vert and rose of the ,chinese1 the faultless ,wedgwood sets off the virile ,toft4 ,one sees how the ,italians1 with almost crude colours1--blue1 green1 red1 yellow1--developed their wonderfully robust school of figure painters2 then their fanciful arabesques are prolific of ideas4 ,the ,greek style--red and black and white--is a rich field waiting for the reaper4 ,the peerless ,persian pots1 the plaques from ,spain1 the steins and stoves from ,germany1 the fresh ,delft wares2 these and many others crowd round for recognition and disconcert the choice4 ,but having come so far1 let us not choose the horrific style that models most faithfully a cabbage1 tops it with a lifelike snail as handle1 and cunningly converts the whole into a vegetable dish6444 7in ,s4 ,k4 ,m474 ,nothing should be more distressing to the artist than to see great skill and craft thus misapplied4 ,yet how often does the search after false originality lead only to meretricious cleverness or vulgarity1 which creeps in unseen during the too close struggle with the craft4 ,but our muttons need tending4 ,broadly speaking1 all decoration falls under three heads3 ,glaze2 ,relief2 ,painting2--subdivided into many combinations of these three classes4 ,the application of glaze has already been described4 ,a pot possessing a noble form and glaze is obviously in no need of decoration2 no artist would attempt it4 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese are safe guides here4 ,their rich glazes and fine forms are set off in the simplest and most effective manner4 ,this is potting1 pure and simple4 ,under relief1 we group all modelling1--raised or sunk1 embossments1 flutings1 mouldings1 feet1 handles1 or applied figures4 ,at one extreme come the earliest attempts at decoration in slip or clay1 highly developed in the ,gallo- and ,egypto-,roman and ,romano-,british wares4 ,the matured slip must be applied fairly thick to the still moist pot and then dried slowly4 ,any work applied to dry shapes is liable to crack in drying or leave in firing4 ,probably the most effective use of slip is seen in the old tygs and dishes of ,toft and others of his time4 ,the simple spotting and surfacing has been carried to perfection by the ,martin ,brothers1 who have drawn largely upon the vegetable world for their inspiration4 ,roman ,aretine ware shows finely executed reliefs of foliage and figures4 ,the enrichment was probably worked on the original shape1 a mould was then taken1 and the vessel pressed4 7,see chapter on ,casting47 ,wedgwood carried this method still further 7too far1 maybe7 and used different coloured bodies4 ,the reliefs1 so finely modelled by ,flaxman1 were fired1 and from them moulds of a very refractory clay were made1 called pitcher moulds4 ,the reliefs were then pressed and affixed to the vase1 and the whole touched up by a skilled craftsman4 ,a nave and unpretentious form of this decoration is seen in the stoneware and salt-glazed pottery of the eighteenth-century ,english potters and the jolly ,bellarmines of earlier times4 ,small dies were used in the ,orion ware1 the pattern being stamped into the clay4 ,german stoneware and the ,grs of ,flanders show sunk and relief patterns4 ,between the two extremes lies a rare choice of style4 ,this method of using patterns lends itself particularly to fine commercial work when used with the restraint seen in the best of the above-mentioned styles4 ,to the craftsman it offers a welcome chance to enlarge his production1 but he must be well equipped4 ,it is easy to acquire the mere mechanism of commerce without its splendid technique4 ,finally1 the further the relief is developed the less will be the appeal of form and the less the possibilities of glaze4 ,the next division is painting4 ,it is in this branch of ceramic decoration that the widest choice lies4 ,the scale ascends from the simple earthy colourants applied to the unglazed pot in the manner of the ,american ,indian up to the splendid enamels of ,china and the sumptuous but sterile wonders of--shall we say--,svres or ,worcester4 ,much of the modern eighteenth- and nineteenth-century work is such a technical tour de force that one hesitates to criticise it4 ,but careful scrutiny will often show that the artistic difficulties have been undermined rather than overcome4 ,thus the frank frontal attack of the ,persians on their absorbent ground or of the potters of ,delft on their unfired tin glaze is never attempted1 and probably never can be attempted in the factory of to-day4 ,the modern method of painting in fat oils on a prepared ground induces in any but the most accomplished a cramped and finnicky style4 ,the best and really most beautiful results are seen in the delicate vertu of the eighteenth century4 ,snuff boxes and ladies' knick-knacks exhibit the loveliest miniatures in an impressible medium4 ,how far it is desirable to decorate pots with such pictures depends on the sophistry of the craftsman4 7,for1 ever since painters were pampered by princes each erstwhile honest craftsman must needs try to turn painter67 ,the ,chinese who laboured with infinite patience upon their pots still seemed to preserve a spirit lacking in the works of their western imitators1 and their avoidance of realism saved them from the many pitfalls that yawned for the ,occidental4 ,the manner in which the ,persians and ,dutch preserved their freshness has been noticed already1 but the encountering and surmounting of similar difficulties is at the bottom of most successes4 ,a few of the methods of painting pots are here set forth1 with some odd variants4 ,the colourants described under ,glazes are also used for painting4 ,very finely ground and prepared1 they are mixed with a flux or other vehicle and applied in various ways under or over the glaze4 ,simple colours can be made from the metallic oxides4 ,they should be finely ground in a mortar well mixed with a little of the glaze with which they are to be used4 ,this will do for the simplest work4 ,for more subtle colours rather involved processes are necessary4 ,the range of manufactured colours1 both over- and under-glaze1 is wide enough to suit all tastes1 and when working on a small scale are infinitely to be preferred on the score of economy and dependability4 ,a method of painting entirely suited to beginners is as follows3 ,a simple palette is prepared with the colours ground upon a slab of glass4 ,the medium employed is a solution of gum arabic and water1 the colours being applied directly to the green shape with a brush4 ,the difficulty of firing glaze on the raw clay deters any attempt at high finish1 and the absorbent ground develops a desirable freedom and directness of touch4 ,when painted1 the pot is dipped or poured in a transparent glaze and fired4 ,the gum prevents the colour shifting during the immersion1 but does not prevent the glaze adhering4 ,this method can be satisfactorily employed on biscuit4 ,more finish can be obtained and a richer glaze used without risk4 ,much skill and practice will be required to produce good stuff1 as each touch1 although not apparent before1 will stand out distinctly and often disagreeably after the fire4 ,the gum must be used sparingly2 any excess will cause peeling and prevent the adhesion of the glaze4 ,for a still higher finish the biscuit is sized with a solution of gum tragacanth4 ,this is smoothly applied until the pot is non-absorbent4 ,the design1 if elaborate1 should be drawn upon the pot with a fine graphite pencil or1 better still1 ,india ink and brush4 ,a common pencil is likely to show after firing1 but the ink disappears entirely4 ,the colours are then well ground and laid in with fat oil of turpentine or lavender oil4 ,to prepare the first oil1 half fill a cup with pure turps1 stand it in a saucer1 and spill a little over the sides of the cup4 ,after standing a little the fat oil is deposited in the saucer and the clear turps left in the cup4 ,long1 flexible brushes holding plenty of colour are used and the fat oil thinned if necessary with clear turps4 ,the colour should flow easily from the brush1 being neither tacky nor too fluid1 and constant retouching is to be avoided4 ,keep all free from dust4 ,heavy1 greasy-looking masses should be scraped off and repainted1 otherwise they will flake off4 ,when the painting is finished1 the colour is hardened on2 that is1 the gum and medium are fired off in the kiln1 a dull-red heat being sufficient4 ,this does anything but harden on1 however1 and the pot must be handled very carefully or the colour will rub off4 ,the glaze should now be gently sprayed on1 and then the final fire is given4 ,another way is to apply a very thin spray of glaze before hardening on1 just sufficient to fix the colour4 ,the pot may then be dipped or poured without risk4 ,in each case the oily medium must be quite dry before the hardening on takes place4 ,after the glost fire the decoration is fixed and unalterable4 ,where possible1 a hard transparent glaze is best for fine work4 ,a soft glaze will always run if slightly over-fired1 and the result is the obliteration of all brushwork4 ,over-glaze decoration is applied in a very similar manner4 ,turpentine1 fat oil1 and lavender oil are used3 the turps to run the colour1 the fat oil to stiffen1 and the oil of lavender to retard the drying4 ,the colour must be applied evenly and thinly1 thick patches being likely to peel or crack4 ,on hard glazes this process lends itself to elaborate effects4 ,the hard and fast colours1 the blues and greens1 may be fired first1 the delicate pinks and greys last4 ,the whole effect may then be enriched with low-firing lustres4 ,these1 when bought in bottles1 are ready to use and are applied directly with a fine brush1 then fired at a dull-red heat4 ,the pot should then be quite finished2 quite frequently it is4 ,pte sur pte or painting in relief colours is another process that has many attractive features4 ,the colours have a clay carrier and are applied with a gum medium4 ,painted boldly with a certain amount of relief1 this gives a rich enamel effect very suitable to simple figure decoration4 ,the full equipment of the painter will be as follows3 ,colours1 under- or over-glaze4 ,brushes1 tracers1 and shaders4 ,a stick frame for holding the vase4 ,turpentine and lavender oil4 ,a slab of ground glass4 ,a muller for grinding4 ,india ink and a colour slab4 ,a palette knife of horn for very delicate colours4 ,some soft rags4 ,before risking decent shapes in the fire1 trials1--on biscuit for under-glaze1 on glaze for over-glaze1--should be made repeatedly4 ,graduated strips and stripes tartan fashion are the most useful and easily tabulated4 ,to lay perfectly flat grounds some skill and practice are necessary4 ,one method is to paint in the ornament or rather the space it will cover with thick molasses or black treacle4 ,this is allowed to harden and the background colour applied with a soft dabber4 ,it must be ground fine with fat oil and applied very evenly4 ,then the tile or vase is soaked in water1 which causes the treacle to peel off4 ,the oil is allowed to dry and the piece fired4 ,this fixes the background1 and the decoration itself is next applied4 ,pierced work if skilfully done is most attractive4 ,the pattern may be incised on the original1 which is moulded1 the design then showing in relief4 ,this again shows as a slightly engraved pattern on each cast form or shape4 ,then with the aid of a fine-pointed knife or plaster tool the pattern is cut out and the edges are softened to take away any metallic look4 ,the ,chinese and ,persians are said to have used rice seeds in some of their translucent effects4 ,the seeds were embedded in the moist clay to form a delicate tracery4 ,when fired1 the grains disappeared1 leaving holes which were completely filled with glaze4 ,the decorative possibilities of simple incised lines and plain slip additions have been hinted at already4 ,the slip may be coloured red or brown with iron and manganese oxides or applied white to a coloured body4 ,sharply incised lines may be filled in with colour stiffened by the addition of a little hard clear glaze or ,china clay4 ,patterns may be dug out or stamped in and filled up with different coloured clays and the whole glazed with a coloured transparent glaze4 ,scraffito work is effective and not difficult4 ,the green pot1 tile1 or dish is sprayed evenly with a different coloured slip1 usually red on white4 ,the piece should not be quite dry and the coefficient of expansion between the two clays as near alike as possible4 ,the decoration is then sketched in and the background or the ornament itself gently scratched away to show the ground beneath4 ,it is then fired1 glazed1 and fired again4 ,all these processes have their uses and abuses1 but they do not lend themselves readily to elaboration or realism4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef--,,statuette ,,for ,a ,,three-,,piece ,,mould4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,figurines ,but if you carve in the marble what will break with a touch1 or mould in the metal what a stain of rust or verdigris will spoil1 it is your fault not mine4 --,,ruskin4 ,the making of small figures is an important department of ceramics scarcely mentioned so far4 ,it is one offering exceptional opportunities to the advanced craftsman4 ,in this branch of potting1 even more than any other1 the possibilities and limitations of the clay and glaze need close study if best results are to be obtained4 ,the archaic ,sung and ,tang figures and the well-known ,tanagras are far better guides to the beginner than the wonderful ,dresden porcelain or the bisque groups of ,svres4 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese in their glazed figures show remarkable appreciation and utilization of the plastic and liquid qualities of their medium4 ,splendid and sound work1 too1 has been turned out in recent years in ,germany and ,austria1 whilst the ,copenhagen porcelain is world famous4 ,to start with1 the simplest decorative figures might be attempted4 ,many of the little deities of ancient ,egypt offer rich suggestions for two- or three-piece moulds4 ,japanese ,netsuke and ,scandinavian bone carvings are other stimulating1 if more remote1 fields4 ,next1 a more ambitious but still uncomplicated figure could be moulded directly from the clay4 ,as the difficulties of moulding increase1 the original clay may be first fired or a good plaster cast made4 ,in firing the figure a very slow fire must be used1 and the modelling must be done carefully1 as free from holes as may be1 and without an armature4 ,air holes are apt to blow1 and additions of soft clay to the model when hard are likely to crack off in firing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg--,,side ,,view1 ,,figurine4 ,with a plaster original some retouching is possible before the final piece-mould is made4 ,when modelling the head and face1 the modifying effects of the glaze used must be realized1 so that such detail as may be depicted shall have its full value in the finished figure4 ,too much realism in draperies with consequent under-cutting is to be avoided1 and the inclination of all but the high-temperature glazes to leave prominent parts and pool in hollows must be heeded4 ,sharp edges are always bad1 and projections that are liable to crack in the fire or break at a touch are a fruitful source of loss1 and are1 at the best1 doubtful craft4 ,it is quite possible to produce delightful figures glazed with low-firing glazes1 and where a wide range of colour is desired1 they are the only glazes available4 ,but for delicate modelling1 where colour is a secondary consideration and where refinements may be obscured by too much gloss1 the grand feu porcelain or salt glaze are the best and only alternatives4 ,but each man to his taste4 ,we will start with a simple two-piece mould for pressing4 ,small objects1 not necessarily figures1 may be modelled in the round1 being designed therefore without under-cut to pull in two halves4 ,they should be highly finished and then biscuited4 ,the fired original is then shellacked or oiled and carefully bedded in clay up to the halfway line4 ,if the figure be first dusted with ,french chalk1 it will leave the clay without trouble4 ,little walls being built1 the first half is then cast4 ,when set1 the biscuit figure is removed1 the sides of the mould trimmed1 the joggles cut1 and the figure fitted back4 ,the sides are carefully clay washed or oiled and the second half of mould cast4 ,when set1 the two halves are gently pried apart and a groove hollowed out all round the inner edge of the mould4 7,figs4 #eh and #ei47 ,this groove is for the reception of any surplus clay that would otherwise squeeze between the two parts of the mould and prevent their perfect adjustment4 ,to make a press1 each half of the mould is carefully filled with clay1 well pressed in4 ,then they are applied and firmly squeezed together1 until the two halves fit exactly4 ,the press is then removed and trimmed up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh--;,,figurine ,,for ,,two-,,piece ,,mould ,,with ,,backpiece ,,in ,,position4 ,the second essay might follow the lines of the statuette here illustrated for the three-piece mould4 ,a decorative treatment1 giving stiff lines and a simple silhouette1 is chosen4 ,the hands are concealed1 and the face1 the only flesh showing1 clearly cut out by the costume4 ,the section shows the comparative depth of the folds in the drapery4 ,three pieces only were used for the mould1 indicated by the illustration4 7,fig4 #fc47 ,in moulding from plaster or biscuit the model must be absolutely non-absorbent and should be carefully treated with shellac1 beeswax dissolved in turpentine1 or parting4 ,beeswax is best for fine work and should be applied very thinly and repeatedly4 ,clay originals need no preliminary treatment1 if the clay is still plastic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei--,,section ,,of ,,two-,,piece ,,mould ,,for ,,pressing4 ,,shewing ,,groove ,,for ,,reception ,,of ,,surplus ,,clay4 ,the divisions of the mould being decided upon1 plastic clay is rolled out thin1 cut into strips1 and built round the section1 as shown in the illustrations4 7,figs4 #fj and #fa47 ,the exposed figure within the clay walls is then very slightly filmed with olive oil4 ,the plaster is then mixed and thrown on or poured4 ,the walls should stand out at right angles to the circumference of the figure or so nearly as the exigencies of the figure permit4 ,they should be buttressed where needing support1 and be deep enough to give a good thickness to the mould4 ,when the plaster sets1 they may be removed1 and when quite hard1 the plaster itself detached4 ,this comes away quite readily from the clay1 but is apt to hold on plaster or biscuit4 ,a little water dropped from a clean sponge onto the cleaving line will often release the two parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj--;,,clay ,,walls ,,from ,,front--,saint ,george ,statuette4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa--;,,clay ,,walls ,,buttressed ,,at ,,back4 ,the model is cleaned up and the sides of the first section trimmed1 slight joggles made where they will not bind1 and the edges