file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #chbdf-;h4htm or #chbdf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #chbdf_/pg#chbdf-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#chbd f_/chbdf-;h4zip7 ,,h]oes ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,*emi/s by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,fell[1 & ,praelector 9 ,*emi/ry1 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,publi%$ "u ! ,direction ( ! ,committee ( ,g5]al ,lit]ature & ,education ,appo9t$ by ! ,society = ,promot+ ,*ri/ian ,k4 ,london3 ,society = ,promot+ ,*ri/ian ,k1 ,nor?umb]l& ,av5ue1 ,*>+ ,cross2 #dc1 ,que5 ,victoria ,/reet1 ,e4,c42 #bf1 ,/4 ,george's ,place1 ,hyde ,p>k ,corn]1 ,s4,w4 ,brighton3 #ace1 ,nor? ,/reet4 ,new ,york3 ,e4 ,j4 ,b4 ,"y ,co4 #ahhc4 ,! discov]ies ( great m5 nev] leave u2 !y are immortal2 !y conta9 ^? et]nal tru?s :i* survive ! %ock ( empires1 outlive ! /ruggles ( rival cre$s1 & witness ! decay ( successive religions4--,,buckle4 ,he :o /udies ,nature has cont9ually ! exquisite pleasure ( disc]n+ or half disc]n+ & div9+ laws2 regul>ities glimm] ?r\gh an appe>ance ( confusion1 analogies betwe5 ph5om5a ( a diff]5t ord] sugge/ !mselves & set ! imag9ation 9 motion2 ! m9d is haunt$ ) ! s5se ( a va/ unity n yet discov]able or nameable4 ,!re is food = contemplation :i* nev] runs %ort2 y gaze at an object :i* is always gr[+ cle>]1 & yet always1 9 ! v act ( gr[+ cle>]1 pres5t+ new my/]ies4--,,! ,,au?or ,,( ,,ecce ,,homo4 ,je la5g] i* lebe1 de/o mehr v]l]n' i* das ,gel]nte1 naemli* die ,sy/eme4--,,jean ,,paul ,,ri*t]4 ,,preface4 ,i h endeav\r$ 9 ?is book to keep to ! l9es laid d[n = me by ! ,publication ,committee ( ! ,society1 viz4 to exhibit1 by select$ biographies1 ! progress ( *emi/ry f ! beg9n+ ( ! inductive me?od until ! pres5t "t4 ,! progress ( *emi/ry has be5 made ! c5tral !me2 ar\nd ?is ,i h tri$ to gr\p %ort acc\nts ( ! lives ( ^? :o h mo/ assi/$ ?is progress by _! lab\rs4 ,?is me?od ( treatm5t1 if prop]ly conduct$1 exhibits ! advances made 9 sci5ce z intimately connect$ ) ! lives & *>act]s ( ^? :o /udi$ x1 & also impresses on ! read] ! cont9uity ( ! progress ( natural k4 ,! lives ( a few *emi/s h be5 writt52 ( o!rs !re are1 h[ev]1 only scanty notices to be f\nd4 ,! mat]ials = ?is book h be5 collect$ *iefly f ! foll[+ works3-- ,kopp's ,ges*i*te d] ,*emie4 ,?omson's ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,lad5burg's ,entwickelungsges*i*te d] ,*emie4 ,wurtz's ,hi/ory ( ! ,atomic ,!ory4 ,watts's ,diction>y ( ,*emi/ry4 ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,rodwell's ,bir? ( ,*emi/ry2 ,inquiry into ! ,h]metic ,my/]y & ,al*emy 7,london1 #ahej72 ,popul> ,treatises on ,sci5ce writt5 dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 edit$ = ! ,hi/orical ,society ( ,sci5ce by ,?omas ,wright1 ,m4,a4 7,london1 #ahda72 ,ripley ,reviv'd2 or1 ,an ,exposition ^u ,sir ,george ,ripley's ,h]metico-,poetical ,works1 by ,eir5aeus ,philale!s 7,london1 #afgh72 ,tripus ,aureus1 hoc e/ ,tres ,tractates ,*ymici ,selectissimi 7,frankfurt1 #afah74 ,al*emy2 article 9 ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica4 ,boyle's ,sceptical ,*ymi/4 ,biographie ,univ]selle2 = notices ( ,b]zelius & ,lavoisi]4 ,engli% ,cyclopa$ia2 = notices ( ,black1 ,b]zelius & ,lavoisi]4 ,black's ,lectures1 ) ,memoir3 edit$ by ,dr4 ,rob9son4 ,prie/ley's ,memoirs3 writt5 p>tly by himself4 ,prie/ley's works on ,air1 etc4 ,lavoisi]'s ,oeuvres4 ,dalton's ,life1 by ,dr4 ,h5ry2 ,life1 by ,dr4 ,r4 ,angus ,smi?2 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,davy's ,collect$ ,works2 ) ,life1 by 8 bro!r2 ,life1 by ,dr4 ,p>is4 ,b]zelius's ,lehrbu*1 & v>i\s diss]tations4 ,woehl]'s ,jug5d]9n]ung5 e9es ,*emik]s4 ,graham's ,collect$ ,memoirs4 ,sket* ( ,graham's life1 9 ,*emical ,society's ,j\rnal4 ,life-,"w ( ,liebig1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,h(mann4 ,dumas1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,h(mann4 ,v>i\s diss]tations by ,liebig & ,dumas 9 ,annal51 & else:]e4 ,my w>me/ ?anks are due to my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,francis ,rye1 = ! great assi/ance he has giv5 me 9 correct+ ! pro(-%eets4 ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir4 ,,cambridge1 ,april1 #ahhc4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,introductory #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,al*emy3 ,,& ,,! ,,dawn ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,beg9n+s ( natural k--,*emi/ry 9 ! ,middle ,ages--,al*emy--,! phlogi/ic !ory #e ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,z ,a ,,sci5ce--,,p]iod ,,( ,,black1 ,,prie/ley ,,& ,,lavoisi]4 ,introduction ( accurate measurem5ts into *emi/ry--,black's rese>*es on alkalis & on fix$ air--,8 conception ( heat--,prie/ley's exp]im5ts on airs--,8 discov]y ( oxyg5--,lavoisi]1 ! f\nd] ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry--,he cle>ly e/abli%es a connection betwe5 composition & prop]ties ( bodies #cj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emical ,,sci5ce--,,p]iod ,,( ,,dalton4 ,dalton's tra9+ 9 physical sci5ce--,he revives & r5d]s quantitative ! atomic !ory--,! t]m atom is appli$ by him to elem5ts & comp\nds alike--,8 rules = *emical syn!sis #ajf ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emical ,,sci5ce 7cont9u$7--,,p]iod ,,( ,,davy ,,& ,,b]zelius4 ,electro-*emi/ry--,! duali/ic !ory develop$ by ,b]zelius--,davy's "w on acids1 alkalis1 & salts--,he proves *lor9e to be an elem5t--,8 discov]y ( ! safety-lamp #aee ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,graham4 ,graham traces ! movem5ts ( molecules--,he di/+ui%es betwe5 colloids & cy/alloids--,dialysis #bcb ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,rise ,,& ,,progress ,,( ,,organic ,,*emi/ry--,,p]iod ,,( ,,liebig ,,& ,,dumas4 ,! b>ri] betwe5 inorganic & organic *emi/ry beg9s to be brok5 d[n--,woehl] prep>es urea--,dumas opposes ! duali/ic sy/em ( ,b]zelius--,liebig's conception ( comp\nd radicles--,8 "w 9 animal & agricultural *emi/ry #beb ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,mod]n ,,*emi/ry4 ,! relations betwe5 composition & prop]ties ( bodies are develop$ & r5d]$ m def9ite--,physical me?ods are m l>gely made use ( 9 *emi/ry--,spectroscopic analysis #bid ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,summ>y ,,& ,,conclusion #caf ,,h]oes ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,introductory4 ,z we trace ! developm5t ( any bran* ( natural k we f9d t !re has be5 a gradual progress f vague & fanciful to accurate & def9ite views ( ,nature4 ,we f9d t z man's conceptions ( natural ph5om5a become m accurate !y also = a "t become m limit$1 b t ?is limitation is necess>y 9 ord] t facts may be correctly classifi$1 & s !re may be laid ! basis = g5]alizations :i*1 be+ def9ite1 %all also be capable ( expansion4 ,at fir/ ,nature is /range2 %e is full ( wond]ful & fe>ful appe>ances4 ,man is ov]:elm$ by ! sudd5 & app>5tly irregul> outbreaks ( /orms1 by ! caprici\s freaks ( ?und] & lightn+1 by ! awful & unann\nc$ deva/ations ( ! volcano or ! e>?quake2 he believes himself to be surr\nd$ by an invisible array ( be+s m p[]ful ?an himself1 b1 l himself1 *angeable 9 _! moods & easily provok$ to ang]4 ,aft] a "t he beg9s to f9d t x is possible to trace po9ts ( connection betwe5 "s ( ! appe>ances :i* _h s ov]p[]$ or p]plex$ him4 ,! huntsman obs]ves t c]ta9 k9ds ( plants always gr[ :]e ! game :i* he pursues is *iefly to be f\nd2 f ! appe>ance ( ! sky at morn+ & ev5+ ! fi%]man is able to tell :e!r !re w foll[ wea!r suitable = him to set out 9 8 fi%+-boat2 ! till] ( ! gr\nd beg9s to feel sure t if he s[ ! se$ 9 ! well-dug soil & wat] x 9 prop] seasons he w c]ta9ly reap ! h>ve/ 9 due "t4 ,& ?us man comes to believe t natural ev5ts foll[ ea* o!r 9 a fix$ ord]2 !re arises a consci\s ref]5ce on 8 "p ( c]ta9 effects to c]ta9 def9ite causes4 ,accurate k has begun4 ,z k ( natural appe>ances advances !re comes a "t :5 m5 devote !mselves *iefly to a c>eful /udy ( "s "o class ( facts2 !y try to consid] t "p ( ,nature ) :i* !y are mo/ly conc]n$ z sep>ate f all o!r p>ts ( ,nature4 ,?us ! v>i\s bran*es ( natural k beg9 to h ea* a di/9ct exi/5ce4 ,^! bran*es get m & m subdivid$1 ea* division is m accurately /udi$1 & s a great numb] ( facts is accumulat$ 9 _m classes4 ,!n we usually f9d t a ma/] m9d arises1 :o %[s ! connection :i* exi/s betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ea* division ( natural k1 :o takes a wide1 f>-rea*+ view ( ! :ole range ( ! prov9ce ( k :i* he /udies1 & :o1 at ! same "t1 is able to hold 9 8 vision all ! important details ( ea* bran* ( :i* t prov9ce is compos$4 ,& ?us we aga9 get wide views ( ,nature4 ,b ^! are v diff]5t f ! vague1 dim & hesitat+ notions 9 :i* natural k _h its beg9n+s4 ,9 ?is lat] "t m5 see t ,nature is bo? simple & complex2 t %e is m wond]ful ?an _! fa!rs dream$1 b t ?r\gh all ! complexity !re runs a def9ite purpose2 t ! app>5tly sep>ate facts are b\nd toge!r by def9ite laws1 & t to discov] ?is purpose & ^! laws is possible = man4 ,z we trace ?is progress 9 ! v>i\s bran*es ( natural k we are /ruck ) ! fact t ea* important advance is g5]ally accompli%$ by "o or two lead+ m52 we f9d t x becomes possible to gr\p ! hi/ory ( ea* p]iod r\nd a few c5tral figures2 & we also le>n t ! "* ( ! "w done by ea* ( ^! m5 ( note is dep5d5t on ! nature & tra9+ ( ! individual man4 ,x w be my endeav\r 9 ! foll[+ pages to give an acc\nt ( ! advance ( *emical sci5ce1 gr\p+ ! facts 9 ea* /age ( progress r\nd ! figures ( "o or two m5 :o 7 prom95t 9 t p]iod4 ,= ! purposes ( ?is book x w be necess>y t ,i %\ld sket* only ! mo/ important p]iods 9 ! /ory ( *emical progress1 & t 9 ea* ( ^! ,i %\ld fill 9 ! prom95t po9ts alone4 ,i %all !re=e select ?ree p]iods 9 ! progress ( ?is sci5ce1 & try to give an acc\nt ( ! ma9 "w done 9 ea* ( ^!4 ,& ! p]iods w be3-- ,i4 ,! p]iod :]e91 *iefly by ! "w ( ,black1 ,prie/ley & ,lavoisi]1 ! aim ( *emical sci5ce 0 def9$ & ! ess5tial *>act]s ( ! ph5om5a to be /udi$ 7 cle>ly /at$4 ,,ii4 ,! p]iod dur+ :i*1 *iefly by ! lab\rs ( ,dalton1 ,b]zelius & ,davy1 ! great c5tral propositions ( ! sci5ce 7 laid d[n & 7 develop$ into a def9ite !ory4 ,z belong+ 9 great ext5t to ?is p]iod1 al?\gh *ronologically lat]1 ,i %all also consid] ! "w ( ,graham4 ,,iii4 ,! p]iod :51 *iefly ow+ to advances made 9 organic *emi/ry1 broad] & m f>-rea*+ sy/ems ( classification 7 introduc$1 & ! propositions laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ p]iod 7 modifi$ & /r5g!n$4 ,! work]s 9 ?is p]iod 7 v num]\s2 ,i %all *iefly consid] ^! two--,liebig & ,dumas4 ,i %all conclude ) a brief sket* ( "s ( ! important advances ( *emical sci5ce 9 m rec5t times1 & a summ>y ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ea* ( ! ?ree p]iods4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,al*emy3 ,,& ,,! ,,dawn ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,e>ly *emi/ry 0 n a sci5ce4 ,! anci5t *emi/s dealt *iefly ) :at we %\ld n[ call *emical manufactures2 !y made glass1 clean$ lea!r1 dy$ clo? purple & o!r col\rs1 extract$ metals f _! ores1 & made alloys ( metals4 ,no well-f\nd$ explanations ( ^! processes c\ld be expect$ ei!r f m5 :o simply us$ ! recipes ( _! pr$ecessors1 or f philosoph]s :o /udi$ natural sci5ce1 n by ! help ( accurate exp]im5ts1 b by ! unaid$ light ( _! own m9ds4 ,at some:at lat] times *emi/ry assum$ a v important place 9 ! g5]al s*emes prop\nd$ by philosoph]s4 ,*ange is vividly impress$ on all man's surr\nd+s3 ! endeav\r to f9d "s re/+-place amid/ ! *aos ( circum/ances1 "s un*ang+ sub/ance b5ea? ! ev]-*ang+ appe>ances ( ?+s1 has always held a prom95t place ) ^? :o /udy ! ph5om5a ( ! _w :i* surr\nds !m4 ,9 ! ?ird & f\r? c5turies ( our era mu* att5tion 0 giv5 to ! art :i* pr(ess$ to expla9 ! *anges ( ,nature4 ,religion1 philosophy1 & :at we %\ld n[ call natural sci5ce1 7 at t "t closely int]m+l$2 ! s*eme ( ?+s :i* !n1 & = sev]al c5turies aft] t "t1 ex]t$ a p[]ful influ5ce ov] ! m9ds ( _m ?9k]s 0 l>gely bas$ on ! conception ( a fundam5tal unity und]ly+ & regulat+ ! obs]v$ dissimil>ities ( ! univ]se4 ,?us1 9 ! ,em]ald ,table ( ,h]mes1 :i* 0 held 9 mu* repute 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 we read-- ,true1 )\t error1 c]ta9 & mo/ true3 t :i* is above is z t :i* is bel[1 & t :i* is bel[ is z t :i* is above1 = p]=m+ ! miracles ( ! ,"o ,?+2 & z all ?+s 7 f "o1 by ! m$iation ( "o1 s all ?+s arose f ?is "o ?+ by adaptation3 ! fa!r ( x is ! ,sun1 ! "m ( x is ! ,moon1 ! w9d c>ri$ x 9 its belly1 ! nurse ( x is ! ,e>?4 ,?is is ! fa!r ( all p]fection1 ! consummation ( ! :ole _w4 ,& aga91 9 a lat] writ+ we h laid d[n ! basis ( ! art ( al*emy 9 ! proposition t !re abides 9 nature a c]ta9 pure matt]1 :i*1 be+ discov]$ & br\ght by art to p]fection1 conv]ts to itself proportionally all imp]fect bodies t x t\*es4 ,to discov] ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ?is ,"o ,?+1 became ! object ( all rese>*4 ,e>? & ! heav5s 7 suppos$ to be b\nd toge!r by ! all-p]vad+ pres5ce ( ! ,"o ,?+2 he :o %\ld atta9 to a k ( ?is preci\s ess5ce w\ld possess all wisdom4 ,to ! vision ( ^? :o pursu$ ! que/ = ! ,"o ,?+ ! :ole univ]se 0 fill$ by "o ev]-work+ _s1 conceal$ n[ by ?is1 n[ by t veil ( s5se1 ev] escap+ id5tification 9 any concrete =m1 yet c]ta9ly capable ( be+ appreh5d$ by ! dilig5t se>*]4 ,analogy 0 ! *ief guide 9 ?is se>*4 ,if x 7 grant$ t all natural appe>ances 7 manife/ations ( ! activity ( "o ess5tial pr9ciple1 !n ! vague/ & mo/ f>-fet*$ analogies betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( nature might1 if prop]ly foll[$ up1 lead to ! appreh5sion ( ?is hidd5 b ev]y:]e pres5t ess5ce4 ,! hi/ory ( al*emy tea*es1 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann]1 ! dang]s :i* beset ?is me?od ( pursu+ ! /udy ( ,nature2 ?is hi/ory tea*es u t analogies1 unless f\nd$ on c>efully & accurately det]m9$ facts1 are g5]ally utt]ly mislead+ 9 natural sci5ce4 ,let u consid] ! nature ( ! exp]im5tal evid5ce :i* an al*emi/ ( ! f\r? or fif? c5tury c\ld produce 9 fav\r ( 8 /atem5t t transmutation ( "o k9d ( matt] into ano!r is ( con/ant occurr5ce 9 ,nature4 ,! al*emi/ heat$ a quantity ( wat] 9 an op5 glass vessel2 ! wat] sl[ly disappe>$1 & :5 x 0 all gone !re rema9$ 9 ! vessel a small quantity ( a :ite e>?y solid sub/ance4 ,:at c\ld ?is exp]im5t tea* save t wat] 0 *ang$ into e>? & air8 ,! al*emi/ !n plung$ a piece ( r$-hot iron into wat] plac$ "u a bell-%ap$ glass vessel2 "s ( ! wat] seem$ to be *ang$ into air1 & a c&le1 :5 br\ght into ! bell1 caus$ ! air !re9 to take fire4 ,!re=e1 conclud$ ! exp]im5t]1 wat] is prov$ to be *angeable into fire4 ,a piece ( lead 0 !n /rongly heat$ 9 ! air2 x lo/ its lu/re & became *ang$ into a r$di%-:ite p[d]1 v unlike lead 9 its prop]ties2 ?is p[d] 0 !n heat$ 9 a conv5i5t vessel ) a little :eat1 :]eupon ! lead 0 aga9 produc$4 ,!re=e1 said ! al*emi/1 lead is de/roy$ by fire1 b x c be reproduc$ f its a%es by ! help ( heat & a few gra9s ( corn4 ,! exp]im5t] w\ld n[ proce$ to heat a quantity ( a m9]al conta9+ lead 9 an op5 vessel made ( pulv]iz$ bones2 ! lead sl[ly disappe>$1 & at ! close ( ! exp]im5t a button ( silv] rema9$4 ,might he n triumphantly ass]t t he _h transmut$ lead into silv]8 ,9 ord] t ! doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( metals might re/ on yet sur] evid5ce1 ! al*emi/ plac$ a piece ( copp] 9 spirits ( nitre 7nitric acid72 ! metal disappe>$2 into ! gre5 liquid ?us produc$ he !n plac$ a piece ( iron2 ! copp] aga9 made its appe>ance1 :ile ! iron 0 remov$4 ,he might n[ well say t if lead 0 ?us demon/rably *ang$ into silv]1 & copp] into iron1 x 01 to say ! lea/1 extremely probable t any metal might be *ang$ into any o!r provid$ ! prop] means = produc+ ! *ange c\ld be discov]$4 ,b ! exp]im5tal al*emi/ _h a yet /rang] transmutation :]e) to conv9ce ! mo/ sceptical4 ,he p\r$ m]cury 9 a f9e /ream on to melt$ sulphur2 at once ! m]cury & ! sulphur disappe>$1 & 9 _! place 0 f\nd a solid sub/ance black z ! rav5's w+4 ,he !n heat$ ?is black sub/ance 9 a clos$ vessel1 :5 x also disappe>$1 & 9 its place !re 0 f\nd1 deposit$ on ! cool] "p ( ! vessel1 a brilliantly r$-col\r$ solid4 ,?is exp]im5t taught lessons alike to ! al*emi/1 ! philosoph]1 & ! morali/ ( ^! times4 ,! al*emi/ le>n$ t to *ange "o k9d ( matt] into ano!r 0 an easy task3 ! philosoph] le>n$ t ! preval5ce ( *ange or transmutation is "o ( ! laws ( ,nature3 & ! morali/ le>n$ t evil is n :olly evil1 b conta9s also "s g]ms ( good2 = 0 n ! rav5-black sub/ance emblematical ( ! evil1 & ! r$-col\r$ matt] ( ! good pr9ciple ( ?+s8#a ,on su* exp]im5tal evid5ce z ?is ! build+ ( al*emy 0 re>$4 ,a close relation%ip 0 believ$ to prevail ?r\gh ! :ole ph5om5a ( ,nature4 ,:at m natural !n ?an to reg>d ! *anges :i* occur among ! =ms ( matt] on ?is e>? z intimately connect$ ) ! *anges :i* occur among ! heav5ly bodies8 ,man has ev] be5 ov]aw$ by ! maje/y ( ! />s2 yet he has n fail$ to notice t ! movem5ts ( ^! bodies are app>5tly caprici\s4 ,! moon has always be5 to him a type ( mutability2 only 9 ! sun has he seem$ to f9d a settl$ re/+-po9t4 ,n[1 :5 we rememb] t 9 ! al*emical s*eme ( ?+s ! mat]ial e>? & mat]ial heav5s1 ! intellectual1 ! moral1 & ! spiritual _w 7 reg>d$ z "o great :ole1 ! p>ts ( :i* 7 cont9u\sly act+ & react+ on ea* o!r1 we _c wond] t ! al*emi/ %\ld reg>d special ph5om5a :i* he obs]v$ 9 8 laboratory1 or special =ms ( matt] :i* he exam9$1 z be+ m directly ?an o!r ph5om5a or o!r =ms ( matt]1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,?is connection became gradually m app>5t to ! /ud5t ( al*emy1 until at la/ x 0 fix$ 9 ! language & ! symbols :i* he employ$4 ,?us ! sun 7,sol7 0 repres5t$ by a circle1 :i* likewise became ! symbol = gold1 z be+ ! mo/ p]fect metal4 ,! moon 7,luna7 0 ev] *ang+2 %e 0 repres5t$ by a half-circle1 :i* also symboliz$ ! pale metal silv]4 ,copp] & iron 7 reg>d$ z belong+ to ! same class ( metals z gold1 b _! less p]fect nature 0 d5ot$ by ! sign or 4 ,t9 & lead belong$ to ! lun> class1 b l copp] !y 7 suppos$ to be imp]fect metals4 ,m]cury 0 at once sol> & lun> 9 its prop]ties4 ,^! suppositions 7 summ$ up 9 su* al*emical symbols z are repres5t$ bel[-- ,illu/ration3 ,sol4 ,gold4 ,illu/ration3 ,luna4 ,silv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,v5us4 ,copp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>s4 ,iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,jupit]4 ,t94 ,illu/ration3 ,saturn4 ,lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,m]cury4 ,quicksilv]4 ,_m ( ! al*emical names rema9 to ! pres5t "t2 ?us 9 ph>macy ! "n lun> cau/ic is appli$ to silv] nitrate1 & ! symptoms indicative ( lead-poison+ are gr\p$ toge!r "u ! designation ( saturn9e *olic4 ,b z ! times advanc$ ! old] & nobl] conception ( al*emy became degrad$4 ,if x be true1 ! lat] al*emi/s urg$1 t all ?+s suff] *ange1 b t a *angeless ess5ce or pr9ciple und]lies all *ang+ ?+s1 & t ! pres5ce ( m or less ( ?is ess5ce conf]s on ea* =m ( matt] its special prop]ties1 x foll[s t he :o c possess himself ( ?is pr9ciple w be able to transmute any metal into any o!r2 he w be able to *ange any metal into gold4 ,n[1 z ! possession ( gold has always c>ri$ ) x ! means ( liv+ luxuri\sly1 x is easy to und]/& h[1 :5 ?is practical aspect ( al*emy _h tak5 firm root 9 m5's m9ds1 ! pursuit ( ! art became = all1 except a few l(ty & noble spirits1 synonym\s ) ! pursuit ( weal?4 ,s t we %all n1 ,i ?9k1 mu* err if we describe ! *emi/ry ( ! lat] ,middle ,ages z an ef=t to accumulate facts on :i* might be f\nd$ ! art ( mak+ gold4 ,9 "o respect ?is 0 an advance4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( al*emy !re _h be5 too mu* tru/+ to ! m5tal p[]s = ! manufacture ( natural facts3 *emi/s n[ actually work$ 9 laboratories2 & v h>d did _m ( ^! al*emi/s "w4 ,p>acelsus says ( ! al*emi/s1 ,!y are n giv5 to idl5ess1 nor g 9 a pr\d habit1 or plu% & velvet g>m5ts1 (t5 %[+ _! r+s ^u _! f+]s1 or we>+ swords ) silv] hilts by _! sides1 or f9e & gay gloves ^u _! h&s2 b dilig5tly foll[ _! lab\rs1 sweat+ :ole days & nights by _! furnaces4 ,!y d n sp5d _! "t abroad = recreation1 b take delight 9 _! laboratory4 ,!y put _! f+]s among/ coals1 into clay & fil?1 n into gold r+s4 ,!y are sooty & black l smi?s & m9]s1 & d n pride !mselves ^u clean & beautiful faces4 ,by ?us tak+ delight 9 _! laboratories ! lat] al*emi/s ga!r$ toge!r _m facts2 b _! "w c5tr$ r\nd "o idea1 viz4 t metals might all be *ang$ into gold1 & ?is idea 0 ! result r ( intellectual guess+ ?an ( reason+ on e/abli%$ facts ( ,nature4 ,"o ( ! mo/ fam\s al*emi/s ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 born at ,e9si$eln1 9 ,switz]l&1 9 #adic4 ,8 "n1 :5 p>aphras$ into ,greek1 became ,p>acelsus4 ,?is man1 "s ( ^: rem>ks h j be5 quot$1 acquir$ great fame z a m$ical practition]1 & also z a lectur] on m$ic9e3 he travell$ ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ,europe1 & is suppos$ to h be5 taught ! use ( sev]al new m$ic9es by ! ,arabian physicians :om he met 9 ,spa94 ,) an ov]-we5+ s5se ( 8 own p[]s1 ) an ard5t & intemp]ate disposition1 revolt+ aga9/ all au?ority 9 m$ic9e or sci5ce1 ,p>acelsus yet did a good "w 9 call+ m5 to ! /udy ( ,nature z ! only means :]eby natural sci5ce c\ld be advanc$4 ,al*emy has b "o aim & object1 ,p>acelsus taught3 to extract ! qu9tess5ce ( ?+s1 & to prep>e arcana & elixirs :i* may s]ve to re/ore to man ! heal? & s\ndness he has lo/4 ,he taught t ! visible univ]se is b an out] %ell or cov]+1 t !re is a _s ev] at "w und]nea? ?is veil ( ph5om5a2 b t all is n active3 to sep>ate ! active function 7! _s7 ( ?is outside %ell f ! passive 01 he said1 ! prop] prov9ce ( al*emy4 ,p>acelsus /rongly insi/$ on ! importance ( ! *anges :i* occur :5 a sub/ance burns1 & 9 do+ ?is he prep>$ ! way = ,/ahl & ! phlogi/ic *emi/s4 ,h[ev] we may admire ! g5]al conceptions und]ly+ ! "w ( ! e>li] al*emi/s1 we mu/ admit t ! me?od ( /udy :i* !y adopt$ c\ld lead to v few results ( la/+ value2 & ,i ?9k we may add t1 h[ev] humble ! speculations ( ^! old] ?9k]s might appe>1 ?is humility 0 = ! mo/ "p only app>5t4 ,^! m5 7 encompass$ 7z we are7 by unexpla9$ appe>ances3 !y 7 e mom5t rem9d$ t man is n ! measure ( all ?+s2 & by n pe]+ too anxi\sly into ! my/]ies ar\nd !m1 by draw+ vague conclusions f p>tially exam9$ appe>ances1 !y seem$ at once to admit _! own p[]lessness & ! greatness ( ,nature4 ,b ,i ?9k we %all f9d1 z we proce$ ) our /ory1 t ?is is n ! true k9d ( rev]5ce1 & t he is ! really humble /ud5t ( ,nature :o refuses to ov]look any fact1 h[ev] small1 because he feels ! trem5d\s significance ( e "p ( ! _w ( wond]s :i* x is 8 bus9ess & 8 happ9ess to explore4 ,z examples ( ! k9d ( explanation giv5 by al*emi/s ( ^? aspects ( ,nature :i* !y pr(ess$ to /udy1 ,i give two quotations f translations ( ! writ+s ( ,basil ,val5t9e & ,p>acelsus1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies respectively4 ,?9k mo/ dilig5tly ab\t ?is2 (t5 be> 9 m9d1 obs]ve & compreh5d t all m9]als & metals toge!r1 9 ! same "t1 & aft] ! same fa%ion1 & ( "o & ! same pr9cipal matt]1 are produc$ & g5]at$4 ,t matt] is no o!r ?an a m]e vap\r1 :i* is extract$ f ! elem5t>y e>? by ! sup]ior />s1 or by a sid]eal di/illation ( ! macrocosm2 :i* sid]eal hot infusion1 ) an airy sulphure\s prop]ty1 desc5d+ ^u inf]iors1 s acts & op]ates z t !re is implant$1 spiritually & invisibly1 a c]ta9 p[] & virtue 9 ^? metals & m9]als2 :i* fume1 moreov]1 resolves 9 ! e>? into a c]ta9 wat] :]efrom all metals are !nce=? g5]at$ & rip5$ to _! p]fection1 & !nce proce$s ?is or t metal or m9]al1 accord+ z "o ( ! ?ree pr9ciples acquires dom9ion & !y h mu* or little ( sulphur & salt1 or an unequal mixture ( ^!2 :5ce "s metals are fix$1 t is1 con/ant or /able2 & "s are volatile & easily *angeable1 z is se5 9 gold1 silv]1 copp]1 iron1 t9 & lead4 ,! life ( metals is a secret fatness2 ( salts1 ! _s ( aqua =tis2 ( pe>ls1 _! spl5d\r2 ( m>casites & antimony1 a t+e+ metall9e _s2 ( ars5ics1 a m9]al & coagulat$ poison4 ,! life ( all m5 is no?+ else b an a/ral balsam1 a balsamic impression1 & a cele/ial invisible fire1 an includ$ air1 & a t+e+ _s ( salt4 ,i _c "n x m pla9ly1 al?\gh x is set out by _m names4 ,:5 ! al*emi/s gave directions = mak+ ! /one :i* 0 to turn all x t\*$ into gold1 !y c\*$ !m 9 su* /range & symbolical language z ?is3 ,aft] our s]p5t has be5 b\nd by h] *a91 p5etrat$ ) ! blood ( our gre5 dragon1 & driv5 n9e or t5 times ?r\gh ! combu/ible fire into ! elem5t>y air1 if y d n f9d h] to be exce$+ furi\s & extremely p5etrat+1 x is a sign t y d n hit our subject1 ! notion ( ! homog5ea1 or _! proportion2 if ?is furi\s s]p5t does n come ov] 9 a cl\d & turn into our virg9 milk1 or arg5t9e wat]1 n corrosive at all & yet ins5sibly & invisibly dev\r+ ev]y?+ t comes ne> x1 x is pla9ly to be se5 t y err 9 ! notion ( our univ]sal m5/ruum4 ,or1 aga91 :at c\ld any reasonable man make ( ?is8 ,9 ! gre5 lion's b$ ! sun & moon are born2 !y are m>ri$ & beget a k+4 ,! k+ fe$s on ! lion's blood1 :i* is ! k+'s fa!r & "m1 :o are at ! same "t 8 bro!r & si/]4 ,i fe> ,i betray ! secret1 :i* ,i promis$ my ma/] to conceal 9 d>k spee* f any "o :o kn[s n h[ to rule ! philosoph]'s fire4 ,conc]n+ ! same lion1 ano!r le>n$ au?or says t ?\gh call$ a lion1 x is n an animal sub/ance1 b = its transc5dant =ce1 & ! rawness ( its orig91 x is call$ ! gre5 lion4 ,b he adds 9 a mom5t ( confid5ce3 ,?is horrid bea/ has s _m names1 t unless ,god direct ! se>*] x is impossible to di/+ui% him4 ,& once m4 ,take our two s]p5ts1 :i* are to be f\nd ev]y:]e on ! face ( ! e>?3 tie !m 9 a love-knot & %ut !m up 9 ! ,arabian c>aha4 ,?is is ! fir/ lab\r2 b ! next is m difficult4 ,?\ mu/ encamp aga9/ !m ) ! fire ( nature1 & be sure ?\ do/ br+ ?y l9e r\nd ab\t4 ,circle !m 9 & /op all av5ues t !y f9d no relief4 ,cont9ue ?is siege pati5tly1 & !y turn into an ugly v5om\s black toad1 :i* w be trans=m$ to a horrible dev\r+ dragon1 creep+ & welt]+ 9 ! bottom ( h] cave )\t w+s4 ,t\* h] n by any means1 = !re is n on e>? su* a vehem5t transc5d+ poison4 ,z ?\ ha/ begun s proce$1 & ?is dragon w turn into a swan4 ,h5ce=? ,i w %[ !e h[ to =tify ?y fire till ! pho5ix appe>3 x is a r$ bird ( a mo/ deep col\r1 ) a %9+ fi]y hue4 ,fe$ ?is bird ) ! fire ( 8 fa!r & ! e!r ( 8 "m3 = ! fir/ is meat & ! second is dr9k1 & )\t ?is la/ he atta9s n to 8 full glory4 ,be sure to und]/& ?is secret1 etc41 etc4 ,! al*emi/s spoke ( twelve gates ?r\gh :i* he :o w\ld atta9 to ! palace ( true art mu/ pass3 ^! twelve gates 7 to be unlock$ by twelve keys1 descriptions ( :i*1 c\*$ 9 /range & symbolical language1 7 giv5 9 al*emical treatises4 ,?us 9 ,ripley reviv'd#b we read t ,canon ,ripley1 ( ,bridl+ton1 :o liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,edw>d ,,iv41 sang ?us ( ! fir/ gate1 :i* 0 ,calc9ation3-- ,! battle's f\ght1 ! conque/ won1 ,! ,lyon dead reviv'd2 ,! eagle's dead :i* did him slay1 ,& bo? ( s5se depriv'd4 ,! %[]s cease1 ! dews :i* fell ,= six weeks d n rise2 ,! ugly toad t did s swell ,) swell+ bur/s & dies4 ,& ( ! ?ird gate1 or ,conjunction1 we f9d ! ,canon say+-- ,he 0 a k+1 yet dead z dead c\ld be2 ,8 si/] a que51 ,:o :5 h] bro!r %e did brea?less see1 ,! l 0 nev] se51 ,%e cryes ,until h] eyes ,) ov]-weep+ 7 wax$ dim-- ,s long till h] te>s ,rea*'d up to h] e>s3 ,! que5 sunk1 b ! k+ did swim4 ,9 "s books ^! gates & keys are symbolically repres5t$ 9 draw+s1 e4g4 9 a pamphlet by ,p>acelsus1 call$ ,tripus ,aureus1 hoc e/ ,tres ,tractates *ymici selectissimi4 7,frankfurt1 #afah47 ,x is evid5t t a me?od ( /udy+ ,nature :i* result$ 9 su* dim & hazy explanations z ^! 0 em95tly fitt$ to produce _m :o pret5d$ to possess secrets by ! use ( :i* !y c\ld br+ ab\t />tl+ results beyond ! p[] ( ord9>y m52 &1 at ! same "t1 ! almo/ univ]sal acceptance ( su* /atem5ts z ^? ,i h quot$ impli$ ! exi/5ce 9 m5 g5]ally ( a wondr\s read9ess to believe any?+ & ev]y?+4 ,grant$ t a man by sweat+ :ole days & nights by 8 furnaces c acquire k :i* gives him great p[] ov] 8 fell[s1 x necess>ily foll[s t _m w be f\nd ready to und]go ^! days & nights ( toil4 ,& :5 we f9d t ?is suppos$ k is hidd5 "u a mask ( /range & my/ical signs & language1 we may confid5tly ass]t t !re w be _m :o le>n to repeat ^! /range t]ms & use ^! my/ical signs )\t attempt+ to p5etrate to ! tru?s :i* lie beh9d--)\t1 inde$1 believ+ t ! my/ical ma*9]y :i* !y use has any real mean+ at all4 ,we f9d1 z a matt] ( fact1 t ! age ( ! al*emi/s produc$ _m deceiv]s1 :o1 by mumbl+ incantations & p]=m+ a few tricks1 :i* any common conjuror w\ld n[ despise1 7 able to make cr[ds ( m5 believe t !y possess$ a sup]natural p[] to control natural actions1 &1 "u ?is belief1 to make !m "p ) _! money & _! sub/ance4 ,"o respectable physician ( ! ,hague1 :o ent]ta9$ a p]ipatetic al*emi/1 compla9s t ! man ent]$ 8 be/-furni%$ room )\t wip+ 8 %oes1 al?\gh !y 7 full ( sn[ & dirt4 ,h[ev]1 ! physician 0 rew>d$1 z ! /rang] gave him1 out ( 8 philosophical commis]ation1 z mu* z a turnip se$ 9 size ( ! mu*-wi%$-= /one ( wisdom4 ,t ! al*emi/ ( popul> belief 0 a man :o us$ a j>gon ( /range & high-s\nd+ words1 t he might ! bett] deceive ^? :om he pret5d$ to help1 is evid5t f ! lit]ature ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,9 ! play ( ! ,al*ymi/ ,b5 ,jonson draws ! "* ( ,subtle z t ( a complete sc\ndrel1 ^: aim is to get money f ! pockets ( ^? :o are /upid en\gh to tru/ him1 & :o nev] hesitates to use ! base/ means = ?is end4 ,f ! spee*es ( ,subtle we may le>n ! k9d ( j>gon employ$ by ! m5 :o pret5d$ t !y c\ld cure diseases & *ange all bas] metals into gold4 ,subtle4 ,"n ! vexations & ! m>tyrizations ( metals 9 ! "w4 ,face4 ,sir1 putrefaction1 ,solution1 ablution1 sublimation1 ,cohobation1 calc9ation1 c]ation1 & ,fixation4 ,sub4 ,& :5 comes vivification8 ,face4 ,aft] mortification4 ,sub4 ,:at's cohobation8 ,face4 ',tis ! p\r+ on ,y\r aqua regis1 & !n draw+ him (f1 ,to ! tr9e circle ( ! sev5 sph]es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sub4 ,& :at's y\r m]cury8 ,face4 ,a v fugitive2 he w be gone1 sir4 ,sub4 ,h[ "k y him8 ,pace4 ,by 8 viscosity1 ,8 oleosity1 & 8 suscitability4 ,ev5 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 ,*auc] 79 ! ,canon's ,yeoman's ,tale7 depicts ! al*emi/ z a m]e cunn+ knave4 ,a prie/ is prevail$ on to give ! al*emi/ money1 & is told t he w be %[n ! *ange ( base metal into gold4 ,! al*emi/ busies himself ) prep>ations1 & s5ds ! prie/ to fet* coals4 ,& :il he besy 01 ?is fe5dly wrec*e1 ,?is false *an\n 7! f\le fe5de him fec*e7 ,out ( 8 bosom took a be*5 cole ,9 :i* ful subtilly 0 maad an hole1 ,& !re9 put 0 ( silv] lymayle ,an unce1 & /opp$ 0 )\te fayle ,! hole ) wex1 to keep ! lymayle 94 ,& und]/ondi?1 t ?is false gyn ,0 n maad !re1 b x 0 maad be=e4 ,?is false gyn hav+ be5 put 9 ! crucible & burn$ ) ! re/ ( ! +r$i5ts1 duly let out its silv] lymayle 7fil+s71 :i* appe>$ 9 ! %ape ( a small button ( silv]1 & s accompli%$ ! false *an\n's end ( deceiv+ 8 victim4 ,! al*emi/s accumulat$ _m facts3 !y ga9$ n a little k conc]n+ ! appe>ances ( ,nature1 b !y 7 dom9at$ by a s+le idea4 ,liv+ 9 ! mid/ ( an extremely complex ord] ( ?+s1 surr\nd$ by a /range & app>5tly caprici\s succession ( ph5om5a1 !y 7 conv9c$ t ! human intellig5ce1 direct$ & aid$ by ! tea*+s ( ! ,*ur*1 w\ld guide !m ?r\gh ! labyr9?4 ,& s !y ent]$ on ! /udy ( ,nature ) preconceiv$ notions & =egone conclusions3 en?usia/ic & det]m9$ to "k al?\gh _m ( !m 71 !y nev]!less fail$ because !y refus$ to tread ! only pa? :i* leads to true advances 9 natural sci5ce--! pa? ( unprejudic$ accurate exp]im5t1 & ( c>eful reason+ on exp]im5tally det]m9$ facts4 ,& ev5 :5 !y _h become conv9c$ t _! aims 7 vision>y1 !y c\ld n break free f ! vici\s sy/em :i* b\nd !m4 444 ,i am brok5 & tra9$ ,to my old habits3 !y are "p ( me4 ,i "k1 & none s well1 my d>l+ ends ,are prov$ impossible3 no less1 no less1 ,ev5 n[ :at hum\rs me1 fond fool1 z :5 ,_! fa9t gho/s sit ) me & flatt] me1 ,& s5d me back cont5t to my dull r\nd4#c ,"o ( ! mo/ commonly occurr+ & mo/ noticeable *anges 9 ! prop]ties ( matt] is t :i* proce$s :5 a piece ( wood1 or a c&le1 or a quantity ( oil burns4 ,! solid wood1 or c&le1 or ! liquid oil sl[ly disappe>s1 & ?is disappe>ance is att5d$ ) ! visible =mation ( flame4 ,ev5 ! heavy fix$ metals1 t9 or lead1 may be caus$ to burn2 light is produc$1 a "p ( ! metal seems to disappe>1 & a :ite 7or r$di%7 solid1 v diff]5t f ! orig9al metal1 rema9s4 ,! process ( burn+ pres5ts all ^? peculi>ities :i* are fitt$ to /rike an obs]v] ( ! *anges ( ,nature2 t is1 :i* are fitt$ to /rike a *emi/--= *emi/ry has always be5 recogniz$ z hav+ = its object to expla9 ! *anges :i* matt] und]goes4 ,! *emi/s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies 7 *iefly occupi$ 9 try+ to expla9 ?is process ( burn+ or combu/ion4 ,van ,helmont 7#aegg-afdd71 :o 0 a physician & *emi/ ( ,brussels1 cle>ly di/+ui%$ betwe5 common air & o!r airs or gases produc$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,rob]t ,hooke 7#afce-agjc71 "o ( ! orig9al ,fell[s ( ! ,royal ,society1 9 ! ,micographia1 or ,philosophical ,description ( ,m9ute ,bodies1 publi%$ 9 #affe1 conclud$ f ! results ( num]\s exp]im5ts t !re exi/s 9 common air a peculi> k9d ( gas1 simil> to1 or p]haps id5tical ) ! gas or air :i* is got by heat+ saltpetre2 & he fur!r suppos$ t :5 a solid burns1 x is dissolv$ by 7or we %\ld n[ say1 x is conv]t$ into a gas by comb9+ )7 ?is peculi> con/itu5t ( ! air4 ,john ,may[ 7#afde-afgi71 a physician ( ,ox=d1 exp]im5t$ on ! basis ( facts e/abli%$ by ,hooke4 ,he %[$ t :5 a sub/ance1 e4g4 a c&le1 burns 9 air1 ! volume ( air is !reby less5$4 ,to t portion ( ! air :i* _h dissolv$ ! burn$ sub/ance he gave ! "n ( nitre-air1 & he argu$ t ?is air exi/s 9 cond5s$ =m 9 nitre1 because sulphur burns :5 heat$ ) nitre 9 abs5ce ( common air4 ,may[ add$ ! mo/ important fact--a fact :i* 0 =gott5 by _m lat] exp]im5t]s--t ! solid sub/ance obta9$ by burn+ a metal 9 air weighs m ?an ! metal itself did be=e burn+4 ,he expla9$ ?is increase 9 weight by say+ t ! burn+ metal absorbs p>ticles ( nitre-air f ! atmosph]e4 ,?us ,hooke & ,may[ _h really e/abli%$ ! fact t common air consi/s ( m ?an "o def9ite k9d ( matt]--9 o!r words1 t common air is n an elem5t2 b until rec5t times ! t]m elem5t or elem5t>y pr9ciple 0 us$ )\t any def9ite mean+4 ,:5 we say t ! anci5ts & ! al*emi/s recogniz$ f\r elem5ts--e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]--we d n atta* to ! ^w elem5t ! same def9ite mean+ z :5 we n[ say1 ,iron is an elem5t4 ,f e>?1 air1 fire & wat] o!r sub/ances 7 obta9$2 or x might be possible to resolve o!r sub/ances into "o or m ( ^! f\r4 ,b ev5 to su* a ^w z sub/ance or matt] no v def9ite mean+ c\ld be atta*$4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ! facts set =? by ,hooke & ,may[ might n[ ju/ify ! ass]tion t air is n an elem5t1 !y did n1 9 ! ye> #afgj1 necess>ily convey ?is mean+ to m5's m9ds4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 elem5t & comp\nd 0 mu* m cle>ly laid d[n by ! ,hon4 ,rob]t ,boyle 7#afbg-afia71 ^: *emical "w 0 wond]fully accurate & ?or\gh1 & ^: writ+s are *>act]iz$ by acute sci5tific reason+4 ,we %all aga9 return to ^! t]ms elem5t & comp\nd4 ,b ! visible & /rik+ ph5om5on 9 mo/ processes ( burn+ is ! production ( light & sometimes ( flame4 ,! importance ( ! fact t ! burn$ sub/ance 7:5 a solid7 weighs m ?an ! unburn$ sub/ance 0 ov]%ad[$ by ! app>5t importance ( ! outw>d "p ( ! process1 :i* c\ld sc>cely be pass$ ov] by any obs]v]4 ,!re appe>s to be an outru% ( some?+ f ! burn+ sub/ance4 ,!re is an outru% ( some?+1 said ,be*] & ,/ahl1 & ?is some?+ is ! pr9ciple ( fire4 ,! pr9ciple ( fire1 !y said1 is ( a v subtle nature2 its p>ticles1 :i* are always 9 v rapid motion1 c p5etrate any sub/ance1 h[ev] d5se4 ,:5 metals burn--! argum5t cont9u$--!y lose ?is pr9ciple ( fire2 :5 ! burn$ metal--or calx z x 0 usually call$--is heat$ ) *>coal x rega9s ?is pr9ciple1 & s ! metal is re-=m$ f ! calx4 ,?us arose ! fam\s !ory ( phlogi/on 7f ,greek1 burn$71 :i* s]v$ z a c5tral nucleus r\nd :i* all *emical facts 7 gr\p$ = ne>ly a hundr$ ye>s4 ,john ,joa*im ,be*] 0 born at ,spey] 9 #afce1 & di$ 9 #afhb2 9 8 *emical works1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is ! ,physica ,subt]ranea1 he reta9$ ! al*emical notion t ! metals are compos$ ( ?ree pr9ciples--! nitrifiable1 ! combu/ible1 & ! m]curial--& taught t dur+ calc9ation ! combu/ible & m]curial pr9ciples are expell$1 :ile ! nitrifiable rema9s 9 ! calx4 ,george ,erne/ ,/ahl--born at ,anspa* 9 #affj1 & di$ at ,b]l9 9 #agcd--;_h reg>d *iefly to ! pr9ciples :i* escape dur+ ! calc9ation ( metals1 & simplify+1 & at ! same r5d]+ m def9ite ! idea ( ,be*]1 he conceiv$ & enunciat$ ! !ory ( phlogi/on4 ,b if some?+ 7"n x phlogi/on or call x by any o!r "n y please7 is lo/ by a metal :5 ! metal is burn$1 h[ is x t ! loss ( ?is ?+ is att5d$ ) an increase 9 ! weight ( ! matt] :i* loses x8 ,ei!r ! !ory ( phlogi/on mu/ be ab&on$1 or ! prop]ties ( ! ?+ call$ phlogi/on mu/ be v diff]5t f ^? ( any kn[n k9d ( matt]4 ,/ahl repli$1 phlogi/on is a pr9ciple ( levity2 ! pres5ce ( phlogi/on 9 a sub/ance causes t sub/ance to weigh less ?an x did be=e x receiv$ ?is phlogi/on4 ,9 criticiz+ ?is /range /atem5t1 we mu/ rememb] t 9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury philosoph]s 9 g5]al 7 n firmly conv9c$ ( ! tru? t ! ess5tial "* ( matt] is t x possesses weight1 nor ( ! tru? t x is impossible to de/roy or to create any quantity ( matt] h[ev] small4 ,x 0 n until ! exp]im5tal "w ( ,lavoisi] became g5]ally kn[n t *emi/s 7 conv9c$ ( ^! tru?s4 ,nev]!less1 ! oppon5ts ( ! ,/ahlian doctr9e 7 ju/ifi$ 9 ask+ = fur!r explanations--9 dem&+ t "s o!r facts analog\s to ?is suppos$ fact1 viz4 t a sub/ance c weigh less ?an no?+1 %\ld be exp]im5tally e/abli%$4 ,! phlogi/ic !ory h[ev] ma9ta9$ its gr\nd2 we %all f9d t x _h a di/9ct elem5t ( tru? 9 x1 b we %all also f9d t x did h>m to sci5tific advance4 ,?is !ory 0 a wide & sweep+ g5]alization f a few facts2 x c]ta9ly gave a c5tral idea ar\nd :i* "s facts might be gr\p$1 & x 0 n v difficult1 by slightly cutt+ d[n "h & slightly add+ !re1 to br+ _m new discov]ies )9 ! g5]al !ory4 ,we n[ "k t 9 ord] to expla9 ! process ( combu/ion mu* m accurate k 0 requir$ ?an ! *emi/s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury possess$2 b we ought to be ?ankful to ^! *emi/s1 & notably to ,/ahl1 t !y did n hesitate to f\nd a g5]alization on ! k !y _h4 ,almo/ ev]y?+ prop\nd$ 9 natural sci5ce has be5 modifi$ z man's k ( nature has become wid] & m accurate2 b x is because ! sci5tific /ud5t ( nature uses ! g5]alizations ( to-day z /epp+-/ones to ! bett] !ories ( to-morr[1 t sci5ce gr[s f m to m4 ,look+ at ! /ate ( *emi/ry ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 we f9d t ! exp]im5ts1 & especially ! measurem5ts1 ( ,hooke & ,may[ _h laid a firm basis ( fact conc]n+ ! process ( combu/ion1 b t ! phlogi/ic !ory1 :i* appe>$ to contradict ^! facts1 0 supreme2 t ! exi/5ce ( airs1 or gases1 diff]5t f common air 0 e/abli%$1 b t ! prop]ties ( ^! airs 7 v slightly & v inaccurately kn[n2 t ,boyle _h di/+ui%$ elem5t f comp\nd & _h giv5 def9ite mean+s to ^! t]ms1 b t nev]!less ! old] & vagu] expression1 elem5t>y pr9ciple1 0 g5]ally us$2 & la/ly1 t v few measurem5ts ( ! masses ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] tak+ "p 9 *emical *anges _h yet be5 made4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i h borr[$ ^! illu/rations ( ! al*emical1 exp]im5tal me?od f ,m4 ,hoef]'s ,hi/oire de la ,*imie1 quot$ 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia ,brittanica1 art4 ,al*emy4 #b ,ripley reviv'd3 or an exposition ^u ,sir ,george ,ripley's ,h]metico-poetical works1 by ,eir5aeus ,philale!s4 ,london1 #afgh4 #c ,br[n+'s ,p>acelsus4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,z ,a ,,sci5ce--,,p]iod ,,( ,,black1 ,,prie/ley ,,& ,,lavoisi]4 ,joseph ,black1 #agbh-agii4 ,joseph1 ,prie/ley1 #agcc-ahjd4 ,anto9e ,laur5t ,lavoisi]1 #agdc-agid4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ( advance1 :i* may be broadly /at$ z compris+ ! la/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! aim & scope ( *emical sci5ce 7 cle>ly indicat$ by ! lab\rs ( ,black1 ,prie/ley & ,lavoisi]4 ,! "w ( ^! m5 dealt *iefly ) ! process ( combu/ion4 ,black & ,prie/ley f9ally prov$ ! exi/5ce ( airs or gases diff]5t f common air1 & ,lavoisi] appli$ ^! discov]ies to give a cle> explanation ( :at happ5s :5 a sub/ance burns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,joseph ,,black 0 born ne> ,bordeaux 9 ! ye> #agbh4 ,8 fa!r 0 ( ,scotti% family1 b a native ( ,belfa/2 8 "m 0 ! daught] ( ,mr4 ,gordon1 ( ,hilhead 9 ,ab]de5%ire4 ,we are told by ,dr4 ,robison1 9 8 preface to ,black's ,lectures1 t ,john ,black1 ! fa!r ( ,joseph1 0 a man ( mo/ amiable mann]s1 c&id & lib]al 9 8 s5tim5ts1 & ( no common in=mation4 ,at ! age ( twelve ,black 0 s5t home to a s*ool at ,belfa/2 aft] sp5d+ six ye>s !re he w5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[ 9 ! ye> #agdf4 ,little is kn[n ( 8 progress at s*ool or at ! univ]sity1 b judg+ f 8 fa!r's lett]s1 :i* 8 son pres]v$1 he seems to h devot$ himself to /udy4 ,:ile at ,glasg[ he 0 attract$ to ! pursuit ( physical sci5ce1 & *ose m$ic9e z a pr(ession4 ,becom+ a pupil ( ,dr4 ,cull51 he 0 mu* impress$ ) ! importance ( *emical k to ! /ud5t ( m$ic9e4 ,dr4 ,cull5 appe>s to h be5 "o ( ! fir/ to take l>ge & philosophical views ( ! scope ( *emical sci5ce1 & to attempt to raise *emi/ry f ! rank ( a useful art to t ( a bran* ( natural philosophy4 ,su* a man mu/ h be5 attract$ by ! "y /ud5t1 ^: "w 0 already at once accurate 9 detail & wide 9 g5]al scope4 ,9 ! notes ( "w kept by ,black at ?is "t are display$ ^? qualities ( me?odical arrangem5t1 p]sev]ance & ?or\ghness :i* are s prom95t 9 8 publi%$ inve/igations & lectures4 ,9 "o place we f9d1 says 8 biograph]1 _m disjo9t$ facts & records ( div]se obs]vations1 b ! next "t he ref]s to ! same subjects we g5]ally h analog\s facts not$ & "s conclusions drawn--we h ! beg9n+s ( k4 ,hav+ once ent]$ on an inve/igation ,black works x out /eadily until he gets def9ite results4 ,8 e>li] notes are conc]n$ *iefly ) heat & cold2 ab\t #ageb he beg9s to make ref]5ces to ! subject ( fix$ air4 ,ab\t #agej ,black w5t to ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity to complete 8 m$ical /udies1 & "h he 0 aga9 =tunate 9 f9d+ a really sci5tific /ud5t occupy+ ! *air ( natural philosophy4 ,! att5tion ( m$ical m5 0 direct$ at ?is "t to ! action ( limewat] z a rem$y = /one 9 ! bladd]4 ,all ! m$ic9es :i* 7 ( any avail 9 mitigat+ ! pa9 att5dant on ?is disease m or less resembl$ ! cau/ic ley ( ! soap-boil]s 7or z we %\ld n[ call x cau/ic pota% or soda74 ,^! cau/ic m$ic9es 7 mo/ly prep>$ by ! action ( quicklime on "s o!r sub/ance1 & quicklime 0 g5]ally suppos$ to d]ive its cau/ic1 or corrosive prop]ties f ! fire :i* 0 us$ 9 *ang+ ord9>y lime/one into quicklime4 ,:5 quicklime 0 heat$ ) fix$ alkalis 7i4e4 ) potassium or sodium c>bonate71 x *ang$ ^! sub/ances into cau/ic bodies :i* _h a corrosive action on animal matt]2 h5ce x 0 conclud$ t ! quicklime _h d]iv$ a p[]--or "s said _h d]iv$ igne\s matt]--f ! fire1 & _h communicat$ ?is to ! fix$ alkalis1 :i* !reby acquir$ ! prop]ty ( corrod+ animal matt]4 ,black ?\ght t he might be able to lay hold ( ?is igne\s matt] suppos$ to be tak5 by ! lime/one f ! fire2 b he f\nd t lime/one loses weight :5 *ang$ into quicklime4 ,he !n dissolv$ lime/one 7or *alk7 9 spirits ( salt 7hydro*loric acid71 & comp>$ ! loss ( weight und]gone by ! *alk 9 ?is process ) ! loss suff]$ by an equal quantity ( *alk :5 /rongly heat$4 ,?is inve/igation l$ ,black to a full] /udy ( ! action ( heat on *alk & on mild magnesia 7or z we n[ say1 magnesium c>bonate74 ,9 ord] t 8 exp]im5ts might be complete & 8 conclusions well e/abli%$1 he delay$ tak+ ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,m$ic9e = ?ree ye>s4 ,he graduat$ z ,m4 ,d4 9 #agee1 & pres5t$ 8 !sis on ,magnesia ,alba1 ,quicklime & o!r ,alkal9e ,sub/ances1 :i* conta9$ ! results ( :at is probably ! fir/ accurately quantitative exam9ation ( a *emical action :i* we possess4 ,black prep>$ mild magnesia 7magnesium c>bonate7 by boil+ toge!r solutions ( ,epsom salts 7magnesium sulphate7 & fix$ alkali 7potassium c>bonate74 ,he %[$ t :5 mild magnesia is heat$-- #a4 ,x is mu* decreas$ 9 bulk4 #b4 ,x loses weight 7twelve p>ts become five1 accord+ to ,black74 #c4 ,x does n precipitate lime f solutions ( t sub/ance 9 acids 7,black _h already %[n t mild magnesia does precipitate lime74 ,he !n /rongly heat$ a weigh$ quantity ( mild magnesia 9 a retort connect$ ) a receiv]2 a few drops ( wat] 7 obta9$ 9 ! receiv]1 b ! magnesia lo/ six or sev5 times z mu* weight z ! weight ( ! wat] produc$4 ,black !n recalls ! exp]im5ts ( ,hales1 :]e9 airs o!r ?an common air _h be5 prep>$1 & concludes t ! loss ( weight notic$ :5 mild magnesia is calc9$ is probably due to expulsion1 by ! heat1 ( "s k9d ( air4 ,dissolv+ "s ( 8 mild magnesia 9 acid he notic$ t eff]vesc5ce occurr$1 & f ?is he conclud$ t ! same air :i*1 accord+ to 8 hypo!sis1 is expell$ by heat1 is also driv5 out f ! mild magnesia by ! action ( acid4 ,he !n proce$$ to te/ ?is hypo!sis4 ,"o hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s ( mild magnesia 7 /rongly calc9$2 ! calc9$ matt]1 am\nt+ to sev5ty gra9s1 0 dissolv$ 9 dilute oil ( vitriol1 & ?is solution 0 mix$ ) common fix$ alkali 7potassium c>bonate74 ,! solid :i* 0 ?us produc$ 0 collect$1 wa%$ & weigh$2 x am\nt$ to a trifle less ?an "o hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s1 & possess$ all ! prop]ties--detail$ by ,black--( ! orig9al mild magnesia4 ,b ?is is exactly ! result :i* ought to h occurr$ accord+ to 8 hypo!sis4 ,! next /ep 9 ! inve/igation 0 to collect ! peculi> air :i* ,black _h prov$ to be evolv$ dur+ ! calc9ation ( mild magnesia4 ,to ?is sub/ance he gave ! "n ( fix$ air1 because x 0 fix$ or held by magnesia4 ,black e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( ?is air 9 ! expir$ brea? ( animals1 & also %[$ t x 0 pres5t 9 ! air evolv$ dur+ v9\s f]m5tation4 ,he demon/rat$ sev]al ( its prop]ties2 among ^!1 ! fact t animals die :5 plac$ 9 ?is air4 ,an air ) simil> prop]ties 0 obta9$ by calc9+ *alk4 ,black held t ! *emical *anges :i* occur :5 *alk is calc9$ are exactly analog\s to ^? :i* he _h prov$ to take place :5 magnesia is /rongly heat$4 ,*alk ought !re=e to lose weight :5 calc9$2 ! residue ought to neutralize an acid )\t evolution ( any gas1 & ! quantity ( acid ?us neutraliz$ ought to be ! same z w\ld be neutraliz$ by ! uncalc9$ *alk2 la/ly1 x ought to be possible to recov] ! uncalc9$ *alk by add+ a fix$ alkali to a solution ( ! calc9$ *alk or quicklime4 ,! actual results :i* ,black obta9$ 7 z foll[s3-- ,"o hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s ( *alk 7 dissolv$ 9 dilute muriatic 7hydro*loric7 acid2 #dba gra9s ( ! acid 7 ne$$ to neutralize ! *alk1 & #dh gra9s ( fix$ air 7 evolv$4 ,"o hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s ( ! same specim5 ( *alk 7 /rongly calc9$1 & !n dissolv$ 9 dilute muriatic acid2 #dad gra9s ( ! acid 7 requir$ to neutralize ! calc9$ *alk4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 #dba & #dad is v slight2 consid]+ ! /ate ( practical *emi/ry at ,black's "t1 we may well agree ) him t he 0 ju/ifi$ 9 ! conclusion t equal weights ( calc9$ & ( uncalc9$ *alk neutralize ! same am\nt ( acid4 ,"o hundr$ & tw5ty gra9s ( ! same specim5 ( *alk 7 aga9 /rongly heat$2 ! calc9$ *alk1 am\nt+ to #fh gra9s1 0 dige/$ ) a solution ( fix$ alkali 9 wat]4 ,! sub/ance ?us obta9$1 :5 wa%$ & dri$1 weigh$ #aah gra9s1 & _h all ! prop]ties ( ord9>y *alk4 ,!re=e1 said ,black1 x is possible to recov] ! :ole ( ! *alk orig9ally pres5t be=e calc9ation1 by add+ a fix$ alkali to ! calc9$ *alk or quicklime4 ,at ?is "t x 0 kn[n t wat] dissolves quicklime1 b x 0 g5]ally held t only ab\t "o-f\r? 7or p]haps a little m7 ( any specim5 ( quicklime c\ld be dissolv$ by wat]1 h[ev] mu* wat] 0 employ$4 ,black's rese>*es _h l$ him to reg>d quicklime z a homog5e\s *emical comp\nd2 he conclud$ t z wat] und\bt$ly dissolves quicklime to "s ext5t1 any specim5 ( ?is sub/ance1 provid$ x be pure1 mu/ be :olly soluble 9 wat]4 ,c>efully conduct$ exp]im5ts prov$ t ,black's conclusion 0 correct4 ,black _h ?us prov$ t quicklime is a def9ite sub/ance1 ) c]ta9 fix$ prop]ties :i* *>act]ize x & m>k x (f f all o!r sub/ances2 t by absorb+1 or comb9+ ) ano!r def9ite sub/ance 7fix$ air71 quicklime is *ang$ into a ?ird sub/ance1 namely *alk1 :i* is also *>act]iz$ by prop]ties z def9ite & m>k$ z ^? ( quicklime or fix$ air4 ,black1 q z mu* z ! al*emi/s1 recogniz$ ! fact t *ange is cont9ually proce$+ 9 ,nature2 b he cle>ly e/abli%$ ! all-important conclusion t ^! natural *anges proce$ 9 def9ite ord]1 & t x is possible by c>eful exp]im5t & j reason+ to acquire a k ( ?is ord]4 ,he began ! great "w ( %[+ t1 z 9 o!r bran*es ( natural sci5ce1 s also 9 *emi/ry1 :i* is pre-em95tly ! /udy ( ! *anges ( ,nature1 ! only di/9ct mean+ ( t ^w 7natural7 is /at$1 fix$1 or settl$ 7,butl]'s ,analogy1 publi%$ #agcf74 ,?is rese>* by ,black is a model ( :at sci5tific "w ought to be4 ,he beg9s ) a few obs]vations ( "s natural ph5om5on2 ^! he supplem5ts by c>eful exp]im5ts1 & ?us e/abli%es a sure basis ( fact2 he !n builds on ?is basis a g5]al hypo!sis1 :i* he proce$s to te/ by d$uc+ f x c]ta9 necess>y conclusions1 & prov+1 or disprov+1 ^! by an appeal to ,nature4 ,?is is ! sci5tific me?od2 x is common s5se made accurate4 ,v %ortly aft] ! publication ( ! !sis on magnesia & quicklime1 a vacancy occurr$ 9 ! *emical *air 9 ,glasg[ ,univ]sity1 & ,black 0 appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy & ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry4 ,z he did n feel fully qualifi$ to lecture on anatomy1 he made an arrangem5t to ex*ange subjects ) ! ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e1 & f ?is "t he deliv]$ lectures on *emi/ry & on ,! ,in/itutes ( ,m$ic9e4 ,black devot$ a great deal ( c>e & "t to ! tea*+ duties ( 8 *air4 ,8 *emical exp]im5tal rese>*es 7 n mu* advanc$ aft] ?is "t2 b he deliv]$ c\rses ( lectures 9 :i* new light 0 ?r[n on ! :ole range ( *emical sci5ce4 ,9 ! ye>s betwe5 #agei & #agfc ,black exam9$ ! ph5om5a ( heat & cold1 & gave an explanation1 f\nd$ on accurate exp]im5ts1 ( ! !rmal *anges :i* accompany ! melt+ ( solids & ! vaporization ( liquids4 ,if pieces ( wood1 lead & ice be tak5 by ! h& f a box 9 :i* !y h be5 kept cold1 ! wood feels cold to ! t\*1 ! lead feels cold] ?an ! wood1 & ! ice feels cold] ?an ! lead2 h5ce x 0 conclud$ t ! h& receives cold f ! wood1 m cold f ! lead1 & mo/ cold f ! ice4 ,black h[ev] %[$ t ! wood really takes away heat f ! h&1 b t z ! wood soon gets w>m$1 ! process /ops be=e long2 t ! lead1 n be+ s quickly w>m$ z ! wood1 takes away m heat f ! h& ?an ! wood does1 & t ! ice takes away m heat ?an ei!r wood or lead4 ,black ?