,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,sheep3 ,,the ,,best ,,means ,,for ,,their ,,improvement1 ,,general ,,management1 ,,and ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,their ,,diseases1 ,,with ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,,wool1 ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,wool ,,trade2 ,,and ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,sheep ,,in ,,australia4 ,,by ,,ambrose ,,blacklock4 ,illustration3 ,sheep have golden feet1 and wherever the print of them appears1 the soil is turned into gold4--,,swedish ,,proverb4 ,twelfth ,edition4 ,,london3 ,,groombridge ,,sons1 #e1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 #ahec4 ,printed by ,c4 and ,j4 ,adlard1 ,bartholomew ,close ,,to ,,sir ,c4 ,g4 ,,stuart ,,menteath1 ,,of ,,closeburn1 ,,hart41 ,,vice-,,lieutenant ,,of ,,dumfries-,,shire1 c4 c4 c ,,whose ,,integrity ,,and ,,urbanity ,,have ,,endeared ,,him ,,to ,,society2 ,,and ,,whose ,,zeal ,,for ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,the ,,soil1 ,,and ,,for ,,the ,,prosperity ,,of ,,the ,,farmer1 ,,have ,,raised ,,him1 ,,by ,,common ,,consent1 ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,rank ,,as ,,an ,,agriculturist1 ,,and ,,as ,a ,,landlord2 ,,this ,,treatise ,,on ,,sheep ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated1 ,,by ,,his ,,very ,,humble ,,servant1 ,,the ,,author4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii ,,preface4 ,the truth of the ,greek proverb1 that a great book is a great evil1 is no where more apparent than in the construction of works on agricultural concerns4 ,those who have attended to the subject well know1 that the profitable management of live-stock is by far the most difficult branch of farming1 as it is here that improvement is peculiarly tardy2 and from this we might infer that authors would endeavour so to arrange and simplify their treatises as to enable every one to obtain the bearings of the study at the smallest possible expense and trouble4 ,such1 however1 is not the case4 ,many would appear to have done their best so to dilute and mystify the little which is known about the matter1 that it is nearly impossible for any one1 not gifted with more than ordinary power of application1 to arrive at any thing like just conclusions4 ,to avoid this error has been my object in the following pages4 ,such points only as are of real importance have been noticed2 every thing having been rejected which could not admit of a practical application4 ,for this reason1 also1 ,i have omitted all allusion to foreign varieties of the sheep1 an account of which is1 in some similar works1 made to occupy so large a space4 ,the general laws by which animal bodies are governed1 and the changes to which they are rendered liable by their subserviency to man1 are here--and for the first time as regards the sheep--gone into at considerable length4 ,too little value is in general attached to such inquiries2 though1 when endeavouring to improve a domesticated race1 we must be perfectly aware1 that without this species of knowledge we are like a ship at sea without the guiding aids of the rudder and the compass1 and liable to be carried in the right or in the wrong direction only as chance directs4 ,in conclusion1 ,i need make no apology for any defects that may appear in this little work1 having done my best to make it useful to the farmer4 ,,castle ,,street1 ,,dumfries1 ,july1 #ahch4 ,,contents4 ,,preface iii ,references to the ,plates xi ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep4 7#a7 ,origin of the ,sheep2--7#b7 ,the ,argali of ,siberia and ,mouflon of ,sardinia2--7#c7 ,the ,mouflon of ,america2--7#d7 ,the ,mouflon of ,africa2--7#e7 ,british ,breeds2--7#f7 ,the ,lincolnshire2--7#g7 ,the ,teeswater2--7#h7 ,the ,dishley or ,new ,leicester2--7#i7 ,the ,devonshire ,nots2--7#aj7 ,the ,dorsetshire ,sheep2--7#aa7 ,herefordshire or ,ryeland ,sheep2--7#ab7 ,the ,south ,down2--7#ac7 ,the ,cheviot ,sheep2--7#ad7 ,mugg ,sheep2--7#ae7 ,the ,black-faced or ,heath ,sheep2--7#af7 ,the ,merino2-- 7#ag7 ,teeth of ,sheep2--7#ah7 ,distinctions between the ,sheep and ,goat2 --7#ai7 ,horns of ,sheep2--7#bj7 ,structure of the ,stomach2--7#ba7 ,digestion2--7#bb7 ,period of ,conception2--7#bc7 ,names applied to ,sheep #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,wool4 7#bd7 ,wool-bearing ,animals2--7#be7 ,structure of the ,skin2--7#bf7 ,sebaceous follicles2--7#bg7 ,connexion of the ,hair with the ,skin--,yolk2--7#bh7 ,periodical decidence of ,wool2--7#bi7 ,falling off of ,wool prevented by ,clipping2--7#cj7 ,form of ,woolly ,fibre2--7#ca7 ,structure and ,properties of ,hair and ,wool2--7#cb7 ,particular soils injurious to ,wool2--7#cc7 ,felting2--7#cd7 ,different kinds of ,wool2--7#ce7 ,alterations caused by ,crossing2--7#cf7 ,bratting prejudicial to ,wool #af ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,british ,,wool ,,trade4 7#cg7 ,origin of the ,wool ,trade2--7#ch7 ,invention of ,weaving2--7#ci7 ,early progress of the ,wool ,trade2--7#dj7 ,introduction of ,weaving into ,britain2--7#da7 ,importance of the ,british ,woollen ,manufacture2--7#db7 ,weavers brought by ,edward ,,iii4 from ,flanders2--7#dc7 ,regulations regarding ,staples2--7#dd7 ,rapid advance of the ,wool ,trade in the #adth century2--7#de7 ,subsidies raised by ,edward ,,iii42--7#df7 ,progress of the ,wool ,trade during the reigns of ,henry ,,vii41 ,henry ,,viii41 and ,edward ,,vi42--7#dg7 ,encouragement given by ,elizabeth to the ,trade2--7#dh7 ,woollen ,cloth monopolized by the ,merchant ,adventurers2--7#di7 ,consumption of ,wool in ,england increased2-- 7#ej7 ,severity of the ,prohibitory ,enactments relating to ,wool reprobated2--7#ea7 ,emigration of ,english families to ,holland1 and ,prosperity of the ,dutch ,manufactures2--7#eb7 ,fluctuating state of the ,trade between #afce and #afih2--7ec7 ,king ,william discourages the ,irish manufactures2--7#ed7 ,statistics of the ,british ,wool ,trade in #afii2--7ee7 ,british ,woollen ,manufacturers rivalled by the ,swedes2--7#ef7 ,regulations relating to ,wool from #agdj to #agdb2 --7#eg7 ,impulse given to the ,trade by the improvements in ,machinery2 --7#eg7 ,commencement of the #aith century2 ,duty imposed on imported ,wool2--7#ei7 ,restrictions on ,foreign ,wool removed2 increase in ,manufacturing prosperity2--7#fj7 ,countries from which we derive our ,wool2--7#fa7 ,statistics of the ,wool ,trade from #ahjj to #ahcj2--7fb7 ,do4 in #ahcb #bh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,the ,,breeds4 7#fc7 ,introductory remarks2--7#fd7 ,early ,improvers of the ,sheep2--7#fe7 ,modern ,breeders and ,improvements2--7#ff7 ,varieties among ,animals1 how induced2--7#fg7 ,varieties induced by temperature2--7#fh7 ,adaptation of the ,sheep to climate2--7#fi7 ,changes produced by climate2--7#gj7 ,temperature preferred by ,sheep2--7#ga7 ,extent of the alterations produced by climate2--7#gb7 ,increase in the number of the ,horns2--7#gc7 ,causes of the various forms of the ,horn2--7#gd7 ,the proper temperature required for ,sheep2--7#ge7 ,geographical limits of the ,sheep2--7#gf7 ,particular forms induced by geographical limit2--7#gg7 ,influence of vegetation on form and disposition2--7#gh7 ,breeds required for ,britain--7#gi7 ,varied nature of the food of ,sheep2--7#hj7 ,influence of food on the quality of ,mutton2--7#ha7 ,differences in the quality of ,mutton2--7#hb7 ,abuses in ,feeding2--7#hc7 ,tendency to acquire ,fat2--7#hd7 ,frequent change of ,pasture necessary2--7#he7 ,varieties induced by apparently trivial causes2--7#hf7 ,varieties from mode of ,breeding2 --7#hg7 ,breeding in and in2--7#hh7 ,opponents of in and in ,breeding2--7#hi7 ,breeding from different families of the same race2--7#ij7 ,crossing2--7#ia7 ,things to be attended to in ,crossing2 --7#ib7 ,choice of ,parents2--7#ic7 ,influence of ,sex2--7#id7 ,method of obtaining a greater number of one ,sex1 at the option of the ,proprietor #fg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,management ,,of ,,sheep4 7#ie7 ,introductory remarks2--7#if7 ,putting ,tups to ,ewes2--7#ig7 ,early ,lambs2--7#ih7 ,lambing-time2--7#ii7 ,washing2--7#ajj7 ,shearing2--7#aja7 ,weaning2--7#ajb7 ,smearing2--7#ajc7 ,fatting #abh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,accidents ,,and ,,operations4 7#ajd7 ,introductory observations2--7#aje7 ,wounds2--7#ajf7 ,stoppage of ,bleeding2--7#ajg7 ,removal of ,extraneous ,matter from ,wounds2-- 7#ajh7 ,closure of ,wounds2--7#aji7 ,bandaging2--7#aaj7 ,after-treatment of ,clean ,cuts2--7#aaa7 ,after-treatment of ,punctures2--7#aab7 ,bruises and ,sprains2--7#aac7 ,wounds of ,joints2--7#aad7 ,poisoned ,wounds2-- 7#aae7 ,fractures2--7#aaf7 ,cutting ,lambs2--7#aag7 ,blood-letting2-- 7#aah7 ,removal of ,hydatids from the ,head #adh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,sheep4 7#aai7 ,introductory remarks2--7#abj7 ,cautions in ,prescribing2--7#aba7 ,classification of ,diseases2--7#abb7 ,blown or ,blast2--7#abc7 ,treatment of ,blown2--7#abd7 ,braxy or ,sickness2--7#abe7 ,symptoms of ,braxy2--7#abf7 ,appearances on ,dissection2--7#abg7 ,causes of ,braxy2--7#abh7 ,treatment of ,braxy2--7#abi7 ,prevention of ,braxy2--7#acj7 ,pining4 ,symptoms and ,causes2--7#aca7 ,treatment and ,prevention of ,pining2--7#acb7 ,staggers2 --7#acc7 ,diarrhoea2--7#acd7 ,treatment of ,diarrhoea2--7#ace7 ,dysentery or ,cling4 ,symptoms2--7#acf7 ,causes of ,dysentery2--7#acg7 ,treatment of ,dysentery2--7#ach7 ,prevention of ,dysentery2--7#aci7 ,scab or ,itch4 ,symptoms and ,causes2--7#adj7 ,treatment of ,itch2--7#ada7 ,prevention of ,itch2--7#adb7 ,erysipelas or ,wild-fire2--7#adc7 ,red-water2--7#add7 ,leg-evil4 ,symptoms and ,causes2--7#ade7 ,treatment of ,leg-evil2--7#adf7 ,prevention of ,leg-evil2--7#adg7 ,the ,fly and ,maggot2--7#adh7 ,treatment of ,fly-blown ,sheep1 and ,prevention of attacks from the ,fly2--7#adi7 ,the ,sheep-,fag or ,ked1 and the ,tick2--7#aej7 ,the ,o,estrus bovis2--7#aea7 ,sore ,teats2--7#aeb7 ,foot-rot2--7#aec7 ,causes of ,foot-rot2--7#aed7 ,treatment and ,prevention of ,foot-rot2--7#aee7 ,insects in the ,air ,passages2--7#aef7 ,removal of ,insects from the ,nostril2--7#aeg7 ,coryza2 --7#aeh7 ,treatment of ,coryza2--7#aei7 ,rot4 ,introductory remarks2-- 7#afj7 ,symptoms of ,rot2--7#afa7 ,appearances on ,dissection2--7#afb7 ,the ,liver-fluke2--7#afc7 ,the ,hydatid2--7#afd7 ,causes of ,rot2--7#afe7 ,treatment of ,rot2--7#aff7 ,prevention of ,rot2--7#afg7 ,jaundice2--7#afh7 ,dropsy2--7#afi7 ,sturdy2--7#agj7 ,treatment and ,prevention of ,sturdy2 --7#aga7 ,trembling2--7#agb7 ,treatment of ,trembling2--7#agc7 ,inflamed ,eyes2--7#agd7 ,soft cancer of the ,eye #afa ,,references ,,to ,,the ,,plates ,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,mouflon of ,sardinia4 ,fig4 #b4 and #c4 p4 ,the first stomach or paunch2 b4 the second stomach1 bonnet1 king's-hood1 or honey-comb2 o4 the third stomach1 or omasum2 a4 the fourth stomach1 or abomasum2 g4 the gullet2 py4 the pylorus4 ,fig4 #d4 ,section of a sheep's toe2 g4 g4 the gland secreting the hoof2 c4 c4 the crust2 s4 the sole4 ,fig4 #e4 ,view of the interdigital gland2 g4 the gland2 d4 the duct leading from it4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the fluke-worm2 a4 the mouth2 b4 the reproductive apparatus2 c4 c4 vessels for the distribution of the blood4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,dorsetshire ,ram4 ,fig4 #b4 ,south ,down ,ram4 ,the figures in this plate are borrowed from the beautiful cuts in the work on ,sheep1 published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,new ,leicester ,ram4 ,fig4 #b4 ,cheviot ,ram4 ,the portrait of a very superior animal1 in the possession of my friend ,mr ,laurie of ,terregles town4 ,premiums were awarded to ,mr ,laurie for both of these sheep at the last meeting of the ,highland ,society in ,dumfries4 ,fig4 #c4 ,view of the veins of the face and neck2 f4v4 facial vein2 j4v4 jugular vein4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 ,black-faced ,ram4 ,fig4 #b4 ,merino ,ram4 ,,plate ,v4 ,figs4 #a4 #b4 #c4 from the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 represent the most approved mode of washing and shearing sheep4 ,fig4 #d4 ,tubular structure of hair and wool4 ,fig4 #e4 ,relative positions of the layers of the skin1 mode in which the hairs rise from1 and situation of1 the sebaceous follicles2 a4 the cuticle2 b4 the mucous layer2 c4 the true skin2 d4 sebaceous follicles2 e4 hairs rising from the true skin2 f4 the yolk4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,fig4 #a4 ,section of the lung of a sheep which has been over-driven4 ,fig4 #b4 ,section of the lung of a sheep which has been affected with ,rot4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,cysticercus tenuicollis4 ,fig4 #a4 a4 ,head of the same magnified4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the ,coenurus ,cerebralis4 ,fig4 #b4 a4 ,heads of the ,coenurus magnified4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the pentastoma4 ,hitherto supposed to exist only in the dog and wolf1 but discovered recently in the frontal sinus of the sheep by my friend ,mr ,rhind of ,edinburgh1 by whom the drawing for this figure was kindly furnished4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,hydatid in the brain of a sheep 7from a drawing by my friend ,dr ,kirk of ,deal72 a4 the right lobe of the cerebellum or lesser brain distended with fluid1 inclosed in a membraneous bag1 as shown at b41 where an incision has been made to expose it2 and at c4 where it is shining through the pia mater1 one of the coverings of the brain4 ,fig4 #b4 ,showing the extent to which hydatids sometimes distend the ventricles of the brain2 a4 the dilated ventricle of the left side2 b4 b4 convolutions passing from back to front2 c4 d4 depth of the furrows4 ,,the ,,sheep4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,sheep4 7#a47 ,origin of the ,sheep4--,as the origin of our domesticated animals has afforded scope for much curious speculation1 so none have attracted a greater degree of attention in this respect than the sheep4 ,into these arguments1 however1 it would be absurd to enter2 ,i shall therefore content myself with such opinions as are deemed the best4 ,placed in the ,class ,mammalia1 and ,order ,ruminantia1 the innumerable varieties at present existing may1 according to ,cuvier1 whose tact in arranging animals is universally acknowledged1 all be referred to four species--the ,argali of ,siberia1 the ,mouflon of ,sardinia1 the ,mouflon of ,america1 and the ,mouflon of ,africa--though to be rigidly accurate in natural distinctions he would refer them all to three1 thereby excluding the third4 7#b47 ,the ,argali of ,siberia 7,ovis ,ammon7 inhabits the mountains of ,asia1 where it attains the size of a fallow deer4 ,the male has very large horns1 with three rounded angles at the base1 flattened in front1 and striated transversely4 ,the horns of the female are compressed1 and hook-shaped4 ,the hair is short in summer1 and of a fawn-coloured grey2 in winter it is thick1 rigid1 and of a reddish grey1 with some white about the muzzle1 throat1 and under the belly4 ,the ,mouflon of ,sardinia 7,ovis ,musimon1 ,fig4 #a4 ,pl4 ,i47 differs from it only in its inferior size1 and in the smallness of the horns of the female4 7#c47 ,the ,mouflon of ,america 7,ovis ,montana7 closely resembles the ,argali1 and is supposed by some to be identical with it1 and to have crossed from ,asia to ,america at ,behring's ,straits by means of ice4 7#d47 ,the ,mouflon of ,africa 7,ovis ,tragelaphus7 is distinguished by its soft and reddish hair1 by its short tail1 and by a long mane hanging under the neck1 and another at each ancle2 it inhabits the rocky districts of ,barbary1 and has been observed in ,egypt4 7#e47 ,british ,breeds4--,the breeds of our island1 as they at present stand1 may be divided into two kinds--long-woolled and short-woolled2 the former embracing the ,lincolnshire1 the ,teeswater1 the ,dishley1 or ,new ,leicester1 and the ,devonshire ,nots2 while the latter will include those of ,dorset1 ,herefordshire1 and ,sussex1 with the ,cheviot1 ,mugg1 and ,black-faced variety4#a #a ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 #gth ,edition1 ,article ,agriculture4 7#f74 ,the ,lincolnshire has no horns2 the face is white2 the carcass long and thin2 the legs thick1 white1 and rough2 bones large2 pelts thick2 and the wool from #h to #aj inches in length4 ,the ewes weigh from #ad lbs4 to #bj lbs4 per quarter2 and three-year old wethers #bj lbs4 to #cj lbs4 ,the fleece weighs from #h lbs4 to #ad lbs41 and covers a coarse-grained slow-feeding carcass2 so slow1 indeed1 at feeding1 that it cannot be fattened at an early age1 except upon rich land2 but the breed is encouraged1 from the great weight of wool that is shorn from them every year4 ,it and its sub-varieties are extremely common in the ,english counties4 7#g47 ,the ,teeswater sheep were originally bred from the same stock as the former1 but have become different1 from the size having received greater attention than the wool1 which is inferior both in length and weight4 ,they stand upon higher and finer boned legs1 which support a firmer and heavier carcass1 much wider upon the back and sides1 and afford a fatter and finer-grained mutton--the two-year-old wethers weighing from #be lbs4 to #cj lbs4 per quarter4 ,marshall1 in his work on ,yorkshire1 remarks1 that they are not so compact1 nor so complete in their form1 as the ,leicestershire sheep2 nevertheless1 the excellency of their flesh and fatting quality is not doubted1 and their wool still remains superior4 ,for the banks of the ,tees1 or any other rich fat land1 they are singularly excellent4 7#h47 ,the ,dishley1 or ,new ,leicester1 is distinguished from other long-woolled breeds1 by clean heads1 straight broad flat backs1 round bodies1 small bones1 thin pelts1 and a disposition to fatten at an early age4 ,but more of this hereafter4 ,the weight of three-year-old ewes is from #ah lbs4 to #bf lbs4 per quarter2 and of two-year old wethers from #bj lbs4 to #cj lbs4 ,the wool averages from #f lbs4 to #h lbs41 and is thought by some to be inferior in quality to that of ,cheviot sheep2 but1 from being fully fed at all