carefully shellacked or claywashed4 7,fig4 #fb47 ,model and section are then fitted together and the next section made in a similar manner1 except that only one wall of clay will be built4 ,the second section is treated in the same way1 and for the last piece the clay wall is unnecessary1 the plaster being poured directly in between the two other sections4 ,where the plaster has to be sprinkled on1 or there is any danger from splashes1 the exposed parts of the model should be protected with soft paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb--;,,first ,,piece ,,of ,,mould4 ,the last piece being set1 the original is removed1 the mould assembled1 trimmed1 or fettled1 tied up1 and set to dry4 ,the casting1 or pressing if it be large enough1 is proceeded with as before described1 the slip being poured in at the base4 ,when removed from the mould1 the open base of the cast may be closed with a thin slab of clay slip poured on to a plaster bat and allowed to set for that purpose4 ,when tough1 the figure should be touched up with skill and reticence4 ,finally1 a little hole is made in the closed base and another as inconspicuously as may be in the back of the head1 to prevent blowing in the fire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc--,,section ,,of ,a ,,piece ,,mould ,,retaining ,,case ,,with ,,flat ,,top ,,to ,,facilitate ,,pressing4 ,with more complex figures many more pieces will be needed for the mould4 ,they are made in the same way1 but are carefully trimmed and then encased in an outer frame or jacket of plaster4 7,fig4 #fc47 ,large figures should be pressed2 the head first1 the different sections of the mould being fitted into the containing case as the work progresses4 ,more retouching is needed with pressed figures1 but the time spent is well spent1 for they possess a substance1 and when retouched with art1 a character1 that is lacking in the more fragile cast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd--,,section ,,shewing ,,depth ,,of ,,folds ,,in ,,drapery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe--;,early ,greek ,kiln4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,kilns ,by many long1 laborious1 and chargeable experiments he hath found out4 --,extract from an old potter's patent4 ,what must be the first representation of a kill1 or kiln1 is found at ,beni ,hassan4 ,it appears to be square in form1 and the potter is shown feeding the fire at the base4 ,in the same illustration he is depicted unpacking or drawing the ware from the top4 ,the cut from the ,greek ,hydra gives a very similar kiln1 but a vessel in the museum of ,berlin shows one with a beehive shape4 ,the kilns left scattered about ,europe by the ,romans were usually of this domed kind1 circular in plan1 with one fire hole4 ,the floor of the kiln was of pierced slabs1 and the flames issuing thence enveloped the ware piled within and escaped through a vent in the top4 ,the packing and firing is described in ,ceramic ,art in ,great ,britain1 by ,l4 ,jewitt1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,it fully explains the trepidation of the old potters1 who1 before each firing1 were wont to consult the moon and stars and evoke the aid of the gods4 ,this is happily set forth in ,cowper's translation of one of ,homer's epigrams1 wherein he expresses the pious hope that if the false potter stoops to peep into his furnace1 may the fire flash in his face and scorch it2 a risk often faced by potters1 false or true6 ,the smothering1 or reducing1 as then practised1 was similar to the lustring methods used in ,italy in the sixteenth century1 or in the manufacture of the blue bricks to-day4 ,the ,japanese and ,chinese built small kilns in tiers on the side of a hill4 ,starting with the lowest1 the waste heat was utilized to warm up the kiln above1 thus saving time and fuel4 ,the ,chinese used heavy saggars1 and specimens of these with portions of melted pots still adhering to them attest the enormous heats to which they frequently attained4 ,modern kilns subdivide roughly into biscuit1 glost1 and enamel4 ,the first is used for firing the green or clay shapes1 the second for the hard fire of the glazed ware1 and the last-named for fixing on the added decoration4 ,sometimes a kiln is used for the double function of biscuiting and glazing4 ,of modern kilns the one still most widely used approximates to the bottle-shaped1 simple1 up-draught kiln4 ,it contains one or two chambers with hatch for entry1 flue or chimney1 and anything from three to nine fire holes4 ,the section of such a kiln is here shown and represents a fair average up-draught kiln 7,fig4 #ff71 variants of which type are working in most pottery districts to-day4 ,in these kilns the flames rush in at the fire holes1 play on the built-up bungs of saggars1 and escape through the top vent4 ,in a two chamber kiln1 as sometimes used for porcelain1 the glaze is put in the lower chamber to receive the hottest fire1 the biscuit in the upper getting a gentle fire4 ,where the fire enters directly into the kiln in any large volume1 bags or small chimneys are built up inside the mouths to save the saggars from the worst of the fire4 ,of late the single-chamber1 down-draught kiln has come into favour1 as it is easily packed and economical of heat4 ,bags of firebrick protect the saggars from the roughest fire and direct the flames to the crown of the chamber1 from which point they descend to pass out through flues in the floor of the kiln4 7,fig4 #fg47 ,biscuit ovens are often of this type1 either domed or flat arched4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff--,,up-,,draught ,,kiln4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg--;,,down-,,draught ,,kiln4 ,the most recent innovations are gas and oil kilns4 ,they require comparatively little manual labour in the firing1 are easily regulated1 and the waste heat is frequently used for secondary purposes4 ,their freedom from smoke and their economy of labour and money must eventually render the other types obsolete4 ,these large kilns are strongly banded with iron supports designed to prevent too much loosening of the walls when expanded by the great heat4 ,a very important point is the draining of their site1 as large kilns tend to attract moisture1 and the presence of steam in a kiln is productive of much damage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh--;,,enamel ,,or ,,muffle ,,kiln4 ,enamel kilns are used for the final processes where the glazed pot is painted with over-glaze or enamel colours4 ,they are of no great size and are made of fire-clay slabs or even iron plates when the enamel is soft4 ,the flames play all round the muffle or fire-clay box during the firing1 but no flame or fume is allowed access to the inside4 7,fig4 #fh47 ,in packing a kiln with biscuit or glaze much care1 thought1 and expedition have to be exercised4 ,an experienced setter is essential in a factory if the pots are to have every chance in the fire1 for all kilns vary and have their hot and cool corners4 ,first1 the floor is well bedded with quartz sand or flint that will not vitrify but will provide a good setting for the bottom saggars4 ,these saggars are fire-clay boxes1 round or oval1 rarely square1 and without lids1 in which the pots are placed4 ,piled one above another they form the bungs1 the bottom of one supplying the top of that beneath4 ,these bungs are built at intervals that permit the flames to penetrate between them and give a good even fire all over the chamber4 ,in actual practice some parts of a kiln are hotter than others1 and it is here that a good setter shows his capabilities1 setting the thin wares in the softest places and putting the heavier biscuit or hard glaze in the hottest corners4 ,with biscuit the setting is not difficult except where delicate or friable ware may need very careful bedding and propping4 ,with clean saggars the biscuit may touch the sides1 and a competent man will pile an enormous amount of biscuit into a kiln without risk4 ,in the glost kiln the ware requires gentle handling and must touch nothing but the spur or support4 ,the saggars are usually given a saggar wash of lead and stone to prevent them absorbing glaze from the wares1 for a glazed pot placed too near a raw saggar is very likely to come out with a thin or dry patch4 ,when the pot is firmly placed on its stilt1 a roll of pugging is placed round the rim of the saggar2 this provides a firm bed for the next above it and also stops the entry of dust and flame4 ,this pugging is made from clay or marl mixed with ground sherds1 sieved gravel1 or some non-vitreous dust to prevent it sticking to the saggars4 ,the plugging is made malleable with a little water and rolled out by hand or pressed through a die4 ,it will readily be seen that a carelessly built bung of any height may slip in the stress of firing1 and its fall would most likely involve others1 whilst any slight movement may be sufficient to cause a vase to topple off its stilt4 ,in a down-draught kiln the bungs over any vent must be raised on fire tiles to permit the escape of the flames4 ,when all the bungs are filled up and piled in position1 the trials and cones placed1 the hatch is bricked up4 ,spy holes are left where necessary1 and the whole well clammed to prevent the loss of heat during firing4 ,when fired1 the hatch may be very gradually loosened to accelerate the cooling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi--;,,down-,,draught ,,kiln4 ,the fireman's job is one of the most arduous and important of all the prolonged processes of potting4 ,coming as it does at the end1 it may make or mar