\ght t ! heat :i* is tak5 by melt+ ice f a w>m body rema9s 9 ! wat] :i* is produc$2 z soon z w9t] came he proce$$ to te/ ?is supposition by comp>+ ! times requir$ to melt "o p\nd ( ice & to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree1 ! s\rce ( heat be+ ! same 9 ea* case4 ,he also comp>$ ! "t requir$ to l[] ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree ) t requir$ to freeze "o p\nd ( ice-cold wat]4 ,he f\nd t 9 ord] to melt "o p\nd ( ice )\t rais+ its temp]ature1 z mu* heat _h to be add$ to ! ice z suffic$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] ?r\gh ab\t #adj degrees ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]4 ,b ?is heat :i* has be5 add$ to ! ice to conv]t x into wat] is n indicat$ by ! !rmomet]4 ,black call$ ?is lat5t heat4 ,! exp]im5tal data & ! complete !ory ( lat5t heat 7 conta9$ 9 a pap] read by ,black to a private society :i* met 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 on ,april #bc1 #agfb2 b x appe>s t ,black 0 accu/om$ to tea* ! !ory 9 8 ord9>y lectures be=e ?is date4 ,! !ory ( lat5t heat ought also to expla9 ! ph5om5a notic$ :5 liquid wat] is *ang$ into /eam4 ,black appli$ 8 !ory g5]ally to ?is *ange1 b did n fully "w out ! details & actually measure ! quantity ( heat :i* is absorb$ by wat] at ! boil+ po9t be=e x is :olly conv]t$ into /eam at ! same temp]ature1 until "s ye>s lat] :5 he _h ! assi/ance ( 8 pupil & fri5d ,james ,watt4 ,tak+ a survey ( ! ph5om5a ( ,nature1 ,black insi/$ on ! importance ( ^! exp]im5tally e/abli%$ facts--t be=e ice melts x mu/ absorb a l>ge quantity ( heat1 & be=e wat] is vaporiz$ x mu/ absorb ano!r l>ge quantity ( heat1 :i* am\nts ( heat are re/or$ to surr\nd+ sub/ances :5 wat] vap\r aga9 becomes liquid wat] & :5 liquid wat] is congeal$ to ice4 ,he all[s 8 imag9ation to picture ! effects ( ^! prop]ties ( wat] 9 modify+ & ameliorat+ ! climates ( tropical & ( ,nor!rn c\ntries4 ,9 8 lectures he says1 ,"h we c also trace ano!r magnific5t tra9 ( *anges :i* are nicely accommodat$ to ! wants ( ! inhabitants ( ?is globe4 ,9 ! equatorial regions1 ! oppressive heat ( ! sun is prev5t$ f a de/ructive accumulation by copi\s evaporation4 ,! wat]s1 /or$ ) _! vaporific heat1 are !n c>ri$ al(t into ! atmosph]e till ! r>e/ ( ! vap\r rea*es ! v cold regions ( ! air1 :i* imm$iately =ms a small portion ( x into a fleecy cl\d4 ,?is also fur!r temp]s ! scor*+ heat by its opacity1 p]=m+ ! acceptable (fice ( a scre54 ,f !nce ! cl\ds are c>ri$ to ! inl& c\ntries1 to =m ! s\rces 9 ! m\nta9s :i* are to supply ! numb]less /reams t wat] ! fields4 ,& by ! /eady op]ation ( causes1 :i* are tol]ably uni=m1 ! great] "p ( ! vap\rs passes on to ! circumpol> regions1 !re to desc5d 9 ra9s & dews2 & by ?is b5efic5t conv]sion into ra9 by ! cold ( ^? regions1 ea* p>ticle ( /eam gives up ! heat :i* 0 lat5t 9 x4 ,?is is imm$iately diffus$1 & s(t5s ! rig\r ( ^? less com=table climates4 ,9 ! ye> #agff ,black 0 appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 9 :i* position he rema9$ till 8 dea? 9 #agii4 ,dur+ ^! ?irty-?ree ye>s he devot$ himself *iefly to tea*+ & to enc\rag+ ! advance ( *emical sci5ce4 ,he 0 especially c>eful 9 ! prep>ation ( 8 elem5t>y lectures1 be+ p]suad$ t x 0 ( ! utmo/ importance t 8 pupils %\ld be well gr\nd$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( *emi/ry4 ,8 heal? _h nev] be5 robu/1 & z he grew old he 0 oblig$ to use great c>e 9 8 diet2 8 simple & me?odical "* & habits made x easy = him to live on ! pla9e/ food1 & to take meals & ex]cise at /at$ times & 9 fix$ quantities4 ,black's life clos$1 z 0 fitt+1 9 a quiet & hon\r$ old age4 ,he _h _m fri5ds1 b liv$ pretty mu* alone--he 0 nev] m>ri$4 ,on ! #bf? ( ,novemb] #agii1 be+ at table ) 8 usual f>e1 "s bread1 a few prunes & a measur$ quantity ( milk dilut$ ) wat]1 & hav+ ! cup 9 8 h& :5 ! la/ /roke ( 8 pulse 0 to be giv51 he _h set x d[n on 8 knees1 :i* 7 jo9$ toge!r1 & kept x /eady ) 8 h&1 9 ! mann] ( a p]son p]fectly at ease2 & 9 ?is attitude he expir$1 )\t spill+ a drop1 & )\t a wri! 9 8 c\nt5ance1 z if an exp]im5t _h be5 requir$ to %[ to 8 fri5ds ! facility ) :i* he dep>t$4 ,black 0 *>act]iz$ by mod]ation & sobriety ( ?\ght2 he _h a great s5se ( ! fitness ( ?+s--( :at is call$ by ! old] writ]s propriety4 ,b he 0 by no means a dull companion2 he enjoy$ g5]al society1 & 0 able to be> a "p 9 any k9d ( conv]sation4 ,a ?or\gh /ud5t ( ,nature1 he none ! less did n wi% to devote 8 :ole "t to laboratory "w or to ! lab\rs ( /udy2 inde$ he seems to h pref]r$ ! society ( well-cultivat$ m5 & wom5 to t ( speciali/s 9 8 own or o!r bran*es ( natural sci5ce4 ,b ) 8 true sci5tific pe]s he d\btless appe>$ at 8 be/4 ,among 8 m intimate fri5ds 7 ! fam\s political economi/ ,adam ,smi?1 & ! no less celebrat$ philosoph] ,david ,hume4 ,dr4 ,hutton1 "o ( ! e>lie/ work]s 9 geology1 0 a p>ticul> fri5d ( ,black2 8 fri5d%ip ) ,james ,watt began :5 ,watt 0 a /ud5t 9 8 class1 & cont9u$ dur+ 8 life4 ,) su* m5 z 8 fri5ds1 & engag$ 9 ! /udy ( ,nature--t b\ndless subject :i* "o c nev] "k to ! full1 b :i* "o c always "k a little m ye> by ye>--,black's life c\ld n b be happy4 ,8 example & 8 tea*+ animat$ 8 /ud5ts2 he 0 :at a univ]sity pr(essor ought to be1 a /ud5t among /ud5ts1 b yet a tea*] among pupils4 ,8 "w ga9$ = him a place 9 ! fir/ rank ( m5 ( sci5ce2 8 cle>ness ( m9d1 8 mod]ation1 8 g5tl5ess1 8 read9ess to accept ! views ( o!rs provid$ ^! views 7 well e/abli%$ on a basis ( exp]im5tally det]m9$ facts1 fitt$ him to be ! c5tre ( a circle ( sci5tific /ud5ts :o look$ on him z at once _! tea*] & _! fri5d4 ,z a lectur] ,black 0 em95tly successful4 ,he endeav\r$ to make all 8 lectures pla9 & intelligible2 he enliv5$ !m by _m exp]im5ts design$ simply to illu/rate ! special po9t :i* he _h 9 view4 ,he abhorr$ o/5tati\s display & trick9ess 9 a tea*]4 ,black 0 /rongly oppos$ to ! use ( hypo!ses 9 sci5ce4 ,dr4 ,robison 7! editor ( 8 lectures7 tells t :5 a /ud5t 9 ,ed9burgh he met ,black1 :o became int]e/$ 9 him f he>+ him speak some:at en?usia/ically 9 fav\r ( "o ( ! lectur]s 9 ! univ]sity4 ,black impress$ on him ! necessity ( /eady exp]im5tal "w 9 natural sci5ce1 gave him a copy ( ,newton's ,optics z a model aft] :i* sci5tific "w ought to be conduct$1 & advis$ him to reject1 ev5 )\t exam9ation1 any hypo!tical explanation1 z a m]e wa/e ( "t & +5uity4 ,b1 :5 we exam9e ,black's own "w1 we see t by hypo!tical explanations he meant vague guesses4 ,he himself made free use ( sci5tific 7i4e4 ( exact7 hypo!ses2 inde$ ! hi/ory ( sci5ce tells u t )\t hypo!ses advance is impossible4 ,black taught by 8 own rese>*es t sci5ce is n an array ( facts1 b t ! object ( ! /ud5t ( ,nature is to expla9 facts4 ,b ! me?od g5]ally 9 vogue be=e ! "t ( ,black 0 to ga!r toge!r a few facts1 or :at seem$ to be facts1 & on ^! to raise a va/ sup]/ructure ( va9 imag9+s4 ,naturali/s _h sc>cely yet le>n$ t ,nature is v complex1 & t guess+ & reason+ on guesses1 ) "h & !re an obs]vation add$1 0 n ! me?od by :i* progress 0 to be made 9 le>n+ ! lessons writt5 9 ?is complex book ( ,nature4 ,9 place ( ?is loose & slip%od me?od ,black insi/$ t ! /ud5t mu/ endeav\r to =m a cle> m5tal image ( e ph5om5on :i* he /udi$4 ,su* an image c\ld be obta9$ only by beg9n+ ) detail$ obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,f a numb] ( def9ite m5tal images ! /ud5t mu/ put toge!r a picture ( ! :ole natural ph5om5on "u exam9ation2 p]ceiv+ t some?+ 0 want$ "h1 or t ! picture 0 ov]cr[d$ !re1 he mu/ aga9 g to ,nature & ga9 fre% facts1 or sometimes prove t :at _h be5 accept$ z facts _h no real exi/5ce1 & s at l5g? he w\ld arrive at a true repres5tation ( ! :ole process4 ,s anxi\s 0 ,black to def9e cle>ly :at he knew & pr(ess$ to tea*1 t he pref]r$ to call 8 lectures ,on ! ,effects ( ,heat & ,mixtures1 r ?an to ann\nce !m z ,a ,sy/ematic ,c\rse on ,*emi/ry4 ,8 introductory lecture on ,heat 9 ,g5]al is v admirable2 ! foll[+ quotation w s]ve to %[ ! cle>ness ( 8 /yle & ! me?odical b yet em95tly sugge/ive mann] ( 8 tea*+3-- ,( ,heat 9 ,g5]al4 ,t ?is ext5sive subject may be treat$ 9 a pr(itable mann]1 ,i propose-- ,fir/4 ,to asc]ta9 :at ,i mean by ! ^w heat 9 ^! lectures4 ,secondly4 ,to expla9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m cold1 & asc]ta9 ! real diff]5ce betwe5 heat & cold4 ,?irdly4 ,to m5tion "s ( ! attempts :i* h be5 made to discov] ! nature ( heat1 or to =m an idea ( :at may be ! imm$iate cause ( x4 ,f\r?ly & la/ly4 ,i %all beg9 to describe s5sible effects produc$ by heat on ! bodies to :i* x is communicat$4 ,any p]son :o reflects on ! ideas :i* we annex to ! ^w heat w p]ceive t ?is ^w is us$ = two mean+s1 or to express two diff]5t ?+s4 ,x ei!r means a s5sation excit$ 9 our organs1 or a c]ta9 quality1 affection1 or condition ( ! bodies ar\nd u1 by :i* !y excite 9 u t s5sation4 ,! ^w is us$ 9 ! fir/ s5se :5 we say1 we feel heat2 9 ! second1 :5 we say1 !re is heat 9 ! fire or 9 a hot /one4 ,!re _c be a s5sation ( heat 9 ! fire1 or 9 ! hot /one1 b ! matt] ( ! fire1 or ( ! /one1 is 9 a /ate or condition by :i* x excites 9 u ! s5sation ( heat4 ,n[1 9 beg9n+ to treat ( heat & its effects1 ,i propose to use ! ^w 9 ?is second s5se only2 or z express+ t /ate1 condition1 or quality ( matt] by :i* x excites 9 u ! s5sation ( heat4 ,?is idea ( heat w be modifi$ a little & ext5d$ z we proce$1 b ! mean+ ( ! ^w w cont9ue at bottom ! same1 & ! reason ( ! modification w be easily p]ceiv$4 ,black's mann] ( deal+ ) ! ph5om5on ( combu/ion illu/rates ! cle>ness ( ! conceptions :i* he =m$ ( natural ph5om5a1 & %[s moreov] ! ?or\ghly unbias$ nature ( 8 m9d4 ,z soon z he _h conv9c$ himself t ! balance ( evid5ce 0 9 fav\r ( ! new 7antiphlogi/ic7 !ory1 he gave up ^? doctr9es 9 :i* he _h be5 tra9$1 & accept$ ! tea*+ ( ! ,fr5* *emi/s2 b he did n--z "s ) less well-balanc$ m9ds might d--reg>d ! new !ory z a f9al /atem5t1 b r z "o /age ne>] ! complete explanation :i* future exp]im5ts & future reason+ w\ld s]ve to e/abli%4 ,9 8 lectures on combu/ion ,black fir/ ( all e/abli%es ! facts1 t :5 a body is burn$ x is *ang$ into a k9d 7or k9ds7 ( matt] :i* is no long] inflammable2 t ! pres5ce ( air is ne$$ = combu/ion to proce$2 t ! sub/ance mu/ be heat$ to a c]ta9 degree be=e combu/ion or inflammation beg9s2 t ?is degree ( heat 7or we %\ld n[ say ?is degree ( temp]ature7 diff]s = ea* combu/ible sub/ance2 t ! supply ( air mu/ be r5ew$ if ! burn+ is to cont9ue2 & t ! process ( burn+ produces a *ange 9 ! quality ( ! air suppli$ to ! burn+ body4 ,he !n /ates ! phlogi/ic int]pretation ( ^! ph5om5a3 t combu/ion is caus$ by ! outru% f ! burn+ body ( a some?+ call$ ! pr9ciple ( fire1 or phlogi/on4 ,black !n proce$s to demon/rate c]ta9 o!r facts3--,:5 ! sub/ances produc$ by burn+ phosphorus or sulphur are heat$ ) c>bon 7*>coal7 ! orig9al phosphorus or sulphur is reproduc$4 ,?is reproduction is due1 accord+ to ! phlogi/ic *emi/s1 to ! giv+ back1 by c>bon1 ( ! phlogi/on :i* _h escap$ dur+ ! burn+4 ,h5ce c>bon conta9s mu* phlogi/on4 ,b z a simil> reproduction ( phosphorus or sulphur1 f ! sub/ances obta9$ by burn+ ^! bodies1 c be accompli%$ by ! use ( sub/ances o!r ?an c>bon1 x is evid5t t ^! o!r sub/ances also conta9 mu* phlogi/on1 &1 moreov]1 t ! phlogi/on conta9$ 9 all ^! sub/ances is "o & ! same pr9ciple4 ,:at !n1 he asks1 is ?is pr9ciple :i* c s escape1 & be s re/or$ by ! action ( v>i\s sub/ances8 ,he !n proce$s z foll[s3-- ,b :5 we inquire fur!r1 & endeav\r to le>n :at notion 0 =m$ ( ! nature ( ?is pr9ciple1 & :at qualities x 0 suppos$ to h 9 its sep>ate /ate1 we f9d ?is "p ( ! subject v obscure & unsatisfactory1 & ! op9ions v unsettl$4 ,! eld] *emi/s1 & ! al*emi/s1 consid]$ sulphur z ! univ]sal inflammable pr9ciple1 or at lea/ !y *ose to call ! inflammable "p ( all bodies1 t are m or less inflammable1 by ! "n ( _! sulphur4444 ,! fam\s ,g]man *emi/ ,be*] 01 ,i believe1 ! fir/ :o reject$ ! notion ( sulphur be+ ! pr9ciple ( inflammability 9 bodies4444 ,8 notion ( ! nature ( ! pure pr9ciple ( inflammability 0 aft]w>ds m fully expla9$ & support$ by ,pr(essor ,/ahl1 :o1 agreeably to ! doctr9e ( ,be*]1 repres5t$ ! pr9ciple ( inflammability z a dry sub/ance1 or ( an e>?y nature1 ! p>ticles ( :i* 7 exquisitely subtile1 & 7 mu* dispos$ to be agitat$ & set 9 motion ) inconceivable velocity4444 ,! op9ion ( ,be*] & ,/ahl conc]n+ ?is t]ra secunda1 or t]ra inflammabilis1 or phlogi/on1 0 t ! atoms ( x are1 m ?an all o!rs1 dispos$ to be affect$ ) an excessively swift :irl+ motion 7motus vorticill>is74 ,! p>ticles ( o!r elem5t>y sub/ances are likewise liable to be affect$ ) ! same sort ( motion1 b n s liable z ^? ( t]ra secunda2 & :5 ! p>ticles ( any body are agitat$ ) ?is sort ( motion1 ! body exhibits ! ph5om5a ( heat1 or ignition1 or inflammation accord+ to ! viol5ce & rapidity ( ! motion4444 ,be*] & ,/ahl1 !re=e1 did n suppose t heat dep5d$ on ! abundance ( a peculi> matt]1 su* z ! matt] ( heat or fire is n[ suppos$ to be1 b on a peculi> motion ( ! p>ticles ( matt]4444 ,?is v crude op9ion ( ! e>?y nature ( ! pr9ciple ( inflammability appe>s to h be5 d$uc$ f a quality ( _m ( ! inflammable sub/ances1 by :i* !y resi/ ! action ( wat] z a solv5t4 ,! great] numb] ( ! e>?y sub/ances are little1 or n at all1 soluble 9 wat]4444 ,& :5 ,be*] & ,/ahl f\nd ^? comp\nds1 :i* !y suppos$ conta9$ phlogi/on 9 ! l>ge/ quantity1 to be insoluble 9 wat]1 al?\gh ! o!r matt]1 ) :i* ! phlogi/on 0 suppos$ to be unit$1 01 9 its sep>ate /ate1 exce$+ly soluble 9 t fluid1 !y conclud$ t a dry nature1 or an incapability to be comb9$ ) wat]1 0 an em95t quality ( _! phlogi/on2 & ?is 0 :at !y meant by call+ x an e>? or e>?y sub/ance4444 ,b ^! au?ors suppos$1 at ! same "t1 t ! p>ticles ( ?is dry & e>?y phlogi/on 7 mu* dispos$ to be excessively agitat$ ) a :irl+ motion2 :i* :irl+ motion1 ex]t$ 9 all directions f ! bodies 9 :i* phlogi/on is conta9$1 produc$ ! ph5om5a ( inflammation4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 ! notion =m$ by ,be*] & ,/ahl1 conc]n+ ! nature ( ! pr9ciple ( inflammability1 or ! phlogi/on2 a notion :i* seems ! lea/ entitl$ to ! "n ( explanation ( any?+ we c ?9k (4 ,i presume t few p]sons c =m any cle> conception ( ?is :irl+ motion1 or1 if !y c1 are able to expla9 to !mselves h[ x produces1 or c produce1 any?+ l ! ph5om5a ( heat or fire4 ,black !n gives a cle> acc\nt ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,prie/ley & ,lavoisi] 7see pp4 #eh1 #ei1 & #hg-hi71 :i* e/abli%$ ! pres5ce1 9 common air1 ( a peculi> k9d ( gas :i* is especially conc]n$ 9 ! processes ( combu/ion2 he emphasizes ! fact t a sub/ance increases 9 weight :5 x is burn$2 & he gives a simple & cle> /atem5t ( t explanation ( combu/ion :i* is n[ accept$ by all1 & :i* does n require t ! exi/5ce ( any pr9ciple ( fire %\ld be assum$4 ,x is important to note t ,black cle>ly connects ! physical fact t heat is absorb$1 or evolv$1 by a sub/ance dur+ combu/ion1 ) ! *emical *anges :i* are br\ght ab\t 9 ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance burn$4 ,he concludes ) an admirable contra/ betwe5 ! phlogi/ic !ory & ! !ory ( ,lavoisi]1 :i* %[s h[ wide1 & at ! same "t h[ def9ite1 8 conceptions 74 ,black nev] speaks contemptu\sly ( a !ory :i* he opposes4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory 7i4e4 ! !ory ( ,lavoisi]71 ! inflammable bodies1 sulphur = example1 or phosphorus1 are simple sub/ances4 ,! acid into :i* !y are *ang$ by inflammation is a comp\nd4 ,! *emi/s1 on ! contr>y 7i4e4 ! foll[]s ( ,/ahl71 consid] ! inflammable bodies z comp\nds1 & ! un9flammable matt] z m simple4 ,9 ! common !ory ! heat & light are suppos$ to emanate f1 or to be furni%$ by1 ! burn+ body4 ,b1 9 ,mr4 ,lavoisi]'s !ory1 bo? are held to be furni%$ by ! air1 ( :i* !y are held to be con/itu5t p>ts1 or +r$i5ts1 :ile 9 its /ate ( fire-support+ air4 ,black 0 n a brilliant discov]]1 b an em95tly s\nd & at ! same "t imag9ative work]2 :atev] he did he did well1 b he did n exhau/ any field ( inquiry4 ,_m ( ! facts e/abli%$ by him h s]v$ z ! basis ( important "w done by ^? :o came aft] him4 ,! numb] ( new facts add$ by ,black to ! data ( *emi/ry 0 n l>ge2 b by 8 lectures--:i* are orig9al diss]tations ( ! highe/ value--he did spl5did s]vice 9 advanc+ ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,black possess$ t :i* has g5]ally di/+ui%$ great m5 ( sci5ce1 a m>k$ hone/y ( "*2 & to ?is he add$ compreh5siv5ess ( m5tal vision3 he saw beyond ! limits ( ! facts :i* =m$ ! f\ndations ( *emical sci5ce 9 8 day4 ,he 0 n a fact-collector1 b a philosoph]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,joseph ,,prie/ley1 ! son ( ,jonas ,prie/ley1 a mak] & dress] ( wooll5 clo?1 0 born at ,fieldhead1 ne> ,le$s1 9 ! ye> #agcc4 ,8 "m1 :o 0 ! daught] ( a f>m] ne> ,wakefield1 di$ :5 he 0 sev5 ye>s old4 ,f t "t he 0 br\ght up by a si/] ( 8 fa!r1 :o 0 possess$ ( consid]able private means4 ,prie/ley's surr\nd+s 9 8 "y days 7 decid$ly religi\s1 & evid5tly gave a tone to 8 :ole aft] life4 ,we %all f9d t ,prie/ley's "w z a man ( sci5ce c sc>cely be sep>at$ f 8 !ological & metaphysical "w4 ,8 ca/ ( m9d 0 decid$ly metaphysical2 he 0 altoge!r diff]5t f ,black1 :o1 z we h se51 0 a typical /ud5t ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! h\se ( ,prie/ley's aunt 0 a resort = all ! ,diss5t+ m9i/]s ( t "p ( ! c\nty4 ,%e h]self 0 /rictly ,calv9i/ic 9 h] !ological views1 b n :olly illib]al4 ,prie/ley's e>ly s*ool+ 0 *iefly devot$ to le>n+ languages2 he acquir$ a fair k ( ,lat91 a little ,greek1 & some:at lat] he le>n$ ! elem5ts ( ,hebrew4 ,at "o "t he ?\ght ( go+ into trade1 & !re=e1 z he tells u 9 8 ,memoirs1 he acquir$ "s k ( ,fr5*1 ,italian & ,high ,dut*4 ,) ! help ( a fri5d1 a ,diss5t+ m9i/]1 he le>n$ some?+ ( geometry1 ma!matics & natural philosophy1 & also got "s smatt]+ ( ! ,*aldee & ,syriac tongues4 ,at ! age ( n9ete5 ,prie/ley w5t to an academy at ,dav5try4 ,! intellectual atmosph]e "h seems to h be5 suitable to ! rapid developm5t ( ,prie/ley's m9d4 ,great fre$om ( discussion 0 all[$2 ev5 dur+ ! tea*]s' lectures ! /ud5ts 7 p]mitt$ to ask :atev] que/ions & to make :atev] rem>ks !y pleas$2 & !y did x1 ,prie/ley says1 ) ! greate/1 b )\t any (f5sive1 fre$om4 ,! /ud5ts 7 requir$ to read & to give an acc\nt ( ! m important argum5ts = & aga9/ ! que/ions discuss$ 9 ! tea*]s' lectures4 ,!ological disputations appe> to h be5 ! fav\rite topics on :i* ! /ud5ts ex]cis$ _! +5uity among !mselves4 ,prie/ley tells u t he saw reason to embrace :at is g5]ally call$ ! het]odox side ( almo/ e "q4 ,leav+ ?is academy1 ,prie/ley w5t1 9 #agee1 z assi/ant to ! ,diss5t+ m9i/] at ,ne$ham1 9 ,suffolk4 ,"h he rema9$ = ?ree ye>s1 liv+ on a sal>y ( ab\t ,l#cj a ye>1 & gett+ m & m into bad od\r because ( 8 peculi> !ological views4 ,f ,ne$ham he mov$ to ,nantwi*1 9 ,*e%ire1 :]e he 0 m com=table1 &1 hav+ pl5ty ( "w to d1 he _h little "t = ab/ruse speculations4 ,s*ool "w engag$ mo/ ( 8 "t at ,nantwi*2 he also began to collect a few sci5tific in/rum5ts1 su* z an electrical ma*9e & an air-pump4 ,^! he taught 8 s*ol>s to use & to keep 9 good ord]4 ,he gave lectures on natural ph5om5a1 & enc\rag$ 8 s*ol>s to make exp]im5ts & sometimes to exhibit _! exp]im5ts be=e _! p>5ts & fri5ds4 ,he ?us ext5d$ ! reputation ( 8 s*ool & implant$ 9 8 s*ol>s a love ( natural k4 ,9 ! ye> #agfa ,prie/ley remov$ to ,w>r+ton1 to act z tutor 9 a newly e/abli%$ academy1 :]e he taught languages--a some:at wide subject1 z x includ$ lectures on ,! ,!ory ( ,languages1 on ,oratory & ,criticism1 & on ,! ,hi/ory1 ,laws1 & ,con/itution ( ,engl&4 ,he says1 ,x 0 my prov9ce to tea* elocution1 & also logic & ,hebrew4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ,i reta9$1 b aft] a ye> or two ,i ex*ang$ ! two la/ articles ) ,dr4 ,aik9 = ! civil law1 & "o ye> ,i gave a c\rse ( lectures on anatomy4 ,dur+ 8 /ay at ,w>r+ton1 :i* la/$ until #agfg1 ,prie/ley m>ri$ a daught] ( ,mr4 ,isaac ,wilk9son1 an ironma/] ( ,wrexham1 9 ,wales4 ,he describes 8 wife z a woman ( an excell5t und]/&+ mu* improv$ by read+1 ( great =titude & /r5g? ( m9d1 & ( a temp] 9 ! highe/ degree affectionate & g5]\s1 feel+ /rongly = o!rs & little = h]self1 also greatly excell+ 9 ev]y?+ relat+ to h\sehold affairs4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,prie/ley met ,dr4 ,frankl9 m ?an once 9 ,london4 ,8 conv]sation seems to h incit$ ,prie/ley to a fur!r /udy ( natural philosophy4 ,he began to exam9e electrical ph5om5a1 & ?is l$ to 8 writ+ & publi%+ a ,hi/ory ( ,electricity1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he f\nd x necess>y to make new exp]im5ts4 ,! publication ( ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts br\ght him m into notice among sci5tific m51 & l$ to 8 election z a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society1 & to 8 obta9+ ! degree ( ,,ll4,d4 f ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,9 ! ye> #agfg ,prie/ley remov$ to ,le$s1 :]e he sp5t six ye>s z m9i/] ( ,millhill ,*apel4 ,he 0 able to give fre] expression to 8 !ological views 9 ,le$s ?an c\ld be done 9 small] places1 su* z ,ne$ham & ,nantwi*4 ,dur+ ?is "t he wrote & publi%$ _m !ological & metaphysical treatises4 ,b1 :at is ( m importance to u1 he happ5$ to live ne> a brew]y4 ,n[1 ! accid5tal circum/ances1 z we call !m1 ( ,prie/ley's life 7 frequ5tly ( ! greate/ importance 9 _! effects on 8 sci5tific "w4 ,black _h e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce & lead+ prop]ties ( fix$ air ab\t twelve or ?irte5 ye>s be=e ! "t :5 ,prie/ley came to live ne> ! brew]y 9 ,le$s4 ,he _h %[n t ?is fix$ air is produc$ dur+ alcoholic f]m5tation4 ,prie/ley kn[+ ?is us$ to collect ! fix$ air :i* came (f f ! vats 9 ! neighb\r+ brew]y1 & amuse himself ) obs]v+ its prop]ties4 ,b remov+ f ?is "p ( ! t[n 8 supplies ( fix$ air 7 /opp$4 ,z h[ev] he _h become int]e/$ 9 work+ ) airs1 he began to make fix$ air = himself f *alk1 & 9 ord] to collect ?is air he devis$ a v simple piece ( app>atus :i* has play$ a mo/ important "p 9 ! lat] developm5t ( ! *emi/ry ( gases1 or pneumatic *emi/ry4 ,prie/ley's pneumatic tr\gh is at ?is day to be f\nd 9 e laboratory2 x is extremely simple & extremely p]fect4 ,a di% ( glass1 or e>!nw>e1 or wood is p>tly fill$ ) wat]2 a %elf runs across ! di% at a little di/ance b5ea? ! surface ( ! wat]2 a wide-m\!d bottle is fill$ ) wat] & plac$1 m\? d[nw>ds1 ov] a hole 9 ?is %elf4 ,! gas :i* is to be collect$ 9 ?is bottle is g5]at$ 9 a suitable vessel1 f :i* a piece ( glass or metal tub+ passes "u ! %elf & /ops j :]e ! hole is made4 ,! gas :i* comes f ! app>atus bubbles up into ! bottle1 drives out ! wat]1 & fills ! bottle4 ,:5 ! bottle is full ( gas1 x is mov$ to "o side along ! %elf1 & ano!r bottle fill$ ) wat] is put 9 its place4 ,z ! m\? ( ea* bottle is "u wat] !re is no connection betwe5 ! gas inside & ! air outside ! bottle2 ! gas may !re=e be kept 9 ! bottle until ! exp]im5t] wants x4 7,see ,fig4 #a4 :i* is r$uc$ f ! cut 9 ,prie/ley's ,air47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,prie/ley tells u t at ?is "t he knew v little *emi/ry1 b he ?9ks t ?is 0 a good ?+1 else he might n h be5 l$ to make s _m new discov]ies z he did aft]w>ds make4 ,exp]im5t+ ) fix$ air1 he f\nd t wat] c\ld be caus$ to dissolve "s ( ! gas4 ,9 #aggb he publi%$ a pamphlet on ! me?od ( impregnat+ wat] ) fix$ air2 ?is solution ( fix$ air 9 wat] 0 employ$ m$ic9ally1 & f ?is "t we date ! manufacture ( artificial m9]al wat]s4 ,! next six ye>s ( ,prie/ley's life 7#aggc-aggi7 are v important 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry2 x 0 dur+ ^! ye>s t mu* ( 8 be/ "w on v>i\s airs 0 p]=m$4 ,dur+ ?is "t he liv$ z a k9d ( lit]>y companion 7nom9ally z libr>ian7 ) ! ,e>l ( ,%elburne 7aft]w>ds ,m>quis ( ,lansd[ne47 ,8 wife & family--he _h n[ ?ree *ildr5--liv$ at ,calne1 9 ,wilt%ire1 ne> ,"l ,%elburne's seat ( ,b[ood4 ,prie/ley sp5t mo/ ( ! summ] mon?s ) 8 family1 & ! great] "p ( ea* w9t] ) ,"l ,%elburne at 8 ,london resid5ce2 dur+ ?is "t he also travell$ 9 ,holl& & ,g]many1 & visit$ ,p>is 9 #aggd4 ,9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ,novemb] #aggb1 ,prie/ley says t he exam9$ a specim5 ( air :i* he _h extract$ f saltpetre above a ye> be=e ?is date4 ,?is air _h by "s means or o!r become noxi\s1 b1 he suppos$1 _h be5 re/or$ to its =m] :olesome /ate1 s z to eff]vesce ) nitr\s air 79 mod]n language1 to comb9e ) nitric oxide7 & to admit a c&le to burn 9 x1 9 consequ5ce ( agitation ) wat]4 ,he tells u1 9 8 ,obs]vations on ,air 7#aggi71 t at ?is "t he 0 altoge!r 9 ! d>k z to ! nature ( ?is air obta9$ f saltpetre4 ,9 ,augu/ #aggd1 he 0 amus+ himself by obs]v+ ! action ( heat on v>i\s sub/ances--)\t any p>ticul> view1 he says1 except t ( extract+ air f a v>iety ( sub/ances by means ( a burn+ l5s 9 quicksilv]1 :i* 0 !n a new process ) me1 & :i* ,i 0 v pr\d (--:5 he obta9$ f r$ precipitate 7oxide ( m]cury7 an air 9 :i* a c&le burn$ ) a rem>kably vigor\s flame4 ,! production ( ?is peculi> air surpris$ me m ?an ,i c well express2 ,i 0 utt]ly at a loss h[ to acc\nt = x4 ,at fir/ he ?\ght t ! specim5 ( r$ precipitate f :i* ! air _h be5 obta9$ 0 n a prop] prep>ation1 b gett+ fre% specim5s ( ?is salt1 he f\nd t !y all yield$ ! same k9d ( air4 ,hav+ satisfi$ himself by exp]im5t t ?is peculi> air _h all ! prop]ties ( common air1 only 9 mu* great] p]fection1 he gave to x ! "n ( dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,lat] exp]im5ts taught him t ! same air might be obta9$ f r$ lead1 f manganese oxide1 etc41 by ! action ( heat1 & f v>i\s o!r salts by ! action ( acids4 ,prie/ley evid5tly reg>ds ! new dephlogi/icat$ air simply z v pure ord9>y air2 inde$1 he seems to look on all airs1 or gases1 z easily *angeable "o into ! o!r4 ,he always int]prets 8 exp]im5tal results by ! help ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on4 ,"o w\ld inde$ ?9k f ,prie/ley's pap]s t ! exi/5ce ( ?is sub/ance phlogi/on 0 an unque/ion$ & unque/ionable fact4 ,?us1 he says 9 ! preface to 8 ,exp]im5ts on ,air3 ,if any op9ion 9 all ! mod]n doctr9e conc]n+ air be well f\nd$1 x is c]ta9ly ?is1 t nitr\s air is highly *>g$ ) phlogi/on1 & t f ?is quality only x r5d]s pure air noxi\s4444 ,if ,i h completely asc]ta9$ any?+ at all relat+ to air x is ?is4 ,prie/ley ?\ght t v pure air w\ld take away phlogi/on f "s metals )\t ! help ( heat or any acid1 & ?us cause ^! metals to ru/4 ,he !re=e plac$ "s clean iron nails 9 dephlogi/icat$ air /&+ ov] m]cury2 aft] ?ree mon?s he notic$ t ab\t "o-t5? ( ! air 9 ! vessel _h disappe>$1 & he conclud$1 al?\gh no ru/ appe>$1 t ! dephlogi/icat$ air _h z a fact )drawn phlogi/on f ! iron nails4 ,?is is ! k9d ( reason+ :i* ,black describ$ to 8 pupils z m]e wa/e ( "t & +5uity4 ,! exp]im5t ) ! nails 0 made 9 #aggi2 at ?is "t1 !re=e1 ,prie/ley _h no conception z to :at 8 dephlogi/icat$ air really 04 ,try+ a great _m exp]im5ts1 & f9d+ t ! new air 0 obta9$ by ! action ( acids on e>?y sub/ances1 ,prie/ley 0 incl9$ to reg>d ?is air1 & if ?is !n all o!r airs1 z made up ( an acid 7or acids7 & an e>?y sub/ance4 ,we n[ "k h[ completely errone\s ?is conclusion 01 b we mu/ rememb] t 9 ,prie/ley's "t *emical sub/ances 7 g5]ally reg>d$ z ( no v def9ite or fix$ composition2 t almo/ any sub/ance1 x 0 suppos$1 might be *ang$ into almo/ any o!r2 t no cle> mean+ 0 atta*$ to ! ^w elem5t2 & t few1 if any1 c>eful measurem5ts ( ! quantities ( diff]5t k9ds ( matt] tak+ "p 9 *emical actions _h yet be5 made4 ,b at ! same "t we _c =get t ! books ( ,hooke & ,may[ _h be5 publi%$ ye>s be=e ?is "t1 & t tw5ty ye>s be=e ,prie/ley began 8 "w on airs1 ,black _h publi%$ 8 exact1 sci5tific inve/igation on fix$ air4 ,al?\gh we may agree ) ,prie/ley t1 _h he made himself acqua9t$ ) :at o!rs _h done be=e he began 8 own exp]im5ts1 he might n h made s _m new discov]ies z he did1 yet "o _c b ?9k t 8 discov]ies1 al?\gh few]1 w\ld h be5 m accurate4 ,we are told by ,prie/ley t1 :5 he 0 9 ,p>is 9 #aggd1 he exhibit$ ! me?od ( obta9+ dephlogi/icat$ air f r$ precipitate to ,lavoisi] & o!r ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,we %all see h]eaft] :at important results to sci5ce foll[$ f ?is visit to ,lavoisi]4 ,let u %ortly review ,prie/ley's answ] to ! "q1 ,:at happ5s :5 a sub/ance burns 9 air8 ,beg9n+ to make *emical exp]im5ts :5 he _h no k ( *emi/ry1 & be+ an extremely rapid work] & ?9k]1 he naturally adopt$ ! preval5t !ory1 & z naturally int]pret$ ! facts :i* he discov]$ 9 accordance ) ?is !ory4 ,:5 a sub/ance burns1 phlogi/on1 x 0 said1 ru%es out ( x4 ,b :y does rapid burn+ only take place 9 air8 ,because1 said ,prie/ley1 air has a great aff9ity = phlogi/on1 & draws x out ( ! burn+ sub/ance4 ,:at !n becomes ( ?is phlogi/on8 we next inquire4 ,! answ] is1 obvi\sly x rema9s 9 ! air ar\nd ! burn+ body1 & ?is is prov$ by ! fact t ?is air soon becomes incapable ( support+ ! process ( burn+1 x becomes phlogi/icat$4 ,n[1 if phlogi/icat$ air _c support combu/ion1 ! great] ! quantity ( phlogi/on 9 air1 ! less w x support burn+2 b we "k t if a sub/ance is burnt 9 a clos$ tube conta9+ air1 ! air :i* rema9s :5 ! burn+ is q f9i%$ at once ext+ui%es a light$ c&le4 ,prie/ley also prov$ t an air c be obta9$ by heat+ r$ precipitate1 *>act]iz$ by its p[] ( support+ combu/ion ) great vig\r4 ,:at is ?is b common air completely depriv$ ( phlogi/on8 ,x is dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,n[1 if common air draws phlogi/on out ( sub/ances1 surely ?is dephlogi/icat$ air w ev5 m readily d ! same4 ,t x really does ?is ,prie/ley ?\ght he _h prov$ by 8 exp]im5t ) clean iron nails 7see p4 #fj74 ,wat] 0 reg>d$ z a sub/ance :i*1 l air1 readily comb9$ ) phlogi/on2 b ,prie/ley ?\ght t a c&le burn$ less vigor\sly 9 dephlogi/icat$ air :i* _h be5 %ak5 ) wat] ?an 9 ! same air be=e ?is treatm5t2 h5ce he conclud$ t phlogi/on _h be5 tak5 f ! wat]4 ,aft] ,cav5di% _h discov]$ 7or r r$iscov]$7 hydrog51 & _h e/abli%$ ! fact t ?is air is extremely inflammable1 mo/ *emi/s began to reg>d ?is gas z pure or ne>ly pure phlogi/on1 or1 at lea/1 z a sub/ance v highly *>g$ ) phlogi/on4 ,n[1 said ,prie/ley1 :5 a metal burns phlogi/on ru%es out ( x2 if ,i re/ore ?is phlogi/on to ! metallic calx1 ,i %all conv]t x back into ! metal4 ,he !n %[$ by exp]im5t t :5 calx ( iron is heat$ ) hydrog51 ! hydrog5 disappe>s & ! metal iron is produc$4 ,he seem$1 !re=e1 to h a l>ge exp]im5tal basis = 8 answ] to ! "q1 ,:at happ5s :5 a sub/ance burns8 ,b at a lat] "t x 0 prov$ t iron 0 also produc$ by heat+ ! calx ( iron ) c>bon4 ,! antiphlogi/ic *emi/s reg>d$ fix$ air z compos$ ( c>bon & dephlogi/icat$ air2 ! phlogi/eans said x 0 a sub/ance highly *>g$ ) phlogi/on4 ,! antiphlogi/ic s*ool said t calx ( iron is compos$ ( iron & dephlogi/icat$ air2 ! phlogi/eans said x 0 iron depriv$ ( its phlogi/on4 ,"h 0 surely an opportunity = a crucial exp]im5t3 :5 calx ( iron is heat$ ) c>bon1 & iron is produc$1 !re mu/ ei!r be a production ( fix$ air 7:i* is a non-inflammable gas1 & =ms a :ite solid sub/ance :5 br\ght into contact ) limewat]71 or !re mu/ be an outru% ( phlogi/on f ! c>bon4 ,! exp]im5t 0 tri$3 a gas 0 produc$ :i* _h no action on limewat] & :i* 0 v inflammable2 :at c\ld ?is be b phlogi/on1 already recogniz$ by ?is v prop]ty ( extreme inflammability8 ,?us ! phlogi/eans appe>$ to triumph4 ,b if we exam9e ^! exp]im5ts made by ,prie/ley ) ! light ?r[n on !m by subsequ5t rese>*1 we f9d t !y be> ! int]pretation :i* he put on !m only because !y 7 n accurate2 ?us1 two gases are inflammable1 b x by no means foll[s t ^! gases are "o & ! same4 ,we mu/ h m accurate k ( ! prop]ties ( ^! gases4 ,! air ar\nd a burn+ body1 su* z iron1 aft] a "t loses ! p[] ( support+ combu/ion2 b ?is is m]ely a qualitative fact4 ,accurately to trace ! *ange 9 ! prop]ties ( ?is air1 x is absolutely necess>y t exact measurem5ts %\ld be made2 :5 ?is is done1 we f9d t ! volume ( air dim9i%es dur+ ! combu/ion1 t ! burn+ body ga9s weight1 & t ?is ga9 9 weight is j equal to ! loss 9 weight und]gone by ! air4 ,:5 ! inflammable gas produc$ by heat+ calx ( iron ) c>bon 0 c>efully & quantitatively analyz$1 x 0 f\nd to consi/ ( c>bon & oxyg5 7dephlogi/icat$ air71 b to conta9 ^! sub/ances 9 a proportion diff]5t f t 9 :i* !y exi/$ 9 fix$ air4 ,x 0 a new k9d ( air or gas2 x 0 n hydrog54 ,?is acc\nt ( ,prie/ley's exp]im5ts & conclusions reg>d+ combu/ion %[s h[ easy x is 9 natural sci5ce to int]pret exp]im5tal results1 especially :5 ^! results are n v accurate1 9 accordance ) a fav\rite !ory2 & x also illu/rates "o ( ! lessons s emphatically taught by all sci5tific /udy1 viz4 ! necessity ( susp5d+ "o's judgm5t until accurate measurem5ts h be5 made1 & ! great wisdom ( !n judg+ cauti\sly4 ,ab\t #aggi ,prie/ley left ,"l ,%elburne1 & w5t z m9i/] ( a *apel to ,birm+ham1 :]e he rema9$ until #agia4 ,dur+ 8 /ay 9 ,birm+ham1 ,prie/ley _h a consid]able am\nt ( pecuni>y help f 8 fri5ds4 ,he _h f ,"l ,%elburne1 accord+ to an agreem5t made :5 he ent]$ 8 s]vice1 an annuity ( ,l#aej a ye> = life2 "s ( 8 fri5ds rais$ a sum ( money annually = him1 9 ord] t he might be able to prosecute 8 rese>*es )\t ! necessity ( tak+ pupils4 ,dur+ ! t5 ye>s or s aft] he settl$ 9 ,birm+ham1 ,prie/ley did a great deal ( *emical "w1 & made _m discov]ies1 almo/ entirely 9 ! field ( pneumatic *emi/ry4 ,besides ! discov]y ( dephlogi/icat$ air 7or oxyg57 :i* has be5 already describ$1 ,prie/ley discov]$ & gave "s acc\nt ( ! prop]ties ( nitr\s air 7nitric acid71 vitriolic acid air 7sulphur dioxide71 muriatic acid air 7hydro*loric acid71 & alkal9e air 7ammonia71 etc4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 rese>*es on ! la/-nam$ air he %[$1 t :5 a succession ( electric sp>ks is pass$ ?r\gh ?is gas a great increase 9 ! volume ( ! gas occurs4 ,?is fact 0 fur!r exam9$ at a lat] "t by ,b]?ollet1 :o1 by measur+ ! increase 9 volume und]gone by a measur$ quantity ( ammonia gas1 & det]m9+ ! nature ( ! gases produc$ by ! passage ( ! electric sp>ks1 prov$ t ammonia is a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & nitrog51 & t ?ree volumes ( ! =m] gas comb9e ) "o volume ( ! latt] to produce two volumes ( ammonia gas4 ,prie/ley's exp]im5ts on inflammable air--or hydrog5--are important & int]e/+4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is sub/ance z a def9ite k9d ( air _h be5 prov$ by ! accurate rese>*es ( ,cav5di% 9 #agff4 ,prie/ley drew att5tion to _m actions 9 :i* ?is inflammable air is produc$1 *iefly to ^? :i* take place betwe5 acids & metals4 ,he %[$ t inflammable air is n decompos$ by electric sp>ks2 b he ?\ght t x 0 decompos$ by long-cont9u$ heat+ 9 clos$ tubes made ( lead-glass4 ,prie/ley reg>d$ inflammable air z an air conta9+ mu* phlogi/on4 ,he f\nd t tubes ( lead-glass1 fill$ ) ?is air1 7 black5$ :5 /rongly heat$ = a long "t1 & he expla9$ ?is by say+ t ! lead 9 ! glass _h a great aff9ity = phlogi/on1 & drew x out ( ! inflammable air4 ,:5 inflammable air burns 9 a clos$ vessel conta9+ common air1 ! latt] aft] a "t loses its prop]ty ( support+ combu/ion4 ,prie/ley gave :at appe>$ to be a fairly good explanation ( ?is fact1 :5 he said t ! inflammable air p>t$ ) phlogi/on1 :i*1 becom+ mix$ ) ! ord9>y air 9 ! vessel1 r5d]$ x unable to support ! burn+ ( a c&le4 ,he gave a few measurem5ts 9 support ( ?is explanation2 b we n[ "k t ! me?od ( analysis :i* he employ$ 0 q untru/wor?y4 ,?9k+ t by measur+ ! ext5t to :i* ! phlogi/ication 7we w\ld n[ say ! deoxidation7 ( common air 0 c>ri$ by mix+ measur$ quantities ( common & inflammable airs & explod+ ?is mixture1 he might be able to det]m9e ! am\nt ( phlogi/on 9 a giv5 volume ( inflammable air1 he mix$ ! two airs 9 glass tubes1 ?r\gh ! sides ( :i* he _h cem5t$ two pieces ( wire1 seal$ ! tubes1 & explod$ ! mixture by pass+ electric sp>ks f wire to wire4 ,! residual air n[ conta9$1 accord+ to ,prie/ley1 m phlogi/on1 & !re=e relatively less dephlogi/icat$ air ?an be=e ! explosion4 ,he made v>i\s measurem5ts ( ! quantities ( dephlogi/icat$ air 9 ! tubes1 b )\t gett+ any con/ant results4 ,he notic$ t aft] ! explosions ! insides ( ! tubes 7 cov]$ ) moi/ure4 ,at a lat] "t he explod$ a mixture ( dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable airs 7oxyg5 & hydrog57 9 a copp] globe1 & record$ ! fact t aft] ! explosion ! globe conta9$ a little wat]4 ,prie/ley 0 "h app>5tly on ! eve ( a great discov]y4 ,9 look+ = "o ?+1 says ,prie/ley1 ,i h g5]ally f\nd ano!r1 & sometimes a ?+ ( mu* m value ?an t :i* ,i 0 9 que/ (4 ,_h he p]=m$ ! exp]im5t ( explod+ dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable airs ) m c>e1 & _h he made sure t ! airs us$ 7 q dry be=e ! explosion1 he w\ld probably h f\nd a ?+ ( inde$ mu* m value ?an t ( :i* he 0 9 que/2 he w\ld probably h discov]$ ! comp\nd nature ( wat]--a discov]y :i* 0 made by ,cav5di% ?ree or f\r ye>s aft] ^! exp]im5ts describ$ by ,prie/ley4 ,"s v curi\s obs]vations 7 made by ,prie/ley reg>d+ ! col\r ( ! gas obta9$ by heat+ _s ( nitre 7i4e4 nitric acid74 ,he %[$ t a yell[ gas or air is obta9$ by heat+ col\rless liquid _s ( nitre 9 a seal$ glass tube1 & t z ! heat+ is cont9u$ ! col\r ( ! gas gets d>k]1 until x is f9ally v d>k orange r$4 ,^! exp]im5ts h f\nd an explanation only 9 q rec5t times4 ,ano!r discov]y made by ,prie/ley :ile 9 ,birm+ham1 viz4 t an acid is =m$ :5 electric sp>ks are pass$ ?r\gh ord9>y air = "s "t1 l$1 9 ! h&s ( ,cav5di%--an exp]im5t] :o 0 z c>eful & delib]ate z ,prie/ley 0 rapid & c>eless--to ! demon/ration ( ! composition ( nitric acid4 ,_m obs]vations 7 made by ,prie/ley on ! effects ( v>i\s airs on gr[+ plants & liv+ animals2 inde$1 "o ( 8 cu/om>y me?ods ( te/+ diff]5t airs 0 to put a m\se into ea* & wat* ! effects ( ! air on its brea?+4 ,he grew sprigs ( m9t 9 common air1 9 dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg571 & 9 phlogi/icat$ air 7nitrog51 b probably n pure72 ! sprig 9 ! la/-nam$ air grew be/1 :ile t 9 ! dephlogi/icat$ air soon appe>$ sickly4 ,he also %[$ t air :i* has be5 r5d]$ noxi\s by ! burn+ ( a c&le 9 x1 or by respiration or putrefaction1 c\ld be re/or$ to its orig9al /ate by ! action ( gr[+ plants4 ,he ?\ght t ! air 0 9 ! fir/ in/ance r5d]$ noxi\s by be+ impregnat$ ) phlogi/on1 & t ! plant re/or$ ! air by remov+ ?is phlogi/on4 ,?us ,prie/ley di/9ctly %[$ t 7to use 8 own words7 x is v probable t ! injury :i* is cont9ually done to ! atmosph]e by ! respiration ( su* a numb] ( animals z brea! x1 & ! putrefaction ( su* va/ masses1 bo? ( vegetable & animal sub/ances1 expos$ to x1 is1 9 "p at lea/1 repair$ by ! vegetable creation4 ,b f want ( quantitative exp]im5ts he fail$ to give any j explanation ( ! process :]eby ?is rep>ation is accompli%$4 ,dur+ 8 /ay 9 ,birm+ham1 ,prie/ley 0 busily engag$1 z 0 8 wont dur+ life1 9 writ+ metaphysical & !ological treatises & pamphlets4 ,at ?is "t ! m9ds ( m5 9 ,engl& 7 mu* excit$ by ! ev5ts ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 !n be+ enact$ be=e !m4 ,prie/ley & "s ( 8 fri5ds 7 kn[n to sympa?ize ) ! ,fr5* p 9 ?is great /ruggle1 z !y _h be5 on ! side ( ! ,am]icans 9 ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,prie/ley's political op9ions _h1 9 fact1 always be5 m advanc$ ?an ! av]age op9ion ( 8 age2 by "s he 0 reg>d$ z a dang]\s "*4 ,b if we read :at he lays d[n z a fundam5tal proposition 9 ! ,essay on ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t 7#agfh71 we _c surely f9d any?+ v />tl+4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood1 :e!r x be express$ or n1 t all p live 9 society = _! mutual advantage2 s t ! good & happ9ess ( ! memb]s1 t is ! majority ( ! memb]s ( any /ate1 is ! great /&>d by :i* ev]y?+ relat+ to t /ate mu/ be f9ally det]m9$4 ,& ?\gh x may be suppos$ t a body ( p may be b\nd by a volunt>y resignation ( all _! rights to a s+le p]son1 or to a few1 x c nev] be suppos$ t ! resignation is obligatory on _! po/]ity1 because x is manife/ly contr>y to ! good ( ! :ole t x %\ld be s4 ,prie/ley propos$ _m political re=ms1 b he 0 decid$ly ( op9ion t ^! ought to be br\ght ab\t gradually4 ,he 0 9 fav\r ( aboli%+ all religi\s ,/ate e/abli%m5ts1 & 0 a decl>$ enemy to ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&4 ,8 controv]sies ) ! cl]gy ( ,birm+ham help$ to /ir up a section ( public op9ion aga9/ him1 & to br+ ab\t ! condemnation ( 8 writ+s 9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry2 he 0 also un=tunate 9 mak+ an enemy ( ,mr4 ,burke1 :o spoke aga9/ him & 8 writ+s 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,9 ! ye> #agia1 ! day ( ! anniv]s>y ( ! tak+ ( ! ,ba/ille 0 celebrat$ by "s ( ,prie/ley's fri5ds 9 ,birm+ham4 ,on t day a s5seless mob1 rais+ ! cry ( ,*ur* & ,k+1 caus$ a riot 9 ! t[n4 ,f9d+ t !y 7 n *eck$ by ^? 9 au?ority1 !y aft] a "t attack$ & burn$ ,dr4 ,prie/ley's meet+-h\se1 & !n de/roy$ 8 dwell+-h\se1 & ! h\ses ( sev]al o!r ,diss5t]s 9 ! t[n4 ,"o ( 8 sons b>ely escap$ ) 8 life4 ,he himself f\nd x necess>y to leave ,birm+ham = ,london1 z he consid]$ 8 life to be 9 dang]4 ,_m ( 8 manuscripts1 8 libr>y1 & mu* ( 8 app>atus 7 de/roy$1 & 8 h\se 0 burn$4 ,a congregation at ,hackney _h ! c\rage at ?is "t to invite ,prie/ley to become _! m9i/]4 ,"h he rema9$ = ab\t ?ree ye>s1 m9i/]+ to ! congregation1 & pursu+ 8 *emical & o!r exp]im5ts ) ! help ( app>atus & books :i* _h be5 suppli$ by 8 fri5ds1 & by ! exp5diture ( "p ( ! sum1 too small to cov] 8 losses1 giv5 him by ,gov]nm5t 9 consid]ation ( ! damage done to 8 prop]ty 9 ! riots at ,birm+ham4 ,b f9d+ himself m & m isolat$ & lonely1 especially aft] ! dep>ture ( 8 ?ree sons to ,am]ica1 :i* occurr$ dur+ ^! ye>s1 he at la/ resolv$ to foll[ !m1 & sp5d ! rema9d] ( 8 days 9 ! ,new ,_w4 ,al?\gh ,prie/ley _h be5 v badly treat$ by a consid]able section ( ! ,engli% p1 yet he left 8 native c\ntry )\t any res5tm5t or ill w4 ,:5 ! "t = reflection1 he says1 %all come1 my c\ntrym5 w1 ,i am confid5t1 d me m ju/ice4 ,he left ,engl& 9 #agie1 & settl$ at ,nor?umb]l&1 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ab\t a hundr$ & ?irty miles nor?-we/ ( ,philadelphia4 ,by ! help ( 8 fri5ds 9 ,engl& he 0 enabl$ to build a h\se & e/abli% a laboratory & a libr>y2 an income 0 also secur$ suffici5t to ma9ta9 him 9 mod]ate com=t4 ,! *air ( *emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,philadelphia 0 (f]$ to him1 & he 0 also invit$ to ! *>ge ( a ,unit>ian *apel 9 ,new ,york2 b he pref]r$ to rema9 quietly at "w 9 8 laboratory & libr>y1 r ?an aga9 to ent] into ! noisy battle ( life4 ,9 ,am]ica he publi%$ sev]al writ+s4 ,( 8 *emical discov]ies made aft] leav+ ,engl&1 ! mo/ important 0 t an inflammable gas is obta9$ by heat+ metallic calces ) c>bon4 ,! production ( ?is gas 0 reg>d$ by ,prie/ley z an indisputable pro( ( ! ju/ness ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on 7see pp4 #fc1 #fd74 ,8 heal? began to give way ab\t #ahja2 gradually 8 /r5g? decl9$1 & 9 ,febru>y #ahjd1 ! end came quietly & peacefully4 ,a li/ ( ! books & pamphlets publi%$ by ,prie/ley on !ological1 metaphysical1 philological1 hi/orical1 educational & sci5tific subjects w\ld fill sev]al pages ( ?is book4 ,8 indu/ry 0 imm5se4 ,to accompli% ! va/ am\nt ( "w :i* he did requir$ ! mo/ c>eful outlay ( "t4 ,9 8 ,memoirs1 p>tly writt5 by himself1 he tells u t he inh]it$ f 8 p>5ts a happy temp]am5t ( body & m9d2 8 fa!r especially 0 always 9 good spirits1 & c\ld h be5 happy 9 a workh\se4 ,8 pat]nal ance/ors _h1 z a race1 be5 heal?y & long-liv$4 ,he 0 n himself robu/ z a y\?1 yet he 0 always able to /udy3 ,i h nev] f\nd myself1 he says1 less dispos$ or less qualifi$ = m5tal ex]tion ( any k9d at "o "t ( ! day m ?an ano!r2 b all seasons h be5 equal to me1 e>ly or late1 be=e d9n] or aft]4 ,8 peculi> ev5ness ( disposition enabl$ him quickly to recov] f ! effects ( any unpleasant occurr5ce2 inde$1 he assures u t ! mo/ p]fect satisfaction (t5 came a day or two aft] an ev5t t afflict$ me ! mo/1 & )\t any *ange hav+ tak5 place 9 ! /ate ( ?+s4 ,ano!r circum/ance :i* t5d$ to make life easy to him 0 8 fix$ resolution1 t 9 any controv]sy 9 :i* he might be engag$1 he w\ld frankly ackn[l$ge e mi/ake he p]ceiv$ himself to h fall5 into4 ,prie/ley's sci5tific "w is m>k$ by rapidity ( execution4 ,! diff]5t p>ts d n hang toge!r well2 we are pres5t$ ) a brilliant s]ies ( discov]ies1 b we d n see ! connect+ /r+s ( ?\ght4 ,we are n !n a/oni%$ :5 he tells u t sometimes he =got t he _h made ?is or t exp]im5t1 & repeat$ :at he _h done weeks be=e4 ,he says t he c\ld n "w 9 a hurry1 & t he 0 !re=e always me?odical2 b he adds t he sometimes blam$ himself = do+ to-day :at _h bett] h be5 put (f until to-morr[4 ,_m ( 8 mo/ />tl+ discov]ies 7 ! results ( *ance op]ations1 n ( !mes work$ out & appli$4 ,he 0 l$ to ! discov]y ( oxyg51 he says1 by a succession ( extraord9>y accid5ts4 ,b t he 0 able to take advantage ( ! *ance obs]vations1 & f ^! to advance to def9ite facts1 con/itutes ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 him & ord9>y plodd+ inve/igators4 ,al?\gh he r>ely1 if ev]1 saw all ! be>+s ( 8 own discov]ies1 al?\gh none ( 8 exp]im5ts 0 accurately work$ out to its conclusion1 yet he did see1 rapidly & z x appe>$ almo/ at "o glance1 some?+ ( _! mean+s1 & ?is some?+ 0 en\gh to urge him on to fre% exp]im5tal "w4 ,al?\gh we n[ condemn ,prie/ley's !ories z q errone\s1 yet we mu/ admire 8 undaunt$ devotion to exp]im5t4 ,he 0 a true /ud5t ( sci5ce 9 "o ess5tial po9t1 viz4 ,nature 0 = him ! fir/ & ! la/ c\rt ( appeal4 ,he !oriz$ & speculat$ mu*1 he exp]im5t$ rapidly & n accurately1 b he 0 ev] appeal+ to natural facts2 & 9 do+ ?is he c\ld n b lay "s f\ndation :i* %\ld rema94 ,! facts discov]$ by him are among/ ! v corn]-/ones on :i* ! build+ ( *emical sci5ce 0 aft]w>ds rais$4 ,s en?usia/ic 0 ,prie/ley 9 ! prosecution ( 8 exp]im5ts1 t :5 he began1 he tells u1 ,i sp5t all ! money ,i c\ld possibly raise1 c>ri$ on by my ard\r 9 philosophical inve/igation1 & entirely reg>dless ( consequ5ces1 except s f> z nev] to contract any debts4 ,he seems all ?r\gh 8 life to h be5 p]fectly free f anxiety ab\t money affairs4 ,prie/ley's mann] ( "w %[s h[ k9dly & g5ial he 04 ,he tra9$ himself to talk & ?9k & write ) 8 family by ! fireside2 no?+ b read+ al\d1 or speak+ )\t int]ruption1 0 an ob/ruction to 8 "w4 ,prie/ley 0 j ! man :o 0 want$ 9 ! e>ly days ( *emical sci5ce4 ,by ! va/ numb]1 v>iety & novelty ( 8 exp]im5tal results1 he a/oni%$ sci5tific m5--he =cibly drew att5tion to ! sci5ce 9 :i* he lab\r$ s h>d2 by ! brilliancy ( "s ( 8 exp]im5ts he oblig$ *emi/s to admit t a new field ( rese>* 0 op5$ be=e !m1 & ! in/rum5ts = ! prosecution ( ?is rese>* 7 plac$ 9 _! h&s2 & ev5 by ! unsatisfactor9ess ( 8 reason+ he drew att5tion to ! difficulties & contradictions ( ! !ories :i* !n prevail$ 9 *emi/ry4 ,t ! "w ( ,prie/ley %\ld be> full fruit x 0 necess>y t a great] ?an he %\ld int]pret x1 & %\ld r5d] def9ite t :i* ,prie/ley _h b vaguely %[n to exi/4 ,! man :o did ?is1 & :o 9 do+ x really e/abli%$ *emi/ry z a sci5ce1 0 ,lavoisi]4 ,b be=e consid]+ ! "w ( ,lavoisi]1 ,i %\ld l to po9t out t _m ( ! physical *>act]s ( common air _h be5 cle>ly e/abli%$ 9 ! lat] ye>s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury by ! ,hon\rable ,rob]t ,boyle4 ,9 ! ,sceptical ,*ymi/1 publi%$ 9 #affa1 ,mr4 ,boyle _h e/abli%$ ! fact t air is a mat]ial sub/ance possess$ ( weight1 t ?is air presses on ! surface ( all ?+s1 & t by remov+ "p ( ! air 9 an enclos$ space ! pressure )9 t space is dim9i%$4 ,he _h demon/rat$ t ! boil+ po9t ( wat] is dep5d5t on ! pressure ( ! air on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,hav+ boil$ "s wat] a pretty :ile1 t by ! heat x might be fre$ f ! latitant air1 he plac$ ! vessel conta9+ ! hot wat] )9 ! receiv] ( an arrangem5t :i* he _h inv5t$ = suck+ air out ( an enclos$ space2 z soon z he began to suck out air f ?is receiv]1 ! wat] boil$ z if x _h /ood ov] a v quick fire4444 ,once1 :5 ! air _h be5 drawn out1 ! liquor did1 ^u a s+le exsuction1 boil s long ) prodigi\sly va/ bubbles1 t ! eff]vesc5ce la/$ almo/ z long z 0 requisite = ! rehe>s+ ( a ,pat] no/]4 ,boyle _h gone fur!r ?an ! qualitative fact t ! volume ( an enclos$ quantity ( air alt]s ) *anges 9 ! pressure to :i* t air is subject$2 he _h %[n by simple & accurate exp]im5ts t ! volume v>ies inv]sely z ! pressure4 ,he _h e/abli%$ ! g5]alization ( s mu* importance 9 physical sci5ce n[ kn[n z ,boyle's law4 ,! "w ( ! ,hon\rable ,h5ry ,cav5di% w be consid]$ 9 "s detail 9 ! book on ,! ,physici/s belong+ to ?is s]ies1 b ,i mu/ "h briefly allude to ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts on air publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #aghd & #aghe4 ,cav5di% held ! ord9>y view t :5 a metal burns 9 air1 ! air is !reby phlogi/icat$2 b :y is x1 he ask$1 t ! volume ( air is decreas$ by ?is process8 ,x 0 v g5]ally said t fix$ air 0 produc$ dur+ ! calc9ation ( metals1 & 0 absorb$ by ! calx4 ,b ,cav5di% in/itut$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts :i* prov$ t no fix$ air c\ld be obta9$ f metallic calces4 ,9 #agff inflammable air 7hydrog57 0 discov]$ by ,cav5di%2 he n[ prov$ t :5 ?is air is explod$ ) dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg571 wat] is produc$4 ,he %[$ t :5 ^! two airs are mix$ 9 ab\t ! proportion ( two volumes ( hydrog5 to "o volume ( oxyg51 ! great] "p1 if n ! :ole ( ! airs is cond5s$ into wat] by ! action ( ! electric sp>k4 ,he !n proce$$ to prove by exp]im5ts t :5 common air is explod$ ) inflammable air wat] is likewise produc$1 & phlogi/icat$ air 7i4e4 nitrog57 rema9s4 ,prie/ley & ,cav5di% _h ?us di/9ctly e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( ?ree k9ds ( air1 viz4 dephlogi/icat$ air1 phlogi/icat$ air1 & inflammable air4 ,cav5di% _h %[n t :5 ! la/ nam$ is explod$ ) common air wat] is produc$ 7:i* is compos$ ( dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable airs71 & phlogi/icat$ air rema9s4 ,common air _h ?us be5 prov$ to consi/ ( ^! two--phlogi/icat$ & dephlogi/icat$ airs 7nitrog5 & oxyg574 ,apply+ ^! results to ! ph5om5on ( ! calc9ation ( metals1 ,cav5di% gave reasons = ?9k+ t ! metals act t[>ds common air 9 a mann] analog\s to t 9 :i* inflammable air acts--t !y )draw dephlogi/icat$ & leave phlogi/icat$ air2 b1 z he 0 a support] ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 he r pref]r$ to say t ! burn+ metals )draw dephlogi/icat$ air & phlogi/icate t :i* rema9s2 9 o!r words1 :ile admitt+ t a metal 9 ! process ( burn+ ga9s dephlogi/icat$ air1 he /ill ?\ght t ! metal also loses some?+2 viz4 phlogi/on4 ,t ,cav5di% 9 #aghc-hd _h prov$ air to consi/ ( two di/9ct gases1 & wat] to be produc$ by ! union ( two gases1 mu/ be rememb]$ z we proce$ ) ! /ory ( ! discov]ies ( ,lavoisi]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,anto9e ,,laur5t ,,lavoisi]1 born 9 ,p>is 9 #agdc1 0 ! son ( a weal?y m]*ant1 :o1 judg+ f 8 fri5d%ip ) _m ( ! m5 ( sci5ce ( t day1 0 probably ( a sci5tific b5t ( m9d1 & :o c]ta9ly %[$ t he 0 a man ( s5se by giv+ 8 son ! be/ education :i* he c\ld obta94 ,aft] /udy+ 9 ! ,maz>9 ,college1 ,lavoisi] ent]$ on a c\rse ( tra9+ 9 physical1 a/ronomical1 botanical & *emical sci5ce4 ,! effects ( ?is tra9+ 9 ! accurate me?ods ( physics are app>5t 9 ! *emical rese>*es ( ,lavoisi]4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-"o ,lavoisi] wrote a memoir :i* ga9$ ! prize (f]$ by ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t = ! be/ & mo/ economical me?od ( light+ ! /reets ( a l>ge city4 ,:ile mak+ exp]im5ts1 ! results ( :i* 7 detail$ 9 ?is pap]1 ,lavoisi] liv$ = six weeks 9 rooms light$ only by artificial light1 9 ord] t 8 eyesight might become accu/om$ to small diff]5ces 9 ! int5sities ( light f v>i\s s\rces4 ,:5 he 0 tw5ty-five ye>s old ,lavoisi] 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,dur+ ! next six ye>s 7#agfh-aggd7 he publi%$ v>i\s pap]s1 "s on *emical1 "s on geological1 & "s on ma!matical subjects4 ,inde$ at ?is "t1 al?\gh an ard5t cultivator ( natural sci5ce1 he appe>s to h be5 undecid$ z to :i* bran* ( sci5ce he %\ld devote 8 /r5g?4 ,! accuracy & ?or\ghness ( ,lavoisi]'s "w1 & ! acut5ess ( 8 reason+ p[]s1 are admirably illu/rat$ 9 two pap]s1 publi%$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aggj1 on ! alleg$ conv]sion ( wat] into e>?4 ,:5 wat] is boil$ = a long "t 9 a glass vessel a consid]able quantity ( :ite silice\s e>? is f\nd 9 ! vessel4 ,?is app>5t conv]sion or transmutation ( wat] into e>?y matt] 0 q 9 keep+ ) ! doctr9es :i* _h be5 h&$ d[n f ! times ( ! al*emi/s2 ! exp]im5t 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z conclusively prov+ ! possibility ( *ang+ wat] into e>?4 ,lavoisi] f\nd t aft] heat+ wat] = a hundr$ & "o days 9 a clos$ & weigh$ glass vessel1 !re 0 no *ange 9 ! total weight ( ! vessel & its cont5ts2 :5 he p\r$ out ! wat] & evaporat$ x to dryness1 he obta9$ #bj4d gra9s ( solid e>?y matt]2 b he also f\nd1 :at _h be5 be=e ov]look$1 t ! glass vessel _h lo/ weight4 ,! actual loss am\nt$ to #ag4d gra9s4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is & ! weight ( ! e>?y matt] 9 ! wat]1 viz4 ?ree gra9s1 0 set d[n 7& z we n[ "k ju/ly set d[n7 by ,lavoisi] to errors ( exp]im5t4 ,lavoisi] !re=e conclud$ t wat]1 :5 boil$1 is n *ang$ into e>?1 b t a portion ( ! e>?y matt] ( :i* glass is compos$ is dissolv$ by ! wat]4 ,?is conclusion 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,s*eele1 :o prov$ t ! composition ( ! e>?y matt] f\nd 9 ! wat] is id5tical ) t ( "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( glass4 ,by ?is exp]im5t ,lavoisi] prov$ ! old al*emical notion ( transmutation to be errone\s2 he %[$ t wat] is n transmut$ into e>?1 b t ea* ( ^! sub/ances is possess$ ( def9ite prop]ties :i* belong to x & to x only4 ,he e/abli%$ ! all-important g5]alization--:i* subsequ5t rese>* has m amply confirm$1 until x is to-day accept$ z ! v f\ndation ( e bran* ( physical sci5ce--t 9 no process ( *ange is !re any alt]ation 9 ! total mass ( matt] tak+ "p 9 t *ange4 ,! glass vessel 9 :i* ,lavoisi] boil$ wat] = s _m days lo/ weight2 b ! matt] lo/ by ! glass 0 f\nd dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,we "k t ?is g5]alization holds good 9 all *emical *anges4 ,solid sulphur may be conv]t$ into liquid oil ( vitriol1 b x is only by ! sulphur comb9+ ) o!r k9ds ( matt]2 ! weight ( oil ( vitriol produc$ is always exactly equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sulphur1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 :i* h comb9$ to =m x4 ,! col\rless gases1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 comb9e1 & ! limpid liquid wat] is ! result2 b ! weight ( ! wat] produc$ is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 :i* comb9$ toge!r4 ,x is impossible to ov]rate ! importance ( ! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( mass1 fir/ def9itely e/abli%$ by ,lavoisi]4 ,"s "t ab\t ! ye> #aggj ,lavoisi] turn$ 8 att5tion s]i\sly to *emical ph5om5a4 ,9 #aggd he publi%$ a volume entitl$ ,essays ,physical & ,*emical1 :]e9 he gave an hi/orical acc\nt ( all t _h be5 done on ! subject ( airs f ! "t ( ,p>acelsus to ! ye> #aggd1 & add$ an acc\nt ( 8 own exp]im5ts1 9 :i* he _h e/abli%$ ! facts t a metal 9 burn+ absorbs air1 & t :5 ! metallic calx is r$uc$ to metal by heat+ ) *>coal1 an air is produc$ ( ! same nature z ! fix$ air ( ,dr4 ,black4 ,9 ,novemb] #aggb ,lavoisi] deposit$ a seal$ note 9 ! h&s ( ! ,secret>y to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,?is note 0 op5$ on ! #a/ ( ,may #aggc1 & f\nd to run z foll[s#d3-- ,ab\t eight days ago ,i discov]$ t sulphur 9 burn+1 f> f los+1 augm5ts 9 weight2 t is to say1 t f "o p\nd ( sulphur mu* m ?an "o p\nd ( vitriolic acid is obta9$1 )\t reckon+ ! humidity ( ! air4 ,phosphorus pres5ts ! same ph5om5on4 ,?is augm5tation ( weight arises f a great quantity ( air :i* becomes fix$ dur+ ! combu/ion1 & :i* comb9es ) ! vap\rs4 ,?is discov]y1 confirm$ by exp]im5ts :i* ,i reg>d z decisive1 l$ me to ?9k t :at is obs]v$ 9 ! combu/ion ( sulphur & phosphorus might likewise take place ) respect to all ! bodies :i* augm5t 9 weight by combu/ion & calc9ation2 & ,i 0 p]suad$ t ! augm5tation ( weight 9 ! calces ( metals proce$$ f ! same cause4 ,! exp]im5t fully confirm$ my conjectures4 ,i op]at$ ! r$uction ( li?>ge 9 clos$ vessels ) ,hale's app>atus1 & ,i obs]v$ t at ! mom5t ( ! passage ( ! calx into ! metallic /ate1 !re 0 a dis5gagem5t ( air 9 consid]able quantity1 & t ?is air =m$ a volume at lea/ "o ?\s& times great] ?an t ( ! li?>ge employ$4 ,z ?is discov]y appe>s to me "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ :i* has be5 made s9ce ,/ahl1 ,i ?\ght x exp$i5t to secure to myself ! prop]ty1 by deposit+ ! pres5t note 9 ! h&s ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,academy1 to rema9 secret till ! p]iod :5 ,i %all publi% my exp]im5ts4 ,,lavoisi]4 ,p>is1 #aa? ,novemb] #aggb4 ,9 8 pap] ,on ! ,calc9ation ( ,t9 9 ,clos$ ,vessels1 & on ! ,cause ( ,increase ( ,weight acquir$ by ! ,metal dur+ ?is ,process 7publi%$ 9 #aggd71 we see & admire ,lavoisi]'s mann] ( work+4 ,a weigh$ quantity 7ab\t half a p\nd7 ( t9 0 heat$ to melt+ 9 a glass retort1 ! beak ( :i* 0 drawn out to a v small op5+2 ! air )9 ! retort hav+ exp&$1 ! op5+ 0 clos$ by melt+ ! glass be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,! weight ( retort & t9 0 n[ not$2 ! t9 0 aga9 heat$ to its melt+ po9t1 & kept at ?is temp]ature z long z ! process ( calc9ation appe>$ to proce$2 ! retort & its cont5ts 7 !n all[$ to cool & aga9 weigh$4 ,no *ange 0 caus$ by ! heat+ process 9 ! total weight ( ! :ole app>atus4 ,! end ( ! retort beak 0 n[ brok5 (f2 air ru%$ 9 ) a hiss+ s\nd4 ,! retort & cont5ts 7 aga9 weigh$1 & ! increase ov] ! weight at ! mom5t ( seal+ ! retort 0 not$4 ,! calc9$ t9 9 ! retort 0 n[ collect$ & weigh$4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! increase 9 ! weight ( ! t9 0 equal to ! weight ( ! air :i* ru%$ into ! retort4 ,h5ce ,lavoisi] conclud$ t ! calc9ation ( t9 0 accompani$ by an absorption ( air1 & t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weights ( ! t9 & ! calx ( t9 0 equal to ! weight ( air absorb$2 b he /ates t probably only a "p ( ! air _h comb9$ ) ! t91 & t h5ce air is n a simple sub/ance1 b is compos$ ( two or m con/itu5ts4 ,betwe5 ! date ( ?is publication & t ( ,lavoisi]'s next pap] on combu/ion we "k t ,prie/ley visit$ ,p>is4 ,9 8 la/ "w1 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on e/abli%$ 7publi%$ 9 #ahjj71 ,prie/ley says1 ,hav+ made ! discov]y ( dephlogi/icat$ air "s "t be=e ,i 0 9 ,p>is 9 #aggd1 ,i m5tion$ x at ! table ( ,mr4 ,lavoisi]1 :5 mo/ ( ! philosophical p 9 ! city 7 pres5t2 say+ t x 0 a k9d ( air 9 :i* a c&le burn$ mu* bett] ?an 9 common air1 b ,i _h n !n giv5 x any "n4 ,at ?is all ! company1 & ,mr4 & ,mrs4 ,lavoisi] z mu* z any1 express$ great surprise4 ,i told !m t ,i _h got x f precipitatum p] se1 & also f r$ lead4 ,9 #agge ,lavoisi]'s pap]1 ,on ! ,nature ( ! ,pr9ciple :i* comb9es ) ! ,metals dur+ _! ,calc9ation1 & :i* augm5ts _! ,weight1 0 read be=e ! ,academy4 ,! prep>ation & prop]ties ( an air obta9$1 9 ,novemb] #aggd1 f r$ precipitate are describ$1 b ,prie/ley's "n is n m5tion$4 ,x seems probable1 h[ev]1 t ,lavoisi] le>n$ ! exi/5ce & ! mode ( prep>ation ( ?is air f ,prie/ley2#e b we h se5 t ev5 9 #aggi ,prie/ley 0 q 9 ! d>k z to ! true nature ( ! air discov]$ by him 7p4 #fj74 ,9 pap]s publi%$ 9 ! next ?ree or f\r ye>s ,lavoisi] gradually def9$ & m ?or\ghly expla9$ ! ph5om5on ( combu/ion4 ,he burn$ phosphorus 9 a conf9$ volume ( air1 & f\nd t ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! air disappe>$1 t ! residual portion ( air 0 unable to support combu/ion or to su/a9 animal life1 t ! phosphorus 0 conv]t$ into a :ite sub/ance deposit$ on ! sides ( ! vessel 9 :i* ! exp]im5t 0 p]=m$1 & t = ea* gra9 ( phosphorus us$ ab\t two & a half gra9s ( ?is :ite solid 7 obta9$4 ,he fur!r describ$ ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance produc$ by burn+ phosphorus1 gave x ! "n ( phosphoric acid1 & describ$ "s ( ! sub/ances =m$ by comb9+ x ) v>i\s bases4 ,! burn+ ( c&les 9 air 0 ab\t ?is "t /udi$ by ,lavoisi]4 ,he reg>d$ 8 exp]im5ts z prov+ t ! air :i* rema9$ aft] burn+ a c&le1 & 9 :i* animal life c\ld n be su/a9$1 0 really pres5t be=e ! burn+2 t common air consi/$ ( ab\t "o-f\r? "p ( dephlogi/icat$ air & ?ree-f\r?s ( azotic air 7i4e4 air incapable ( su/a9+ life72 & t ! burn+ c&le simply comb9$ )1 & s remov$ ! =m] ( ^!1 & at ! same "t produc$ m or less fix$ air4 ,9 8 treatise on *emi/ry ,lavoisi] describes m fully 8 pro( t ! calc9ation ( a metal consi/s 9 ! removal1 by ! metal1 ( dephlogi/icat$ air 7or oxyg57 f ! atmosph]e1 & t ! metallic calx is simply a comp\nd ( metal & oxyg54 ,! exp]im5ts are /rictly quantitative & are ?or\ghly conclusive4 ,he plac$ f\r ounces ( pure m]cury 9 a glass balloon1 ! neck ( :i* dipp$ b5ea? ! surface ( m]cury 9 a glass di%1 & !n pass$ a little way up into a j> conta9+ fifty cubic in*es ( air1 & /&+ 9 ! m]cury 9 ! di%4 ,!re 0 ?us free communication betwe5 ! air 9 ! balloon & t 9 ! glass j>1 b no communication betwe5 ! air inside & t outside ! :ole app>atus4 ,! m]cury 9 ! balloon 0 heat$ ne>ly to its boil+ po9t = twelve days1 dur+ :i* "t r$-col\r$ specks gradually =m$ on ! surface ( ! metal2 at ! end ( ?is "t x 0 f\nd t ! air 9 ! glass j> measur$ betwe5 =ty-two & =ty-?ree cubic in*es4 ,! r$ specks :5 collect$ am\nt$ to =ty-five gra9s2 !y 7 heat$ 9 a v small retort connect$ ) a graduat$ glass cyl9d] conta9+ m]cury4 ,betwe5 sev5 & eight cubic in*es ( pure dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg57 7 obta9$ 9 ?is cyl9d]1 & =ty-"o & a half gra9s ( metallic m]cury rema9$ :5 ! decomposition ( ! r$ sub/ance 0 complet$4 ,! conclusion drawn by ,lavoisi] f ^! exp]im5ts 0 t m]cury1 :5 heat$ ne>ly to boil+ 9 contact ) air1 )draws oxyg5 f ! air & comb9es ) ?is gas to =m r$ precipitate1 & t :5 ! r$ precipitate :i* has be5 ?us =m$ is /rongly heat$1 x p>ts ) ! :ole ( its oxyg51 & is *ang$ back aga9 into metallic m]cury4 ,lavoisi] _h n[ 7#aggg-gh7 prov$ t ! calces ( m]cury1 t9 & lead are comp\nds ( ^! metals ) oxyg52 & t ! oxyg5 is obta9$ f ! atmosph]e :5 ! metal burns4 ,b ! phlogi/ic *emi/ry 0 n yet ov]?r[n4 ,we h se5 t ! uphold]s ( phlogi/on believ$ t 9 ! inflammable air ( ,cav5di% !y _h at la/ succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! long-s\ght-= phlogi/on4 ,n[ !y triumphantly ask$1 ,:y1 :5 metals dissolve 9 dilut$ vitriolic or muriatic acid ) evolution ( inflammable air1 are calces ( ^! metals produc$8 ,& !y answ]$ z triumphantly1 ,because ^! metals lose phlogi/on by ?is process1 & we "k t a calx is a metal depriv$ ( its phlogi/on4 ,lavoisi] cont5t$ himself ) obs]v+ t a metallic calx always weigh$ m ?an ! metal f :i* x 0 produc$2 & t z inflammable air1 al?\gh mu* light] ?an common air1 0 di/9ctly possess$ ( weight1 x 0 n possible t a metallic calx c\ld be metal depriv$ ( inflammable air4 ,he _h giv5 a simple explanation ( ! process ( calc9ation1 & _h prov$1 by accurate exp]im5ts1 t ?is explanation 0 c]ta9ly true 9 "s cases4 ,al?\gh all ! kn[n facts ab\t solution ( metals 9 acids c\ld n z yet be br\ght )9 8 explanation1 yet none ( ^! facts 0 absolutely contradictory ( t explanation4 ,he 0 cont5t to wait = fur!r k4 ,& to ga9 ?is fur!r k he set ab\t devis+ & p]=m+ new exp]im5ts4 ,! uphold]s ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on laid consid]able /ress on ! fact t metals are produc$ by heat+ metallic calces 9 inflammable air2 ! air is absorb$1 !y said1 & s ! metal is reproduc$4 ,x 0 obvi\sly ( ! utmo/ importance t ,lavoisi] %\ld le>n m ab\t ?is inflammable air1 & especially t he %\ld "k exactly :at happ5$ :5 ?is air 0 burn$4 ,he !re=e prep>$ to burn a l>ge quantity ( inflammable air1 arrang+ ! exp]im5t s t he %\ld be able to collect & exam9e ! product ( ?is burn+1 :atev] %\ld be ! nature ( t product4 ,b at ?is "t ! news 0 br\ght to ,p>is t ,cav5di% _h obta9$ wat] by burn+ mixtures ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ airs4 ,?is mu/ h be5 a mo/ excit+ ann\ncem5t to ,lavoisi]2 he saw h[ mu* dep5d$ on ! accuracy ( ?is /atem5t1 & z a true /ud5t ( ,nature1 he at once set ab\t to prove or disprove x4 ,on ! #bd? ( ,june #aghc1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,k+ & sev]al notabilities 7includ+ ,sir ,*>les ,blagd51 ,secret>y ( ! ,royal ,society1 :o _h told ,lavoisi] ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,cav5di%71 ,lavoisi] & ,laplace burn$ inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ airs1 & obta9$ wat]4 ,z ! result ( ^! exp]im5ts !y det]m9$ t "o volume ( dephlogi/icat$ air comb9es ) #a4ia volumes ( inflammable air to =m wat]4 ,a little lat] ,lavoisi] complet$ ! pro( ( ! composition ( wat] by %[+ t :5 /eam is pass$ ?r\gh a tube conta9+ iron fil+s kept r$ hot1 inflammable air is evolv$ & calx ( iron rema9s 9 ! tube4 ,lavoisi] c\ld n[ expla9 ! conv]sion ( a metallic calx into metal by ! action ( inflammable air2 ?is air decomposes ! calx--t is1 ! metallic oxide--comb9es ) its oxyg5 to =m wat]1 & s ! metal is produc$4 ,:5 a metal is dissolv$ 9 dilut$ vitriolic or muriatic acid a calx is =m$1 because1 accord+ to ,lavoisi]1 ! wat] pres5t is decompos$ by ! metal1 inflammable air is evolv$1 & ! dephlogi/icat$ air ( ! wat] comb9es ) ! metal =m+ a calx1 :i* !n dissolves 9 ! acid4 ,lavoisi] n[ /udi$ ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nds produc$ by burn+ phosphorus1 sulphur & c>bon 9 dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,he f\nd t solutions ( ^! comp\nds 9 wat] _h a m or less s\r ta/e & turn$ c]ta9 blue col\r+ matt]s r$2 b ^! 7 ! prop]ties reg>d$ z especially belong+ to acids4 ,^! products ( combu/ion 9 dephlogi/icat$ air 7 !re=e acids2 b z phosphorus1 c>bon & sulphur 7 n !mselves acids1 ! acid "* ( ! sub/ances obta9$ by burn+ ^! bodies 9 dephlogi/icat$ air mu/ be due to ! pres5ce 9 !m ( ?is air4 ,h5ce ,lavoisi] conclud$ t ?is air is ! sub/ance ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 a comp\nd conf]s acid prop]ties on t comp\nd4 ,?is view ( ! action ( dephlogi/icat$ air he p]petuat$ 9 ! "n oxyg5 7f ,greek1 acid-produc]71 :i* he gave to dephlogi/icat$ air1 & by :i* "n ?is gas has ev] s9ce be5 kn[n4 ,prie/ley 0 ( op9ion t ! atmosph]e is r5d]$ noxi\s by ! brea?+ ( animals1 because x is !reby mu* phlogi/icat$1 & he ?\ght t 8 exp]im5ts r5d]$ x v probable t plants are able to purify ?is noxi\s air by tak+ away phlogi/on f x 7see p4 #fi74 ,b ,lavoisi] 0 n[ able to give a mu* m def9ite acc\nt ( ! effects on ! atmosph]e ( animal & vegetable life4 ,he _h already %[n t ord9>y air conta9s oxyg5 & azote 7nitrog571 & t ! =m] is alone conc]n$ 9 ! process ( combu/ion4 ,he 0 n[ able to %[ t animals dur+ respiration draw 9 air into _! lungs3 t a portion ( ! oxyg5 is !re comb9$ ) c>bon to =m c>bonic acid gas 7z ! fix$ air ( ,black 0 n[ g5]ally call$71 :i* is aga9 expir$ along ) unalt]$ azote4 ,respiration 0 ?us prov$ to be a process *emically analog\s to t ( calc9ation4 ,?us1 ab\t ! ye> #aghd-he1 ! !ory ( phlogi/on appe>$ to be q ov]?r[n4 ,! argum5ts ( its uphold]s1 aft] ?is "t1 7 n f\nd$ on facts2 !y consi/$ ( fanciful int]pretations ( crudely p]=m$ exp]im5ts4 ,cav5di% 0 ! only oppon5t to be dread$ by ! support]s ( ! new *emi/ry4 ,b we h se5 t al?\gh ,cav5di% reta9$ ! language ( ! phlogi/ic !ory 7see pp4 #gh1 #gi7 z 9 8 op9ion equally applicable to ! facts ( combu/ion ) t ( ! new or ,lavoisi]ian !ory1 he nev]!less practically admitt$ ! ess5tial po9t ( ! latt]1 viz4 t calces are comp\nds ( metal & oxyg5 7or dephlogi/icat$ air74 ,al?\gh ,cav5di% 0 ! fir/ to %[ t wat] is produc$ :5 ! two gases hydrog5 & oxyg5 are explod$ toge!r1 x w\ld yet appe> t he did n fully grasp ! fact t wat] is a comp\nd ( ^! two gases2 x 0 left to ,lavoisi] to give a cle> /atem5t ( ?is all-important fact1 & ?us to remove ! la/ prop f "u ! n[ tott]+1 b once /ately edifice built by ,/ahl & 8 successors4 ,! explanation giv5 by ,lavoisi] ( combu/ion 0 to a great ext5t bas$ on a conception ( elem5t & comp\nd v diff]5t f t ( ! old] *emi/s4 ,9 ! ,sceptical ,*ymi/ 7#affa7 ,boyle _h argu$ /rongly aga9/ ! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5t>y pr9ciples1 e>?1 air1 fire & wat]1 z held by ! vulg> *ymi/s4 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! pr9ciples1 or "s ( !m1 9 e comp\nd sub/ance 0 firmly held by mo/ *emi/s 9 ,boyle's "t4 ,!y argu$ ?us3 :5 a piece ( gre5 wood bums1 ! exi/5ce 9 ! wood ( ! pr9ciple ( fire is made evid5t by ! flame1 ( ! pr9ciple ( air by ! smoke :i* asc5ds1 ( t ( wat] by ! hiss+ & boil+ s\nd1 & ( ! pr9ciple ( e>? by ! a%es :i* rema9 :5 ! burn+ is f9i%$4#f ,boyle combat$ ! inf]5ce t because a flame is visible r\nd ! burn+ wood1 & a light air or smoke asc5ds f x1 !re=e ^! pr9ciples 7 conta9$ 9 ! wood be=e combu/ion began4 ,he tri$ to prove by exp]im5ts t "o sub/ance may be obta9$ f ano!r 9 :i* ! fir/ sub/ance did n already exi/2 ?us1 he heat$ wat] = a ye> 9 a clos$ glass vessel1 & obta9$ solid p>ticles heavi] ?an1 & z he suppos$ =m$ f1 ! wat]4 ,we h already le>n$ ! true int]pretation ( ?is exp]im5t f ! "w ( ,lavoisi]4 ,boyle grew v>i\s vegetables 9 wat] only1 & ?\ght t he _h ?us *ang$ wat] into solid vegetable matt]4 ,he tells travell]s' tales ( ! gr[? ( pieces ( iron & o!r metals 9 ! e>? or :ile kept 9 und]gr\nd cell>s4 ,we n[ "k h[ errone\s 9 mo/ po9ts ?is reason+ 01 b we mu/ admit t ,boyle e/abli%$ "o po9t mo/ satisfactorily1 viz4 t because e>?1 or air1 or fire1 or wat] is obta9$ by heat+ or o!rwise decompos+ a sub/ance1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t ! e>?1 or air1 or fire1 or wat] exi/$ z su* 9 ! orig9al sub/ance4 ,he ov]?rew ! doctr9e ( elem5t>y pr9ciples held by ! vulg> *ymi/s4 ,def9+ elem5ts z c]ta9 primitive & simple bodies :i*1 n be+ made ( any o!r bodies1 or ( "o ano!r1 are ! +r$i5ts ( :i* all ^? call$ p]fectly mixt bodies are imm$iately comp\nd$1 & into :i* !y are ultimately resolv$1 ,boyle admitt$ ! possible exi/5ce1 b ?\ght t ! facts kn[n at 8 "t did n w>rant ! ass]tion ( ! c]ta9 exi/5ce1 ( su* elem5ts4 ,! "w ( ,hooke & ,may[ on combu/ion t5d$ to /r5g!n ?is def9ition ( elem5t giv5 by ,boyle4 ,black1 z we h se51 cle>ly prov$ t c]ta9 *emical sub/ances 7 possess$ ( def9ite & unv>y+ composition & prop]ties2 & ,lavoisi]1 indirectly by 8 explanation ( combu/ion1 & directly 9 8 ,treatise on ,*emi/ry1 laid d[n ! def9ition ( elem5t :i* is n[ univ]sally adopt$4 ,an elem5t is a sub/ance f :i* no simpl] =ms ( matt]--t is1 no =ms ( matt] ea* weigh+ less ?an ! orig9al sub/ance--h z yet be5 obta9$4 ,9 ! decade #aggd-aghd *emical sci5ce 0 ?us e/abli%$ on a sure f\ndation by ,lavoisi]4 ,l mo/ great build]s1 :e!r ( physical or m5tal /ructures1 he us$ ! mat]ials ga!r$ by ^? :o came be=e him1 b ! m]it ( arrang+ ^! mat]ials into a well-laid f\ndation1 on :i* ! future build+ might firmly re/1 is due to him alone4 ,! value ( ,lavoisi]'s "w n[ began to be recogniz$ by 8 fell[-*emi/s 9 ,france4 ,9 #aghe ,b]?ollet1 "o ( ! mo/ ris+ ( ! y\ng] ,fr5* *emi/s1 decl>$ himself a conv]t to ! views ( ,lavoisi] on combu/ion4 ,f\rcroy1 ano!r memb] ( ! ,academy1 soon foll[$ ! example ( ,b]?ollet4 ,f\rcroy1 kn[+ ! weakness ( 8 c\ntrym51 saw t if ! new views c\ld be made to appe> z especially ! views ( ,fr5*m51 ! victory w\ld be won2 he !re=e gave to ! !ory ( ,lavoisi] ! "n ,la *imie ,francaise4 ,al?\gh ?is "n 0 obvi\sly unfair to ,lavoisi]1 x nev]!less caus$ ! antiphlogi/ic !ory to be id5tifi$ ) ! ,fr5* *emi/s1 & succe$$ 9 impress+ ! ,fr5* public g5]ally ) ! idea t to hold to ! old !ory 0 to be a traitor to ! glory ( "o's c\ntry4 ,m4 de ,morveau1 :o held a prom95t place bo? 9 politics & sci5ce1 0 invit$ to ,p>is1 & be=e long 0 p]suad$ to embrace ! new !ory4 ,?is conv]sion--= ! :ole matt] 0 manag$ z if x _h be5 a political intrigue r ?an a philosophical inquiry--0 ( great importance to ,lavoisi] & 8 fri5ds4 ,m4 de ,morveau 0 editor ( ! *emical "p ( ! ,encyclop$ie ,me?odique2 9 t "p ( ?is "w :i* _h appe>$ be=e #aghd ,de ,morveau _h skilfully oppos$ ! op9ions ( ,lavoisi]1 b 9 ! second "p ( ! "w he introduc$ an adv]tisem5t ann\nc+ ! *ange 9 8 op9ions on ! subject ( combu/ion1 & giv+ 8 reasons = ?is *ange4 ,! importance ( hav+ a def9ite language 9 e sci5ce is app>5t at ea* /ep ( advance4 ,lavoisi] f\nd great difficulty 9 mak+ 8 op9ions cle> because he 0 oblig$ to use a language :i* _h be5 introduc$ by ! phlogi/ic *emi/s1 & :i* bore ! impress ( t !ory on mo/ ( its t]ms4 ,ab\t ! ye>s #aghe-aghg1 ,lavoisi]1 ,b]?ollet1 ,f\rcroy & ,de ,morveau drew up a new sy/em ( *emical nom5clature4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( t sy/em h rema9$ z ^? ( e nom5clature s9ce propos$4 ,!y are briefly ^!3-- ,an elem5t is a sub/ance f :i* no =m ( matt] simpl] ?an itself has z yet be5 obta9$4 ,e sub/ance is to be reg>d$ z an elem5t until x is prov$ to be o!rwise4 ,! "n ( e comp\nd is to tell ( :at elem5ts ! sub/ance is compos$1 & x is to express z f> z possible ! relative am\nts ( ! elem5ts :i* g to =m ! comp\nd4 ,?us ! comp\nds ( oxyg5 ) any o!r elem5t 7 call$ oxides1 e4g4 iron oxide1 m]cury oxide1 t9 oxide1 etc4 ,:5 two oxides ( iron came to be kn[n1 "o conta9+ m oxyg5 relatively to ! am\nt ( iron pres5t ?an ! o!r1 t ) ! great] quantity ( oxyg5 0 call$ iron p]oxide1 & t ) ! small] quantity iron protoxide4 ,we n[ g5]ally pref] to use ! "n ( ! elem5t o!r ?an oxyg5 9 adjectival =m1 & to indicate ! relatively small] or great] quantity ( oxyg5 pres5t by modifications 9 ! t]m9ation ( ?is adjective4 ,?us iron protoxide is n[ g5]ally kn[n z f]rous oxide1 & iron p]oxide z f]ric oxide4 ,b ! pr9ciples laid d[n by ! f\r ,fr5* *emi/s 9 #aghe-aghg rema9 z ! gr\ndwork ( our pres5t sy/em ( nom5clature4 ,! antiphlogi/ic !ory 0 soon adopt$ by all ,fr5* *emi/s ( note4 ,we h already se5 t ,black1 ) 8 usual c&\r & op5ness to conviction1 adopt$ & taught ?is !ory1 & we are assur$ by ,dr4 ,?omas ,?omson t :5 he att5d$ ,black's classes1 n9e ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! ,fr5* sy/em ( nom5clature1 t sy/em 0 9 g5]al use among ! *emical /ud5ts ( ! univ]sity4 ,! old] !ory 0 naturally upheld by ! c\ntrym5 ( ! di/+ui%$ ,/ahl aft] x _h be5 giv5 up 9 ,france4 ,9 ! ye> #agib ,klapro?1 :o 0 !n ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,b]l91 propos$ to ! ,b]l9 ,academy ( ,sci5ces to repeat ! m important exp]im5ts on :i* ! ,lavoisi]ian !ory re/$1 be=e ! ,academy4 ,8 (f] 0 accept$1 & f t "t mo/ ( ! ,b]l9 *emi/s decl>$ !mselves 9 fav\r ( ! new !ory4 ,by ! close ( la/ c5tury ! tea*+ ( ,lavoisi] reg>d+ combu/ion f\nd almo/ univ]sal ass5t among *emi/s4 ,b ?is tea*+ c>ri$ ) x1 z necess>y p>ts1 ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 elem5t & comp\nd2 ! d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( pr9ciples or ess5ces2 ! recognition ( ! /udy ( actually occurr+ reactions betwe5 sub/ances z ! basis on :i* all true *emical k 0 to be built2 & ! full ackn[l$gm5t ( ! fact t matt] is nei!r creat$ nor de/roy$1 b only *ang$ z to its =m1 9 any *emical reaction4 ,( ,lavoisi]'s o!r "w ,i c only m5tion ! pap] on ,specific ,heats contribut$ by ,laplace & ,lavoisi] to ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghj4 ,9 ?is pap] is describ$ ! ice calorimet]1 :]eby ! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by a sub/ance 9 cool+ f "o def9ite temp]ature to ano!r is det]m9$1 by measur+ ! am\nt ( ice conv]t$ into wat] by ! heat$ sub/ance 9 cool+ ?r\gh ! /at$ int]val ( temp]ature4 ,! specific heats ( v>i\s sub/ances1 e4g4 iron1 glass1 m]cury1 quicklime1 etc41 7 det]m9$ by ! help ( ?is in/rum5t4 ,z we read ! record ( "w done by ,lavoisi] dur+ ! ye>s betwe5 #aggd & #agid--"w :i* mu/ h involv$ a great am\nt ( conc5trat$ ?\ght z well z ! exp5diture ( mu* "t--we f9d x h>d to realize t ! mo/ trem5d\s political & social revolution :i* ! mod]n _w has se5 0 rag+ ar\nd him dur+ ?is "t4 ,9 ! e>li] days ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 & 9 ! "t imm$iately prec$+ t movem5t1 _m m9ds _h be5 /irr$ to see ! importance ( ! /udy ( ,nature2 b x 0 impossible t natural sci5ce %\ld cont9ue to fl\ri% :5 ! tyrant ,robespi]re _h begun ! ,reign ( ,t]ror4 ,! roll ( ^? :o p]i%$ dur+ ?is "t conta9s no m illu/ri\s "n ?an t ( ,anto9e ,laur5t ,lavoisi]4 ,9 ! ye> #agid ,lavoisi]1 :o _h = "s "t act$ z a f]mi]-g5]al "u ! ,gov]nm5t1 0 accus$ ( mix+ ) ! tobacco wat] & o!r +r$i5ts hurtful to ! heal? ( ! citiz5s4 ,on ?is pretext he & "s ( 8 colleagues 7 condemn$ to dea?4 ,= "s days ,lavoisi] f\nd a hid+-place among 8 fri5ds1 b he>+ t 8 colleagues _h be5 arre/$1 he deliv]$ himself up to ! au?orities1 only ask+ t ! dea? s5t5ce %\ld n be execut$ until he _h complet$ ! rese>* 9 :i* he 0 engag$2 n t he 0 unwill+ to "p ) life1 b because he ?\ght ! results w\ld be = ! good ( humanity4 ,! ,republic has no ne$ ( *emi/s2 ! c\rse ( ju/ice _c be susp5d$1 0 ! reply4 ,on ! #h? ( ,may #agid1 ! guillot9e did its "w2 & 9 8 fifty-fir/ ye> ,lavoisi] jo9$ ! majority4 ,to ! hon\r ( ! ,academy ( :i* he 0 s illu/ri\s a memb] x is record$ t a deputation ( 8 fell[-work]s 9 sci5ce1 brav+ ! wra? ( ,robespi]re1 p5etrat$ to ! dungeons ( ! prison & plac$ a wrea? on ! grave ( _! comrade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! p]iod ( ! infancy ( *emical sci5ce :i* ,i h n[ briefly describ$ is broadly contemporane\s ) ! second half ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,at ?is "t ! m9ds ( m5 7 greatly /irr$4 ,op9ions & beliefs consecrat$ by ! ass5t ( g5]ations ( m5 7 que/ion$ or d5i$2 ! pret5sions ( civil & ecclesia/ical au?orities 7 )/ood2 ass]tions h[ev] /rongly made1 & by :atev] au?ority support$1 7 met by dem&s = reasons4 ,9 ,france ?is revolt aga9/ m]e au?ority 0 especially m>k$4 ,l$ by ! great ?9k] ,voltaire1 ! ,fr5* philosoph]s attack$ ! g5]ally accept$ views 9 moral1 !ological & hi/orical matt]s4 ,a little lat] !y began to turn ) eag] att5tion & hope to ! facts ( ext]nal ,nature4 ,physical sci5ce 0 cultivat$ ) wond]ful vig\r & ) surpris+ success4 ,9 ! sci5ces ( heat & light we h at ?is "t ! all-important works ( ,f\ri]1 ,prevo/ & ,fresnel2 9 geology & natural hi/ory we h ,buffon & ,cuvi]2 ! "n ( ,bi*at m>ks ! beg9n+ ( biological sci5ce1 & *emi/ry takes rank z a sci5ce only f ! "t ( ,lavoisi]4 ,f ! philosoph]s an int]e/ 9 natural sci5ce spread ?r\gh ! mass ( ! p4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahgj ! lecture-rooms ( ! great tea*]s ( *emi/ry1 a/ronomy1 electricity1 & ev5 anatomy 7 cr[d$ ) ladies & g5tlem5 ( fa%ion 9 ! ,fr5* capital4 ,a simil> /ate ( matt]s 0 noticeable 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,dr4 ,black's lecture !atre 0 fill$ by an audi5ce :i* compris$ _m "y m5 ( good position4 ,to "k some?+ ( *emi/ry became an ess5tial "p ( ! tra9+ ( all :o desir$ to be lib]ally educat$4 ,! secrets ( ,nature 7 n[ rapidly explor$2 a/oni%+ advances 7 made1 & z a matt] ( c\rse mu* opposition 0 rais$4 ,9 ?is active1 inquir+ atmosph]e ! "y sci5ce ( *emi/ry grew t[>ds maturity4 ,prie/ley1 ev] seek+ = new facts1 ann\nc+ discov]y aft] discov]y1 attack+ popul> belief 9 mo/ matt]s1 yet satisfi$ to int]pret 8 sci5tific discov]ies 9 t]ms ( ! hypo!sis ) :i* he 0 mo/ famili>1 0 ! pione] ( ! advanc+ sci5ce4 ,he may be comp>$ to ! advance-gu>d s5t =w>d by ! explor]s ( a new c\ntry ) ord]s to cle> a way = ! ma9 body3 8 "w 0 n to level ! r\gh p>ts ( ! way1 or to fill 9 ! miry places ) well-laid metal1 b r rapidly to make a road z f> into ! he>t ( ! c\ntry z possible4 ,& we h se5 h[ well he did ! "w4 ,9 8 discov]y ( v>i\s k9ds ( airs1 notably ( oxyg51 he laid ! basis ( ! great g5]alizations ( ,lavoisi]1 &1 :at 0 p]haps ( ev5 m importance1 he introduc$ a new me?od into *emi/ry4 ,he %[$ ! exi/5ce ( a new & unexplor$ region4 ,be=e 8 "t1 ,hooke & ,may[ _h prov$ ! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o k9d ( air1 b ! *emi/ry ( gases arose ) ! discov]ies ( ,prie/ley4 ,al?\gh ,black's *ief rese>*1 on fix$ air & on lat5t heat1 0 complet$ fifte5 or tw5ty ye>s be=e ,prie/ley's discov]y ( oxyg51 yet ! k9d ( "w done by ,black1 & its influ5ce on *emical sci5ce1 m>k him z com+ aft] ,prie/ley 9 ord] ( developm5t4 ,we h se5 t ! "w ( ,black 0 *>act]iz$ by ?or\ghness & sugge/iv5ess4 ,! l>g5ess ( scope1 ! bread? ( view1 ( ?is great philosoph] are be/ illu/rat$ 9 8 disc\rses on heat2 he !re leads u ) him 9 8 survey ( ! doma9 ( ,nature1 & al?\gh he tells u t hypo!ses are a m]e wa/e ( "t1 we f9d t x is by ! /r5g? ( 8 imag9ation t he comm&s ass5t4 ,b he nev] all[s ! imag9ation to deg5]ate into fanciful guesses2 he vigor\sly te/s ! fundam5tal facts ( 8 !ory1 & !n he uses ! imag9ation 9 develop+ ! necess>y consequ5ces ( ^! facts4 ,to ,black we owe n only ! fir/ rigor\sly accurate *emical inve/igation1 b also ! e/abli%m5t ( j ideas conc]n+ ! nature ( heat4 ,b ,lavoisi] came be=e u z a great] ?an ei!r ,prie/ley or ,black4 ,to great accuracy & great bread? ( view he add$ wond]ful p[] ( g5]aliz+2 ) ^!1 aid$ by m>k$ m5tal activity &1 on ! :ole1 fav\rable ext]nal circum/ances1 he 0 able f9ally to ov]?r[ ! loose op9ions reg>d+ combu/ion & elem5t>y pr9ciples :i* prevail$ be=e 8 "t1 & s to e/abli% *emi/ry z "o ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,at ! close ( ! fir/ p]iod ( advance we f9d t ! sph]e ( *emi/ry has be5 def9$2 t ! object ( ! sci5ce has be5 laid d[n1 z be+ to f9d an explanation ( ! rem>kable *anges notic$ 9 ! prop]ties ( bodies2 t z a fir/ /ep t[>ds ! wi%$-= explanation1 all mat]ial sub/ances h be5 divid$ by ! *emi/ into elem5ts & comp\nds2 t an elem5t has be5 def9$ z any k9d ( matt] f a giv5 weight ( :i* no simpl] =ms ( matt]--t is1 no k9ds ( matt] ea* weigh+ less ?an ! orig9al matt]--h z yet be5 obta9$2 t ! great pr9ciple ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] has be5 e/abli%$1 viz4 t h[ev] ! prop]ties ( matt] may be alt]$1 yet ! total mass 7or quantity7 rema9s un*ang$2 & la/ly1 we f9d t an explanation ( "o important class ( *emical *anges--^? *anges :i* occur :5 sub/ances burn--has be5 f\nd4 ,& we h also le>n$ t ! me?od by :i* ^! results 7 obta9$ 0 ?is--to g to ,nature1 to obs]ve & exp]im5t accurately1 to consid] c>efully ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts1 & s to =m a g5]al hypo!sis2 by ! use ( ! m5tal p[]s1 & notably by ! use ( ! imag9ation1 to develop ! necess>y d$uctions f ?is hypo!sis2 & f9ally1 to try ^! d$uctions by aga9 inquir+ f ,nature :e!r ^! ?+s 7 s4 ,be=e ! "t :i* we h be5 consid]+ ! pa?s ( *emical sci5ce _h sc>cely yet be5 trodd54 ,ea* discov]y 0 full ( promise1 ea* advance display$ ! possibility ( fur!r progress2 ! atmosph]e 0 fill$ z ) a mighty ru%+ w9d ready to sweep away ! old ord] ( ?+s4 ,! age 0 an age ( d\bt & ( fre$om f ! trammels ( au?ority2 x 0 a "t em95tly suit$ = mak+ advances 9 natural k4 ,9 ! unceas+ activity ( ,prie/ley & ,lavoisi] we may trace ! influ5ce ( ! re/lessness ( ! age2 b 9 ! quietness & /r5g? ( ! be/ "w ( ^! m51 & notably 9 ! "w ( ,black2 9 ! calmness ) :i* ,prie/ley bore 8 mis=tunes at ,birm+ham2 9 ! noble words ( ,lavoisi]1 ,i am n unwill+ to "p ) life1 b ,i ask "t to f9i% my exp]im5ts1 because ! results w1 ,i believe1 be = ! good ( humanity--we see ! tru? ( ! ass]tion made by "o :o 0 himself a fai?ful /ud5t ( ,nature-- ,nature nev] did betray ,! he>t t lov$ h]4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,! translation is tak5 f ,?omson's ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 #e ,nev]!less1 9 o!r places ,lavoisi] mo/ readily ackn[l$ges ! m]its ( ,prie/ley4 #f ,a simil> me?od ( reason+ 0 employ$ s f> back z ! t5? c5tury3 ?us1 9 an ,anglo-,saxon ,manual ( ,a/ronomy we read1 ,!re is no corporeal ?+ :i* has n 9 x ! f\r elem5ts1 t is1 air & fire1 e>? & wat]4444 ,take a /ick & rub x on some?+1 x becomes hot directly ) ! fire :i* lurks 9 x2 burn "o end1 !n goe? ! moi/ure out at ! o!r end ) ! smoke4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emical ,,sci5ce--,,p]iod ,,( ,,dalton4 ,john ,dalton1 #agff-ahdd4 ,! progress ( *emical k became s rapid 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! pres5t c5tury1 t al?\gh ,i h 9 ?is *apt] call$ ! "t imm$iately succe$+ t ( ,lavoisi] ! p]iod ( ,john ,dalton1 & al?\gh ,i %all attempt to describe ! advances made by ?is philosoph] )\t consid]+ ^? ( 8 contempor>ies ,davy & ,b]zelius1 yet ,i mu/ insi/ on ! facts t ?is arrangem5t is made purely = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 & t _m ( ! discov]ies ( ,davy1 ,b]zelius & o!rs came 9 ord] ( "t be=e1 or foll[$ close ^u ! publication ( ,dalton's atomic !ory4 ,nev]!less1 z ! "w ( ^! m5 belongs 9 its ess5ce to ! mod]n p]iod1 & z ! promulgation ( ! atomic !ory by ,dalton m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod1 x seems bett] t we %\ld h a cle> conception ( :at 0 done by ?is *emi/ be=e proce$+ to consid] ! advances made by 8 contempor>ies & successors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,john ,,dalton1 ! second ( ?ree *ildr5 ( ,joseph & ,deborah ,dalton1 0 born at ,eaglesfield1 a village ne> ,cock]m\?1 9 ,cumb]l&1 on ! #e? ( ,septemb] #agff4 ,"o ( ! fir/ meet+-h\ses e/abli%$ by ! ,society ( ,fri5ds is to be f\nd 9 ,eaglesfield4 ,! ,dalton family _h be5 settl$ = sev]al g5]ations on a small copyhold e/ate 9 ?is village4 ,! fir/ ( !m to jo9 ! ,fri5ds 0 ! gr&fa!r ( ,john ,dalton2 8 desc5dants rema9$ fai?ful adh]5ts ( ?is society4 ,dalton att5d$ ! village s*ools ( ,eaglesfield & ! neighb\rhood until he 0 elev5 ye>s old1 by :i* "t1 9 addition to le>n+ read+1 writ+ & ari?metic1 he _h gone ?r\gh a c\rse ( m5suration1 survey+1 navigation1 etc4 ,at ! age ( t5 8 ta/e = measurem5ts & calculations began to be rem>k$ by ^? ar\nd him2 ?is ta/e 0 enc\rag$ by ,mr4 ,rob9son1 a relative ( ,dalton1 :o recogniz+ ! indomitable p]sev]ance ( ! boy appe>s to h tak5 "s c>e ab\t ?is "t 9 direct+ 8 ma!matical /udies4 ,at ! e>ly age ( twelve ,dalton affix$ to ! door ( 8 fa!r's h\se a l>ge %eet ( pap] :]eon he ann\nc$ t he _h op5$ a s*ool = y\? ( bo? sexes2 also t pap]1 p5s & ink 7 sold )94 ,! boy-tea*] _h little au?ority ov] 8 pupils1 :o *all5g$ _! ma/] to fight 9 ! gravey>d1 & broke ! w9d[s ( ! room into :i* !y _h be5 lock$ till _! tasks %\ld be le>n$4 ,:5 he 0 fifte5 ye>s old ,dalton remov$ to ,k5dal1 :]e he cont9u$ = elev5 or twelve ye>s1 at fir/ z assi/ant-ma/]1 & !n1 along ) 8 eld] bro!r ,jona?an1 z pr9cipal ( a bo>d+ s*ool = boys4 ,x 0 ann\nc$ by ! bro!rs t 9 ?is s*ool y\? w be c>efully in/ruct$ 9 ,engli%1 ,lat91 ,greek & ,fr5*2 also writ+1 ari?metic1 m]*ants' acc\nts & ! ma!matics4 ,! s*ool 0 n v successful4 ,bo? bro!rs 7 h>d1 inflexible1 & unga9ly 9 _! habits1 & nei!r 0 fitt$ to become a successful tea*] ( boys3 ( ! two1 ,john _h ! g5tl] disposition1 & 0 pref]r$ by ! boys2 besides1 8 m9d 0 s occupi$ by ma!matics t _! faults escap$ 8 notice4 ,dur+ ?is "t ,dalton employ$ 8 leisure 9 le>n+ ,lat91 ,greek & ,fr5*1 & 9 pursu+ 8 /udies 9 ma!matics & natural philosophy4 ,he became a frequ5t contributor to ! ,g5tlem5's ,di>y1 a pap] :i* receiv$ problems ( v>i\s k9ds--*iefly ma!matical--& pres5t$ prizes = _! successful solution4 ,besides sett+ & answ]+ ma!matical problems 9 ?is j\rnal1 & also 9 ! ,ladies' ,di>y1 ,dalton sometimes v5tur$ into ! wid] fields ( m5tal ph5om5a4 ,x seems /range to read t1 ev5 at ! age ( tw5ty-six1 ,dalton %\ld occupy 8 leisure "t compos+ answ]s to su* qu]ies z ^!3-- ,:e!r1 to a g5]\s m9d1 is ! conf]r+ or receiv+ an obligation1 ! great] pleasure8 ,is x possible = a p]son ( s5sibility & virtue1 :o has once felt ! passion ( love 9 ! fulle/ ext5t t ! human he>t is capable ( receiv+ x 7be+ by dea? or "s o!r circum/ance = ev] depriv$ ( ! object ( its wi%es71 ev] to feel an equal passion = any o!r object8 ,9 8 answ] to ! second ( ^! qu]ies1 ,dalton c>efully fram$ two hypo!ses1 & z c>efully drew conclusions f ea*4 ,! "q 9 ! ,di>y 0 by ,mira2 if ,mira 7 a raptur\s maid5 %e w\ld n d]ive mu* com=t f ! cold & ma!matical answ] by ,mr4 ,john ,dalton ( ,k5dal4 ,at ,k5dal ,dalton made ! acqua9tance ( ,mr4 ,g\gh1 :o 0 ab\t eight ye>s old] ?an ,dalton1 & _h be5 bl9d f ! age ( two4 ,mr4 ,g\gh1 we are assur$ by ,dalton1 0 a p]fect ma/] ( ! ,lat91 ,greek & ,fr5* tongues2 he und]/ood well all ! diff]5t bran*es ( ma!matics2 !re 0 no bran* ( natural philosophy b :at he 0 well acqua9t$ )2 he knew by ! t\*1 ta/e & smell1 almo/ e plant )9 tw5ty miles ( ,k5dal4 ,to ! fri5d%ip ( ?is rem>kable man ,dalton ow$ mu*2 ) 8 help he acquir$ a fair k ( ! classical languages1 & he x 0 :o set ,dalton ! example ( keep+ a regul> record ( wea!r obs]vations4 ,on ! #bd? ( ,m>* #aghg ,dalton made 8 fir/ entry 9 a book :i* he entitl$ ,obs]vations on ! ,wea!r1 etc42 ! la/ entry 9 ?is book he made fifty-sev5 ye>s lat] on ! ev5+ prec$+ 8 dea?4 ,! importance ( ,dalton's meteorological obs]vations1 z lead+ him to ! conception ( ! atomic !ory1 w be notic$ z we proce$4 ,9 ! ye> #agic ,dalton1 :o 0 n[ tw5ty-sev5 ye>s ( age1 0 invit$ to ,man*e/] to become tutor 9 ! ma!matical & natural philosophy dep>tm5t ( a college rec5tly e/abli%$ by influ5tial ,diss5t]s 9 t t[n4 ,eighty p\nds = ! session ( t5 mon?s 0 gu>ante$ him2 & he 0 provid$ ) rooms & commons 9 ! college at a *>ge ( ,l#bg #ajs4 p] session4 ,he held ?is appo9tm5t = six ye>s1 :5 he retir$1 & cont9u+ to live 9 ,man*e/] devot$ himself to rese>*es 9 natural philosophy1 ga9+ a liv+ by giv+ private lessons 9 ma!matics & physical sci5ce at a *>ge ( #bs4 #f;d4 p] h\r1 or #as4 #f;d4 ea* if m ?an two pupils att5d$ at ! same "t4 ,dalton 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,lit]>y & ,philosophical ,society ( ,man*e/] 9 ! ye> #agid2 & f ! "t ( 8 retir+ f ! tutor%ip ( ,man*e/] ,new ,college till ! close ( 8 life he sp5t a great "p ( 8 "t 9 a room 9 ! society's h\se 9 ,george ,/reet1 9 /udy+ & tea*+4 ,! fifty ye>s ?us sp5t are m>k$ by few outw>d ev5ts4 ,! hi/ory ( ,dalton's life f ?is "t is ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( 8 intellect1 & ! record ( 8 sci5tific discov]ies4 ,on "o occasion dur+ ,dalton's /ay at ,k5dal1 z he 0 ab\t to make a visit to 8 native village1 he be?\ght himself t ! pres5t ( a pair ( silk5 hose w\ld be acceptable to 8 "m4 ,he accord+ly pur*as$ a pair m>k$ newe/ fa%ion2 b 8 "m's rem>k1 ,?\ ha/ br\ght me a pair ( gr& hose1 ,john2 b :at made !e fancy s light a col\r8 ,i c nev] %[ myself at meet+ 9 !m1 r disconc]t$ him1 z to 8 eyes ! hose 7 ( ! or?odox drab col\r4 ,8 "m insi/$ t ! /ock+s 7 z r$ z a *]ry4 ,john's bro!r upheld ! drab side ( ! dispute2 s ! neighb\rs 7 call$ 91 & gave _! decision t ! hose 7 v>ra f9e /uff1 b uncommon sc>lety4 ,f ?is "t ,dalton made obs]vations on ! peculi>ities ( 8 own vision & t ( o!rs1 & 9 8 fir/ pap] read be=e ! ,lit]>y & ,philosophical ,society 9 #agid1 he describ$ ^! peculi>ities4 ,he says1 ,s9ce ! ye> #agij ! occasional /udy ( botany oblig$ me to att5d m to col\r ?an be=e4 ,) respect to col\rs t 7 :ite1 yell[1 or gre51 ,i readily ass5t$ to ! appropriate t]m2 blue1 purple1 p9k & crimson appe>$ r less di/+ui%able1 be+1 accord+ to my idea1 all ref]able to blue4 ,i h (t5 s]i\sly ask$ a p]son :e!r a fl[] 0 blue or p9k1 b 0 g5]ally consid]$ to be 9 je/4 ,dalton's col\r-bl9dness 0 amus+ly illu/rat$ at a lat] "t1 :5 hav+ be5 creat$ ,d4,c4,l4 by ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d he cont9u$ to we> ! r$ robes ( 8 degree = "s days2 & :5 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ! some:at /range ph5om5on1 ev5 9 a univ]sity t[n1 ( an eld]ly g5tleman 9 ! dress ( a ,quak] p]ambulat+ ! t[n day aft] day 9 a sc>let robe1 he rem>k$ t to him ! g[n appe>$ to be ( ! same col\r z ! gre5 trees4 ,dalton's "w dur+ ! next six or eight ye>s dealt *iefly ) problems sugge/$ by 8 meteorological obs]vations2 he publi%$ a volume on ,meteorological ,obs]vations & ,essays1 *iefly occupi$ ) descriptions ( ! in/rum5ts employ$1 m especially ( ! !rmomet] & b>omet]1 & an in/rum5t = det]m9+ ! dew-po9t ( air4 ,by ?is "t he _h e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( a connection ( "s k9d betwe5 magnetism & ! aurora1 & _h ?us laid ! f\ndations ( a mo/ important bran* ( meteorology4 ,9 #agii1 9 a note to a pap] on ra9 & dew1 he beg9s 8 "w on aque\s vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e by prov+ t wat] vap\r exi/s z su* 9 ! air4 ,?is pap] is quickly foll[$ by ano!r on ! conduct+ p[] ( wat] = heat4 ,a v important pap] 0 publi%$ 9 #ahja1 on ! ,con/itution ( ,mix$ ,gases1 etc41 :]e9 ,dalton ass]t$ t ! total pressure ( a mixture ( two gases on ! walls ( ! conta9+ vessel is equal to ! sum ( ! pressures ( ea* gas2 9 o!r words1 t if "o gas is remov$ ! pressure n[ ex]t$ by ! rema9+ gas is exactly ! same z 0 ex]t$ by t gas 9 ! orig9al mixture4 ,9 a pap] publi%$ mu* lat] 7#ahbf71 :5 8 views & exp]im5ts on ?is subject 7 matur$1 he writes3 ,x appe>s to me z completely demon/rat$ z any physical pr9ciple1 t :5ev] two or m 444 gases or vap\rs 444 are put toge!r1 ei!r into a limit$ or unlimit$ space1 !y w f9ally be arrang$ ea* z if x occupi$ ! :ole space1 & ! o!rs 7 n pres5t2 ! nature ( ! fluids & gravitation be+ ! only efficaci\s ag5ts4 ,?is conclusion 0 foll[$ out & ext5d$ 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 #ahjc1 on ! absorption ( gases by wat] & o!r liquids1 :]e9 he /ates t ! am\nt ( ea* gas me*anically dissolv$ by a liquid f a mixture ( gases dep5ds only on ! quantity ( t gas 9 ! mixture1 ! o!r gases ex]t+ no influ5ce 9 ?is respect4 ,dalton n[ consid]$ ! v>iation 9 ! pressures ( v>i\s gases caus$ by increas+ or decreas+ temp]ature1 & !n proce$$ to discuss ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! volumes ( gases & ! temp]ature at :i* ^! volumes are measur$4 ,he conclud$ t all ela/ic fluids "u ! same pressure exp& equally by heat3 & he adds ! v important rem>k1 ,x seems1 !re=e1 t g5]al laws respect+ ! absolute quantity & ! nature ( heat are m likely to be d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ela/ic fluids ?an ( o!r sub/ances--a rem>k ! pr(\nd tru? ( :i* has be5 emphasiz$ by ea* /ep 9 ! advances made 9 our conception ( ! nature ( heat s9ce ! "t ( ,dalton4 ,9 ^! pap]s on ! ,con/itution ( ,mix$ ,gases ,dalton also describes & illu/rates a me?od :]eby ! actual am\nt ( wat] vap\r 9 a giv5 bulk ( atmosph]ic air may be f\nd f a k ( ! dew-po9t ( t air1 t is1 ! temp]ature at :i* ! deposition ( wat] 9 ! liquid =m beg9s4 ,! introduction ( ?is me?od = f9d+ ! humidity ( air m>ks an important advance 9 ! hi/ory ( meteorology4 ,9 ?is s]ies ( pap]s publi%$ )9 ! fir/ ?ree ye>s ( ! pres5t c5tury ,dalton evid5tly _h be=e 8 m9d's eye a picture ( a gas z a quantity ( matt] built up ( small b indep5d5t p>ticles2 he con/antly speaks ( pressures betwe5 ! small p>ticles ( ela/ic fluids1 ( ^! p>ticles z repell+ ea* o!r1 etc4 ,9 8 ,new ,sy/em he says1 ,a vessel full ( any pure ela/ic fluid pres5ts to ! imag9ation a picture l "o full ( small %ot4 ,x is v important to notice t ,dalton makes use ( ?is conception ( small p>ticles to expla9 purely physical exp]im5ts & op]ations4 ,al?\gh we "k t dur+ ^! ye>s he 0 ?9k+ mu* ( *emical comb9ations1 yet we f9d t x 0 8 obs]vations on ! wea!r :i* l$ him to ! conception--a purely physical conception--( ea* *emically di/9ct gas z be+ built up ( a va/ numb] ( small1 equally heavy p>ticles4 ,a consid]ation ( ^! pap]s by ,dalton on ! con/itution ( mix$ gases %[s u ! me?od :i* he pursu$ 9 8 inve/igations4 ,! progress ( philosophical k1 he says1 is advanc$ by ! discov]y ( new & important facts2 b mu* m :5 ^! facts lead to ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al laws4 ,dalton always /rove to atta9 to g5]al laws4 ,! facts :i* he describes are frequ5tly inaccurate2 he 0 s+ul>ly defici5t 9 manipulation1 & he _c claim a high place z a c>eful exp]im5t]4 ,he 0 h[ev] able to draw g5]al conclusions ( wide applicability4 ,he seems sometimes to h /at$ a g5]alization 9 def9ite =m be=e he _h obta9$ any exp]im5tal v]ification ( x4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjb ,dalton conduct$ an exam9ation ( air f v>i\s localities1 & conclud$ t "o hundr$ volumes ( air are compos$ ( tw5ty-"o volumes ( oxyg5 & sev5ty-n9e volumes ( nitrog54 ,?is appe>s to h be5 8 fir/ piece ( purely *emical "w4 ,b 9 ! next ye> he aga9 returns to physical ph5om5a4 ,9 ! pap] already ref]r$ to1 on ! absorption ( gases by wat] & o!r liquids1 publi%$ 9 ?is ye>1 he _h /at$ t ,all gases t ent] into wat] & o!r liquids by means ( pressure1 & are :olly dis5gag$ aga9 by ! removal ( t pressure1 are me*anically mix$ ) ! liquid1 & n *emically comb9$ ) x4 ,b if ?is be s1 :y1 he ask$1 does n wat] me*anically dissolve ! same bulk ( e k9d ( gas8 ,! answ] :i* he gives to ?is "q is f\nd at ! close ( ! pap]2 to ! /ud5t ( *emi/ry x is v important3-- ,?is "q ,i h duly consid]$1 & ?\gh ,i am n yet able to satisfy myself completely1 ,i am ne>ly p]suad$ t ! circum/ance dep5ds ^u ! weight & numb] ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( ! sev]al gases1 ^? ^: p>ticles are lighte/ & s+le be+ lea/ absorbable1 & ! o!rs m1 accord+ly z !y increase 9 weight & complexity4 ,an inquiry into ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies is a subject1 z f> z ,i "k1 entirely new4 ,i h lately be5 prosecut+ ?is inquiry ) rem>kable success4 ,! pr9ciple _c be ent]$ ^u 9 ?is pap]2 b ,i %all j subjo9 ! results1 z f> z !y appe> to be asc]ta9$ by my exp]im5ts4 ,!n foll[s a ,table ( ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( gase\s & o!r bodies4 ,! foll[+ numb]s1 among o!rs1 are giv53-- ,hydrog5 #a ,sulphur #ad4d ,oxyg5 #e4e ,alcohol #ae4a ,azote #d4b ,nitr\s oxide #ac4g ,phosphorus #g4b ,e!r #i4f ,"h is ! beg9n+ ( ! atomic !ory2 & yet ,dalton's /rictly *emical exp]im5tal "w lies 9 ! future4 ,! scope ( ! !ory is def9$ 9 t s5t5ce--,an inquiry into ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies4 ,8 pap] on mix$ gases is illu/rat$ by a plate1#g :i* %[s h[ vividly ,dalton at ?is "t pictur$ to himself a quantity ( gas z compos$ ( _m little p>ticles1 & h[ cle>ly he recogniz$ ! necessity ( reg>d+ all ! p>ticles ( ea* elem5t>y gas z alike1 b z diff]+ f ^? ( e o!r elem5t>y gas4 ,9 #ahjd ,dalton 0 invit$ to deliv] a c\rse ( lectures 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,london1 on heat1 mix$ gases & simil> subjects4 ,9 ^! lectures he exp\nd$ 8 views on ! con/itution ( gases1 on absorption ( gases by liquids1 etc4 ,^! views drew mu* att5tion 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries4 ,!y are busy ) !m1 he writes 9 #ahjd1 at ,london1 ,ed9burgh1 ,p>is & 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,g]many1 "s ma9ta9+ "o side & "s ano!r4 ,! tru? w surely out at la/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b ,dalton's love ( num]ical calculations is noticeable 9 a trivial circum/ance :i* he m5tions 9 a lett] f ,london to 8 bro!r4 ,he tri$ to c\nt ! numb] ( coa*es :i* he met 9 go+ to ! ,fri5ds' morn+ meet+3 ?is he assures 8 bro!r he effect$ ) tol]able precision4 ,! numb] 0 "o hundr$ & f\r4 ,dur+ vacation "t ,dalton usually made a walk+ excursion 9 ! ,lake di/rict4 ,he 0 extremely fond ( m\nta9 sc5]y1 b g5]ally comb9$ ! pursuit ( sci5ce ) t ( pleasure2 he c>ri$ 8 meteorological in/rum5ts ) him1 det]m9$ ! dew-po9t at v>i\s altitudes1 & measur$ m\nta9 heights by ! aid ( 8 b>omet]4 ,sometimes h[ev] he refus$ to h any?+ to d ) sci5ce4 ,a companion 9 "o ( ^! excursions says t he 0 l a s*oolboy enjoy+ a holiday1 mock+ ! cuckoos1 putt+ up & *as+ ! h>es1 /opp+ f "t to "t to po9t out "s beautiful view1 or loit]+ to *at ) pass+ p$e/rians4 ,?is side ( ,dalton's nature 0 n (t5 app>5t4 ,9 him ! quiet1 h>d-work+ /ud5t g5]ally appe>$ prom95tly m>k$2 b on ! half-holiday :i* he all[$ himself on ea* ,?ursday aft]noon1 9 ord] to enjoy ! society ( a few fri5ds & to engage 9 8 fav\rite amusem5t ( a game at b[ls1 he laid aside some?+ ( ! quietness1 regul>ity & decorum :i* usually *>act]iz$ him4 ,:5 x came to 8 turn to b[l he ?rew 8 :ole s\l into ! game1444 & x 0 n a little amus+ to spectators to see him runn+ aft] ! ball across ! gre51 /oop+ d[n z if talk+ to x1 & wav+ 8 h&s f "o side to ! o!r exactly z he wi%$ ! l9e ( ! ball to be1 & manife/+ ! mo/ int5se int]e/ 9 its com+ ne> to ! po9t at :i* he aim$4 ,f ! ye> #ahjc-d ,dalton becomes m & m a work] 9 *emi/ry4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory n[ engag$ mo/ ( 8 "t & att5tion4 ,! results ( 8 inve/igation ( ! prim>y laws :i* seem to obta9 9 reg>d to heat & to *emical comb9ations appe>$ 9 8 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 ,"p ,i4 ( :i*1 ,on ,heat1 on ! ,con/itution ( ,bodies & on ,*emical ,syn!sis1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahjh4 ,we h n[ arriv$ at ! "t :5 ,dalton's inquiry into ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies 0 9 8 op9ion suffici5tly advanc$ = pres5tation to ! sci5tific _w2 b ,i ?9k we %all d bett] to po/pone our consid]ation ( ?is great inquiry until we h complet$ our review ( ! *ief ev5ts 9 ! life ( ,dalton1 o!r ?an ?is ! greate/ ev5t ( all4 ,dalton did n look = rew>ds--he desir$ only ! j fame ( "o :o s\ght = natural tru?s2 b aft] ! publication ( ! ,new ,sy/em rew>ds began to come to him4 ,9 #ahag he 0 elect$ a correspond+ memb] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,9 #ahbb1 :5 8 fame z a philosophical *emi/ 0 fully e/abli%$1 ,dalton visit$ ,p>is4 ,?is visit gave him great pleasure4 ,he 0 con/antly 9 ! society ( ! great m5 :o !n s nobly repres5t$ ! dignity ( natural sci5ce 9 ,france2 ,laplace1 ,cuvi]1 ,biot1 ,arago1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,milne-,edw>ds & o!rs 7 8 fri5ds4 ,= "s "t aft] ?is visit he 0 m vivaci\s & communicative ?an usual1 & we are told by "o :o liv$ 9 ! same h\se z he1 ,we frequ5tly bant]$ him ) hav+ become half a ,fr5*man4 ,dalton especially valu$ ! fri5d%ip ( ,clem5t9e ,cuvi]1 daught] ( ! great naturali/1 ) :om he became acqua9t$ dur+ 8 visit to ,p>is4 ,all ?r\gh life he greatly delight$ 9 ! society ( cultivat$ wom51 & 8 w>me/ fri5d%ips 7 ) g5tlewom54 ,at "o "t1 %ortly aft] go+ to ,man*e/]1 he 0 mu* tak5 by a wid[ lady :o comb9$ great p]sonal *>ms ) consid]able m5tal culture4 ,dur+ my captivity1 he writes to a fri5d1 :i* la/$ ab\t a week1 ,i lo/ my appetite1 & _h o!r symptoms ( bondage ab\t me1 z incoh]5t disc\rse1 etc41 b h n[ happily rega9$ my fre$om4 ,! society ( m5 :o l himself 7 actively engag$ 9 ! inve/igation ( natural sci5ce 0 also a s\rce ( mu* pleasure to ,dalton4 ,su* m5 us$ to visit him 9 ,man*e/]1 s t 9 ! h\se ( ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,johns1 9 ^: family he liv$1 !re 7 f\nd f "t to "t "s ( ! greate/ philosoph]s 9 ,europe4 ,dalton 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahbb1 & f\r ye>s lat] he became ! fir/ recipi5t ( "o ( ! ,royal ,m$als1 !n f\nd$ by ! ,k+ 7,george ,,iv474 ,9 #ahcj he 0 elect$ "o ( ! eight =eign ,associates ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 an hon\r :i* is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! highe/ t c be be/[$ on any man ( sci5ce4 ,dalton 0 "o ( ! orig9al memb]s ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 & he att5d$ mo/ ( ! meet+s f ! fir/ held 9 ,york 9 #ahca to t held 9 ,man*e/] two ye>s be=e 8 dea?4 ,at ! ,ox=d meet+ ( #ahcb he 0 creat$ ,d4,c4,l4 by ! ,univ]sity1 & two ye>s lat] ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh hon\r$ h]self by enroll+ 8 "n on ! li/ ( h] doctors ( law4 ,ab\t ?is "t "s ( ,dalton's sci5tific fri5ds1 :o consid]$ 8 "w ( great national importance1 endeav\r$ to obta9 a p5sion = him f ! civil li/4 ,at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association held at ,cambridge 9 #ahcc1 ! presid5t1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 0 able to ann\nce t ,8 ,maje/y1 will+ to manife/ 8 atta*m5t to sci5ce1 & 8 reg>d = a "* l t ( ,dr4 ,dalton1 _h graci\sly conf]r$ on him1 out ( ! funds ( ! civil li/1 a sub/antial m>k ( 8 royal fav\r4 ,! sub/antial m>k ( royal fav\r1 ! ann\ncem5t ( :i* ,dalton receiv$ ) 8 cu/om>y quietness & simplicity ( mann]1 consi/$ ( a p5sion ( ,l#aej p] annum1 :i* 0 increas$ ?ree ye>s lat] to ,l#cjj4 ,! second "p ( ,volume ,i4 ( 8 ,new ,sy/em 0 publi%$ by ,dalton 9 #ahaj1 & ! second volume ( ! same "w 9 #ahbg4 ,9 #ahdd a pap] by him 0 read be=e ! ,briti% ,association1 9 :i* he ann\nc$ "s important discov]ies ) reg>d to ! wat] 9 cry/allizable salts1 & ?us br\ght a new class ( facts )9 ! range ( ! atomic !ory4 ,he 0 seiz$ ) p>alysis 9 #ahcg1 b recov]$ to a great ext5t2 a second attack 9 #ahdd h[ev] completely pro/rat$ him4 ,on ! #af? ( ,july 9 t ye> he made ! la/ entry 9 8 book ( ,obs]vations on ! ,wea!r--,little ra92 next morn+ he became ins5sible & quietly pass$ away4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is z ! f\nd] ( ! *emical atomic !ory t ,dalton mu/ ev] be rememb]$ by all /ud5ts ( physical & *emical sci5ce4 ,to ! ,greek philosoph]s ,leucippus & ,democritus 7fl\ri%$ ab\t #ddj-djj ,b4,c47 we owe ! conception t ,! bodies :i* we see & h&le1 :i* we c set 9 motion or leave at re/1 :i* we c break 9 pieces & de/roy1 are compos$ ( small] bodies1 :i* we _c see or h&le1 :i* are always 9 motion1 & :i* c nei!r be /opp$1 nor brok5 9 pieces1 nor 9 any way de/roy$ or depriv$ ( ! lea/ ( _! prop]ties 7,cl]k ,maxwell74 ,! heavi] among ^! small indivisible bodies or atoms 7 reg>d$ z always mov+ d[nw>ds4 ,by collisions betwe5 ^! & ! light] asc5d+ atoms lat]al movem5ts arose4 ,by virtue ( ! natural law 7z !y said7 t ?+s ( l weight & %ape mu/ come to ! same place1 ! atoms ( ! v>i\s elem5ts came toge!r2 ?us l>g] masses ( matt] 7 =m$2 ^! aga9 coalesc$1 & s f9ally worlds came into exi/5ce4 ,?is doctr9e 0 ext5d$ by ,epicurus 7#cdj-bgj ,b4,c471 ^: tea*+ is pres]v$ = u 9 ! poem ( ,lucretius 7#ie-eb ,b4,c471 ,de ,r]um ,natura2 he ascrib$ to ! atoms ! p[] ( deviat+ f a /raight l9e 9 _! desc5d+ motion4 ,on ?is hypo!sis ,epicurus built a g5]al !ory to expla9 all mat]ial & spiritual ph5om5a4 ,! ceaseless *ange & decay 9 ev]y?