seasons1 they yield great quantities of it4 ,fig4 #a4 ,pl4 ,,iii4 7#i47 ,the ,devonshire ,nots form the fourth hornless variety of long-woolled sheep4 ,forty or fifty years ago1 they ranked as middle-woolled sheep2 but they now figure among the long-wools1 under the name of ,bamptons--their fleece having been lengthened1 and rendered finer1 by crossing with the ,leicesters4 ,there is yet1 however1 much room for improvement in these crosses4 ,they have white faces and legs1 the latter being short1 and the bones large1 while the necks are thick1 the backs high1 and the sides good4 ,they approach in weight to the ,leicester1 but the wool is heavier and coarser4 ,in ,devonshire are found a white-faced and horned variety1 which are known as the ,exmoor kind1 from the place of their nativity4 ,though delicate in bone1 they are not good1 having a narrow flat-sided carcass2 while the weight of the quarters and fleece is a third short of the former variety4 7#aj47 ,the ,dorsetshire sheep are horned and white-faced1 with a long thin carcass1 and high small white legs4 ,three-year-old wethers weigh from #af lbs4 to #bj lbs4 a quarter2 but the wool1 being fine and short1 weighs only from #c lbs4 to #d lbs4 a fleece4 ,it is1 however1 amply compensated for by the mutton1 which is of superior quality4 ,the peculiar and most valuable property of this breed is the forwardness of the ewes1 which take the ram at any period of the year1 often lambing1 so early as ,september or ,october4 ,they are1 on this account1 extremely useful for supplying large towns with house-lamb at ,christmas4 ,fig4 #a1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 7#aa47 ,herefordshire or ,ryeland sheep have white legs and faces1 and no horns4 ,the wool grows close to the eyes4 ,they are a small breed1 suited to every market1 weighing from #ab lbs4 to #af lbs4 a-quarter4 ,the carcass is tolerably well-formed1 and the wool fine and short1 each fleece weighing from #a-a_/b lb4 to #b-a_/b lbs41 rarely1 however1 exceeding #b lbs4 ,they were called ,ryeland sheep1 from a district in the southern part of ,herefordshire being thought capable of growing nothing but rye4 ,though their figure is good1 the back is not so level1 nor the ribs so well rounded1 as in the improved breeds4 ,they fatten easily1 however1 and arrive soon at maturity1 though reckoned inferior in these respects to the ,cheviot variety4 7#ab47 ,the ,south ,down1 like the ,ryeland1 are1 from the delicacy of their constitution1 unadapted for bleak situations1 but sufficiently hardy and active for a low country2 their average weight is from #ae lbs4 to #ah lbs4 a-quarter2 that of the fleece1 which is very short and fine1 being from #b-a_/b lbs4 to #c lbs4 ,they are without horns1 have grey faces and legs1 a neck low set and small1 and a breast neither wide nor deep2 their mutton is fine in the grain1 and of an excellent flavour1 having been brought to great perfection by ,mr ,ellman of ,glynd1 and other intelligent breeders4 ,they are mostly found in ,sussex1 on dry chalky downs producing short fine herbage1 and arrive early at maturity2 in which respect they are equal to the ,cheviot1 though inferior to them in quantity of tallow4 ,formerly they would not take on fat till four years old2 now they are always at market when about two years of age1 and many are killed before that period4 ,fig4 #b4 ,pl4 ,,ii4 7#ac47 ,the ,cheviot ,sheep have a bare head1 with a long jaw1 and white face1 but no horns4 ,sometimes they have a shade of grey upon the nose1 approaching to dark at the tip2 at others1 a tinge of lemon colour on the face1 but these markings scarcely affect their value4 ,the legs are clean1 long1 and small-boned1 and covered with wool to the hough2 but there is a sad want of depth at the breast1 and of breadth both there and on the chine4 ,a fat carcass weighs from #ab lbs4 to #ah lbs4 per quarter1 and a medium fleece about #c lbs4 ,the purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the ,scotch side of the ,cheviot hills1 and on the high and stony mountain-farms which lie between that range and the source of the ,teviot4 ,these sheep are a capital mountain stock1 provided the pasture resembles the ,cheviot hills1 in containing a good proportion of rich herbage4 ,fig4 #b4 ,pl4 ,,iii4 7#ad47 ,mugg ,sheep4--,in this variety1 says ,dr ,fleming1 in his ,history of ,british ,animals1 the face and legs are white1 or rarely spotted with yellow1 and the forehead covered with long wool4 ,this is the native breed in ,scotland1 to the north of the ,forth and ,clyde4 ,they are of small size1 and seldom weigh above #h or #aj lbs4 per quarter4 ,some tribes have horns2 others are destitute of them1 and they vary in the length of the tail4 ,they may be considered as the stock of the numerous modern and valuable varieties1 which are bred in the best cultivated districts4 ,the ,shetland sheep belongs to this kind4 ,the fur consists of firm wool next the skin1 with long coarse hairs1 indications of an inhabitant of an arctic climate4 7#ae47 ,the ,black-faced or ,heath ,sheep are known by their large spiral horns1 wild-looking eyes1 black legs and faces1 with short firm carcasses1 covered by long coarse wool1 which weighs from #c lbs4 to #d lbs4 ,as the form of this sheep has lately been much improved1 by inducing a short and round carcass1 they have acquired the name of short sheep1 in contradistinction to the ,cheviots1 which are termed long sheep4 ,when three years old1 they fatten well1 affording excellent highly-flavoured mutton1 and weighing from #aj lbs4 to #af lbs4 a-quarter4 ,they are the most valuable upland sheep in ,britain1 abounding in all the western counties of ,england and ,scotland1 and are now becoming great favourites in the ,london market4 ,fig4 #a4 ,pl4 ,,iv4 7#af47 ,the ,merino4--,though many foreign breeds have from time to time appeared in this country1 yet almost all of them have been viewed merely as objects of curiosity1 and1 as such1 have speedily been disregarded4 ,far different1 however1 was the reception of the ,merinos4 ,brought into ,england under the most favourable auspices1 and placed at once under the fostering protection of royalty1 their native merits could not but be speedily appreciated and diffused throughout the kingdom4 ,they have received the name of ,merino from a peculiar buff or reddish hue of the countenance1 and are supposed to have come originally from ,africa2 at least ,marcus ,columella1 having seen a strange variety from that country exhibited at ,rome1 during some public games or shows1 took them to his farm1 and1 having crossed them with the breeds of ,tarentum1 sent the offspring to ,spain4 ,there they throve remarkably1 attracting the attention of other nations1 to whom they were from time to time exported1 and at present may be found in almost every part of the world4 ,merinos were brought to ,england for the first time in #aghh1 but attracted little attention1 owing to the want of rams4 ,lord ,somerville went to ,portugal in #ahja1 for the purpose of selecting such animals as appeared valuable1 from uniting a good carcass with a superior fleece1 and he succeeded1 notwithstanding the disturbed state of the country1 in obtaining specimens1 which called forth the praises of the shepherds1 through whose travelling flocks they passed4 ,public attention was attracted to them on the commencement of his ,majesty's sales in #ahjd2 and their distribution over the country was accomplished in #ahaa1 by the formation of the principal landed proprietors and eminent breeders into a ,merino ,society4 ,the ,merinos had much prejudice to encounter on being first brought before the public in #ahjd2 but they soon rose in favour and value1 and steadily progressed till the ,merino ,society was established1 when1 strange though it may appear1 all these advantages were at once destroyed4 ,this paradox may1 perhaps1 be explained1 by supposing that the institution of local committees1 which immediately followed1 allowed the enemies of the change1 in distant parts of the kingdom1 ample opportunity of striking at the scheme1 now that it was entrusted1 in many instances1 to persons ill qualified for the task either of making converts1 or retaining the advantages already gained4 ,the horns of the ,merino are of large size1 twisted spirally and extended laterally1 approaching closely in these characters to the sheep of ,mount ,parnassus1 a specimen of which is delineated in the work by ,e4 ,t4 ,bennett1 on the ,gardens and ,menagerie of the ,zoological ,society4 ,the face has a characteristic velvety appearance1 but the cheeks and forehead are disfigured by coarse hair4 ,the legs are long and small in the bone2 the breast and back are narrow1 the sides flat1 and too much of the weight is expended on the coarser parts4 ,there is a peculiar looseness of skin beneath the throat1 which is admired in ,spain as denoting a tendency to weight and fineness of wool1 though regarded in this country as a sign of a bad skin and want of aptitude to fatten4 ,the average weight of the fleece in ,spain is1 #h lbs4 from the ram1 and #e lbs4 from the ewe4 ,the abundance of the yolk enables the wool to detain all the filth which comes in contact with it1 so much so1 that by washing the weight is diminished about three-fifths4 ,the fibre of the wool is finer than that of any other sheep1 and the carcass1 when fat1 averages from #ab lbs4 to #af lbs4 a-quarter4 ,they are quiet and tractable1 and possessed of many good qualities1 but they are liable to abortion1 are bad nurses1 and require a large supply of food1 for which1 owing to an unprofitable form1 they yield no return4 ,fig4 #b4 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,the ,merinos were at one time in great request in various countries1 from a supposition that they would speedily supplant other breeds2 but this has never been the case1 as the animal soon degenerates when out of ,spain1 and is only valuable so far as giving rise to varieties1 which are equal1 if not superior to itself4 ,large profits were at first expected from their wool1 but these were reduced to a trifle when the loss of weight1 and fineness in the carcass were taken into account4 ,mr ,hose of ,melton ,mowbray1 put a certain number of ,leicester ewes to a ram of the same breed1 and an equal number to a merino ram4 ,the result was1 that the ,leicester fleece weighed #g lbs41 and the one from the cross with the merino1 #h lbs42 and that the former brought in the market #as4 per lb41 and the latter #as4 #f;d41 being a gain of #es4 on the fleece4 ,the carcass of the former1 however1 weighed #bg lbs4 per quarter1 and the latter only #be lbs41 being a loss of #e lbs4 on mutton4 ,much advantage may1 however1 be expected from our crosses with the ,saxon merino1 which is in every respect well suited to our notions of a fine animal1 as it yields a good wool1 and is little inferior in carcass to some of our best breeds4 7#ag47 ,teeth of ,sheep4--,in common with the rest of the ruminating animals1 sheep have eight incisors in the lower jaw1 unopposed by any in the upper1 a callous pad1 which is substituted1 being attached to the distal end of the intermaxillarv bones4 ,between the incisors and molars1 or grinding teeth1 there is a vacant space of about an inch and a half4 ,there are twenty-four molars1 six on each side of each jaw2 their crowns are marked with two double crescents1 the convexity of which is turned inwards in the upper1 and outwards in the lower jaw4 ,the lamb1 when newly dropped1 is devoid of incisor teeth1 though the two central ones are occasionally above the gum even at this early period4 ,when one month old1 the first set of incisive teeth are complete4 ,the two fore-teeth of the under jaw drop out at the end of the first year2 six months after the two next to these are lost2 and at the end of five years the teeth are all renewed4 ,when the permanent teeth are fully grown1 it is almost impossible to ascertain the age of the animal1 as the soil1 the texture of the provender1 and the original form of the teeth1 have all a greater or less influence over their durability4 7#ah47 ,distinctions between the ,sheep and ,goat4--,though a comparison of the most common domesticated breeds of sheep and goats1 tends to confirm the broad distinctions drawn between them1 yet these differences almost entirely disappear1 when we attempt to define the characteristics of those races1 which still exist in a wild state in various parts of both ,continents1 where it is so far impossible to determine the precise division to which they belong1 that ,cuvier holds them unworthy of a generic separation4 ,sheep and goats1 in fact1 agree in so many points as regards structure1 form1 stature1 and habit1 that were it not that sheep1 according to that naturalist1 have their horns directed backwards1 returning more or less forwards in a spiral manner1 with a generally convex line of profile1 and no beard1 while the goats have their horns directed upwards and backwards1 their chins generally decorated with a long beard1 and their line of profile almost always concave1 there would hardly exist a difference worth the noting4 ,some writers place great reliance on the differences indicated by the different coverings of the animals1 ascribing wool to the sheep1 and hair to the goat1 forgetting that most of the wild sheep1 and some of the domesticated races1 are covered with hair1 while some goats1 as those of ,thibet and ,angora1 are remarkable for the fineness of their wool4 ,even supposing these distinctions to hold good1 we have still to combat the fact1 that sheep and goats produce mongrels capable of reproduction1 a consideration sufficient of itself to prove1 that the sheep and goat can never be made to form the types of separate genera4#b #b ,for further information on this subject1 see that excellent paper on the ,natural ,history of the ,sheep and ,goat1 by ,james ,wilson1 ,esq4 in ,no4 ,,ix4 of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture4 7#ai47 ,horns of ,sheep4--,as the ,chevrotains or ,musks are distinguished1 with the ,camels1 from other animals of this order by the absence of horns1 so are sheep1 oxen1 goats1 and antelopes1 distinguished from the rest of the horned genera of the order1 by the persistence of their frontal prolongations4 ,the horn is an elastic sheath of agglutinated hairs1 which appears within the first twelve months1 though sometimes present at birth1 and increases by layers1 one being added every year1 so that the age of a ram may be known by the number of rings4 ,the ewes have commonly no horns1 but only a protuberance in place of them4 ,the horn is supported by1 and serves to cover1 a highly vascular prolongation of the frontal bone1 and it is at its root1 where large vessels1 and nervous filaments are entering1 that blows occasion so great agony to the animal1 apart from the damage which the other bones sustain by the infliction of violence on so powerful a level4 7#bj47 ,structure of the ,stomach4--,the term ruminating1 indicates the power possessed by this animal1 in common with many others1 of masticating its food a second time1 by returning it to the mouth after a short maceration4 ,this they are enabled to do1 from the structure of the stomachs1 or1 more correctly speaking1 stomach2 as anatomists have now concluded1 from all animals being constructed on one common principle1 that ruminating animals are not possessed of four stomachs1 as formerly supposed1 but only of one1 which they view as being divided into four compartments4 ,in drawing precise conclusions1 we are bound only to admit the existence of two compartments1 the other two belonging properly to the gullet2 and being equivalent to the cheek pouches of monkeys1 or the crop and membranous stomach of birds1 may be viewed as an apparatus designed to serve a nearly similar purpose 7that of moistening and macerating the food72 while the real stomach will cease to excite wonder1 or puzzle the ignorant1 on being contrasted with that of other animals1 in many of which a division exists1 and from which even the human stomach1 though generally a single sac1 is not always exempt1--,dr ,knox1 of ,edinburgh1 being in possession of one that resembles a pair of small globes joined by a narrow tube1 and which1 when taken from the body of a person who was advanced in life1 bore every mark of soundness in texture1 and must1 therefore1 have been congenital4 7#ba47 ,digestion4#c--,the food descends by the gullet after being partially crushed1 into what is called the first stomach1 or paunch1 in ,latin1 rumen1 or ingluvies1 in which cavity are found those morbid concretions so much1 and so superstitiously1 prized in the ,eastern world1 under the name of ,bezoar stones2 from this it passes into the second1 termed bonnet1 king's hood1 or honey-comb1 in ,latin reticulum1 which is much smaller than the other1 and receives its name from the inner coat being arranged into cells2 here it is moistened1 made into pellets1 and1 while the animal is at rest1 impelled by the antiperistaltic motion of the tube to the mouth1 and after undergoing a complete mastication1 is returned through the gullet to the third stomach1 or smallest compartment1 which goes under the name of omasum1 or many-plies1 from its resembling a rolled up hedgehog1 and sometimes from the longitudinal laminae of its mucous membrane that of leaflet4 ,the food remains but a short time in the omasum1 proceeding into the fourth division1 or obomasum1 which in its structure1 especially in that of the mucous1 or inner membrane1 is nearly allied to the same organ in the human being1 and is1 by the ,french1 from its power of coagulating milk1 called caillette4 ,the last compartment is the largest of the four1 so long as the animal continues to live on milk2 but the paunch speedily surpasses it in magnitude when grass becomes the sole provision4 ,the milk always passes at once into the fourth stomach1 there being no reason why it should be returned4 #c ,see ,figs4 #b and #c1 ,plate ,i4 with their references4 ,the intestinal canal is long1 commencing at the pylorus or lower opening of the stomach1 and averaging from ninety to one hundred feet4 ,there are but few enlargements in the great intestines4 ,the fat1 like