kilns of great value1 and it requires more than ordinary judgement and nerve4 ,the chief troubles arise from bad or irregular draught or impure fuel4 ,they express themselves in the form of clinkered holes1 excessive smoke1 and irregularly fired or sulphured ware4 ,the term sulphured is applied to pots that come out gloomy or dulled and is said to be equally due to a reducing fire or an oxidizing one4 ,in the former an insufficiency of air causes excess of carbon in the kiln and the absorption of oxygen from the glaze4 ,in the latter an excess of air 7oxygen7 allows sulphur vapour1 if present1 to attach itself to the glaze4 ,the fire bars1 fire holes1 and flues must be kept clear and the fuel carefully selected if these things are to be avoided4 ,the aim1 as previously stated1 is a gradually increasing fire1 sharper towards the finish4 ,for this purpose some potters finish off with wood which gives a long flame free from sulphur and clears the glaze4 ,even when sulphured1 a clear flame at the finish will remove many ill effects4 ,the baiting should be fairly heavy at the start1 lighter and more frequent towards the finish1 when smoke in any quantity should be avoided4 ,for temperature gauges1 the cones previously described are used and should be placed in an average place1 screened as much as possible from draught or flame4 ,small sight pots and glaze rings placed near the spies can be hooked out and examined and are valuable aids1 but their exposed position and the corrosive action of the flames must be taken into account4 ,pyrometers are also used1 but with all these aids the experienced fireman pays due regard to sight and colour4 ,for a craftsman1 the kilns that have been described are unsuitable on account of their size1 if they are not altogether beyond his means4 ,but a kiln of some sort is indispensable to a potter4 ,the craftsman is nothing if not inventive4 ,small trials can be fired in crucibles in an open fire or on a gas ring4 ,i have heard of some preliminary success with a gas cooker1 discounted later by a frontal attack from the cook4 ,considerable knowledge can be gained from small1 easily constructed1 experimental kilns4 ,the small trial kiln shown 7,fig4 #gj7 was constructed with a stout old crock1 over which was built a core of bricks plastered with marl4 ,the fire was started at each corner at the bottom1 and when well alight1 fed from the top with coke4 ,a small spy at one corner closed with a piece of biscuit gave some idea of the progress of the firing4 ,this1 of course1 had to be practically rebuilt at each firing1 but as a makeshift was quite satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj--;,,crock ,,with ,,improvised ,,spy ,,hole4 ,,cone ,,inside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj;,a--,,crock ,,bricked ,,over ,,plastered ,,with ,,marl4 ,the gas and oil kilns described in ,chapter ,,ix are excellent as far as they go1 and indeed the only practicable kind for indoor schools4 ,but their restricted size soon becomes irksome to a craftsman1 whilst the expense of firing makes only the finest work remunerative4 ,for over-glaze work they are excellent1 but for some reason glazes fired in them seem to lack some of the richness and maturity the same glazes exhibit when fired in the slower and more soaking fire of a brick kiln4 ,the dug-out kiln here depicted 7,fig4 #ga7 would be quite suitable for summer schools or for a craftsman making soft peasant pottery4 ,the section and sketch will indicate its construction4 ,the materials are hard bricks and stout old boiler plates1 or sheet iron4 ,to pack or unpack1 the middle section of the roof would have to be removed each time1 and all glazed pots would need protection from scalings and gravel from above4 ,the roof will sag at any big heat1 and if of thin iron1 will need propping4 ,the firing would be done with soft coal or wood2 a very slow start1 with a brisk draught and a long flame at the finish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga--;,,dug-,,out ,,kiln ,,of ,,common ,,red ,,brick4 ,of course the front will be hotter than the back1 but if saggars can be obtained1 the glaze may be placed in them to the front with the biscuit protected behind4 ,clay shapes fired up at the front may bend towards the fire1 and any broken crocks should be used to screen them4 ,the making of rough saggars is not difficult if a supply of fire clay is to hand1 or clay and grog will serve at a pinch4 ,the clay is rolled out and the saggar stuck up1 much as described on page #cb4 ,every joint must be carefully welded and the whole thoroughly dried4 ,then they are fired up in the kiln1 very gently at first1 and carried up to a temperature considerably above that which they will be subjected to when in use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga;,a--,,section ,,of ,,dug-,,out ,,kiln4 ,for small trial crucibles ordinary clay mixed with pitchers and powdered coke proves satisfactory2 the coke when fired out renders the body porous and the heat penetrates more swiftly4 ,to construct the muffle kiln shown at ,fig4 #gb the aid of a competent bricklayer would probably be required4 ,in this kiln glaze and biscuit would fire up without saggars1 but will take rather longer4 ,the plan and elevation of this particular kiln are given with all reserve4 ,the design would probably require considerable adjustment and modification before complete satisfaction was obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb--,,sections ,,of ,,muffle ,,kiln ,,to ,,shew ,,supports4 ,,flues4 ,,etc4 ,a down-draught kiln1 although more difficult to construct than an up-draught1 is more economical in the end and does its work more evenly4 ,for the benefit of those that may like to build a small and moderately cheap kiln drawings are here given4 ,this kiln was built by me when ,i had very little practical experience of kilns other than gas1 but it served its purpose well4 ,it was not banded1 but this is essential if the kiln is to stand hard and frequent fire4 ,firebricks were used for the fireholes1 flues1 floor1 core1 and dome2 strong stock bricks for the rest4 ,the glazed ware1 which was fired harder than the biscuit1 was saggared in bungs as usual up to about five feet2 the biscuit piled on top and protected by old saggars and cracked pots from the roughest fire4 ,there were no bags in this kiln1 but the saggars used were very strong and had stood a much greater heat than that to which they were subjected in this kiln1 so that they showed very little wear or tear after twenty firings4 ,the stack of sixteen feet gave a good sharp draught1 increased if necessary by the addition of an iron chimney and regulated by an iron damper4 ,a wind screen or hovel is advisable for rough nights1 and some sort of roof is necessary to protect the crown from the weather4 ,it is important to have the arch of the hatch very strongly built1 as it has to stand a lot of strain1 and an iron support too near the fire soon corrodes and needs replacing4 ,another essential is that the site be as dry as possible and the foundation made solid with concrete2 otherwise even a small kiln is liable to settle and crack4 ,with a little extra expense a kiln of this kind could be banded round the impost and fireholes1 thus considerably prolonging its life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb;,a--,,plan ,,shewing ,,arrangement ,,of ,,fire ,,tiles ,,forming ,,muffle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb;,b--,,muffle ,,kiln ,,built ,,of ,,fire ,,tiles1 ,,fire ,,bricks1 ,,and ,,common ,,reds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc--,,poker4 ,,slice4 ,,tongs4 ,in firing this kiln about half a ton of coke and three quarters of a ton of good hard coal1 giving a long flame1 was used4 ,coke for the slow fire was first started on the bottom and maintained for sixteen or eighteen hours1 lifted up on to the bars for another six or eight hours1 when the saggars would begin to show signs of colour4 ,the coal fire was then started about the #bdth or #beth hour and continued another #ah hours1 more or less1 according to the varying conditions1 making in all some #dj or #de hours4 ,this gave a very evenly graduated heat from cone #a at the base to cone 4#jc at the top4 ,bags were tried experimentally1 but whilst giving a more uniform heat1 took much longer to fire up4 ,at the finish of the firing the fireholes were bricked up1 the damper closed when the fires died down4 ,in about #bd hours the vent and the hatch were eased a little at the top1 and in #dh hours it was pulled down and the drawing commenced4 ,packed with the hard glazes at the bottom and the soft at the top this kiln answered excellently for the purposes for which it was required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd--,,saggar ,,with ,a ,,pot ,,inside4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,educational ,,value ,,of ,,pottery ,the principal point in ,education is that one's knowledge of the ,world begins at the right ,end4 --,,schopenhauer4 ,the study of the fictile art of the potter1 even from the theoretical side alone1 cannot fail to quicken and broaden education4 ,the antiquity of the craft1 stimulating research amongst the records of ancient civilizations1 brings to light customs and habits bearing very closely upon the earliest struggles of man to emancipate himself from mere brute surroundings4 ,the primitive decorations rudely scratched on clay vessels antedate and forecast the hieroglyphic and sign languages of all nations4 ,it would be but hyperbole to claim that without clay the ,mosaic tablets would have remained unwritten1 but