+ ar\nd !m 0 d\btless "o ( ! causes :i* l$ m5 to ?is conception ( atoms z indivisible1 inde/ructible sub/ances :i* c\ld nev] we> out & c\ld nev] be *ang$4 ,b ev5 "h re/ c\ld n be f\nd2 ! m9d 0 oblig$ to reg>d ^! atoms z always 9 motion4 ,! dance ( ! du/-motes 9 ! sunbeam 0 to ,lucretius ! result ( ! m complex motion :]eby ! atoms :i* compose t du/ are agitat$4 ,9 8 dream z told by ,t5nyson-- ,a void 0 made 9 ,nature3 all h] bonds ,crack$3 & ,i saw ! fl>+ atom-/reams ,& torr5ts ( h] myriad univ]se1 ,ru9+ along ! illimitable inane1 ,fly on to cla% toge!r aga91 & make ,ano!r & ano!r frame ( ?+s ,= ev]4 ,! c5tral que/ ( ! physici/1 f ! days ( ,democritus to ! pres5t "t1 has be5 to expla9 ! conception ( atom--to develop m cle>ly ! obs]v$ prop]ties ( ! ?+s :i* are se5 & :i* may be h&l$ z dep5d5t on ! prop]ties ( ^? ?+s :i* _c be se51 b :i* yet exi/4 ,= two ?\s& ye>s he has be5 try+ to p5etrate b5ea? ! ev]-*ang+ appe>ances ( ,nature1 & to f9d "s sur] re/+-place :5ce he may survey ^! %ift+ pictures z !y pass be=e 8 m5tal vision4 ,! old] atomi/s ?\ght to f9d ?is re/+-place1 n 9 ! atoms !mselves1 b 9 ! wide spaces :i* !y suppos$ to exi/ betwe5 ! worlds3-- ,! lucid int]space ( _w & _w ,:]e nev] creeps a cl\d1 or moves a w9d1 ,nor ev] falls ! lea/ :ite /> ( sn[1 ,nor ev] l[e/ roll ( ?und] moans1 ,nor s\nd ( human sorr[ m\nts to m> ,_! sacr$ ev]la/+ calm4 ,to ! mod]n /ud5t ( sci5ce ! idea ( absolute re/ appe>s un?9kable2 b 9 ! mo/ rec5t outcome ( ! atomic !ory--9 ! vortex atoms ( ,helmholtz & ,?omson--he ?9ks he p]ceives ! v f\ndation /ones ( ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,newton conceiv$ ! atom z a solid1 massy1 h>d1 imp5etrable1 movable p>ticle4 ,to ! m9d ( ,d4 ,b]n\lli ! pressure ex]t$ by a gas on ! walls ( a vessel enclos+ x 0 due to ! con/ant bomb>dm5t ( ! walls by ! atoms ( :i* ! gas consi/$4 ,atomic motion 0 ! lead+ idea 9 ! explanation ( heat giv5 by ,rum=d & ,davy1 & n[ univ]sally accept$2 &1 z we h se51 ,dalton 0 himself accu/om$ to reg>d all ela/ic fluids 7i4e4 gases7 z consi/+ ( va/ numb]s ( atoms4 ,b 9 ! ye> #ahjb or s1 ,dalton ?\ght t by ! /udy ( *emical comb9ations x w\ld be possible to det]m9e ! relative weights ( atoms4 ,assume t any elem5t>y gas is compos$ ( small1 indivisible1 equally heavy p>ts2 assume t ! weight ( an atom ( "o elem5t is diff]5t f t ( ! atom ( any o!r elem5t2 &1 la/ly1 assume t :5 elem5ts comb9e ! atom ( ! comp\nd s produc$ is built up ( ! atoms ( ! v>i\s elem5ts4 ,make ^! assumptions1 & x foll[s t ! relative weights ( two or m elem5ts :i* comb9e toge!r mu/ repres5t ! relative weights ( ! atoms ( ^! elem5ts4 ,we "k t ! fixity ( composition ( *emical comp\nds _h be5 e/abli%$ be=e ?is "t1 l>gely by ! lab\rs ( ,black & ,lavoisi]4 ,fixity ( composition _h h[ev] be5 call$ 9 "q by ,b]?ollet1 :o held t elem5ts comb9e toge!r 9 v v>y+ quantities2 t1 9 fact1 9 place ( !re be+ two or ?ree1 or a few def9ite comp\nds (1 say1 iron & oxyg51 !re exi/s a graduat$ s]ies ( su* bodies2 & t ! am\nt ( iron :i* comb9es ) oxyg5 dep5ds *iefly on su* physical conditions z ! temp]ature1 ! pressure1 etc41 "u :i* ! *emical action occurs4 ,b by ! date ( ! publication ( ! fir/ "p ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em1 ! long dispute betwe5 ,b]?ollet & ,pr\/ reg>d+ fixity ( composition ( comp\nds _h ne>ly clos$ 9 fav\r ( ! latt] *emi/1 :o /rongly upheld ! affirmative side ( ! argum5t4 ,b if ,dalton's assumptions are correct1 x is evid5t t :5 two elem5ts =m m ?an "o comp\nd1 ! quantity ( elem5t ,a 9 "o ( ^! mu/ be a simple multiple ( ! quantity 9 ! o!r ( ^! comp\nds2 because !re mu/ be a great] numb] ( atoms ( elem5t ,a 9 ! atom ( "o comp\nd ?an 9 t ( ! o!r comp\nd1 & an elem5t>y atom is assum$ to be indivisible4 ,h5ce x foll[s t if "o elem5t be tak5 z a /&>d1 x mu/ be possible to affix to any o!r elem5t a c]ta9 numb] :i* %all express ! smalle/ quantity ( t elem5t :i* comb9es ) "o "p by weight ( ! /&>d elem5t2 & ?is numb] %all also repres5t h[ _m times ! atom ( ! giv5 elem5t is heavi] ?an ! atom ( ! /&>d elem5t1 ! weight ( :i* has be5 tak5 to be "o4 ,if ?is elem5t =ms two comp\nds ) ! /&>d elem5t1 ! am\nt ( ?is elem5t 9 ! second comp\nd mu/ be express$ by a simple multiple ( ! numb] assign$ to ?is elem5t1 because x is n possible1 accord+ to ! fundam5tal assumptions ( ! !ory1 to =m a comp\nd by ! comb9ation ( fractions ( elem5t>y atoms4 ,by pond]+ on ! facts reg>d+ *emical comb9ations :i* _h be5 e/abli%$ by v>i\s work]s previ\s to ! ye> #ahjb1 ,dalton _h app>5tly come to su* conclusions z ^? n[ indicat$4 ,9 8 pap] on ! prop]ties ( ! gases con/itut+ ! atmosph]e1 read to ! ,man*e/] ,society on ,novemb] #ab1 #ahjb1 he /at$ t "o hundr$ measures ( common air w\ld comb9e ) ?irty-six measures ( nitr\s gas 9 a n>r[ tube to produce an oxide ( nitrog51 b ) sev5ty-two measures ( ! same gas 9 a wide vessel to produce ano!r oxide ( nitrog54 ,^! facts1 he says1 cle>ly po9t out ! !ory ( ! process3 ! elem5ts ( oxyg5 may comb9e ) a c]ta9 portion ( nitr\s gas1 or ) twice t portion1 b ) no int]m$iate quantity4 ,9 ! conclud+ p>agraph ( 8 pap] on absorption ( gases by liquids1 read on ,octob] #ba1 #ahjc1 we f\nd 7see p4 #aaf7 t he _h got s f> 9 8 inquiry into ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies z to give a table ( tw5ty-"o su* weights4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,dalton made analyses ( two gase\s comp\nds ( c>bon--olefiant gas & c>burett$ hydrog5 or m>%-gas4 ,he f\nd t bo? are comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog52 t 9 "o #d4c p>ts by weight ( c>bon are comb9$ ) "o "p by weight ( hydrog51 & 9 ! o!r ! same am\nt 7#d4c7 ( c>bon is comb9$ ) two p>ts by weight ( hydrog54#h ,?is 0 a /rik+ confirmation ( 8 views reg>d+ comb9ation 9 multiple proportions1 :i* views foll[$ z a necess>y d$uction f ! atomic hypo!sis4 ,f ?is "t he cont9u$ to develop & ext5d ?is hypo!sis1 & 9 ! ye> #ahjh he publi%$ 8 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,! fir/ detail$ acc\nt ( ! atomic !ory 0 h[ev] giv5 to ! *emical _w ! ye> be=e ,dalton's book appe>$4 ,dur+ a conv]sation ) ,dalton 9 ! autumn ( #ahjd ,dr4 ,?omas ,?omson le>n$ ! fundam5tal po9ts ( ! new !ory1 & 9 ! ?ird edition ( 8 ,sy/em ( ,*emi/ry1 publi%$ 9 #ahjg1 he gave an acc\nt ( ,dalton's views reg>d+ ! composition ( bodies4 ,9 ! same ye> a pap] by ,?omson appe>$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 :]e9 x 0 exp]im5tally prov$ t oxalic acid comb9es ) /rontia to =m two di/9ct comp\nds1 "o ( :i* conta9s twice z mu* oxalic acid z ! o!r1 ! am\nt ( /rontia be+ ! same 9 bo?4 ,analyses ( ! oxalates ( pota%1 publi%$ ab\t ! same "t by ,wolla/on1 af=d$ ano!r illu/ration ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 & drew ! att5tion ( *emi/s to ,dalton's !ory4 ,b ! new !ory 0 oppos$ by sev]al v em95t *emi/s1 notably by ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahjg ,wolla/on1 ,?omson & ,davy 7 pres5t at ! d9n] ( ! ,royal ,society ,club1 at ! ,cr[n & ,an*or1 9 ! ,/r&4 ,aft] d9n]1 ^! ?ree *emi/s discuss$ ! new !ory = an h\r & a half1 ,wolla/on & ,?omson try+ to conv9ce ,davy ( ! tru? ( ,dalton's !ory2 b s f> f be+ conv9c$1 he w5t away1 if possible1 m prejudic$ aga9/ x ?an ev]4 ,soon aft] ?is ,wolla/on succe$$ 9 conv9c+ ,mr4 ,davis ,gilb]t 7aft]w>ds ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society7 ( ! ju/ness ( ! atomic !ory1 & he 9 turn s plac$ ! facts & ! reason+ be=e ,davy1 t f ?is "t he became a support] ( ! new !ory4 ,9 ord] t ! atomic !ory %\ld be fruitful ( results1 x 0 n[ necess>y t ! values ( ! atomic weights ( _m elem5ts %\ld be c>efully det]m9$4 ,let u consid] :at k mu/ be acquir$ be=e ! value to be assign$ to ! atomic weight ( an elem5t c be f\nd4 ,hydrog5 0 ! elem5t *os5 z a /&>d by ,dalton4 ,he assum$ t ! atom ( hydrog5 weighs #a2 ! atomic weight ( any o!r elem5t is !re=e a numb] :i* tells h[ _m times ! atom ( t elem5t is heavi] ?an ! atom ( hydrog54 ,?us1 :5 ,dalton said ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 is #h1 he meant t ! atom ( oxyg5 is eight times heavi] ?an t ( hydrog54 ,h[ 0 ?is numb] obta9$8 ,accurate analyses ( wat] %[ t 9 ?is liquid "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 is comb9$ ) eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg52 b 7x is said7 z ! atom ( hydrog5 weighs #a1 ! atom ( oxyg5 mu/ weigh #h4 ,9 draw+ ?is conclusion x is assum$ t ! atom1 or smalle/ p>ticle1 ( wat] is built up ( "o atom ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg54 ,let x be assum$ t ! atom ( wat] conta9s two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg51 !n ! latt] atom mu/ weigh sixte5 times z mu* z ea* atom ( hydrog52 let x be assum$ t ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 comb9e ) "o atom ( oxyg5 to =m an atom ( wat]1 !n ! weight ( ! oxyg5 atom mu/ be tw5ty-f\r times t ( ! hydrog5 atom4 ,any "o ( ^! assumptions w equally satisfy ! figures obta9$ by analyz+ wat] 7#a3 #h #b3 #af #c3 #bd74 ,n[1 _h we any me?od :]eby we c\ld det]m9e h[ _m times an atom ( wat] is heavi] ?an an atom ( hydrog5 we %\ld be able to det]m9e :i* ( ! =ego+ assumptions is correct1 & !re=e to det]m9e ! atomic weight ( oxyg54 ,h5ce1 be=e ! atomic weight ( an elem5t c be det]m9$1 !re mu/ be f\nd "s me?od = det]m9+ ! atomic weights ( comp\nds ( t elem5t4 ,unless ?is c be done ! atomic !ory is ( little avail 9 *emi/ry4 ,i conceive x to be "o ( ! signal m]its ( ,dalton t he s cle>ly lays d[n rules1 ! be/ :i* c\ld be devis$ at 8 "t1 = det]m9+ ! atomic weights ( comp\nds1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 = det]m9+ ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 "o atom ( any comp\nd4 ,9 8 ,new ,sy/em he says t he wi%es to %[ ! importance ( asc]ta9+ ! relative weights ( ! ultimate p>ticles bo? ( simple & comp\nd bodies1 ! numb] ( simple elem5t>y p>ticles :i* con/itute "o comp\nd p>ticle1 & ! numb] ( less comp\nd p>ticles :i* ent] into ! =mation ( "o m comp\nd p>ticle4 ,consid]+ comp\nds ( two elem5ts1 he divides ^! into b9>y1 t]n>y1 quat]n>y1 etc41 accord+ z ! comp\nd atom conta9s two1 ?ree1 f\r1 etc41 atoms ( ! elem5ts4 ,he !n proce$s ?us-- ,! foll[+ g5]al rules may be adopt$ z guides 9 all our inve/igations respect+ *emical syn!sis3-- #a/4 ,:5 only "o comb9ation ( two bodies c be obta9$1 x mu/ be presum$ to be a b9>y "o1 unless "s cause appe> to ! contr>y4 #bnd4 ,:5 two comb9ations are obs]v$1 !y mu/ be presum$ to be a b9>y & a t]n>y4 #crd4 ,:5 ?ree comb9ations are obta9$1 we may expect "o to be b9>y & ! o!r two t]n>y4 #d?4 ,:5 f\r comb9ations are obs]v$1 we %\ld expect "o b9>y1 two t]n>y1 & "o quat]n>y1 etc4 ,only "o comp\nd ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 0 !n kn[n2 h5ce x 0 presum$ to be a b9>y comp\nd1 i4e4 a comp\nd ! smalle/ p>ticle ( :i* consi/$ ( "o atom ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg52 & h5ce1 f ! data already giv5 on page #acj1 x foll[$ t ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 0 #h4 ,two comp\nds ( c>bon & oxyg5 7 kn[n1 ea* conta9+ six p>ts by weight ( c>bon1 9 "o case unit$ ) eight1 & 9 ! o!r case ) sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg54 ,f ,dalton's rules "o ( ^! 0 a b9>y1 & ! o!r a t]n>y comp\nd2 b z ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 _h already be5 det]m9$ to be #h1 t comp\nd ( c>bon & oxyg5 conta9+ eight ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) six ( c>bon 0 decid$ to be b9>y1 & t conta9+ sixte5 ( oxyg5 7i4e4 two atoms7 to be t]n>y2 & h5ce ! atomic weight ( c>bon 0 det]m9$ to be #f4 ,9 ! second "p ( ! ,new ,sy/em ,dalton1 guid$ by ^! rules1 det]m9$ exp]im5tally ! atomic weights ( a great _m sub/ances2 b ?is 0 n ! k9d ( "w suit$ to ,dalton's g5ius4 ,8 analytical det]m9ations 7 g5]ally inaccurate2 nev]!less1 he cle>ly %[$ h[ ! values ( ! atomic weights ( elem5ts ought to be e/abli%$1 & he obta9$ results suffici5tly accurate to confirm 8 g5]al !ory4 ,to make accurate det]m9ations ( ! relative weights ( elem5t>y atoms 0 "o ( ! tasks res]v$ = ! great ,sw$i% *emi/ ,b]zelius 7see pp4 #afb-agj74 ,:5 we exam9e ,dalton's rules we mu/ confess t !y appe> some:at arbitr>y4 ,he does n give reasons = 8 ass]tion t :5 only "o comb9ation ( two bodies c be obta9$1 x mu/ be presum$ to be a b9>y "o4 ,:y may x n be t]n>y or quat]n>y8 ,:y mu/ ! atom ( wat] be built up ( "o atom ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) "o atom ( oxyg58 ,or1 :5 two comp\nds are kn[n conta9+ ! same pair ( elem5ts1 :y mu/ "o be b9>y & ! o!r t]n>y8 ,or1 ev5 assum+ t ?is mu/ be ju/ifi$ by facts1 does x foll[ t ,dalton's int]pretation ( ! atomic /ructure ( ! two oxides ( c>bon is necess>ily correct8 ,^! oxides conta9 #f ( c>bon #h ( oxyg51 & #f ( c>bon #af ( oxyg51 respectively4 ,take ! second1 #f3 #af #c3 #h2 assume ?is to be a b9>y comp\nd ( "o atom ( oxyg5 7weigh+ #h7 ) "o atom ( c>bon 7weigh+ #c71 !n ! o!r w be a t]n>y comp\nd conta9+ "o atom ( oxyg5 7#h7 & two atoms ( c>bon 7#f74 ,h5ce x appe>s t ,dalton's rules 7 too arbitr>y1 & t !y 7 insuffici5t to det]m9e ) c]ta9ty ! atomic weights ( "s ( ! elem5ts4 ,nev]!less1 )\t "s su* rules z ^? ( ,dalton1 no great advances c\ld h be5 made 9 apply+ ! atomic !ory to ! facts ( *emical comb9ation2 & ,dalton's rules 7 und\bt$ly f\nd$ on wide consid]ations4 ,9 ! app5dix to ,volume ,,ii4 ( 8 ,new ,sy/em he expressly /ates t be=e ! numb] ( atoms ( two elem5ts pres5t 9 ! atom ( a comp\nd c be det]m9$1 x is necess>y t _m comb9ations %\ld be exam9$1 n only ( ^! elem5ts ) ea* o!r1 b also ( ea* ( ^! ) o!r elem5ts2 & he tells u t to ga!r toge!r facts be>+ on ?is g5]al "q ( *emical syn!sis 0 ! object ( 8 "w f ! "t ( ! promulgation ( ! atomic !ory4 ,:5 we f9d t ,dalton appli$ ! t]m atom to ! small p>ticles ( comp\nd bodies1 we at once see t by atom he c\ld n always mean t :i* _c be cut2 he simply meant ! smalle/ p>ticle ( a sub/ance :i* exhibits ! prop]ties ( t sub/ance4 ,a mass ( wat] vap\r 0 conceiv$ by ,dalton z l a mass ( small %ot4 ,ea* %ot exhibit$ ! *>act]i/ic *emical prop]ties ( wat] vap\r2 x diff]$ f ! l>ge quantity ( vap\r only 9 mass2 b if "o ( ^! little pieces ( %ot 7 divid$--z ,dalton1 ( c\rse1 knew x c\ld be divid$--small] pieces ( matt] w\ld be produc$4 ,b ^! w\ld no long] be wat]2 !y w\ld be new k9ds ( matt]4 ,!y are call$ oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,z aids t[>ds ga9+ a cle> conception ( ! atom ( a comp\nd z a def9ite build+1 ,dalton made diagrammatic repres5tations ( ! hypo!tical /ructures ( "s ( ^! atoms3 ! foll[+ plate is copi$ f ! ,new ,sy/em3--,a repres5ts an atom ( alum2 ,b1 an atom ( nitrate ( alum9a2 ,c1 ( b>ium *loride2 ,d1 ( b>ium nitrate2 ,e1 ( calcium *loride2 ,f calcium nitrate2 ,g1 ( calcium sulphate2 ,h1 potassium c>bonate2 ,i1 ( pota%2 & ,k1 an atom ( soda4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,b ,i ?9k if we consid] ?is application ( ! t]m atom to elem5ts & comp\nds alike1 we %all see objections to x4 ,:5 an atom ( a comp\nd is divid$ ! small] p>ticles s produc$ are ea* v diff]5t 9 *emical prop]ties f ! atom :i* has j be5 divid$4 ,we may1 if we *oose1 assume t ! atom ( an elem5t c\ld 9 l mann] be divid$1 & t ! products ( ?is division w\ld be diff]5t f ! elem5t>y atoms2 b su* a division ( an elem5t>y atom has n z a matt] ( fact be5 yet accompli%$1 unless we class among elem5ts sub/ances su* z pota% & soda1 :i* = _m ye>s 7 univ]sally reg>d$ z elem5ts1 & rightly s reg>d$ because !y _h n be5 decompos$4 ,9 ,dalton's nom5clature !n1 ! t]m atom is appli$ alike to a small p>ticle ) def9ite prop]ties kn[n to be divisible into small] p>ticles1 ea* ) prop]ties diff]5t f ^? ( ! undivid$ p>ticle1 & to a small p>ticle :i*1 s f> z our k goes1 _c be divid$ into any p>ticle small] ?an or diff]5t f itself4 ,nev]!less1 if ! atomic !ory 0 to be victori\s1 x 0 necess>y t x %\ld be appli$ to elem5ts & comp\nds alike4 ,until a cle> conception %\ld be obta9$1 & express$ 9 accurate language1 ( ! diff]5ces 9 /ructure ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( comp\nds & ( elem5ts1 x 0 p]haps bett] to apply ! t]m atom to bo? alike4 ,^! two difficulties--7#a7 ! difficulty ( atta*+ to ! t]m atom a precise mean+ applicable to elem5ts & comp\nds alike1 & 7#b7 ! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 ! atom ( a giv5 comp\nd1 & h5ce ( det]m9+ ! relative weights ( elem5t>y atoms !mselves--7 = _m ye>s /umbl+-blocks 9 ! pa? ( ! uphold]s ( ! ,daltonian !ory4 ,! v great difficulty ( cle>ly compreh5d+ ! full mean+ ( ,dalton's propos$ !ory becomes app>5t :5 we le>n t )9 ?ree ye>s f ! publication ( ,"p ,i4 ( ! ,new ,sy/em1 facts 7 made kn[n by ! ,fr5* *emi/ ,gay-,lussac1 & ! true int]pretation ( ^! facts 0 ann\nc$ by ! ,italian *emi/ ,avogadro1 :i* facts & int]pretation 7 suffici5t to cle> away bo? ! difficulties ,i h j m5tion$2 b t nev]!less x is only )9 ! la/ t5 or fifte5 ye>s t ! true mean+ ( ! facts e/abli%$ by ,gay-,lussac & ! int]pretation giv5 by ,avogadro h be5 g5]ally recogniz$4 ,9 #ahji ,gay-,lussac1 9 a memoir on ! comb9ation ( gase\s bodies1 prov$ t gases comb9e *emically 9 simple proportions by volume1 & t ! volume ( ! product always be>s a simple relation to ! volumes ( ! comb9+ gases4 ,?us1 he %[$ t two volumes ( hydrog5 comb9e ) "o volume ( oxyg5 to =m two volumes ( wat] vap\r2 t "o volume ( nitrog5 comb9es ) ?ree volumes ( hydrog5 to =m two volumes ( ammonia gas1 & s on4 ,n[1 z elem5ts comb9e atom ) atom1 ! weights ( ^! comb9+ volumes ( elem5ts mu/ repres5t ! relative weights ( ! atoms ( ! same elem5ts4 ,9 #ahaa ,avogadro di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! ultimate p>ticles ( comp\nds & elem5ts4 ,let a gase\s elem5t1 ,a1 comb9e ) ano!r gase\s elem5t1 ,b1 to =m a gase\s comp\nd1 ,c2 !n ,avogadro suppos$ t ! little p>ticles ( ,a & ! little p>ticles ( ,b 7,dalton's atoms7 split up1 ea* into two or m small] p>ticles1 & t ^! small] p>ticles !n comb9e toge!r to =m p>ticles ( ! comp\nd ,c4 ,! small] p>ticles produc$ by splitt+ a ,daltonian elem5t>y atom 7 reg>d$ by ,avogadro z all id5tical 9 prop]ties1 b ^! v small p>ticles c\ld n exi/ uncomb9$ ei!r ) ea* o!r or ) v small p>ticles ( "s o!r elem5t4 ,:5 ! atom ( a comp\nd is decompos$1 ,avogadro pictur$ ?is atom z splitt+ into small] p>ticles ( two or ?ree or m diff]5t k9ds1 accord+ z ! comp\nd _h conta9$ two or ?ree or diff]5t elem5ts4 ,to ,avogadro's m5tal vision an elem5t>y gas appe>$ z built up ( a great _m little p>ticles1 ea* exhibit+ 9 m9iature all ! prop]ties ( ! gas4 ,! gas might be heat$1 or cool$1 or o!rwise physically alt]$1 b ea* ( ! little p>ticles rema9$ intact2 ! mom5t h[ev] t ?is gas 0 mix$ ) ano!r on :i* x c\ld *emically react1 ^! little p>ticles split into small] p>ts1 b z ! small] p>ts s produc$ c\ld n exi/ 9 ?is /ate1 !y seiz$ hold ( ! correspond+ v small p>ts ( ! o!r gas1 & ?us a p>ticle ( a comp\nd gas 0 produc$4 ,a comp\nd gas 0 pictur$ by ,avogadro z also built up ( small p>ticles1 ea* exhibit+ 9 m9iature ! prop]ties ( ! gas1 & ea* rema9+ undecompos$ :5 ! gas 0 subject$ only to physical actions2 b :5 ! gas 0 *emically decompos$1 ea* little p>ticle split1 b ! v small p>ts ?us produc$1 be+ ea* a p>ticle ( an elem5t>y sub/ance1 cont9u$ to exi/1 & c\ld be recogniz$ by ! kn[n prop]ties ( t elem5t4 ,to ! smalle/ p>ticle ( any sub/ance 7elem5t>y or comp\nd7 :i* exhibits ! prop]ties ( t sub/ance1 & :i* _c be split into p>ts )\t de/roy+ ^! prop]ties1 we n[ give ! "n ( molecule4 ,a molecule is itself a /ructure4 ,x is built up ( p>ts2 ea* ( ^! p>ts we n[ call an atom4 ,! molecule ( a comp\nd is1 ( c\rse1 compos$ ( ! atoms ( ! elem5ts :i* =m t comp\nd4 ,! molecule may conta9 two or ?ree or m unlike atoms4 ,! molecule ( an elem5t is compos$ ( ! atoms ( t elem5t1 & all ( ^! atoms are suppos$ to be alike4 ,we _c get hold ( elem5t>y atoms & exam9e !m1 b we h a l>ge mass ( evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! view :i* reg>ds ! molecule ( an elem5t z compos$ ( p>ts ea* weigh+ less ?an ! molecule itself4 ,! /ud5t ( physics or *emi/ry n[ believes t1 7 a v small quantity ( a gas 7say ammonia7 or a drop ( a liquid 7say wat]7 magnifi$ to some?+ l ! size ( ! e>?1 he %\ld see be=e him a va/ heap ( p>ticles ( ammonia or ( wat]1 ea* exhibit+ all ! prop]ties by ! possession ( :i* he n[ di/+ui%es ammonia or wat] f all o!r k9ds ( matt]4 ,he believes t he %\ld see ^! p>ticles 9 motion1 ea* mov+ rapidly f place to place1 sometimes knock+ aga9/ ano!r1 sometimes trav]s+ a consid]able space )\t com+ into collision ) any o!r4 ,b ! /ud5t tries to p5etrate yet fur!r into ! nature ( ?+s4 ,to ! vision ( ! *emi/ ^! p>ticles ( almo/ inconceivable m9ut5ess are !mselves built up ( small] p>ticles4 ,z !re is an ar*itecture ( masses1 s is !re an ar*itecture ( molecules4 ,hydrog5 & oxyg5 are mix$2 ! *emi/ sees ! molecules ( ea* 9 _! nev]-ceas+ dance mov+ "h & !re among ! molecules ( ! o!r1 yet ea* molecule reta9+ its id5tity2 an electric sp>k is pass$ ?r\gh ! mixture1 & almo/ in/antane\sly he sees ea* hydrog5 molecule split into two p>ts1 & ea* oxyg5 molecule split into two p>ts1 & !n he sees ^! p>ts ( molecules1 ^! atoms1 comb9e1 a pair ( hydrog5 atoms ) an atom ( oxyg51 to =m comp\nd molecules ( wat]4 ,avogadro's hypo!sis gave ! *emi/ a def9ition ( molecule2 x also gave him a def9ition ( atom4 ,x is evid5t t1 h[ev] _m atoms ( a giv5 elem5t !re may be 9 ?is or 9 t comp\nd molecule1 no comp\nd ( ?is elem5t c exi/ conta9+ less ?an a s+le atom ( ! elem5t 9 "q2 !re=e an atom ( an elem5t is ! smalle/ quantity ( t elem5t 9 ! molecule ( any comp\nd !re(4 ,& s we h come back to ! orig9al hypo!sis ( ,dalton2 b we h ext5d$ & modifi$ t hypo!sis--we h di/+ui%$ two ord]s ( small p>ticles1 ! molecule 7( a comp\nd or ( an elem5t7 & ! atom 7( an elem5t74 ,! comb9ation ( two or m elem5ts is n[ reg>d$ z be+ prec$$ by ! decomposition ( ! molecules ( ^! elem5ts into atoms4 ,we h def9$ molecule & we h def9$ atom1 b be=e we c det]m9e ! relative weights ( elem5t>y atoms we mu/ h a means ( det]m9+ ! relative weights ( comp\nd molecules4 ,! old difficulty /ill />es u 9 ! face--h[ c we f9d ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 ! molecule ( a giv5 comp\nd8 ,! same naturali/ :o enri*$ *emical sci5ce by ! discov]y ( ! molecule z di/9ct f ! atom1 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( *emi/s ! in/rum5t = det]m9+ ! relative weights ( molecules1 & ?us also ! relative weights ( atoms4 ,! great g5]alization1 usually kn[n z ,avogadro's law1 runs ?us3 ,equal volumes ( gases measur$ at ! same temp]ature & "u ! same pressure conta9 equal numb]s ( molecules4 ,gay-,lussac _h conclud$ t equal volumes ( gases conta9 equal numb]s ( atoms2 b ?is conclusion 0 reject$1 & rightly reject$ by ,dalton1 :o h[ev] at ! same "t refus$ to admit t !re is a simple relation betwe5 ! comb9+ volumes ( elem5ts4 ,! g5]alization ( ,avogadro has h[ev] /ood ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 & is n[ accept$ z "o ( ! fundam5tal laws ( *emical sci5ce4 ,l ! atomic !ory itself1 ,avogadro's law is an outcome ( physical "w & ( physical reason+4 ,( late ye>s ! great naturali/s1 ,clausius1 ,helmholtz1 ,j\le1 ,rank9e1 ,cl]k ,maxwell & ,?omson h develop$ ! physical !ory ( molecules1 & h %[n t ,avogadro's law may be d$uc$ z a necess>y consequ5ce f a few simple physical assumptions4 ,?is law has ?us be5 rais$1 f be+ a purely empirical g5]alization1 to ! rank ( a d$uction f a wide1 yet simple physical !ory4 ,n[1 if equal volumes ( gases conta9 equal numb]s ( molecules1 x foll[s t ! ratio ( ! d5sities ( any two gases mu/ also be ! ratio ( ! weights ( ! molecules :i* con/itute ^! gases4 ,?us1 a giv5 volume ( wat] vap\r weighs n9e times m ?an an equal volume ( hydrog52 !re=e ! molecule ( gase\s wat] is n9e times heavi] ?an ! molecule ( hydrog54 ,"o has !re=e only to adopt a /&>d ( ref]5ce = molecul> weights1 & ,avogadro's law gives ! means ( det]m9+ ! numb] ( times any gase\s molecule is heavi] ?an t ( ! /&>d molecule4 ,b consid] ! comb9ation ( a gase\s elem5t ) hydrog52 let u take ! case ( hydrog5 & *lor9e1 :i* unite to =m gase\s hydro*loric acid1 & let u det]m9e ! volumes ( ! unit+ elem5ts & ! volume ( ! product4 ,"h is a /atem5t ( ! results3 "o volume ( hydrog5 comb9es ) "o volume ( *lor9e to =m two volumes ( hydro*loric acid4 ,assume any numb] ( molecules we please 9 ! "o volume ( hydrog5--say t5--!re mu/ be1 by ,avogadro's law1 also t5 molecules 9 ! "o volume ( *lor9e2 b inasmu* z ! volume ( hydro*loric acid produc$ is d\ble t ( ei!r ! hydrog5 or ! *lor9e :i* comb9$ to =m x1 x foll[s1 by ! same law1 t tw5ty molecules ( hydro*loric acid h be5 =m$ by ! union ( t5 molecules ( hydrog5 ) t5 molecules ( *lor9e4 ,! necess>y conclusion is t ea* hydrog5 molecule & ea* *lor9e molecule has split into two p>ts1 & t ea* half-molecule 7or atom7 ( hydrog5 has comb9$ ) "o half-molecule 7or atom7 ( *lor9e1 to produce "o comp\nd molecule ( hydro*loric acid4 ,!re=e we conclude t ! hydrog5 molecule is compos$ ( two atoms1 & t ! *lor9e molecule is also compos$ ( two atoms2 & z hydrog5 is to be our /&>d elem5t1 we say t if ! atom ( hydrog5 weighs "o1 ! molecule ( ! same elem5t weighs two4 ,x is n[ easy to f9d ! molecul> weight ( any gas2 x is only necess>y to f9d h[ _m times heavi] ! giv5 gas is ?an hydrog51 ! weight ( ! latt] be+ tak5 z #b4 ,?us1 oxyg5 is sixte5 times heavi] ?an hydrog51 b #a3 #af #b3 #cb1 !re=e ! molecule ( oxyg5 is ?irty-two times heavi] ?an ! molecule ( hydrog54 ,ammonia is eight & a half times heavi] ?an hydrog51 b #a3 #h-a_/b #b3 #ag1 !re=e ! molecule ( ammonia is sev5te5 times heavi] ?an ! molecule ( hydrog54 ,?is is :at we m concisely express by say+ ! molecul> weight ( oxyg5 is #cb1 or ! molecul> weight ( ammonia is #ag1 etc41 etc4 ,n[1 we wi% to det]m9e ! atomic weight ( oxyg52 t is1 we wi% to f9d h[ _m times ! oxyg5 atom is heavi] ?an ! atom ( hydrog54 ,we make use ( ,avogadro's law & ( ! def9ition ( atom :i* has be5 d$uc$ f x 7see p4 #adb74 ,we "k t eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 comb9e ) "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 to =m wat]2 b we d n "k :e!r ! molecule ( wat] conta9s "o atom ( ea* elem5t1 or two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg51 or "s o!r comb9ation ( ^! atoms 7see p4 #aca74 ,b by vaporiz+ wat] & weigh+ ! gas s produc$1 we f9d t wat] vap\r is n9e times heavi] ?an hydrog53 n[1 #a3 #i #b3 #ah1 !re=e ! molecul> weight ( wat] gas is #ah4 ,analysis tells u t eighte5 p>ts by weight ( wat] gas conta9 sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg5 & two p>ts ( hydrog52 t is to say1 we n[ "k t 9 ! molecule ( wat] gas !re are two atoms ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg54 ,we n[ proce$ to analyze & det]m9e ! molecul> weights ( z _m gase\s comp\nds ( oxyg5 z we c obta94 ,! outcome ( all is t we h z yet fail$ to obta9 any su* comp\nd 9 ! molecule ( :i* !re are less ?an sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg54 ,9 "s ( ^! molecules !re are sixte51 9 "s ?irty-two1 9 "s =ty-eight1 9 "s sixty-f\r p>ts by weight ( oxyg51 b 9 none is !re less ?an sixte5 p>ts by weight ( ?is elem5t4 ,!re=e we conclude t ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 is #af1 because ?is is ! smalle/ am\nt1 ref]r$ to hydrog5 tak5 z #a1 :i* has hi!rto be5 f\nd 9 ! molecule ( any comp\nd ( oxyg54 ,! :ole ( ! "w done s9ce ! publication ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em has emphasiz$ ! importance ( t *emi/'s rem>k1 t no safe conclusion c be drawn z to ! value ( ! atomic weight ( an elem5t except f a consid]ation ( _m comp\nds ( t ) o!r elem5ts4 ,b 9 ,avogadro's law we h a f> m accurate & tru/wor?y me?od = det]m9+ ! molecul> weights ( comp\nds ?an any :i* ,dalton 0 able to devise by 8 /udy ( *emical comb9ations4 ,we h ?us got a cle>] conception ( atom ?an 0 g5]ally possess$ by *emi/s 9 ! days ( ,dalton1 & ?is we h ga9$ by introduc+ ! fur!r conception ( molecule z t ( a quantity ( matt] diff]5t f1 & yet simil> to1 ! atom4 ,! task n[ be=e u w = ! mo/ "p consi/ 9 trac+ ! fur!r developm5t ( ! fundam5tal conception ( ,dalton1 ! conception1 viz41 ( ea* *emical sub/ance z built up ( small p>ts possess+ all ! prop]ties1 o!r ?an ! mass1 ( ! :ole2 &--:at we also owe to ,dalton--! application ( ?is conception to expla9 ! facts ( *emical comb9ation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! circum/ances ( ,dalton's e>ly life oblig$ him to tru/ l>gely to 8 own ef=ts = acquir+ k2 & 8 det]m9ation n to accept facts at second h& b to acquire !m = himself1 is v m>k$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( 8 life4 ,9 ! preface to ! second "p ( ! ,new ,sy/em he says1 ,hav+ be5 9 my progress s (t5 misl$ by tak+ = grant$ ! results ( o!rs1 ,i h det]m9$ to write z little z possible b :at ,i c atte/ by my own exp]i5ce4 ,we %\ld n expect su* a man z ?is to make any great use ( books2 "o ( 8 fri5ds tells u t he he>d him decl>e on a public occasion t he c\ld c>ry 8 libr>y on 8 back1 & yet _h n read half ( ! books :i* compris$ x4 ,! love ( inve/igation :i* *>act]iz$ ,dalton :5 "y w\ld naturally be increas$ by ?is c\rse ( intellectual life4 ,h[ /rong ?is desire to exam9e ev]y?+ = himself became1 is amus+ly illu/rat$ by a /ory told by 8 m$ical advis]1 ,dr4 ,ransome4 ,once :5 ,dalton 0 suff]+ f cat>rh ,dr4 ,ransome _h prescrib$ a ,james's p[d]1 & f9d+ 8 pati5t mu* bett] next day1 he congratulat$ himself & ,dalton on ! good effects ( ! m$ic9e4 ,i d n well see h[ t c be1 said ,dalton1 z ,i kept ! p[d] until ,i c\ld h an opportunity ( analyz+ x4 ,z ,dalton grew old] he became m ?an ev] dis9cl9$ to place mu* tru/ 9 ! results obta9$ by o!r naturali/s1 ev5 :5 ^! m5 7 ackn[l$g$ to be sup]ior to himself 9 manipulative & exp]im5tal skill4 ,?us1 z we h already le>n$1 he c\ld n be br\ght to all[ ! tru? ( ,gay-,lussac's exp]im5tally e/abli%$ law reg>d+ gase\s comb9ations2 he pref]r$ to attribute ,gay-,lussac's results to errors ( exp]im5t4 ,! tru? is1 ,i believe1 t gases d n unite 9 equal or exact measures 9 any "o in/ance2 :5 !y appe> to d s x is ow+ to ! inaccuracy ( our exp]im5ts4 ,t ,dalton did n rank high z an exp]im5t] is evid5t f ! _m mi/akes 9 matt]s ( fact :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! second "p ( 8 ,new ,sy/em4 ,a m>k$ example ( 8 inaccuracy 9 purely exp]im5tal "w is to be f\nd 9 ! suppos$ pro( giv5 by him t *>coal1 aft] be+ heat$ to r$ness1 does n absorb gases4 ,he /rongly heat$ a quantity ( *>coal1 pulv]iz$ x1 & plac$ x 9 a ,flor5ce flask1 :i* 0 connect$ by means ( a /opcock ) a bladd] fill$ ) c>bonic acid3 aft] a week he f\nd t ! flask & its cont5ts _h n s5sibly increas$ 9 weight1 & he conclud$ t no c>bonic acid _h be5 absorb$ by ! *>coal4 ,b no tru/wor?y result c\ld be obta9$ f an exp]im5t 9 :i* ! *>coal1 hav+ be5 depriv$ ( air by heat+1 0 aga9 all[$ to absorb air by be+ pulv]iz$ 9 an op5 vessel1 & 0 !n plac$ 9 a flask fill$ ) air1 communication betwe5 ! c>bonic acid & ! ext]nal air be+ prev5t$ m]ely by a piece ( bladd]1 a mat]ial :i* is easily p]meat$ by gases4 ,dalton us$ a me?od :i* c only lead to notable results 9 natural sci5ce :5 employ$ by a really great ?9k]2 he acquir$ a few facts1 & !n ?\ght out ! mean+ ( ^!4 ,almo/ at ! beg9n+ ( ea* inve/igation he tri$ to get hold ( "s def9ite g5]alization1 & !n he proce$$ to amass special facts4 ,! object :i* he kept be=e himself 9 8 exp]im5tal "w 0 to e/abli% or to disprove ?is or t hypo!sis4 ,e exp]im5t 0 conduct$ ) a cle>ly conceiv$ aim4 ,he 0 ev5 will+ to all[ a l>ge m>g9 = errors ( exp]im5t if he c\ld !reby br+ ! results )9 ! scope ( 8 hypo!sis4 ,t ! law ( multiple proportions is simply a g5]alization ( facts1 & may be /at$ ap>t f ! atomic !ory1 is n[ g5]ally admitt$4 ,b 9 ,dalton's m9d ?is law seems to h aris5 r z a d$uction f ! !ory ( atoms ?an to h be5 ga9$ z a g5]alization f exp]im5ts4 ,he c]ta9ly always /at$ ?is law 9 ! language ( ! atomic !ory4 ,9 "o ( 8 walk+ excursions he expla9$ 8 !ory to a fri5d1 & aft] exp\nd+ 8 views reg>d+ atomic comb9ations1 he said t ! examples :i* he _h giv5 %[$ ! necess>y exi/5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( multiple proportions3 ,?\ kn[e/ x mu/ be s1 = no man c split an atom4 ,we h se5 t c>burett$ hydrog5 0 "o ( ! comp\nds on ! results ( ! analysis ( :i* he built 8 atomic !ory2 yet we f9d him say+ ( ! con/itution ( ?is comp\nd t no correct notion seems to h be5 =m$ till ! atomic !ory 0 introduc$ & appli$ 9 ! inve/igation4 ,:5 ,dalton 0 m$itat+ on ! laws ( *emical comb9ation1 a ,fr5* *emi/1 ,m4 ,pr\/1 publi%$ analyses ( metallic oxides1 :i* prov$ t :5 a metal =ms two oxides ! am\nt ( metal 9 ea* is a fix$ quantity--t !re is a sudd5 jump1 z x 71 f "o oxide to ano!r4 ,we are sometimes told t f ^! exp]im5ts ,pr\/ w\ld h recogniz$ ! law ( multiple proportions _h 8 analyses only be5 m accurate2 b we "k t ,dalton's analyses 7 v inaccurate1 & yet he n only recogniz$ ! law ( multiple proportions1 b prop\nd$ & e/abli%$ ! atomic !ory4 ,some?+ m ?an a correct sy/em ( keep+ books & balanc+ acc\nts is want$ 9 natural sci5ce4 ,dalton's exp]im5tal results w\ld be ! despair ( a sy/ematic analy/1 b f ^! ,dalton's g5ius evolv$ t spl5did !ory :i* has done s mu* to advance ! exact inve/igation ( natural ph5om5a4 ,probably no great] contra/ c\ld be f\nd betwe5 me?ods ( "w1 bo? lead+ to ! e/abli%m5t ( sci5tific 7t is1 accurate & precise7 results1 ?an t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! me?od ( ,dalton & ! me?od pursu$ by ,prie/ley4 ,prie/ley comm5c$ 8 exp]im5ts ) no p>ticul> aim 9 view2 sometimes he want$ to amuse himself1 sometimes he ?\ght he might light ^u a discov]y ( importance1 sometimes 8 curiosity incit$ him to exp]im5t4 ,:5 he got facts he made no pr(\nd g5]alizations2 he 0 cont5t to int]pret 8 results by ! help ( ! prevail+ !ory ( 8 "t4 ,b ea* new fact only spurr$ him on to make fre% incursions into ! fields ( ,nature4 ,dalton ?\ght mu* & deeply2 8 exp]im5tally e/abli%$ facts 7 to him symbols ( unse5 p[]s4 ,he us$ facts z ,hobbes says ! wise man uses words3 !y 7 8 c\nt]s only1 n 8 money4 ,:5 we ask h[ x 0 t ,dalton acquir$ 8 great p[] ( p5etrat+ b5ea? ! surface ( ?+s & f9d+ g5]al laws1 we mu/ attribute ?is p[] 9 "p to ! tra9+ :i* he gave himself 9 physical sci5ce4 ,x 0 f a consid]ation ( physical facts t he ga9$ ! conception ( ultimate p>ticles ( def9ite weight4 ,8 me?od 0 ess5tially dynamical2 t is1 he pictur$ a gas z a mass ( little p>ticles1 ea* ( :i* act$ on & 0 act$ on by1 o!r p>ticles4 ,! p>ticles 7 n ?r[n toge!r anyh[2 def9ite =ces exi/$ betwe5 !m4 ,ea* elem5t>y or comp\nd gas 0 pictur$ z a sy/em ( little p>ticles1 & ! prop]ties ( t gas 7 reg>d$ z dep5d5t on ! nature & arrangem5t ( ^! p>ticles4 ,su* a conception z ?is c\ld only be ga9$ by a c>eful & pr(\nd ?9k] v]s$ 9 ! me?ods ( physical & ma!matical sci5ce4 ,?us we see t al?\gh ,dalton appe>$ to ga9 8 great *emical results by a me?od :i* we are n g5]ally incl9$ to reg>d z ! me?od ( natural sci5ce1 yet x 0 by virtue ( 8 c>eful tra9+ 9 a bran* ( k :i* deals ) facts1 z well z 9 t sci5ce :i* d$uces p>ticul> conclusions f g5]al pr9ciples1 t he 0 able to introduce 8 fruitful conceptions into ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,to me x appe>s t ,dalton 0 pre-em95tly di/+ui%$ by ! possession ( imag9ation4 ,he =m$ cle> m5tal images ( ! ph5om5a :i* he /udi$1 & ^! images he 0 able to comb9e & modify s t !re result$ a new image conta9+ 9 itself all ! ess5tial p>ts ( ea* sep>ate picture :i* he _h previ\sly =m$4 ,f 8 int5se devotion to ! pursuit ( sci5ce ! developm5t ( ,dalton's g5]al "* appe>s to h be5 some:at dw>f$4 ,al?\gh he possess$ imag9ation1 x 0 ! imag9ation ( a naturali/ r ?an t ( a man ( broad culture4 ,p]haps x 0 a want ( broad sympa?ies :i* made him tru/ s implicitly 9 8 own "w & s readily di/ru/ ! "w ( o!rs1 & :i* moreov] l$ him a/ray 9 s _m ( 8 purely exp]im5tal inve/igations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dalton began 8 *emical "w ab\t six ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,lavoisi]4 ,unlike t great philosoph] he c>$ no?+ = political life4 ,! fri5ds 9 ^: family he sp5t ! great] "p ( 8 life 9 ,man*e/] 7 nev] able to tell :e!r he 0 ,:ig or ,tory4 ,unlike ,prie/ley he 0 cont5t to let metaphysical & !ological speculation alone4 ,9 8 quiet devotion to /udy he m resembl$ ,black1 & 9 8 me?od1 :i* 0 m d$uctive ?an t usually employ$ 9 *emi/ry1 he also resembl$ ! ,ed9burgh pr(essor4 ,tra9$ f 8 e>lie/ days to dep5d on himself1 nurtur$ 9 ! cre$less cre$ ( ! ,fri5ds1 he ent]$ on 8 life's "w ) few prejudices1 if )\t mu* pr(\nd k ( :at _h be5 done be=e him4 ,by ! p[] ( 8 insight into ,nature & ! conc5tration ( 8 ?\ght1 he drew aside ! curta9 :i* hung betwe5 ! se5 & ! unse52 & :ile ,h]s*el1 sweep+ ! heav5s ) 8 telescope & night by night br++ new worlds )9 ! sph]e ( k1 0 ov]p[]+ m5's m9ds by new conceptions ( ! inf9itely great1 ,john ,dalton1 ) l imag9ative p[]1 0 exam9+ ! ar*itecture ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( matt]1 & reveal+ ! exi/5ce ( law & ord] 9 ! doma9 ( ! inf9itely small4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,see ,fig4 #b1 :i* is copi$ f ! orig9al 9 ! ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 & illu/rates ,dalton's conception ( a quantity ( c>bonic acid gas1 ea* atom built up ( "o atom ( c>bon & two ( oxyg52 ( nitr\s oxide gas1 ea* atom compos$ ( "o atom ( nitrog5 & "o ( oxyg52 & ( hydrog5 gas1 con/itut$ ( s+le atoms4 #h ,m accurate analysis has %[n t !re are six p>ts ( c>bon unit$ respectively ) "o & ) two p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 9 ^! comp\nds4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emical ,,sci5ce 7cont9u$7--,,p]iod ,,( ,,davy ,,& ,,b]zelius4 ,humphry ,davy1 #aggh-ahbi4 ,johann ,jacob ,b]zelius1 #aggi-ahdh4 ,we may r\ghly date ! p]iod ( *emical advance dur+ :i* ! connections betwe5 *emi/ry & o!r bran*es ( natural k 7 recogniz$ & /udi$1 z beg9n+ ) ! fir/ ye> ( ?is c5tury1 & z cont9u+ to our own day4 ,! elaboration ( ! atomic !ory 0 busily c>ri$ on dur+ ! second & ?ird decades ( ?is c5tury2 to ?is ! lab\r ( ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,b]zelius l>gely contribut$4 ,t !re exi/ _m po9ts ( close connection betwe5 *emical & electrical sci5ce 0 also demon/rat$ by ! lab\rs ( ! same *emi/1 & by ! brilliant & impressive discov]ies ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,a sy/em ( classification ( *emical elem5ts & comp\nds 0 e/abli%$ by ! same great naturali/s1 & _m inroads 7 made into ! doma9 ( ! *emi/ry ( bodies ( animal & vegetable orig94 ,! "w ( ,b]zelius & ,davy1 *>act]iz$ z x is by ?or\ghness1 cle>ness & def9it5ess1 belongs ess5tially to ! mod]n era ( *emical advance2 b ,i ?9k we %all bett] pres]ve ! cont9uity ( our /ory if we devote a *apt] to a consid]ation ( ! "w ( ^! two r5[n$ naturali/s be=e ent]+ on our review ( ! "t imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t1 z typical work]s 9 :i* "t ,i h *os5 ,liebig & ,dumas4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] we f\nd t ! f\ndations ( ! atomic !ory _h be5 laid1 & ! !ory itself _h be5 appli$ to g5]al problems ( *emical syn!sis1 by ,dalton4 ,9 giv+1 9 t *apt]1 a %ort sket* ( ! mod]n molecul> !ory1 & 9 try+ to expla9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m molecule z contra/$ ) atom1 ,i necess>ily c>ri$ ! read] =w>d to a "t consid]ably lat] ?an ! fir/ decade ( ?is c5tury4 ,we mu/ n[ retrace our /eps2 & 9 p]us+ ! acc\nt ( ! "w ( ,b]zelius & ,davy giv5 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ! read] mu/ endeav\r to h 9 8 m9d a conception ( atom analog\s to ! m5tal picture =m$ by ,dalton 7see pp4 #ace1 #acf72 he mu/ reg>d ! t]m z applicable to elem5t & comp\nd alike2 he mu/ rememb] t ! "w ( :i* he reads is ! "w ( ^? :o are /riv+ t[>ds a cle> conception ( ! atom1 & :o are gradually ris+ to a recognition ( ! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o ord] ( small p>ticles1 by ! regul> putt+ toge!r ( :i* masses ( matt] are con/itut$4 ,no mat]ials1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 exi/ f :i* a life ( ,b]zelius c be con/ruct$4 ,i mu/ !re=e cont5t myself ) giv+ a m]e enum]ation ( ! m sali5t po9ts 9 8 life4 ,( 8 *emical "w abundant details are =tunately to be f\nd 9 8 own ,lehrbu*1 & 9 ! works & pap]s ( himself & 8 contempor>ies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,johann ,,jacob ,,b]zelius 0 ! son ( ! s*oolma/] ( ,waef]sunda1 a village ne> ,l9kop+1 9 ,ea/ ,go?l&1 ,sw$54 ,he 0 born 9 ,augu/ #aggi--;he 0 born1 t is1 a few ye>s aft] ,prie/ley's discov]y ( oxyg52 at ! "t :5 ,lavoisi] _h ne>ly complet$ 8 !ory ( combu/ion2 :5 ,dalton 0 endeav\r+ to keep ! unruly y\? ( ,eaglesfield 9 subjection2 & :5 ,black1 hav+ e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( fix$ air & ! !ory ( lat5t heat1 0 ! c5tral figure 9 ! b& ( /ud5ts :o 7 enl>g+ our k ( ,nature 9 ! ,scotti% capital4 ,be+ left an orphan at ! age ( n9e1 ! "y ,b]zelius 0 br\ght up by 8 gr&fa!r1 :o appe>s to h be5 a man ( education & s5se4 ,aft] att5d+ s*ool at ,l9kop+1 he ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,upsala z a /ud5t ( m$ic9e4 ,"h he soon began to %[ a ta/e = *emi/ry4 ,x w\ld appe> t few or no exp]im5ts 7 !n introduc$ into 8 lectures by ! ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ,upsala2 little enc\ragem5t 0 giv5 to pursue *emical exp]im5ts1 & s ,b]zelius _h to tru/ to 8 own lab\rs = ga9+ an acqua9tance ) practical *emi/ry4 ,hav+ ?us made consid]able progress 9 *emi/ry1 & be+ on a visit to ! m9]al ba?s ( ,m$evi1 he seiz$ ! opportunity to make a v ?or\gh analysis ( ! wat]s ( ?is place1 :i* 7 r5[n$ 9 ,sw$5 = _! curative prop]ties4 ,! publication ( ?is analysis m>ks ! fir/ appe>ance ( ,b]zelius z an au?or4 ,he graduat$ z ,m4,b4 9 #ahja1 & a ye> or two lat] pres5t$ 8 diss]tation1 entitl$ ,! ,action ( ,galvanism on ,organic ,bodies1 z a !sis = ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,m$ic9e4 ,?is !sis1 l t ( ,black1 publi%$ ab\t half a c5tury e>li]1 m>ks an important /age 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry4 ,^! & o!r publications made ! "y doctor fam\s2 he 0 call$ to ,/ockholm to be extraord9>y 7or assi/ant7 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! m$ical s*ool ( t capital4 ,sometimes practis+ m$ic9e 9 ord] to add to 8 limit$ income1 b = ! mo/ "p engag$ 9 *emical rese>*1 he rema9$ 9 ,/ockholm = ne>ly fifty ye>s1 dur+ mo/ ( :i* "t ! laboratory ( ,b]zelius 9 ! ,sw$i% capital 0 reg>d$ z "o ( ! magnetic poles ( ! *emical _w4 ,to ?is po9t came _m ( ! great *emi/s :o aft]w>ds enri*$ ! sci5ce by _! discov]ies4 ,woehl]1 ,h4 & ,g4 ,rose1 ,magnus1 ,gmel91 ,mits*]li* & o!rs all /udi$ ) ,b]zelius4 ,he visit$ ,engl& & ,france1 & 0 on t]ms ( intimacy & 9 correspond5ce ) ,davy1 ,dalton1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,b]?ollet & ! o!r m5 :o at t p]iod %$ s mu* lu/re on ,engli% & ,fr5* sci5ce4 ,x is said t ,b]zelius 0 s mu* pleas$ ) ! lectures ( ,dr4 ,m>cet at ,guy's ,hospital1 t on 8 return f 8 visit to ,engl& 9 #ahab1 he introduc$ mu* m livel9ess & _m m exp]im5tal illu/rations into 8 own lectures4 ,at ! age ( ?irty-"o1 ,b]zelius 0 *os5 ,presid5t ( ! ,/ockholm ,academy ( ,sci5ces2 a few ye>s lat] he 0 elect$ a ,=eign ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society1 :i* society be/[$ on him ! ,copley ,m$al 9 #ahcf4 ,he 0 rais$ to ! rank ( a b>on by ! ,k+ ( ,sw$51 be+ all[$ z a special privilege to reta9 8 own "n4 ,9 ! ye> #ahcb ,b]zelius resign$ 8 pr(essor%ip1 & 9 ! same ye> he m>ri$4 ,dur+ ! rema9d] ( 8 life1 he cont9u$ to receive hon\rs ( all k9ds1 b he nev] = a mom5t =sook ! pa?s ( sci5ce4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,davy1 9 #ahbi1 he 0 recogniz$ z ! lead+ ,european *emi/ ( 8 age2 b1 al?\gh firm 9 8 own !oretical views1 he 0 ready to te/ ^! views by appeal+ to ,nature4 ,! v p]si/5cy ) :i* he clung to a conception e/abli%$ on "s solid exp]im5tal basis insur$ t new light w\ld be ?r[n on t conception by ! rese>*es ( ^? *emi/s :o oppos$ him4 ,probably no *emi/ has add$ to ! sci5ce s _m c>efully det]m9$ facts z ,b]zelius2 he 0 always at "w 9 ! laboratory1 & always work$ ) ! greate/ c>e4 ,yet ! appliances at 8 comm& 7 :at we %\ld n[ call poor1 meagre1 & utt]ly inadequate4 ,pr(essor ,woehl] ( ,goett+51 :o 9 ! fulness ( days & hon\rs has s lately gone f among/ u1 rec5tly gave an acc\nt ( 8 visit to ,b]zelius 9 ! ye> #ahbc4 ,woehl] _h tak5 8 degree z ,doctor ( ,m$ic9e at ,heidelb]g1 & be+ anxi\s to prosecute ! /udy ( *emi/ry he 0 advis$ by 8 fri5ds to sp5d a w9t] 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,sw$i% pr(essor4 ,hav+ writt5 to ,b]zelius & le>n$ t he 0 will+ to all[ him work+ room 9 8 laboratory1 ! "y /ud5t set out = ,/ockholm4 ,aft] a j\rney to ,luebeck & a few days' passage 9 a small sail+-vessel1 he arriv$ 9 ! ,sw$i% capital4 ,knock+ at ! door ( ! h\se po9t$ out z t ( ,b]zelius1 he tells u t 8 he>t beat h>d z ! door 0 op5$ by a tall man ( florid complexion4 ,x 0 ,b]zelius himself1 he exclaims4 ,sc>cely believ+ t he 0 9 ! v room :]e s _m fam\s discov]ies _h be5 made1 he ent]$ ! laboratory4 ,no wat]1 no gas1 no draught-places1 no ov5s 7 to be se52 a c\ple ( pla9 tables1 a bl[pipe1 a few %elves ) bottles1 a little simple app>atus1 & a l>ge wat]-b>rel :]eat ,anna1 ! anci5t cook ( ! e/abli%m5t1 wa%$ ! laboratory di%es1 complet$ ! furni%+s ( ?is room1 fam\s ?r\gh\t ,europe = ! "w :i* _h be5 done 9 x4 ,9 ! kit*5 :i* adjo9$1 & :]e ,anna cook$1 0 a small furnace & a s& ba? = heat+ purposes4 ,9 ?is room _m great discov]ies 7 made4 ,among ^! we may note ! sep>ation ( ! elem5t columbium 9 #ahae1 & ( sel5ion 9 #ahah2 ! discov]y ( ! new e>? ?oria 9 #ahbh2 ! elucidation ( ! prop]ties ( yttrium & c]ium ab\t #ahbj1 ( uranium 9 #ahbc1 & ( ! plat9um metals 9 #ahbh2 ! accurate det]m9ation ( ! atomic weights ( ! great] numb] ( ! elem5ts2 ! discov]y ( sulphur salts 9 #ahbf-bg1 & ! pro( t silica is an acid1 & t mo/ ( ! /ony m9]als are comp\nds ( ?is acid ) v>i\s bases4 ,b we %all bett] le>n ! value ( "s ( ^! discov]ies by tak+ a g5]al review ( ! contributions to *emical sci5ce ( ! man :o sp5t mo/ ( 8 life at "w 9 t room 9 ,/ockholm4 ,! ,g]man *emi/ ,ri*t]1 9 ! fir/ or second ye> ( ?is c5tury1 _h drawn att5tion to ! fact t :5 two neutral comp\nds1 su* z nitrate ( pota% & *loride ( lime1 react *emically1 ! sub/ances produc$ by ?is reaction are also neutral4 ,all ! pota% comb9$ ) nitric acid 9 "o salt *anges places ) all ! lime comb9$ ) muriatic acid 9 ! o!r salt2 !re=e1 said ,ri*t]1 ^! diff]5t quantities ( pota% & lime are neutraliz$ by ! same quantity ( nitric acid2 &1 h5ce1 ^! am\nts ( pota% & lime are *emically equival5t1 because ^! are ! am\nts :i* p]=m ! same reaction1 viz4 neutralization ( a fix$ quantity ( acid4 ,if !n c>eful analyses 7 made ( a numb] ( su* neutral comp\nds z ^? nam$1 ! equival5ts ( all ! common] bases & acids#i might be calculat$4 ,ri*t]'s own det]m9ations ( ! equival5ts ( acids & bases 7 n v accurate1 b ,b]zelius 0 impress$ ) ! importance ( ?is "w4 ,! ye> be=e ! appe>ance ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em 7i4e4 9 #ahjg71 he began to prep>e & c>efully analyze s]ies ( neutral salts4 ,z ! "w 0 proce$+ he became acqua9t$ ) ! !ory ( ,dalton1 & at once saw its extreme importance4 ,= "s "t ,b]zelius cont9u$ to "w on ! l9es laid d[n by ,dalton1 & to accumulate data f :i* ! atomic weights ( elem5ts might be calculat$2 b he soon p]ceiv$--z ! f\nd] ( ! !ory _h p]ceiv$ f ! v outset--t ! fundam5tal conception ( ea* atom ( an elem5t z be+ a di/9ct mass ( matt] weigh+ m or less ?an ! atom ( e o!r elem5t1 & ( ea* atom ( a comp\nd z be+ built up ( ! atoms ( ! elem5ts :i* compose t comp\nd1--,b]zelius1 ,i say1 p]ceiv$ t ^! conceptions mu/ rema9 fruitless unless means 7 f\nd = det]m9+ ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 ea* comp\nd atom4 ,we h already le>n$ ! rules fram$ by ! f\nd] ( ! atomic !ory = 8 guidance 9 attempt+ to solve ?is problem4 ,b]zelius ?\ght ^? rules insuffici5t & arbitr>y2 he !re=e laid d[n two g5]al rules1 on ! l9es ( :i* he prosecut$ 8 rese>*es into *emical syn!sis4 ,"o atom ( "o elem5t comb9es ) "o1 two1 ?ree1 or m atoms ( ano!r elem5t4 ,?is is practically ! same z ,dalton's def9itions ( b9>y1 t]n>y1 etc41 comp\nds 7p4 #acb74 ,two atoms ( "o elem5t comb9e ) ?ree & five atoms ( ano!r elem5t4 ,b]zelius "h recognizes ! exi/5ce ( comp\nd atoms ( a m complex /ructure ?an any ( ^? recogniz$ by ,dalton4 ,b]zelius fur!r ext5d$ ! conception ( atom by apply+ x to gr\ps ( elem5ts =m$1 accord+ to him1 by ! comb9ation ( v>i\s comp\nd atoms4 ,to 8 m9d e comp\nd atom appe>$ z built up ( two p>ts2 ea* ( ^! p>ts might be an elem5t>y atom1 or might be itself built up ( sev]al elem5t>y atoms1 yet 9 ! ,b]zelian !ory ea* act$ z a def9ite :ole4 ,s f> z ! build+ up ( ! complex atom w5t1 ea* ( ! two p>ts into :i* ?is atom c\ld be divid$ act$ z if x 7 a simple atom4 ,if we suppose a pat* ( two %ades ( r$ col\r to be laid on a smoo? surface1 & alongside ( ?is a pat* ( two %ades ( yell[ col\r1 & if we suppose ! :ole mass ( col\r to be view$ f a di/ance su* t "o pat* appe>s uni=mly r$ & ! o!r uni=mly yell[1 we %all h a r\gh illu/ration ( ! ,b]zelian comp\nd atom4 ,to ! obs]v] ! :ole mass ( col\r appe>s to consi/ ( two di/9ct pat*es ( contra/$ col\rs2 b let him approa* ne>]1 & he p]ceives t :at appe>$ to be a uni=m surface ( r$ or yell[ really consi/s ( two pat*es ( unlike %ades ( r$ or ( yell[4 ,! :ole mass ( col\r repres5ts ! comp\nd atom2 broadly x consi/s ( two p>ts--! r$ col\r repres5ts "o ( ! con/itu5t atoms1 ! yell[ col\r repres5ts ! o!r con/itu5t atom2 b on clos] exam9ation ! r$ atom1 s to speak--& likewise ! yell[ atom--is f\nd to consi/ ( p>ts :i* are less unlike ea* o!r ?an ! :ole r$ atom is unlike ! :ole yell[ atom4 ,we %all h to consid] 9 m detail ! reason+ :]eby ,b]zelius arriv$ at ?is conception ( e comp\nd atom z a dual /ructure 7see pp4 #bji-bab74 ,at pres5t ,i wi% to notice ?is conception z ly+ at ! root ( mo/ ( ! "w :i* he did 9 ext5d+ & apply+ ! ,daltonian !ory4 ,i wi% to insi/ on ! fact t ! atomic !ory c\ld n advance )\t me?ods be+ f\nd = det]m9+ ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 a comp\nd atom1 )\t cle> conceptions be+ ga9$ ( e comp\nd atom z a /ructure1 & )\t at lea/ attempts be+ made to le>n ! laws 9 accordance ) :i* t /ructure 0 built4 ,be=e ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 c\ld be det]m9$ x 0 necess>y t ! numb] ( oxyg5 & ( hydrog5 atoms 9 ! atom ( wat] %\ld be kn[n2 o!rwise all t c\ld be /at$ 01 ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 is a simple multiple ( #h4 ,b]zelius did mu* to advance *emical sci5ce by ! introduction & application ( a few simple rules :]eby he det]m9$ ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 v>i\s comp\nd atoms4 ,b z ! sci5ce advanc$1 & z m facts came to be kn[n1 ! ,b]zelian rules 7 f\nd to be too n>r[ & too arbitr>y2 *emi/s s\ght = "s sur] & m g5]ally applicable me?od ?an t :i* ,b]zelius _h introduc$1 & ! imp]i\s dem& = ?is me?od at la/ =c$ !m to recognize ! importance ( ! great g5]alization ( ! ,italian naturali/ ,avogadro1 :i* !y _h possess$ s9ce ! ye> #ahaa1 b ! mean+ ( :i* !y _h s long fail$ to und]/&4 ,b]zelius made "o great /ep 9 ! direction ( recogniz+ ,avogadro's di/9ction betwe5 atom & molecule :5 he accept$ ,gay-,lussac's g5]alization t equal volumes ( gases conta9 equal numb]s ( atoms3 b he refus$ to apply ?is to o!r ?an elem5t>y gases4 ,! weights ( ! volumes ( elem5t>y gases :i* comb9$ 71 = ,b]zelius1 also ! weights ( ! atoms ( ^! elem5ts4 ,?us1 let ! weight ( "o volume ( hydrog5 be call$ #a1 !n two volumes ( hydrog51 weigh+ #b1 comb9e ) "o volume ( oxyg51 weigh+ #af1 to =m two volumes ( wat] vap\r2 !re=e1 said ,b]zelius1 ! atom ( wat] consi/s ( two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg51 & ! atom ( ! latt] elem5t is sixte5 times heavi] ?an ! atom ( ! =m]4 ,?ree volumes ( hydrog51 weigh+ #c1 comb9e ) "o volume ( nitrog51 weigh+ #ad1 to =m two volumes ( ammonia2 !re=e1 said ,b]zelius1 ! atom ( ammonia consi/s ( ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) "o atom ( nitrog51 & ! nitrog5 atom is f\rte5 times heavi] ?an ! atom ( hydrog54 ,:ile ,b]zelius 0 apply+ ^! rules to ! det]m9ation ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts1 & 0 conduct+ ! mo/ important s]ies ( analyses kn[n 9 ! annals ( ! sci5ce1 two great physico-*emical discov]ies 7 ann\nc$4 ,9 ! ye> #ahah ! law ( isomorphism 0 /at$ by ,mits*]li*3 ,comp\nds ! atoms ( :i* conta9 equal numb]s ( elem5t>y atoms1 simil>ly arrang$1 h ! same cry/all9e =m4 ,z ?us /at$1 ! law ( isomorphism affirms t if two comp\nds cry/allize 9 ! same =m1 ! atoms ( ^! comp\nds are built up ( ! same numb] ( elem5t>y atoms--h[ev] diff]5t may be ! nature ( ! elem5ts 9 ! comp\nds--& t ^! elem5t>y atoms are simil>ly arrang$4 ,?is /atem5t 0 soon f\nd to be too absolute1 & 0 accord+ly modifi$2 b to g into ! hi/ory ( ! law ( isomorphism w\ld lead u too f> f ! great ma9 pa? ( *emical advance1 ! c\rse ( :i* we are seek+ to trace4 ,b]zelius at once accept$ ,mits*]li*'s law1 z an aid 9 8 rese>*es on atomic weights4 ,! help to be d]iv$ f ?is law may be illu/rat$ ?us3 let u assume t two comp\nds h be5 obta9$ exhibit+ id5tity ( cry/all9e =m2 let x be fur!r assum$ t ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 ! atom ( "o ( ^! comp\nds is kn[n2 x foll[s1 by ! law ( isomorphism1 t ! numb] ( elem5t>y atoms 9 ! atom ( ! o!r is kn[n also4 ,let ! two comp\nds be sulphate ( pota% & *romate ( pota%2 let x be assum$ t ! atom ( ! fir/ nam$ is kn[n to consi/ ( two atoms ( potassium1 "o atom ( sulphur1 & f\r atoms ( oxyg52 & t ! second sub/ance is kn[n to be a comp\nd ( ! elem5ts potassium1 *romium & oxyg52 !n ! atom ( ! second comp\nd conta9s1 by ,mits*]li*'s law1 two atoms ( potassium1 "o atom ( *romium & f\r atoms ( oxyg53 h5ce ! relative weight ( ! atom ( *romate ( pota% c be det]m9$1 & h5ce ! relative weight ( ! atom ( *romium c also be det]m9$4 ,a ye> aft] ! ann\ncem5t ( ,mits*]li*'s law1 ! foll[+ g5]alization 0 /at$ to hold good1 by two ,fr5* naturali/s1 ,dulong & ,petit3--,! atoms ( all solid elem5ts h ! same capacity = heat4 ,if ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o gra9 ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree be call$ "o unit ( heat1 !n ! capacity = heat ( any body o!r ?an wat] is ! numb] ( units ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o gra9 ( t sub/ance ?r\gh "o degree4 ,ea* *emical sub/ance1 elem5t>y & comp\nd1 has its own capacity = heat2 b1 in/ead ( comp>+ ! capacities = heat ( equal weights1 ,dulong & ,petit comp>$ ! capacities = heat ( weights repres5t+ ! weights ( ! atoms ( v>i\s elem5ts4 ,?us1 equal am\nts ( heat are requir$ to raise1 ?r\gh ! same int]val ( temp]ature1 fifty-six gra9s ( iron1 "o hundr$ & eight gra9s ( silv]1 & sixty-?ree & a half gra9s ( copp]2 b ! weights ( ! atoms ( ^! ?ree elem5ts are 9 ! proportion ( #ef3ajh3fc-a_/b4 ,dulong & ,petit bas$ _! g5]alization on measurem5ts ( ! capacities = heat ( ?irte5 elem5ts2 fur!r rese>* has %[n t _! /atem5t mo/ probably holds good = all ! solid elem5ts4 ,"h !n 0 a mo/ important in/rum5t put into ! h&s ( ! *emi/4 ,x is only necess>y t ! atomic weight ( "o solid elem5t %\ld be c]ta9ly kn[n1 & t ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ?r\gh "o degree ! numb] ( gra9s ( t elem5t express$ by its atomic weight %\ld also be kn[n2 !n ! numb] :i* expresses ! weight1 9 gra9s1 ( any o!r solid elem5t :i* is rais$ ?r\gh "o degree by ! same am\nt ( heat1 likewise expresses ! relative weight ( ! atom ( t elem5t4 ,?us1 suppose t ! atomic weight ( silv] is kn[n to be #ajh1 & suppose t six units ( heat are requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o hundr$ & eight gra9s ( ?is metal ?r\gh "o degree2 !n suppose x is f\nd by exp]im5t t six units ( heat suffice to raise ! temp]ature ( two hundr$ & t5 gra9s ( bismu? ?r\gh "o degree1 x foll[s--accord+ to ! law ( ,dulong & ,petit--t #baj is ! atomic weight ( bismu?4 ,! modifi$ g5]alization ( ,gay-,lussac--,equal volumes ( elem5t>y gases conta9 equal numb]s ( atoms2 ! laws ( isomorphism & ( atomic heat2 & ! two empirical rules /at$ on p4 #afc2--^! 