that of all ruminating animals1 becomes1 on cooling1 hard and brittle4 7#bb47 ,period of ,conception4--,in this climate1 ewes fed on good pastures admit the ram in ,august2 but ,september or ,october is the time when such would occur if left to nature4 ,they go with young five months1 and in warm climates bring forth thrice a-year2 but in ,britain1 ,france1 and most of ,europe1 they do so only once4 ,they give milk for seven or eight months2 live ten or twelve years2 and if well managed1 are capable of bringing forth during life1 though generally useless for that process after the seventh or eighth year4 ,the ram lives from twelve to fourteen years1 though instances are recorded of their enduring till twenty1 and becomes unfit for propagating at eight4 7#bc47 ,names applied to ,sheep4--,the age of sheep is never dated from the time that they are dropped1 as that would be attended with many inconveniences1 but from the time that they are first subjected to the shears1 by which means the first year includes a period of at least fifteen or sixteen months4 ,the following is a condensed arrangement of the names by which sheep are designated at different periods of their existence1 in various parts of ,england and ,scotland3-- ,from ,birth till ,weaning4 ,,male4 ,,female4 ,tup1 ,ram lamb1 ,heeder1 ,pur4 ,ewe or ,gimmer lamb1 ,chilver4 ,from ,weaning till first ,clip4 ,hog1 ,hogget1 ,hoggerel1 ,teg4 ,gimmer hog1 ,ewe hog1 ,teg1 ,lamb hog1 ,tup hog1 ,gridling1 ,sheeder ewe1 ,thrave4 and1 if castrated1 a ,wether hog4 ,from first to second ,clip4 ,shearling1 ,shear hog1 ,heeder1 ,shearing ewe or gimmer1 ,diamond or ,dinmont ram1 or ,double-toothed ewe or tup1 and1 when castrated1 a ,teg1 ,yill gimmer4 ,shearing wether4 ,from second till third ,clip4 ,two shear ram1 young wedder4 ,two shear ewe1 ,counter4 ,from third till fourth ,clip4 ,three shear ram1 old wedder4 ,three shear ewe1 ,fronter4 ,and so on1 the name always taking its date from the time of shearing4 ,broken-mouthed ewes are called crones in ,suffolk and ,norfolk2 kroks1 or crocks1 in ,scotland2 and drapes in ,lincolnshire4 ,in ,scotland1 ewes which are neither with lamb1 nor giving milk1 are said to be eild1 or yield4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,wool4 7#bd47 ,wool-,bearing ,animals4--,in most dictionaries wool is defined as the fleece of sheep1 as if1 in fact they were the only animals which yield it1 than which nothing can be more erroneous2 since we are assured by the ablest naturalists1 that almost every animal1 from the butterfly up to man1 possesses more or less of this covering1 and that some indeed rival the sheep in the quantity they bear4 ,though wool is possessed in considerable quantity by carnivorous animals1 especially bears1 yet the herbivorous quadrupeds1 never to mention the sheep1 are principally noticed for its growth1 and for affording a commodity which becomes an article of profit in the hands of some tribes4 ,heriot1 in his travels through ,canada1 remarks1 that the savage women manufacture thread of the wool of the buffalo1 and weave it into cloth4 ,most parts of the body are invested with a dusky wool1 which is of a quality extremely fine--is much valued--and can with great facility be used in manufactures4 ,the quantity usually contained on one skin is about eight pounds4 ,so far from the sheep being invariably a wool-bearing creature1 it would appear as liable to be entirely destitute of it as some other animals2 for in ,tartary1 the eastern parts of ,india1 ,china1 and some parts of ,africa1 a hair of varying quality forms their sole covering2 and ,sir ,joseph ,banks imported three from ,spain1 which were smooth1 sleek1 and as short-haired as a horse4 7#be47 ,structure of the ,skin4--,the skin is composed of three coats1 or layers2 the outermost1 the cuticle or scarf-skin1 is a thin delicate membrane1 devoid of feeling1 and of a scaly texture1 pierced by innumerable small holes1 for the passage of the hairs1 and perspiration1 and covering the next1 or mucous coat1 so named from its pulpy appearance4 ,in this resides the colouring matter1 which imparts its peculiar tints to the hair1 and which can only be satisfactorily demonstrated in the dark races4 ,the existence of this coat has been by some denied2 but it is probable that1 though present in all1 it can only be exhibited in such as have depth of tint1 to admit of the display4 ,it is here that sensation principally resides2 the nerves1 or rather their terminations1 ramifying minutely in its substance1 at which they have arrived by piercing the third tunic1 or true skin1 a dense firm elastic membrane1 in which the roots of the hairs are imbedded1 and from which1 in fact1 they take their origin4 7#bf47 ,sebaceous ,follicles4--,the skin is studded over by small glands1 or what1 in anatomical language1 would be called sebaceous follicles1 which vary in number in different breeds1 and different parts of the body1 being most numerous on the breast and shoulders1 and secreting a peculiar unctuous semi-solid matter1 which1 as we shall immediately see1 possesses alkaline properties4 7#bg47 ,connection of the hair with the skin--,yolk4--,a hair implanted in the skin may be compared to a plant growing in a flower-pot which has been sunk in the earth1 as the root of the hair does not rise directly from the true skin1 but from a little cup extending from it to the cuticle1 and receiving nourishment from surrounding vessels4 ,after coming to the surface of these tunics it has1 in the sheep1 yet another1 and1 in some respects1 remarkable covering to pierce1 one which has occupied the attention of the most distinguished chemists1 and given rise to a good deal of disputation on the subject of salving--we allude to the ,yolk4 ,it is supposed by many to be the inspissated secretion of the sebaceous follicles1 and receives its name from its adhesiveness and colour4 ,it is most plentiful on fine-woolled sheep1 those of the south possessing more than those of the north of our island1 while merinos possess most of all2 so that there is apparently some connection between a fine fleece1 and a good supply of this matter4 ,according to the analysis of ,m4 ,vauquelin1 it consists principally of a soapy matter1 with a basis of potash2 a small quantity of carbonate of potash2 a minute quantity of acetate of potash2 lime in an unknown state of combination2 and an atom of muriate of potash4 ,it owes its odour to a small quantity of animal oil1 and is in every respect a true soap1 which would permit the sheep to be completely washed in a stream1 but for the existence in the fleece of an uncombined fatty matter1 which remains attached to the wool1 and renders it rather glutinous4 ,many have tried to account for the uses of the ,yolk1 but nothing like satisfactory conclusions have been come to3 some considering it goes to form the filament1 and is consolidated into a transparent mass while the pile is growing2 while others argue1 that it is a peculiar secretion which exudes through the skin1 and by mixing with the pile renders it soft and pliable1 affecting it in the way that oil does a piece of leather4 ,in the latter opinion ,i coincide4 ,for my part1 ,i view it as a secretion1 depending very much on good food and steadiness of temperature1 and1 therefore1 indicative of a fine fleece only so far as the health of the animal is concerned4 ,in the human being the state of the skin may often guide us1 though blind-fold1 to the quality of the hair1 so that the latter may be pronounced either dry and coarse1 or glossy1 soft1 and silky1 as the skin may prove either harsh and ungrateful1 or pleasant1 and1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 alkaline to the touch4 ,every thing having a tendency to affect the health may always be considered as calculated to diminish this secretion1 and1 consequently1 to deteriorate the quality of the wool4 ,the relative positions of the layers of the skin1 the mode in which the hairs rise from them1 and the form and situation of the sebaceous follicles1 will be better understood by referring to the following cross section ,fig #e4 ,pl4 ,v41 in which the line marked a ,represents the cuticle1 b ,the mucous layer1 c ,the true skin1 d ,sebaceous follicles1 e ,hairs rising from the true skin and inflections of the upper layers and piercing1 f ,the thin film of the yolk4 7#bh47 ,periodical decidence of ,wool4--,it is affirmed that the only real difference between hair and wool is in the latter falling off periodically2 but the same change takes place in animals totally covered with hair2 in fact1 almost every animal is subject to moulting1 or a periodical decidence of its protecting covering4 ,the fleece of the sheep has been proved in many instances not to be liable to annual changes of this description2--,lord ,western having1 among others1 shown that the wool of the merino may be retained at least three years without the slightest disposition to separate4 ,the annual employment of shearing1 to anticipate this falling off of the wool1 is now common in most parts of the world2 yet some1 as the ,icelanders and ,kamtschadales1 still retain the primeval custom of rowing1 or pulling off the fleece in a mass1 about the end of ,may1 at which time it is nearly loosened4 ,this loosening of the attachments of the fibre is supposed to be owing to a diminution1 during winter1 of the nutritive process at the root of the hair1 so that the fibre is liable to give way at the tender part when the fleece becomes heavy during ,spring4 ,this attempt at an explanation meets1 however1 with the insurmountable objection1 that long-woolled are less liable than short-woolled sheep to this occurrence1 a circumstance which ought to be the reverse1 if weight had any thing to do in the case4 7#bi47 ,falling off of ,wool prevented by ,clipping4--,clipping has a curious influence over the duration of the covering of animals1 as is well exemplified by the correct popular idea1 that the only way to prevent the hair of children dropping off 7as it sometimes has a tendency to do7 is to cut it short3 we may suppose the benefit in this case to result from the removal of a portion of each hair1 which1 if allowed to remain1 would lead to a sacrifice of the whole1 by robbing the root of a quantity of nutritious matter1 which1 owing to a diminution of reproductive power1 it could ill afford4 ,in this way only can we account for the power which shearing evinces1 in putting a stop to the attempt sometimes made by nature to change the coverings of some sheep4 ,in the valley which separates the most eastern chain of the ,cordilleras from the central1 the wool grows upon the lambs in the same manner as in temperate climates1 provided they are sheared so soon as it has arrived at a certain thickness2 in which case the wool grows again1 preserving the same order4 ,but1 if the period for denuding the animal be allowed to pass1 the wool detaches itself in flakes1 leaving behind a short1 glossy1 and compact hair1 exactly resembling that of the common goat in the same climate4 7#cj47 ,form of woolly fibre4--,the fibre of wool is circular1 differing in diameter in the various breeds1 and different parts of the same fleece4 ,the following a propos observations are from the article on the ,sheep1 in the ,library of ,useful ,knowledge3 ,the filaments of white wool1 when cleansed from grease1 are semitransparent2 their surface in some places is beautifully polished1 in others curiously encrusted1 and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner4 ,when viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic microscope1 the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance4 ,very irregularly placed minuter filaments are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk1 like boughs from the principal stem4 ,this exterior polish varies much in different wools1 and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times4 ,when the animal is in good condition1 and the fleece healthy1 the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant2 but1 when the sheep has been half starved1 the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the constitution1 and either a wan pale light1 or sometimes scarcely any1 is reflected4 ,the more transparent the filament the better is the fleece1 and its value is impaired by the transparency being different in the same fleece1 or1 as often happens1 in the same filament2 while that which possesses fineness with a close ground1 pureness1 elasticity1 colour1 tenacity1 and not much pitch-mark1 is the most esteemed1 and preferred by the manufacturer4 ,wethers have considerably more wool than ewes4 ,in every fleece there are several qualities1 even so many as nine different sorts1 which are all separated from each other in ,england by men called woolstaplers1 who are appointed for the purpose1 and sworn to do justice between the grower1 and the merchant or manufacturer4 ,in this manner the latter obtains1 without trouble or risk1 the very kind which he knows will suit his purpose2 for though the sorter1 surrounded by a number of baskets1 divides the wool according to its properties without the slightest hesitation1 and with a rapidity truly surprising1 yet such is the amount of the dexterity acquired by practice1 that a mistake seldom occurs1 and his judgment can as rarely be disputed4 7#ca47 ,structure and properties of ,hair and ,wool4--,each hair is composed of a number of filaments1 or smaller hairs1 ranged side by side1 and this we can perceive without the slightest trouble1 from the tendency it sometimes has to unravel at the apex2 and again1 by drawing a hair through the fingers from point to root1 when we feel a roughness occasioned by projecting filaments1 which only proceed a certain distance up the trunk1 the longest being most internal4 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #e1 e1 exhibits those points in a hair considerably magnified4 ,these projections1 or serrations1 which vary in number in different specimens of wool1 are what it depends on for its felting properties4 ,they are sharper and more numerous in felting wools than in others1 and the better the felting properties of the wool1 the more numerous the curls2 because what induces curling on the animal's back leads to felting in the hands of the manufacturer4 ,in felting1 these projections catch one upon another1 and occasion the hair to move in one direction1 which is invariably root foremost1 as we perceive on giving it a twirling motion between the finger and thumb2 and it is only by the union of curve and serration1 that felting can be accomplished certainly and perfectly4 ,woolly fibre consists of a semitransparent stem1 or stalk1 supposed to be hollow1 as represented at ,fig4 #d1 ,pl4 ,v4 and is partly distinguished from hair by the latter being opaque4 ,next to soundness1 there are few qualities deserving of so much attention as softness1 of which the ancient writers make frequent mention1 and for the prevalence of which in our present wools fashion has done not a little4 ,it is a quality that tends1 in a material degree1 to the cheap and easy working of the cloth1 and1 as such1 is said to render wool #be per cent4 more valuable to the manufacturer than a harsh and brittle pile4 ,it apparently depends on the fineness of the fibre1 which should not1 however1 go the length of weakness4 ,fineness is in turn mainly connected with the yolk1 the secretion of which ought1 on that account1 to be promoted by attention to the general management of the animal1 as it is well known to undergo a change of properties by starvation1 exposure1 or any neglect whatever4 7#cb47 ,particular soils injurious to ,wool4--,soil1 also1 has much influence on the pliability of wool4 ,chalky lands1 which are so notorious for injuring the fleece1 are supposed to act in the manner of a corrosive1 but the correct explanation is1 not that the chalky particles attack the fibre in a direct way1 but that they render it brittle1 by absorbing the oily moisture with which it is naturally imbued4 ,moreover1 the plants growing in such situations cannot but be injurious to sheep1 owing to their impregnation1 though a slight one1 with calcareous matter2 for grooms know well how soon a horse's coat becomes disordered by the frequent use of hard or well water1 and prefer1 therefore1 the river for their steeds4#d #d ,i am surprized to find it asserted at page #gf of the book on ,sheep1 published by the ,society for the diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 that the depilatory action of lime-water on raw hides is a striking elucidation of the injurious effects of chalk on wool4 ,lime removes hair from a skin because it is a powerful caustic1 and1 as such1 speedily decomposes the animal matter1 but the carbonate of lime 7chalk7 is perfectly innocuous to wool1 except so far as it combines with its oil2 and is as little corrosive to the fleece1 as pipe-clay to a soldier's coat4 7#cc47 ,felting4--,the felting of wool may be defined as a property depending on the curls and serrations of the fibre1 by which it is allowed to move only with the root foremost1 and by which it is enabled to catch and retain a hold on fibres that are near it1 so as to form a web or cloth4 ,felting is best brought into operation by alternate pressure and relaxation1 which may be produced in a variety of ways3 the ancient method1 and one still pursued by the ,tartars1 was to tramp on a mass or layer of moist unwrought wool1 so as to form a coarse cloth or carpet2 while the modern1 and more perfect plan is1 either1 as in hat making1 to apply pressure with the hands1 or1 as in the finishing of cloth1 to pass the fabric repeatedly through rollers4 ,the way in which a close fabric is formed1 by the juxta-position of a few scattered hairs1 gave rise for long1 as well it might1 to serious disputations among philosophers2 and the favourite theories of each1 unbased as they were on observation1 might till now have agitated the scientific portion of our manufacturers1 had not the microscope brought to light much of what is true and valuable in our researches4 ,moisture appears to be of service during the felting of wool1 as it induces it to curl1 enabling the fibres to expand1 and catch one on