indubitably the clay cylinders of ,assyria gave a strong impulse to the development of ciphering and writing and the spread of learning1--an impetus not to be derived from the obstinate granite medium so generally employed by the ,egyptians4 ,it is this amenable ductile quality1 so easily receptive of the most emotional touch1 that has made and still makes clay such an admirable medium of expression for the young1--whether young in the history of the world or young in actual years4 ,and this malleability is accompanied by a tenacity that permits slow building up1 remodelling1 and high finish1 suitable to work of the most painstaking character4 ,to this is added the fixed1 unalterable quality imparted by fire1 so that pottery more than any other craft preserves an imperishable record of the ages4 ,this positive chronicle is valuable alike to the savant or the student4 ,indeed the most trivial child's toys of the ,hellenes1 the quaint water pots of the ,peruvian peasant1 or the unassuming tea bowl of the esoteric followers of ,riku may chance to convey to the sincere student a clearer idea of the habits and thoughts of their producers than many a pedantic treatise or translation4 ,so lively shines ,in them ,divine resemblance and such grace ,the hand that made them on their shape hath poured4 --,,milton4 ,coming down to points in close contact with the curricula of schools1 we all subscribe to the dictum of ,ruskin that ,everyone1 from the ,king's son downwards1 should learn to do something finely and thoroughly with his hands4 ,what then more suitable than sympathetic clay wherein to fashion the first fancies of the child mind4 ,it is a medium at once attractive and easy to mould1 giving a tangibility and reality to forms and things that can never be obtained by drawing or painting4 ,then the limitless uses to which clay is put1 and1 with the development of hygiene1 increasingly will be put1 have the closest bearing upon the everyday life of the child4 ,they are intimately connected with other studies that cannot fail to be rendered more attractive by working in clay4 ,but clay work is a branch now so universal that it seems unnecessary to dwell upon its advantages to the kindergartener4 ,the valuable remedial effects of clay work upon the defective are perhaps less widely known4 ,the manipulation induces a most beneficial concentration and provides a fine discipline without a trace of inimical restraint4 ,turning to higher grades1 the use of clays should foster an interest in the formation1 composition1 and disintegration of rocks1 and in the properties of the products so engendered2 in short1 a liking for geology4 ,with the making of simple glazes and colours will awaken an intelligent curiosity concerning the nature of minerals and metals1 their actions and reactions in the fire2 a lively sympathy only awaiting a touch to turn it into a love for chemistry and physics4 ,then as power and ambition and craftsmanship develop1 there must needs be a study of the history of ornament4 ,this impinges too closely upon history and geography to fail to increase the student's attraction towards these more remote but allied fields4 ,finally1 is it not in the realm of sthetics that there looms the ultimate reward8 ,the proper pursuit of pottery must eventually lead us towards that idealization of daily life 444 and the road that connects the love of the beautiful with the love of the good is short and smooth 7,president ,eliot74 ,in the hurried curricula of to-day art plays a rather sorry part4 ,little time indeed is left for contemplation1 for the realization of all that beauty and harmony in our surroundings may mean to us in our everyday work4 ,the making of a bowl1 with the concentration required to shape it in a manner at once beautiful and serviceable1 must quicken the perception of beauty and sharpen the quality of judgement1 not only for things fictile1 but in far wider fields4 ,thus the things of everyday contact--the tableware1 the chairs1 the doors1 the windows1 pictures1 ornaments1 hangings1 and fittings--will all come in for intelligent scrutiny and criticism4 ,this in turn will be carried on and over into matters civic4 ,this must result in a careful estimation1 selection1 and appreciation of our surroundings1 bringing them into harmony with our cultivated thoughts and so enabling us to get through the day's work with the least amount of useless friction and with the greatest possible measure of enjoyment1 well-being1 and well-doing4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,small ,,pottery4 ,,appendix ,i ,,the ,,equipment ,the divinity that presides over potting is an expensive as well as an exacting mistress4 ,the equipment of even a small pottery is1 unfortunately1 a matter of considerable expense4 ,try it from whatever angle we may there is the cost of the kiln to be faced1 besides a host of other small but cumulative expenses4 ,the first essential is1 of course1 a roomy workshop with if possible a top as well as a side light4 ,if the craftsman means business1 he should remember that the initial cost of a kiln is often in inverse ratio to its upkeep4 ,if he would aspire to big things1 full-bellied pots1 plaques1 reliefs1 and figures1--and every craftsman would1--a brick kiln will be wanted4 ,one holding a dozen saggars could be built1 but where some experience has been obtained with materials and processes1 a larger one would be more economical4 ,with oil or gas kilns of the ordinary school size the cost of firing and the extra time is proportionately too great to permit of any but comparatively high-priced pots being turned out4 ,this may serve in some cases1 but usually it is not practical potting where a livelihood has to be obtained4 ,where only the painting is to be fired on1 an oil or gas kiln is exactly what is wanted4 ,in this appendix is given a plan of a workshop that has all the equipment necessary for the whole-hearted pursuit of the craft4 ,in such an one a good craftsman1 capable of modelling and painting decently a figure or a panel1 a good thrower1 and a handy boy could work wonders4 ,they would be capable of turning out a surprisingly wide range of pots3 jugs1 mugs1 pots1 bottles1 bowls1 buttons1 dishes1 plaques1 panels1 vases1 tiles1 and statuettes1--useful and beautiful things4 ,anything in fact worth doing can be done except fine tableware or those articles that by their nature demand more mechanical accuracy than is possible1 or even desirable1 for a craftsman to exhibit4 ,where much plaster turning for moulds was attempted1 a lathe would be required2 ordinarily the hiring of one should be practicable and expedient4 ,where only built or cast shapes were attempted1 the wheel and its long years of drill might be dispensed with1 and it is possible1 with strong individual work of high finish and fine quality and the consequently restricted output1 that an oil or gas kiln would give economically practicable results4 ,between the kiln for firing decoration simply painted on the ready-made shape to the full equipment here described will be found several modifications1 but to try the craft without a kiln of some sort is an imbecile proceeding4 ,small brick kiln supplied with saggars4 ,small muffle kiln--oil or gas--for over-glaze and lustres4 ,small enameller's kiln for firing quick trials4 ,kick wheel1 and tools for throwing4 ,clay bin1 zinc-lined4 ,damp-box4 ,drying cupboard4 ,plaster bin4 ,pot boards and brackets4 ,table1 strong and heavy4 ,clay3 white1 red1 buff4 ,plaster4 ,glaze materials4 ,oxides1 lustres4 ,under- and over-glaze colours4 ,modelling tools1 callipers4 ,painter's outfit4 ,brushes1 straight-edges4 ,shellac1 beeswax1 ,french chalk4 ,gum arabic and tragacanth4 ,glaze tubs1 teak4 ,sieves1 glaze and slip1 ,nos4 #hj1 #ajj1 #abj4 ,buckets4 ,bowls1 enamelled and earthenware4 ,small porcelain ball mill1 hand or power4 ,spray and pump 7respirator74 ,small outfit for carpentry4 ,files1 sheet iron1 and zinc1 wire and cutters1 cords1 sandpaper4 ,benches and shelves ad lib41 odd cupboards1 chairs1 etc41 ,shovels and slicer for firing1 tongs for trials4 ,two large tubs and rubber tubing4 ,sand and flint4 ,spurs1 props1 fire tiles4 ,tile boxes4 ,disc 7emery7 for grinding4 ,small pestle and mortar4 ,jugs and funnel4 ,potter's knife1 sponges4 ,whirler4 ,turning tools and lathe4 ,temperature indicators4 ,oil can1 oil1 waste4 ,callipers and compass1 rulers4 ,most of this equipment has been previously described and needs no further comment4 ,the pot boards and brackets are simple but indispensable devices4 ,the boards are about six feet long1 iron shod or cross battened to prevent warping1 and six or nine inches in width4 ,the brackets of any serviceable kind are fixed to the wall at convenient distances4 ,when throwing1 turning1 or glazing1 the pots are stood on one of these boards to dry1 and each board as filled is slipped onto the brackets4 ,thus the pots may be carried about to the kiln1 drying cupboard1 or glaze tubs without loss of time or frequent handling4 ,the table must be stout enough to withstand the heavy work of wedging and should have a top of hard wood4 ,teak or hard-wood glaze tubs have the advantage of not breaking either themselves or pots accidentally knocked against them4 ,further1 some glazes stick badly to porcelain or enamel tubs4 ,,equipment ,,for ,a ,,small ,,pottery ,in the small pottery plotted here1 the equipment and arrangement were as follows3 ,an anthracite stove with the pipe running into the large room warmed the workshop in winter1 but no wet or half-dry pots were left where the frost could get at them4 ,the glaze materials1 oxides1 