7 ! guides us$ by ,b]zelius 9 int]pret+ ! analytical results :i* he & 8 pupils obta9$ 9 t memorable s]ies ( rese>*es1 :]eby ! conceptions ( ,dalton 7 %[n to be applicable to a wide range ( *emical ph5om5a4 ,! fixity ( composition ( *emical comp\nds has n[ be5 e/abli%$2 a def9ite mean+ has be5 giv5 to ! t]m elem5t2 ! conception ( atom has be5 ga9$1 b mu* rema9s to be done 9 ! way ( r5d]+ ?is conception precise2 & fairly good1 b n altoge!r satisfactory me?ods h be5 introduc$ by :i* ! relative weights ( ! atoms ( elem5ts & comp\nds may be det]m9$4 ,at ?is "t *emi/s are busy prep>+ & describ+ new comp\nds1 & _m new elem5ts are also be+ discov]$2 ! ne$ ( classification beg9s to be felt m & m4 ,9 ! days ( ,b]zelius & ,davy /r5u\s ef=ts 7 made to obta9 "s g5]alizations by ! application ( :i* ! _m kn[n elem5ts & comp\nds might be divid$ into gr\ps4 ,x 0 felt t a classification might be f\nd$ on ! composition ( comp\nds1 or p]haps on ! prop]ties ( ! same comp\nds4 ,^! two g5]al pr9ciples s]v$ z guides 9 mo/ ( ! rese>*es !n in/itut$2 answ]s 7 s\ght to ^! two que/ions3 ,( :at elem5ts is ?is comp\nd compos$8 &1 ,:at c ?is comp\nd d2 h[ does x react t[>ds o!r bodies8 ,lavoisi]1 z we "k1 reg>d$ oxyg5 z ! *>act]i/ic elem5t ( all acids4 ,?is t]m acid implies ! possession1 by all ! sub/ances d5ot$ by x1 ( "s common prop]ty2 let u %ortly trace ! hi/ory ( ?is ^w 9 *emi/ry4 ,v9eg> 0 kn[n to ! ,greeks & ,romans1 & ! names :i* !y gave ?is sub/ance tell u t s\rness 0 to !m its *>act]i/ic prop]ty4 ,!y knew t v9eg> eff]vesc$ :5 br\ght into contact ) *alky e>?s1 & t x 0 able to dissolve _m sub/ances--witness ! /ory ( ,cleopatra's draught ( ! pe>l dissolv$ 9 v9eg>4 ,o!r sub/ances possess$ ( ^! prop]ties--= in/ance oil ( vitriol & spirits ( salt--z !y became kn[n1 7 class$ along ) v9eg>2 b no attempts 7 made to cle>ly def9e ! prop]ties ( ^! bodies till comp>atively rec5t times4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( an acid sub/ance enum]at$ by ,boyle are--solv5t p[]1 :i* is ex]t$ unequally on diff]5t bodies2 p[] ( turn+ _m vegetable blues to r$1 & ( re/or+ _m vegetable col\rs :i* _h be5 de/roy$ by alkalis2 p[] ( precipitat+ solid sulphur f solutions ( ?is sub/ance 9 alkalis1 & ! p[] ( act+ on alkalis to produce sub/ances )\t ! prop]ties ( ei!r acid or alkali4 ,b :at1 "o may ask1 is an alkali1 ( :i* m5tion is s (t5 made by ,boyle8 ,f v e>ly times x _h be5 notic$ t ! a%es :i* rema9$ :5 c]ta9 plants 7 burn$1 & ! liquid obta9$ by dissolv+ ^? a%es 9 wat]1 _h great cleans+ p[]s2 t !y remov$ oily matt]1 fat & dirt f clo? & o!r fabrics4 ,! fact t an aque\s solution ( ^! a%es affects ! col\r$ p>ts ( _m plants 0 also notic$ 9 e>ly times4 ,z progress 0 made 9 *emical k obs]v]s began to contra/ ! prop]ties ( ?is plant-a% ) ! prop]ties ( acids4 ,! =m] _h no m>k$ ta/e1 ! latt] 7 always v s\r2 ! =m] turn$ "s vegetable r$s to blue1 ! latt] turn$ ! blues to r$2 a solution ( plant-a% _h no great solv5t action on ord9>y m9]al matt]1 :]eas ?is matt] 0 g5]ally dissolv$ by an acid4 ,9 ! "t ( ! al*emi/s1 :o 7 always seek+ = ! pr9ciples or ess5ces ( ?+s1 ^! prop]ties ( acids 7 attribut$ to a pr9ciple ( acidity1 :ile ! prop]ties ( plant-a% & sub/ances resembl+ plant-a% 7 attribut$ to a pr9ciple ( alkal9ity 7f ,arabic alkali1 or ! a%74 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury ! di/9ction betwe5 acid & alkali 0 made ! basis ( a sy/em ( *emical m$ic9e4 ,! two pr9ciples ( acidity & alkal9ity 7 reg>d$ z engag$ 9 an active & nev]-end+ w>f>e4 ,e disease 0 trac$ to an undue prepond]ance ( "o or o!r ( ^! pr9ciples2 to keep ^! unruly pr9ciples 9 quietness became ! aim ( ! physician1 & ( c\rse x 0 necess>y t ! physician %\ld be a *emi/1 9 ord] t he might "k ! nature & habits ( ! pr9ciples :i* gave him s mu* tr\ble4 ,up to ?is "t ! t]m alkali _h be5 appli$ to almo/ any sub/ance hav+ ! prop]ties :i* ,i h j enum]at$2 b ?is gr\p ( sub/ances 0 divid$ by ,van ,helmont & 8 successors into fix$ alkali & volatile alkali1 & fix$ alkali 0 fur!r subdivid$ into m9]al alkali 7:at we n[ call soda7 & vegetable alkali 7pota%74 ,ab\t ! same "t acids 7 likewise divid$ into ?ree gr\ps2 vegetable1 animal1 & m9]al acids4 ,to ! prop]ties by :i* alkali 0 di/+ui%$1 viz4 cleans+ p[] & action on vegetable col\r+ matt]s1 ,/ahl 7! f\nd] ( ! phlogi/ic !ory7 add$ t ( comb9+ ) acids4 ,:5 an acid 7t is1 a s\r-ta/+ sub/ance :i* dissolves mo/ e>?y matt]s & turns vegetable blues to r$7 is add$ to an alkali 7t is1 a sub/ance :i* feels soap-l to ! t\*1 :i* does n dissolve _m e>?y matt]s1 & :i* turns _m vegetable r$s to blue7 ! prop]ties ( bo? acid & alkali disappe>1 & a new sub/ance is produc$ :i* is n *>act]iz$ by ! prop]ties ( ei!r con/itu5t4 ,! new sub/ance1 z a rule1 is )\t action on e>?y matt]s or on vegetable col\rs2 x is n s\r1 nor is x soapy to ! t\* l alkali2 x is neutral4 ,x is a salt4 ,b1 al?\gh ,/ahl /at$ t an alkali is a sub/ance :i* comb9es ) an acid1 x 0 n until a c5tury lat] t ^! ?ree--alkali1 acid1 salt--7 cle>ly di/+ui%$4 ,b ! k t a c]ta9 gr\p ( bodies are s\r & dissolve m9]als1 etc41 & t a c]ta9 o!r gr\p ( bodies are ne>ly ta/eless & d n dissolve m9]als1 etc41 0 evid5tly a k ( only ! outly+ prop]ties ( ! bodies2 x simply enabl$ a t]m to be appli$ to a gr\p ( bodies1 :i* t]m _h a def9ite connotation4 ,:y are acids acid1 & :y are alkalis alkal9e8 ,acids are acid1 said ,be*] 7latt] "p ( sev5te5? c5tury71 because !y all conta9 ! same pr9ciple1 viz4 ! primordial acid4 ,?is primordial acid is m or less mix$ ) e>?y matt] 9 all actual acids2 x is v pure 9 spirits ( salt4 ,alkalis are alkal9e1 said ,basil ,val5t9e 7beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury71 because !y conta9 a special k9d ( matt]1 ! matt] ( fire4 ,accord+ to o!r *emi/s 7e4g4 ,j4 ,f4 ,mey]1 #agfd71 acids owe _! acidity to ! pres5ce ( a %>p or bit+ pr9ciple got f fire4 ,acids1 alkalis & salts all conta91 accord+ to ,/ahl 7beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury71 m or less primordial acid4 ,! m ( ?is a sub/ance conta9s1 ! m acid x is2 ! less ( ?is x conta9s1 ! m alkal9e x is4 ,all ^! attempt$ explanations recognize t simil> prop]ties are to be trac$ to simil>ity ( composition2 b ! ass]tion ( ! exi/5ce ( a primordial acid1 or ( ! matt] ( fire1 al?\gh und\bt$ly a /ep 9 advance1 0 n suffici5tly def9ite 7unless x 0 supplem5t$ by a di/9ct acc\nt ( ! prop]ties ( ^! pr9ciples7 to be accept$ :5 *emical k became accurate4 ,! same g5]al consid]ation1 f\nd$ on a l>ge accumulation ( facts1 viz4 t simil>ity ( prop]ties is due to simil>ity ( composition1 guid$ ,lavoisi] 9 8 "w on acids4 ,he f\nd ! primordial acid ( ,/ahl1 & ! bit+ pr9ciple ( ,mey]1 9 ! elem5t oxyg54 ,i h already 7p4 #ia7 %ortly trac$ ! reason+ :]eby ,lavoisi] arriv$ at ! conclusion t oxyg5 is ! acid-produc]2 "h ,i w\ld insi/ on ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 me?od & t ( ,basil ,val5t9e1 ,/ahl & ! old] *emi/s4 ,!y c>ri$ into ! doma9 ( natural sci5ce conceptions obta9$ f1 & ess5tially belong+ to ! doma9 ( metaphysical or extra-physical speculation2 he said t oxyg5 is ! acidifi]1 because all ! comp\nds ( ?is elem5t :i* he actually exam9$ 7 possess$ ( ! prop]ties includ$ "u ! "n acid4 ,we "k t ,lavoisi]'s conclusion 0 errone\s1 t x 0 n f\nd$ on a suffici5tly broad basis ( facts4 ,! conception ( an acidify+ pr9ciple1 al?\gh t pr9ciple 0 id5tifi$ ) a kn[n elem5t1 0 /ill ta9t$ ) ! vices ( ! al*emical s*ool4 ,we %all see imm$iately h[ mu* h>m 0 done by ! ass]tion ( ,lavoisi]1 ,all acids conta9 oxyg54 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 7pp4 #cb-cg7 we trac$ ! progress ( k reg>d+ alkalis f ! "t :5 ! prop]ties ( ^! bodies 7 said to be due to ! exi/5ce 9 !m ( matt] ( fire1 to ! "t :5 ,black _h cle>ly di/+ui%$ & def9$ cau/ic alkali & c>bonat$ alkali4 ,! truly philosophical "*1 & at ! same "t ! want ( en?usiasm1 ( ,black become app>5t if we contra/ 8 "w on alkali ) t ( ,lavoisi] on acid4 ,black did n hamp] ! advance ( *emi/ry by f9d+ a pr9ciple ( alkal9ity2 b nei!r did he give a full explanation ( ! fact t c]ta9 bodies are alkal9e :ile o!rs are n4 ,he set himself ! problem ( accurately det]m9+ ! diff]5ces 9 composition betwe5 burnt 7or cau/ic7 & unburnt 7or mild7 alkali1 & he solv$ ! problem mo/ successfully4 ,he %[$ t ! prop]ties ( mild alkalis diff] f ^? ( cau/ic alkalis1 because ! composition ( ! =m] diff]s f t ( ! latt]2 & he %[$ exactly :]e9 ?is diff]5ce ( composition consi/s1 viz4 9 ! possession or non-possession ( fix$ air4 ,/range we may say t ?is discov]y did n induce ,black to prosecute ! /udy ( cau/ic alkalis3 surely he w\ld h anticipat$ ,davy1 & h be5 kn[n z ! discov]] ( potassium & sodium4 ,9 ! "t ( ,/ahl ! "n salt 0 appli$1 z we h le>n$1 to ! sub/ance produc$ by ! union ( an acid ) an alkali2 b ! same ^w 0 us$ by ! al*emi/s ) an altoge!r diff]5t signification4 ,orig9ally appli$ to ! solid matt] obta9$ by boil+ d[n sea-wat]1 & !n ext5d$ to include all sub/ances :i*1 l ?is solid matt]1 are v easily dissolv$ by wat] & c be recov]$ by boil+ d[n ?is solution1 salt 01 9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 ! "n giv5 to "o ( ! hypo!tical pr9ciples or elem5ts4 ,_m k9ds ( matt] 7 kn[n to be easily dissolv$ by wat]2 ! common possession ( ^! prop]ties 0 s\ght to be acc\nt$ = by say+ t all ^! sub/ances conta9$ ! same pr9ciple1 namely1 ! pr9ciple ( salt4 ,i h already tri$ to indicate ! reason+ :]eby ,boyle did s mu* to ov]?r[ ?is conception ( salt4 ,he also ext5d$ our k ( special sub/ances :i* are n[ class$ z salts4 ,! *emi/s :o came aft] ,boyle gradually rev]t$ to ! old] mean+ ( ! t]m salt1 adopt+ z ! *>act]i/ics ( all sub/ances plac$ 9 ?is class1 ready solubility 9 wat]1 fusibility1 or sometimes volatility1 & ! possession ( a ta/e m or less l t ( sea-salt4 ,sub/ances :i* resembl$ salts 9 g5]al appe>ance1 b 7 insoluble 9 wat]1 & v fix$ 9 ! fire1 7 call$ e>?s2 &1 z 0 g5]ally done 9 ^? days1 ! exi/5ce ( a primordial e>? 0 assum$1 m or less ( :i* 0 suppos$ to be pres5t 9 actual e>?s4 ,?is recognition ( ! possibility ( m or less ( ! primordial e>? be+ pres5t 9 actually occurr+ e>?s1 ( c\rse necessitat$ ! exi/5ce ( v>i\s k9ds ( e>?4 ,! e>?s 7 gradually di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r2 lime 0 recogniz$ z a sub/ance di/9ct f b>yta1 b>yta z di/9ct f alum9a1 etc4 ,/ahl taught t "o ess5tial prop]ty ( an e>? 0 fusibility by fire1 ) production ( a sub/ance m or less l glass4 ,?is prop]ty 0 possess$ 9 a rem>kable degree by qu>tz or silica4 ,h5ce silica 0 reg>d$ z ! typical e>?1 until ,b]zelius1 9 #ahae1 prov$ x to be an acid4 ,b ! e>?s resembl$ alkalis1 inasmu* z !y too comb9$ )1 & s neutraliz$1 acids4 ,!re is an alkali hidd5 9 e e>?1 said "s *emi/s4 ,an alkali is an e>? ref9$ by ! pres5ce ( acid & combu/ible matt]1 said o!rs4 ,e>?s ?us came to be includ$ 9 ! t]m alkali1 :5 t t]m 0 us$ 9 its wide/ acceptation4 ,b a little lat] x 0 f\nd t "s ( ! e>?s 7 ?r[n d[n 9 ! solid =m f _! solutions 9 acids by ! addition ( alkalis2 ?is l$ to a ?reefold division1 ?us-- ,e>?s ---- ,alkal9e e>?s ---- ,alkalis ,insoluble ,some:at soluble ,v soluble 9 9 wat]4 9 wat]4 wat]4 ,! di/9ction at fir/ drawn betwe5 e>? & alkali 0 too absolute2 ! int]m$iate gr\p ( alkal9e e>?s s]v$ to bridge ov] ! gap betwe5 ! extreme gr\ps4 ,9 ,nature1 says ,wordswor?1 ev]y?+ is di/9ct1 b no?+ def9$ into absolute indep5d5t s+l5ess4 ,at ?is /age ( advance1 !n1 an e>? is reg>d$ z diff]+ f an alkali 9 be+ insoluble1 or ne>ly insoluble 9 wat]2 9 n be+ soapy to ! t\*1 & n turn+ vegetable r$s to blue3 b z resembl+ an alkali1 9 t x comb9es ) & neutralizes an acid2 & ! product ( ?is neutralization1 :e!r accompli%$ by an alkali or by an e>?1 is call$ a salt4 ,to ! e>? or alkali1 z be+ ! f\ndation on :i* ! salt is built1 by ! addition ( acid1 ! "n ( base 0 giv5 by ,r\elle 9 #agdd4 ,b runn+ ?r\gh e conception :i* 0 =m$ ( ^! sub/ances--acid1 alkali1 e>?1 salt--we f9d a t5d5cy1 sometimes =cibly m>k$1 sometimes feebly indicat$1 b always pres5t1 to consid] salt z a t]m ( mu* wid] acceptation ?an any ( ! o!rs4 ,an acid & an alkali1 or an acid & an e>?1 comb9e to =m a salt2 b ! salt c\ld n h be5 ?us produc$ unless ! acid1 ! alkali & ! e>? _h conta9$ 9 !mselves "s prop]ties :i*1 :5 comb9$1 =m ! prop]ties ( ! salt4 ,! acid1 ! alkali1 ! e>?1 ea* is1 9 a s5se1 a salt4 ,! p]fect salt is produc$ by ! coalesc5ce ( ! saltness ( ! acid ) ! saltness ( ! alkali4 ,?is conception f9ds full utt]ance 9 ! names1 once 9 common use1 ( sal acidum = acid1 sal alkali = alkali1 & sal salsum or sal neutrum = salt4 ,all are salts2 at "o extreme comes t salt :i* is m>k$ by prop]ties call$ acid prop]ties1 at ! o!r extreme comes ! salt di/+ui%$ by alkal9e prop]ties1 & betwe5 ^!1 & =m$ by ! union ( ^!1 comes ! middle or neutral salt4 ,x is ?us t ! nom5clature ( *emi/ry m>ks ! advances made 9 ! sci5ce4 ,:at's 9 a "n8 ,to ! hi/orical /ud5t ( sci5ce1 almo/ ev]y?+4 ,we %all f9d h[ diff]5t is ! mean+ atta*$ 9 mod]n *emi/ry to ^! t]ms1 acid salt1 alkal9e salt1 neutral salt1 f t :i* our pr$ecessors gave to _! sal acidum1 sal alkali1 & sal neutrum4 ,we mu/ note ! appe>ance ( ! t]m vitriol1 appli$ to ! solid salt-l bodies obta9$ f acids & *>act]iz$ by a glassy lu/re4 ,by ! middle ( la/ c5tury ! vitriols 7 recogniz$ z all d]iv$ f1 or comp\nd$ (1 sulphuric acid 7oil ( vitriol7 & metals2 ?is l$ to a subdivision ( ! l>ge class ( neutral salts into 7#a7 metallic salts produc$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid on metals1 & 7#b7 neutral salts produc$ by ! action ( e>?s or alkalis on acids g5]ally4 ,to ,r\elle1 a pr$ecessor ( ,lavoisi]1 :o di$ f\r ye>s be=e ! discov]y ( oxyg51 we owe _m accurate & sugge/ive rem>ks & exp]im5ts be>+ on ! t]m salt4 ,i h already m5tion$ t x 0 he :o appli$ ! ^w base to ! alkali or e>?1 or x might be metal1 f :i*1 by ! action ( acid1 a salt is built up4 ,he also ceas$ to speak ( an acid z sal acidum1 or ( an alkali z sal alkali1 & appli$ ! t]m salt exclusively to ^? sub/ances :i* are produc$ by ! action ( acids on bases4 ,:5 ! product ( su* an action 0 neutral--t is1 _h no s\r ta/e1 no soapy feel+ to ! t\*1 no action on vegetable col\rs1 & no action on acids or bases--he call$ t product a neutral salt2 :5 ! product /ill exhibit$ "s ( ! prop]ties ( acid1 e4g4 s\rness ( ta/e1 he call$ x an acid salt2 & :5 ! product cont9u$ to exhibit "s ( ! prop]ties ( alkali1 e4g4 turn$ vegetable r$s to blue1 he call$ x an alkal9e salt4 ,r\elle also prov$ exp]im5tally t an acid salt conta9s m acid--relatively to ! same am\nt ( base--?an a neutral salt1 & t an alkal9e salt conta9s m base--relatively to ! same am\nt ( acid--?an a neutral salt2 & he prov$ t ?is excess ( acid1 or ( base1 is *emically unit$ to ! re/ ( ! salt--is1 9 o!r words1 an ess5tial "p ( ! salt1 f :i* x _c be remov$ )\t *ang+ ! prop]ties ( ! :ole4 ,b we h n z yet got to "k :y c]ta9 qualities connot$ by ! t]m acid c be affirm$ to belong to a gr\p ( bodies1 :y c]ta9 o!r1 alkal9e1 prop]ties belong to ano!r gr\p1 nor :y a ?ird gr\p c be di/+ui%$ f bo? ( ^! by ! possession ( prop]ties :i* we sum up 9 ! t]m e>?y4 ,surely !re mu/ be "s peculi>ity 9 ! composition ( ^! sub/ances1 common to all1 by virtue ( :i* all are acid4 ,! atom ( an acid is surely compos$ ( c]ta9 elem5ts :i* are nev] f\nd 9 ! atom ( an alkali or an e>?2 or p]haps ! diff]5ce lies 9 ! numb]1 r ?an 9 ! nature ( ! elem5ts 9 ! acid atoms1 or ev5 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y atoms 9 ! comp\nd atom ( acid1 ( alkali1 & ( e>?4 ,i ?9k t our k ( salt is n[ m complete ?an our k ( ei!r acid1 alkali1 or e>?4 ,we "k t a salt is =m$ by ! union ( an acid & an alkali or e>?2 if1 !n1 we get to "k ! composition ( acids & bases 7i4e4 alkalis & e>?s71 we %all be well on ! way t[>ds kn[+ ! composition ( salts4 ,& n[ we mu/ resume our /ory :]e we left x at p4 #agf4 ,lavoisi] _h recogniz$ oxyg5 z ! acidifi]2 ,black _h prov$ t a cau/ic alkali does n conta9 c>bonic acid4 ,up to ?is "t metallic calces1 & = ! mo/ "p alkalis & e>?s also1 _h be5 reg>d$ z elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,lavoisi] h[ev] prov$ calces to be comp\nds ( metals & oxyg52 b z "s ( ^? calces _h all ! prop]ties :i* *>act]iz$ e>?s1 x seem$ probable t all e>?s are metallic oxides1 & if all e>?s1 mo/ likely all alkalis also4 ,_m attempts 7 made to decompose e>?s & alkalis1 & to obta9 ! metal1 ! oxide ( :i* ! e>? or ! alkali 0 suppos$ to be4 ,"o *emi/ ?\ght he _h obta9$ a metal by heat+ ! e>? b>yta ) *>coal1 b f ! prop]ties ( 8 metal we "k t he _h n work$ ) a pure specim5 ( b>yta1 & t 8 suppos$ metallic base ( b>yta 0 simply a little iron or o!r metal1 previ\sly pres5t 9 ! b>yta1 or *>coal1 or crucible :i* he employ$4 ,b if ,lavoisi]'s view 7 correct--if all bases conta9$ oxyg5--x foll[$ t all salts are oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,acids all conta9 oxyg51 said ,lavoisi]2 ?is 0 soon reg>d$ z "o ( ! fundam5tal facts ( *emi/ry4 ,e>?s & alkalis are probably oxides ( metals2 ?is be=e long became an article ( fai? ) all or?odox *emi/s4 ,salts are produc$ by ! union ( acids & bases1 !re=e all salts conta9 oxyg53 ! conclusion 0 readily adopt$ by almo/ e "o4 ,:5 ! controv]sy betwe5 ,lavoisi] & ! phlogi/ic *emi/s 0 at its height1 ! foll[]s ( ,/ahl _h taunt$ ,lavoisi] ) be+ unable to expla9 ! production ( hydrog5 7or phlogi/on z !y ?\ght7 dur+ ! solution ( metals 9 acids2 b :5 ,lavoisi] le>n$ ! composition ( wat]1 he _h an answ] suffici5t to quell ^! taunts4 ,! metal1 said ,lavoisi]1 decomposes ! wat] :i* is always pres5t along ) ! acid1 hydrog5 is ?us evolv$1 & ! metallic calx or oxide s produc$ dissolves 9 ! acid & =ms a salt4 ,if ?is explanation 7 correct--& !re 0 an imm5se mass ( evid5ce 9 its fav\r & app>5tly none aga9/ x--!n all ! salts produc$ by ! action ( acids on metals necess>ily conta9$ oxyg54 ,! ,lavoisi]ian view ( a salt1 z a comp\nd ( a metallic oxide--or base--) a non-metallic oxide--or acid--seem$ ! only explanation :i* c\ld be accept$ by any reasonable *emi/3 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ?is c5tury x reign$ supreme4 ,b ev5 dur+ ! lifetime ( its f\nd] ?is !ory 0 oppos$ & oppos$ by ! logic ( facts4 ,9 #aghg ,b]?ollet publi%$ an acc\nt ( exp]im5ts on prussic acid1--! exi/5ce & prep>ation 7f ,prussian blue7 ( :i* acid _h be5 demon/rat$ ?ree or f\r ye>s be=e by ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,s*eele--:i* l$ him to conclude ?is comp\nd to be a true acid1 b free f oxyg54 ,9 #agif ! same *emi/ /udi$ ! composition & prop]ties ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 & pron\nc$ ?is body to be an acid conta9+ no oxyg54 ,b ! exp]im5ts & reason+ ( ,b]?ollet 7 hidd5 by ! masses ( facts & ! cog5cy ( argum5t ( ! ,lavoisi]ian *emi/s4 ,! preval5t views reg>d+ acids & bases 7 greatly /r5g!n$ by ! e>li] rese>*es ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 9 :i* he employ$ ! voltaic batt]y z an in/rum5t 9 *emical inve/igation4 ,let u n[ consid] "s ( ! electro-*emical "w ( ?is brilliant *emi/4 ,9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahjj ! electrical batt]y1 :i* _h rec5tly be5 discov]$ by ,volta1 0 appli$ by ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle to effect ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ^! naturali/s 7 repeat$ & confirm$ by ,davy1 !n resid5t at ,bri/ol1 :o foll[$ up ?is application ( electricity to effect *emical *anges by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ext5d+ f #ahjj to #ahjf1 & culm9at+ 9 ! ,bak]ian ,lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 ! latt] ye>4 ,! hi/ory ( ,davy's life dur+ ^! ye>s1 ye>s ri* 9 results ( ! utmo/ importance to *emical sci5ce1 w be trac$ 9 ! sequel2 mean:ile we are conc]n$ only ) ! results ( 8 *emical "w4 ,! fir/ ,bak]ian ,lecture ( ,humphry ,davy1 ,on "s ,*emical ,ag5cies ( ,electricity1 des]ves ! c>eful /udy ( all :o are int]e/$ 9 ! me?ods ( natural sci5ce2 x is a brilliant example ( ! dis5tanglem5t ( a complex natural problem4 ,volta & o!rs _h subject$ wat] to ! action ( a curr5t ( electricity1 & _h notic$ ! appe>ance ( acid & alkali at ! oppositely electrifi$ metallic surfaces4 ,accord+ to "s exp]im5t]s1 ! acid 0 nitr\s1 accord+ to o!rs1 muriatic acid4 ,"o *emi/ ass]t$ ! production ( a new & peculi> body :i* he call$ ! electric acid4 ,! alkali 0 g5]ally said to be ammonia4 ,:5 ,davy pass$ an electric curr5t ?r\gh di/ill$ wat] conta9$ 9 glass vessels1 connect$ by pieces ( moi/ bladd]1 cotton fibre1 or o!r vegetable matt]s1 he f\nd t nitric & hydro*loric acids 7 =m$ 9 ! wat] surr\nd+ ! positively electrifi$ plate or pole1 & soda ar\nd ! negatively electrifi$ pole1 ( ! batt]y4 ,:5 ! same piece ( cotton fibre 0 repeat$ly us$ = mak+ connection betwe5 ! glass vessels1 & 0 wa%$ ea* "t 9 dilute nitric acid1 ,davy f\nd t ! production ( muriatic acid gradually ceas$2 h5ce he trac$ ! =mation ( ?is acid to ! pres5ce ( ! animal or vegetable sub/ance us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts4 ,f9d+ t ! glass vessels 7 some:at corrod$1 & t ! great] ! am\nt ( corrosion ! great] 0 ! am\nt ( soda mak+ its appe>ance ar\nd ! negative pole1 he conclud$ t ! soda 0 probably a product ( ! decomposition ( ! glass by ! electric curr5t2 he !re=e modifi$ ! exp]im5t4 ,he pass$ an electric curr5t ?r\gh di/ill$ wat] conta9$ 9 small cups ( agate1 previ\sly clean$ by boil+ 9 di/ill$ wat] = sev]al h\rs1 & connect$ by ?reads ( ! m9]al asbe/os1 *os5 z be+ q free f vegetable matt]2 alkali & acid 7 /ill produc$4 ,! exp]im5t 0 repeat$ sev]al times ) ! same app>atus2 acid & alkali 7 /ill produc$1 b ! alkali decreas$ ea* "t4 ,! only conclusion to be drawn 0 t ! alkali came f ! wat] employ$4 ,two small cups ( gold 7 n[ us$ to conta9 ! wat]2 a v small am\nt ( alkali appe>$ at ! negative pole1 & a little nitric acid at ! positive pole4 ,! quantity ( acid sl[ly increas$ z ! exp]im5t cont9u$1 :]eas ! quantity ( alkali rema9$ ! same z aft] a few m9utes' action ( ! electric curr5t4 ,! production ( alkali is probably due1 said ,davy1 to ! pres5ce 9 ! wat] ( "s sub/ance :i* is n remov$ by di/illation 9 a glass retort4 ,by boil+ d[n 9 a silv] di% a quantity ( ! wat] he _h us$1 a v small am\nt ( solid matt] 0 obta9$1 :i* aft] be+ heat$ 0 di/9ctly alkal9e4 ,moreov] :5 a little ( ?is solid matt] 0 add$ to ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! two gold5 cups1 !re 0 a sudd5 & m>k$ increase 9 ! am\nt ( alkali =m$ ar\nd ! negative pole4 ,ano!r quantity ( ! wat] :i* he _h us$ 0 aga9 di/ill$ 9 a silv] retort1 & a little ( ! di/illate 0 subject$ to electrolysis z be=e4 ,no alkali appe>$4 ,a little piece ( glass 0 plac$ 9 ! wat]2 alkali quickly began to =m4 ,davy ?us conclusively prov$ t ! alkali produc$ dur+ ! electrolysis 7i4e4 decomposition by ! electric curr5t7 ( wat] is n d]iv$ f ! wat] itself1 b f m9]al impurities conta9$ 9 ! wat]1 or 9 ! vessel 9 :i* ! wat] is plac$ dur+ ! exp]im5t4 ,b ! production ( nitric acid ar\nd ! positive pole 0 yet to be acc\nt$ =4 ,be=e fur!r exp]im5ts c\ld be made x 0 necess>y t ,davy %\ld =m an hypo!sis--t he %\ld m5tally connect ! appe>ance ( ! nitric acid ) "s o!r ph5om5on suffici5t to produce ?is appe>ance2 he c\ld !n devise exp]im5ts :i* w\ld det]m9e :e!r ! connection suppos$ to exi/ betwe5 ! two ph5om5a really did exi/ or n4 ,n[1 ( ! con/itu5ts ( nitric acid--nitrog51 hydrog5 & oxyg5--all except ! fir/ nam$ are pres5t 9 pure wat]2 nitrog5 is pres5t 9 l>ge quantity 9 ! ord9>y atmosph]e4 ,x 0 only necess>y to assume t "s ( ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 produc$ dur+ ! electrolysis ( wat] seiz$ on & comb9$ ) "s ( ! nitrog5 9 ! air :i* surr\nd$ t wat]1 & ! cont9ual production ( nitric acid dur+ ! :ole process ( electrolysis 0 expla9$4 ,b h[ 0 ?is assumption to be prov$ or disprov$8 ,davy adopt$ a me?od frequ5tly made use ( 9 sci5tific inve/igations3--remove ! assum$ cause ( a ph5om5on2 if ! ph5om5on ceases to be produc$1 ! assum$ cause is probably ! real cause4 ,davy surr\nd$ ! little gold cups conta9+ ! wat] to be electrolys$ ) a glass j> :i* he connect$ ) an air-pump2 he exhau/$ mo/ ( ! air f ! j> & !n pass$ ! electric curr5t ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,v little nitric acid appe>$4 ,he n[ aga9 took out mo/ ( ! air f ! glass j>1 admitt$ "s hydrog5 to supply its place1 & aga9 pump$ ?is out4 ,?is process he repeat$ two or ?ree times & !n pass$ ! electric curr5t4 ,no acid appe>$ 9 ! wat]4 ,he admitt$ air into ! glass vessel2 nitric acid began to be produc$4 ,?us he prov$ t :5ev] air 0 pres5t 9 contact ) ! wat] be+ electrolys$1 nitric acid made its appe>ance1 & :5 ! air 0 :olly remov$ ! acid ceas$ to be produc$4 ,z he _h previ\sly %[n t ! production ( ?is acid 0 n to be trac$ to impurities 9 ! wat]1 to ! nature ( ! vessel us$ to conta9 ! wat]1 or to ! nature ( ! mat]ial ( :i* ! poles ( ! batt]y 7 compos$1 ! conclusion 0 =c$ ^u him t ! production ( nitric acid 9 ! wat]1 & ! pres5ce ( ord9>y air ar\nd ! wat] inv>iably exi/$ toge!r2 t if "o ( ^! conditions 0 pres5t1 ! o!r 0 also pres5t--9 o!r words1 t "o 0 ! cause ( ! o!r4 ,! result ( ?is exhau/ive & brilliant piece ( "w is summ$ up by ,davy 9 ^! words3 ,x seems evid5t !n t wat]1 *emically pure1 is decompos$ by electricity into gase\s matt] alone1 into oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,f ! effects ( ! electric curr5t on glass1 ,davy argu$ t o!r e>?y comp\nds w\ld probably und]go *ange "u simil> conditions4 ,he !re=e _h little cups ( gypsum made1 9 :i* he plac$ pure wat]1 & pass$ an electric curr5t ?r\gh ! liquid4 ,lime 0 =m$ ar\nd ! negative1 & sulphuric acid ar\nd ! positive pole4 ,us+ simil> app>atus1 he prov$ t ! electric curr5t decomposes v _m m9]als into an e>?y or alkal9e base & an acid4 ,pictur+ to himself ! little p>ticles ( a salt z be+ split by ! electric curr5t ea* into two small] p>ticles1 "o possess$ ( acid & ! o!r ( alkal9e prop]ties1 ,davy ?\ght x might be possible to int]cept ! progress ( ^! small] p>ticles1 :i* he saw ev] travell+ t[>ds ! positive & negative poles ( ! batt]y4 ,he accord+ly connect$ ^! small glass vessels by ?reads ( wa%$ asbe/os2 9 "o ( ! out] vessels he plac$ pure wat]1 9 ! o!r an aque\s solution ( sulphate ( pota%1 & 9 ! c5tral vessel he plac$ ammonia4 ,! negative pole ( ! batt]y be+ imm]s$ 9 ! sulphate ( pota%1 & ! positive pole 9 ! wat]1 x 0 necess>y = ! p>ticles ( sulphuric acid--produc$ by ! decomposition ( ! sulphate ( pota%--to travel ?r\gh ! ammonia 9 ! c5tral vessel be=e !y c\ld f9d _! way to ! positive pole4 ,n[1 ammonia & sulphuric acid _c exi/ 9 contact--!y in/antly comb9e to =m sulphate ( ammonia2 ! sulphuric acid p>ticles ought !re=e to be arre/$ by ! ammonia4 ,b ! sulphuric acid made its appe>ance at ! positive pole j z if ! c5tral vessel _h conta9$ wat]4 ,x seem$ t ! mutual attraction ord9>ily ex]t$ betwe5 sulphuric acid & ammonia 0 ov]come by ! action ( ! electric curr5t4 ,ammonia w\ld g5]ally pres5t an insup]able b>ri] to ! progress ( sulphuric acid1 b ! electrical en]gy appe>$ to =ce ! acid p>ticles ov] ?is b>ri]2 !y pass$ t[>ds _! goal z if no?+ /ood 9 _! way4 ,exp]im5ts are n[ multipli$ by ,davy1 & ! g5]al conclusion drawn is t ,hydrog51 ! alkal9e sub/ances1 ! metals & c]ta9 metallic oxides are attract$ by negatively electrifi$ metallic surfaces1 & repell$ by positively electrifi$ metallic surfaces2 & contr>iwise1 t oxyg5 & acid sub/ances are attract$ by positively electrifi$ metallic surfaces1 & repell$ by negatively electrifi$ metallic surfaces2 & ^! attractive & repulsive =ces are suffici5tly en]getic to de/roy or susp5d ! usual op]ation ( *emical aff9ity4#aj ,to acc\nt = ?is app>5t susp5sion ( ! ord9>y *emical laws1 ,davy supposes t *emical comp\nds are cont9ually decompos$ & re-=m$ ?r\gh\t ! liquid :i* is subject$ to ! electrical action4 ,?us1 9 ! exp]im5t ) wat]1 ammonia & sulphate ( pota%1 he supposes t ! sulphuric acid & ammonia d comb9e 9 ! c5tral vessel to =m sulphate ( ammonia1 b t ?is comp\nd is aga9 decompos$1 by ! electrical en]gy1 into sulphuric acid--:i* passes on t[>ds ! positive pole--& ammonia--:i* rema9s 9 ! c5tral vessel--ready to comb9e ) m sulphuric acid z t comes travell+ onw>ds f its s\rce 9 ! vessel conta9+ sulphate ( pota% to its goal 9 ! vessel conta9+ wat]4 ,! eye ( ! philosoph] _h pi]c$ b5ea? ! app>5t /ability ( ! *emical sy/ems :i* he /udi$4 ,to 8 vision !re appe>$ 9 ^? few drops ( wat] & ammonia & sulphate ( pota% a nev]-ceas+ conflict ( cont5d+ =ces2 !re appe>$ a cont9ual %att]+ & rebuild+ ( ! p>ticles ( :i* ! masses 7 compos$4 ,! :ole 0 at re/1 ! p>ts 7 9 motion2 ! :ole 0 con/ant 9 *emical composition1 ! composition ( ea* p>ticle 0 *ang$ a ?\s& times 9 ! m9ute/ portion ( e second4 ,to ! m9d ( ,davy1 ! electrolysis ( e *emical comp\nd 0 a new application ( ! great law e/abli%$ by ,newton--,to e action !re is an equal & opposite reaction4 ,ea* /ep made 9 *emical sci5ce s9ce ,davy's "t has b s]v$ to emphasize ! univ]sality ( ?is pr9ciple ( action & reaction1 a pr9ciple :i* has be5 too mu* ov]look$ 9 ! *emical text-books1 b ! importance ( :i* rec5t rese>*es are beg9n+ to impress on ! m9ds ( *emi/s4 ,x is ! privilege ( ! philosophic /ud5t ( ,nature to p5etrate ! veil ) :i* %e conceals h] secrets f ! vulg> gaze4 ,to him are %[n sights :i* eye ha? n se51 & by him are p]ceiv$ s\nds :i* e> ha? n he>d4 ,ea* drop ( wat] is se5 by him n only to be built up ( myriads ( small p>ts1 b ea* p>ticle is se5 to be 9 motion2 _m p>ticles are be+ decompos$ into /ill small] p>ticles ( matt]1 diff]5t 9 prop]ties f ! orig9al p>ticles1 b z ! orig9al p>ticles are at ! same "t be+ reproduc$1 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! drop ( wat] ) ! prop]ties ( wat] is to him ! result ( ! mutual action & reaction ( cont5d+ =ces4 ,he kn[s t re/ & p]man5ce are ga9$1 n by ! cessation ( action1 b by ! cont9uance ( conflict2 he kn[s t 9 ! realm ( natural ph5om5a1 /able equilibrium is ! resultant ( ! action ( opposite =ces1 & t complete decomposition occurs only :5 "o =ce becomes too p[]ful or ano!r becomes too weak4 ,pursu+ ! tra9 ( ?\ght initiat$ by ! exp]im5ts :i* ,i h describ$1 ,davy ent]$ ^u a s]ies ( rese>*es :i* l$ him to consid] e *emical sub/ance z possess+ def9ite electrical relations t[>ds e o!r sub/ance4 ,z *emical attraction betwe5 two bodies seems to be de/roy$ by giv+ "o ( !m an electrical /ate diff]5t f t :i* x naturally possess$--t is1 by br++ x into a /ate simil> to ! o!r--s x may be increas$ by exalt+ its natural en]gy4 ,?us z9c1 a metal easily oxidiz$1 does n comb9e ) oxyg5 :5 negatively electrifi$1 :]eas silv]1 a metal oxidiz$ ) difficulty1 readily comb9es ) oxyg5 :5 positively electrifi$4 ,sub/ances 9 opposite electrical /ates appe> to comb9e *emically1 & ! great] ! electrical diff]5ce ! great] ! read9ess ) :i* *emical comb9ation is effect$4 ,electrical en]gy & *emical attraction or aff9ity are evid5tly closely connect$2 p]haps1 said ,davy1 !y are bo? results ( ! same cause4 ,?us ,davy arriv$ at ! conception ( a sy/em ( bodies z ma9ta9$ 9 equilibrium by ! mutual actions & reactions ( bo? *emical & electrical =ces2 by increas+ ei!r ( ^! a *ange is necess>ily produc$ 9 ! o!r4 ,"u c]ta9 electrical conditions ! bodies w ex]t no *emical action on "o ano!r1 b su* action may be />t$ by *ang+ ^! electrical conditions1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 by *anges 9 ! *emical relations ( ! bodies a *ange 9 ! electrical relations may be induc$4 ,?us ,davy f\nd t if plates ( copp] & sulphur are heat$1 ! copp] exhibits a positive & ! sulphur a negative electrical condition2 t ^! electrical /ates become m m>k$ z temp]ature rises1 until ! melt+ po9t ( sulphur is rea*$1 :5 ! copp] & sulphur comb9e toge!r *emically & produce sulphide ( copp]4 ,:5 wat] is electrolys$1 ,davy look$ on ! oppositely electrifi$ metallic plates 9 ! batt]y z /riv+ to atta9 a /ate ( equilibrium2 ! negatively electrifi$ z9c /rives to ga9 positive electricity f ! copp]1 :i* /rives to ga9 negative electricity f ! z9c4 ,! wat] he reg>d$ z ! c>ri] ( ^! electricities1 ! "o 9 ?is direction1 ! o!r 9 t4 ,9 ?us act+ z a c>ri]1 ! wat] is itself *emically decompos$1 ) production ( hydrog5 & oxyg52 b ?is *emical re>rangem5t ( "s ( ! sub/ances :i* compos$ ! orig9al sy/em 7( batt]y & wat]7 involves a fre% di/urbance ( electrical en]gy1 & s ! process proce$s until ! :ole ( ! wat] is decompos$ or ! :ole ( ! copp] or z9c plate is dissolv$ 9 ! batt]y4 ,if ! wat] 7 n *emically decompos$1 ,davy ?\ght t ! z9c & copp] 9 ! batt]y w\ld quickly atta9 ! /ate ( electrical equilibrium t[>ds :i* !y cont9ually /rive1 & t ! curr5t w\ld !re=e quickly cease4 ,davy ?\ght t h[ev] /rong ! natural electrical en]gies ( ! elem5ts ( bodies may be1 yet !re is e probability ( a limit to _! /r5g?2 :]eas ! p[]s ( our artificial in/rum5ts seem capable ( indef9ite increase4 ,by mak+ use ( a v p[]ful batt]y1 he hop$ to be able to decompose sub/ances g5]ally reg>d$ z simple bodies4 ,tak+ a wide survey ( natural ph5om5a1 he sees ^! two =ces1 :i* we call *emical & electrical1 ev]y:]e at "w1 & by _! mutual actions uphold+ ! mat]ial univ]se 9 equilibrium4 ,9 ! outbreaks ( volcanoes he sees ! di/urbance ( ?is equilibrium by ! undue prepond]ance ( electrical =ce2 & 9 ! =mation ( complex m9]als b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>?1 he traces ! action ( ^? *emical attractions :i* are ev] ready to br+ ab\t ! comb9ation ( elem5ts1 if !y are n held 9 *eck by ! oppos+ influ5ce ( electrical en]gy4 ,we %all see h[ ! great & philosophical conception ( ,davy 0 us$ by ,b]zelius1 & h[1 :ile und\bt$ly ga9+ 9 precision1 x lo/ mu* 9 bread? 9 be+ made ! basis ( a rigid sy/em ( *emical classification4 ,davy's hope t ! new in/rum5t ( rese>* plac$ 9 ! h&s ( *emi/s by ,volta w\ld be us$ 9 ! decomposition ( suppos$ simple sub/ances 0 soon to be realiz$4 ,a ye> aft] ! lecture ,on "s ,*emical ,ag5cies ( ,electricity1 ,davy 0 aga9 ! read] ( ! ,bak]ian ,lecture2 ?is ye> 7#ahjg7 x 0 entitl$1 ,on "s ,new ,ph5om5a ( ,*emical ,*ange produc$ by ,electricity1 p>ticul>ly ! ,decomposition ( ! ,fix$ ,alkalis2 & ! ,exhibition ( ! ,new ,sub/ances :i* con/itute _! ,bases2 & on ! ,g5]al ,nature ( ,alkal9e ,bodies4 ,9 8 fir/ exp]im5ts on ! effect ( ! electrical curr5t on pota% & soda1 ,davy us$ /rong aque\s solutions ( ^! alkalis1 ) ! result t hydrog5 & oxyg5 only 7 evolv$4 ,he !n pass$ ! curr5t ?r\gh melt$ pota% kept liquid dur+ ! op]ation by ! use ( a _s-lamp1 ! flame ( :i* 0 f$ ) oxyg54 ,mu* light 0 evolv$1 & a great flame appe>$ at ! negative pole2 on *ang+ ! direction ( ! curr5t1 a]i=m globules1 :i* inflam$ 9 ! air1 rose ?r\gh ! pota%4 ,on ! #f? ( ,octob] #ahjg1 a piece ( pota% 0 plac$ on a disc ( plat9um1 :i* 0 made ! negative pole ( a v p[]ful batt]y2 a plat9um wire br\ght into contact ) ! upp] surface ( ! pota% s]v$ z ! positive pole4 ,:5 ! curr5t 0 pass$1 ! pota% became hot & soon melt$2 gas 0 evolv$ at ! upp] surface1 & at ! l[] 7negative7 side !re 0 no lib]ation ( ela/ic fluid1 b small globules1 hav+ a high metallic lu/re1 & be+ precisely simil> 9 visible *>act]s to quicksilv] appe>$1 "s ( :i* bur/ ) explosion & bright flame z soon z !y 7 =m$1 & o!rs rema9$1 & 7 m]ely t>ni%$1 & f9ally cov]$ by a :ite film :i* =m$ on _! surfaces4 ,:5 ,davy saw ^! metallic globules bur/ ?r\gh ! cru/ ( fus+ pota%1 we are told by "o ( 8 biograph]s1 he c\ld n conta9 8 joy1 he actually b\nd$ ab\t ! room 9 ec/atic delight2 & "s little "t 0 requir$ = him to compose himself suffici5tly to cont9ue ! exp]im5t4 ,?is 0 ! culm9at+ po9t ( ! rese>*es 9 :i* he _h be5 cont9u\sly engag$ = ab\t six ye>s4 ,8 int]e/ & excitem5t 7 int5se2 ! ,bak]ian ,lecture 0 writt5 on ! spur ( ! occasion1 be=e ! excitem5t ( ! m9d _h subsid$1 yet1 says 8 biograph]--& we may well agree ) him--yet x be>s pro( only ( ! mature/ judgm5t2 ! great] "p ( x is z rem>kable = exp]im5tal accuracy z = logical precision4 ,b to e action !re is an equal & opposite reaction3 imm$iately aft] ! deliv]y ( ! lecture1 ,davy 0 pro/rat$ by a sev]e attack ( illness1 :i* conf9$ him to b$ = n9e weeks1 & 0 v ne>ly prov+ fatal4 ,t ! ph5om5on j describ$ 0 really ! decomposition ( pota%1 & ! production ( ! metal ( :i* ?is sub/ance is an oxyg5iz$ comp\nd1 0 prov$ by obta9+ simil> results :e!r plates ( silv]1 copp]1 or gold1 or vessels ( plumbago1 or ev5 *>coal1 7 us$ to conta9 ! pota%1 or :e!r ! exp]im5t 0 conduct$ 9 ! air1 or 9 a glass vessel f :i* air _h be5 exhau/$1 or 9 glass tubes :]e9 ! pota% 0 conf9$ by m]cury4 ,! decomposition ( pota% 0 foll[$ )9 a few days by t ( soda1 f :i* sub/ance metallic globules 7 obta9$ :i* took fire :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,b ! analysis ( pota% & soda 0 n suffici5t = ,davy2 he det]m9$ to accompli% ! syn!sis ( ^! sub/ances4 ,= ?is purpose he collect$ small quantities ( ! newly discov]$ metals1 by conduct+ ! electrolysis ( pota% & soda "u exp]im5tal conditions su* t ! metals1 z soon z produc$1 7 plung$ "u ! surface ( naph?a1 a liquid :i* does n conta9 oxyg51 & :i* protect$ !m f ! action ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,a weigh$ quantity ( ea* metal 0 !n heat$ 9 a /ream ( pure dry oxyg51 ! products 7 collect$ & weigh$1 & x 0 f\nd t solutions ( ^! products 9 wat] possess$ all ! prop]ties ( aque\s solutions ( pota% & soda4 ,! new metals 7 n[ obta9$ 9 l>g] quantity by ,davy1 & _! prop]ties c>efully det]m9$ by him2 !y 7 nam$ potassium & sodium respectively4 ,!y 7 %[n to possess all ^? prop]ties :i* 7 g5]ally accept$ z *>act]i/ic ( metal1 except t ( be+ heavy4 ,! new metals 7 extremely light1 light] ?an wat]4 ,= "s "t x 0 difficult to conv9ce all *emi/s t a metal c\ld be a v light sub/ance4 ,we are assur$ t a fri5d ( ,davy1 :o 0 %[n potassium = ! fir/ "t1 & 0 ask$ :at k9d ( sub/ance he suppos$ x to be1 repli$1 ,x is metallic1 to be sure2 & !n1 balanc+ x on 8 f+]1 he add$ 9 a tone ( confid5ce1 ',bless me1 h[ heavy x is6' ,davy argu$ t s9ce ! alkalis1 pota% & soda1 7 f\nd to be oxyg5 comp\nds ( metals1 ! e>?s w\ld probably also be f\nd to be metallic oxides4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjh he succe$$ 9 decompos+ ! ?ree e>?s1 lime1 b>yta & /rontia1 & 9 obta9+ ! metals calcium1 b>ium & /rontium1 b n 9 a p]fectly pure condition1 or 9 any quantity4 ,he also got evid5ce ( ! decomposition ( ! e>?s silica1 alum9a1 zirconia & b]yllia1 by ! action ( p[]ful electric curr5ts1 b he did n succe$ 9 obta9+ ! suppos$ metallic bases ( ^! sub/ances4 ,s f> ,davy's discov]ies _h all t5d$ to confirm ! g5]ally accept$ view :i* reg>d$ alkalis & e>?s z metallic oxides4 ,b we f\nd t ! outcome ( ^! views 0 to reg>d all salts--& among ^!1 ( c\rse1 common salt--z oxyg5 comp\nds4#aa ,acids 7 oxyg5 comp\nds1 bases 7 oxyg5 comp\nds1 & z salts 7 produc$ by ! union ( acids ) bases1 !y1 too1 mu/ necess>ily be oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,b]?ollet _h ?r[n d\bt on ! univ]sality ( ,lavoisi]'s "n oxyg51 ! acidifi]1 b he _h n conclusively prov$ ! exi/5ce ( any acid :i* did n conta9 oxyg54 ,! rese>*es ( ,davy naturally l$ him to consid] ! preval5t views reg>d+ acids1 bases & salts4 ,muriatic 7or z we n[ call x hydro*loric7 acid _h long be5 a /umbl+-block to ! ?or\gh-go+ ,lavoisi]ian *emi/s4 ,oxyg5 c\ld n be detect$ 9 x1 yet x ought to conta9 oxyg51 because oxyg5 is ! acidifi]4 ,( c\rse1 if muriatic acid conta9s oxyg51 ! salts--muriates--produc$ by ! action ( ?is acid on alkalis & e>?s mu/ also conta9 oxyg54 ,_m ye>s be=e ?is "t ! action ( muriatic acid on manganese ore _h be5 /udi$ by ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,s*eele1 :o _h ?us obta9$ a yell[-col\r$ gas ) a v /rong smell4 ,b]?ollet _h %[n t :5 a solution ( ?is gas 9 wat] is expos$ to sunlight1 oxyg5 is evolv$ & muriatic acid is produc$4 ,! yell[ gas 0 !re=e suppos$ to be1 & 0 call$1 oxidiz$ muriatic acid1 & muriatic acid 0 itself reg>d$ z compos$ ( oxyg5 & an unkn[n sub/ance or radicle4 ,9 #ahji ,gay-,lussac & ,!n>d f\nd t "o volume ( hydrog5 unit$ ) "o volume ( ! s-call$ oxidiz$ muriatic acid to =m muriatic acid2 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 9 ?is acid 0 !re=e prov$4 ,:5 ,davy began 7#ahaj-aa7 to turn 8 att5tion specially to ! /udy ( salts1 he adopt$ ! g5]ally accept$ view t muriatic acid is a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & an unkn[n radicle1 & t by ! addition ( oxyg5 to ?is comp\nd oxidiz$ muriatic acid is produc$4 ,b unless ,davy c\ld prove ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 muriatic acid he c\ld n long hold ! op9ion t oxyg5 0 really a con/itu5t ( ?is sub/ance4 ,he tri$ to obta9 direct evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 b fail$4 ,he !n set ab\t comp>+ ! action ( muriatic acid on metals & metallic oxides ) ! action ( ! s-call$ oxidiz$ muriatic acid on ! same sub/ances4 ,he %[$ t salt-l comp\nds 7 produc$ by ! action ( oxidiz$ muriatic acid ei!r on metals or on ! oxides ( ^! metals1 oxyg5 be+ evolv$ 9 ! latt] cases2 & t ! same comp\nds & wat] 7 produc$ by ! action ( muriatic acid on ! same metallic oxides4 ,^! results 7 mo/ easily & readily expla9$ by assum+ ! s-call$ oxidiz$ muriatic acid to be an elem5t>y sub/ance1 & muriatic acid to be a comp\nd ( ?is elem5t ) hydrog54 ,to ! new elem5t ?us discov]$--= he :o e/abli%es ! elem5t>y nature ( a sub/ance may almo/ be reg>d$ z its discov]]--,davy gave ! "n ( *lor9e1 sugge/$ by ! yell[ col\r ( ! gas 7f ,greek1 yell[74 ,he at once began to /udy ! analogies ( *lor9e1 to f9d by exp]im5t :i* elem5ts x resembl$1 & s to classify x4 ,_m metals1 he f\nd1 comb9$ readily ) *lor9e1 ) evolution ( heat & light4 ,x act$1 l oxyg51 z a support] ( combu/ion2 x 01 l oxyg51 attract$ t[>ds ! negative pole ( ! voltaic batt]y2 its comp\nd ) hydrog5 0 an acid2 h5ce said ,davy *lor9e1 l oxyg51 is a support] ( combu/ion & also an acidifi]4 ,b x 0 v h>d to get *emi/s to adopt ^! views4 ,z ,bacon says1 ,if false facts 9 ,nature be once on foot1 :at ?r\gh neglect ( exam9ation1 ! c\nt5ance ( antiquity1 & ! use made ( !m 9 disc\rse1 !y are sc>ce ev] retract$4 ,*emi/s _h long be5 accu/om$ to sy/ems :i* pret5d$ to expla9 all *emical facts4 ,! phlogi/ic !ory1 :i* _h tyranniz$ ov] *emi/ry1 _h be5 succe$$ by ! ,lavoisi]ian *emi/ry1 :i* recogniz$ "o acidifi]1 & ?is also ! "o support] ( combu/ion4 ,to ascribe ^! prop]ties to any elem5t o!r ?an oxyg5 appe>$ almo/ pr(ane4 ,b :5 ,davy spoke ( *lor9e z an acidifi]1 he did n use ?is ^w 9 ! same s5se z t 9 :i* x 0 employ$ by ! uphold]s ( ! oxyg5 !ory ( acids2 he simply meant to express ! fact t a comp\nd conta9+ *lor9e z "o ( its con/itu5ts1 b n conta9+ oxyg51 0 a true acid4 ,:5 ,gay-,lussac attempt$ to prove t hydrog5 is an alkaliz+ pr9ciple1 ,davy said1 ,?is is an attempt to introduce into *emi/ry a doctr9e ( occult qualities1 & to ref] to "s my/]i\s & inexplicable en]gy :at mu/ dep5d ^u a peculi> corpuscul> arrangem5t4 ,& ) reg>d to ,gay-,lussac's /ra9$ use ( analogies betwe5 hydrog5 comp\nds & alkalis1 he says1 ,! sub/itution ( analogy = fact is ! bane ( *emical philosophy2 ! legitimate use ( analogy is to connect facts toge!r1 & to guide to new exp]im5ts4 ,b ,davy's facts 7 s well e/abli%$1 & 8 exp]im5ts s conv9c+1 t be=e two or ?ree ye>s _h pass$1 mo/ *emi/s 7 p]suad$ t *lor9e 0 an elem5t--i4e4 a sub/ance :i* _h nev] be5 decompos$--& t muriatic acid 0 a comp\nd ( ?is elem5t ) hydrog54 ,b]zelius 0 among ! la/ to adopt ! new view4 ,woehl] tells u t 9 ! w9t] ( #ahbc1 :5 he 0 work+ 9 ! laboratory ( ,b]zelius1 ,anna1 :ile wa%+ "s bas9s1 rem>k$ t !y smelt /rongly ( oxidiz$ muriatic acid3 ,n[1 said ,b]zelius1 li/5 to me1 ,anna4 ,?\ mu/ no long] say 'oxidiz$ muriatic acid1' b '*lor9e2' t is bett]4 ,?is "w on *lor9e 0 foll[$ up1 9 #ahac1 by ! pro( t ! class ( acidifi]s & support]s ( combu/ion conta9s a ?ird elem5t>y sub/ance1 viz4 iod9e4 ,z ,davy's views reg>d+ acids & salts became develop$1 he seems to h m & m oppos$ ! assumption t any "o elem5t is especially to be reg>d$ z ! acidify+ elem5t2 b at ! same "t he seems to admit t mo/1 if n all1 acids conta9 hydrog54 ,su* oxides z sulphur trioxide1 nitrog5 p5toxide1 etc41 d n possess acid prop]ties except 9 comb9ation ) wat]4 ,b he ( c\rse did n say t all hydrog5 comp\nds are acids2 he r reg>d$ ! possession by a sub/ance ( acid prop]ties z dep5d5t1 to a great ext5t1 on ! nature ( ! elem5ts o!r ?an hydrog5 :i* x conta9$1 or p]haps on ! arrangem5t ( all ! elem5ts 9 ! p>ticles ( ! acid4 ,he reg>d$ ! hydrog5 9 an acid z capable ( replacem5t by a metal1 & to ! metallic d]ivative--z x might be call$--( ! acid1 ?us produc$1 he gave ! "n ( salt4 ,an acid might !re=e be a comp\nd ( hydrog5 ) "o o!r elem5t--su* 7 hydro*loric1 hydriodic1 hydr(luoric acids--or x might be a comp\nd ( hydrog5 ) two or m elem5ts1 ( :i* "o might or might n be oxyg5--su* 7 hydrocyanic acid & *loric or nitric acid4 ,if ! hydrog5 9 any ( ^! acids 7 replac$ by a metal a salt w\ld be produc$4 ,a salt might !re=e conta9 no oxyg51 e4g4 *loride or iodide ( potassium2 b 9 mo/ cases salts did conta9 oxyg51 e4g4 *lorate or nitrate ( potassium4 ,acids 7 ?us divid$ into oxyacids 7or acids :i* conta9 oxyg57 & acids conta9+ no oxyg52 ! =m] class includ+ mo/ ( ! kn[n acids4 ,! old view ( salts z be+ comp\nds ( acids 7i4e4 oxides ( ! non-metallic elem5ts7 & bases 7i4e4 oxides ( metals7 0 ov]?r[n1 & salts came to be reg>d$ z metallic d]ivatives ( acids4 ,f ?is "t1 ^! t]ms--acids1 salts1 bases--become ( less importance ?an !y =m]ly 7 9 ! hi/ory ( *emical advance4 ,9 try+ to expla9 ,davy's electro-*emical !ory ,i h appli$ ! ^w aff9ity to ! mutual action & reaction betwe5 two sub/ances :i* comb9e toge!r to =m a *emical comp\nd4 ,x is n[ necess>y t we %\ld look a little m closely into ! hi/ory ( ?is ^w aff9ity4 ,oil & wat] d n mix toge!r1 b oil & pota% solution d2 ! =m] may be said n to h1 & ! latt] to h1 an aff9ity "o = ! o!r4 ,:5 sulphur is heat$1 ! yell[ od\rless solid1 seiz+ ^u oxyg5 9 ! air1 comb9es ) x to produce a col\rless /rongly smell+ gas4 ,sulphur & oxyg5 are said to h /rong aff9ity = ea* o!r4 ,if equal weights ( lime & magnesia be ?r[n into dilut$ nitric acid1 aft] a "t x is f\nd t "s ( ! lime1 b v little ( ! magnesia1 is dissolv$4 ,if an aque\s solution ( lime be add$ to a solution ( magnesia 9 nitric acid1 ! magnesia is precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( an insoluble p[d]1 :ile ! lime rema9s dissolv$ 9 ! acid4 ,x is said t lime has a /rong] aff9ity = nitric acid ?an magnesia has4 ,su* reactions z ^! us$ to be cit$ z examples ( s+le elective aff9ity--s+le1 because "o sub/ance comb9$ ) "o o!r1 & elective1 because a sub/ance seem$ to *oose betwe5 two o!rs pres5t$ to x1 & to comb9e ) "o to ! exclusion ( ! o!r4 ,b if a neutral solution ( magnesia 9 sulphuric acid is add$ to a neutral solution ( lime 9 nitric acid1 sulphate ( lime & nitrate ( magnesia are produc$4 ,! lime1 x 0 said1 leaves ! nitric & goes to ! sulphuric acid1 :i*1 hav+ be5 des]t$ by ! magnesia1 is ready to receive x2 at ! same "t ! nitric acid f :i* ! lime has dep>t$ comb9es ) ! magnesia =m]ly held by ! sulphuric acid4 ,su* a reaction 0 said to be an in/ance ( d\ble aff9ities4 ,! *emical *anges 7 caus$1 x 0 said1 by ! simultane\s aff9ity ( lime = sulphuric acid1 :i* 0 great] ?an its aff9ity = nitric acid1 & ! aff9ity ( magnesia = nitric acid1 :i* 0 great] ?an its aff9ity = sulphuric acid4 ,if a numb] ( salts 7 mix$1 ea* base--suppos+ ! =ego+ /atem5ts to be correct--w\ld =m a comp\nd ) t acid = :i* x _h ! greate/ aff9ity4 ,x %\ld !n be possible to draw up tables ( aff9ity4 ,su* tables 7 inde$ prep>$4 ,"h is an example3-- ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,b>yta4 ,lime4 ,/rontia4 ,ammonia4 ,pota%4 ,magnesia4 ,soda4 ,?is table tells u t ! aff9ity ( b>yta = sulphuric acid is great] ?an t ( /rontia = ! same acid1 t ( /rontia great] ?an t ( pota%1 & s on4 ,x also tells t pota% w decompose a comp\nd ( sulphuric acid & soda1 j z soda w decompose a comp\nd ( ! same acid ) lime1 or /rontia w decompose a comp\nd ) pota%1 etc4 ,b ,b]?ollet %[$ 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ?is c5tury t a l>ge quantity ( a body hav+ a weak aff9ity = ano!r w suffice to decompose a small quantity ( a comp\nd ( ?is o!r ) a ?ird body = :i* x has a /rong aff9ity4 ,he %[$1 t is1 t ! =mation or non-=mation ( a comp\nd is dep5d5t n only on ! s-call$ aff9ities betwe5 ! con/itu5ts1 b also on ! relative quantities ( ^! con/itu5ts4 ,b]?ollet & o!r *emi/s also %[$ t aff9ity is mu* condition$ by temp]ature2 t is1 t two sub/ances :i* %[ no t5d5cy t[>ds *emical union at a l[ temp]ature may comb9e :5 ! temp]ature is rais$4 ,he1 & !y1 also prov$ t ! =mation or non-=mation ( a comp\nd is mu* influ5c$ by its physical prop]ties4 ,?us1 if two sub/ances are mix$ 9 solution1 & if by _! mutual action a sub/ance c be produc$ :i* is insoluble 9 ! liquids pres5t1 t sub/ance is g5]ally produc$ :e!r ! aff9ity betwe5 ! orig9al pair ( sub/ances be /rong or weak4 ,! outcome ( ,b]?ollet's "w 0 t tables ( aff9ity became almo/ valueless4 ,to say t ! aff9ity ( ?is body = t 0 great] ?an its aff9ity = a ?ird body 0 go+ beyond ! facts1 because ! =mation ( ?is or t comp\nd dep5d$ on _m conditions mu* m complex ?an ^? connot$ by ! t]m aff9ity4 ,yet ! conception ( aff9ity rema9$1 al?