another1 after they have been bent and compressed1 by the force applied to them1 and is of itself sufficient to felt a fabric1 as we frequently perceive in the instance of stockings1 which have been allowed to remain too long in water1 when they become short from undergoing contraction1 and resemble after such treatment an imperfect cloth4 ,it is for this reason that the hatter1 after tumbling over1 in all directions1 the fur of which the hat is to be made1 wets it before applying pressure2 and1 that the woollen manufacturer1 after freeing the web from grease1 soaps it before its subjection to the action of the rollers4 ,without felting1 cloth would resemble a net1 and would unravel on being cut1 from the fibres crossing only in two directions2 but the strokes of the mill put an end to this1 by laying the fibres in every possible direction1 and so twining them one with another1 as to render them a coherent mass4 7#cd47 ,different kinds of ,wool4--,the wool of this country is divided into two great classes--long and short3 the former varies in length from three to eight inches1 and before being made into stuffs and worsted goods1 requires to be deprived of its felting tendencies1 by passing it through heated iron combs1 which remove the feathery parts1 or serrations1 and make it resemble silk or cotton4 ,the shorter combing wools are in general used for hose1 and are softer than the long combing wools4 ,short wool is employed in the cloth manufacture1 and is1 on that account1 frequently called clothing wool4 ,it should approach in colour as much as possible to white1 as a clear white ground is required for all cloths that are to be dyed bright colours1 as well as for those dressed white3 grey or black hairs injure the fleece very much1 even though few and minute1 as they give rise to reddish spots where the cloth is stoved4 ,herefordshire sheep are entirely free from this defect1 and are1 therefore1 reckoned particularly valuable for clothing purposes4 7#ce47 ,alterations induced by ,crossing4--,the breed exercises considerable influence on the wool1 some sheep1 as the merinos1 being distinguished for the softness and beauty of the fleece2 while others1 as some of our small northern varieties1 are famed for the very opposite characteristics4 ,according to the opinion on the continent1 any race of ewes1 however coarse and long in the fleece1 will1 on the fourth cross of the merino ram1 give progeny with short wool equal to the ,spanish4 ,the truth of this proposition is however doubted1 in a communication to the ,board of ,agriculture1 by ,dr ,parry of ,bath2 but it is certain1 he adds1 that one cross more will in most cases effect the desired purpose4 ,if we suppose1 he says1 the result of the admixture of the blood of the merino ram to be always in an exact arithmetical proportion1 and state the native blood in the ewe as #fd1 then the first cross would give #cb_/fd of the merino1 the second #dh_/fd1 the third #ef_/fd1 the fourth #fj_/fd1 the fifth #fb_/fd1 and so on4 ,in other words1 the first cross would leave #cb parts in #fd1 or half of the ,english quality2 the second #af parts1 or one-fourth2 the third #h parts1 or one-eighth2 the fourth four parts1 or one-sixteenth2 the fifth #b parts or one-thirty-second2 the sixth #a part1 or one-sixty-fourth2 and so on4 ,now1 if the filament of the ,wiltshire1 or any other coarse wool1 be in diameter double that of the ,ryeland1 it is obvious that1 according to the above statement1 it would require exactly one cross more to bring the hybrid wool of the former to the same fineness as that of the latter4 ,this1 ,i believe1 very exactly corresponds with the fact4 ,the difference between one-eighth and one-sixteenth is very considerable1 and must certainly be easily perceived1 both by a good microscope1 and in the cloth which is manufactured from such wool4 ,in the latter method1 it certainly has been perceived2 but ,i have had hitherto no opportunity of trying the difference by the former4 ,the fifth cross1 as ,i have before observed1 brings the merino-,wilts wool to the same standard as the merino-,ryeland4 7#cf47 ,bratting injurious to ,wool4--,wool rendered fine by clothing sheep1 is never equal to that which owes its perfection to natural causes4 ,the ,saxon wool1 which is principally produced by artificial means1 has been compared1 from its inelastic sickly appearance1 to grass that has been secluded from the sun4 ,the custom of bratting is therefore not to be recommended1 and indeed is now nearly laid aside4 ,housing sheep with the same intentions is also bad1 inasmuch as it must affect their health1 and destroy the curl of the fibre4 ,shelter is however absolutely necessary from extremes both of heat and cold1 as temperature has much influence on the covering of animals1 and in none more than the sheep4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,british ,,wool ,,trade4 7#cg47 ,origin of the ,wool ,trade4--,wool1 since ,eden closed its gates on our progenitors has been a current coin1 an important material1 on which has been employed the skill and industry of almost every tribe1 and been the means of raising many a petty people to the hard-won dignity of a nation4 ,man1 at first placed in a comfortable temperature1 needed little as a defence against the weather2 while fashion1 then unthought of1 or only as a sport1 failed to interest the simple-minded races in the cut or texture of the coverings they wore4 ,that the first dresses of mankind were formed from vegetable materials1 we have the highest authority for believing2 and even at present1 the garb of the natives of some of our lately discovered islands1 consists of a simple girdle formed from rough-cut reeds4 ,but as the dawn of knowledge smiled upon the savage1 and animal sacrifice tutored him in the uncouth rudiments of a coarse anatomy1 the superior comfort1 even of the untanned hide would be remarked1 and the clumsy mantle of the ,caffre hordes welcomed as a change4 ,time would not long elapse till roving dispositions1 and the encounter of unstable climates1 would show the wanderer the necessity of a fabric better adjusted by shape and pliancy1 to the nature of his wants2 while the clinging of lock to lock of woolly fibre would plainly tell the superfluous nature of the supporting skin1 and point the way to make an ill-closed cloth4 7#ch47 ,invention of ,weaving4--,weaving is not absolutely necessary for the manufacture of cloth1 since wool will felt1 though far from evenly1 without the preliminary process of being laid in threads1 so that cloth may have been almost coeval with mankind without our being required to assign much mechanical ingenuity to its inventors4 ,but we have tolerably clear evidence in the inspired writings1 that weaving was known in the earliest ages1 and that it was trusted principally to the women3--,thus ,delilah wove ,samson's hair when he slept in her lap2 and a short time after1 it is written1 that the mother of ,samuel made him a little coat1 and brought it to him from year to year4 ,at a later period1 ,solomon thus describes a good wife3--,she seeketh wool and flax1 and worketh willingly with her hands4#e ,that garments were in those early ages made of several pieces1 joined by needle work1 is evident on a perusal of ,genesis1 xxxvii4 #c2 ,judges1 v4 #cj2 and #b ,samuel1 xiii4 #ac2 and this plan is allowed to be even more ancient than the weaving of flax4 ,job1 who flourished1 or is supposed to have flourished1 before the ,israelites left ,egypt1 shows clearly by his words that flannel clothing was then in vogue3 ,let me be condemned if ,i have seen any perish for want of clothing1 or any poor without covering2 if his loins have not blessed me1 and if he were not warmed with the fleece of my sheep2 and that the cloth was woven1 and not produced by beating1 is evident from his saying1 when complaining of his sad estate1 ,my days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle4 #e ,the art of weaving was first practised at ,arach in ,babylonia1 and spread thence to neighbouring cities1 and in process of time to the most remote parts of the world4--,bryant's ,ancient ,mythology1 ,vol4 v4 p4 #agc4 7#ci47 ,the early progress of the ,wool ,trade is veiled in much obscurity1 and only to be discovered by seeking for it in a mass of fable1 which in many instances enabled the old writers to string together the dry details of history1 in a manner suited to the taste and habit of their time4 ,the following may be taken as a specimen4 ,phryxus1 the son of ,athamas king of ,thebes1 fleeing with his sister1 ,helle1 from their stepmother1 and riding upon 7carrying with him7 a ram which had a golden 7valuable7 fleece1 sought to cross the ,dardanelles1 when ,helle was drowned1 and the sea was ever after called the ,hellespont3 but ,phryxus arrived safely at ,colchis1 between the ,black and ,caspian seas1 and having sacrificed the ram to ,mars1 hung the fleece in a temple dedicated to that god4 ,by this the ancients no doubt meant to intimate1 either that ,boeotia1 the birth-place of so many talented ,greeks1 furnished the people of ,colchis with sheep1 or that they sent them sums of money in exchange for the wool of ,caucasus4 ,that the latter is the more probable1 is apparent from ,ovid's account of the ,argonautic expedition1 in which he shows the hardships which ,jason encountered in his successful endeavours 7,b4,c4 #abbe7 to bring the golden fleece from ,colchis back to ,greece--implying the value of the article1 and leading us to believe1 that the ,colchians had1 by the aid of severe penalties1 long monopolized the growth of wool4 ,moreover1 ,mount ,caucasus and its neighbourhood form the favoured nursery whence the improved fleece-bearing animals have gradually spread over the world2 and as such would be looked upon1 at the time ,i speak of1 by adjacent tribes with jealousy and hatred2 for where is the nation that can calmly behold a compeer engrossing a hoard of wealth1 without struggling to lower their prices by a market of their own8 ,thus one country after another became impressed with the advantages to be derived from the husbandry of sheep4 ,nation after nation improved its agriculture1 by the introduction of the animal1 till at last the ,romans became pre-eminent for their attention to its culture1 and to the manufactures of which it is the fruitful source4 ,generous even to an enemy1 and attacking only to enrich the countries they subdued1 ,england may bless the hour which saw the legions of the world's mistress planting the ,imperial ,eagle on her shores4 ,instead of following the progress of the wool trade among foreign nations in later times1 the limits of the present work compel me to confine myself to an outline of the ,british trade from its origin1 at the time of the invasion by the ,romans1 to the present period4 7#dj47 ,introduction of ,weaving into ,britain4--,it is evident from ancient history1 that the first inhabitants of all the countries of ,europe were either naked1 or nearly so1 owing to their ignorance of the clothing art4 ,such1 in particular1 was the uncomfortable condition of the inhabitants of this island1 who are supposed to have used the bark of trees1 and to have smeared themselves with unctuous matter1 after the manner of other savages1 to protect themselves from cold4 ,some writers are of opinion1 that the inner bark of trees alone was employed1 and that not till woven into a kind of cloth1 such as the ,south ,sea islanders at present make4 ,they continued the abominable practice of anointing their bodies1 long after the people of ,france1 ,spain1 and ,germany1 were decently clothed1 so differently were they situated in regard to intercourse with strangers1 and opportunities of acquiring the useful arts4 ,it is impossible to discover with certainty when1 or by whom1 the custom of wearing clothes was introduced into ,britain4 ,some suppose that the ,greeks1 and after them the ,phoenicians1 who visited the ,scilly islands1 and sometimes the continent of ,britain1 for trading purposes1 first awakened in the breasts of our savage ancestors a desire for comfortable coverings1 as both these nations were celebrated for elaborate attention to their attire4 ,the ,britons1 says ,caesar1 in the interior parts of the country are clothed in skins4 ,these are supposed not to have been sewed together1 but to have been cast over the shoulders as a mantle4 ,their stiffness1 however1 rendered them aught but pleasant1 as we may guess from their endeavours to make them soft and pliable1 by steeping in water1 beating them with stones and sticks1 and rubbing them with fat4 ,the people of the southern parts are supposed to have been well acquainted with the dressing1 spinning1 and weaving1 both of flax and wool1 having been instructed by a ,belgic colony1 long before the invasion by the ,romans4 ,two kinds of cloth1 which they manufactured at this period1 were much esteemed by their invaders2 the one a thick harsh cloth1 worn in cold climates as a sort of mantle1 and agreeing in many respects with our ,lowland plaids2 the other made of fine wool1 dyed of different colours1 woven into chequered cloth1 and corresponding to our ,highland tartan4 ,they are also believed to have made felts of wool1 without either spinning or weaving1 and to have stuffed mattresses with the portions shorn from it in dressing4 ,the ,britons must have been well acquainted with the dyeing of wool1 as the ,gauls were then celebrated1 according to ,pliny1 for the invention of a method of dyeing purple1 scarlet1 and all other colours1 only with certain herbs4 ,the plant1 which they chiefly used for the purpose1 was the glastum or woad1 and they seem to have been led to the discovery of its value in dyeing cloth1 from their former use of it in staining their bodies4 ,a deep blue having been the colour they stained their skins1 it long continued a favourite2 particularly1 with the ,caledonians1 as a tint for all their dresses4 ,though the most civilized of the ancient ,britons were tolerably versed in the most essential branches of the woollen manufacture1 yet that useful art was not diffused over our island till the landing of the ,romans1 whose soldiers1 being almost all drawn from the plough1 were well adapted1 when settled in the country1 to foster the arts of peace4 ,in order to benefit themselves and the island1 their emperors were at great pains to discover and procure the best artificers of every description1 particularly the best manufacturers of woollen and linen cloths1 whom they formed into colleges1 or corporations1 endowed with various privileges1 and governed by a procurator1 who was under the direction of that great officer of their empire1 the ,count of the ,sacred ,largesses4 ,in this manner it appears that the first woollen manufactory was established at ,venta ,belgarum1 now ,winchester1 a hundred years after the conquest of the country4 ,it has been believed1 from ,britain having been partly peopled from ,spain1 that our sheep were originally ,spanish2 and1 as ,giraldus ,cambrensis 7,collectan4 de ,reb4 ,hibern47 affirms1 that the ,irish in his time were clothed in black garments1 from the wool of their sheep being so coloured1 some have supposed the sheep of that island were imported from ,spain1 a supposition rendered probable by ,southey telling us1 in his letters from that country1 that in the north of the ,peninsula the animals are almost all of a black colour4 ,no mention ever occurs in the ancient writers1 of the importation of sheep into ,britain1 from which it may be supposed1 that they had found their way into it long before its forcible separation from the continent by natural convulsions4 ,cambden1 in his work on ,britain1 quotes from an old orator1 part of a beautiful panegyric on the great ,constantine1 in which the happiness of ,britain is eloquently described1 and its advantages in regard to sheep graphically depicted4 ,innumerable are thy herds of cattle1 and thy flocks of sheep1 which feed thee plentifully1 and clothe thee richly4 ,so that1 even allowing for the high-flown nature of the verbiage1 the sheep of the island must have been far from indifferent1 and well worthy of any trouble the grasping ,romans may have been put to1 in the erection of manufactories4 7#da47 ,importance of the ,british ,woollen ,manufacture4--,the history of our wool1 and the woollen manufacture1 is1 at one period and in one point of view1 the history of our public revenue1 while in a succeeding period it becomes the capital object of our commerce1 and the important subject of our political councils4 ,the preserving and supporting it against foreign rivals1 the due regulation of its numerous branches1 and the proper restrictions deemed requisite to ensure to this country the commercial benefits resulting from it1 have occupied our ablest statesmen for many centuries4 ,the wools of ,england have always been in the highest repute1 and that more abroad than at home4 ,their fineness and abundance have been ascribed by many to the sweet short grass on most of our downs and pastures1 and to the sheep having the privilege of feeding1 all the year round1 without being shut in folds2 but it cannot be denied1 that1 though food and climate may have much concern in the matter1 the energetic industry and persevering attention with which an ,englishman devotes himself to the attainment of an object1 have tended more than any other circumstance to the advancement of our wools1 and woollen manufactures1 and to the consequent prosperity of our island4 ,the reason of the existence of so many laws relating to wool is1 that it continued for ages to be the principal commodity1 meeting all demands for the support of armies1 and payment of public revenues1 and affording aids to the crown1 which were in general granted therein4 ,the scarcity of money in ,england before the discovery of ,america1 rendered it necessary to levy taxes frequently in kind1 and as wool was abundant1 it often figured as the representative of a more portable currency4 ,part of the ,l#cjj1jjj demanded by the ,emperor of ,germany as the ransom of ,richard ,i41 was raised by a loan of wool4 ,edward ,i41 the great reformer of our laws1 imposed a duty of #fs4 #h;d4 on every sack of wool exported1 and