colours1 painting paraphernalia1 finished pots1 trials1 and trial kiln were in the small room4 ,the wheel had a good top and side light4 ,the drying cupboard1 plaster bin1 and moulds were at the end nearest the stove2 the clay bin1 damp-box1 and sink farthest away4 ,all the walls were copiously supplied with brackets and shelves and handy benches4 ,outside1 in a well-built lean-to1 was the muffle kiln for onglaze and lustre decoration4 ,this was well bracketed and shelved for the biscuit1 and here was done the glazing1 handy for packing in the brick kiln just outside4 ,this was protected from the weather and other lean-to's held the saggars1 coke1 and coal4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,schools ,the teacher with ample funds and a free hand will find the previous chapter all-sufficient1 but in many cases the purchase of a kiln will nearly exhaust the allowance and the rest of the equipment becomes sketchy4 ,the indispensable appliances are as follows3 ,a kiln1 with fire tiles or shelves1 props1 spurs1 and stilts1 etc41 for packing4 ,a good clay bin and sieve for slip 7,no4 #hj7 with a tub and two pails4 ,scales and weights1 pestle and mortar and glaze lawn 7,no4 #ajj71 shot for weights4 ,plaster1 for drying bats and working discs4 ,large drip pan and three round pans4 ,several jugs and bowls4 ,spoons 7wooden71 knives1 and big brushes4 ,oil1 gum1 boards1 strips1 rolling pin4 ,hammer1 saw1 iron straight-edge1 sponges4 ,glass slab and muller1 palette knife and brushes for painting4 ,an atomizer or spray pump4 ,glaze materials3 ,kaolin1 ,china stone1 flint1 silver sand1 whiting1 felspar1 borax4 ,a supply of ground pitchers and grog1 cones4 ,metallic oxides3 ,tin1 white1 oxide of1 iron1 copper1 manganese1 cobalt1 etc4 ,under-glaze colours to taste4 ,glass jars with lids to contain materials4 ,gummed labels1 ,india ink4 ,for a school in the country or where ground is available1 a kiln like the one shown at p4 #afd should be practicable4 ,it costs very little to build or to fire4 ,next comes the question of the clay4 ,this is one of the most abundant of nature's materials1 and almost any river bank or creek will supply clay of some kind4 ,any sort of clay near to hand should be thoroughly tested before going to other or distant sources4 ,the clay should be dried1 then broken up with a hammer1 and mixed with water1 and the resultant slurry passed through a sieve 7,no4 #hj74 ,the slip is allowed to settle and the water siphoned off4 ,the thick slip is then dried on the plaster bats until stiff enough to work up between the hands4 ,from this clay a tile1 a plate1 and a vase should be made and fired4 ,if the pieces stand a fire of about #aajj 7cone 4#jc7 without buckling1 splitting1 or crumbling1 the clay should do quite well for school work4 ,possibly when screened fine enough for working1 the clay may be too rich or long and will split at a moderate fire4 ,then the screenings might be pounded in the mortar1 passed through the sieve1 and added to the slip4 ,again1 ground pitchers1 fine grog1 kaolin1 or calcined flint could be tried as stiffening agents4 ,in the unlikely event of the clay being too refractory or short1 a portion of rich1 fusible1 or fat clay might be added1 or the addition of powdered spar tested4 7,see chapter on ,clays47 ,the colour of the body will hardly matter for schools2 indeed a brown1 red1 or cane-coloured clay will give better results than a staring white paste1 when working out simple school problems4 ,where necessary1 tin glaze could be used for a white ground1 or an engobe2 that is1 a dip of white clay slip over the coloured body4 ,for glazing1 a leadless glaze is strongly to be advised4 ,lead is often indispensable to the craftsman1 and with care need not become a danger2 but in schools a lead glaze is positively harmful4 ,a glaze with a borax base1 if ground dry and mixed with water and re-ground before sieving1 will give little trouble if used immediately4 ,it will answer for all grade work and may be used for spraying1 dipping1 pouring1 or painting1 with absolute safety4 ,the ground pitchers and grog may be obtained by pounding up broken biscuit and pieces of fire tile1 respectively4 ,this1 and the glaze grinding1 is1 of course1 laborious work1 and suggests correlation with the ,physical ,education ,department4 ,the drip pan and the round tins make excellent moulds for casting drying bats and working bats4 ,for casting purposes plates and shallow bowls may be moulded in one piece as described1 p4 #bf4 ,if no lathe be handy1 glazed vases may be used as substitutes1 the waste being added in plasticine to the neck and base4 ,for tile-making1 strips nailed on a stout board will serve in place of tile boxes4 ,the clay is rolled out on cheesecloth with a rolling pin4 ,various other expedients for drying cupboards1 damp-box1 etc41 will suggest themselves as the course develops4 ,the above equipment need not be very costly4 ,with it the students should be capable of producing all kinds of tiles1 built1 pressed1 and cast shapes1 decorated in relief1 with inlays or in colours or glaze4 ,,simple ,,raw ,,glazes4 ,,colourless ,,no4 ,,materials ,,parts ,,sieve ,,no4,,cone ,,method ,,of ,,using ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,i ,lead oxide1 red #ej #ajj4 ,mesh 4#jc ,applied evenly ,glossy,china stone #cj with a brush to ,flint #aj the green shapes4 ,fired very slowly4 ,earthenware body4 ,,ii ,borax #gj #hj4 ,mesh #b ,green shapes ,glossy,china clay #aj dipped thick ,felspar #ge and slowly fired4 ,flint #bj ,stoneware body4 ,whiting #be ,,iii ,borax #cfj #ajj4 ,mesh 4#jc ,ground dry for ,glossy,silver sand #afj #a_/b hour ,wet for ,china clay #abj #a-a_/b ,used when ,whiting #bj fresh on biscuit ,flint #aj 7earthenware body7 for under-glaze painting4 ,,iv ,lead carbonate #acj #hj4 ,mesh 4#jd ,used with metallic ,glossy,calcined kaolin#aej oxides for ,flint #ej simple colours on ,felspar #ej earthenware ,whiting #aj body2 both green ,zinc oxide #aj and biscuit4 ,v ,lead carbonate #cge #abj4 ,mesh 4#jd ,used thick on ,matt ,kaolin #baj hard white ,felspar #age earthenware 7,,cc7 ,flint #abj body4 ,whiting #aje ,zinc #be ,,vi ,lead carbonate #abj #ajj4 ,mesh 4#jb ,used thick on ,matt ,china clay #ej stoneware body4 ,felspar #hj ,coloured with #c ,flint #ae to #g per cent of ,whiting #de glaze stains or ,u4 ,g4 colours4 ,the proportion of lead and whiting may be varied as found expedient4 ,,vii ,borax #gj ,enamel,lead carbonate #cjj ,china clay #ej #hj4 ,mesh 4#jg- ,used with various ,felspar #abj 4#je combinations ,lynn sand #ej oxide1 and iron ,tin #dj oxide and copper carbonate1 giving wide range of blues and greens4 ,on stoneware body4 ,all the above colourless glaze masses may be coloured with combinations of the various metallic oxides1 or from #c to #g or even #aj per cent of glaze stains or under-glaze colours4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,glossary ,alumina1 or ,oxide of ,aluminium1 is one of the most abundant of earths4 ,combined with silica it is the chief constituent of kaolins and ,china clays4 ,it imparts refractory qualities to clays and is an indispensable ingredient of pure glazes4 ,pure alumina or calcined ,aluminium is a chemical product4 ,ammonia4--,a volatile gaseous matter1 found in some clays4 ,alkaline in action4 ,antimony4--,a silver-white metallic element1 used with other oxides as a colourant or to give opacity in glazes4 ,arsenic4--,a non-metallic volatile element1 used in glaze making4 ,barytes4--,a heavy spar used with clays to introduce density and vitrescence4 ,bauxite4--,a very aluminous earth1 used in preparation of pure alumina and to render clays refractory4 ,boracic ,acid4--,the natural and1 usually1 impure product 7boric acid being free from chemicals74 ,borax4--,the combined chemical product of soda and boracic acid4 ,used as a strong flux in glazes4 ,calcined ,bones4--,the residuum of burned bones1 used to stiffen artificial porcelain4 ,calcined ,kaolin4--,kaolin after it has been subjected to heat to drive off the water combined with it4 ,calcium ,carbonate 7,whiting74--,found as a white rock1 and ground to pure powder4 ,used with clays for soft bodies4 ,gives durability to glazes4 ,calcium ,oxide 7,lime74--,a widely distributed earthy matter4 ,imparts fusibility to clays1 in nearly all of which it is present in varying proportions4 ,chrome1 ,oxide of4--,used in making greens1 browns1 and blacks4 ,stands a high fire4 ,,clays3 ,ball ,clay4--,blue and black4 ,very plastic clays4 ,used with non-plastic materials1 such as flint1 stone1 felspar1 or whiting1 to form fine earthenwares4 ,cane and ,red ,clays4--,clays coloured by the presence of ferric oxide1 and used extensively for bricks1 terra-cotta tiles1 and common pottery4 ,china ,clay4--,a yellowish-white1 non-vitreous clay1 product of the decomposition of granitic or felspathic rocks4 ,cornish ,china clay is exceptionally white1 pure1 and plastic4 ,it is widely used with ,china1 or ,cornwall stone and calcined bones1 to make bone porcelain4 ,felspar is added to render it vitreous4 ,mixed with ball clays1 pipe clays1 flint1 and stone1 it makes the various classes of earthen and stone wares4 ,pipe ,clay4--,a very white1 smooth clay4 ,less plastic than ball clays4 ,much used for making slips1 engobes1 and enamels4 ,saggar ,clays or ,fire ,clays4--,coarse refractory clays strengthened by the addition of grog1 used for saggars1 fire tiles1 and bricks4 ,cobalt ,oxide4--,the oxide of the steel-grey hard metal4 ,extremely valuable in pottery1 making all shades of blue for under-glaze printing or staining4 ,with iron or copper gives blue-greens4 ,copper1 ,oxides of1 and ,carbonate4--,red1 green1 and black oxides of copper have been of the utmost value to potters4 ,they are used to produce green1 blue1 turquoise1 red1 and crimson4 ,its extraordinary changes in reducing or oxidizing fires are of the greatest interest to the experimenter4 ,cornish or ,china ,stone4--,a rock composed of felspar and quartz4 ,its vitrification 7about #adjj ,c47 imparts hardness and density to ,china clays4 ,it is a valuable constituent of glazes4 ,first known as moorstone or growan4 ,earthy ,colourants4--,rarely used in modern commercial pottery1 except for salt-glazed jars1 crocks1 and peasant pottery4 ,felspar4--,a fusible rock found almost pure or in combination with potash and soda1 the greater the percentage of alkalies the more fusible being the spar4 ,it is used to replace more refractory materials in clay and to stiffen glazes4 ,flint4--,a pure silica with slight traces of calcium4 ,found in pebble form on seashores4 ,calcined and ground to a white powder1 it is widely used to impart whiteness and strength to clays4 ,invaluable for bedding and packing in kilns4 ,used with the fluxes1--lead1 borax1 potash1 and soda1--to make glazes and glass4 ,fluorspar4--,a combination of fluorine and calcium1 more fusible than felspar1 and of a white colour1 felspar being pink4 ,galena4--,lead sulphide1 a highly poisonous material used on peasant pottery1 giving a soft1 yellowish1 transparent glaze4 ,gold4--,used in solution for delicate purples and lustres4 ,gypsum4--,when calcined gypsum becomes plaster of ,paris1 these two materials1 together with the allied marble1 limestone1 and alabaster1 are widely used in pastes 7such as ,parian71 slips1 engobes1 and variously to impart fusibility or colour properties to glazes4 ,iron1 ,oxides of4--,have a wide range of colour1 from yellow to purple4 ,they are used to stain glazes and colour bodies4 ,they impart fusibility to clays and are carefully excluded from fine white bodies4 ,kaolin4--,a fine1 white1 very pure1 and infusible ,china clay1 almost pure alumina and silica4 ,chiefly used in the manufacture of porcelain and fine earthenware4 ,lead 7,oxides and ,carbonates of74 ,white ,lead1 ,red ,lead1 ,litharge4--,are very widely used as a safe and cheap flux4 ,poisonous4 ,it cannot be used in those glazes that have to stand a high fire4 ,lime4 7,see ,calcium47 ,lynn ,sand4 7,see ,quartz ,sand47 ,magnesia4--,a white metallic element present in small quantities in most clays4 ,manganese4--,the black and brown oxides of this hard metal are much used to stain slips and bodies1 and to colour glazes brown or purple4 ,marls4--,amorphous deposits of lime1 sand1 and clay1 very coarse in texture4 ,used in making saggars1 drain pipes1 and similar appliances4 ,nickel4--,a hard metallic element1 the oxides of which are found useful in preparing blacks1 greys1 and greens4 ,nitre or ,potassium ,nitrate1 or ,saltpetre4--,a vitreous and aqueous compound1 used in some glazes4 ,plaster of ,paris4 7,see ,gypsum47 ,potash4--,potassium carbonate or the leached ashes of plants4 ,used from earliest times as a powerful alkaline flux4 ,potash1 ,bichromate of4--,used for pinks and crystalline effects4 ,poisonous4 ,quartz or ,quartz ,sand4--,like ,lynn or silver sand4 ,this mineral is pure silica and free from lime1 although the sands may contain some small percentage of iron4 ,used much like flint for bedding or with alkaline fluxes for the finest glazes4 ,rutile4 ,oxide of ,titanium4--,used variously to impart a yellow tinge to porcelain1 and colour and irregularity to some glazes4 ,salt4--,sodium chloride4 ,sometimes used in glazes1 but best known in connection with salt glazing4 ,it vaporizes at about #abjj ,c41 forming a silicate or hard1 thin skin of glaze over the clay4 ,silica4--,a hard1 colourless crystalline element2 found pure1 as in quartz1 or in combination with alumina and alkalies1 as in all clays4 ,present in all glazes4 ,soda4 ,sodium ,carbonate4--,product of the decomposition of salts with acids4 ,it is a strong alkaline flux and much used in glaze and glass-making4 ,silver ,sand4 7,see ,quartz47 ,tin1 ,oxide of4--,used from the earliest times to impart opacity to glazes4 ,tincal4 7,see ,borax47 ,titanium4 7,see ,rutile47 ,whitening4 7,see ,lime47 ,zinc1 ,oxide of4--,a white metallic oxide2 used to brighten and stabilize glazes and colours4 ,,potter',s ,,terms ,bags4--,chimneys or walls of fire bricks built to protect the ware from flame4 ,baitings4--,the feed of fuel during firing4 ,bat4--,any flat slab of plaster1 biscuit1 or fire clay4 ,biscuit4--,the fired but unglazed clay4 ,blowing4--,the shattering of the clay shape when biscuiting4 ,usually due to hurried firing or the sudden access of heat1 and the consequent generation of steam4 ,blunger4--,a machine for mixing clay4 ,bungs4--,piles of filled saggars4 ,chuck or ,chum4--,the cone or cap used to support shapes during turning on the lathe4 ,clamming4--,the wet marl1 sand1 or siftings applied to cracks in the hatches or doors of kilns to retain the heat during firing4 ,craze4--,the minute cracks that appear in a badly fitting glaze4 ,when arrived at by design1 as in some ,chinese work1 it is termed a crackle1 but there is then no fissure4 ,drawing4--,unpacking the kiln after firing4 ,engobe4--,a dip or outer covering of slip2 usually applied to inferior bodies to improve their appearance4 ,fat4--,clays that are sticky or greasy are sometimes termed fat by potters4 ,fettle4--,to touch up1 and remove traces of seams1 cast lines1 etc4 ,fluxes4--,those materials which by their addition to paste or glaze render them fusible1 although they may not always be fusible themselves4 ,glost4--,the glazed ware1 usually applied to the glaze in firing1 as glost-oven4 ,green4--,the clay shapes before biscuiting4 ,jigger4--,the wheel on which shapes are moulded with the aid of a jolley or profile4 ,joggle4--,the natch or key in a mould to insure correct adjustment and prevent slipping4 ,lawn4--,the fine mesh gauze through which glazes are strained4 ,long4--,a clay is termed long if very ductile and tenacious4 ,muffle4--,usually the fire-clay box or interior of a small kiln1 but applied to any kiln to the inside of which the flames have no access4 ,natch4 7,see ,joggle47 ,oxidizing4--,the ordinary method of firing gives an atmosphere in which there is always sufficient oxygen to consume all the carbon or combustible gases4 ,if oxygen is present in excess1 it causes reactions known as oxidizing4 ,pitchers4--,finely ground biscuit4 ,added to some clays to increase refractories or porosity4 ,moulds made in such clays and fired are termed pitcher moulds4 ,potsherds4--,any broken biscuit or pot1 sometimes used for pitchers4 ,potting4--,a colloquialism used to designate the ceramic industry4 ,pugging4--,the roll of infusible clay placed between each saggar when building bungs4 ,reducing4--,the reaction that accompanies the introduction of smoke or gas containing carbon in a very finely divided state into a kiln during the process of firing glaze4 ,reduction is now widely employed in obtaining fine lustre effects4 ,refractory4--,hard1 infusible4 ,rich4--,used of clays that are long and fusible1 such as red clays4 ,riffle4--,a grooved and toothed plaster tool of steel4 ,saggars4--,or seggers4 ,the fire-clay receptacles in which the glazed ware is set during the firing4 ,setters4--,supports used when packing friable biscuit4 ,short4--,a word used to denote a clay that crumbles or is difficult to pull up on the wheel4 ,sieve4--,sometimes called a lawn1 more correctly a screen for clay or slip4 ,slip4--,the sieved clay or paste in creamy liquid condition as used for slip decoration1 engobes1 or casting4 ,slub or ,slurry4--,clay mixed with water but not sieved1 as with slip4 ,spy4--,the small hole1 kept plugged1 through which tests and cones are observed4 ,stunt4--,or dunt4 ,to crack or split on cooling4 ,turning4--,the shaving down of the clay shape on a lathe1 to impart lightness and finish4 ,u4 ,g4--,under-glaze 7applied to colours74 ,vent4--,a hole to aid the even distribution of fire in a kiln or to accelerate the cooling off4 ,waster4--,commercially1 a spoiled pot2 defective ones are termed seconds4 ,wedging4--,the beating or slamming operation usually employed to expel air or correct inequalities just before clay is used by the thrower4 ,whirler4--,a circular support pivoting on its centre1 used in casting or banding2 similar to a banding wheel1 but usually heavier4 ,,materials1 ,,terms1 ,,etc4 ,c ,,combining ,,weight ,e ,,equivalent ,,weight ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,symbol ,c ,,or ,e ,,fusing ,,point ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,alumina 7calcined7 ,al#b,o#c ,c #ajb,very infusible ,alumina 7hydrated7 ,al#b,o#cc;,h#b,o ,c #aef ,aluminium ,al ,e #bg #fbg ,c4 ,ammonia ,,nh#c ,volatile ,antimony ,sb ,e #abj #dcb ,c4 ,antimony oxide ,sb,o ,arsenic ,as ,e #ge #ejj ,c4 ,barium 7metallic ,ba ,e #acg ,fuses above element7 red heat ,barium carbonate ,ba,c,o#c ,c #aig ,barytes ,ba,s,o#d ,c #bcc ,fuses about white heat ,bauxite ,bismuth ,bi ,e #bh ,borax 7crystals7 ,na#b;,b#d,o#gaj;,h#b,o ,c #chb ,very fusible ,boric acid 7crystals7 ,b#b,o#cc;,h#b,o ,c #abd ,boric acid 7dry7 ,b#b,o#c ,c #gj ,high fusing ,boron 7metallic ,b ,e #aa point element7 ,calcined bones ,infusible ,calcined kaolin ,al#b,o#c #b,si,o#b ,c #bbb ,very infusible ,china clay 7fine7 slightly vitreous at highest fire ,calcium oxide 7lime7 ,ca,o ,c #ef ,very refractory if alone but fusible with clays ,calcium carbonate ,ca,c,o#c ,c #ajj ,china stone #h,si,o#bb;,al#b,o#c,k#b,o #acgi #acjj ,c4 about ,cornish stone ,chrome oxide ,cr#b,o#c ,c #gi ,chromium ,ca ,e #ea ,above platinum ,cobalt ,co ,e #ei #aejj ,c4 ,cobalt oxide ,co#b,o#c ,c #afe ,cobalt oxide 7black7 ,co#b,o#d ,c #bdj ,copper ,cu ,e #fc #ajed-ajhd ,c4 ,copper oxide 7black7 ,cu,o ,c #gi4e ,earthy colourants ,ochres ,siennas ,umbers ,felspar #f,si,o#b;,al#b,o#c,k#b,o ,c #eef #abjj-acjj ,c4 about1 according to purity ,flint 7calcined7 ,si,o#b ,c #fj #ahcj ,c4 about ,fluorspar ,ca,f#b ,much lower than felspar ,galena 7lead sulphide7 ,pb,s ,very fusible ,gold ,au ,e #adg #ajed-ajge ,c4 ,gypsum 7plaster of ,paris1 if calcined7 ,ca,s,o#db;,h#b,o ,c #agb ,iron ,fe ,e #ef #aecj-afjj ,c4 about ,iron oxide ,fe#b,o#c ,c #afj ,iridium ,ir ,e #aic #aiej ,c4 about ,kaolin 7see calcined kaolin7 ,al#b,o#cb,si,o#bb;,h#b,o,c #beh ,infusible ,lead 7metal7 ,pb ,e #bjf #cbf ,c4 ,lead carbonate ,pb,c,o#b ,lead1 red oxide of ,pb#c;,,co#d ,lime 7see calcium oxide or carbonate7 ,ca,o ,lynn sand 7see silver sand7 ,si,o#b ,magnesia 7calcined7 ,mg,o ,c #dj #dcj ,c4 ,magnesia 7carbonate7 ,mg,o,,co#b ,manganese1 carbonate ,mn,c,o#c ,c #aae ,manganese 7metal7 ,mn ,e #ee #afgj ,c4 about ,manganese oxide 7or black7 ,mn,o#b ,c #hg ,nickel 7metal7 ,ni ,e #eh #adbg-adej ,c4 ,nickel oxide ,ni,o ,c #ge ,nitre ,,kno#c ,pearl ash or potash ,,koh ,plaster of ,paris 7calcined gypsum7 ,ca,s,o#da_/b;,h#b,o ,c #ade ,platinum ,pt ,e #aig #agaj-agge ,c4 ,potash1 bichromate of ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g ,fuses dull-red heat ,potassium carbonate ,k#b;,,co#c ,c #ach ,potassium oxide ,k#b,o ,c #id ,quartz ,si,o#b ,c #fj #ahcj ,c4 about ,quartz sand ,rutile 7see titanium7 ,salt ,na,cl #ggf ,c4 ,silica ,si,o#b ,c #fj ,silver sand 7or quartz sand7 ,si,o#b ,silver 7metal7 ,ag ,e #ajg #ide-ifb ,c4 ,soda ash 7calcined7 ,na#b;,,co#c ,c #ajf ,soda crystals ,na#b;,,co#caj ,h#b,o ,c #bhf ,sodium oxide ,na#b,o ,c #fb ,tincal 7see borax7 ,tin 7metal7 ,sn ,e #aai #bcc ,c4 ,tin oxide 7white7 ,sn,o#b ,c #aej ,titanium oxide 7rutile7 ,ti,o#b ,infusible ,uranium 7metal7 ,u ,e #bci #ahjj ,c4 about ,uranium1 oxide of ,u#c,o#h ,whitening 7see lime carbonate7 ,zinc 7metal7 ,zn ,e #fe #ddc ,c4 ,zinc oxide 7white7 ,zn,o ,c #ha ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,seger ,,cones4 7,,standard ,,cones4 ,,about #aj ,,higher47 ,,numbers4 ,,turning ,,points4 ,,colour1 ,,etc4 ,,approximate ,,degrees ,,of ,,colour ,,in ,,kiln ,,cone ,,heat ,,at ,,which ,,materials ,,suitable ,,to ,,be ,,number ,,cone ,,turns ,,fired ,,at ,,these ,,temperatures ,,or ,,bends 7,,approximate7 ,centigrade 4#jbb #fjj ,commences to 4#jba #fej ,soft enamel or over-glaze show colour 4#jbj #fgj colours4 4#jai #fij 4#jah #gaj ,dull red 4#jag #gcj ,enamels on metals4 ,fluxes 4#jaf #gej and lustres4 4#jae #gij 4#jad #hae 4#jac #hce ,very soft glazes and hard ,red to cherry 4#jab #hee enamel colours4 ,some 4#jaa #hhj lustres4 ,gilding4 4#jaj #ijj 4#ji #ibj 4#jh #idj 4#jg #ifj ,dull cherry to 4#jf #ihj ,majolica glazes or coloured light cherry 4#je #ajjj glazes and stanniferous 4#jd #ajbj or tin glazes4 4#jc #ajdj 4#jb #ajfj ,earthenware glazes4 ,soft 4#ja #ajhj ,china glazes4 #a #aajj ,dark orange to #b #aabj ,soft to hard or fine pale orange #c #aadj earthenware biscuit4 #d #aafj #e #aahj ,svres soft bisque4 #f #abjj #g #abcj ,vitreous ware4 ,granite ware4 ,yellowish white #h #abej ,salt glaze4 ,stoneware4 #i #abhj ,english bone porcelain or #aj #acjj ,china biscuit4 ,white #aa #acbj #ab #acej ,intense white #ac #achj ,german ,chinese porcelain4 #ad #adaj ,svres porcelain4 #ae #adcj ,bluish white #af #adfj #ag #adhj ,copenhagen porcelain4 ,to convert temperatures3 ,centigrade into ,fahrenheit4--,divide by #e1 multiply by #i1 and add #cb4 ,fahrenheit into ,centigrade4--,subtract #cb1 divide by #i1 and multiply by #e4 ,,measures1 ,,weights1 ,,etc4 ,,apothecaries #a grain 4#jfdh gramme4 #bj grains #a scruple #a4bif grammes4 #c scruples #a drachm #c4hhh grammes4 #h drachms #a ounce #ca4ajc grammes4 ,,troy #a grain 4#jfdh gramme4 #bd grains #a pennyweight #a4eee grammes4 #bj pennyweights #a troy ounce #ca4ajce grammes4 ,,avoirdupois #af drams #a ounce4 #af ounces #a pound4 #ad pounds #a stone4 #bh pounds #a quarter4 #aab pounds #a hundredweight 7cwt474 #bj hundredweight #a ton 7#bbdj lbs474 ,,capacity 7,,wet7 #a gill #a4db decilitres4 #d gills #a pint 4#efh litre4 #b pints #a quart #a4acf litres4 #d quarts #a gallon #d4ede litres4 #b gallons #a peck #i4ji litres4 #d pecks #a bushel4 #h bushels #a quarter4 ,,books ,,of ,,reference ,,technical ,chemistry of ,pottery4 ,langenbeck1 ,karl4 ,chemistry of ,pottery4 ,shaw1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,clays4 ,occurrences1 ,properties1 and ,uses4 ,ries4 ,colouring and ,decorating of ,ceramic ,ware4 ,brongniart1 ,a4 ,ceramic ,technology4 ,binns1 ,c4 ,f4 ,notes on the ,manufacture of ,earthen ,ware4 ,sandeman1 ,e4 ,a4 ,notes on ,pottery ,clays4 ,fairie1 ,jas4 ,pottery ,decoration4 ,hainbach1 ,r4 ,,technical ,,and ,,historical ,leadless ,decorative ,tiles4 ,furnival1 ,w4 ,j4 ,faience and ,mosaic1 and other volumes4 ,furnival1 ,w4 ,j4 ,,manual ,pottery4 ,lunn1 ,richard4 ,grand ,feu ,ceramics4 ,d'oat1 ,taxile4 ,the ,potter's ,craft4 ,binns1 ,c4 ,f4 ,practical ,keramics for ,students4 ,janvier1 ,c4 ,a4 ,,historical ,,and ,,artistic ,art of the ,old ,english ,potter4 ,solon1 ,l4 ,v4 ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,gulland4 ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,monkhouse1 ,cosmo4 ,ceramic ,art in ,great ,britain4 ,jewitt1 ,l4 ,history of ,pottery and ,porcelain4 ,marryat4 ,majolica4 ,fortnum1 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,potters1 ,their ,arts and ,crafts4 ,sparkes and ,gandy4 ,pottery and ,porcelain in the ,united ,states 7and other volumes74 ,barber4 ,persian ,ceramic ,art 7and other volumes74 ,wallis1 ,h4 ,illustrated catalogue of the ,faience of ,persia and ,near ,east4 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club4 ,,appliances ,,and ,,materials1 ,,etc4 ,,sold ,,by ,,ball ,,mills4 ,wengers1 ,ltd4 ,eng4 7,hanley1 ,stoke on ,trent47 ,abbey ,engineering ,co4 #bbj ,broadway1 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,biscuit ,,shapes4 ,hirshberg ,art ,co4 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,,china ,,and ,,ball4 ,mandle and ,sant4 ,east ,liverpool1 ,ohio1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,china ,,and ,,modeling4 ,stewart ,co4 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,clays ,wengers4 ,hanley1 ,great ,britain4 ,,modelling ,,and ,western ,stoneware ,co4 ,monmouth1 ,,stoneware ,ill41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,saggar ,,and ,,stoneware4 ,w4 ,h4 ,cutter1 ,woodbridge1 ,n4 ,j41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,cones4 ,wengers1 ,ltd4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 ,murray ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,professor ,ed4 ,orton4 ,columbus1 ,ohio4 ,,glazes4 ,wengers1 ,ltd4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 ,murray ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,roessler1 ,haslacher ,chemical ,co4 ,william ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kilns4 ,,gas4 ,fletcher1 ,russell4 ,warrington1 ,eng4 ,,kilns4 ,,gas ,,and ,,oil4 ,bellevue ,perfection4 ,detroit1 ,mich41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kilns4 ,,oil4 ,caulkins ,revelation4 ,detroit1 ,mich41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kilns4 ,,trial4 ,wengers4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,,lawns ,,and ,,sieves4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 #ej ,murray ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,a4 ,sartorious ,co4 ,murray ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,wengers4 ,hanley ,staffs1 ,eng4 ,,plaster4 ,wengers4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,calvin ,thompkins4 ,battery ,pl41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,,quartz1 ,,flint1 ,,felspar4 ,wengers1 ,ltd4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 ,murray ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,golding ,sons4 ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,scales4 ,wengers4 ,hanley ,staffs1 ,eng4 ,hy4 ,troemner4 ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,stilts1 ,,etc4 ,trenton ,stilt ,spur ,co4 ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,wengers4 ,hanley1 ,eng4 ,u4 ,g4 ,,colours1 ,,etc4 ,wengers4 ,eng4 ,drackenfeld ,co4 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,wheels4 ,crossley ,mfg4 ,co4 ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,t4 ,s4 ,nickerson4 ,newburyport1 ,mass41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments ,transcriber's ,note3 ,blank pages have been deleted4 ,on pages that remain1 some unnecessary page numbers may have been deleted when they fall in the middle of lists4 ,some illustrations may have been moved4 ,when the author's preference can be determined1 we have rendered consistent on a per-word-pair basis the hyphenation or spacing of such pairs when repeated in the same grammatical context4 ,the publisher's inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been corrected4 ,the following list indicates any additional changes4 ,the page number represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext except for illustrations since they may have been moved4 ,page ,change #bj the highest fire 7around #agjjjagjj ,centigrade74 #ia but it is a waste of time to attempt it #aha ,the slip is allowed to settledsettle and the water siphoned off4 #aic ,,al,al#b,o#c #b,si,o#b #aic ,cobalt ,c#f;,co #aid ,felspar #f,si,o#b;,al#b,o#c,k#b,o,k#b,o 99 99 99 99 99