\gh x c\ld n be appli$ 9 s rigor\s a way z _h be5 done by ! e>li] *emi/s4 ,if an elem5t1 ,a1 readily comb9es ) ano!r elem5t1 ,b1 "u c]ta9 physical conditions1 b does n1 "u ! same conditions1 comb9e ) a ?ird elem5t1 ,c1 x may /ill be said t ,a & ,b h1 & ,a & ,c h n1 an aff9ity = ea* o!r4 ,?is g5]al conception ( aff9ity 0 appli$ by ,b]zelius to ! atoms ( elem5ts4 ,aff9ity1 said ,b]zelius1 acts betwe5 unlike atoms1 & causes !m to unite to =m a comp\nd atom1 unlike ei!r ( ! orig9al atoms2 cohesion1 on ! o!r h&1 acts betwe5 l atoms1 caus+ !m to hold toge!r )\t produc+ any *ange 9 _! prop]ties4 ,aff9ity v>ies 9 diff]5t elem5ts4 ,?us ! aff9ity ( gold = oxyg5 is v small2 h5ce x is t gold is f\nd 9 ! e>? 9 ! metallic /ate1 :ile iron1 hav+ a great aff9ity = oxyg51 soon ru/s :5 expos$ to air1 or :5 buri$ 9 ! e>?4 ,potassium & sodium h great aff9ities = oxyg51 *lor9e1 etc42 yet ! atoms ( potassium & sodium d n !mselves comb9e4 ,! m any elem5ts are alike *emically ! small] is _! aff9ity = ea* o!r2 ! m any elem5ts are *emically unlike ! great] is _! mutual aff9ity2 b ?is aff9ity is modifi$ by circum/ances4 ,?us1 said ,b]zelius1 if equal numb]s ( atoms ( ,a & ,b1 hav+ equal or ne>ly equal aff9ity = ,c1 mutually react1 comp\nd atoms1 ,,ac & ,,bc1 w be produc$1 b atoms ( ,a & ,b w rema94 ,! am\nts ( ,,ac & ,,bc produc$ w be influ5c$ by ! great] or less aff9ity ( ,a & ,b = ,c2 b if !re be a great] numb] ( ,a ?an ( ,b atoms1 a great] am\nt ( ,,ac ?an ( ,,bc w be produc$4 ,9 ^! cases all ! react+ sub/ances & ! products ( ! actions are suppos$ to be liquids2 b ,,bc1 if a solid sub/ance1 w be produc$ ev5 if ! aff9ity ( ,a = ,c is great] ?an t ( ,b = ,c4 ,9 "s elem5ts1 ,b]zelius taught1 aff9ity slumb]s1 & c be awak5$ only by rais+ ! temp]ature4 ,?us c>bon 9 ! =m ( coal has no aff9ity = oxyg5 at ord9>y temp]atures2 x has rema9$ = ages 9 ! e>? )\t und]go+ oxidation2 b :5 coal is heat$ ! aff9ities ( c>bon are awak5$1 comb9ation ) oxyg5 occurs1 & heat is produc$4 ,b :y is x t c]ta9 elem5t>y atoms exhibit aff9ity = c]ta9 o!rs8 ,x dep5ds1 said ,b]zelius1 on ! electrical /ates ( ^! atoms4 ,accord+ to ! ,b]zelian !ory1 e elem5t>y atom has atta*$ to x a c]ta9 quantity ( electricity1 "p ( :i* is positive & "p negative4 ,?is electricity is accumulat$ at two po9ts on ea* atom1 call$ respectively ! positive pole & ! negative pole2 b 9 ea* atom "o ( ^! electricities s mu* prepond]ates ov] ! o!r z to give ! :ole atom ! "* ( ei!r a positively or a negatively electrifi$ body4 ,:5 two atoms comb9e *emically ! positive electricity 9 "o neutralizes ! negative electricity 9 ! o!r4 ,z we "k t simil> electricities repel1 & opposite electricities attract ea* o!r1 x foll[s t a m>k$ly positive atom w exhibit /rong aff9ity = a m>k$ly negative atom1 less /rong aff9ity = a feebly negative1 & little or no aff9ity = a positively electrifi$ atom2 b two simil>ly electrifi$ atoms may exhibit aff9ity1 because 9 e positive atom !re is "s negative electricity1 z 9 e negative atom !re is "s positive electricity4 ,?us1 9 ! atoms ( copp] & z9c positive electricity pr$om9ates1 said ,b]zelius1 b ! z9c atoms are m positive ?an ^? ( copp]2 h5ce1 :5 ! metals are br\ght into contact ! negative electricity ( ! copp] atoms is attract$ & neutraliz$ by ! positive electricity ( ! z9c atoms1 comb9ation takes place1 & ! comp\nd atom is /ill *>act]iz$ by a pr$om9ance ( positive electricity4 ,h5ce ,b]zelius id5tifi$ electrical pol>ity ) *emical aff9ity4 ,e atom 0 reg>d$ by him z bo? positively & negatively electrifi$2 b z "o ( ^! electricities 0 always mu* /rong] ?an ! o!r1 e atom reg>d$ z a :ole appe>$ to be ei!r positively or negatively electrifi$4 ,positive atoms %[$ aff9ity = negative atoms1 & vice v]sa4 ,z a positive atom might become m positive by increas+ ! temp]ature ( ! atom1 s might ! aff9ity ( ?is atom = t be m m>k$ at high ?an at l[ temp]atures4 ,n[1 if two elem5t>y atoms unite1 ! comp\nd atom mu/--accord+ to ! ,b]zelian views--be *>act]iz$ ei!r by positive or negative electricity4 ,?is comp\nd atom1 if positive1 w exhibit aff9ity = o!r comp\nd atoms 9 :i* negative electricity pr$om9ates2 if negative1 x w exhibit aff9ity = o!r positively electrifi$ comp\nd atoms4 ,if two comp\nd atoms unite *emically1 ! complex atom s produc$ w1 aga91 be *>act]iz$ by "o or o!r ( ! two electricities1 & z x is positive or negative1 s w x exhibit aff9ity = positively or negatively electrifi$ complex atoms4 ,?us ,b]zelius & 8 foll[]s reg>d$ e comp\nd atom1 h[ev] complex1 z ess5tially built up ( two p>ts1 "o ( :i* 0 positively & ! o!r negatively electrifi$1 & :i* 7 held toge!r *emically by virtue ( ! mutual attractions ( ^! electricities2 !y reg>d$ e comp\nd atom z a dual /ructure4 ,! classification adopt$ by ,b]zelius 0 ess5tially a duali/ic classification4 ,8 sy/em has always be5 kn[n 9 *emi/ry z dualism4 ,b]zelius divid$ comp\nd atoms 7we %\ld n[ say molecules7 into ?ree gr\ps or ord]s-- ,comp\nd atoms ( ! fir/ ord]1 =m$ by ! imm$iate comb9ation ( atoms ( two1 or 9 organic comp\nds ( ?ree1 elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,comp\nd atoms ( ! second ord]1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( atoms ( an elem5t ) atoms ( ! fir/ ord]1 or by ! comb9ation ( two or m atoms ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,comp\nd atoms ( ! ?ird ord]1 =m$ by comb9ation ( two or m atoms ( ! second ord]4 ,:5 an atom ( ! ?ird ord] 0 decompos$ by an electric curr5t1 x split up1 accord+ to ! ,b]zelian tea*+1 into atoms ( ! second ord]--"s positively1 o!rs negatively electrifi$4 ,:5 an atom ( ! second ord] 0 submitt$ to electrolysis1 x decompos$ into atoms ( ! fir/ ord]--"s positively1 o!rs negatively electrifi$4 ,b]zelius said t a base is an electro-positive oxide1 & an acid is an electro-negative oxide4 ,! m m>k$ly positive an oxide is1 ! m basic x is2 ! m negative x is1 ! m is x *>act]iz$ by acid prop]ties4 ,"o outcome ( ?is tea*+ reg>d+ acids & bases 0 to ov]?r[ ! ,lavoisi]ian conception ( oxyg5 z ! acidify+ elem5t4 ,"s oxides are positive1 o!rs negative1 said ,b]zelius2 b acids are *>act]iz$ by negative electricity1 !re=e ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 a comp\nd does n always conf] on t comp\nd acid prop]ties4 ,we h already se5 t silica 0 reg>d$ by mo/ *emi/s z a typical e>?2 b ,b]zelius f\nd t 9 ! electrolysis ( comp\nds ( silica1 ?is sub/ance appe>$ at ! positive pole ( ! batt]y--t is1 ! atom ( silica belong$ to ! negatively electrifi$ ord] ( atoms4 ,silica 0 almo/ c]ta9ly an oxide2 b electro-negative oxides are1 z a class1 acids2 !re=e silica 0 probably an acid4 ,! supposition ( ! acid "* ( silica 0 amply confirm$ by ! m9]alogical analyses & exp]im5ts ( ,b]zelius4 ,he %[$ t mo/ ( ! e>?y m9]als are comp\nds ( silica ) electro-positive metallic oxides1 & t silica plays ! "p ( an acid 9 ^! m9]als2 & 9 #ahbc he obta9$ ! elem5t silicon1 ! oxide ( :i* is silica4 ,on ?is basis ,b]zelius re>$ a sy/em ( classification 9 m9]alogy :i* mu* aid$ ! advance ( t bran* ( natural sci5ce4 ,by ! "w ( ,b]zelius & ,davy ! ,lavoisi]ian conception ( acid has n[ be5 mu* modifi$ & ext5d$2 x has be5 r5d]$ less rigid1 & is !re=e m likely ?an be=e to be a guide to fre% discov]ies4 ,! old] view ( acid & alkali 0 bas$1 = ! mo/ "p1 on a qualitative /udy ( ! reactions ( *emical sub/ances3 bodies 7 plac$ 9 ! same class because !y 7 all s\r1 or all turn$ vegetable blues to r$1 etc4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by a clos] /udy ( ! composition ( sub/ances1 & by attempts to connect ! prop]ties ( ^! sub/ances ) _! composition2 b :5 ?is attempt result$ 9 ! promulgation ( ! dictum t oxyg5 is ! acidify+ pr9ciple1 x began to be p]ceiv$ t a l>g] basis ( fact mu/ be laid be=e j conclusions c\ld be drawn z to ! connections betwe5 prop]ties & composition ( sub/ances4 ,?is l>g] basis 0 laid by ! two *emi/s ^: "w we h n[ review$4 ,( ! life ( "o ( ^! m5 ,i h already giv5 su* a sket* z ,i c f ! mat]ials available to me2 ( ! life ( ! o!r we happily possess ample k4 ,let u n[ consid] ! ma9 features ( ?is life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,humphry ,,davy1 ! elde/ son ( ,rob]t & ,grace ,davy1 0 born at ,p5zance1 9 ,cornwall1 on ,decemb] #ag1 #aggh1 eight mon?s t is be=e ! bir? ( ,b]zelius4 ,8 p>5ts resid$ on a small prop]ty :i* _h belong$ to _! ance/ors = sev]al g5]ations4 ,surr\nd$ by _m k9d fri5ds by :om he 0 mu* ?\ght (1 ! boy appe>s to h pass$ a v happy *ildhood4 ,ev5 at ! age ( five 8 quickness & p5etration 7 m>k$ by ^? ar\nd him1 & at s*ool ^! cont9u$ to be 8 pr$om9ant *>act]i/ics4 ,nurtur$ f 8 infancy 9 ! mid/ ( beautiful & romantic sc5]y1 & end[$ ) great obs]v+ p[] & a lively imag9ation1 "y ,davy seem$ de/9$ to be "o ( ^? f ^: lips is p\r$ ! dea?less s++2 all ?r\gh life he 0 *>act]iz$ by a /rongly m>k$ poetic temp]am5t4 ,humphry ,davy 0 held 9 mu* e/eem by 8 s*ool fri5ds z a compos] ( val5t9es & love lett]s1 z a d>+ & ent]ta9+ tell] ( /ories1 & z a successful fireworks manufactur]4 ,su* a comb9ation ( qualities w\ld mu* ende> him to 8 boy-companions4 ,we are told t at ! age ( eight he us$ to m\nt on an empty c>t1 ar\nd :i* a circle ( boys w\ld collect to be ent]ta9$ by ! wond]ful tales ( ! y\?ful n>rator4 ,f9i%+ 8 s*ool education at ! age ( fifte51 he n[ began 8 own education ( himself4 ,9 #agie he 0 appr5tic$ to a surgeon & apo!c>y 7aft]w>ds a physician71 9 ,p5zance1 ) :om he le>n$ ! elem5ts ( m$ical sci5ce2 b 8 "t dur+ ! ye>s :i* he sp5t "u ,mr4 ,borlase 0 mu* occupi$ 9 %oot+1 fi%+1 se>*+ = m9]als & geological specim5s1 compos+ poetry1 & pursu+ metaphysical speculations4 ,he 0 n[1 z ?r\gh life1 an en?usia/ic lov] ( ,nature2 8 m9d 0 extremely active1 rang+ ov] ! mo/ div]se subjects2 he 0 full ( imag9ation1 & seem$ c]ta9 to di/+ui% himself 9 any pursuit to :i* he %\ld turn 8 att5tion4 ,dur+ ! next ?ree or f\r ye>s ,davy indulg$ freely 9 speculations 9 all mann] ( subjects2 he />t$1 z p g5]ally d :5 "y1 f g5]al pr9ciples & foll[$ ^! out to _m conclusions4 ,ev5 9 8 /udy ( physiology & o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 he appe>s at ?is "t to h adopt$ ! speculative r ?an ! exp]im5tal me?od2 b unlike mo/ y\?ful metaphysicians he 0 ready to give up an op9ion :5ev] x appe>$ to him incorrect4 ,by ! "t he rea*$ ! age ( tw5ty he _h disc>d$ ?is me?od ( seek+ = tru?1 & 0 ev] aft]w>ds di/+ui%$ by 8 c>eful work+ out ( facts z ! f\ndation = all 8 brilliant !ories4 ,davy appe>s to h begun ! /udy ( *emi/ry ab\t #agih by read+ ,lavoisi]'s ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry1 ! tea*+s ( :i* he freely criticiz$4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,mr4 ,gregory ,watt came to live at ,p5zance z a lodg] ) ,davy's "m1 & ) him ! "y philosoph] _h mu* talk on *emical & o!r sci5tific subjects4 ,he also became acqua9t$ ) ,mr4 ,davies ,gilb]t--:o 0 de/9$ to succe$ ,davy z ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society--& f him he borr[$ books & receiv$ assi/ance ( v>i\s k9ds 9 8 /udies4 ,x 0 dur+ ^! ye>s t ,davy made exp]im5ts on heat1 :i* 7 publi%$ "s ye>s lat]1 & :i* are n[ reg>d$ z lay+ ! f\ndations ( ! mod]n !ory accord+ to :i* heat is due to ! motions ( ! small p>ts ( bodies4 ,he arrang$ two brass plates s t "o %\ld c>ry a block ( ice :i* might be caus$ to revolve 9 contact ) ! o!r plate2 ! plates 7 cov]$ by a glass j>1 f :i* he exhau/$ ! air by means ( a simple syr+e ( 8 own contrivance2 ! ma*9e be+ plac$ on blocks ( ice ! plates 7 caus$ to revolve4 ,! ice inside ! j> soon melt$2 ,davy conclud$ t ! heat requir$ to melt ?is ice c\ld only be produc$ by ! friction ( ! ice & brass1 & t !re=e heat c\ld n be any =m ( pond]able matt]4 ,9 ! ye> #agih ,davy 0 ask$ to g to ,bri/ol z sup]9t5d5t ( ! laboratory ( a new ,pneumatic ,in/itution />t$ by ,dr4 ,b$does = ! application ( gases to ! treatm5t ( diseases4 ,davy _h correspond$ ) ,b$does be=e ?is "t reg>d+ 8 exp]im5ts on heat1 & ! latt] seems to h be5 /ruck ) 8 great abilities & to h be5 anxi\s to secure him z exp]im5t] = 8 in/itution4 ,davy 0 releas$ f 8 engagem5ts ) ,mr4 ,borlase1 &1 n[ ab\t tw5ty ye>s ( age1 set out = 8 new home1 hav+ made z he says all ! exp]im5ts he c\ld at ,p5zance1 & eag]ly look+ =w>d to ! bett] appliances & incitem5ts to rese>* :i* he hop$ to f9d at ,bri/ol4 ,! ,pneumatic ,in/itution 0 support$ by subscriptions1 = ! mo/ "p f sci5tific m54 ,x 0 />t$ on a sci5tific basis4 ,rese>*es 7 to be made on gases ( v>i\s k9ds ) ! view ( apply+ ^! z rem$ies 9 ! alleviation ( disease4 ,an hospital = pati5ts1 a laboratory = exp]im5tal rese>*1 & a lecture !atre 7 provid$4 ,at ?is "t _m m5 ( lit]>y & intellectual em95ce resid$ 9 ,bri/ol2 among ^! 7 ,col]idge & ,s\!y4 ,mo/ ( ^! m5 7 visitors at ! h\se ( ,dr4 ,b$does1 & _m di/+ui%$ m5 came f v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\nty to visit ! in/itution4 ,davy ?us ent]$ on a sph]e ( lab\r em95tly suit$ = ! developm5t ( 8 g5ius4 ,) ample me*anical appliances = rese>*1 ) pl5ty ( "t at 8 disposal1 surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e ( inquiry & by m5 :o w\ld welcome any additions he c\ld make to ! k ( ,nature1 & be+ at ! same "t n )\t poetic & imag9ative surr\nd+s1 by :i* he 0 ev] spurr$ onw>ds 9 ! pursuit ( tru?--plac$ 9 ^! circum/ances1 su* an en?usia/ic & dilig5t /ud5t ( sci5ce z ,davy c\ld n b obta9 results ( value to 8 fell[s4 ,! /ate ( *emical sci5ce at ?is "t 0 evid5tly su* z to incite ! y\?ful work]4 ,! *a9s ) :i* ,/ahl & 8 successors _h s long b\nd ! limbs ( ! "y sci5ce _h be5 brok5 by ,lavoisi]2 & al?\gh ! ,fr5* s*ool ( *emi/ry 0 at ?is "t dom9ant1 & n dis9cl9$ to treat z ignorant any p]sons :o might diff] f its tea*+1 yet !re 0 pl5ty ( life 9 ! cultivators ( *emi/ry4 ,! controv]sy betwe5 ,b]?ollet & ,pr\/ 0 ab\t to beg92 ! ,lavoisi]ian views reg>d+ acids & salts 7 n altoge!r accept$ by ,gay-,lussac1 ,!n>d & o!rs2 & f ! laboratory ( ,b]zelius !re 0 soon to issue ! fir/ ( ^? num]\s rese>*es :i* drew ! att5tion ( e *emi/ to ! capital ( ,sw$54 ,! voltaic batt]y _h be5 discov]$1 & _h op5$ up a region ( possibilities 9 *emi/ry4 ,davy began 8 rese>*es at ! in/itution by exp]im5ts ) nitr\s oxide1 a gas suppos$ by "s p at t "t to be capable ( produc+ mo/ h>mful effects on ! animal sy/em4 ,he _h to make _m exp]im5ts be=e he f\nd a me?od = prep>+ ! pure gas1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts he add$ mu* to ! /ock ( *emical k reg>d+ ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,hav+ obta9$ fairly pure nitr\s oxide1 he brea!d x f a silk bag2 he exp]i5c$ a s5sation analog\s to g5tle pressure on all ! muscles2444 ! objects ar\nd me became dazzl+ & my he>+ m acute2444 at la/ an irresi/ible prop5sity to action 0 indulg$ 94444 ,i recollect b indi/9ctly :at foll[$2 ,i "k t my motions 7 v>i\s & viol5t4 ,s\!y & ,col]idge brea!d ! gas2 ! poets only laugh$ a little4 ,enc\rag$ by ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts1 ,davy proce$$ to prep>e & brea! nitric oxide--:]eby he 0 r5d]$ v ill--& !n c>burett$ hydrog5--:i* ne>ly kill$ him4 ,9 8 *emical note-book ab\t ?is "t1 ,davy says1 ,! p]fection ( *emical philosophy1 or ! laws ( corpuscul> motion1 mu/ dep5d on ! k ( all ! simple sub/ances1 _! mutual attractions1 & ! ratio 9 :i* ! attractions increase or dim9i% ) increase or dim9ution ( temp]ature4444 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds ^! laws w be ! decomposition ( ^? bodies :i* are at pres5t undecomp\nd$4 ,& 9 ! same note-book he sugge/s me?ods :i* he ?9ks might effect ! decomposition ( muriatic & boric acids1 ! alkalis & e>?s4 ,"h are ! g]ms ( 8 future "w4 ,aft] ab\t eight mon?s' "w at ,bri/ol he publi%$ a volume ( ,rese>*es1 :i* conta9$ a great _m new facts1 & 0 *>act]iz$ by vig\r & novelty ( conception4 ,^! rese>*es _h be5 c>ri$ out ) int5se application2 ea* 0 /ruck (f at a r$ heat4 ,8 m9d dur+ ?is "t 0 fill$ ) va/ sci5tific conceptions1 & he began also to ?9k ( fame4 ,an active m9d1 a deep ideal feel+ ( good1 & a look t[>ds future greatness1 he tells u1 su/a9$ him4 ,c\nt ,rum=d1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,royal ,in/itution 9 ,london1 0 anxi\s to obta9 a lectur] on *emi/ry = ! ,in/itution4 ,davy 0 /rongly recomm5d$1 & aft] a little arrangem5t--conc]n+ :i* ,davy says 9 a lett]1 ,i w accept ( no appo9tm5t except on ! sacr$ t]ms ( indep5d5ce--he 0 appo9t$ ,assi/ant ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry & ,director ( ! ,laboratory4 ,ab\t a ye> lat] 8 (ficial designation 0 *ang$ to ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry4 ,?is appo9tm5t op5$ up a great sph]e ( rese>*2 ! sole & uncontroll$ use ( ! app>atus ( ! in/itution = private exp]im5ts 0 to be grant$ him1 & he 0 promis$ any app>atus he might ne$ = new exp]im5ts4 ,he _h n[ ! comm& ( a good laboratory2 he _h n to und]go ! drudg]y ( sy/ematic tea*+1 b 0 only requir$ to give lectures to a g5]al audi5ce4 ,be=e leav+ ,bri/ol he _h comm5c$ exp]im5ts on ! *emical applications ( ! voltaic batt]y2 ^! he at once foll[$ up ) ! bett] app>atus n[ at 8 comm&4 ,! results ( ?is rese>*1 & 8 subsequ5t "w on ! alkalis & on muriatic acid & *lor9e1 h be5 already describ$4 ,! circum/ances ( ,davy's life _h hi!rto be5 mo/ fav\rable2 h[ nobly he _h avail$ himself ( ^! circum/ances 0 te/ifi$ by ! "w done by him4 ,8 fir/ lecture 0 deliv]$ 9 ! spr+ ( #ahja1 & at once he became fam\s4 ,a fri5d ( ,davy says1 ,! s5sation creat$ by 8 fir/ c\rse ( lectures at ! ,in/itution1 & ! en?usia/ic admiration :i* !y obta9$1 is sc>cely to be imag9$4 ,m5 ( ! fir/ rank & tal5t1 ! lit]>y & ! sci5tific1 ! practical & ! !oretical1 blue-/ock+s & wom5 ( fa%ion1 ! old & ! "y--all cr[d$1 eag]ly cr[d$ ! lecture-room4 ,8 y\?1 8 simplicity1 8 natural eloqu5ce1 8 *emical k1 8 happy illu/rations & well-conduct$ exp]im5ts1 excit$ univ]sal att5tion & unb\nd$ applause4 ,complim5ts1 invitations & pres5ts 7 %[]$ ^u him 9 abundance f all qu>t]s2 8 society 0 c\rt$ by all1 & all appe>$ pr\d ( 8 acqua9tance4 ,"o ( 8 biograph]s says ( ^! lectures1 ,he 0 always 9 e>ne/1 & :5 he amus$ mo/1 amusem5t appe>$ mo/ =eign to 8 object4 ,8 great & fir/ object 0 to in/ruct1 & 9 conjunction ) ?is1 ma9ta9 ! importance & dignity ( sci5ce2 inde$1 ! latt]1 & ! k9dl+ a ta/e = sci5tific pursuits1 might r be consid]$ 8 ma9 object1 & ! convey+ in/ruction a second>y "o4 ,! greate/ pa9s 7 tak5 by ,davy 9 ! composition & rehe>sal ( 8 lectures1 & 9 ! arrangem5t ( exp]im5ts1 t ev]y?+ %\ld t5d t[>ds ! enlight5m5t ( 8 audi5ce4 ,surr\nd$ by a brilliant society1 invit$ to e fa%ionable ent]ta9m5t1 flatt]$ by admir]s1 tempt$ by hopes ( mak+ money1 ,davy rema9$ a fai?ful & en?usia/ic /ud5t ( ,nature4 ,i am a lov] ( ,nature1 he writes at ?is "t to a fri5d1 ) an ungratifi$ imag9ation4 ,i %all cont9ue to se>* = unta/$ *>ms1 = hidd5 beauties4 ,my real1 my wak+ exi/5ce1 is among/ ! objects ( sci5tific rese>*4 ,common amusem5ts & enjoym5ts are necess>y to me only z dreams to int]rupt ! fl[ ( ?\ghts too ne>ly analog\s to enlight5 & vivify4 ,dur+ ^! ye>s 7i4e4 f #ahjb to #ahab7 he work$ = ! great] "p ( ea* day 9 ! laboratory4 ,e week1 almo/ e day1 saw "s fre% discov]y ( importance4 ,he advanc$ f discov]y to discov]y4 ,8 "w 0 *>act]iz$ by t va/ indu/ry & extreme rapidity :i* belong only to ! ef=ts ( g5ius4 ,nev]1 be=e or s9ce1 has *emical sci5ce made su* /rides 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 #ahjc ,davy 0 elect$ a ,fell[1 & 9 #ahjg "o ( ! secret>ies ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,9 #ahab he retir$ f ! pr(essor%ip ( *emi/ry at ! ,royal ,in/itution2 9 ! same ye> he 0 made a knight4 ,! next two or ?ree ye>s 7 mo/ly sp5t 9 travell+ abroad ) 8 wife--he _h m>ri$ a wid[ lady1 ,mrs4 ,apreece1 9 #ahab4 ,dur+ 8 visit to ,p>is he made sev]al exp]im5ts on ! !n rec5tly discov]$ iod9e1 & prov$ ?is sub/ance to be an elem5t4 ,! "w :i* ,davy _h accompli%$ 9 ! sev5te5 ye>s t _h n[ elaps$ s9ce he began ! /udy ( *emi/ry1 :e!r we consid] x simply z a contribution to *emical sci5ce1 or 9 ! light ( ! influ5ce x ex]t$ on ! rese>*es ( o!rs1 0 ( fir/-rate importance2 b a fre% field n[ began to op5 be=e him1 f :i* he 0 de/9$ to reap ! ri*e/ fruits4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahae 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ! subject ( fire-damp 9 coal-m9es4 ,z he pass$ ?r\gh ,newca/le1 on 8 return f a holiday sp5t 9 ! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 he exam9$ v>i\s coal-m9es & collect$ samples ( fire-damp2 9 ,decemb] ( ! same ye> 8 safety-lamp 0 p]fect$1 & soon aft] ?is x 0 9 ! h&s ( ! m9]4 ,! /eps 9 ! discov]y ( ?is valuable in/rum5t 7 briefly ^!4 ,davy e/abli%$ ! fact t fire-damp is a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog52 he f\nd t ?is gas mu/ be mix$ ) a l>ge quantity ( ord9>y air be=e ! mixture becomes explosive1 t ! temp]ature at :i* ?is explosion occurs is a high "o1 & t b little heat is produc$ dur+ ! explosion2 he f\nd t ! explosive mixture c\ld n be fir$ 9 n>r[ metallic tubes1 & also t x 0 r5d]$ non-explosive by addition ( c>bonic acid or nitrog54 ,he reason$ on ^! facts ?us3 ,x occurr$ to me1 z a consid]able heat 0 requir$ = ! inflammation ( ! fire-damp1 & z x produc$ 9 burn+ a comp>atively small degree ( heat1 t ! effect ( c>bonic acid & azote1 & ( ! surfaces ( small tubes1 9 prev5t+ its explosion1 dep5d$ on _! cool+ p[]s--^u _! l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! explod+ mixture s mu* t x 0 no long] suffici5t = its cont9u\s inflammation4 ,he at once set ab\t con/ruct+ a lamp 9 :i* x %\ld be impossible = ! temp]ature ( ignition ( a mixture ( fire-damp & air to be atta9$1 & :i* !re=e1 :ile burn+1 might be fill$ ) ?is mixture )\t any dang] ( an explosion4 ,he surr\nd$ ! flame ( an oil-lamp ) a cyl9d] ( f9e wire-gauze2 ?is lamp :5 br\ght into an atmosph]e conta9+ fire-damp & air c\ld n cause an explosion1 because al?\gh small explosions might occur 9 ! int]ior ( ! wire cyl9d]1 s mu* heat 0 conduct$ away by ! l>ge metallic surface t ! temp]ature ( ! explosive atmosph]e outside ! lamp c\ld n atta9 t po9t at :i* explosion w\ld occur4 ,9 #ahah ,sir ,humphry ,davy 0 made a b>onet1 9 recognition ( 8 great s]vices z ! inv5tor ( ! safety-lamp2 & 9 #ahbj he 0 elect$ to ! mo/ hon\rable position :i* c be held by a man ( sci5ce 9 ?is c\ntry1 he became ! ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,= sev5 ye>s he 0 annually re-elect$ presid5t1 & dur+ t "t he 0 ! c5tral figure 9 ! sci5tific society ( ,engl&4 ,dur+ ^! ye>s he cont9u$ 8 inve/igations *iefly on electro-*emical subjects & on v>i\s bran*es ( appli$ sci5ce4 ,9 #ahbf 8 heal? began to fail4 ,an attack ( p>alysis 9 t ye> oblig$ him to rel9qui% mo/ ( 8 "w4 ,he w5t abroad & travell$ 9 ,italy & ! ,tyrol1 sometimes /rong en\gh to %oot or fi% a little1 or ev5 to c>ry on electrical exp]im5ts2 sometimes conf9$ to 8 room1 or to g5tle ex]cise only4 ,he resign$ ! presid5t%ip ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahbg4 ,9 #ahbh he visit$ ,rome1 :]e he 0 aga9 attack$ by p>alysis1 & ?\ght himself dy+1 b he recov]$ suffici5tly to attempt ! j\rney homew>d4 ,at ,g5eva he became v ill1 & expir$ 9 t city on ! #bi? ( ,may #ahbi4 ,dur+ ^! lat] ye>s ( illness & suff]+1 8 int5se love ( & delight 9 ,nature 7 v app>5t2 he return$ aga9 to ! simple ta/es & pleasures ( 8 e>ly days4 ,8 intimate k ( natural appe>ances & ( ! sights & s\nds ( c\ntry life is conspicu\s 9 ! ,salmonia1 or ,days ( ,fly-fi%+1 writt5 dur+ 8 lat] ye>s4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy 0 emphatically a g5ius4 ,he 0 full ( eag] desire to "k ! secrets ( ! _w 9 :i* he liv$2 he look$ ar\nd him ) wond] & delight1 ev] consci\s ( ! va/ness ( ! appe>ances :i* met 8 gaze2 an exub]ance ( life & en]gy m>k$ 8 actions2 difficulties 7 enc\nt]$ by him only to be ov]come2 he 0 depress$ by no mis=tunes1 det]r$ by no ob/acles1 l$ aside f 8 object by no temptations1 & held 9 bondage by no false analogies4 ,8 "w mu/ ev] rema9 z a model to ! /ud5t ( sci5ce4 ,a ?or\gh & c>eful f\ndation ( fact is laid2 on ?is1 hypo!ses are rais$1 to be te/$ fir/ by reason+ & argum5t1 !n by ! te/s ( ! laboratory1 :i* alone are f9al4 ,analogies are seiz$2 h9ts are eag]ly tak5 up1 exam9$1 & act$ on or dismiss$4 ,z he works 9 ! laboratory1 we see 8 m9d rang+ ov] ! :ole field ( *emical k1 f9d+ a solution ( a difficulty "h1 or guess+ at a solution !re2 comb9+ app>5tly mo/ div]se facts2 exam9+ ph5om5a :i* appe> to h no connection2 nev] dwell+ too long on an hypo!sis :i* _c yield "s clue to ! object ( rese>*1 b quickly discov]+ ! road :i* w lead to ! wi%$-= solution4 ,l s _m great exp]im5t]s ,davy accompli%$ wond]s ) little app>atus4 ,:5 he w5t abroad = ! fir/ "t he took ) him two small boxes1 "o tw5ty1 & ! o!r twelve in*es long1 by ab\t sev5 in*es wide & f\r deep4 ,) ! app>atus conta9$ 9 ^! boxes he e/abli%$ ! elem5t>y nature ( iod9e1 & made a r\gh e/imation ( its atomic weight2 he det]m9$ _m ( its analogies ) *lor9e1 prov+ t1 l *lor9e1 x is m>k$ly electro-negative1 & t its comp\nds are decompos$ by *lor9e2 he accompli%$ ! syn!sis ( hydriodic acid1 & approximately det]m9$ ! composition ( iodide ( nitrog54 ,b :5 x 0 necess>y to employ delicate or p[]ful app>atus1 he 0 able by ! use ( t also to obta9 results ( prim>y importance4 ,! decomposition ( pota%1 soda1 b>yta1 lime & /rontia c\ld n h be5 effect$ _h he n _h at 8 comm& ! res\rces ( a well-furni%$ laboratory4 ,davy has _h no successor 9 ,engl&4 ,mu* useful & "s brilliant "w has be5 done by ,engli% *emi/s s9ce 8 day1 b we /ill look back to ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury z ! gold5 age ( *emi/ry 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,on ! roll :]e9 are writt5 ! names ( ,engl&'s greate/ sons1 !re is inscrib$ b a s+le *emi/--,humphry ,davy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i c>ri$ on ! acc\nt ( ! "w ( ,davy's great contempor>y1 ,b]zelius1 to ! "t :5 he _h fairly e/abli%$ duali/ic views ( ! /ructure ( *emical comp\nds1 & :51 by ! application ( a few simple rules reg>d+ ! comb9ations ( elem5t>y atoms1 he _h l>gely ext5d$ ! b\nds ( ! atomic !ory ( ,dalton4 ,b]zelius also did important "w 9 ! doma9 ( organic *emi/ry4 ,by num]\s analyses ( comp\nds ( animal & vegetable orig91 he cle>ly e/abli%$ ! fact t ! same laws ( comb9ation1 ! same fixity ( composition1 & ! same g5]al features ( atomic /ructure prevail among ! s-call$ organic z among ! inorganic comp\nds4 ,9 do+ ?is he broke d[n ! artificial b>ri] :i* _h be5 rais$ betwe5 ! two bran*es ( ! sci5ce1 & s prep>$ ! way = mod]n *emi/ry1 :i* has won its *ief triumphs 9 ! exam9ation ( organic comp\nds4 ,by ! _m & great improvem5ts :i* he introduc$ into analytical *emi/ry1 & by ! publication ( 8 ,textbook ( ,*emi/ry1 :i* w5t ?r\gh sev]al editions 9 ,fr5* & ,g]man1 & also ( 8 ye>ly report on ! advance ( *emi/ry1 ,b]zelius ex]t$ a great influ5ce on ! progress ( 8 fav\rite sci5ce4 ,woehl] tells u t :5 ! spr+ ( ! ye> came1 at :i* "t 8 annual report _h to be prep>$1 ,b]zelius %ut himself up 9 8 /udy1 surr\nd$ himself ) books1 & did n /ir f ! writ+-table until ! "w 0 done4 ,9 8 lat] days ,b]zelius 0 mu* engag$ 9 controv]sy ) ! lead]s ( ! new s*ool1 ! rise & progress ( :i* w be trac$ 9 ! next *apt]1 b ?r\gh\t ?is controv]sy he f\nd "t to add _m fre% facts to ^? already kn[n4 ,he cont9u$ 8 rese>*es until 8 dea? 9 #ahdh4 ,! "w ( ! great ,sw$i% *emi/ is *>act]iz$ by ?or\ghness 9 all its p>ts3 to him e fact appe>$ to be ( importance2 al?\gh n[ p]haps only an isolat$ fact1 he saw t "s day x w\ld f9d a place 9 a g5]al s*eme ( classification4 ,he work$ 9 great measure on ! l9es laid d[n by ,dalton & ,davy2 ! enorm\s numb] & accuracy ( 8 analyses e/abli%$ ! law ( multiple proportions on a sure basis1 & 8 attempts to det]m9e ! con/itution ( comp\nd atoms1 :ile advanc+ ! atomic !ory ( ,dalton1 drew att5tion to ! all-important di/9ction betwe5 atom & molecule1 & s prep>$ *emi/s = ! acceptance ( ! g5]alization ( ,avogadro4 ,! electro-*emical conceptions ( ,davy 7 modifi$ by ,b]zelius2 !y 7 %orn ( some?+ ( _! ela/icity1 b 7 r5d]$ m suit$ to be ! basis ( a rigid !ory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at ! close ( ?is transition p]iod f ! ,lavoisi]ian to ! mod]n *emi/ry1 we f9d analytical *emi/ry e/abli%$ z an art2 we f9d ! atomic !ory g5]ally accept$1 b we notice ! exi/5ce ( mu* confusion :i* has aris5 f ! non-acceptance ( ! di/9ction made by ,avogadro betwe5 atom & molecule2 we f9d ! analogies betwe5 *emical aff9ity & electrical en]gy made ! basis ( a sy/em ( classification :i* reg>ds e comp\nd atom 7or molecule7 z built up ( two p>ts1 9 "o ( :i* positive1 & 9 ! o!r negative electricity pr$om9ates2 & accompany+ ?is sy/em ( classification we f9d t an acid is no long] reg>d$ z necess>ily an oxyg5 comp\nd1 b r z a comp\nd possess$ ( c]ta9 prop]ties :i* are probably due to ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y atoms1 among :i* hydrog5 appe>s g5]ally to f9d a place2 we f9d t salts are = ! mo/ "p reg>d$ z metallic d]ivatives ( acids2 & we f9d t by ! decomposition ( ! suppos$ elem5t>y sub/ances1 pota%1 soda1 lime1 etc41 ! numb] ( ! elem5ts has be5 ext5d$1 ! application ( a new in/rum5t ( rese>* has be5 brilliantly rew>d$1 & ! ,lavoisi]ian description ( elem5t z ! atta9$1 n ! atta9able1 limit ( rese>* has be5 emphasiz$4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,! hi/ory & mean+ ( ^! t]ms is consid]$ on p4 #aga1 et seq4 #aj ,= an explanation ( ?is expression1 *emical aff9ity1 see p4 #bjf1 et seq4 #aa ,^! views h be5 already expla9$ on pp4 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,graham4 ,?omas ,graham1 #ahje-ahfi4 ,! "w ( ,graham1 conc]n$ z x mo/ly 0 ) ! developm5t ( ! conception ( atoms1 connects ! "t ( ,dalton ) t 9 :i* we are n[ liv+4 ,i h !re=e judg$ x advisable to devote a %ort *apt] to a consid]ation ( ! life-"w ( ?is *emi/1 be=e proce$+ to ! ?ird p]iod ( *emical advance1 t1 namely1 :i* witness$ ! developm5t ( organic *emi/ry ?r\gh ! lab\rs ( m5 :o 7 ,graham's contempor>ies4 ,! pr9t$ mat]ials :i* exi/ = fram+ ! /ory ( ,graham's life are v meagre1 b z he appe>s1 f ! acc\nts ( 8 fri5ds1 to h devot$ himself entirely to sci5tific rese>*es1 we _c g f> wrong 9 reg>d+ ! hi/ory ( 8 v>i\s discov]ies z also ! hi/ory ( 8 life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,?omas ,,graham 0 born 9 ,glasg[1 on ,decemb] #ba1 #ahje4 ,8 fa!r1 ,james ,graham1 a successful manufactur]1 0 9 a position to give 8 son a good education4 ,aft] "s ye>s sp5t 9 ! ord9>y s*ool tra9+1 ,graham ent]$ ,glasg[ ,univ]sity at ! e>ly age ( f\rte51 & graduat$ z ,m4 ,a4 five ye>s lat]4 ,x 0 ! int5tion ( ,graham's fa!r t 8 son %\ld ent] ! ,scotti% ,*ur*2 b "u ! tea*+ ( ,dr4 ,?omas ,?omson & o!rs ! lad imbib$ s /rong a love ( natural sci5ce1 t r ?an rel9qui% ! pursuit ( 8 fav\rite /udy1 he det]m9$ to be indep5d5t ( 8 fa!r & make a liv+ = himself4 ,8 fa!r 0 mu* annoy$ at ! det]m9ation ( 8 son to pursue sci5ce1 & va9ly attempt$ to =ce him into ! cl]ical pr(ession4 ,! qu>rel betwe5 fa!r & son increas$ 9 bitt]ness1 & not)/&+ ! int]v5tion ( fri5ds ! fa!r refus$ to make 8 son any all[ance = 8 ma9t5ance2 & al?\gh _m ye>s aft] a reconcilem5t 0 effect$1 yet at ! "t :5 ,graham mo/ ne$$ 8 fa!r's help he 0 left to /ruggle alone4 ,graham w5t to ,ed9burgh1 :]e he pursu$ 8 /udies "u ,hope & ,leslie1 pr(essors ( *emi/ry & physics respectively--m5 ^: names 7 fam\s :]ev] natural sci5ce 0 /udi$4 ,graham's "m1 = :om he _h always ! greate/ respect & w>me/ love1 & 8 si/] ,m>g>et help$ him z be/ !y c\ld dur+ ?is try+ "t4 ,! "y /ud5t f\nd "s lit]>y occupation & a little tea*+ 9 ,ed9burgh1 & sometimes he 0 ask$ to make inve/igations 9 subjects connect$ ) appli$ *emi/ry4 ,?us he /ruggl$ on = f\r or five ye>s1 dur+ :i* "t he began to publi% pap]s on *emico-physical subjects4 ,9 ! ye> #ahbi he 0 appo9t$ ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry at ! ,me*anics' ,in/itution 9 ,glasg[1 & next ye> he 0 remov$ to ! m important position ( lectur] on ! same sci5ce at ! ,&]sonian ,in/itution 9 t city4 ,?is position he occupi$ = sev5 ye>s1 :5 he 0 elect$ ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london 7n[ ,univ]sity ,college73 he _h be5 elect$ to ! ,fell[%ip ( ! ,royal ,society 9 ! prec$+ ye>4 ,dur+ 8 /ay at ! ,&]sonian ,in/itution ,graham _h e/abli%$ 8 fame z a physical *emi/2 he _h begun 8 "w on acids & salts1 & _h e/abli%$ ! fundam5tal facts conc]n+ gase\s diffusion4 ,^! rese>*es he cont9u$ 9 ,london1 & f #ahcg to #ahed he enri*$ *emical sci5ce ) a s]ies ( pap]s conc]n$ = ! mo/ "p ) attempts to trace ! movem5ts ( ! atoms ( matt]4 ,9 #ahed ,graham succe$$ ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 ! important & hon\rable position ( ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t4 ,= "s ye>s aft] 8 appo9tm5t he 0 mu* engag$ ) ! duties ( 8 (fice1 b ab\t #ahfj he aga9 return$ to 8 atomic /udies1 & 9 8 pap]s on ,transpiration ( ,liquids & on ,dialysis he did mu* 9 ! application ( physical me?ods to solve *emical problems1 & op5$ up new pa?s1 by travell+ on :i* 8 successors greatly advanc$ ! limits ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,graham 0 almo/ always at "w2 8 holidays 7 few & f> betwe54 ,by ! ye> #ahfh or s 8 g5]al heal? began to gr[ feeble2 9 ! autumn ( #ahfi1 dur+ a visit to ,malv]n :]e he s\ght repose & invigorat+ air1 he caught cold1 :i* develop$ into inflammation ( ! lungs4 ,on 8 return to ,london ! disease 0 ov]come by m$ical rem$ies1 b he cont9u$ v weak1 & gradually sank1 till ! end came on ! #af? ( ,septemb] #ahfi4 ,i h said t ! sev5 ye>s dur+ :i* ,graham held ! lecture%ip on *emi/ry 9 ! ,&]sonian ,in/itution1 ,glasg[1 witness$ ! beg9n+ alike ( 8 "w on salts & ( t on gase\s diffusion4 ,he %[$ t !re exi/s a s]ies ( comp\nds ( v>i\s salts1 e4g4 *loride ( calcium1 *loride ( z9c1 etc41 ) alcohol4 ,he comp>$ ! alcohol 9 ^! salts1 :i* he call$ alcoates1 to ! wat] 9 ord9>y cry/alliz$ salts1 & ?us drew ! att5tion ( *emi/s to ! important "p play$ by wat] 9 det]m9+ ! prop]ties ( _m sub/ances4 ,?ree ye>s lat] 7#ahcc7 appe>$ "o ( 8 mo/ important pap]s1 be>+ on ! g5]al conception ( acids3 ,rese>*es on ! ,ars5iates1 ,phosphates1 & ,modifications ( ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,*emi/s at ?is "t knew t phosphoric acid--t is1 ! sub/ance obta9$ by add+ wat] to p5toxide ( phosphorus--exhibit$ _m peculi>ities1 b !y 7 = ! mo/ "p cont5t to leave ^! unexpla9$4 ,graham1 foll[+ up ! analogy :i* he _h already e/abli%$ betwe5 wat] & bases1 prep>$ & c>efully det]m9$ ! composition ( a s]ies ( phosphates1 & conclud$ t p5toxide ( phosphorus is able to comb9e ) a base--say soda--9 ?ree diff]5t proportions1 & ?us to produce ?ree diff]5t phosphates ( soda4 ,b z ,graham accept$ t view :i* reg>ds a salt z a metallic d]ivative ( an acid1 he suppos$ t ?ree diff]5t phosphoric acids ought to exi/2 ^! acids he f\nd 9 ! sub/ances produc$ by ! action ( wat] on ! oxide ( phosphorus4 ,he %[$ t j z ! oxide comb9es ) a base 9 ?ree proportions1 s does x comb9e ) wat] 9 ?ree proportions4 ,?is wat] he reg>d$ z *emically analog\s to ! base 9 ! ?ree salts1 "o atom 7we %\ld n[ r say molecule7 ( base c\ld be replac$ by "o atom ( wat]1 two atoms ( base by two atoms ( wat]1 or ?ree atoms ( base by ?ree atoms ( wat]4 ,phosphoric acid 0 !re=e reg>d$ by ,graham z a comp\nd ( p5toxide ( phosphorus & wat]1 ! latt] be+ z ess5tially a "p ( ! acid z ! =m]4 ,he di/+ui%$ betwe5 monobasic1 dibasic1 & tribasic phosphoric acids3 by ! action ( a base on ! monobasic acid1 "o1 & only "o salt 0 produc$2 ! dibasic acid c\ld furni% two salts1 conta9+ diff]5t proportions 7or a diff]5t numb] ( atoms7 ( ! same base3 & f ! tribasic acid ?ree salts1 conta9+ ! same base b 9 diff]5t proportions1 c\ld be obta9$4 ,davy's view ( an acid z a comp\nd ( wat] ) a negative oxide 0 ?us confirm$1 & !re 0 add$ to *emical sci5ce ! conception ( acids ( diff]5t basicity4 ,9 #ahcf ,graham's pap] on ,wat] z a ,con/itu5t ( ,salts 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh4 ,9 ?is pap] he inquires :e!r ! wat] 9 cry/all9e salts c or _c be remov$ )\t de/roy+ ! *emical individuality ( ! salts4 ,he f9ds t 9 "s cry/all9e salts "p ( ! wat] c be easily remov$ by ! application ( heat1 b ! rema9d] only at v high temp]atures4 ,he di/+ui%es betwe5 ^? atoms ( wat] :i* ess5tially belong to ! comp\nd atom ( ! salt1 & ^? atoms :i* c be readily remov$ !refrom1 :i* are z x 7 add$ on to1 or built up ar\nd ! ext]ior ( ! atom ( salt4 ,9 ?is pap] ,graham began to di/+ui% :at is n[ call$ wat] ( cry/allization f wat] ( con/itution1 a di/9ction po9t$ to by "s ( ,davy's rese>*es1 b a di/9ction :i* has rema9$ too mu* a m]e matt] ( nom5clature s9ce ! days ( ,graham4 ,9 ^! rese>*es ,graham emphasiz$ ! necessity ( ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 9 all true acids2 z he _h drawn an analogy betwe5 wat] & bases1 s n[ he saw 9 ! hydrog5 ( acids ! analogue ( ! metal ( salts4 ,he reg>d$ ! /ructure ( ! comp\nd atom ( an acid z simil> to t ( ! comp\nd atom ( a salt2 ! hydrog5 atom1 or atoms1 9 ! acid 0 replac$ by a metallic atom1 or atoms1 & s a comp\nd atom ( ! salt 0 produc$4 ,davy & ,b]zelius _h prov$ t hydrog5 is m>k$ly electro-positive2 hydrog5 appe>$ to ,graham to belong to ! class ( metals4 ,9 mak+ ?is bold hypo!sis ,graham necess>ily paid little he$ to ^? prop]ties ( metals :i* appeal to ! s5ses ( ! obs]v]4 ,metals1 z a class1 are lu/r\s1 heavy1 malleable sub/ances2 hydrog5 is a col\rless1 inod\rless1 invisible1 v light gas3 h[ !n c hydrog5 be said to be metallic8 ,i h aga9 & aga9 insi/$ on ! ne$ ( imag9ation = ! successful /udy ( natural sci5ce4 ,al?\gh 9 sci5ce we deal ) ph5om5a :i* we wi% to measure & weigh & record 9 def9ite & precise language1 yet he only is ! successful /ud5t ( sci5ce :o c p5etrate b5ea? ! surface ( ?+s1 :o c =m m5tal pictures diff]5t f ^? :i* appe> be=e 8 bodily eye1 & s c disc]n ! intricate & app>5tly irregul> analogies :i* expla9 ! ph5om5a he is set to /udy4 ,graham 0 n z f> z we c le>n end[$1 l ,davy1 ) ! s5sitive nature ( a poet1 yet 8 "w on hydrog5 proves him to h possess$ a l>ge %>e ( ! gift ( imag9ation4 ,pictur+ to himself ! hydrog5 atom z ess5tially simil> 9 its *emical functions to ! atom ( a metal1 he track$ ?is light invisible gas ?r\gh _m tortu\s c\rses3 he %[$ h[ x is absorb$ & reta9$ 7occlud$ z he said7 by _m metals2 he f\nd x 9 meteors :i* _h come f f>-away regions ( space2 & at la/1 ! ye> be=e he di$ he prep>$ an alloy ( palladium & ! metal hydrog51 f :i* a few m$als 7 /ruck1 be>+ ! leg5d ,palladium-,hydrog5ium #ahfi4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s hydrog5 has be5 liquifi$ &1 x is said1 solidifi$4 ,solid hydrog5 is describ$ z a /eel-grey sub/ance :i* fell ^u ! table ) a s\nd l ! r+ ( a metal4 ,b ,graham's mo/ important "w 0 conc]n$ ) ! motion ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies4 ,he uses ! ^w atom pretty mu* z ,dalton did4 ,he does n make a di/9ction betwe5 ! atom ( an elem5t & ! atom ( a comp\nd1 b app>5tly uses ! t]m z a conv5i5t "o to express ! smalle/ undivid$ p>ticle ( any *emical sub/ance :i* exhibits ! prop]ties ( t sub/ance4 ,z ,graham 0 *iefly conc]n$ ) ! physical prop]ties ( *emical sub/ances1 or ) ^? prop]ties :i* are /udi$ alike by *emi/ry & physics1 ! di/9ction betwe5 atom & molecule1 s all-important 9 pure *emi/ry1 might be1 & to a great ext5t 01 ov]look$ by him4 ,9 consid]+ 8 "w we %all h[ev] d well to use ! t]ms atom & molecule 9 ! s5se 9 :i* !y are n[ always us$ 9 *emi/ry1 a s5se :i* has be5 already discuss$ 7see pp4 #aci-adc74 ,_m ye>s be=e ,graham began 8 "w a curi\s fact _h be5 record$ b n expla9$4 ,9 #ahbc ,doeb]e9] fill$ a glass j> ) hydrog5 & all[$ ! j> to /& ov] wat]3 on return+ aft] twelve h\rs he f\nd t ! wat] _h ris5 ab\t an in* & a half into ! j>4 ,close exam9ation ( ! j> %[$ ! pres5ce ( a small crack 9 ! glass4 ,_m j>s1 tubes & flasks1 all ) small cracks 9 ! glass1 7 fill$ ) hydrog5 & all[$ to /& ov] wat]2 9 e case ! wat] rose 9 ! vessel4 ,no rise ( ! wat] 0 h[ev] noticeable if ! vessels 7 fill$ ) ord9>y air1 nitrog5 or oxyg54 ,9 #ahca ,graham began ! inve/igation ( ! peculi> ph5om5on obs]v$ by ,doeb]e9]4 ,repeat+ ,doeb]e9]'s exp]im5ts1 ,graham f\nd t a portion ( ! hydrog5 9 ! crack$ vessels pass$ outw>ds ?r\gh ! small fissures1 & a little air pass$ inw>ds3 ! wat] !re=e rose 9 ! j>1 tube or flask1 because !re 0 a great] pressure on ! surface ( ! wat] outside ?an ^u t inside ! vessel4 ,any gas light] ?an air behav$ l hydrog52 :5 gases heavi] ?an air 7 employ$ ! level ( ! wat] inside ! vessel 0 slightly l[]$ aft] "s h\rs4 ,graham f\nd t ! passage ( gases ?r\gh m9ute op5+s c\ld be mu* m accurately /udi$ by plac+ ! gas to be exam9$ 9 a glass tube "o end ( :i* 0 clos$ by a plug ( dry pla/] ( ,p>is1 ?an by us+ vessels ) small fissures 9 ! glass4 ,! diffusion-tube us$ by ,graham g5]ally consi/$ ( a piece ( glass tub+1 graduat$ 9 fractions ( a cubic in* & hav+ a bulb bl[n ne> "o end2 ! %ort end 0 clos$ by a ?9 plug ( dry pla/] ( ,p>is 7gypsum71 ! tube 0 fill$ ) ! gas to be exam9$1 & ! op5 end 0 imm$iately imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,! wat] 0 all[$ to rise until x _h atta9$ a con/ant level1 :5 x 0 f\nd t ! :ole ( ! gas orig9ally 9 ! tube _h pass$ outw>ds ?r\gh ! por\s plug1 & air _h pass$ inw>ds4 ,! volume ( gas orig9ally 9 ! tube be+ kn[n1 & ! volume ( air 9 ! tube at ! close ( ! exp]im5t be+ measur$1 x 0 only necess>y to divide ! =m] by ! latt] numb] 9 ord] to obta9 ! numb] ( volumes ( gas :i* _h pass$ outw>ds = ea* "o volume ( air :i* _h pass$ inw>ds2 9 o!r words to obta9 ! rate ( diffusion comp>$ ) air ( ! gas "u exam9ation4 ,graham's results 7 ga!r$ toge!r 9 ! /atem5t1 ,! diffusion-rates ( any two gases are inv]sely z ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities4 ,?us1 take oxyg5 & hydrog53 oxyg5 is sixte5 times heavi] ?an hydrog51 !re=e hydrog5 diffuses f\r times m rapidly ?an oxyg54 ,take hydrog5 & air3 ! specific gravity ( hydrog5 is #j4jfid1 air be+ #a2 ! squ>e root ( #j4jfid is #j4bfce1 !re=e hydrog5 w diffuse m rapidly ?an air 9 ! ratio ( #j4bfce3a4 ,9 ! ye>s #ahdf-ahdi ,graham resum$ ?is inquiry2 he n[ di/+ui%$ betwe5 diffusion1 or ! passage ( gases ?r\gh por\s plates1 & transpiration1 or ! passage ( gases ?r\gh capill>y tubes4 ,he %[$ t if a suffici5tly l>ge capill>y tube be employ$ ! rate ( transpiration ( a gas becomes con/ant1 b t x is altoge!r diff]5t f ! rate ( diffusion ( ! same gas4 ,he e/abli%$ ! fact t !re is a connection ( "s k9d betwe5 ! transpiration-rates & ! *emical composition ( gases1 & 9 do+ ?is he op5$ up a field ( inquiry by cultivat+ :i* _m important results h be5 ga9$ )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 & :i* is surely de/9$ to yield m valuable fruit 9 ! future4 ,return+ to ! diffusion ( gases1 ,graham1 aft] ne>ly ?irty ye>s' m or less con/ant lab\r1 beg9s to speculate a little on ! causes ( ! ph5om5a he _h s /udi\sly & p]sev]+ly be5 exam9+4 ,9 8 pap] on ,! ,molecul> ,mobility ( ,gases1 read to ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahfc1 aft] describ+ a new diffusion-tube :]e9 ?9 plates ( artificial graphite 7 us$ 9 place ( pla/] ( ,p>is1 ,graham says1 ,! pores ( artificial graphite appe> to be really s m9ute t a gas 9 mass _c p5etrate ! plate at all4 ,x seems t molecules only c pass2 & !y may be suppos$ to pass :olly unimp$$ by friction1 = ! smalle/ pores t c be imag9$ to exi/ 9 ! graphite mu/ be tunnels 9 magnitude to ! ultimate atom ( a gase\s body4 ,he !n %ortly describes ! molecul> !ory ( matt]1 & %[s h[ ?is !ory--a sket* ( :i* s f> z x conc]ns u 9 ?is book has be5 giv5 on pp4 #abc-abe--;expla9s ! results :i* he has obta9$4 ,:5 a gas pass$ ?r\gh a por\s plate into a vacuum1 or :5 "o gas pass$ 9 "o direction & ano!r 9 ! opposite direction ?r\gh ! same plate1 ,graham saw ! molecules ( ea* gas ru%+ ?r\gh ! tunnels ( graphite or /ucco4 ,! av]age rate at :i* ! molecules ( a gas ru%$ along 0 ! diffusion-rate ( t gas4 ,! light] ! gas ! m rapid 0 ! motion ( its molecules4 ,if a mixture ( two gases1 "o mu* light] ?an ! o!r1 7 all[$ to fl[ ?r\gh a por\s plate1 ! light] gas w\ld pass s mu* m quickly ?an ! heavi] gas t a p>tial sep>ation ( ! two might probably be effect$4 ,graham accompli%$ su* a sep>ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & ( oxyg5 & nitrog52 & he describ$ a simple in/rum5t :]eby ?is process ( atmolysis1 z he call$ x1 might be effect$4 ,graham's tube atmolys] consi/$ ( a long tobacco-pipe /em plac$ inside a r %ort] & consid]ably wid] tube ( glass2 ! pipe /em 0 fix$ by pass+ ?r\gh two corks1 "o at ea* end ( ! glass tube2 ?r\gh "o ( ^! corks !re also pass$ a %ort piece ( glass tub+4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t 0 employ$1 ! piece ( %ort glass tub+ 0 connect$ ) an air-pump1 & "o end ( ! pipe /em ) ! gase\s mixture--say ord9>y air4 ,! air-pump be+ set 9 motion1 ! gase\s mixture 0 all[$ to fl[ sl[ly ?r\gh ! pipe /em2 ! light] +r$i5t ( ! mixture pass$ outw>ds ?r\gh ! pipe /em into ! wide glass tube m rapidly ?an ! heavi] +r$i5t1 & 0 swept away to ! air-pump2 ! heavi] +r$i5t c\ld be collect$1 mix$ ) only a small quantity ( ! light]1 at ! o!r end ( ! pipe /em4 ,z ,graham mo/ graphically express$ x1 ,! /ream ( gas dim9i%es z x proce$s1 l a riv] fl[+ ov] a p]vi\s b$4 ,graham !n contriv$ a v simple exp]im5t :]eby he 0 able to measure ! rate ( motion ( ! molecules ( c>bonic acid4 ,he introduc$ a little c>bonic acid into ! l[] "p ( a tall cyl9drical j>1 & at ! close ( c]ta9 fix$ p]iods ( "t he det]m9$ ! am\nt ( c>bonic acid :i* _h diffus$ upw>ds ?r\gh ! air into ! upp]mo/ lay] ( ! j>4 ,kn[+ ! height ( ! j>1 he n[ knew ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* a small portion ( c>bonic acid pass$ 9 a /at$ "t1 & reg>d+ ?is small portion z consi/+ ( a great _m molecules1 all mov+ at ab\t equal rates1 he _h det]m9$ ! av]age velocity ( ! molecules ( c>bonic acid4 ,a simil> exp]im5t 0 p]=m$ ) hydrog54 ,! g5]al results 7 t ! molecules ( c>bonic acid move ab\t 9 /ill air ) a velocity equal to sev5ty-?ree millimetres p] m9ute1 & t "u ! same conditions ! molecules ( hydrog5 move ) a velocity equal to ab\t "o-?ird ( a metre p] m9ute4#ab ,! ,bak]ian ,lecture = #ahdi1 read by ,graham be=e ! ,royal ,society1 0 entitl$ ,on ! ,diffusion ( ,liquids4 ,9 ?is pap] he describes a v l>ge numb] ( exp]im5ts made ) a view to det]m9e ! rate at :i* a salt 9 aque\s solution diffuses1 or passes upw>ds into a lay] ( pure wat] above x1 ! salt solution & ! wat] n be+ sep>at$ by any int]v5+ m$ium4 ,graham's me?od ( proc$ure consi/$ 9 completely fill+ a small bottle ) a salt solution ( kn[n /r5g?1 plac+ ?is bottle 9 a l>g] graduat$ vessel1 & c>efully fill+ ! latt] ) wat]4 ,measur$ portions ( ! wat] 9 ! l>g] vessel 7 )drawn at /at$ int]vals1 & ! quantity ( salt 9 ea* portion 0 det]m9$4 ,graham f\nd t "u ^! conditions salts diffus$ ) v v>y+ velocities4 ,gr\ps ( salts %[$ equal rates ( diffusion4 ,!re appe>$ to be no def9ite connection betwe5 ! molecul> weights ( ! salts & _! diffusion-rates2 b z ,graham con/antly reg>d$ diffusion1 :e!r ( gases or liquids1 z ess5tially due to ! movem5ts ( m9ute p>ticles1 he ?\ght t ! p>ticles :i* mov$ ab\t z :oles dur+ diffusion probably consi/$ ( gr\ps ( :at might be call$ *emical molecules--9 o!r words1 ,graham recogniz$ v>i\s ord]s ( small p>ticles4 ,z ! atom 0 suppos$ to h a simpl] /ructure ?an ! molecule 7if inde$ x _h a /ructure at all71 s !re probably exi/$ gr\ps ( molecules :i*1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 behav$ z individual p>ticles ) def9ite prop]ties4 ,z ,graham appli$ ! diffusion ( gases to ! sep>ation ( two gases ( unequal d5sities1 s he appli$ ! diffusion ( liquids to ! sep>ation ( v>i\s salts 9 solution4 ,he %[$ also t "s complex salts1 su* z ! alums1 7 p>tially sep>at$ into _! con/itu5ts dur+ ! process ( diffusion4 ,! prosecution ( ^! rese>*es l$ to mo/ important results1 :i* 7 ga!r$ toge!r 9 a pap] on ,liquid ,diffusion appli$ to ,analysis1 read to ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahfa4 ,graham divid$ sub/ances into ^? :i* diffus$ easily & quickly into wat]1 & ^? :i* diffus$ v sl[ly2 he %[$ t ! =m] 7 all cry/allizable sub/ances1 :ile ! latt] 7 non-cry/allizable jelly-l bodies4 ,graham call$ ^! jelly-l sub/ances colloids2 ! easily diffusible sub/ances he call$ cry/alloids4 ,he prov$ t a colloidal sub/ance acts t[>ds a cry/alloid mu* z wat] does2 t ! cry/alloid rapidly diffuses ?r\gh ! colloid1 b t colloids are n !mselves capable ( diffus+ ?r\gh o!r colloids4 ,on ?is fact 0 f\nd$ ,graham's process ( dialysis4 ,z colloid he employ$ a %eet ( p>*m5t pap]1 :i* he /ret*$ on a r+ ( wood or ca\t*\c1 & float$ ! app>atus s con/ruct$--! dialys]--on ! surface ( pure wat] 9 a glass di%2 he !n p\r$ into ! dialys] ! mixture ( sub/ances :i* x 0 desir$ to sep>ate4 ,let u suppose t ?is mixture conta9$ sug> & gum2 ! cry/alloidal sug> soon pass$ ?r\gh ! p>*m5t pap]1 & 0 f\nd 9 ! wat] outside1 b ! colloidal gum rema9$ 9 ! dialys]4 ,if ! mixture 9 ! dialys] conta9$ two cry/alloids1 ! great] "p ( ! m diffusible ( ^! pass$ ?r\gh ! p>*m5t 9 a %ort "t along ) only a little ( ! less diffusible2 a p>tial sep>ation 0 ?us effect$4 ,?is me?od ( dialysis 0 appli$ by ,graham to sep>ate & obta9 9 ! pure /ate _m colloidal modifications ( *emical comp\nds1 su* z alum9ium & t9 hydrates1 etc4 ,by 8 /udy ( ^! peculi> sub/ances ,graham introduc$ into *emi/ry a new class ( bodies1 & op5$ up great fields ( rese>*4 ,matt] 9 ! colloidal /ate appe>s to be end[$ ) prop]ties :i* are q abs5t1 or are hidd51 :5 x is 9 ! ord9>y cry/alloidal condition4 ,colloids are readily affect$ by ! smalle/ *anges 9 ext]nal conditions2 !y are em95tly un/able bodies2 !y are1 ,graham said1 always on ! v]ge ( an imp5d+ *ange1 & m9ute di/urbances 9 ! surr\nd+ conditions may precipitate ?is *ange at any mom5t4 ,cry/alloids1 on ! o!r h&1 are /able2 !y h def9ite prop]ties1 :i* are n *ang$ )\t simultane\s l>ge *anges 9 surr\nd+ conditions4 ,b al?