the like sum on every #cjj wool-fells2 but soon after1 when his necessities demanded a larger income1 he laid those additional duties on foreign merchants1 which afterwards became the tonnage and poundage1 so famous in ,england's history4 ,among these additions1 the former taxes on wool and fells were increased by forty pence1 while at the same time1 like other monarchs of the period1 he occasionally received subsidies of wool4 ,in the same way ,edward ,,iii41 in attempting1 during the twelfth year of his reign1 to wrest the crown of ,france from the house of ,valois1 procured a grant of half the wool in ,england1 amounting to #bj1jjj packs1 which1 taking it as valued by some authors at ,l#dj a pack1 must have realized the sum of ,l#hjj1jjj4 7#db47 ,weavers brought from ,flanders4--,commerce and industry were at a very low ebb during the time of ,edward ,,iii41 the principal export being wool1 which only brought into the kingdom about ,l#dej1jjj4 ,edward promoted the woollen manufacture by bringing1 in #acca1 ,john ,kemp1 with seventy ,walloon families1 weavers1 from ,flanders1 and1 owing to the want of native skill in this department1 gave every encouragement to foreign weavers4 7#aa ,edward ,,iii4 cap4 #e47f ,a further encouragement was given to the home manufacture1 by the enactment of a law 7#aa ,edward ,,iii4 cap4 #b7 which prohibited every one from wearing any cloth not of ,english fabric4 ,parliament1 however1 in an evil hour1 thwarted these benefits1 by prohibiting the exportation of woollen goods1 certainly an injurious step1 so long as wool was allowed to be shipped from our ports4 #f ,macpherson1 in his ,annals of ,commerce1 agrees with ,bloomfield the historian of ,norfolk1 that a colony of ,flemish weavers settled so early as #acbg1 at ,worsted1 a village in that county1 and bestowed upon it the name it bears4 ,on the introduction of the ,flemish weavers1 ,kendal became the metropolis of this branch of industry1 and was soon equalled in the extent of its manufactories by many other towns1 as ,norwich1 ,sudbury1 ,colchester1 and ,york2 while woollens were spun and wove1 though to a less extent1 in ,devonshire1 ,worcestershire1 ,gloucestershire1 ,hampshire1 ,berkshire ,sussex1 and ,wales4 7#dc47 ,regulations regarding ,staples4--,the staple1 or market for wool1 was fixed by act of ,parliament 7#bg ,edward ,,iii47 in particular towns of ,england1 but was afterwards removed by law to ,calais1 and ,english merchants were prohibited from exporting any goods from the staple1 or1 in other words1 foreign navigation was abandoned4 ,to the custom of taking subsidies in kind1 may be traced the principle of those multifarious regulations which fixed the staple in certain towns1 either in ,england1 or more commonly on the continent2 and to the fluctuating state of politics may be ascribed the shiftings which those staples so frequently underwent2 but it is not easy to see the drift of many of the provisions relating to it1 some of which tend to the benefit of foreign1 rather than of ,british1 commerce4 7#dd47 ,the progress which this manufacture made in a very short period1 may be well illustrated by the following table of exports and imports in woollen1 about the middle of the fourteenth century1 or twenty years after the arrival of ,john ,kemp and his establishment4 ,,exports4 ,thirty-one thousand1 six hundred and fifty-one and a half of wool1 at ,l4#f value each sack1 ,l#ahi1iji #j #j ,three thousand1 thirty-six hundred and sixty-five fells1 at #djs4 value1 each hundred at six score1 #f1jgc #a #h ,whereof the custom amounts to #ha1fbd #a #a ,fourteen last1 seventeen dicker1 and five hides of leather1 after ,l4#f value the last #hi #e #j ,whereof the custom amounts to4 #f #ag #f #h1jfa-a_/b of worsted1 after #afs4 #h;d4 value1 the price is #f1gag #ah #d ,whereof the custom amounts to #bae #ac #g --------------- ,summary of the out-carried commodities in value and custom1 ,l#bhe1fce #ag #b --------------- ,,imports4 #a1hcb cloths1 after ,l4#f value each1 #aj1ibb #j #j ,whereof the custom amounts to #ia #ab #j --------------- ,summary of the in-brought woollens in value and custom1 ,l#aa1jac #ab #j ,that the imported cloths were much finer than those exported1 may be inferred from their comparative value as here stated1 and we may conclude pretty justly1 that the fabrication of coarse cloths exclusively occupied the manufacturers of ,britain1 while the finer fabrics were still brought from abroad1 and that1 in fact1 the wants of the mass of the people were the regulators of ,british industry4 7#de47 ,subsidies raised by ,edward ,,iii4--,in #acch1 ,edward took a fifteenth of all the commonalty of his realm in wool1 rating the price of every stone of #ad lbs4 at #bs41 although1 in the previous ,november1 he had sent the ,bishop of ,lincoln1 and the ,earls of ,suffolk and ,northampton1 with one thousand sacks of wool1 into ,brabant1 which1 being sold at ,l4#dj a sack1 procured him ,l4#dj1jjj4 ,edward was apparently not very sure how far his subjects would submit to so sweeping a taxation1 as we find him addressing a letter1 dated ,berwick-upon-,tweed1 ,march #bhth1 #acch1 to the ,archbishops of ,york and ,canterbury1 desiring the favour of their prayers1 and requesting that they would excuse him to his people1 on account of the great taxes he was obliged to lay upon them4 ,during the summer of #acci1 the laity granted to the king the one-half of their wools throughout the whole realm1 a favour his majesty is reported to have received most graciously2 but of the clergy he levied the whole1 compelling them to pay nine merks for every sack of the best wool4 ,knighton1 who held an office in the ,abbey of ,leicester1 says that that house alone furnished eighteen sacks4 ,the revenue officers during this reign appear to have exercised their calling with great strictness1 and to have interfered in an especial manner with the secret trade of the inhabitants of ,bristol1 but this was terminated by the king granting a licence1 dated ,langley1 ,november #beth1 #acci1 to their weavers1 allowing them to make woollen cloth without being liable to any molestation from the king's officers4 7#df47 ,progress of the trade under ,henry ,,vii41 ,henry ,,viii41 and ,edward ,,vi4--,during the bloody and destructive wars of the white and red roses1 when success graced the arms alternately of ,york and ,lancaster1 commercial enterprise was almost at a stand4 ,this unhappy period brought1 however1 with all its evils1 blessings in its train1 and ,henry ,,vii4 not only did more for the advancement of the wool-trade than his predecessors1 but also gave it greater vigour than it could lay claim to at any former period4 ,fine cloths were much improved in his reign1 and luxury began to be attended to in an article1 which1 till then1 had only been rendered amenable to comfort4 ,the ostentatious reign of ,henry ,,viii41 gave an additional impulse to the trade1 and cloth was sold in #aeab for five merks1 which fifty years before would only have brought about forty shillings2 while1 in consequence of increasing wealth1 population1 and consumption1 the demand was materially increased4 ,a new market was also opened up for the exit of their woollens1 by the establishment of an intercourse in #aeaf with several islands in the ,archipelago1 and a few of the towns on the coast of ,syria4 ,edward ,,vi41 or rather his ministers1 for he was then a minor1 attempted to lay a poll-tax upon sheep1 every ewe kept in a separate pasture being charged threepence1 every wedder twopence1 and all sheep kept on commons three-halfpence2 but it was found to be so oppressive1 so annoying to the people1 and so difficult to collect1 that it was repealed during the next year4 ,england made a distinguished figure in this reign as a commercial nation4 ,the manufacture of woollens was raised to a great height4 ,cloth1 besides being exported to ,flanders1 found its way to ,holland1 ,hamburgh1 ,sweden1 and ,russia1 whose coarse warm stuffs were very much wanted1 and the trade wore such an air of affluence1 that a tax of eightpence in the pound was laid upon all cloth made for sale in ,england4 ,this1 however1 was speedily repealed1 a very short time serving to point out1 that1 though made for an endurance of three prosperous years1 the people who were galled by a trifling impost on their sheep1 would not1 unless under very favourable circumstances1 submit to imposts on the fabrics which they wore4 ,during the reigns of ,henry ,,vii41 ,henry ,,viii41 and ,edward ,,vi41 an undue preference was given to grazing4 ,acts were framed to put a stop to this mismanagement1 which was fast ruining the country1 by driving people from it4 ,henry ,,vii4 exempted ,norwich from the penalties of the law1 on account of the decay of manufactures from the want of hands2 and shortly after the whole county of ,norfolk obtained a like exemption in regard to some branches of the woollen trade4 ,the practice of depopulating the country1 by abandoning tillage1 and throwing the lands into pasturage1 had run to so great an extent in the time of ,henry ,,viii41 that an enactment was made1 whereby the king became entitled to half the rents of the land where any farm-houses were allowed to fall to decay4 ,the number of sheep in a flock was at the same time limited to two thousand4 ,hume conjectures1 in his ,history of ,england1 that unskilful husbandry was probably the cause why the proprietors found no profit in tillage2--thus leading a farmer to keep a flock sometimes of twenty-four thousand as expressed in the statute4 ,this had the effect of increasing the price of mutton1 a remarkable coincidence1 which parliament attributes to the commodity having gotten into few hands1 though ,hume ascribes it to the daily increase of money1 thinking it almost impossible that such an article could be engrossed4 ,at the commencement of the reign of ,edward ,,vi41 the people were still sadly deficient in a knowledge of agriculture--a profession1 which1 as ,hume wisely remarks1 of all employments1 requires the most reflection and experience4 ,a great demand having arisen for wool both at home and abroad1 whole estates were laid waste1 while the tenants1 regarded as a useless burden1 were expelled their habitations1 and the cottagers deprived even of the commons on which they fed their cows2 no wonder there was a decay of the people6 7#dg47 ,wool ,trade encouraged by ,elizabeth4--,elizabeth extended her protection to the ,protestants who fled from the persecutions of the ,duke of ,alva in the ,low ,countries1 and the woollen manufactories became more flourishing than ever--so much so1 that1 although in #aeeb1 a large quantity of raw material was exported1 yet in less than thirty years1 the people of ,germany1 ,poland1 ,france1 ,flanders1 ,denmark1 and ,sweden1 were covered with ,british cloths2 two hundred thousand pieces being annually exported1 though the price was nearly tripled4 ,at that time the processes by which woollens are rendered beautiful were unknown in ,england1 and as our exports consisted in white undressed cloth1 the profits upon dyeing and finishing1 amounting to nearly a million a year1 were lost4 ,this was attempted to be remedied by prohibiting the exportation of white cloths1 but the ,dutch and ,germans1 who benefitted by the dyeing processes1 forbade the entrance of any ,english woollens dyed in the piece1 into their territories1 and the export consequently fell immediately from #bjj1jjj to sixty pieces4 ,then the restriction was taken off4 ,it was at this crisis that the fabrication of medley cloths1 or mixtures of wool dyed of different colours and wrought into the same web1 was commenced4 7#dh47 ,woollen ,cloth monopolized by the merchant adventurers4--,though nine-tenths of the commerce of the kingdom consisted in the time of ,james ,i4 of woollen goods1 wool was allowed to be exported till the nineteenth year of his reign1 when it was forbidden by proclamation1 but never strictly enforced4 ,the cloth was very little admired even at home1 and though it was the staple commodity of the realm1 a company of merchant adventurers were allowed by a patent1 to possess the sole disposal of it4 ,elizabeth at one time attempted to rescue this important trade from the hands of these merchants1 but they instantly conspired1 and ceased to make purchases of cloth1 when the queen was necessitated to restore the patent4 ,a board of trade was brought together by ,james ,i4 in #afbb1 and one of the purposes contemplated was to remedy the low price of wool1 which was leading the people to complain of the decay of the woollen manufacture2 but ,hume supposes1 and with every appearance of probability1 that this fall of prices proceeded from an increase of wool4 7#di47 ,english consumption of ,wool increased4--,till the fifteenth century our wool was sold in the fleece to such as came to buy it4 ,among the principal of our customers were numbered the ,flemings1 and ,brabanters1 and in particular the merchants of ,ghent1 and ,louvain1 who took off vast quantities for the supply of two manufactories1 that had flourished in those cities from the tenth century1 and had furnished the greater part of ,europe1 and even ,england itself1 with every kind of woollen cloth4 ,thus they might have continued1 to the great loss of our island1 had not the democratic hands employed in those manufactories repeatedly revolted1 owing to their determination to resist a tax on looms1 and being at length punished and dispersed1 found their way in no long time to ,holland4 ,while in the last place1 the spirit of sedition still being dominant1 certain of their party attacked and killed some of the civil authorities1 for which they had to make a precipitate flight to ,england1 where they settled as peaceful citizens1 and instructed our people in the working of wool4 ,this occurred in #adbj1 from which time neither skill1 money1 nor enactments1 have been spared to enable us to retain so valuable a trade4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 every pack of ,english wool was liable when exported to a custom of #ejs41 a goodly sum in those days1 and one which brought a yearly revenue of ,l #bej1jjj4 ,this excessive custom1 almost amounting to a prohibition1 added to the above mentioned opportunities1 in a manner compelled the people to manufacture for themselves1 and in this they succeeded so well1 that by the time of ,elizabeth1 the exportation of live sheep and wool was prohibited on pain of having the right hand struck off4 ,it does not appear that this enactment was ever repealed1 though supposed to be so by the #abth of ,charles ,,ii4 cap4 #cb1 see4 #c1 which1 without taking away the penalties imposed by former statutes1 imposes a new penalty2--#bjs4 for every sheep exported1 or attempted to be exported1 together with the forfeiture of the sheep4 7#ej47 ,severity of prohibitory enactments reprobated4--,by the #adth of ,charles ,,ii4 chap4 #ah the exportation of wool was deemed felony1 and punished accordingly4 ,this tended in no slight degree to the defeat of the ends intended1 by hindering all who were not cold-blooded from bringing to justice the actors in so trifling an offence4 ,this was soon however seen through1 and corrected1 by the #gth and #hth of ,william ,,iii4 chap4 #bh1 sec4 #d1 in which it was declared1 that ,whereas the statute of the #acth and #adth of ,king ,charles ,,ii41 made against the exportation of wool1 among other things in the said act mentioned1 doth enact the same to be deemed felony1 by the severity of which penalty the prosecution of offenders hath not been so effectually put into execution2 be it therefore enacted1 by the authority aforesaid1 that so much of the said act1 which relates to the making the said offence felony1 be repealed and made void4 ,adam ,smith1 when commenting in his ,wealth of ,nations1 on the laws relating to wool1 reprobates severely the ill-judged compliance of our government1 in yielding to the solicitation of our merchants1 and allowing them to sway with iron rule the commerce of the world4 ,the severity of many of the laws which have been enacted for the security of the revenue1 is very justly complained of1 as imposing heavy penalties upon actions1 which1 antecedent to the statutes that declared them to be crimes1 had always been understood to be innocent4 ,but the cruelest of our revenue laws1 ,i will venture to affirm1 are mild and gentle in comparison to some of those which the clamour of our merchants and manufacturers has extorted from the legislature1 for the support of their own absurd and oppressive monopolies4 ,like the laws of ,draco1 these laws may be said to be all written in blood4 ,none of the laws1 however1 were effectual1 not even the one passed in the middle of the seventeenth century1 by which the offence was rendered capital4 ,in spite of the vigilance of our government1 a contraband trade in wool was long carried on between the inhabitants of the ,french and ,english coasts1 especially those of ,sussex1 by a class of men called ,owlers1 from their only venturing abroad in the night1 and who were tempted to despise the penalty1 with an intrepidity astonishing to the rest of ,europe1 by the high prices that were sure to be afforded to them in the ,gallic market4 ,again1 during the first half of the eighteenth century1 large quantities of wool were constantly smuggled from ,ireland to ,france1 by which our trading interests were considerably injured1 and the plans for suppressing exportation shown to be worse than useless4 7#ea47 ,prosperity of the ,dutch ,manufacturers4--,the woollen manufactures of the ,hollanders were first established in #afcf1 or #afcg1 by one hundred and forty ,english families1 who went from ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 to settle at ,leyden1 and ,alkmaer4 ,the ,dutch manufacture of fine woollen cloths was1 however1 commenced much earlier1 or about #afbd1 at which time they began to interfere with the ,english trade in the ,netherlands2 insomuch that1 in the twenty-second year of the reign of ,james ,i41 a certificate was given to the ,parliament of #be1jjj cloths having been made that year in ,holland4 ,upon this the ,house of ,commons resolved1 #ast1 ,that the merchant adventurers setting impost upon our cloth1 is a grievance1 and ought not to be continued2 and that all other merchants promiscuously1 as well as that company1 may transport everywhere northern and western kersies1 and new draperies4 #b;dly4 ,that other merchants1 besides the ,merchant ,adventurers' ,company1 may freely trade with dyed and dressed cloths1 and all sorts of coloured cloths1 into ,germany and the ,low ,countries4 ,much annoyance appears to have resulted to this island1 from the progress which the manufacturers in ,holland still continued to make1 and some curious speculations were of course formed in the minds of the ingenious4 ,in #afea1 a scheme was laid before the ,english commonwealth1 for obtaining from the court of ,spain an exclusive right to purchase all the ,spanish wool2 or1 in other words1 to ruin the ,holland market1 by stopping the supplies4 ,the projector observed1 ,that this proposed preemption would totally dissolve the woollen manufacture of ,holland1 which1 by means of that wool 7,spanish71 hath of late years mightily increased1 to the destruction of the vent of all fine cloths1 of ,english manufacture1 in ,holland1 ,france1 and the east country2 and hath drawn from us considerable numbers of weavers1 dyers1 and cloth workers1 now settled at ,leyden1 and other towns in ,holland1 by whose help they have very much improved their skill in cloth1 and have made in that one province 7one year with another7 #bd1jjj or #bf1jjj cloths yearly4 ,that the ,hollanders have of late years bought and exported from ,biscay1 four-fifth parts at least of all their wools1 and have sold there proportionally of their own country stuffs4 ,this was certainly a novel method of accomplishing an end by a sweeping monopoly2 but the theory was too fine-spun ever to be reducible to practice4 7#eb47 ,fluctuating ,state of the ,trade between #afce and #afic4--;,by the great act of tonnage and poundage1 passed in #affj1 on the restoration of ,charles ,,ii41 taxes were imposed1 among other things1 on the exportation of woollen manufactures1 and it was not till the reign of ,william1 that the wretched policy of such regulations was discovered1 and a law was passed in #agjj1 by which the duties on woollens were abolished1 because in the words of the act 7ll #ab ,william ,,iii4 chap4 #bj71 the wealth and prosperity of the kingdom doth1 in a great measure1 depend on the improvement of its woollen manufactures1 and the profitable trade carried on by the exportation thereof4 ,in the time of ,charles ,,ii41 an act was passed for the erection of manufactories 7,par4 ,i1 ,sess4 ,i1 ,cap4 #dj71 by which it is enacted1 that no native or stranger is to export wool nor skins with wool upon them1 until made into work1 or put to the best advantage1 under the pain of first value thereof1 half to the king1 and half to the informer4 ,it is also1 in this act1 ordered1 that none forestall the mercat of wooll1 nor keep up the same to a dearth1 under the pain against regrators and forestallers1 and that for eschewing the deceit of putting stones1 or the like stuffs therein1 no wooll be wrapt up in the fleece1 under the pain of confiscation1 half to the king1 and half to the discoverer and pursuer1 declaring always that the ,exchequer may licence the export of wool and skins1 as they shall see cause4 ,the ,french refugees1 in #afce1 brought money and talent into ,england1 and contributed greatly to the erection of manufactories for slight stuffs1 and other ,french fabrics1 never before made in ,england4 ,the former law for burying in woollen not being well observed1 it was repealed by an ,act of ,parliament1 in the thirtieth year of that king 7cap4 #c471 which enacted a register to be kept in every parish1 by the incumbent or his substitute1 that every thing about the corpse of the deceased was made of sheep's wool1 of which an affidavit was to be made by the relation of the deceased1 and lodged with the incumbent1 under the penalty of ,l#e1 a moiety of which went to the poor of the parish2 the rest to the informer4 ,but this was a sorry check1 as vanity was so predominant among the rich1 that they paid the penalty rather than want the pleasure of adorning their departed relatives with lace and linen4 ,in #affg1 ,france supplanted ,england in many foreign markets1 owing to the care that ,colbert at that time took to bring the ,french woollens to perfection4 ,the ,english immediately turned their attention to other manufactures1 in which1 as in that of paper1 they quickly excelled1 and thus compelled the ,french to abandon markets1 in which they had long remained without a rival4 ,in #afih1 a problem was started concerning the manufactures of the country--whether or not a general linen manufacture would prove beneficial to ,england8 ,as ,london at this time abounded with new projects and schemes1 all promising as usual a hoard of wealth1 the question caused much excitement4 ,it was at last determined that a novelty of this kind would lead to the sowing of a great quantity of flax in ,england1 and the neglect of the woollen manufacture1 which would follow1 might probably lower the price of land2 for1 as they said at the time1 it requires about twenty acres of land to breed wool1 for setting on work the same number of hands which one acre of flax would employ2 and yet1 in the end1 the woollen manufacture will be found to employ by far the greatest number of hands1 and yield the most profit to the public1 as well as to the manufacturers4 7#ec47 ,irish ,manufactures discouraged4--,in the same year 7#afih71 the ,english house of ,peers addressed ,king ,william with the view of inducing him to discourage the woollen manufactures of ,ireland1 which1 in spite of many restrictions1 still continued to cause much vexation to the monopolizers of ,england4 ,the address ran thus3--,the growing manufacture of cloth in ,ireland1 both by the cheapness of all sorts of the necessaries of life1#g and the goodness of materials for making all manner of cloth1 doth invite his subjects of ,england1 with their families and servants1 to leave their habitation to settle there1 to the increase of the woollen manufacture in ,ireland1 which makes his loyal subjects in this kingdom very apprehensive1 that the further growth of it may greatly prejudice the said manufacture here2 and praying1 that his ,majesty would be pleased1 in the most public and effectual way that may be1 to declare to all his subjects of ,ireland1 that the growth and increase of the woollen manufacture there1 hath long1 and will ever be1 looked upon with great jealousy by all his subjects of this kingdom4 ,a similar address was presented by the ,commons1 and this most liberal and enlightened monarch was pleased to answer1 ,gentlemen1 ,i will do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen manufacture of ,ireland4 ,this was certainly altogether a strange proceeding1 especially when viewed in conjunction with the cruel prohibitions of former periods4#h ,their foreign trade is said by some to have been much diminished by this coolness2 but much of the poignancy and crushing animosity of the request are lost when we consider that encouragement was at the same time given by ,england to the making of ,irish linen1 his ,majesty being desired in the same address1 to forward that manufacture1 pursuant to the dictates of an act passed in #afif4 ,nay1 some are of opinion that these measures resulted from the soundest views of the relative situations of the countries1 and that the prudent tenor of ,english enactments was never better exhibited1 than in the discouragement of the woollen and encouragement of the linen manufactures of ,ireland4 #g ,the people of ,ireland produced worsted and woollen yarn at a cheaper rate than we could1 owing to their poor being able to work on lower terms than those of ,england4 ,this was owing to the rent of land being less in ,ireland than in ,england4 #h ,by the #ahth of ,charles ,,ii4 the importation from ,ireland into ,england of great cattle1 sheep1 swine1 beef1 pork and bacon1 and shortly after of mutton1 lamb1 butter1 and cheese1 was declared a common nuisance1 and forbidden on pain of forfeiture4 ,thus1 the principal resource of a poor country in the neighbourhood of a rich one1 was unfeelingly denied to it1 till the reign of ,george ,,iii41 when the hated edict was repealed4 7#ed47 ,british ,trade in #afii4--;,in #afii there were #ab1jjj1jjj sheep and lambs in ,britain1 and the yearly increase was supposed to be about #c1fjj1jjj4 ,the value of each sheep1 besides the skin1 was #gs4 #d;d4 ,the stock was valued at ,l#d1djj1jjj4 ,the value of the wool yearly shorn1 at #cs4 #d;d4 per fleece1 came to about ,l#b1jjj1jjj4 ,the woollens manufactured in ,britain amounted in value to ,l#e1jjj1jjj per annum1 while our yearly exports of the same were valued at ,l#b1jjj1jjj4 ,many were at that time afraid of the sinking of the woollen manufacture1 because the accounts of the fine draperies exported were larger than usual2 but1 says an anonymous essayist of the period1 such do not contemplate1 that1 though the old may be lessened1 what is commonly called the new draperies have increased1 consisting in bays1 serges1 and stuffs4 ,so that upon the whole1 infinitely more of the material of wool has of late years been wrought up for foreign use1 than in former times2 and herein our merchants have been only forced to follow the modes and humours of those people with whom they deal1 and the course they have pursued has hitherto not been detrimental to the public4 99 99 99 ',twere better1 indeed1 that the call from abroad were only for the fine draperies1 because then we should be in a manner without a rival2 no country1 but ,england1 and ,ireland1 having a sward or turf that will rear sheep1 producing the wool of which most of our draperies are made4 ',tis true the wool of ,spain is fine above all others2 but 'tis the wear only of the richer sort1 and of ,spanish cloths not above nine thousand pieces are sent abroad1 one year with another4 7#ee47 ,british ,woollens rivalled by those of ,sweden4--,before the peace of ,utrecht in #agac1 we had no rival in the woollen trade but the ,dutch1 over whom we had many natural advantages1 such as situation1 goodness of our ports1 and excellence of the principal constituents of the manufacture4 ,they were obliged to furnish themselves with the materials at second-hand4 ,when the trade in woollens was properly set a-foot in ,england1 during the long and happy reign of ,elizabeth1 the interest of money was pretty much the same in both countries2 but the ,dutch were engaged in a hazardous and bloody war1 and in establishing their ,commonwealth1 and ,east ,india trade2 and1 therefore1 had not much time to think of improving any manufacture4 ,owing to these circumstances1 we came into possession of all the principal marts for woollens1 both in ,asia and ,europe1 and retained them till the beginning of the war with ,france and ,spain2 we then prohibited trade with both these countries4 ,about the year #agbj1 our exportations to ,sweden1 of cloth1 stuffs1 and other woollen manufactures1 amounted to ,l#ej1jjj4 ,the ,swedes1 however1 though situated in a severe climate1 tried experiments with ,english sheep1 and with so great success1 that1 in #agfe1 they could boast of wool little inferior to that of ,england4 ,they then erected manufactories1 and we were compelled to relinquish a market1 which we had long held to our profit and advantage4 7#ef47 ,regulations from #agdj to #agdb4--;,in the #abth year of ,king ,george ,,ii4 it was enacted by a statute 7cap4 #ba71 ,that whereas the taking off the duties upon woollen or bay yarn imported from ,ireland1 may be a means to prevent the exportation of wool1 and of woollen manufactures1 from ,ireland to foreign parts1 and may also be of use to the manufacturers of ,great ,britain1 that from the first of ,may1 #agdj1 the same shall be no longer payable2 excepting only the duties upon worsted yarn of two or more threads twisted or thrown1 or on crewel imported from ,ireland4 ,at this time more than #a1ejj1jjj persons were employed on woollen articles1 and were supposed to earn1 one with another1 sixpence a-day for #cac working days1 amounting in all to ,l#aa1gcg1ejj yearly4 ,in #agdb1 the ,english poor suffered much from the contempt with which home manufactures were regarded by the nobility1 in consequence of which the latter were speedily the losers4 ,the importation of woollen broad-cloth1 of the manufacture of ,france1 into ports of the ,levant1 on behalf of ,british subjects1 being not only prejudicial by discouraging the woollen manufactures of ,britain1 but likewise a means of affording relief to an enemy1 and discoveries having been made of ,british subjects fraudulently shipping from ,leghorn quantities of ,french woollen goods for ,turkey1 under the denomination of ,british1 to the great detriment of ,english woollens2 an act was passed in the #bc;d year of ,king ,george ,,ii4 by which provision was made against these and other fraudulent practices4 7#eg47 ,improvements in the manufacturing of ,woollens4--,at the commencement of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 the woollen manufactures advanced with a rapidity almost unparalleled in modern times as regards other branches of trade4 ,till about the year #aggj most of the processes were conducted by hand4 ,the wool was spun by various persons at scattered residences1 the manufacturers receiving the yarn periodically from the numerous spinners4 ,this arrangement caused much loss of time1 and gave rise to frequent squabbles between the masters and their workmen4 ,in fact1 all the operations were tardy in the extreme4 ,but at this period1 the spirit of public and private inquiry was happily directed to our deficiencies in the machinery of manufactures4 ,inventions of great beauty and ingenuity were slowly brought forward to facilitate our commercial acquirements4 ,human labour has thus been lightened and abridged1--a greater number of hands have been profitably employed1 and an excellent lesson afforded to the lovers of use and wont1 which will not speedily be forgotten4 ,by these improved means the cloth is possessed of greater evenness1 less injury is sustained in the dressing and shearing1 and greater beauty is imparted to its appearance4 ,a great advantage is also obtained by the master knowing the exact duration of each process1 so that he can time his goods for any hour1 or market1 and is enabled to circulate his capital with a degree of certainty1 and despatch1 formerly looked upon as quite impossible4 ,a few years ago the late ,sir ,john ,throckmorton sat down to dinner1 dressed in a coat1 the wool of which1 on the same morning1 was on the sheep's back4 ,the animals were sheared1 the wool washed1 carded1 spun1 and woven2 the cloth was scoured1 fulled1 sheared1 dyed and dressed1 and then made into a coat4 ,all these complex operations were gone through without hurry1 and without deducting from the work any part of the time usually devoted to similar fabrics4 ,so great was the advantage derived from this application of machinery1 that in the year #ahjj the produce was three times larger than in the year #agci1 though the number of persons employed was the same in the one year as in the other4 7#eh47 ,duty imposed on imported ,wool4--,for three centuries a free importation of foreign wool was permitted by our government1 and it was not till #ahjc that any one thought of laying a duty upon it4 ,this duty was at first comparatively light1 amounting only to a halfpenny a-pound1 and it continued under a penny a-pound1 till #ahai1 when ,mr ,vansittart raised it to six-pence4 ,the impolicy of this measure is evident1 when we consider1 that we were losing our ascendancy in this manufacture1 that our export of woollen goods had been declining for three years previous to #ahai1 and that the competition was becoming every moment more severe4 ,this tax was much dreaded by our merchants1 who1 clearly perceiving the state of matters1 warned ,mr ,vansittart1 by representing to him1 in the strongest terms1 the fatal influence it would have upon our trade4 ,its effects are best exhibited by its disastrous influence on the foreign trade in woollens1 which fell off about a fourth in value1 almost immediately after the imposition4 ,the following table places this in the clearest point of view3-- ,declared value of woollens exported4 #ahaf1 ,l#i1chg1dee #ahag1 #g1hdg1bhj #ahah1 #g1agg1cce #ahai1 #h1ade1cbg #ahbj1 7duty increased7 #e1ihi1fbb #ahba1 7ditto7 #e1ehg1geh #ahbb1 7ditto7 #f1dfe1ihh #ahbc1 7ditto7 #f1dij1ded #ahbd1 7ditto7 #e1fce1ggf #ahbe1 7ditto7 #f1jde1bdj ,the opinions of our merchants ought to have formed the best of all beacons in pointing the course to be pursued by ,mr ,vansittart2 but1 even if they had been silent on the subject1 the evidence of ,mr ,bainbridge1 before the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 appointed in #ahbj1 to inquire into the state of the foreign trade of the country1 might have informed him of the true position of the wool trade1 and directed him in so hazardous an undertaking4 ,when ,mr ,b4 was asked whether he thought that an increase in the means of paying for our manufactures would produce an increased consumption of them in ,russia1 ,sweden1 and ,prussia1 he replied3--,i believe the woollen manufactures in ,prussia are in such a state as to be able to compete with us completely2 ,i speak of it particularly1 because we are in the habit of having transactions with the ,united ,states of ,america2 and ,i find that a very considerable proportion of fine woollens1 and stuffs1 are absolutely shipped from the ,netherlands1 and from ports contiguous1 part of which ,i understand to come from the interior of ,germany1 and from ,saxony in particular2 so that a portion of the trade1 which we have been in the habit of transacting with the ,united ,states1 is finding its way from the north of ,europe4 ,i1 therefore1 conceive1 that their manufactures are competing with the manufactures of this country1 and1 consequently1 they would not come to us to receive a supply of those articles which they can purchase from their own manufacturers at home4 ,in #ahbe1 at the earnest and obviously