\gh1 to use ,graham's words1 ^! classes ( bodies appe> l diff]5t worlds ( matt]1 !re is yet no m>k$ sep>at+ l9e betwe5 !m4 ,ice is a sub/ance :i* "u ord9>y conditions exhibits all ! prop]ties ( cry/alloids1 b ice =m$ 9 contact ) wat] j at ! freez+ po9t is n unlike a mass ( p>tly dri$ gum2 x %[s no cry/all9e /ructure1 b x may be r5t & split l a lump ( glue1 &1 l glue1 ! brok5 pieces may be press$ toge!r aga9 & caus$ to adh]e into "o mass4 ,c any facts1 asks ,graham1 m /rik+ly illu/rate ! maxim t 9 ,nature !re are no abrupt transitions1 & t di/9ctions ( class are nev] absolute8 ,9 ! prop]ties ( colloids & cry/alloids ,graham saw an index ( div]sity ( molecul> /ructure4 ,! smalle/ individual p>ticle ( a colloid appe>$ to him to be a mu* m complex /ructure ?an ! smalle/ p>ticle ( a cry/alloid4 ,! colloidal molecule appe>$ to be =m$ by ! ga!r+ toge!r ( sev]al cry/alloidal molecules2 su* a complex /ructure might be expect$ readily to und]go *ange1 :]eas ! simpl] molecule ( a cry/alloid w\ld probably pres5t m def9ite & less readily alt]$ prop]ties4 ,9 ?is rese>* ,graham _h aga91 z s (t5 be=e1 arriv$ at ! conception ( v>i\s ord]s ( small p>ticles4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,daltonian !ory x seem$ t ! recognition ( atoms z ultimate p>ticles1 by ! plac+ toge!r ( :i* masses ( ?is or t k9d ( matt] are produc$1 w\ld suffice to expla9 all ! facts ( *emical comb9ations2 b ,dalton's application ( ! t]m atom to elem5ts & comp\nds alike impli$ t an atom might itself h p>ts1 & t "o atom might be m complex ?an ano!r4 ,! way 0 ?us already prep>$ = ! recognition ( m ?an "o ord] ( atoms1 a recognition :i* 0 =mulat$ ?ree ye>s aft] ! appe>ance ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em 9 ! /atem5t ( ,avogadro1 ,equal volumes ( gases conta9 equal numb]s ( molecules2 = we h se5 t ! application ( ?is /atem5t to actually occurr+ reactions betwe5 gases obliges u to admit t ! molecules ( hydrog51 oxyg5 & _m o!r elem5t>y gases are compos$ ( two di/9ct p>ts or atoms4 ,b]zelius x is true did n =mally accept ! g5]alization ( ,avogadro2 b we h se5 h[ ! conception ( atom :i* runs ?r\gh 8 "w is n t ( an indivisible p>ticle1 b r t ( a little individual "p ( matt] ) def9ite prop]ties1 f :i* ! mass ( matt] recognizable by our s5ses is con/ruct$1 j z ! wall is built up ( individual bricks4 ,& z ! bricks are !mselves con/ruct$ ( clay1 :i* 9 turn is compos$ ( silica & alum9a1 s may ea* ( ^! little p>ts ( matt] be con/ruct$ ( small] p>ts2 only z clay is n brick1 & nei!r silica nor alum9a is clay1 s ! prop]ties ( ! p>ts ( ! atom--if x has p>ts--are n ! prop]ties ( ! atom1 & a mass ( matt] con/ruct$ ( ^! p>ts w\ld n h ! same prop]ties z a mass ( matt] con/ruct$ ( ! atoms !mselves4 ,ano!r feature ( ,graham's "w is f\nd 9 ! prom95ce :i* he gives to t view ( a *emical comp\nd :i* reg>ds x z ! resultant ( ! action & reaction ( ! p>ts ( ! comp\nd4 ,z ! app>5t /ability ( *emical comp\nds 0 se5 by ,davy to be ! result ( an equilibrium ( cont5d+ =ces1 s did ! seem+ly *angeless "* ( any *emical sub/ance appe> to ,graham z due to ! ord]ly *anges :i* are cont9ually proce$+ among ! molecules ( :i* ! sub/ance is con/ruct$4 ,a piece ( lime1 or a drop ( wat]1 0 to ! m9d ( ,graham ! sc5e ( a cont9ual /rife1 = t m9ute portion ( matt] appe>$ to him to be con/ruct$ ( almo/ innum]able myriads ( little p>ts1 ea* 9 m or less rapid motion1 "o n[ /rik+ aga9/ ano!r & n[ mov+ free = a little space4 ,int]f]e ) ^? movem5ts1 alt] ! mutual action ( ^? m9ute p>ticles1 & ! :ole build+ w\ld fall to pieces4 ,= m ?an ?irty ye>s ,graham 0 cont5t to trace ! movem5ts ( molecules4 ,dur+ t "t he devot$ himself1 ) an int5se & s+le-m9d$ devotion1 to ! /udy ( molecul> sci5ce4 ,undaunt$ 9 e>ly y\? by ! )drawal ( 8 fa!r's support2 uns$uc$ 9 8 middle age by ! temptations ( te*nical *emi/ry1 by yield+ to :i* he w\ld soon h secur$ a =tune2 undazzl$ 9 8 lat] days by ! hon\rs ( ! position to :i* he _h atta9$2 ,graham d$icat$ 8 life to ! nobl] object ( advanc+ ! b\nds ( natural k1 & s add+ to ^? tru?s :i* mu/ ev] rema9 = ! good & fur!rance ( humanity4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,a metre is equal to ab\t ?irty-n9e in*es2 a millimetre is ! "o-?\s&? "p ( a metre4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,rise ,,& ,,progress ,,( ,,organic ,,*emi/ry--,,p]iod ,,( ,,liebig ,,& ,,dumas4 ,ju/us ,liebig1 #ahjc-ahgc4 ,jean ,bapti/e ,&re ,dumas1 born 9 #ahjj4 ,i h z yet said almo/ no?+ ) reg>d to ! progress ( organic *emi/ry1 consid]$ z a special bran* ( ! sci5ce4 ,x is h[ev] 9 ?is dep>tm5t t ! greate/ triumphs :i* m>k ! ?ird p]iod ( *emical advance h be5 won4 ,we mu/ !re=e n[ turn our att5tion to ! "w :i* has be5 done "h4 ,! anci5ts drew no su* di/9ction betwe5 portions ( _! *emical k1 limit$ z x 01 z is impli$ by ! mod]n t]ms organic & inorganic *emi/ry4 ,an organic acid--acetic--0 "o ( ! e>lie/ kn[n sub/ances belong+ to ! class ( acids2 _m processes ( *emical h&icraft practis$ 9 ! old5 times dealt ) ! manufacture ( sub/ances1 su* z soap1 lea!r or gum1 :i* we %\ld n[ call organic sub/ances4 ,nor did ! e>ly al*emi/s1 al?\gh work+ *iefly ) m9]al or inorganic sub/ances1 draw any /rict division betwe5 ! two bran*es ( *emi/ry4 ,! m$ical *emi/s ( ! sixte5? c5tury dealt mu* ) sub/ances d]iv$ f plants & animals1 su* z b5zoic & succ9ic acids1 _s ( w9e1 oils1 etc4 ,b nei!r 9 _! nom5clature nor 9 _! practice did !y %>ply di/+ui% inorganic f organic comp\nds4 ,!y spoke ( ! qu9tess5ce ( ars5ic & ! qu9tess5ce ( alcohol2 !y appli$ ! t]m oil alike to ! products ( ! action ( acids on metallic salts & to sub/ances obta9$ f vegetables4 ,b t[>ds ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 at ! "t t is :5 ! phlogi/ic !ory began to ga9 pre-em95ce1 we f9d gradually spr++ up a division ( *emical sub/ances into m9]al1 animal & vegetable sub/ances--a division :i* 0 bas$ r on a consid]ation ( ! s\rces :5ce ! sub/ances 7 d]iv$ ?an on ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances !mselves1 & !re=e a division :i* 0 ess5tially a non-*emical "o4 ,ab\t a c5tury aft] ?is1 sy/ematic attempts began to be made to trace "s peculi>ity ( composition z belong+ to all comp\nds ( organic1 t is1 ( animal or vegetable1 orig94 ,z v _m ( ! sub/ances !n kn[n belong+ to ?is class 7 m or less oil-l 9 _! prop]ties--oils1 fats1 balsams1 gums1 sug>1 etc4--organic sub/ances g5]ally 7 said to be *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce 9 !m ( ! pr9ciple ( oil4 ,su* a /atem5t z ?is1 al?\gh suit$ to ! conceptions ( t "t1 c\ld n be receiv$ :5 ,lavoisi] _h %[n *emi/s h[ ,nature ought be exam9$4 ,) ! def9ite conception ( elem5t introduc$ by ! new *emi/ry1 came an attempt to prove t organic comp\nds 7 built up ( elem5ts :i* 7 r>ely f\nd toge!r 9 any "o comp\nd ( inorganic orig94 ,sub/ances ( vegetable orig9 7 said by ,lavoisi] to be compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 :ile phosphorus & nitrog51 9 addition to ^? ?ree elem5ts1 ent]$ into ! composition ( sub/ances d]iv$ f animals4 ,b nei!r c\ld ?is def9ition ( organic comp\nds be upheld 9 ! face ( facts4 ,wax & _m oils conta9$ only c>bon & hydrog51 yet !y 7 und\bt$ly sub/ances ( vegetable or animal orig94 ,if ! pres5ce ( any two ( ! ?ree elem5ts1 c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 7 to be reg>d$ z a suffici5t crit]ion = ! classification ( a comp\nd1 !n x 0 necess>y t c>bonic acid--obta9$ by ! action ( a m9]al acid on *alk--%\ld be call$ an organic comp\nd4 ,to ,b]zelius belongs ! hon\r ( be+ ! *emi/ :o fir/ appli$ ! g5]al laws ( *emical comb9ation to all comp\nds alike1 :e!r d]iv$ f m9]als1 animals1 or vegetables4 ,! ultimate p>ticles1 or molecules1 ( e comp\nd 7 reg>d$ by ,b]zelius z built up ( two p>ts1 ea* ( :i* might itself be an elem5t>y atom1 or a gr\p ( elem5t>y atoms4 ,"o ( ^! p>ts1 he said1 0 *>act]iz$ by positive1 ! o!r by negative electricity4 ,e comp\nd molecule1 :atev] 0 ! nature or numb] ( ! elem5t>y atoms compos+ x1 0 a dual /ructure 7see p4 #afd74 ,organic *emi/ry came aga9 to be a t]m some:at loosely appli$ to ! comp\nds d]iv$ f animals or vegetables1 or 9 ! =mation ( :i* ! ag5cy ( liv+ ?+s 0 necess>y4 ,mo/1 if n all ( ^! comp\nds conta9$ c>bon & "s o!r elem5t or elem5ts1 especially hydrog51 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,b ! progress ( ?is bran* ( *emi/ry 0 imp$$ by ! want ( any tru/wor?y me?ods = analys+ comp\nds conta9+ c>bon1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,?is want 0 to be suppli$1 & ! sci5ce ( organic *emi/ry1 & s ( *emi/ry 9 g5]al1 0 to be imm5sely advanc$ by ! lab\rs ( a new s*ool ( *emi/s1 *ief among :om 7 ,liebig & ,dumas4 ,let u %ortly trace ! "w ( ^! two r5[n$ naturali/s4 ,! life-"w ( ! fir/ is f9i%$2 ,i write ?is /ory ( ! progress ( 8 fav\rite sci5ce on ! eighty-second bir?day ( ! second ( ^! great m51 :o is /ill ) u a vet]an cr[n$ ) glory1 a true soldi] 9 ! battle aga9/ ignorance & s aga9/ want & crime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ju/us ,,liebig 0 born at ,d>m/adt1 on ! #ab? ( ,may #ahjc4 ,! ma9 facts :i* m>k 8 life reg>d$ ap>t f 8 "w z a *emi/ are soon told4 ,%[+ a ta/e = mak+ exp]im5ts he 0 appr5tic$ by 8 fa!r to an apo!c>y4 ,=tunately = sci5ce he did n long rema9 z a concoctor ( drugs1 b 0 all[$ to ent] ! ,univ]sity ( ,bonn z a /ud5t ( m$ic9e4 ,f ,bonn he w5t to ,erlang51 at :i* univ]sity he graduat$ 9 #ahba4 ,a ye> or two be=e ?is "t ,liebig _h begun 8 c>e] z an inve/igator ( ,nature1 & he _h already made su* progress t ! ,gr& ,duke ( ,hesse-,d>m/adt 0 prevail$ on to grant him a small p5sion & all[ him to prosecute 8 rese>*es at ,p>is1 :i* 0 !n almo/ ! only place :]e he c\ld hope to f9d ! conditions ( success = ! /udy ( sci5tific *emi/ry4 ,to ,p>is accord+ly he w5t 9 #ahbc4 ,he 0 s =tunate--?anks to ! good graces ( ! r5[n$ naturali/ ,alex&] von ,humboldt--z to be all[$ to ent] ! laboratory ( ,gay-,lussac1 :]e he cont9u$ ! rese>* on a class ( explosive comp\nds1 call$ fulm9ates1 :i* he _h begun be=e leav+ ,d>m/adt4 ,a ye> lat] ,liebig 0 invit$ to return to 8 native c\ntry z ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! small ,univ]sity ( ,giess5--a "n soon to be kn[n :]ev] *emi/ry 0 /udi$1 & n[ held de> by _m em95t *emi/s :o !re le>n$ :at is meant by ! sci5tific /udy ( ,nature4 ,! ye> be=e ,liebig ent]$ ! laboratory ( ,gay-,lussac !re came to ,p>is a "y & en?usia/ic /ud5t :o _h already made himself kn[n 9 ! sci5tific _w by 8 physiological rese>*es1 & :o 0 n[ ab\t to beg9 8 c>e] z a *emi/4 ,9 t s\!rn "p ( ,france :i* is ri* 9 memories ( ! ,roman occupation1 n f> f ! rema9s ( ! great aqu$uct :i* spans ! valley ( ! ,g>don1 at no great di/ance f ! fam\s cities ( ,arles & ,nimes1 0 born1 9 ! t[n ( ,alais1 on ! #ad? ( ,july #ahjj1 ,,jean ,,bapti/e ,,&re ,,dumas4 ,! fa!r ( ,dumas 0 a man ( consid]able culture2 he gave 8 son z good an education z c\ld be obta9$ 9 ! little t[n ( 8 bir?4 ,at ! age ( f\rte5 "y ,dumas 0 a good classical s*ol>1 & _h acquir$ a fair k ( natural sci5ce4 ,b = 8 defici5cy 9 ma!matics he w\ld probably h ent]$ = ! exam9ation :i* admitt$ ^? :o pass$ x to jo9 ! ,fr5* navy4 ,b be=e he _h made good 8 ma!matical defici5cies ! tr\bl\s nature ( ! times 7#ahad-ae7 oblig$ 8 p>5ts to ?9k ( "s o!r pr(ession = _! son :i* w\ld entail less sacrifice on _! "p4 ,l 8 great fell[-work] 9 aft] life he 0 appr5tic$ to an apo!c>y1 & l him also1 he soon =sook ?is sph]e ( usefulness4 ,desir\s ( bett] opportunities = ! /udy ( sci5ce1 & ov]p[]$ by ! mis]ies :i* w> _h br\ght ^u ! di/rict ( 8 bir?1 ,dumas p]suad$ 8 fa!r to all[ him to g to ,g5eva4 ,at ,g5eva ,dumas f\nd an atmosph]e m suit$ to 8 sci5tific progress2 *emi/ry1 physics1 botany1 & o!r bran*es ( natural sci5ce 7 taught by m5 ^: names 7 ev]y:]e kn[n4 ,he began exp]im5ts 9 *emi/ry ) ! crude/ & mo/ limit$ app>atus1 b ev5 ) ^! he made discov]ies :i* aft]w>ds l$ to important "w on ! volumes occupi$ by ! atoms ( elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahah ,dumas became acqua9t$ ) ,dr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,prevo/1 :o _h return$ f /udy+ 9 _m ( ! mo/ fam\s m$ical s*ools ( ,europe4 ,invit$ by ,prevo/ to jo9 9 an inve/igation requir+ m$ical1 botanical & *emical k1 ,dumas n[ began a s]ies ( rese>*es :i* soon pass$ into ! doma9 ( animal physiology1 & by ! prosecution ( :i* "u _m difficulties he laid ! f\ndations ( 8 future fame4 ,b along ) 8 physiological "w ,dumas c>ri$ on a rese>* into ! expansion ( v>i\s e!rs4 ,?is necessitat$ ! prep>ation ( a s]ies ( e!rs 9 a /ate ( purity2 b s difficult did ,dumas f9d ?is to be1 s mu* "t did he consume 9 ?is prelim9>y "w1 & s int]e/$ did he become 9 ! *emical "p ( ! inve/igation1 t he ab&on$ ! exp]im5ts on expansion1 & set himself to solve "s ( ! problems pres5t$ by ! composition & *emical prop]ties ( ! e!rs4 ,dumas w\ld probably h rema9$ 9 ,g5eva _h he n _h a morn+ visit paid him 9 ! ye> #ahbb4 ,:5 at "w 9 8 laboratory "o day1 "s "o knock$ & 0 bidd5 come 94 ,i 0 surpris$ to f9d myself face to face ) a g5tleman 9 a light-blue coat ) metal buttons1 a :ite wai/coat1 nanke5 bree*es1 & top-boots4444 ,! we>] ( ?is co/ume1 8 head some:at b5t1 8 eyes deep-set b ke51 advanc$ ) a pleasant smile1 say+1 ',monsieur ,dumas4' ',! same1 sir2 b excuse me4' ',i am ,m4 de ,humboldt1 & did n wi% to pass ?r\gh ,g5eva )\t hav+ _h ! pleasure ( see+ y4'444 ,i _h only "o *air4 ,my visitor 0 pleas$ to accept x1 :il/ ,i resum$ my elevat$ p]* on ! draw+ /ool4444 ',i int5d1' said ,m4 de ,humboldt1 'to sp5d "s days 9 ,g5eva1 to see old fri5ds & to make new ones1 & m especially to become acqua9t$ ) "y p :o are beg9n+ _! c>e]4 ,w y act z my cic]one8 ,i w>n y h[ev] t my rambles beg9 e>ly & end late4 ,n[1 c\ld y be at my disposal1 say f six 9 ! morn+ till midnight8' ,aft] "s days sp5t z ,humboldt _h indicat$ ! great naturali/ left ,g5eva4 ,dumas tells u t ! t[n seem$ empty to him4 ,i felt z if spell-b\nd4 ,! memorable h\rs ,i _h sp5t ) t irresi/ible en*ant] _h op5$ a new _w to my m9d4 ,dumas felt t he mu/ g to ,p>is--t !re he w\ld h m scope & m opportunities = prosecut+ sci5ce4 ,a few k9d words1 a little g5u9e sympa?y1 & a little help f ,humboldt 7 ?us ! means ( fairly laun*+ 9 _! c>e] ( sci5tific inquiry ^! two "y m51 ,liebig & ,dumas4 ,9 ,p>is1 :i!r he w5t 9 #ahbc1 ,dumas f\nd a welcome4 ,he soon made ! acqua9tance & ga9$ ! fri5d%ip ( ! great m5 :o !n made natural sci5ce s mu* e/eem$ 9 ! ,fr5* capital4 ,:5 ! ye> #ahbf came1 x saw him ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,a!naeum1 & m>ri$ to ! lady :om he lov$1 & :o has ev] s9ce f\ght ! battle ( life by 8 side4 ,liebig left ,p>is 9 #ahbd4 ,by ! ye> #ahcj he _h p]fect$ & appli$ t me?od = ! analysis ( organic comp\nds :i* is n[ 9 con/ant use :]ev] organic *emi/ry is /udi$2 by ! same ye> ,dumas _h giv5 ! fir/ w>n+ ( ! attack :i* he 0 ab\t to make on ! great /ructure ( dualism rais$ by ,b]zelius4 ,9 a pap]1 ,on ,"s ,po9ts ( ! ,atomic ,!ory1 publi%$ 9 #ahbf1 ,dumas adopt$ ! di/9ction made by ,avogadro betwe5 molecules & atoms1 or betwe5 ! small p>ticles ( sub/ances :i* rema9 undivid$ dur+ physical actions1 & ! p>ticles1 small] ?an ^!1 :i* are undivid$ dur+ *emical actions4 ,b1 un=tunately1 ,dumas did n m>k ^! two conceptions by names suffici5tly def9ite to enable ! read]s ( 8 memoir to be> ! di/9ction cle>ly 9 m9d4 ,! t]ms atom & molecule 7 n introduc$ into *emi/ry ) ! precise mean+s n[ atta*$ to !m until "s "t aft] #ahbf4 ,al?\gh ! idea ( two ord]s ( small p>ticles und]lies all ! exp]im5tal "w describ$ by ,dumas 9 ?is pap]1 yet ! numb]s :i* he obta9$ z repres5t+ ! actual atomic weights ( sev]al elem5ts--e4g4 phosphorus1 ars5ic1 t91 silicon--%[ t he _h n himself c>ri$ out ,avogadro's hypo!sis to its legitimate conclusions4 ,two ye>s aft] ?is ,dumas employ$ ! reaction :]e9 two volumes ( gase\s hydro*loric acid are produc$ by ! union ( "o volume ( hydrog5 ) "o volume ( *lor9e1 z an argum5t :i* oblig$ him to conclude t1 if ,avogadro's physical hypo!sis be accept$1 ! molecules ( hydrog5 & *lor9e split1 ea* into two p>ts1 :5 ^! gases comb9e *emically4 ,b ,dumas did n at ?is "t conclude t ! molecul> weight ( hydrog5 mu/ be tak5 z twice its atomic weight1 & t--hydrog5 be+ ! /&>d sub/ance--! molecul> weights ( all gases mu/ be repres5t$ by ! specific gravities ( ^! gases1 ref]r$ to hydrog5 z #b4 ,i h already %ortly discuss$ ! me?od = f9d+ ! relative weights ( elem5t>y atoms :i* is f\nd$ on ,avogadro's hypo!sis1 &1 ,i ?9k1 h %[n t ?is hypo!sis leads to ! def9ition ( atom z ! smalle/ am\nt ( an elem5t 9 "o molecule ( any comp\nd ( t elem5t 7see p4 #adb74 ,?is d$uction f ,avogadro's law is n[ a "p & p>cel ( our g5]al *emical k4 ,we wond] :y x 0 n made by ,dumas2 b we mu/ rememb] t a great mass ( facts has be5 accumulat$ s9ce #ahbf1 & t ?is def9ition ( atom has be5 gradually =c$ on *emi/s by ! cumulative evid5ce ( ^? facts4 ,"o ?+ ,dumas did d1 = :i* ! ?anks ( e *emi/ ought to be giv5 him2 he saw ! ne$ ( a conv5i5t me?od = det]m9+ ! d5sities ( comp\nds 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & he suppli$ ?is ne$ by t simple1 elegant & tru/wor?y me?od1 /ill 9 con/ant use1 kn[n z ,dumas's vap\r d5sity process4 ,:ile ,dumas 0 work+ out ! details ( ?is analytical me?od1 :i* 0 de/9$ to be s p[]ful an in/rum5t ( rese>*1 ,liebig 0 engag$ 9 simil> "w2 he 0 p]fect+ t process = ! analysis ( organic comp\nds :i* has s9ce play$ s important a "p 9 ! advancem5t ( ?is bran* ( *emical sci5ce4 ,! processes 9 use dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ?is c5tury = det]m9+ ! am\nts ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 9 comp\nds ( ^? elem5ts1 7 difficult to conduct & gave untru/wor?y results4 ,liebig adopt$ ! pr9ciple ( ! me?od us$ by ,lavoisi]1 viz4 t ! c>bon 9 a comp\nd c be oxidiz$1 or burnt1 to c>bonic acid1 & ! hydrog5 to wat]4 ,he contriv$ a v simple app>atus :]e9 ?is burn+ might be effect$ & ! products ( ! burn+--c>bonic acid & wat]--might be arre/$ & weigh$4 ,liebig's app>atus rema9s n[ ess5tially z x 0 pres5t$ to ! *emical _w 9 #ahcj4 ,v>i\s improvem5ts 9 details h be5 made2 ! introduction ( gas 9 place ( *>coal z a laboratory fuel has giv5 ! *emi/ a great comm& ov] ! process ( combu/ion1 b 9 e "p ( ! app>atus to-day made use ( 9 ! laboratory is to be trac$ ! impress ( ! ma/]'s h&4 ,a weigh$ quantity ( ! sub/ance to be analyz$ is heat$ ) oxide ( copp] 9 a tube ( h>d glass2 ! c>bon is burnt to c>bonic acid & ! hydrog5 to wat] at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! copp] oxide4 ,atta*$ to ! combu/ion tube is a weigh$ tube conta9+ *loride ( calcium1 a sub/ance :i* gre$ily comb9es ) wat]1 & ?is tube is succe$$ by a set ( ?ree or m small bulbs1 bl[n 9 "o piece ( glass1 & conta9+ an aque\s solution ( cau/ic pota%1 a sub/ance ) :i* c>bonic acid readily ent]s into comb9ation4 ,! *loride ( calcium tube & ! pota% bulbs are weigh$ be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t2 ! increase 9 weight ( ! =m] repres5ts ! am\nt ( wat]1 & ! increase 9 weight ( ! latt] ! am\nt ( c>bonic acid obta9$ by burn+ a giv5 weight ( ! comp\nd "u exam9ation4 ,z ! composition ( c>bonic acid & ( wat] is kn[n1 ! am\nts ( c>bon & ( hydrog5 9 "o hundr$ p>ts ( ! comp\nd are easily f\nd2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! sum ( ^! & "o hundr$ repres5ts ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 "o hundr$ p>ts ( ! comp\nd4 ,if ! comp\nd %\ld conta9 elem5ts o!r ?an ^! ?ree1 ^? o!r elem5ts are det]m9$ by special processes1 ! oxyg5 be+ always f\nd by diff]5ce4 ,soon aft] 8 settlem5t at ,giess5 ,liebig turn$ 8 att5tion to a class ( organic comp\nds kn[n z ! cyanates2 b ,woehl]--:o1 :ile ,liebig 0 9 ,p>is 9 ! laboratory ( ,gay-,lussac1 0 engag$ 9 /udy+ ! intricacies ( m9]al *emi/ry "u ! guidance ( ,b]zelius--_h already ent]$ on ?is field ( rese>*4 ,! two "y *emi/s comp>$ notes1 recogniz$ ea* o!r's p[]s1 & became fri5ds2 ?is fri5d%ip /r5g!n$ z life advanc$1 & "s ( ! mo/ important pap]s :i* enri*$ *emical sci5ce dur+ ! next ?irty ye>s bore ! jo9t signatures ( ,liebig & ,woehl]4 ,i h already m5tion$ t :5 x 0 f\nd necess>y to ab&on ! ,lavoisi]ian def9ition ( organic *emi/ry z ! *emi/ry ( comp\nds conta9+ c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 & sometimes also phosphorus or nitrog51 a def9ition 0 attempt$ to be bas$ on ! suppos$ fact t ! =mation ( ! comp\nds obta9$ f animals & plants c\ld be accompli%$ only by ! ag5cy ( a liv+ organism4 ,b ! discov]y made 9 #ahbh by ,woehl]1 t urea--a sub/ance specially *>act]iz$ by its production 9 ! animal economy1 & 9 t economy only--c\ld be built up f m9]al mat]ials1 r5d]$ ?is def9ition ( organic *emi/ry impossible1 & broke d[n ! artificial b>ri] :]eby naturali/s attempt$ to sep>ate two fields ( /udy betwe5 :i* ,nature made no division4 ,we h "h ano!r illu/ration ( ! tru? ( ! conception :i* und]lies s _m ( ! rec5t advances ( sci5ce1 :i* is ! c5tral ?\ght ( ! noble /ructure re>$ by ! greate/ naturali/ ( our "t1 & :i* is express$ by "o ( ! pr(\nde/ /ud5ts ( ,nature t ?is age has se5 9 ! words ,i h already quot$ f ! preface to ! ,lyrical ,ballads1 ,9 ,nature ev]y?+ is di/9ct1 b no?+ def9$ into absolute indep5d5t s+l5ess4 ,f ?is "t ! progress ( organic *emi/ry became rapid4 ,dumas cont9u$ ! rese>*es ^u e!rs :i* he _h comm5c$ at ,g5eva1 & by ! ye> #ahbi or s he _h e/abli%$ ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 e!rs & alcohols on ! "o h&1 & e!rs & acids on ! o!r4 ,?is rese>*1 a description ( ! details ( :i* ,i _c introduce "h z x w\ld involve ! use ( _m te*nical t]ms & assume ! possession by ! read] ( mu* te*nical k1 0 foll[$ by o!rs1 :]eby ,dumas e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( a s]ies ( comp\nds all possess$ ( ! *emical prop]ties ( alcohol1 all conta9+ c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 b diff]+ f "o ano!r by a con/ant am\nt ( c>bon & hydrog54 ,?is discov]y ( a s]ies ( alcohols1 di/+ui%$ by ! possession ( c]ta9 def9ite prop]ties :]eby !y 7 m>k$ (f f all o!r s-call$ organic comp\nds1 0 z ! appe>ance ( a l&m>k to ! travell] 9 a c\ntry :]e he is )\t a guide4 ,! introduction ( ! comp>ative me?od ( /udy into organic *emi/ry--! me?od1 t is1 :i* bases classification on a comp>ison ( l>ge gr\ps ( comp\nds1 & :i* seeks to ga!r toge!r ^? sub/ances :i* are l & to sep>ate ^? :i* are unlike--soon began to be> fruit4 ,?is me?od sugge/$ to ! exp]im5t] new po9ts ( view f :i* to reg>d gr\ps ( bodies2 analogies :i* 7 hidd5 :5 a few sub/ances only 7 consid]$1 became prom95t z ! range ( view 0 wid5$4 ,:at ! g5tle ,elia calls fragm5ts & scatt]$ pieces ( tru?1 h9ts & glimpses1 g]ms1 & crude essays at a sy/em1 became important4 ,!re 0 "w to be done1 n only by ! ma/] spirits :o1 look+ at ?+s f a c5tral position ( vantage1 saw ! relative importance ( ! v>i\s detail$ facts1 b also by ^? :o c\ld only beat up a little game p]adv5ture1 & leave x to knotti] heads1 m robu/ con/itutions1 to run x d[n4 ,tw5ty ye>s be=e ! "t ( :i* we are n[ speak+ ,davy _h decompos$ ! alkalis pota% & soda2 z he f\nd ^! sub/ances to be metallic oxides1 he ?\ght x v probable t ! o!r well-kn[n alkali1 ammonia1 w\ld also turn out to be ! oxide ( a metal4 ,by ! electrolysis ( salts =m$ by ! action ( ammonia on acids1 us+ m]cury z "o ( ! poles ( ! batt]y1 ,davy obta9$ a /range-look+ spongy sub/ance :i* he 0 incl9$ to reg>d z an alloy ( ! metallic base ( ammonia ) m]cury4 ,f ! results ( exp]im5ts by himself & o!rs1 ,davy adopt$ a view ( ?is alloy :i* reg>d$ x z conta9+ a comp\nd radicle1 or gr\p ( elem5t>y atoms :i* 9 c]ta9 def9ite *emical *anges behav$ l a s+le elem5t>y atom4 ,to ?is comp\nd radicle he gave ! "n ( ammonium4 ,z an aque\s solution ( pota% or soda 0 reg>d$ z a comp\nd ( wat] & oxide ( potassium or sodium1 s an aque\s solution ( ammonia 0 reg>d$ z a comp\nd ( wat] & oxide ( ammonium4 ,:5 ! composition ( ?is sub/ance1 ammonium1 came to be m accurately det]m9$1 x 0 f\nd t x might be be/ repres5t$ z a comp\nd atom built up ( "o atom ( nitrog5 & f\r atoms ( hydrog54 ,! obs]v$ prop]ties ( _m comp\nds obta9$ f ammonia1 & ! analogies obs]v$ betwe5 ^! & simil> comp\nds obta9$ f pota% & soda1 c\ld be expla9$ by assum+ 9 ! comp\nd atom 7or bett]1 9 ! molecule7 ( ! ammonia salt1 ! exi/5ce ( ?is gr\p ( atoms1 act+ z "o atom1 call$ ammonium4 ,! read] w n fail to obs]ve h[ ess5tially atomic is ?is conception ( comp\nd radicle4 ,! ultimate p>ticle1 ! molecule1 ( a comp\nd has n[ come to be reg>d$ z a /ructure built up ( p>ts call$ atoms1 j z a h\se is a /ructure built up ( p>ts call$ /ones & bricks1 mort> & wood1 etc4 ,b !re may be a clos] relation%ip betwe5 "s ( ! atoms 9 ?is molecule ?an betwe5 ! o!r atoms4 ,x may be possible to remove a gr\p ( atoms1 & put ano!r gr\p--or p]haps ano!r s+le atom--9 ! place ( ! gr\p remov$1 )\t caus+ ! :ole atomic /ructure to fall to pieces2 j z x may be possible to remove "s ( ! bricks f ! wall ( a h\se1 or a l>ge wood5 beam f b5ea? ! l9tels1 & replace ^! by o!r bricks or by a s+le /one1 or replace ! l>ge wood5 beam by a small] iron "o1 )\t involv+ ! d[nfall ( ! entire h\se4 ,! gr\p ( atoms ?us removable--! comp\nd radicle--may exi/ 9 a s]ies ( comp\nds4 ,z we h an oxide1 a sulphide1 a *loride1 a nitrate1 etc41 ( sodium1 s we may h an oxide1 a sulphide1 a *loride1 a nitrate1 etc41 ( ammonium4 ,! comp\nds ( sodium are possess$ ( _m prop]ties 9 common2 ?is is p>tly expla9$ by say+ t !y all conta9 "o or m atoms ( ! elem5t sodium4 ,! comp\nds ( ammonium possess _m prop]ties 9 common1 & ?is is p>tly expla9$ if we assume t !y all conta9 "o or m atoms ( ! comp\nd radicle ammonium4 ,! conception ( comp\nd radicle 0 c>ri$ by ,b]zelius to its utmo/ limits4 ,we h le>n$ t ! ,sw$i% *emi/ reg>d$ e molecule z compos$ ( two p>ts2 9 v _m cases ea* ( ^! p>ts 0 itself made up ( m ?an "o k9d ( atom--x 0 a comp\nd radicle4 ,b ! ,b]zelian sy/em t5d$ to become too artificial3 x drift$ fur!r & fur!r away f facts4 ,( ! two p>ts compos+ ! dual molecul> /ructure1 "o 0 ( necessity positively1 & ! o!r negatively electrifi$4 ,! great] numb] ( ! s-call$ organic comp\nds conta9$ oxyg52 oxyg5 0 ! mo/ electro-negative elem5t kn[n2 h5ce mo/ organic comp\nds 7 reg>d$ z =m$ by ! com+ toge!r ( "o1 two1 or m atoms ( oxyg51 =m+ ! negative "p ( ! molecule1 ) "o1 two1 or m atoms ( a comp\nd radicle1 :i* =m$ ! positive "p ( ! molecule4 ,f ?is duali/ic view ( ! molecule !re naturally arose a disposition to reg>d ! comp\nd radicles ( organic *emi/ry z ! non-oxyg5at$ p>ts ( ! molecules ( organic comp\nds4 ,an organic comp\nd came gradually to be reg>d$ z a comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) "s o!r elem5ts1 :i* 7 all lump$ toge!r "u ! "n ( a comp\nd radicle1 & organic *emi/ry 0 = a "t def9$ z ! *emi/ry ( comp\nd radicles4 ,f :at has be5 said on p4 #bfh1 ,i ?9k x w be evid5t t ! idea ( sub/itution is a necess>y "p ( ! orig9al conception ( comp\nd radicle2 a gr\p ( atoms 9 a molecule may1 x is said1 be remov$1 & ano!r gr\p1 or ano!r atom1 sub/itut$ = t :i* is remov$4 ,b]zelius adopt$ ?is idea1 b he made x too rigid2 he taught t an electro-negative atom1 or comp\nd radicle1 c\ld be replac$ or sub/itut$ only by ano!r electro-negative atom or gr\p ( atoms1 & a positively electrifi$ atom or gr\p ( atoms1 only by ano!r electro-positive atom or comp\nd radicle4 ,?us oxyg5 c\ld p]haps be replac$ by *lor9e1 b c]ta9ly n by hydrog52 :ile hydrog5 might be replac$ by a positively electrifi$ atom1 b c]ta9ly n by *lor9e4 ,! conceptions ( comp\nd radicles & ( sub/itution held "s su* position 9 organic *emi/ry z t :i* ,i h n[ attempt$ to indicate :5 ,dumas & ,liebig began _! "w 9 ?is field4 ,! visitors at "o ( ! royal soirees at ! ,tuil]ies 7 mu* annoy$ by ! irritat+ vap\rs :i* came f ! wax c&les us$ to illum9ate ! ap>tm5ts2 ,dumas 0 ask$ to exam9e ! c&les & f9d ! reason ( _! peculi> behavi\r4 ,he f\nd t ! manufactur] _h us$ *lor9e to blea* ! wax1 t "s ( ?is *lor9e rema9$ 9 ! c&les1 & t ! irritat+ vap\rs :i* _h annoy$ ! gue/s ( ,*>les ,x4 conta9$ hydro*loric acid1 produc$ by ! union ( *lor9e ) "p ( ! hydrog5 ( ! wax4 ,c&les blea*$ by "s o!r means ?an *lor9e 7 9 future us$ 9 ! royal palaces2 & ! unit>y !ory1 :i* 0 to ov]?r[ ! dualism ( ,b]zelius1 began to arise 9 ! m9d ( ,dumas4 ,! ret5tion ( a l>ge quantity ( *lor9e by wax c\ld sc>cely be expla9$ by assum+ t ! *lor9e 0 pres5t only z a me*anically held impurity4 ,dumas ?or\ghly inve/igat$ ! action ( *lor9e on wax & o!r organic comp\nds2 & 9 #ahcd he ann\nc$ t hydrog5 9 organic comp\nds c be ex*ang$ = *lor9e1 e volume ( hydrog5 giv5 up by ! orig9al comp\nd be+ replac$ by an equal volume ( *lor9e4 ,liebig & ,woehl] made use ( a simil> conception to expla9 ! results :i* !y _h obta9$ ab\t ?is "t 9 _! /udy ( ! oil ( bitt] almonds1 a /udy :i* w be ref]r$ to imm$iately4 ,! progress ( ?is bold innovation made by ,dumas 0 mu* advanc$ by ! exp]im5ts & reason+s ( two ,fr5* *emi/s1 ^: names ought always to be rev]5c$ by /ud5ts ( *emi/ry z ! names ( a pair ( brilliant naturali/s to :om mod]n *emi/ry owes mu*4 ,g]h>dt 0 di/+ui%$ by cle>ness ( vision & expression2 ,laur5t by orig9ality1 bread? ( m9d & p[] ( speculation4 ,laur5t appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o made a cle> /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal conception ( ! unit>y !ory3 ,_m organic comp\nds1 :5 treat$ ) *lor9e lose a c]ta9 numb] ( equival5ts ( hydrog51 :i* passes (f z hydro*loric acid4 ,an equal numb] ( equival5ts ( *lor9e takes ! place ( ! hydrog5 s elim9at$2 ?us ! physical & *emical prop]ties ( ! orig9al sub/ance are n pr(\ndly *ang$4 ,! *lor9e occupies ! place left vacant by ! hydrog52 ! *lor9e plays 9 ! new comp\nd ! same "p z 0 play$ by ! hydrog5 9 ! orig9al comp\nd4 ,! replacem5t ( electro-positive hydrog5 by electro-negative *lor9e 0 aga9/ e canon ( ! duali/ic *emi/ry2 & to say t ! physical & *emical prop]ties ( ! orig9al comp\nd 7 n pr(\ndly modifi$ by ?is replacem5t1 seem$ to be to call 9 "q ! validity ( ! :ole /ructure rais$ by ! lab\rs dur+ a qu>t] ( a c5tury ( "o univ]sally admitt$ to be among ! =emo/ *emi/s ( 8 age4 ,b facts accumulat$4 ,by ! action ( *lor9e on alcohol ,liebig obta9$ *lor(orm & *loral1 sub/ances :i* h s9ce be5 s l>gely appli$ to ! alleviation ( human suff]+2 b x 0 ,dumas :o correctly det]m9$ ! composition ( ^! two comp\nds1 & %[$ h[ !y are relat$ to alcohol & to "o ano!r4 ,liebig's reception ( ! corrections made by ,dumas 9 8 "w furni%es a /rik+ example ( ! true sci5tific _s4 ,z an excell5t illu/ration1 said ,liebig1 ( ! mode 9 :i* errors %\ld be correct$1 ! inve/igation ( *loral by ,dumas may fitly be introduc$4 ,x c>ri$ conviction to myself1 z ,i ?9k to ev]ybody else1 n by ! copi\s numb] ( analytical data oppos$ to ! n less num]\s results :i* ,i _h publi%$1 b because ^! data gave a simpl] explanation bo? ( ! =mation & ( ! *anges ( ! sub/ances 9 "q4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important contributions to ! new views 0 made by ,dumas 9 8 pap] on ! action ( *lor9e on acetic acid 7#ahcc71 :]e9 he prov$ t ! product ( ?is action1 viz4 tri*loracetic acid1 is relat$ to ! p>5t sub/ance by conta9+ ?ree atoms ( *lor9e 9 place ( ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 9 ! molecule2 t ! new sub/ance is1 l ! p>5t sub/ance1 a monobasic acid2 t its salts are v analog\s 9 prop]ties to ! salts ( acetic acid2 t ! action ( ! same reag5ts on ! two sub/ances is simil>2 & f9ally1 t ! exi/5ce ( _m d]ivatives ( ^! comp\nds c\ld be =etold by ! help ( ! new hypo!sis1 :i* d]ivatives ought n to exi/ accord+ to ! duali/ic !ory1 b :i*1 un=tunately = t !ory1 7 prep>$ & analyz$ by ,dumas4 ,i h allud$ to a rese>* by ,liebig & ,woehl] on oil ( bitt] almonds z m>k+ an important /age 9 ! advance ( ! anti-duali/ic views4 ,! pap] allud$ to 0 publi%$ 9 #ahcb4 ,at t "t x 0 kn[n t b5zoic acid is =m$ by exposure ( bitt]-almond oil to ! air4 ,liebig & ,woehl] made _m analyses ( ^! two sub/ances1 & _m exp]im5ts on ! mutual relations ( _! prop]ties1 :]eby !y 7 l$ to reg>d ! molecules ( ! oil z built up ea* ( an atom ( hydrog5 & an atom ( a comp\nd radicle--itself a comp\nd ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg5--to :i* !y gave ! "n ( b5zoyl4#ac ,b5zoic acid !y reg>d$ z a comp\nd ( ! same radicle ) ano!r radicle1 consi/+ ( equal numb]s ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 atoms4 ,by ! action ( *lor9e & o!r reag5ts on bitt]-almond oil ^! *emi/s obta9$ sub/ances :i* 7 c>efully analyz$ & /udi$1 & ! prop]ties ( :i* !y %[$ c\ld be simply expla9$ by reg>d+ !m all z comp\nds ( ! radicle b5zoyl ) *lor9e & o!r atoms or gr\ps ( atoms4 ,b ?is view1 if adopt$1 necessitat$ ! belief t *lor9e atoms c\ld replace oxyg5 atoms2 &1 g5]ally1 t ! sub/itution ( an electro-positive by a negative atom or gr\p ( atoms did n necess>ily cause any great alt]ation 9 ! prop]ties ( ! molecule4 ,?us x 0 t ! rigid conceptions ( dualism 7 %[n to be too rigid2 t ! possibility ( an electro-positive radicle1 or atom1 replac+ ano!r ( opposite electricity 0 recogniz$2 & ?us ! view :i* reg>d$ a comp\nd molecule z "o /ructure--atoms 9 :i* might be replac$ by o!r atoms irrespective ( ! mutual electrical relations ( ^! atoms--began to ga9 gr\nd4 ,f ?is "t ! molecule ( a comp\nd has be5 g5]ally reg>d$ z a unit>y /ructure1 z "o :ole1 & ! prop]ties ( ! molecule z det]m9$ by ! nature1 numb]1 & arrangem5t ( all ! atoms :i* toge!r compose x4 ,! unit>y conception ( a comp\nd molecule appe>$ at fir/ to be altoge!r oppos$ to ! sy/em ( ,b]zelius2 b z "t w5t on1 & z fre% facts came to be kn[n1 x 0 se5 t ! new view cons]v$ at lea/ "o1 & t p]haps ! mo/ important1 ( ! ?\ghts :i* =m$ ! basis ( ! ,b]zelian classification4 ,und]ly+ ! dualism ( ,b]zelius 0 ! conception ( ! molecule z an atomic /ructure2 ?is 0 reta9$ 9 ! unit>y sy/em ( ,dumas1 ,g]h>dt & ,laur5t4 ,b]zelius _h insi/$ t e molecule is a dual /ructure4 ,?is is tak+ too n>r[ a view ( ! possibilities ( ,nature1 said ! uphold]s ( ! new s*ool4 ,?is molecule may h a dual /ructure2 t may be built up ( ?ree p>ts4 ,! /ructure ( ?is molecule or ( t c be det]m9$ only by a c>eful /udy ( its relations ) o!r molecules4 ,= a "t x seem$ also z if ! new *emi/ry c\ld d )\t ! comp\nd radicle :i* _h be5 s mu* us$ by ,b]zelius2 b ! pressure ( facts soon drove ! unit>y *emi/s to recognize ! value ( t hypo!sis :i* look$ on p>ts ( ! molecule z sometimes m closely associat$ ?an o!r p>ts--:i* recogniz$ ! exi/5ce ( atomic /ructures )9 ! l>g] molecul> /ructures4 ,z a h\se is n simply a putt+ toge!r ( s _m bricks1 s mu* mort>1 s _m doors & w9d[s1 s _m lead5 pipes1 etc41 b r a def9ite /ructure compos$ ( p>ts1 _m ( :i* are !mselves also def9ite /ructures1 su* z ! w9d[ & its accessory p>ts1 ! door ) its l9tel & h&le1 etc41 s to ! unit>y *emi/s did ! molecule appe> to be built up ( p>ts1 "s ( :i*1 !mselves compos$ ( yet small] p>ts1 dis*>g$ a p>ticul> function 9 ! molecul> economy4 ,a g5]al division ( a plant might describe x z a /ructure consi/+ ( a /em1 a root1 & leaves4 ,ea* ( ! p>ts1 directly by its individual action & indirectly by ! mutual action betwe5 x & all ! o!r p>ts1 contributes to ! gr[? ( ! :ole plant2 b if ! /em1 or root1 or leaves be fur!r analyz$1 ea* is f\nd to consi/ ( _m p>ts1 ( fibres & cells & tissue1 etc4 ,we may lik5 ! plant to ! molecule ( an organic comp\nd2 ! root1 ! /em & ! leaves to ! comp\nd radicles ( :i* ?is molecule is built up1 & ! tissue1 fibres1 etc41 to ! elem5t>y atoms :i* compose ^! comp\nd radicles4 ,! molecule is "o :ole1 possess$ ( def9ite /ructure & p]=m+ a def9ite function by virtue ( ! nature & ! arrangem5t ( its p>ts4 ,_m ye>s elaps$ aft] ! publication ( ! rese>*es ( ,dumas1 & ( ,liebig & ,woehl]1 be=e su* a conception ( ! molecule z ?is 0 widely accept$ by *emi/s4 ,! opposition ( ! old] s*ool1 head$ by _! d\ghty *ampion ,b]zelius1 _h to be ov]come2 ! infallibility ( "s ( ! y\ng] memb]s ( ! new s*ool _h to be *eck$2 facts _h to be accumulat$1 difficulties expla9$1 weak analogies ab&on$ & /rong ones r5d]$ /rong] by rese>*2 special views ( ! /ructure ( ?is or t molecule1 d$uc$ f a s+le inve/igation1 _h to be supplem5t$ & modifi$ by wid] views ga9$ by ! rese>*es ( _m work]s4 ,x 0 n till #ahfg t ,liebig1 :5 ask$ by ,dumas at a d9n] giv5 dur+ ! ,fr5* ,exhibition to ! =eign *emi/s1 :y he _h ab&on$ organic *emi/ry1 repli$ t n[1 ) ! !ory ( sub/itution z a f\ndation1 ! edifice may be built up by workm53 ma/]s are no long] ne$$4 ,laur5t & ,g]h>dt did noble "w 9 advanc+ ! unit>y !ory2 to !m is l>gely due ! fruitful conception ( types1 an outcome ( ,dumas's "w1 :i* ow$ its orig9 to ! flick]+ ( ! wax c&les 9 ! ,tuil]ies dur+ ! royal soiree4 ,*lor9e c be sub/itut$ = hydrog5 9 acetic acid1 & ! product is closely relat$ 9 its prop]ties to ! p>5t sub/ance2 v>i\s atoms or gr\ps ( atoms c be sub/itut$ by o!r gr\ps 9 ! d]ivatives ( oil ( bitt] almonds1 b a close analogy 9 prop]ties runs ?r\gh all ^! comp\nds3 ^! facts might be m %ortly express$ by say+ t acetic & tri*loracetic acids belong to ! same type1 & t ! d]ivatives ( bitt]-almond oil likewise belong to "o type4 ,laur5t c>ri$ ?is conception into inorganic *emi/ry4 ,wat] & pota% did n seem to h mu* 9 common1 b ,laur5t said pota% is n a comp\nd ( oxide ( potassium & wat]1 x is r a d]ivative ( wat]4 ,! molecule ( pota% is d]iv$ f t ( wat] by replac+ "o atom ( hydrog5 9 ! latt] by "o atom ( potassium2 wat] & pota% belong to ! same type4 ,?us !re 0 con/itut$ ! wat] type4 ,light 0 at once ?r[n on _m facts 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,! analogies betwe5 alcohol & wat]1 "s ( :i* 7 fir/ po9t$ out by ,graham 7see p4 #bce71 seem$ to foll[ z a necess>y consequ5ce :5 ! molecule ( alcohol 0 reg>d$ z built on ! wat] type4 ,9 place ( two atoms ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) "o ( oxyg51 !re 0 9 ! alcohol molecule "o atom ( ! comp\nd radicle e?yl 7itself compos$ ( c>bon & hydrog571 "o atom ( oxyg5 & "o ( hydrog54 ,alcohol 0 wat] ) "o hydrog5 atom sub/itut$ by "o e?yl atom2 ! hydrog5 atom 0 ! atom ( :at we call an elem5t1 ! e?yl 0 ! atom ( :at we call a comp\nd radicle4 ,g]h>dt s\ght to ref] all organic comp\nds to "o or o!r ( ?ree types--! wat] type1 ! hydro*loric acid type1 & ! ammonia type4 ,z new comp\nds 7 prep>$ & exam9$1 o!r types _h to be introduc$4 ,to foll[ ! hi/ory ( ?is conception w\ld lead u into too _m details2 suffice x to say t ! !ory ( types 0 gradually m]g$ 9 ! wid] !ory ( equival5cy1 ab\t :i* ,i %all h a little to say 9 ! next *apt]4 ,"o result ( ! introduction ( types into *emical sci5ce1 associat$ z x 0 ) ! unit>y view ( comp\nd radicles1 0 to ov]?r[ t def9ition ( organic *emi/ry :i* _h = "s "t prevail$1 & :i* /at$ t organic *emi/ry is ! *emi/ry ( comp\nd radicles4 ,comp\nd radicles1 x is true1 7 m us$ 9 expla9+ ! composition & prop]ties ( sub/ances obta9$ f animals & vegetables ?an ( m9]al sub/ances1 b a def9ition ( "o bran* ( a sci5ce :i* practically includ$ ! o!r bran*1 f :i* ! fir/ 0 to be def9$1 c\ld n be reta9$4 ,*emi/s became gradually conv9c$ t a def9ition ( organic *emi/ry 0 n requir$2 t !re 0 no di/9ction betwe5 s-call$ organic & inorganic comp\nds2 & !y h cons5t$1 b ,i sc>cely ?9k w mu* long] cons5t1 to reta9 ! t]ms organic & inorganic1 only because ^! t]ms h be5 s long 9 use4 ,! kn[n comp\nds ( ! elem5t c>bon are s num]\s1 & !y h be5 s mu* /udi$ & s well classifi$1 t x has become m conv5i5t = ! /ud5t ( *emi/ry to consid] !m z a gr\p1 to a great ext5t ap>t f ! comp\nds ( ! o!r elem5ts2 to ?is gr\p he /ill (t5 gives ! "n ( organic comp\nds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,liebig cont9u$ to hold ! *air ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,giess5 until ! ye> #aheb1 :5 he 0 induc$ by ! ,k+ ( ,bav>ia to accept ! pr(essor%ip ( ! same sci5ce 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,muni*4 ,dur+ ! second qu>t] ( ?is c5tury ,giess5 0 mu* resort$ to by /ud5ts ( *emi/ry f all p>ts ( ! _w1 m especially f ,engl&4 ,_m m5 :o aft]w>ds made _! m>k 9 *emical discov]y work$ "u ! guidance ( ! pr(essor ( ,/ockholm1 b ,giess5 has ! hon\r ( be+ ! place :]e a well-appo9t$ *emical laboratory = sci5tific rese>* 0 fir/ />t$ z a di/9ctly educational in/itution4 ,! fame ( ,liebig z a discov]] & z a tea*] soon fill$ ! new in/itution ) /ud5ts1 :o 7 /irr$ to en?usiasm z !y li/5$ to 8 lectures1 or saw him at "w 9 8 laboratory4 ,liebig 0 n exactly :at is call$ a flu5t speak]1 says ,pr(essor ,h(mann1 ( ,b]l91 b !re 0 an e>ne/ness1 an en?usiasm 9 all he said1 :i* irresi/ibly c>ri$ away ! he>]4 ,nor 0 x s mu* ! actual k he imp>t$ :i* produc$ ?is effect1 z ! wond]ful mann] 9 :i* he call$ =? ! reflective p[]s ( ev5 ! lea/ gift$ ( 8 pupils4 ,& :at a boon 0 x1 aft] hav+ be5 /ifl$ by an oppressive load ( facts1 to dr9k ! pure brea? ( sci5ce su* z x fl[$ f ,liebig's lips6 :at a delight1 aft] hav+ p]haps receiv$ f o!rs a sack full ( dry leaves1 sudd5ly 9 ,liebig's lectures to see ! liv+1 gr[+ tree6444 ,we felt !n1 we feel /ill1 & nev] :ile we live %all we =get1 ,liebig's m>vell\s influ5ce ov] u2 & if any?+ c\ld be m a/oni%+ ?an ! am\nt ( "w he did ) 8 own h&s1 x 0 probably ! m\nta9 ( *emical toil :i* he got u to g ?r\gh4 ,ea* ^w ( 8 c>ri$ in/ruction1 e intonation ( 8 voice bespoke reg>d2 8 approval 0 a m>k ( hon\r1 & ( :atev] else we might be pr\d1 our greate/ pride ( all 0 hav+ him = our ma/]4444 ,( our "y w9n+s 9 ! noble playgr\nd ( philosophical hon\r1 m ?an half 7 free gifts to u f ,liebig1 & to 8 g5]\s nature no triumphs ( 8 own br\ght m s9c]e delight ?an t :i* he took 9 see+ 8 pupils' success1 & 9 assi/+1 :ile he wat*$1 _! upw>d /ruggle4 ,liebig _h _m fri5ds 9 ,engl&4 ,he frequ5tly visit$ ?is c\ntry1 & 0 pres5t at sev]al meet+s ( ! ,briti% ,association4 ,at ! meet+ ( #ahcg he 0 ask$ to draw up a report on ! progress ( organic *emi/ry2 he compli$1 & 9 #ahdj pres5t$ ! _w ) a book :i* m>ks a di/9ct epo* 9 ! applications ( sci5ce to indu/rial pursuits--,*emi/ry 9 its ,applications to ,agriculture & ,physiology4 ,9 ?is book1 & 9 8 subsequ5t rese>*es & works1#ad ,liebig e/abli%$ & en=c$ ! necessity :i* exi/s = return+ to ! soil ! n\ri%+ mat]ials :i* are tak5 f x by ! gr[? ( crops2 he sugge/$ t manure ri* 9 ! salts :i* are ne$$ by plants might be artificially manufactur$1 & by do+ ?is he laid ! f\ndation ( a va/ indu/ry :i* has aris5 dur+ ! la/ two decades4 ,he /rongly & successfully attack$ ! conception :i* prevail$ among mo/ /ud5ts ( physiology at t "t1 t *emical & physical g5]alizations c\ld n be appli$ to expla9 ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! gr[? ( liv+ organisms4 ,he 0 among ! fir/ to e/abli%1 z an induction f ! results ( _m & v>i$ exp]im5ts1 ! canon :i* has s9ce guid$ all tea*]s ( ! sci5ce ( life1 t a true k ( biology mu/ be bas$ on a k ( *emi/ry & physics4 ,b ,liebig 0 n cont5t to e/abli% broad g5]alizations & to leave ! work+ out ( !m to o!rs2 he desc5d$ f ! heights ( philosophical inquiry1 & taught ! h\sewife to make s\p :]e9 ! greate/ am\nt ( n\ri%m5t 0 convey$ to ! invalid 9 ! mo/ easily dige/ible =m2 & has he n1 by br++ )9 ! rea* ( e "o a portion ( ! animal n\ri%m5t :i* else _h run to wa/e 9 ! pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica or ! %eep-runs ( ,au/ralia1 made 8 "n1 9 e ,engli% home1 famili> z a h\sehold ^w8 ,on ! dea? ( ,b]zelius 9 #ahdh1 x 0 to ,liebig t e *emi/ look$ = a cont9uation ( ! annual ,report on ! progress ( *emi/ry1 :i* _h n[ become ! c5tral magaz9e ( facts1 :i!r ea* work] 9 ! sci5ce c\ld resort to make himself acqua9t$ ) :at _h be5 done by o!rs on any subject :i* he propos$ to inve/igate4 ,f t "t to ! pres5t day ,liebig's ,annal5 has be5 ! lead+ *emical j\rnal ( ! _w4 ,( ! o!r lit]>y "w ( ,liebig--( 8 essays1 8 celebrat$ ,*emical ,lett]s1 8 _m reports1 8 sev]e & sometimes h>% criticisms ( ! "w ( o!rs--( ! details ( ! ?ree hundr$ orig9al pap]s :]e9 he embodi$ ! results ( 8 rese>*es1 ,i h n "t1 nor w\ld ?is be ! place1 to speak4 ,hon\r$ by e sci5tific society ( any note 9 ! _w1 cr[n$ ) ! highe/ rew>d :i* ,engl& & ,france c (f] to ! man ( sci5ce :o is n an ,engli%man or a ,fr5*man--! ,copley ,m$al & ! associate%ip ( ! ,in/itute--hon\r$ & respect$ by e /ud5t ( sci5ce1 lov$ by ea* ( ! b& ( ard5t natures :om he _h tra9$ & s5t =? to battle = ! good ( _! race1 &1 be/ ( all1 work+ himself to ! la/ 9 expla9+ ! wond]s ( ,nature1 he pass$ into ! sil5t l& on ! #ah? ( ,april #ahgc1 leav+ ! memory ( a life nobly devot$ to ! s]vice ( humanity1 & ! imp]i%able record ( _m tru?s add$ to ! common /ock ( ! race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! life-"w ( ,dumas1 o!r ?an t :i* ,i h already sket*$1 is s manifold & s v>i$1 t to d m ?an ref] to "o or two lead+ po9ts w\ld c>ry u f> beyond ! limits )9 :i* ,i h tri$ to keep ?r\gh\t ?is book4 ,9 "o ( 8 e>lie/ pap]s ,dumas adopt$ ! atomic !ory z ! corn]-/one ( 8 *emical sy/em2 he 0 ?us l$ to an exp]im5tal revision ( ! values g5]ally accept$ = ! atomic weights ( "s ( ! elem5ts4 ,among ^! revisions1 t ( ! atomic weight ( c>bon holds a mo/ important place1 p>tly because ( ! excell5cy ( ! "w1 b m because ( ! o!r inquiries to :i* ?is "w gave rise4 ,dumas's exp]im5ts 7 summ$ up 9 ! /atem5t t ! atom ( c>bon is twelve times heavi] ?an ! atom ( hydrog54 ,! exp]im5tal me?ods & ! calculations us$ 9 ?is det]m9ation involv$ a k ( ! atomic weight ( oxyg52 9 ord] accurately to det]m9e ! value to be assign$ to ?is con/ant1 ,dumas1 9 conjunction ) ,b\ss+ault1 und]took a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ! syn!sis ( wat]1 :i* =ms "o ( ! classical rese>*es ( *emi/ry1 & :]e9 ! numb] #af 0 e/abli%$ z repres5t+ ! atomic weight ( oxyg54 ,/as1 f exp]im5ts conduct$ at a lat] "t ) ! utmo/ c>e & "u conditions em95tly fitt$ to ga9 accurate results1 obta9$ ! numb] #ae4if1 9 place ( #af1 = ! atomic weight ( oxyg52 b 9 a pap] rec5tly publi%$ by ! vet]an ,dumas1 a s\rce ( error is po9t$ out :i* ,/as _h ov]look$ 9 8 exp]im5ts1 & x is %[n t ?is error w\ld t5d slightly to increase ! numb] obta9$ by ,/as4 ,z ! values assign$ to ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts are ! v fundam5tal data ( *emi/ry1 & z we are e day m cle>ly p]ceiv+ t ! mutual relations betwe5 ! prop]ties ( elem5ts & comp\nds are closely connect$ ) ! relative weights ( ! elem5t>y atoms1 we c sc>cely lay too mu* /ress on su* "w z ?is done by ,dumas & ,/as4 ,n _m ye>s aft] ! publication ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em1 ! hypo!sis 0 sugge/$ by ,pr\t t ! atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts are repres5t$ by :ole numb]s--t ( hydrog5 be+ tak5 z unity--t ! atom ( ea* elem5t is probably =m$ by ! putt+ toge!r ( two1 ?ree1 f\r1 or m atoms ( hydrog51 & t consequ5tly !re exi/s b a s+le elem5t>y =m ( matt]4 ,among ! uphold]s ( ?is hypo!sis ,dumas has held an important place4 ,he modifi$ ! orig9al /atem5t ( ,pr\t1 & sugge/$ t all atomic weights are :ole multiples ( half ( t ( hydrog5 7t is1 are :ole multiples ( #a_/b74 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,/as seem$ to negative ?is view1 b lat] "w--m especially ! important critical revision ( ! results obta9$ by all ! mo/ tru/wor?y work]s1 conduct$ by ,pr(essor ,cl>ke ( ,c9c9nati1 & publi%$ by ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution z "p ( _! s]ies ( ,con/ants ( ,nature--has %[n t we are 9 no wise w>rant$ by facts 9 reject+ ,pr\t's hypo!sis z modifi$ by ,dumas1 b t ! balance ( evid5ce is at pres5t r 9 its fav\r4 ,x w\ld be altoge!r out ( place to discuss "h an hypo!sis :i* leads to "s ( ! mo/ ab/ruse speculations z to ! nature ( matt] 9 :i* *emi/s h z yet v5tur$ to indulge4 ,i m5tion x only because x illu/rates ! f>-rea*+ nature ( ! rese>*es ( ! *emi/ ^: "w we are n[ consid]+1 & also because x %[s ! %all[ness ( ! sc(fs 9 :i* "s p>tly educat$ p indulge :5 !y see sci5tific m5 occupy+ !mselves = ye>s ) attempts to solve su* a m9ute &1 z !y say1 trivial "q z :e!r ! numb] #ae4if or ! numb] #af is to be pref]r$ z repres5t+ ! atomic weight ( oxyg52 = 9 e speck ( du/ t falls lie hid ! laws ( ! univ]se1 & !re is n an h\r t passes 9 :i* y d n hold ! inf9ite 9 y\r h&4 ,ano!r & v diff]5t subject1 :i* has be5 plac$ on a firm basis by ! rese>*es ( ,dumas1 is ! *emi/ry ( f]m5tation4 ,by 8 "w on ! action ( be]-yea/ on sac*>9e liquids1 ,dumas prov$ ,liebig's view to be unt5able--accord+ to :i* ! conv]sion ( sug> into alcohol is br\ght ab\t by ! influ5ce ( *emical *anges proce$+ 9 ! f]m5t2 also t ! view ( ,b]zelius1 :o reg>d$ alcoholic f]m5tation z due simply to ! contact ( ! f]m5t ) ! sug>1 0 oppos$ to _m facts2 & la/ly1 ,dumas %[$ t ! facts 7 be/ expla9$ by ! view :i* reg>d$ ! *ange ( sug> into alcohol z 9 no way diff]5t f o!r purely *emical *anges1 b z a *ange br\ght ab\t1 s f> z our pres5t k goes1 only by ! ag5cy ( a gr[+ organism ( l[ =m1 su* z yea/4 ,9 #ahcb ,dumas e/abli%$ at 8 own exp5se a laboratory = *emical rese>*4 ,:5 ! ,revolution ( #ahdh broke out ,dumas's means 7 mu* dim9i%$1 & he c\ld no long] af=d to ma9ta9 8 laboratory4 ,! clos+ ( ?is place1 :]e s mu* s\nd "w _h be5 done1 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z a calamity to sci5ce4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,dumas receiv$ a visit f a p]son ( unprepossess+ appe>ance1 :o acco/$ him ?us3 ,!y ass]t t y h %ut up y\r laboratory1 b y h no "r to d s4 ,if y are 9 ne$ ( money1 !re1 ?r[+ a roll ( bank-notes on ! table1 take :at y want4 ,d n /9t y\rself2 ,i am ri*1 a ba*elor1 & h b a %ort "t to live4 ,dumas's visitor turn$ out to be ,dr4 ,jeck]4 ,he assur$ ,dumas t he 0 n[ only pay+ a debt1 s9ce he _h made a =tune by :at he _h le>nt 9 ! m$ical s*ools ( ,p>is4 ,dumas c\ld n h[ev] 9 ^? tr\bl\s times turn 8 m9d cont9u\sly to exp]im5tal rese>*1 & !re=e decl9$ ,dr4 ,jeck]'s (f] ) _m prote/ations ( good w & e/eem4 ,new "w n[ began to press ^u ,dumas2 8 en]gy & 8 adm9i/rative p[]s 7 dem&$ by ! ,/ate4 ,elect$ a memb] ( ! ,national ,assembly 9 #ahdh1 he 0 soon call$ by ! ,presid5t ( ! ,republic to (fice z ,m9i/] ( ,agriculture & ,comm]ce4 ,he 0 made a s5ator "u ! second empire4 ,he ent]$ ! municipal c\ncil ( ,p>is ab\t #ahed1 & 0 soon elect$ to ! presid5cy4 ,"u 8 presid5cy ! great s*eme = provid+ ,p>is ) spr+-wat] c>ri$ by aqu$ucts & tunnels 0 successfully accompli%$2 _m improvem5ts 7 made 9 ! dra9age ( ! city2 ! co/ ( gas 0 decreas$1 :ile ! quality 0 improv$1 ! con/ancy ( ! supply insur$1 & ! appliances = burn+ ! gas 9 ! /reets 7 alt]$ & r5d]$ m effective4 ,nom9at$ to succe$ ,pel\ze z ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t 9 #ahfh1 ,dumas held ?is hon\rable & important position only until ! ,franco-,g]man w> ( #ahgj4 ,s9ce t date he has rel9qui%$ political life2 b z ,p]man5t ,secret>y ( ! ,academy ,dumas n[ fills ! =emo/ place 9 all affairs connect$ ) sci5ce1 :e!r pure or appli$1 9 ! ,fr5* capital4 ,9 ! "w ( ^! two *emi/s1 ,liebig & ,dumas1 we f9d admirable illu/rations ( ! sci5tific me?od ( exam9+ natural appe>ances4 ,9 ! broad g5]al views :i* !y bo? take ( ! ph5om5a to be /udi$1 & ! pati5t & p]sev]+ work+ out ( details1 we h %[n u ! comb9ation ( p[]s :i* are g5]ally f\nd 9 sep>ate individuals4 ,dumas has always insi/$ on ! ne$ ( comp>+ prop]ties & reactions ( gr\ps ( bodies1 be=e any j k c be ga9$ z to ! position ( a s+le sub/ance 9 ! s]ies /udi$ by ! *emi/4 ,x has be5 8 aim z a tea*]1 we are assur$ by 8 fri5d1 ,pr(essor ,h(mann1 nev] to pres5t to 8 /ud5ts an isolat$ ph5om5on1 or a notion n logically l9k$ ) o!rs4 ,to him ea* *emical comp\nd is "o 9 a s]ies :i* connects x directly ) _m o!r simil> comp\nds1 & indirectly ) o!r m or less dissimil> comp\nds4 ,amid ! ov]:elm+ mass ( facts :i* ?reat5 n[adays to bury ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry1 & cru% ! life out ( x by _! weight1 ,dumas tracks 8 way by ! aid ( g5]al pr9ciples2 b ^! pr9ciples are !mselves g5]aliz$ f ! facts1 & are n ! (fspr+ ( 8 own fancy4 ,we h1 ,i ?9k1 f\nd t ?r\gh\t ! progress ( *emical sci5ce two dang]s h beset ! /ud5t4 ,he has be5 (t5 tempt$ to accumulate facts1 to amass analytical details1 to =get t he is a *emi/ 9 8 desire to p]fect ! in/rum5t ( analysis by ! use ( :i* he raises ! scaffold+ ( 8 sci5ce2 on ! o!r h&1 he has be5 sometimes allur$ f ! pa? ( exp]im5t by 8 own day-dreams4 ,! discov]ies ( sci5ce h be5 s wond]ful1 & ! conceptions ( "s ( ^? :o h successfully prosecut$ sci5ce h be5 s gr&1 t ! /ud5t has n unfrequ5tly be5 tempt$ to re/ 9 ! prevail+ !ories ( ! day1 &1 =gett+ t ^! ought only to af=d peaceful lodg+s to ! intellect = ! "t1 he has r all[$ !m to circumscribe x1 until at la/ ! m9d f9ds difficulty 9 break+ d[n ! walls ( :at has become its prison1 in/ead ( its home4 ,we may ?9k t ,dumas fell p]haps slightly into ! =m] ( ^! errors1 :5 he did n all[ 8 imag9ation a little m scope 9 deal+ ) ! conception ( atom & molecule1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 :i* he _h appreh5d$ b n suffici5tly m>k$ by ! ye> #ahbf 7see p4 #bfa74 ,we "k1 f 8 own te/imony1 t ,liebig once fell into ! latt] error & t ! consequ5ces 7 disa/r\s4 ,i "k a *emi/--mean+ himself--:o 444 und]took an inve/igation ( ! liquor f ! salt-works4 ,he f\nd iod9e 9 x1 & obs]v$1 moreov]1 t ! iodide ( />* turn$ a fi]y yell[ by /&+ ov]-night4 ,! ph5om5on /ruck him2 he saturat$ a l>ge quantity ( ! liquor ) *lor9e1 & obta9$ f ?is1 by di/illation1 a consid]able quantity ( a liquid :i* col\r$ />* yell[1 & ext]nally resembl$ *loride ( iod9e1 b diff]$ f ?is comp\nd 9 _m prop]ties4 ,he expla9$1 h[ev]1 e discrepancy ) satisfaction to himself2 he contriv$ = himself a !ory4 ,sev]al mon?s lat]1 he receiv$ a pap] ( ,m4 ,bal>d's1 ann\nc+ ! discov]y ( brom9e1 & on t same day he 0 able to publi% ! results ( exp]im5ts on ! behavi\r ( brom9e ) iron1 plat9um1 & c>bon2 = ,bal>d's brom9e /ood 9 8 laboratory1 labell$ liquid *loride ( iod9e4 ,s9ce t "t he makes no m !ories unless !y are support$ & confirm$ by tru/wor?y exp]im5ts2 & ,i c positively ass]t t he has n f>$ badly by s do+4 ,ano!r po9t :i* we notice 9 ! life-"w ( ^! two *emi/s is _! untir+ lab\r4 ,!y 7 always at "w2 :]ev] !y might be1 !y 7 ready to notice pass+ ev5ts or natural ph5om5a1 & to draw sugge/ions f ^!4 ,z ,davy prov$ ! elem5t>y "* ( iod9e & e/abli%$ _m ( ! prop]ties ( ?is sub/ance dur+ a visit to ,p>is1 s we f9d ,dumas mak+ _m discov]ies dur+ brief visits paid to 8 fri5ds' laboratories :5 on excursions away f ,p>is4 ,dur+ a visit to ,aix-les-,ba9s1 he notic$ t ! walls ( ! ba?