well-founded representations of the manufacturers1 ,mr ,huskisson reverted to the old system3 and it was then wisely enacted1 that all foreign wool imported for home consumption1 of the value of #as4 a-pound and upwards1 should pay a duty of #a;d4 a-pound1 but when the value of foreign wool was under #as41 the duty was reduced to a halfpenny per pound4 ,a boon was at the same time conferred upon the agriculturists1 by the introduction of a new system with respect to the exportation of ,british wool1 the growers of which were allowed1 for the first time1 to send it to foreign markets1 on payment of a penny per pound4 7#ei47 ,removal of the ,restrictions on ,foreign ,wool4--,the importation of wool was1 by these reductions1 speedily increased1 and with it the consumption of our woollens by foreign nations4 ,the wool of our own gradually augmented flocks being inadequate to the demand1 and that of ,spain having been absorbed by our manufactories1 large quantities were imported from ,prussia1 ,saxony1 and many parts of the continent of ,europe1 from which1 antecedent to this run1 little had been drawn4 ,the average annual import of wool during #agfe-ff-fg was #d1bda1cfd pounds--the average annual export of woollens during the same period was ,l#d1fcj1chd2 while the average annual import of wool for the years #ahbb-bc-bd was #ah1hhd1hgf pounds1 and the average annual export of woollens during the same time1 amounted to ,l#f1bjj1edh1 showing that the importation of foreign wool was absolutely necessary for the well-being of our manufactures4 ,the importation of forty-four millions of pounds weight1 in the year ending #eth ,january1 #ahbf1 must be ascribed as much to the spirit of over-trading1 which then affected every branch of industry1 as to the reduction of the duty2 but the large importations during #ahbg1 afforded an additional proof of the necessity of foreign wool to the successful formation of a most important article of commerce4 ,mr ,gott of ,leeds1 in his evidence before the ,lords' ,committee1 on being asked if he could carry on to the same extent as at present1 if he manufactured his cloth of ,british wool1 replied1 that1 in certain descriptions of cloth1 he could not make an article that would be merchantable at all for the foreign market1 or even for the home market1 except of foreign wool4 ,he then proceeds to state1 that though the competition is very strong in every department of the manufacture1 yet that foreigners are decidedly superior to us in some description of low cloths4 ,the following question was then put1 and plainly and emphatically answered3--,speaking of the finer cloths1 is the competition such as to render an additional duty on the importation of foreign wool likely to injure the export trade8 ,i have no doubt1 speaking on my oath1 that it would be fatal to the foreign cloth trade of the country4 ,i would further say1 that it would be equally injurious to coarse manufactures of all kinds made of ,english wool4 ,the competition now with foreigners is as nearly balanced as possible1 and the disturbing operation of attacks of that description would necessarily enable the foreigner to buy his wool cheaper than we should do it in this country2 the result would be1 that foreigners would1 by such a premium1 be enabled to extend their manufactures to the exclusion of ,british manufactures of all descriptions4 ,in another part of his evidence ,mr ,gott says1 ,if two pieces of cloth at #ajs4 a-yard were put before a customer1 one made of ,british wool1 the other of foreign wool2 one would be sold1 and the other would remain on hand2 ,i could not execute an order with it4 ,if any person sent to me for cloth at #gs4 or #hs4 a-yard1 and if it were made of ,english wool it would be sent back to me1 and ,i must resort to foreign wool1 or foreign mixed with ,british1 to execute that order4 ,in fine1 the ,british wool could not be got rid of without a copious importation of foreign wool to aid the manufacturer in his disposal of it1 as fine cloths are so much better and more durable in their wear than coarse cloths1 that they are coming more and more into demand1 to the almost total exclusion of the latter4 ,moreover1 the good old custom of making home-spun cloth is reviving among our farmers1 and as it is excellently suited for work-day wear1 though necessarily of an inferior gloss1 coarse cloths will1 to a considerable extent1 cease to be the concern of our manufacturers4 ,the only cloth1 indeed1 which the bulk of the people will require1 will be a finer material to form the garb for ,sunday and holiday recreation4 7#fj47 ,countries from which we derive our ,wool4--,our markets are supplied with foreign wool principally from the following places3--,australia1 ,van ,dieman's ,land1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,peru1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and ,russia4 ,the ,tasmanian fleeces are preferred to the ,australian1 and fetch1 in general1 higher prices1 owing to their being fit for combing1 while the latter1 though making considerable advances in fineness1 are still of short staple4 ,both are favourites with our manufacturers1 from their being firm in the pile1 a quality resulting from the constant good health of the animal in those countries4 ,the ,german wool takes precedence of the ,spanish1 and has done so since #ahai or #ahbj4 ,the ,king of ,spain1 about the year #ahjj1 presented the ,elector of ,saxony with a small merino flock1 and1 from that period1 our importations from ,spain have diminished1 as those from ,germany have increased4 ,from the period of its first introduction into ,germany1 till #ahad1 when peace once more fell to the lot of ,europe1 these sheep were gradually spread over the kingdom of ,saxony1 and when1 by the events of #ahae1 the continental trade was thrown completely open1 the ,saxon dealers1 perceiving the value of this new commercial article1 commenced a regular trade in it with ,england4 ,by this new supply1 the ,spanish wool1 as here shown1 was slowly beaten from its hold on the ,british manufacturers4 ,importations into ,england of ,wool from ,spain and ,germany1 at three separate periods4 #ahjj4 #ahad4 #ahbg4 ,germany1 #dba1hej lbs4 #c1eie1adf lbs4 #bb1jjg1aih lbs4 ,spain and ,portugal1 #g1gid1geh lbs4 #i1bcd1iia lbs4 #d1cdi1fdc lbs4 ,at these periods the ports of these countries were open to ,british merchandize1 so that we have here a convincing proof1 that the wool growers of ,spain do not owe their losses1 as supposed by some1 to the hostile incursions of the ,french1 but to the friendly competition of a neighbouring state4 ,wool1 both of coarse and fine quality1 is daily becoming a more and more important export from the ,black ,sea1 owing to the great range of pasturage in ,southern ,russia4 ,the ordinary wools are very coarse1 and the fleeces dirty and full of grass seeds4 ,though not subject to export duty1 it is not supposed that it will ever turn out a lucrative article for the ,british manufacturer4 7#fa47 ,wool ,trade from #ahjj to #ahcj4--,the latest tabular accounts on which much reliance can be placed1 are to be found in ,m',culloch's ,commercial ,dictionary1 but of these ,i am compelled to offer only an abridgment1 and in general nothing but the sum total of his detailed statements4 ,the number of short-woolled sheep in ,england in #ahjj was #ad1hed1bii2 the number of long-woolled sheep in ,england in the same year was #d1aec1cjh4 ,the quantity of ,british wool in #ahjj amounted to #cbe1bfi packs2 while in #ahjh it had increased to #dad1ejb packs4 ,the sheep and lambs' wool imported into ,great ,britain from foreign parts in #ahaj was #aj1iad1acg lbs42 in #ahae1 #ac1fdj1cge lbs42 in #ahbj1 #i1ghi1jbj lbs42 in #ahbe1 #dc1gie1bha lbs42 in #ahcj1 #cb1cac1jei lbs4 ,the increase here observable in #ahbe is accounted for above in our notice of the state of the taxes before and at that period4 ,the exports of ,british sheep and lambs' wool in #ahcj amounted to #b1iea1ajj lbs42 those of woollen and worsted yarn to #a1ajh1jbc lbs4 ,by far the larger proportion of these exports was intended for ,france and the ,netherlands4 ,the number of persons employed in the manufacture is estimated at from #dhj1jjj to #ejj1jjj1 and their wages at ,l#i1fjj1jjj4 ,the value of the raw material is calculated at ,l#f1jjj1jjj2 the total value of the manufactured articles at ,l#ah1jjj1jjj 7as wool is supposed in general to be trebled in value by passing through the hands of the manufacturer72 and the interest on capital1 sum to replace wear and tear1 and manufacturers' profits at ,l#b1djj1jjj4 7#fb47 ,wool ,trade in #ahcb and #ahce4--,the total number of pounds of sheep and lambs' wool imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 in #ahcb1 was--foreign1 #bh1abh1igc2 produce of the ,isle of ,man1 #ac1eaf2 quantity retained for home consumption1 charged #a;d4 per lb4 duty1 #bc1fai1ija2 ditto #a_/b;d41 #a1ega1cbh2 ditto #f;d4 7red wool71 #a1acj2 duty free 7produce of ,british possessions71 #b1dgc1iia2 total retained for home consumption1 #bg1fff1cej2 total quantity re-exported1 #eee1jad4 ,quantity of foreign wool warehoused under bond1 #eth ,january1 #ahcc1 #c1afe1fea4 ,the total quantity of ,british wool and woollen yarn exported from the ,united ,kingdom in #ahcb was1 of the former1 #d1aii1hbe lb42 of the latter1 #b1bjd1dfd lb4 ,the exportation of ,british woollen manufactures in #ahcb was as follows3--,cloths of all sorts1 #cif1ffa pieces2 napped countings1 doffels1 c41 #bc1dec pieces2 kerseymeres1 #dj1ihd pieces2 baizes1 #cd1hgd pieces2 stuffs1 woollen or worsted1 #a1hjj1gad pieces2 flannel1 #b1cjd1gej yards2 blankets and blanketing1 #a1fha1hdj yards2 carpets and carpeting1 #fij1jdb yards2 woollens mixed with cotton1 #a1ccd1jgb yards2 stockings1 woollen or worsted1 #aeb1haj dozen pairs4 ,sundries1 viz41 hosiery1 rugs1 coverlids1 tapes1 and smallwares1 ,l#ee1ddc #as4 #h;d4 value4 ,declared value of ,british woollen manufactures exported1 ,l#e1bdd1dgh #ajs4 #aj;d4#i #i ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 ,no4 #bd4 ,the total quantity of wool imported into the ,united ,kingdom1 in the year #ahce1 was by weight #db1bjh1idi pounds1 which is rather more than #d1jjj1jjj pounds under the importation of #ahcd2 but on the #eth ,january1 #ahce1 #f1did1bff pounds remained warehoused under bond2 whereas1 on the #eth ,january1 #ahcf1 there were no more than #b1hdf1jad pounds so locked up4 ,this is an important difference of stock on hand1 which1 no doubt1 has tended1 and will tend1 to keep up the price of the article4 ,the country from which we import the greatest quantity of wool is ,germany4 ,in #ahce1 the amount was nearly #bd1jjj1jjj pounds weight4 ,from ,russia1 to which our exports of manufactured woollens is comparatively small1 we imported upwards of #d1jjj1jjj pounds2 from ,new ,south ,wales and ,van ,dieman's ,land1 taken together1 about #bji1jjj pounds weight more than from ,russia4 ,the next largest importations are from ,spain1 ,turkey1 and ,italy1 which1 taken together1 supply us with nearly #d1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,portugal furnishes #fhc1jjj pounds2 ,holland1 #bja1jjj pounds2 and ,belgium1 #bca1jjj pounds4 ,of the foreign wool which we have imported1 we re-exported in its unmanufactured state #d1aja1gjj pounds during #ahce4 ,and of the total quantity imported in #ahce1 we retained for manufacture #da1gah1ead pounds4 ,this is nearly #a1jjj1jjj pounds more than was taken up by the manufacturers in the preceding year4 ,the whole amount of ,british wool exported in #ahce1 was #d1fdb1fjd pounds1 and of this #c1jjj1jjj pounds were sent to ,belgium1 and #a1ejj1jjj pounds to ,france4 ,in #ahce1 the 'declared value' 7which1 be it observed1 is a real thing1 and very different from the 'official value1' which is of no use except as an indication of quantity7--the total declared value was ,l#f1hdj1eaa2 and of this amount upwards of ,l#b1fjj1jjj worth of woollen goods went to the ,united ,states alone4 ,next after the ,united ,states in the scale of our customers for woollens comes the ,east ,indies and ,china4 ,to these we send the value of upwards of ,l#hjj1jjj2 to our ,north ,american colonies the value of ,l#dah1jjj2 and to the ,west ,indies1 ,l#aad1bjj worth4 ,in ,europe1 our best customer is ,germany1 which1 in #ahce1 took ,l#fca1jjj worth4 ,besides the more fully manufactured goods1 ,germany took from us1 in the same year1 #a1aia1jjj pounds weight of woollen yarn4 ,of ,european customers1 next after ,germany come ,portugal1 which took1 in #ahce1 to the amount of ,l#cfh1jjj2 ,holland1 ,l#bde1fbi2 ,italy1 ,l#bdc1ehb2 and ,belgium1 ,l#abc1gbg4 ,russia took only ,l#ic1jbe worth of woollen goods4 ,the ,south ,american ,states begin to be good customers2 ,brazil took1 in #ahce1 ,l#ccg1ghh worth1 and ,mexico and other ,states1 ,l#cef1gjj worth4 ,looking at the aggregate1 the export of #ahce was fully a million sterling in value above that of #ahcd2 but as the price was higher in #ahce1 this is no certain guide to the proportion of increase in quantity4 ,in the year #ahce1 we exported to ,france only ,l#fh1jjj worth of woollen manufactures4 ,we have already stated the exports of woollen goods to the ,south ,american ,states in #ahce2 the import of unmanufactured wool from these ,states in the same year was ,l#b1agf1jjj pounds2 from ,france it was #ajd1jjj pounds4 ,we have only to add1 as fiscal information connected with the foregoing analysis1 that of the wool imported in #ahce1 #bf1hgg1ghj pounds paid to the revenue a duty of a penny per pound2 #aj1aih1ebf pounds paid one halfpenny per pound2 and #f1cig pounds of 'red wool' paid sixpence per pound4 ,the wool imported from ,british possessions does not pay duty4 ,of that there were1 in #ahce1 #d1fce1haa pounds imported4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,the ,,breeds4 7#fc47 ,this subject requires for its due consideration some slight attainments in anatomy and physiology1 but as such attainments1 slight though they may be1 are as rarely met with as required among the bulk of mankind1 so the want of them may be the less regretted1 seeing it is possible to render even the intricacies of the study plain and simple1 by an appeal to facts of every-day occurrence2 which1 having attracted the notice of the most unthinking1 will serve as hooks on which ,i shall try to hang the better part of an interesting inquiry4 7#fd47 ,early ,improvers of ,sheep4--,there cannot be a more certain sign of the rapid advances of a people in civilization and prosperity1 than increasing attention to the improvement of live-stock4 ,it tells of a population limited in regard to soil1 and making every effort to remedy the want1 by an economical doubling of the return for the usual outlay3 for1 while a tribe wanders at large1 remaining at a particular place only so long as provender holds out1 and1 striking the tent1 departs for some far-off field1 so long will their flocks be suffered to roam neglected1 and flourish or decay1 as chance directs4 ,from the time of ,jacob1 the possibility of determining the nature of the offspring1 by impressions on the parents1 has been apparent to all2 and the best means of perpetuating a good quality1 or removing a bad one1 have continued from time to time1 to occupy the attention of patriotic individuals4 ,as much appears to have been known about sheep two thousand years ago as at present1 so true is it1 that nothing new is to be met with2 yet1 that does not rob our modern improvers of their merits1 for though they deserve little as inventors1 they are to be admired for that strength of mind1 and determined perseverance1 which enabled them to rouse their fellows from their lethargy1 and compel them to become in turn1 benefactors of their country1 and themselves4 ,the signs of a good ram are concisely laid down by ,varro1 by ,virgil in his third ,georgic1 and by ,columella2 and1 though the ,spanish nobility were looked upon with wonder1 7till eclipsed by our own extravagance17 in giving two hundred ducats1 or fifty pounds for a ram2 yet ,strabo assures us1 that in his day 7under ,tiberius71 they gave more than three times that sum for one of the breed of the ,coraxi1 a ,pontic nation1 believed to have the finest fleece in the world4 ,the greatest recorded improvers of the sheep in ancient times were ,lucius ,columella1 and his uncle ,marcus ,columella1 ,spaniards of distinction1 who removed to ,rome in the reign of ,tiberius1 and made agriculture the study and business of their lives4 ,the former commenced his celebrated treatise on husbandry during the reigns of ,tiberius1 and ,caligula1 and appears to have finished it ,a4,d4 #ee4 ,it is a work which may be read with advantage even at present1 as it abounds with much that is valuable1 and is accessible to all through its ,english translation4#aj #aj ,i allude to this1 as the author of the work on ,sheep1 published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 at page #abc of that book1 laments the want of an ,english translation of ,columella4 ,an excellent quarto translation of his twelve books on ,husbandry1 and one on ,trees1 was published at ,london1 in #agde4 7#fe47 ,modern ,breeders4--,it is only within a very recent period1 that the mode of improving live-stock by skilful breeding1 has been properly attended to4 ,the perfection of breeding formerly1 was to have cows in calf once a-year1 and rear calves on as little milk as possible2 and1 even yet1 there are only a scattered few who devote to it the attention it requires4 ,the first1 in modern times1 who arrived at any thing like eminence in this department1 was ,joseph ,allom1 of ,clifton1 who raised himself by dint of industry1 from a ploughboy1 and for a long time contrived to keep his methods secret1 being supposed by many to have bought his ewes in ,lincolnshire1 at the very time he was constantly bringing them from the ,melton quarter of ,leicestershire4 ,though possessing talent1 he does not appear to have had education enough to avail himself of it1 and accordingly never gained the extensive popularity which fell to the lot of his successors4 ,as the introducers of new and important plans of management in agriculture1 are always rewarded by large profits1 