-room 7 cov]$ ) small cry/als ( sulphate ( lime4 ,! wat]s ( ! ba?1 he knew1 7 *>g$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 b !y conta9$ no sulphuric acid1 nor c\ld t acid be detect$ 9 ! air ( ! ba?-rooms4 ,?is obs]vation 0 foll[$ up by exp]im5ts :i* prov$ t a por\s mat]ial1 su* z a curta9 or an ord9>y pla/]$ wall1 is able to br+ ab\t ! union ( oxyg5 ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 provid$ moi/ure be pres5t & a some:at high temp]ature be ma9ta9$4 ,aga91 we f9d ,liebig & ,dumas *>act]iz$ by great m5tal hone/y4 ,!re is no h>m 9 a man committ+ mi/akes1 said ,liebig1 b great h>m inde$ 9 8 committ+ none1 = he is sure n to h work$4444 ,an error y h become cognizant (1 d n keep 9 y\r h\se f night till morn+4 ,/ud5ts ( sci5ce1 m ?an any o!r m51 ought to be ready to ackn[l$ge & correct ! errors into :i* !y fall4 ,x is n difficult = !m to d ?is3 !y h only to be cont9ually go+ to ,nature2 = !re !y h a c\rt ( appeal always ready to he> _! case1 & to give an absolutely unbias$ judgm5t3 !y h b to br+ _! !ories & guesses to ?is judge to h !m apprais$ at _! true value4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,9 review+ once m ! facts elicit$ by our inquiry1 we f9d !m arrang$ ar\nd a common c5tre1 a gr\p ( atoms pres]v+ intact its nature1 amid ! mo/ v>i$ associations ) o!r elem5ts4 ,?is /ability1 ?is analogy1 p]vad+ all ! ph5om5a1 has induc$ u to consid] ?is gr\p z a sort ( comp\nd elem5t1 & to designate x by ! special "n ( b5zoyl4--,liebig & ,woehl]1 #ahcb4 #ad ,animal ,*emi/ry1 or ,*emi/ry 9 its ,applications to ,physiology & ,pa?ology1 #ahdb4 ,rese>*es on ! ,*emi/ry ( ,food1 #ahdg4 ,! ,natural ,laws ( ,husb&ry1 #ahfb4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,mod]n ,,*emi/ry4 ,on p4 #afb ,i ref]r$ to ! "w ( ! ,g]man *emi/ ,ri*t]1 by :i* ! equival5ts ( c]ta9 acids & bases 7 e/abli%$4 ,^? quantities ( v>i\s acids :i* sev]ally neutraliz$ "o & ! same quantity ( a giv5 base1 or ^? quantities ( v>i\s bases :i* sev]ally neutraliz$ "o & ! same quantity ( a giv5 acid1 7 said to be equival5t4 ,^! 7 ! quantities capable ( p]=m+ a c]ta9 def9ite action4 ,9 consid]+ ! developm5t ( ,dumas's sub/itution !ory1 we f\nd t ,laur5t reta9$ ?is conception ( equival5cy :5 he spoke ( an equival5t ( hydrog5 be+ replac$ by an equival5t ( *lor9e 7see p4 #bgb74 ,a c]ta9 weight ( *lor9e 0 able to take ! place & play ! "p ( a c]ta9 weight ( hydrog5 9 a comp\nd2 ^! weights1 ( hydrog5 & *lor9e1 7 !re=e equival5t4 ,?is conception has be5 mu* us$ s9ce ,laur5t's "t1 b x has = ! mo/ "p be5 appli$ to ! atoms ( ! elem5ts4 ,hydrog5 be+ tak5 z ! /&>d sub/ance1 ! elem5ts h be5 divid$ into gr\ps1 9 accordance ) ! numb] ( hydrog5 atoms ) :i* "o atom ( ea* elem5t is f\nd to comb9e4 ,?us c]ta9 elem5ts comb9e ) hydrog5 only 9 ! proportion ( "o atom ) "o atom2 o!rs comb9e 9 ! proportion ( "o atom ) two atoms ( hydrog52 o!rs 9 ! proportion ( "o atom ) ?ree atoms ( hydrog51 & s on4 ,! adjective monoval5t1 dival5t1 trival5t1 etc41 is prefix$ to an elem5t to d5ote t ! atom ( ?is elem5t comb9es ) "o1 or two1 or ?ree1 etc41 atoms ( hydrog5 to =m a comp\nd molecule4 ,let u consid] :at is impli$ 9 ?is /atem5t--,! nitrog5 atom is trival5t4 ,?is /atem5t1 if amplifi$1 w\ld run ?us3 ,"o atom ( nitrog5 comb9es ) ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 to =m a comp\nd molecule4 ,n[1 ?is implies 7#a7 t ! atomic weight ( nitrog5 is kn[n1 & 7#b7 t ! molecul> weight1 & ! numb] ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 atoms 9 ! molecule1 ( a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 are also kn[n4 ,b be=e ! atomic weight ( an elem5t c be det]m9$1 x is necess>y 7z we f\nd on p4 #adf7 to obta91 analyze1 & take ! specific gravities ( a s]ies ( gase\s comp\nds ( t elem5t4 ,! smalle/ am\nt ( ! elem5t 7ref]r$ to hydrog5 z unity7 9 ! molecule ( any "o ( ^! gases w !n be ! atomic weight ( ! elem5t4 ,:5 x is said t ! molecul> weight1 & ! numb] ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 atoms 9 ! molecule1 ( a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 are kn[n1 ! /atem5t implies t ! comp\nd 9 "q has be5 obta9$ 9 a pure /ate1 has be5 analyz$ c>efully1 has be5 gasefi$1 & t a kn[n volume ( ! gas has be5 weigh$4 ,:5 !re=e we say t ! nitrog5 atom is trival5t1 we sum up a l>ge am\nt ( k :i* has be5 ga9$ by labori\s exp]im5t4 ,?is classification ( ! elem5ts into gr\ps ( equival5t atoms--:i* we owe to ,frankl&1 ,williamson1 ,odl+1 & especially to ,kekule--has be5 ( mu* s]vice especially 9 advanc+ ! sy/ematic /udy ( ! comp\nds ( c>bon4 ,x helps to r5d] m precise ! conception :i* has s long be5 ga9+ gr\nd ( ! molecule z a def9ite /ructure4 ,a monoval5t elem5t is reg>d$ z "o ! atom ( :i* acts on & is act$ on by only "o atom ( hydrog5 9 a molecule2 a dival5t z "o1 ! atom ( :i* acts on & is act$ on by two atoms ( hydrog5--or o!r monoval5t elem5t--9 a molecule2 a trival5t elem5t z "o1 ! atom ( :i* acts on & is act$ on by ?ree atoms ( hydrog5--or o!r monoval5t elem5t--9 a molecule2 & s on4 ,! fact t !re (t5 exi/ sev]al comp\nds ( c>bon1 ! molecules ( :i* are compos$ ( ! same numb]s ( ! same atoms1 f9ds a p>tial explanation by ! aid ( ?is conception ( ! elem5t>y atom z a little p>ticle ( matt] capable ( b9d+ to itself a c]ta9 limit$ numb] ( o!r atoms to =m a comp\nd molecule4 ,= if ! obs]v$ prop]ties ( a comp\nd are associat$ ) a c]ta9 def9ite arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y atoms )9 ! molecules ( t comp\nd1 x w\ld seem t any alt]ation 9 ?is arrangem5t ought to be accompani$ by an alt]ation 9 ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd2 9 o!r words1 ! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o comp\nd ( ! same elem5ts unit$ 9 ! same proportions becomes possible & probable4 ,i h said t su* comp\nds exi/3 let me give a few examples4 ,! al*emi/s p\r$ a /ream ( m]cury on to molt5 sulphur1 & obta9$ a black sub/ance1 :i* 0 *ang$ by heat into a brilliantly r$-col\r$ body4 ,we n[ "k t ! black & ! r$ comp\nds alike conta9 only m]cury & sulphur1 & conta9 ^! elem5ts unit$ 9 ! same proportions4 ,hydrog51 c>bon1 nitrog5 & oxyg5 unite 9 c]ta9 proportions to produce a mobile1 col\rless1 /rongly acid liquid1 :i* acts viol5tly on ! sk91 caus+ bli/]s & produc+ great pa93 if ?is liquid is all[$ to /& = a little "t 9 ! air x becomes turbid1 beg9s to boil1 gets ?ick]1 & at la/ explodes1 ?r[+ a :ite pa/y sub/ance ab\t 9 all directions4 ,?is :ite solid is inodor\s1 is sc>cely acid to ! ta/e1 & does n affect ! sk92 yet x conta9s ! same elem5ts1 unit$ 9 ! same proportions1 z 7 pres5t 9 ! /rongly acid1 limpid liquid f :i* x 0 produc$4 ,two sub/ances are kn[n ea* conta9+ c>bon & hydrog5 unit$ 9 ! same proportions3 "o is a gas ) /rong & irritat+ od\r1 & ex]t+ a mo/ disagreeable action on ! eyes2 ! o!r is a cle>1 limpid1 pleasant-smell+ liquid4 ,phosphorus is a v poison\s sub/ance3 x readily takes fire 9 ! air at ord9>y temp]atures1 s t x mu/ be kept "u wat]2 b a modification ( phosphorus is kn[n1 conta9+ no =m ( matt] o!r ?an phosphorus1 :i* is non-poison\s1 does n take fire easily1 & may be h&l$ ) safety4 ,once m1 !re is a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 :i* pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a deep-r$1 almo/ black gas2 !re is also a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 :i* is a cle>1 col\rless gas2 yet bo? conta9 ! same elem5ts unit$ 9 ! same proportions4 ,b a detail$ consid]ation ( isom]ism1 i4e4 ! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o comp\nd built up ( ! same am\nts ( ! same elem5ts yet possess+ diff]5t prop]ties1 w\ld lead u too f> f ! ma9 pa? ( *emical advance :i* we wi% to trace4 ,! *emi/ is to-day cont9ually seek+ to connect ! prop]ties ( ! bodies he /udies ) ! molecul> /ructures ( ^! bodies2 ! =m] he c obs]ve1 a k ( ! latt] he mu/ ga9 by reason+ on ! results ( op]ations & exp]im5ts4 ,8 guide--! guide ( ,lavoisi] & 8 successors--is ?is3 ,simil>ity ( prop]ties is associat$ ) simil>ity ( composition--by composition he g5]ally means molecul> composition4 ,_m facts h be5 amass$ ( late ye>s :i* illu/rate ! g5]al /atem5t t ! prop]ties ( bodies are connect$ ) ! composition ( ^? bodies4 ,?us a di/9ct connection has be5 trac$ betwe5 ! t9ctorial p[] & ! molecul> composition ( c]ta9 dye-/uffs2 9 "s cases x has ev5 become possible to pr$ict h[ a good dye-/uff may be made--to say t1 inasmu* z ?is or t *emical reaction w probably give rise to ! production ( ?is or t comp\nd1 ! atoms 9 ! molecule ( :i* we believe to h a c]ta9 arrangem5t relatively to "o ano!r1 s ?is reaction or t w probably produce a dye possess$ ( /rong t9ctorial p[]s4 ,! comp\nd to ! pres5ce ( :i* madd] *iefly owes its dye+ p[]s is call$ aliz>9e2 to det]m9e ! nature ( ! molecul> /ructure ( ?is comp\nd 01 = _m ye>s1 ! object ( ! rese>*es ( *emi/s2 at la/1 ?anks especially to ! pa9/ak+ zeal ( two ,g]man *emi/s1 x became fairly cle> t aliz>9e & a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog51 call$ an?rac5e1 7 closely relat$ 9 /ructure4 ,an?rac5e 0 obta9$ f aliz>9e1 &1 aft] mu* lab\r1 aliz>9e 0 prep>$ f an?rac5e4 ,an?rac5e is conta9$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 ! ?ick pit* :i* rema9s :5 coal-t> is di/ill$2 ?is pit* 0 =m]ly ( little or no value1 b z soon z ! *emical manufactur] f\nd t 9 ?is black objectionable mass !re lay hidd5 enorm\s /ores ( aliz>9e1 he no long] ?rew away 8 coal-t> pit*1 b sold x to ! aliz>9e manufactur] = a l>ge sum4 ,?us x has come to pass t little or no madd] is n[ cultivat$2 madd]-dye+ is n[ done by means ( aliz>9e made f coal-t>3 l>ge tracts ( gr\nd1 =m]ly us$ = gr[+ ! madd] plant1 are ?us set free = ! gr[? ( :eat & o!r c]eals4 ,?is discov]y ( a me?od = prep>+ aliz>9e artificially /imulat$ *emi/s to make rese>*es into ! *emical composition1 & if possible to get to "k some?+ ab\t ! molecul> /ructure ( indigo4 ,^? rese>*es h v rec5tly result$ 9 ! k ( a s]ies ( reactions :]eby ?is highly valuable & co/ly dye-/uff may be prep>$ f c]ta9 c>bon comp\nds :i*1 l an?rac5e1 are f\nd 9 coal-t>4 ,^! examples1 :ile illu/rat+ ! connection t exi/s betwe5 ! composition & ! prop]ties ( bodies1 also illu/rate ! ne$ !re is = giv+ a sci5tific *emical tra9+ to ! man :o is to devote 8 life to *emical manufactures4 ,pure & appli$ sci5ce are closely connect$2 he :o w\ld succe$ well 9 ! latt] mu/ h a compet5t & a practical k ( ! =m]4 ,t composition--molecul> composition--& prop]ties are closely relat$ is g5]ally assum$1 almo/ z an axiom1 9 *emical rese>*es n[adays4 ,lavoisi] def9$ acids z sub/ances conta9+ oxyg52 ,davy reg>d$ an acid z a comp\nd ! prop]ties ( :i* 7 condition$ by ! nature & by ! arrangem5t ( all ! elem5ts :i* x conta9$2 ,liebig spoke ( acids z sub/ances conta9+ replaceable hydrog52 ! /ud5t ( ! *emi/ry ( ! c>bon comp\nds n[ recognizes 9 an organic acid a comp\nd conta9+ hydrog51 b also c>bon & oxyg51 & he ?9ks t ! atoms ( hydrog5 7or "s ( ^! atoms7 9 ! molecule ( su* a comp\nd are1 9 "s way1 closely relat$ to atoms ( oxyg5 & less closely to atoms ( c>bon1 )9 t molecule1--9 o!r words1 ! *emi/ n[ recognizes t1 = c>bon comp\nds at any rate1 acids are acid n only because !y conta9 hydrog51 b also because t hydrog5 is relat$ 9 a def9ite mann] )9 ! molecule to o!r elem5t>y atoms2 he recognizes t ! acid or non-acid prop]ties ( a comp\nd are condition$1 n only by ! nature ( ! elem5ts :i* toge!r =m t comp\nd1 b also by ! arrangem5t ( ^! elem5ts4 ,davy's view ( ! nature ( acids is ?us confirm$ & at ! same "t r5d]$ m def9ite by ! results ( rec5t rese>*es4 ,! physical /ud5t is cont5t to g no fur!r ?an ! molecule2 ! prop]ties ( bodies :i* he /udies are reg>d$1 = ! mo/ "p1 z dep5d+ on ! size1 ! nature1 & p]haps ! gr\p+ toge!r ( molecules4 ,b ! *emi/ seeks to g deep] ?an ?is4 ,! molecule is too l>ge a piece ( matt] = him2 ! prop]ties :i* he /udies are conceiv$ by him to be pr9cipally condition$ by ! nature1 ! numb]1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! molecule--( ! atoms :i* toge!r build up ! molecule4 ,9 ^! elem5t>y atoms he has1 = ! pres5t1 f\nd ! mat]ials ( :i* ! heav5s & ! e>? are made2 b facts are be+ sl[ly ga9$ :i* r5d] x probable t ^! atoms are !mselves /ructures--t !y are built up ( yet small] p>ts1 ( yet simpl] k9ds ( matt]4 ,to ga!r evid5ce = or aga9/ ?is supposition1 ! *emi/ has be5 oblig$ to g f ! e>? to ! heav5s1 he has be5 oblig$ to =m a new sci5ce1 ! sci5ce ( spectroscopic analysis4 ,?is subject has be5 consid]$ 9 ,! ,a/ronom]s1 belong+ to ?is s]ies ( books2 b ! po9t ( view f :i* ! matt] is !re reg>d$ is a/ronomical r ?an *emical4 ,i %\ld l briefly to recall to ! read] ! fundam5tal facts ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,:5 a ray ( light is all[$ to pass ?r\gh a glass prism & !n fall on to a :ite surface1 ! image produc$ on ?is surface consi/s ( a _m-col\r$ b& ( light4 ,! blue or violet "p ( ?is b& is m b5t away f ! plane ( ! ent]+ ray ?an ! orange "p1 & ! latt] m ?an ! r$ "p ( ! b&4 ,?is is r\ghly repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d1 :]e r is ! ray ( light pass+ ?r\gh ! prism ,p1 & em]g+ z a sev5fold b& ( col\r$ lights1 ( :i* ! violet1 ,v1 is mo/1 & ! r$ b&1 ,r1 is lea/ b5t away f ! plane ( ! ray r4 ,if ! surface--say a :ite scre5--on :i* ! _m-col\r$ b& ( light1 or spectrum1 falls1 is punctur$ by a small hole1 s z to admit ! passage ( ! violet1 or blue1 or orange1 or r$ light only1 & if ?is violet1 etc41 light is !n pass$ ?r\gh a second prism1 no fur!r break+ up ( t light takes place4 ,?is /ate ( matt]s is repres5t$ 9 ! "p ( ! figure t[>ds ! "r h&1 :]e ! r$ ray1 ,r1 is %[n z pass+ ?r\gh ! scre51 & fall+ on to a second prism1 ,p'3 ! r$ ray is slightly b5t out ( its direct c\rse1 b is n subdivid$2 x falls on ! second scre5 z a ray ( r$ light1 ,r'4 ,b if a quantity ( ! metal sodium is vaporiz$ 9 a hot non-lum9\s flame1 & if ! yell[ light ?us produc$ is pass$ ?r\gh a prism1 a spectrum is obta9$ consi/+ ( a s+le yell[ l9e 7on a d>k backgr\nd71 situat$ on t "p ( ! scre5 :]e ! orange-yell[ b& occurr$ :5 ! ray ( sunlight 0 split up by ! action ( ! prism4 ,9 ,fig4 #e ! yell[ light f a flame conta9+ sodium is repres5t$ by ! l9e ,y4 ,! light emitt$ by ! gl[+ sodium vap\r is said to be mono*romatic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,la/ly1 if ! exp]im5t is arrang$ s t a ray ( sunlight or ( light f an electric lamp passes ?r\gh a lay] ( comp>atively cool sodium vap\r be=e rea*+ ! prism1 a spectrum is produc$ correspond+ to ! sol> spectrum except t a black l9e appe>s 9 ! position :]e ! yell[ l9e1 *>act]i/ic ( sodium1 0 notic$ 9 ! second exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f repres5ts ! result ( ?is exp]im5t3 ! ray ( sunlight or electric light1 r1 passes ?r\gh a quantity ( sodium vap\r1 & is !n decompos$ by ! prism2 ! spectrum produc$ is m>k$ by ! abs5ce ( light 7or by a d>k l9e7 :]e ! yell[ l9e1 ,y1 0 be=e notic$4 ,^! are ! fundam5tal facts ( spectroscopic analysis3 sunlight is decomposable into a b& ( _m col\rs1 t is1 into a spectrum2 light emitt$ by a gl[+ vap\r is *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( col\r$ l9es1 ea* ( :i* occupies a def9ite position ) ref]5ce to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! sol> spectrum2 sunlight--or ! electric light--:5 all[$ to pass ?r\gh a mass ( vap\r1 furni%es a spectrum *>act]iz$ by ! abs5ce ( ^? bright l9es1 ! pres5ce ( :i* m>k$ ! spectrum ( ! light obta9$ by /rongly heat+ ! vap\r ?r\gh :i* ! sunlight has pass$4 ,! spectrum obta9$ by decompos+ ! light emitt$ by gl[+ vap\r ( potassium is *>act]iz$ by ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 l9es--call !m ,a & ,b l9es4 ,we are ask$ :at elem5t 7or elem5ts7 is pres5t 9 a c]ta9 gas pres5t$ to u3 we pass a beam ( :ite light ?r\gh ?is gas & !n ?r\gh a prism1 & we obta9 a cont9u\s spectrum 7i4e4 a spectrum ( _m col\rs l ! sol> spectrum7 ) two d>k l9es 9 ! same positions z ^? occupi$ by ! l9es ,a & ,b4 ,we !re=e conclude t ! gas 9 "q conta9s vap\r ( potassium4 ,! sol> spectrum1 :5 c>efully exam9$1 is f\nd to be cross$ by a v l>ge numb] ( f9e black l9es2 ! exact positions ( _m hundr$s ( ^! l9es h be5 c>efully det]m9$1 &1 9 mo/ cases1 !y are f\nd to correspond to ! positions ( v>i\s bright l9es notic$ 9 ! spectra ( ! lights emitt$ by hot vap\rs ( v>i\s elem5t>y bodies4 ,assume t ! sun consi/s1 broadly speak+1 ( an int5sely hot & lum9\s c5tral mass1 =m$ to a l>ge ext5t ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances :i* build up ?is e>?1 & t ?is c5tral mass is surr\nd$ by a cool] 7b yet v hot7 gase\s envelope ( ! same elem5ts1--& we h a tol]ably satisfactory explanation ( ! pr9cipal ph5om5a reveal$ by ! spectroscopic /udy ( ! sun's light4 ,on ?is assumption ! c5tral mass ( gl[+ iron1 *romium1 magnesium1 nickel1 cobalt1 hydrog51 etc41 is s5d+ out light2 a portion ( ! light emitt$ by ! gl[+ iron is qu5*$ z x passes ?r\gh a cl\d ( cool] iron vap\r outside ! c5tral mass1 a portion ( ! light emitt$ by ! gl[+ *romium is qu5*$ z x passes ?r\gh a cl\d ( cool] *romium vap\r1 & s on2 ! black l9es 9 ! spectrum are ! records ( ^! v>i\s qu5*+s ( ?is & t light4 ,s f> !n ! /udy ( ! sol> spectrum appe>s to be tol]ably simple1 & ?is /udy g5]ally confirms ! proposition t ! mat]ial ( :i* ! sun is compos$ is1 broadly1 id5tical ) ^? =ms ( matt] :i* we1 on ?is e>?1 call ! *emical elem5ts4 ,b :atev] be ! composition ( ! sun1 x is1 ,i ?9k1 evid5t t 9 deal+ ) a ray ( light com+ !refrom1 we are deal+ ) a v complex ph5om5on4 ,accord+ to ! hypo!sis :i* is n[ guid+ u1 ! sol> light :i* passes into our spectroscope has probably _h its beg9n+ 9 "s c5tral "p ( ! sun1 & has pass$ ?r\gh v ?ick lay]s ( hot metallic cl\ds1 agitat$ p]haps by sol> cyclones4 ,c\ld we exam9e ! light com+ f "s def9$ "p ( ! sun1 we %\ld probably obta9 valuable in=mation4 ,dur+ a sol> eclipse r$ prom95ces are se5 project+ beyond ! d>k %ad[ ( ! moon1 :i* cov]s ! sun's disc4 ,analysis ( ! light emitt$ by ^! prom95ces has %[n t !y are ph5om5a ess5tially belong+ to ! sun itself1 & t !y consi/ ( va/ masses ( int5sely hot1 gl[+ gase\s sub/ances1 among :i* hydrog5 is pres5t 9 l>ge quantities4 ,t ^! prom95ces are v hot1 hott] ?an ! av]age temp]ature ( ! ord9>y sol> atmosph]e1 is prov$ by ! fact t ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f !m is *>act]iz$ by bright l9es4 ,by special arrangem5ts :i* ne$ n be discuss$ "h1 b :i* h be5 p>tly expla9$ 9 ,! ,a/ronom]s 7see pp4 #ccd1 #cce ( t book71 x has be5 %[n t ^! prom95ces are 9 rapid motion3 at "o mom5t !y %oot up to heights ( _m ?\s& miles1 at ano!r !y rec$e t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! sun4 ,we ?us arrive at a picture ( ! sol> atmosph]e z consi/+ ( lay]s ( v hot gases1 :i* are cont9ually *ang+ _! relative positions & =ms2 sometimes ejections ( int5sely hot1 gl[+ gases occur1--we call ^! prom95ces2 sometimes d[n-ru%es ( gase\s matt] occur1--we call ^! spots4 ,among ! sub/ances :i* compose ! gase\s lay]s we recognize hydrog51 iron1 magnesium1 sodium1 nickel1 *romium1 etc41 b we also f9d sub/ances :i* c at pres5t be di/+ui%$ only by means ( ! wave-l5g?s ( ! light :i* !y emit2 ?us we h #adgd /uff1 #ejag /uff1 #ecfi /uff1 etc4 ,let u n[ turn to ano!r "p ( ?is subject4 ,by a special arrangem5t ( app>atus x is possible to obs]ve ! spectrum ( ! light emitt$ by a gl[+ vap\r1 p>ts ( :i* are hott] ?an o!r p>ts1 & to comp>e ! l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f ! hotte/ p>ts ) ! l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f ! cool] p>ts ( ! vap\r4 ,if ?is is done = sodium vap\r1 c]ta9 l9es are app>5t 9 all ! spectra1 o!rs only 9 ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f ! hotte/ p>ts ( ! sodium vap\r3 ! =m] l9es are call$ long l9es1 ! latt] %ort l9es4 ,a r\gh repres5tation ( ! long & %ort l9es ( sodium is giv5 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,long & %ort l9es ( sodium4 ,n[1 suppose t ! l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ! light emitt$ by gl[+ manganese vap\r h be5 c>efully mapp$1 & class$ z long & %ort l9es3 suppose t ! same ?+ has be5 done = ! iron l9es3 n[ let a little manganese be mix$ ) mu* iron1 let ! mixture be vaporiz$1 & let ! light :i* is emitt$ be decompos$ by ! prism ( a spectroscope1 x w be f\nd t ! long l9es ( manganese alone make _! appe>ance2 let a little m manganese be add$ to ! mixture1 & n[ "s ( ! %ort] l9es due to manganese beg9 to appe> 9 ! spectrum4 ,h5ce x has be5 conclud$ by ,locky] t if ! spectrum ( ! light emitt$ by ! gl[+ vap\r ( any elem5t--call x ,a--is free f ! long l9es ( any o!r elem5t--say elem5t ,b--?is second elem5t is n pres5t z an impurity 9 ! specim5 ( elem5t ,a :i* is be+ exam9$4 ,locky] has appli$ ?is conclusion to purify v>i\s elem5t>y spectra4 ,! spectrum ( elem5t ,a is c>efully mapp$1 & ! l9es are divid$ into long & %ort l9es1 accord+ z !y are notic$ 9 ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f all p>ts ( ! gl[+ vap\r ( ,a1 or only 9 ! spectrum ( ! light :i* comes f ! hott] p>ts ( t vap\r4 ,! spectra ( elem5ts ,b & ,c are simil>ly mapp$ & classifi$3 !n ! ?ree spectra are comp>$2 ! longe/ l9e 9 ! spectrum ( ,b is not$1 if ?is l9e is f\nd 9 ! spectrum ( ,a1 x is m>k$ ) a negative sign--?is means t s f> z ! evid5ce ( ?is l9e goes ,b is pres5t z an impurity 9 ,a2 ! next longe/ ,b l9e is se>*$ = 9 ! spectrum ( ,a--if pres5t x also is m>k$ ) a negative sign2 a simil> process ( comp>ison & elim9ation is conduct$ ) ! spectra ( ,a & ,c4 ,9 ?is way a purifi$ spectrum ( ! light f ,a is obta9$--a spectrum1 t is1 f :i*1 accord+ to ,locky]1 all l9es due to ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( ,b & ,c z impurities 9 ,a h be5 elim9at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #h is giv5 9 ord] to make ?is purify+ process m cle>ly und]/ood4 ,b :5 ?is process has be5 complet$ !re rema91 9 _m cases1 a few %ort l9es common to two or m elem5t>y spectra3 su* l9es are call$ by ,locky] basic l9es4 ,he supposes t ^! l9es are due to light emitt$ by =ms ( matt] simpl] ?an our elem5ts2 he ?9ks t at v high temp]atures "s ( ! elem5ts are decompos$1 & t ! bases ( ^! elem5ts are produc$ & give out light1 :i* light is analyz$ by ! spectroscope4 ,su* %ort basic l9es are m>k$ 9 ! spectra repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #h ) a positive sign4 ,n[1 if ! assumption made by ,locky] be admitt$1 viz4 t ! %ort l9es1 or "s ( ! %ort l9es1 :i* are co9cid5t 9 ! purifi$ spectra ( v>i\s elem5ts1 are really due to light emitt$ by =ms ( matt] into :i* our s-call$ elem5ts are decompos$ at v high temp]atures1 x foll[s t su* l9es %\ld become m prom95t 9 ! spectra ( ! light emitt$ by elem5ts ! high] ! temp]ature to :i* ^! elem5ts are rais$4 ,b we "k 7see p4 #cjh7 t ! prom95ces ar\nd ! sun's disc are hott] ?an ! av]age temp]ature ( ! sol> atmosph]e2 h5ce ! spectrum ( ! light com+ f ^! prom95ces ought to be specially ri* 9 basic l9es3 ?is supposition is confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,locky] has also %[n t x is ! basic1 & n ! long l9es1 :i* are especially affect$ 9 ! spectra ( light com+ f ^? p>ts ( ! sol> atmosph]e :i* are subject$ to ! action ( cyclones1 i4e4 :i* are at abnormally high temp]atures4 ,& f9ally1 a v m>k$ analogy has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! *anges 9 ! spectrum ( ! light emitt$ by a comp\nd sub/ance z ! temp]ature is rais$1 & ! sub/ance is gradually decompos$ into its elem5ts1 & ! spectrum ( ! light emitt$ by a s-call$ elem5t>y sub/ance z ! temp]ature ( t sub/ance is increas$4 ,b x may be urg$ t ,locky]'s me?od ( purify+ a spectrum is n satisfactory2 t1 al?\gh all ! long] l9es common to two spectra are elim9at$1 ! co9cid5t %ort l9es :i* rema9 are due simply to v m9ute quantities ( "o elem5t pres5t z an impurity 9 ! l>g] quantity ( ! o!r4 ,fur!r1 x has be5 %[n t sev]al ( ! s-call$ basic l9es are resolv$1 by spectroscopes ( great disp]sive p[]1 into gr\ps ( two or m l9es1 :i* l9es are n co9cid5t 9 diff]5t spectra4 ,& moreov] x is possible to give a fairly satisfactory explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( sol> *emi/ry )\t ! aid ( ! hypo!sis t our elem5ts are decompos$ 9 ! sun into simpl] =ms ( matt]4 ,nev]!less ?is hypo!sis has a c]ta9 am\nt ( exp]im5tal evid5ce 9 its fav\r2 x may be a true hypo!sis4 ,i d n ?9k we are ju/ifi$ at pres5t ei!r 9 accept+ x z ! be/ guide to fur!r rese>*1 or 9 :olly reject+ x4 ,! rese>*es to :i* ?is hypo!sis has giv5 rise h c]ta9ly ?r[n mu* light on ! con/itution ( ! sun & />s1 & !y h also be5 in/rum5tal 9 =c+ new views reg>d+ ! nature ( ! elem5ts on ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 & s ( awak5+ !m out ( ! slumb] into :i* e class ( m5 is s ready to fall4 ,! tale told by ! rays ( light :i* travel to ?is e>? f ! sun & />s has n yet be5 fully read1 b ! p>ts :i* ! *emi/ has spelt out seem to say t1 al?\gh ! =ms ( matt] ( :i* ! e>? is made are also ^? :i* compose ! sun & />s1 yet 9 ! sun & />s "s ( ! e>?ly elem5ts are decompos$1 & "s ( ! e>?ly atoms are split into simpl] =ms4 ,! tale1 ,i say1 told by ! rays ( light seems to be> ?is int]pretation1 b x is writt5 9 a language /range to ! *ildr5 ( ?is e>?1 :o c read x z yet b sl[ly2 = ! "n giv5 to ! new sci5ce 0 ,ge-,urania1 because its production 0 ( e>? & heav54 ,& x c\ld n ta/e ( dea?1 by reason ( its adoption into immortal palaces2 b x 0 to "k weakness1 & reliance1 & ! %ad[ ( human imbecility2 & x w5t ) a lame gait2 b 9 its go+ x exce$$ all mortal *ildr5 9 grace & swiftness4 ,!re are c]ta9 little p>ticles s m9ute t at lea/ sixty millions ( !m are requir$ to compose ! smalle/ portion ( matt] :i* c be se5 by ! help ( a good microscope4 ,"s ( ^! p>ticles are vibrat+ ar\nd ! edge ( an orb a million times l>g] ?an ! e>?1 b at a di/ance ( ab\t n9ety millions ( miles away4 ,! /ud5t ( sci5ce is told to se>* ar\nd ! edge ( ! orb till he f9ds ^! p>ticles1 & hav+ f\nd !m1 to measure ! rates ( _! vibrations2 & z an in/rum5t ) :i* to d ?is he is giv5--a glass prism6 ,b he has accompli%$ ! task2 he has f\nd ! m9ute p>ticles1 & he has measur$ _! vibration-p]iods4 ,*emi/ry is no long] conf9$ to ?is e>?3 ! *emi/ claims ! visible univ]se z 8 laboratory1 & ! sunbeams z 8 s]vants4 ,davy decompos$ soda & pota% by us+ ! p[]ful in/rum5t giv5 him by ,volta2 b ! *emi/ to-day has ?r[n ! elem5t he is seek+ to decompose into a crucible1 :i* is a sun or a />1 & awaits ! result4 ,! al*emi/s 7 "r4 ,!re is a philosoph]'s /one2 b t /one is itself a comp\nd ( lab\r1 p]sev]ance1 & g5ius1 & ! gold :i* x produces is ! gold ( true k1 :i* %all nev] gr[ dim or fade away4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,summ>y ,,& ,,conclusion4 ,we h ?us trac$ "s ( ! ma9 pa?s along :i* ,*emi/ry has advanc$ s9ce ! day :51 ceas+ to be guid$ by ! dreams ( m5 :o toil$ ) b a s+le idea 9 ! mid/ ( a _w ( /range & complex ph5om5a1 %e began to recognize t ,nature is complex b ord]ly1 & s began to be a bran* ( true k4 ,9 ?is review we h1 ,i ?9k1 f\nd t ! rem>k made at ! beg9n+ ( ! introductory *apt] is1 on ! :ole1 a j "o4 ,t ! views ( ! al*emi/s1 al?\gh sometimes v noble1 7 vague & fanciful is surely borne out by ! quotations f _! writ+s giv5 9 ! fir/ *apt]4 ,?is p]iod 0 foll[$ by t :]e9 ! accurate1 b necess>ily some:at n>r[ conception ( ! ,lavoisi]ian *emi/ry prevail$4 ,f\nd$ = ! mo/ "p on ! c>eful1 pa9/ak+1 & quantitative /udy ( "o ph5om5on--a v wide & f>-rea*+ ph5om5on1 x is true--x 0 impossible t ! classification introduc$ by ! fa!r ( *emical sci5ce %\ld be broad en\gh to include all ! discov]ies ( ^? :o came aft] him4 ,b al?\gh ?is classification _h ( necessity to be revis$ & reca/1 ! g5ius ( ,lavoisi] enunciat$ c]ta9 tru?s :i* h rema9$ ! common possession ( e *emical sy/em4 ,by prov+ t h[ev] ! =ms ( matt] may be *ang$ ! mass rema9s unalt]$1 he = ! fir/ "t made a sci5ce ( *emi/ry possible4 ,he def9$ elem5t once = all1 & ?us swept away ! fabric ( dreams rais$ by ! al*emi/s on ! vision>y f\ndation ( e>?1 air1 fire & wat]1 or ( m]cury1 sulphur & salt4 ,by 8 example1 he taught t weigh+s & measurem5ts mu/ be made be=e accurate k ( *emical reactions c be hop$ =2 & by 8 tea*+ ab\t oxyg5 be+ ! acidifi]--al?\gh we "k t ?is tea*+ 0 errone\s 9 _m details--he %[$ ! possibility ( a sy/em ( classification ( *emical sub/ances be+ f\nd$ on ! actually obs]v$ prop]ties & composition ( ^? sub/ances4 ,lavoisi] ga9$ ^! mo/ important results by conc5trat+ 8 att5tion on a few subjects ( inquiry4 ,t *emi/ry might become broad x 0 necess>y t x %\ld fir/ ( all become n>r[]4 ,! p]iod :5 ! objects ( ! sci5ce 7 def9$ & "s ( its fundam5tal facts & conceptions 7 e/abli%$1 0 succe$$1 z we saw 9 our sket*1 by t 9 :i* ,dalton dep>t$ some:at f ! me?od ( inve/igation adopt$ by mo/ ma/]s 9 sci5ce1 & by conc5trat+ 8 great m5tal p[]s on facts belong+ to "o bran* ( natural k1 elaborat$ a simple b v compreh5sive !ory1 :i* he appli$ to expla9 ! facts belong+ to ano!r bran* ( sci5ce4 ,*emi/ry 0 ?us end[$ ) a gr& & f>-rea*+ conception1 :i* has be5 develop$ & appli$ by successive g5]ations ( inve/igators3 b we mu/ n =get t x 0 ! ?or\gh1 detail$ "w ( ,black & ,lavoisi] :i* made possible ! great !ory ( ,dalton4 ,at ! "t :5 ,dalton 0 ?9k+ out 8 !ory ( atoms1 ,davy 0 advanc+ z a conqu]or ?r\gh ! ri* doma9 :i* ! discov]y ( ,volta _h op5$ to *emi/ry4 ,dalton1 tra9$ to rely on himself1 surr\nd$ f 8 y\? by an atmosph]e 9 :i* sweetness & light did n pr$om9ate1 ?r[n on ! _w at an e>ly age1 & oblig$ to support himself by ! drudg]y ( tea*+ :5 he w\ld fa9 h be5 engag$ 9 rese>*1 & at ! same "t--if we may judge f 8 life z record$ by 8 biograph]s--)\t ! su/a9+ pres5ce ( su* an ideal z c\ld support ! emotional "p ( 8 nature dur+ ?is "t ( /ruggle1--,dalton1 we f\nd1 )drew 9 great "p f contact ) o!r sci5tific work]s1 & commun+ only ) himself1 develop$ a !ory :i*1 :ile x %[$ him to be "o 9 ! *a9 ( ?9k]s t beg9s 9 ,democritus & ,leucippus1 0 nev]!less /amp$ ) ! und5iable m>ks ( 8 own individuality & g5ius1 & at ! same "t 0 unt\*$ by any ( ! hopes or fe>s1 & unaffect$ by any ( ! passions1 ( our common humanity4 ,davy1 on ! o!r h&1 0 surr\nd$ f *ildhood by sc5es ( great natural beauty & v>iety1 by contact ) :i* he 0 incit$ to eag] desire = k1 :ile at ! same "t 8 emotions rema9$ fre% & s5sitive to outw>d impressions4 ,ent]+ on ! /udy ( natural sci5ce :5 !re 0 a pause 9 ! m>* ( discov]y1 b a pause presageful ( fre% advances1 he f\nd outw>d circum/ances s+ul>ly fav\rable to 8 success2 seiz+ ^! fav\rable circum/ances he made rapid advances4 ,l ,lavoisi]1 he began 8 "w by prov+ t !re is no su* ?+ 9 ,nature z transmutation1 9 ! al*emical mean+ ( ! t]m2 z ,lavoisi] _h prov$ t wat] is n *ang$ into e>?1 s did ,davy prove t acid & alkali are n produc$ by ! action ( ! electric curr5t on pure wat]4 ,we h %ortly trac$ ! developm5t ( ! electro-*emical !ory :i* ,davy rais$ on ! basis ( exp]im5t2 we h se5 h[ facts oblig$ him to d\bt ! accept$ view ( ! composition ( hydro*loric acid & *lor9e1 & h[ by ! "w he did on ^! subjects *emi/s h be5 f9ally conv9c$ t an elem5t is n a sub/ance :i* _c be1 b a sub/ance :i* has n be5 decompos$1 & h[ f ?is "w has also aris5 ! mod]n !ory ( acids1 bases & salts4 ,we f\nd t1 by ! lab\rs ( ! great ,sw$e ,j4 ,j4 ,b]zelius1 ! ,daltonian !ory 0 confirm$ by a va/ s]ies ( accurate analyses1 &1 9 conjunction ) a modification ( ! electro-*emical !ory ( ,davy1 0 made ! basis ( a sy/em ( classification :i* endeav\r$ to include all *emical sub/ances )9 its scope4 ,! atom 0 ! />t+-po9t ( ! ,b]zelian sy/em1 b t *emi/ view$ ! atom z a dual /ructure ! p>ts ( :i* held toge!r by reason ( _! opposite electrical pol>ities4 ,b]zelius1 we saw1 greatly improv$ ! me?ods :]eby atomic weights c\ld be det]m9$1 & he recogniz$ ! importance ( physical g5]alizations z aids 9 f9d+ ! atomic weights ( *emical sub/ances4 ,b ,b]zelius came to believe too implicitly 9 8 own view ( ,nature's work+2 8 !ory became too imp]i\s4 ,*emi/s f\nd x easi] to accept ?an to d\bt an int]pretation ( facts :i* 0 9 great "p und5iably true1 & :i* =m$ a c5tral lum9\s conception1 %$d+ light on ! :ole mass ( details :i*1 )\t x1 seem$ confus$ & )\t mean+4 ,if ! duali/ic /ronghold 0 to be c>ri$1 ! attack %\ld be impetu\s1 & %\ld be l$ by m51 n only ( val\r1 b also ( discretion4 ,we f\nd t two *ampions appe>$1 & t1 aid$ by o!rs :o 7 sc>cely inf]ior soldi]s to !mselves1 !y made ! attack1 & made x ) success4 ,b :5 ! heat ( ! battle 0 ov] & ! bitt]ness ( ! /rife =gott51 x 0 f\nd t1 al?\gh _m p9nacles ( ! duali/ic ca/le _h be5 %att]$1 ! f\ndation & great "p ( ! walls rema9$2 &1 /range to say1 ! m5 :o l$ ! attack 7 cont5t t ^! %\ld rema94 ,! atom c\ld no long] be reg>d$ z always compos$ ( two p>ts1 b mu/ be look$ on r z "o :ole1 ! prop]ties ( :i* are def9$ by ! prop]ties & arrangem5ts ( all its p>ts2 b ! conception ( ! atom z a /ructure1 & ! assurance t some?+ c\ld be inf]r$ reg>d+ t /ructure f a k ( ! reactions & g5]al prop]ties ( ! :ole1 rema9$ :5 ,dumas & ,liebig _h replac$ ! dualism ( ,b]zelius by ! unit>y !ory ( mod]n *emi/ry2 & ^! conceptions h rema9$ to ! pres5t day1 & are n[ rank$ among ! lead+ pr9ciples ( *emical sci5ce2 only we n[ speak ( ! molecule :]e ,b]zelius spoke ( ! atom4 ,along ) ^! advances made by ,dumas1 ,liebig & o!rs 9 r5d]+ m accurate ! g5]al conception ( atomic /ructure1 we f\nd t ! recognition ( ! exi/5ce ( m ?an "o ord] ( small p>ticles 0 daily ga9+ gr\nd 9 ! m9ds ( *emi/s4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 :at we n[ call atoms & molecules _h be5 cle>ly /at$ by ,avogadro 9 #ahaa2 b ! times 7 n ripe4 ,! m5tal surr\nd+s ( ! *emi/s ( t age did n all[ !m fully to appreciate ! "w ( ,avogadro4 ,! se$ h[ev] 0 s[n1 & ! h>ve/1 al?\gh late1 0 pl5tiful4 ,we saw t ,dumas accept$1 ) "s hesitation1 ! di/9ction drawn by ,avogadro1 b t fail+ to c>ry x to its legitimate conclusion1 he did n reap ! full b5efit ( 8 acceptance ( ! pr9ciple t ! smalle/ p>ticle ( a sub/ance :i* takes "p 9 a physical *ange divides into small] p>ticles 9 ^? *anges :i* we call *emical4 ,to ,g]h>dt & ,laur5t we owe ! full recognition1 & acceptance z ! f\ndation ( *emical classification1 ( ! atom z a p>ticle ( matt] di/9ct f ! molecule2 !y fir/ di/9ctly plac$ ! law ( ,avogadro--,equal volumes ( gases conta9 equal numb]s ( molecules--9 its true position z a law1 :i*1 re/+ on physical evid5ce & dynamical reason+1 is to be accept$ by ! *emi/ z ! basis ( 8 atomic !ory4 ,to ! same *emi/s we are indebt$ = ! =mal introduction into *emical sci5ce ( ! conception ( types1 :i*1 z we f\nd1 0 develop$ by ,frankl&1 ,kekule1 & o!rs1 into ! mod]n doctr9e ( equival5cy ( gr\ps ( elem5t>y atoms4 ,we saw t1 9 ! use :i* he made ( ! laws ( ,mits*]li*1 & ( ,dulong & ,petit1 ,b]zelius recogniz$ ! importance ( ! aid giv5 by physical me?ods t[>ds solv+ ! atomic problems ( *emi/ry2 b among ^? :o h mo/ ?or\ghly avail$ !mselves ( su* aids ,graham mu/ always hold a =emo/ place4 ,graham devot$ ! en]gies ( 8 life to track+ ! movem5ts ( atoms & molecules4 ,he prov$ t gases pass ?r\gh walls ( solid mat]ials1 z !y pass ?r\gh spaces already occupi$ by o!r gases2 & by measur+ ! rapidities ( ^! movem5ts he %[$ h[ x 0 possible to det]m9e ! rate ( motion ( a p>ticle ( gas s m9ute t a gr\p ( a hundr$ millions ( !m w\ld be invisible to ! unassi/$ vision4 ,graham foll[$ ! molecules z 9 _! j\rney+s !y came into contact ) animal & vegetable membranes2 he f\nd t ^! membranes pres5t$ an insup]able b>ri] to ! passage ( "s molecules1 :ile o!rs pass$ easily ?r\gh4 ,he ?us arriv$ at a division ( matt] into colloidal & cry/alloidal4 ,he %[$ :at important applications ( ?is division might be made 9 practical *emi/ry1 he discuss$ "s ( ! be>+s ( ?is division on ! g5]al !ory ( ! molecul> con/itution ( matt]1 & ?us he op5$ ! way :i* leads into a new t]ritory ri* 9 promise to him :o is able to foll[ ! foot/eps ( its discov]]4 ,o!r inve/igators h foll[$ on ! g5]al l9es laid d[n by ,graham2 connections1 m or less precise1 h be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 *emical & physical prop]ties ( v>i\s gr\ps ( comp\nds4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! boil+ po9ts1 melt+ po9ts1 expansibilities by heat1 am\nts ( heat evolv$ dur+ combu/ion1 9 "s cases t9ctorial p[]s ( dye-/uffs1 & o!r physical con/ants ( gr\ps ( comp\nds1 v>y ) v>iations 9 ! nature1 numb] & arrangem5ts ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules ( ^! comp\nds4 ,b al?\gh mu* good "w has be5 done 9 ?is direction1 our ignorance f> exce$s our k reg>d+ ! ph5om5a :i* lie on ! bord]l&s betwe5 *emi/ry & physics4 ,x is probably "h t *emi/s look mo/ = fre% discov]ies ( importance4 ,z ea* bran* ( natural sci5ce becomes m subdivid$1 & z ! quantity ( facts to be /or$ 9 ! m9d becomes daily m cru%+1 ! /ud5t f9ds an ev]-increas+ difficulty 9 pass+ beyond ! range ( 8 own subject1 & 9 ga9+ a broad view ( ! relative importance ( ! facts & ! !ories :i* to him appe> s ess5tial4 ,9 ! days :5 ! f\ndation ( *emi/ry 0 laid by ,black1 ,prie/ley1 ,lavoisi] & ,dalton1 & :5 ! walls began to be rais$ by ,b]zelius & ,davy1 x 0 possible = "o man to hold 9 8 m5tal grasp ! :ole range ( subjects :i* he /udi$4 ,ev5 :5 ,liebig & ,dumas built ! fabric ( organic *emi/ry ! mass ( facts to be consid]$ 0 n s ov]p[]+ z x is n[4 ,b we h 9 great measure ourselves to blame2 we h ( late ye>s too mu* fulfill$ ,liebig's words1 :5 he said1 t = re>+ ! /ructure ( organic *emi/ry ma/]s 7 no long] requir$--workm5 w\ld suffice4 ,& ,i ?9k we h sometimes fall5 into ano!r error also4 ,mo/ ( ! build]s ( our sci5ce--notably ,lavoisi] & ,davy1 ,liebig & ,dumas--7 m5 ( wide g5]al culture4 ,*emi/ry 0 = !m a bran* ( natural sci5ce2 ( late ye>s x has too mu* t5d$ to deg5]ate into a h&icraft4 ,^! m5 _h l(ty aims2 !y recogniz$--,davy p]haps m ?an any--! nobility ( _! call+4 ,! laboratory 0 to !m n m]ely a place :]e curi\s mixtures 7 made & /range sub/ances obta9$1 or :]e elegant app>atus 0 exhibit$ & c>efully prep>$ specim5s 7 treasur$2 x 0 r ! entrance into ! temple ( ,nature1 ! place :]e day by day !y s\ght = tru?1 :]e1 amid mu* t 0 unpleasant & mu* t 0 necess>y me*anical detail1 glimpses 7 sometimes giv5 !m ( ! ord]1 h>mony & law :i* reign ?r\gh\t ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,x 0 a place :]e1 /opp+ 9 ! "w :i* to ! outsid] appe>$ s dull & ev5 s trivial1 !y sometimes1 li/5+ ) att5tive e>1 might cat* ! boom ( ! mighty wat]s roll+ ev]more1 & s might return refre%$ to "w aga94 ,*emi/ry 0 m poetical1 m imag9ative !n ?an n[2 b )\t imag9ation no great "w has be5 accompli%$ 9 sci5ce4 ,:5 a /ud5t ( sci5ce =gets t ! p>ticul> bran* ( natural k :i* he cultivates is "p ( a liv+ & gr[+ organism1 & attempts to /udy x m]ely z a collection ( facts1 he has already ,esau-l sold 8 bir?right = a mess ( pottage2 = is x n ! privilege ( ! sci5tific /ud5t ( ,nature always to "w 9 ! pres5ce ( some?+ :i* he c nev] "k to ! full1 b :i* he is always go+ on to "k--to be ev] encompass$ ab\t by ! greatness ( ! subject :i* he seeks to "k8 ,does he n recognize t1 al?\gh "s ( ! greate/ m9ds h made ?is /udy ! object ( _! lives1 ! sum ( :at is kn[n is yet b z a drop 9 ! ocean8 & has he n also be5 taught t e hone/ ef=t made to ext5d ! b\nd>ies ( natural k mu/ advance t k a little way8 ,x is n easy to rememb] ! greatness ( ! issues :i* dep5d on sci5tific "w1 :5 t "w is c>ri$ on1 z x too (t5 is1 solely ) ! desire to ga9 a =mal & def9ite answ] to "s "q ( petty detail4 ,t l[ man seeks a little ?+ to d1 ,sees x & does x3 ,?is high man1 ) a great ?+ to pursue1 ,dies ere he kn[s x4 ,t l[ man goes on add+ "o to "o1 ,8 hundr$'s soon hit3 ,?is high man1 aim+ at a million1 ,misses a unit4 ,,index4 ,a ,acids1 connect$ by ,lavoisi] ) oxyg51 #ia2 ,boyle's & o!r e>ly def9itions1 #aga2 oppos$ 9 e>ly m$ic9e to alkalis1 #agb2 gr\p$1 #agc2 salts1 #agc2 ! primordial acid1 #agd2 oxyg5 n a necess>y con/itu5t1 #ahd2 new division ( acids by ,davy1 #bje2 acids ( diff]5t basicity1 #bcg2 mod]n conception ( acids1 #cja4 ,aff9ity1 *emical1 app>5tly susp5d$ by electricity1 #aia2 hi/ory ( t]m aff9ity1 #bjf2 tables (1 #bjg2 dep5d5t on electric /ates1 #baj4 ,air1 composition (1 det]m9$ by ,cav5di%1 #gi2 ,dalton's inve/igations1 #aaf4 ,al*emy1 #e2 al*emical symbols ( metals1 #aa2 quotations f al*emi/s1 #ae1 #ag2 al*emical poetry1 #ah4 ,alcoates1 #bce4 ,alkalis1 #aga2 fix$ & volatile1 #agc2 mild & cau/ic1 exam9$ by ,black1 #agf2 connection ) e>?s1 #agh2 "n ( base giv5 by ,r\elle1 #agi2 ,gay-,lussac's alkaliz+ pr9ciple1 #bjc4 ,ammonia1 discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #ff4 ,atmolysis1 #bdc4 ,atomic !ory1 dawn (1 #aag2 e>ly views ( ,greek philosoph]s1 #abc2 ( ,epicurus & ,lucretius1 #abd2 ( ,newton & ,b]n\lli1 #abe2 ,dalton's new views--comb9ation 9 simple multiples1 #abg1 et seq42 ! !ory made kn[n by ,dr4 ,?omson1 #abi2 x is oppos$ at fir/ by ,davy1 #acj2 ,dalton's rules = arriv+ at atomic weights1 #acb2 m accurately appli$ by ,b]zelius1 #acc1 #afb2 diagrams ( atoms1 #aah1 #acf2 ! !ory z c>ri$ out by ,gay-,lussac & ,avogadro1 #ach1 et seq42 conception ( ! molecule1 #adj2 molecul> & atomic weight1 #ade2 ,graham's "w on molecul> reactions1 #bdi2 ,b]zelius's duali/ic views1 #bab2 !y are attack$ by ,dumas1 #bfj2 conception ( ! comp\nd radicle1 #bfg2 ,laur5t's unit>y !ory1 #bgb2 mod]n conception ( molecule1 #bge2 revision ( atomic weights1 #bhe2 equival5cy ( atoms1 #bie4 ,avogadro1 8 elucidation ( ! atomic !ory1 #ach1 et seq42 introduces ! idea ( molecules1 #adj2 law kn[n z ,avogadro's law1 #adc4 ,b ,base 7( salts71 #agi2 basic l9es 9 spectrum1 #caa4 ,be*]1 ,john ,j41 born at ,spey]1 #bf2 8 ?ree pr9ciples ( metals1 #bf2 8 pr9ciple ( inflammability1 #dh2 8 views on acids1 #agd4 ,b]?ollet1 analyzes ammonia1 #ff2 adh]es to ! ,lavoisi]ian !ory ( combu/ion1 #ie2 que/ions doctr9e ( fixity ( composition1 #abf2 & necess>y pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 acids1 #ahd2 %[s v>iable nature ( aff9ities1 #bjh4 ,b]zelius1 ,johann ,j41 #ajf2 det]m9es weights ( elem5t>y atoms1 #acc2 8 bir? & education1 #aeg2 works at ,/ockholm1 #aei2 8 slight appliances & l>ge discov]ies1 #afa2 he reviews ,dalton's atomic !ory1 #afb2 8 views sup]s$$ by ,avogadro's g5]alization1 #afe2 he accepts law ( isomorphism1 #aff2 & ,davy's discov]y ( *lor9e1 #bjd2 8 views on aff9ity ( atoms1 #bji2 8 dual classification1 #bab2 works at organic *emi/ry1 #bbj2 8 dualism attack$ by ,dumas1 #bfj4 ,black1 ,joseph1 born at ,bordeaux1 #cj2 8 education1 #ca2 8 !sis on magnesia & discov]y ( fix$ air1 #cc1 et seq42 inquiries into lat5t heat1 #ci2 pr(essor at ,ed9burgh1 #da2 8 dea? & "*1 #da1 et seq42 resume ( 8 "w1 #ajb2 8 exam9ation ( alkalis1 #agf4 ,boyle1 ,hon4 ,rob]t1 #be2 8 ,sceptical ,*ymi/1 #gf2 law kn[n z ,boyle's law1 #gg2 opposes doctr9e ( elem5t>y pr9ciples1 #ic2 8 def9ition ( an acid1 #aga2 ext5ds ! k ( salts1 #agg4 ,brom9e1 discov]$ by ,bal>d1 #bia4 ,c ,c>bonic acid gas1 or fix$ air1 /udi$ by ,black1 #ce2 by ,prie/ley1 #eg1 #fi4 ,cav5di%1 ,hon4 ,h5ry1 r$iscov]s hydrog51 #fc1 #gh2 & composition ( wat] & air1 #gh4 ,*loral1 produc$ by ,liebig1 composition det]m9$ by ,dumas1 #bgc4 ,*lor(orm1 ,*lor9e1 discov]$ by ,davy1 #bjb2 replaces hydrog5 9 organic comp\nds1 #bga4 ,colloids1 #bdg4 ,comb9ation 9 multiple proportions1 #abg4 ,combu/ion1 /udi$ by e>ly *emi/s1 #bd 7vide ,phlogi/ic !ory72 /udi$ by ,black1 #dg2 8 views ( ,lavoisi]'s !ory1 #ea2 ,prie/ley's views ( combu/ion1 #fb2 ,lavoisi]'s exp]im5ts1 #hc1 et seq42 ,liebig's combu/ion-tube1 #bfc4 ,comp\nd radicle1 #bfg2 ! idea ( sub/itution1 #bgj1 #bgf4 ,cons]vation ( mass1 doctr9e (1 #hb4 ,cry/allization1 wat] (1 #bcg4 ,cry/alloids1 #bdg4 ,d ,dalton1 ,john1 8 bir? & education1 #ajg2 answ]s to correspond5ts1 #aji2 8 meteorological obs]vations1 #aaj2 tea*es at ,man*e/]1 #aaj2 col\r-bl9d1 #aaa2 pressures ( gase\s mixtures1 #aac2 /rives aft] g5]al laws1 #aae2 fir/ view ( atomic !ory1 #aag2 visits ,p>is1 #abj2 hon\rs conf]r$ on him1 #aba1 #abb2 dies1 #abc2 consid]ation ( atomic !ory 7:i* see71 #abc1 et seq42 8 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 #abi2 fixes atomic weight ( hydrog51 #acj2 small use he makes ( books1 #adh2 inaccurate z an exp]im5t]1 #adi2 8 me?od comp>$ ) ,prie/ley's1 #aea4 ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 #ajf2 opposes ! atomic !ory1 #abi2 accepts same1 #acj2 /udies ! *emical aspects ( electricity1 #ahe2 exp]im5ts on ! acid & alkali said to be produc$ by electrolyz+ wat]1 #ahf2 app>5t susp5sion ( *emical aff9ities by action ( electricity1 #aia2 discov]s potassium1 #aig2 & sodium1 #aih2 ! metallic bases ( e>?s1 #bjj2 proves ! elem5t>y nature ( *lor9e1 #bjb2 ,davy's bir? & y\?1 #bae2 exp]im5ts on heat1 #bag2 8 "w at ,bri/ol1 #bah2 inhales gases1 #bbj2 lectures at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 #bbb2 discov]s iod9e & inv5ts safety-lamp1 #bbd2 dies1 #bbf4 ,dialysis1 #bdg4 ,diffusion-rates ( gases1 #bda2 di/+ui%$ f transpiration-rates1 #bdb2 diffusion-rates ( liquids1 #bde4 ,dulong1 8 law ( atomic heat1 #afh4 ,dumas1 ,jean ,b4 ,a41 bir? & education1 #beg2 physiological /udies1 #beh2 meets ,von ,humboldt1 #bei2 attacks ! dualism ( ,b]zelius1 #bfj2 ,dumas's vap\r d5sity process1 #bfb2 e!rs & alcohols1 #bfe2 *lor9e 9 connection ) organic comp\nds1 #bga2 det]m9es composition ( *loral & *lor(orm1 #bgc2 /udies f]m5tation1 #bhg2 memb] ( ! ,national ,assembly1 #bhh2 takes (fice1 #bhi4 ,e ,e>?s1 #agg2 ,/ahl's views1 #agh2 ! connection betwe5 e>?s & alkalis1 #agh2 _! metallic bases1 #ahb1 #bjj4 ,economy ( wa/e mat]ials1 #cjj4 ,electric aff9ity1 #aia1 #baj4 ,electricity1 ,volta's batt]y1 #ahe2 us$ to decompose wat]1 #ahe2 new metals discov]$ by its help1 #aig4 ,elem5ts3 old doctr9e ( elem5t>y pr9ciples oppos$ by ,boyle1 #ic2 mod]n def9ition ( elem5t1 #ie 7vide ,spectroscopic analysis--basic l9es1 #caa74 ,equival5cy1 conception (1 #bid4 ,f ,f]m5tation1 /udi$ by ,dumas1 #bhg4 ,f\rcroy1 calls ,lavoisi]'s views ,la *imie ,francaise11 #ie ,g ,gay-,lussac1 #ach1 #adc1 #bja1 #bjc1 #beg4 ,g]h>dt1 #bgb1 #bgi4 ,graham1 ,?omas1 e>ly life1 #bcc2 made ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t1 #bcd2 8 dea?1 #bce2 /udies alcoates1 #bce2 =mulates conception ( acids ( diff]5t basicity1 #bcg2 consid]s hydrog5 a metal1 #bch2 inve/igates ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,doeb]e9]1 #bdj2 diffusion-rates ( gases1 #bda2 ( liquids1 #bde2 8 atmolyz]1 #bdc2 8 dialyz]1 #bdg2 /udies movem5ts & reactions ( molecules1 #bdi4 ,h ,hales's exp]im5ts on gases1 #cd4 ,heat1 ,black's /udy ( lat5t heat1 #ci2 specific heat1 #ih2 ,dalton lectures on1 #aag2 law ( capacity = heat1 #afh2 heat z produc$ by friction1 #bag4 ,helmholtz1 #adc2 vortex atoms1 #abe4 ,hooke1 ,rob]t1 8 ,micographia1 #bd2 /udies combu/ion1 #cd4 ,humboldt1 ,alex&] von1 assi/s ,liebig1 #bef2 & ,dumas1 #bei4 ,hydro*loric acid discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #ff2 a /umbl+-block to ,lavoisi]ian *emi/s1 #bjj2 /udi$ by ,davy1 #bja4 ,hydrog51 r$iscov]$ by ,cav5di%1 #fc2 exp]im5t$ on by ,prie/ley1 #ff2 its atomic weight decid$ by ,dalton1 #acj2 ,graham consid]s x a metal1 #bch4 ,i ,iod9e1 discov]$ by ,davy1 #bbd4 ,isom]ism1 #big4 ,isomorphism1 law (1 #afg4 ,l ,laplace1 assi/s ,lavoisi]1 #ij4 ,lat5t heat1 ,black's !ory (1 #ci4 ,laur5t1 8 unit>y !ory1 #bgb1 #bgh4 ,lavoisi]1 ,anto9e ,l41 born at ,p>is1 #gi2 confutes idea ( transmutation1 #ha2 pap] on calc9ation ( t91 #hd2 meets ,prie/ley1 #fa1 #he2 8 !ory ( combu/ion1 #ea1 #hf2 8 *emical nom5clature1 #if2 he is guillot9$1 #ii2 resume ( 8 "w1 #ajc2 8 views on salts1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,liebig1 ,ju/us1 bir?1 #bef2 ,humboldt & ,gay-,lussac1 #beg2 8 improv$ combu/ion-tube1 #bfc2 /udies ! cyanates1 #bfd2 di/9ction betwe5 organic & inorganic *emi/ry effac$1 #bfe2 produces *lor(orm & *loral1 #bgc2 b5zoyl1 #bgd2 he leaves ,giess5 = ,muni*1 #bhj2 8 practical & economic discov]ies1 #bhc2 dea?1 #bhd2 8 failure to discov] brom9e1 #bia4 ,locky]1 8 "w ) spectroscope1 #caj 7& vide ,spectroscopic analysis74 ,m ,may[1 ,john1 /udies combu/ion1 #bd4 ,metals1 new1 discov]$ by ,b]zelius1 #aja2 by ,davy1 #aig2 hydrog5 a metal1 #bch4 ,mey]1 8 views on acids1 #agd4 ,mits*]li*'s law ( isomorphism1 #afg4 ,molecule1 conception (1 #adj2 molecul> weight1 #ade2 molecul> mobility ( gases1 #bdb2 movem5ts & reactions ( molecules1 #bdi2 mod]n conception (1 #bge4 ,morveau1 ,de1 embraces ,lavoisi]'s views1 #if4 ,muriatic acid 7vide ,hydro*loric acid17 #aai4 ,n ,nitric acid1 discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #fe2 produc$ by electrolysis1 #ahh4 ,nom5clature1 ,lavoisi]'s sy/em (1 #if4 ,o ,oil1 pr9ciple (1 #bed4 ,organic *emi/ry1 work$ at by ,b]zelius1 #bbi2 attempts to def9e x1 #bec2 loose application ( ! t]m1 #bee2 ,woehl]'s manufacture ( urea aboli%es di/9ction ( organic & inorganic *emi/ry1 #bfe4 ,oxyg5 discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #ei2 ,lavoisi]'s exp]im5ts1 #hg2 x is view$ by him z an acidifi]1 #ia1 #age2 ,b]?ollet %[s x n a necess>y con/itu5t ( acids1 #ahd 7vide ,acids74 ,p ,p>acelsus1 #ac2 8 pamphlet1 ,tripus ,aureus1 etc41 #ai4 ,petit1 #afh4 ,phlogi/ic !ory1 #bf2 enunciat$ by ,/ahl1 #bg2 ab&on$ by ,black1 #df2 phlogi/on describ$ z a k9d ( motion1 #di2 discov]y ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 #ei2 ! !ory ov]?r[n by ,lavoisi]1 #ib4 ,phosphoric acid1 #hf4 ,pneumatic tr\gh1 inv5t$ by ,prie/ley1 #eg4 ,potassium1 discov]$ by ,davy1 #aig4 ,prussic acid1 discov]$ by ,b]?ollet1 #ahd4 ,prie/ley1 ,joseph1 born1 #eb2 br$ = ! m9i/ry1 #ec2 writes on electricity1 #ee2 8 pneumatic tr\gh1 #eg2 discov]s oxyg51 #ei2 meets ,lavoisi]1 #fa1 #he2 goes to ,birm+ham1 #fe2 8 exp]im5ts on hydrog51 #ff2 8 h\se burnt by riot]s1 #ga2 emigrates to ,am]ica1 #gb2 dies !re1 #gc2 resume ( 8 "w1 #ajb2 8 me?od comp>$ ) t ( ,dalton1 #aea4 ,q ,quantitative analysis neglect$ by e>ly *emi/s1 #bi2 fir/ accurately employ$ by ,black1 #cc2 us$ by ,lavoisi]1 #hg4 ,r ,respiration expla9$ by ,lavoisi]1 #ia4 ,revolution1 ,fr5*1 its effect on ,prie/ley1 #gj2 ,lavoisi] guillot9$1 #ii4 ,ri*t]'s equival5ts ( acids & bases1 #afb4 ,ripley1 ,canon1 an al*emi/1 8 poems1 #ah4 ,r\elle1 inv5ts t]m base1 #agi2 8 /udies on salts1 #aha4 ,s ,salts1 #agc2 pr9ciple ( salt oppos$ by ,boyle1 #agg2 e>? or alkali ! base ( salts1 #agi2 ,r\elle's inquiries1 #aha2 ,lavoisi]'s def9ition1 #ahd2 consid]$ z metallic d]ivatives ( acids1 #bje2 alcoholic salts1 #bce4 ,sceptical ,*ymi/1 ,!1 by ,hon4 ,rob]t ,boyle1 #gf-ic4 ,%elburne1 ,e>l (1 patron ( ,prie/ley1 #eh2 to :om he grants an annuity1 #fe4 ,spectroscopic analysis1 #cjb2 l9es 9 sol> spectrum1 #cjf2 ! sol> atmosph]e1 #cjh2 ,locky]'s mapp+ ( ! l9es1 #caj2 basic l9es1 #caa2 objections to 8 hypo!sis1 #cac4 ,/ahl1 ,george ,erne/1 born at ,anspa*1 #bg2 enunciates ! phlogi/ic !ory1 #bg1 #dh2 8 primordial acid1 #agd2 8 ess5tial prop]ty ( e>?s1 #agh4 ,sulphur dioxide1 discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #ff4 ,sulphur salts1 discov]$ by ,b]zelius1 #afa4 ,t ,transmutation1 confut$ by ,lavoisi]1 #ha4 ,transpiration ( gases1 #bdb4 ,types1 #bgi4 ,v ,val5t9e1 ,basil1 an al*emi/1 #ae2 8 views on alkalis1 #agd4 ,van ,helmont1 #bd4 ,vitriols1 #ahj4 ,volta's electric pile1 #ahd4 ,w ,wat]1 its composition discov]$ by ,cav5di%1 #fh-gh2 ne>ly discov]$ by ,prie/ley1 #fh2 confirm$ by ,lavoisi]1 #ij2 decompos$ by electricity1 #ahe4 ,weight ( ultimate p>ticles1 #aag1 #acb2 molecul> & atomic1 #ade2 revision ( atomic weights1 #bhe4 ,woehl]1 8 acc\nt ( visit to ,b]zelius1 #afj1 #bjd1 #bbi2 /udies cyanates ) ,liebig1 #bfd2 results ( 8 discov]y z to urea1 #bfe4 ,wolla/on1 supports atomic !ory1 #acj4 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,beccles4