and the gratitude of their countrymen1 so none were ever more generously dealt with in either respect1 than ,mr ,robert ,bakewell1 of ,dishley1 and ,mr ,ellman1 of ,glynde4 ,the former1 who may be said to have created a variety1 considered that a tendency to acquire fat was the first quality to be looked to in an animal destined for the food of man2 and on this1 with him a fundamental principle1 was based the whole of his proceedings4 ,different opinions will of course be held on the merits of the theory on which he acted but all must acknowledge1 that we are indebted to his skill and experience1 for the exertions which have been subsequently made to improve the qualities of live-stock1 in every district of the kingdom4 ,it was by his example1 in fact1 that the farmers all over the country were stimulated to exertion1 and be the system bad or good1 it ought to have our veneration1 seeing that it was the commencement of a new and most important agricultural era4 ,john ,ellman derives his well-earned fame1 from the zealous manner in which he improved the ,southdown sheep1 and spread them through the empire4 ,till he directed his attention to the subject1 every thing connected with the management of the flock was left to chance1 or at least to the guidance of farm-servants1 with whom1 of course1 it could not be a matter of interest to select1 or sort1 suitable animals for the continuance of the race4 ,he speedily1 however1 corrected this mismanagement1 and aided by the introduction of turnip-feeding1 in no long time1 and without any admixture of foreign blood1 materially improved the breed4 ,about seventy years ago1 improvements also commenced in ,scotland4 ,till then1 in many parishes1 no farmer could keep sheep through the winter1 and no place was reckoned so fatal to these animals as the undrained1 and unsheltered parish of ,eskdale-,muir1 in ,dumfriesshire4 ,at last one ,william ,bryden rented the farm of ,aberlosk1 and soon1 by the original plan of draining1 and building stone enclosures1 made it1 to use the words of his able biographer1 ,mr ,scot of ,selkirkshire1 like the land of ,goshen1 good for cattle which it is to this day4 7#ff47 ,varieties among ,animals4--,all organized matter is subject to variety4 ,it may be doubted whether1 since the creation of the world1 there have ever occurred1 either at the same1 or at separate periods1 two individuals in every respect perfectly alike4 ,a plant1 or an animal1 may resemble the rest of its species in chemical constitution1 and in the number and situation of its organs1 but is sure to differ from all in size1 general configuration1 and disposition of its parts3 ,these shades of difference1 endless though they are1 may be referred to two leading causes--climate and descent2 the former embracing deviations induced by temperature and resources of subsistence2 the latter including changes occasioned by management1 modes of breeding1 and influence of sex4 7#fg47 ,varieties induced by ,temperature4--,the influence of temperature extends chiefly to the colour and development of animals4 ,in cold regions the skin of the human race is fair1 and the person squat and stunted1 but as we approach the equator1 the hue becomes deeper and deeper1 till it is jetty black1 while at the same time1 the stature attains nearer and nearer to the tallest proportions to which mankind seem naturally entitled4 ,the animals of the arctic regions are1 for the greater part of the year1 covered with a clothing of the purest white1 which is1 however1 in many of them1 abandoned for one of deeper tints as the solar heat begins to gain the ascendant4 ,but how very different do we not find the colours of intertropical animals4 ,there vivid tints1 and an almost metallic lustre1 pervade animated beings1 from the coral in its submarine abode1 to the gallinaceous birds1 the coxcombs of the forest4 ,in this1 as in every other department of nature1 the most beautiful harmony1 or1 in other words1 a union of what is pleasing to the eye1 and suited for the comfort of the creature1 every where prevails4 ,the colour of an animal envelope is never at variance with the tints of surrounding objects4 ,a painter1 for example1 would not place a flower or animal of brilliant hue amidst the monotonous aspect of an arctic landscape2 neither would he picture the faintly-tinted beings of a polar latitude1 as surrounded by the warm and flashy colouring characteristic of an oriental climate4 ,as temperature1 then1 determines in a marked degree the colour and dimensions of every animal1 such variations render the division of living beings into races and varieties1 a matter of necessity4 ,thus all human beings belong only to one species1 which may1 however1 be divided into five races1 and these again into an infinity of varieties4 ,the differences between a race and a variety are1 that the latter is a subdivision of the former1 and that in the former the modifications are more profound1 the changes not being confined to the surface1 but extending to the frame-work of the body2 whereas1 to constitute a variety1 nothing more is necessary than the superficial influence of heat and light on the skin1 and its appendages the hairs4 ,the ,negro and the ,abyssinian are precisely similar in colour1 yet they are by no means of the same race1 as their different features will distinctly prove2 the ,abyssinian approaching as much in cast of countenance to the ,european1 as the negro does to the higher orders of the ape4 ,the same may be noticed among sheep1 but this is sufficient for the present4 ,the changes induced by climate1 result from the working of a power inherent in most animals and vegetables1 by which they are suited within certain limits1 for bearing up against removal from their ordinary localities1 and assuming a different cast1 as the place of their exile may differ in degree from that which they have left4 ,this gradual adaptation to circumstances by an accommodating power is termed1 in philosophical language1 acclimation4 7#fh47 ,adaptation of the ,sheep to ,climate4--,no animal varies more than the sheep1 and none so speedily adapts itself to climate2 it would almost appear that nature1 convinced of its great utility1 had bestowed upon it a constitution so pliant1 as to enable it to accommodate itself to any point in a wide scale of temperature2 for though its natural situation as a wool-bearing animal1 like that of man appears to be the wine countries1 yet with him1 it has spread to every quarter of the globe1 becoming impressed at every change with some peculiarity1 alterable only by a change of situation1 and varying1 we might almost affirm1 with the weather2 for1 where the temperature is equable1 there does the animal preserve unchanged an atmospheric stamp1 and defies our efforts to alter the breed2 while under a fluctuating sky we can model it at will1 though in this case1 continued exertions are required to secure them for any length of time in an undeviating course4 7#fi47 ,changes produced by ,climate4--,the wonderful power of temperature in effecting changes upon animals1 is well illustrated by the ,portuguese1 who1 after a residence of three hundred years in ,india1 are said to be at present almost as black as ,caffres4 ,bishop ,heber1 speaking of ,india1 says1 ,it is remarkable to observe how surely all these classes of men 7whites--,persians1 ,greeks1 ,tartars1 ,turks1 and ,arabians71 in a few generations1 even without any inter-marriage with the ,hindoos1 assume the deep olive tint1 little less dark than a negro1 which seems natural to the climate4 ,buchanan also in his travels through the same country1 alludes to a tribe of black ,jews who have1 in all probability1 been settled in the district ever since the period of the captivity under ,nebuchadnezzar1 #cjjj years ago1 and who retain all the national peculiarities of their race1 with the exception of their colour1 which is now as dark as that of the surrounding tribes4 ,these examples1 however1 it may be affirmed1 are not to the point1 as embracing theories in regard to peculiar changes in an animal different from the sheep1 but such objections are perfectly groundless1 as what will affect colour in mankind1 will lead to changes even of a more wonderful nature in the sheep1 seeing that it is abandoned more entirely to such an influence4 7#gj47 ,temperature preferred by ,sheep4--,sheep1 though capable of thriving in a great variety of climates1 seem to prefer such as are temperate1 and in these only do they arrive at perfection4 ,they are common on the ,cordilleras at an elevation of from #ccjj to #hbjj feet1 within which limits they propagate readily without any care2 but the reverse is the case in hotter regions1 it being difficult to rear lambs in the plains of ,meta1 and no sheep are to be met with from the river to the foot of the ,cordilleras1 though their skins1 from being in demand for making parchment1 sell as high as those of the ox4 ,sheep were at one time1 according to ,thunberg1 the scarcest articles in ,batavia1 as their woolly coat rendered the heat of the climate quite insupportable2 but this inconvenience was at last remedied by sending them1 on their arrival from the ,cape1 further up the country1 to the ,blue ,mountains1 where the air is several degrees colder4 ,the question then naturally occurs1 if an elevation of temperature is1 as in this instance1 fatal to these animals1 how do they happen to have spread over a vast tract of country in spite of such extremes8 ,simply for the reason1 that when an animal is left to the exercise of its own free will1 and the dominion of its instincts1 it will not subject itself to the danger of an extreme in any thing4 ,it will not traverse several hundred miles in a single season1 and thus expose itself to sudden changes4 ,the natural dispersion of all animals is gradual1 so that their constitutions are enabled1 from the slowness of the transition1 to accommodate themselves1 by an alteration in covering and habit1 to surrounding circumstances1 which would1 were the variations abrupt1 speedily destroy it4 ,the reason why a race of animals occasionally thrives so well in a country to which it may be removed1 appears to lie in its being suited1 ,i may say1 accidentally1 by peculiar conformation1 to the temperature to which it is transplanted4 ,there are some happy climates where1 introduce what animals you will1 no matter how stunted they are1 or how different the degree of warmth may be1 their offspring will thrive1 proving large and vigorous1 and every way worthy of being placed at the head of its species4 ,these are1 however1 cases where the transition is from an extreme of heat or cold to a temperate atmosphere4 ,witness what ,mr ,dawson1 the manager of the ,australian ,agricultural ,company1 says in his private journal 7quoted in ,cunningham's ,new ,south ,wales74 ,both the climate and the soil appear by nature intended to produce fine wool1 and fine animals too1 even from the worst beginnings4 ,the latter seems a paradox4 ,the extensive range afforded to every animal keeps it in good condition1 and1 perhaps1 the natural grasses may have more of good in them than their appearance indicates4 ,however this may be1 the climate clearly has a wonderful effect on the size of all animals1 even upon man1 who is universally tall here1 though born of diminutive parents4 ,from this ,i am led to believe1 that the climate governs chiefly1 and thus every breeding animal introduced here will attain a size not known in ,europe4 7#ga47 ,extent of the ,alterations produced by ,climate4--,changes occasioned by climate are always limited to the fleece1 horns1 and disposal of the fat1 and never extend to those parts1 on the permanence of which the animal depends for its station in the scale of being1 as the feet1 teeth1 and digestive organs4 ,in tropical countries we find the fleece approaching more to hair than wool1 as in the sheep of ,thibet1 so celebrated for the silky nature of their coat4 ,burchell remarks1 that the skins he brought from the ,cape of ,good ,hope were often taken for those of an unknown quadruped1 from the furry nature of their wool1 if such it can be called1 and thinks it is owing as much to the pasture1 which is well adapted for giving these animals a soft and useful fur1 though not suited1 like ,new ,south ,wales1 for the growth of the finest wool1 and that the colony might turn this to great advantage4 ,in cold regions the hairy covering is more developed and fully coarser1 but always mingled with a proportion of hard rough wool4 ,the influence of climate on portions of the fleece and skin is well illustrated by circumstances which have occurred in ,galloway1 even within the limits of our traditionary writings4#aa ,the native sheep of the ,highlands of that district is supposed to have been a small1 handsome1 white-faced breed2 at least so thinks ,john ,mac,lellan1 who wrote an account of ,galloway in #afej1 from the wool being much praised1 and eagerly bought up by merchants1 which would not have been the case if taken from the black-faced animal2 yet how happens it that at present the native breed exists only in the lower parts of ,kirkcudbrightshire1 the high country exhibiting black-faced sheep1 which1 after every trial1 have been found best adapted to the climate1 and pasture of the moors and ,highlands2 while ,chalmers owns that it has not been ascertained when or whence this hardy breed were brought to their present locality8 ,why1 it is tolerably plain1 that though the white-faced sheep might be placed there originally1 yet they would speedily lose every trace of their origin1 and become black-faced when placed on a hilly country1 and subjected to the slow but certain influence of peculiar food and climate4 #aa ,chalmers' ,caledonia--,article1 ,galloway4 ,mr ,culley imagines1 that the dun-faced sheep were the earliest tenants of the ,scottish hills1 but so far as my researches extend1 that supposition is entirely contradicted4 ,chalmers remarks1 that the black-faced animals superseded the goats1 which were at one time a source of subsistence to the farmers1 and it is exceedingly probable1 that as the old white-faced began to change their appearance1 and became gradually able to withstand the rigours of a mountain fare1 and winter under a dun skin1 and short rough wool1 so would they recommend themselves as the best of all stock to the hard-driven agriculturalist4 7#gb47 ,increase of the ,number of the ,horns4--,as much wonder is sure to be excited by the fact1 that bony prominences are subjected with as great certainty to the modelling hand of climate as softer parts1 ,i give the following from a recent work1 entitled1 ,gardens and ,menagerie of the ,zoological ,society ,delineated1 premising1 however1 that1 in my opinion1 temperature has a vast deal more to do with alterations in the horns than domestication or cultivation4 ,one of the most curious modifications produced by cultivation in the domesticated sheep consists in the augmentation of the number of its horns2 two1 three1 or even four supplementary appendages of this description being occasionally produced in addition to the normal number4 ,under these circumstances the additional horns usually occupy the upper and fore part of the head1 and are of a more slender shape1 and take a more upright direction than the others1 thus approaching in character to those of the goats1 while the true horns retain more or less of the spiral curve that distinguishes those of the sheep4 ,there exists a strong tendency to the propagation of this monstrosity1 which is extremely frequent in the ,asiatic races1 but is also met with in a breed that is common in the north of ,europe1 and is said to have been originally derived from ,iceland1 and the ,feroe ,islands4 ,in this case it is unconnected with any other anomaly1 but in the flocks of the nomad hordes of ,tartary1 it is usually combined with an enlargement of the tail1 and adjacent parts1 by the deposition of fat1 frequently to an enormous extent4 7#gc47 ,causes of the various forms of the ,horn4--,horns are seldom met with in the sheep of hot climates1 occurring more frequently in cold and temperate regions2 thus following closely the development of the other coverings1 to which1 as before stated 7#ai71 they are strictly analogous4 ,the fleece consists of two portions--hair and wool1 the one predominating more or less over the other1 as the climate may direct4 ,the form of the horns is always in unison with the character of the fleece3 thus1 if the animal is covered with hair1 as in the goat1 the horns will be straight2 but if it is clothed with wool1 as in the sheep1 the horns will be curved4 ,the same holds good in other animals4 ,the reason of this appears to lie in the tendency which the hair or wool1 constituting the horny sheath1 has to model the form of the supporting bone4 ,the fibre of hair is nearly straight2 that of wool is1 on the other hand1 remarkable for the number of tufted curls1 or small spiral ringlets1 into which it naturally contracts2 so that a ,merino ram1 for example1 will never be found with rectilinear horns1 nor a true goat with twisted ones4 ,the truth of these remarks is borne out by observations on animals on whose heads more than two horns are occasionally met with4 ,we always in such instances notice1 that the additional horns are straight1 thus indicating the presence of a considerable quantity of hair among the wool4 ,the curve will be more decided1 and the twists more numerous1 in proportion as the fibre comes nearer and nearer to a perfect wool--evidence of which we have in the beautifully-tufted and spiral horns of the ,merino ram1 which are as opposite in this respect to those of the goat1 as is its fleece to the hairy coat of the latter4 ,from these considerations ,i am led to believe1 that the form of the horn1 when present1 is an excellent guide to the nature and quality of the other coverings1 and an index to every gradation which can possibly occur between wool and hair4 7#gd47 ,the proper ,temperature required for ,sheep4--,regular warmth is absolutely necessary for the production of a good animal and a fine fleece1 and is only to be obtained by attending to the draining and clearing of land1 so as to dissipate moisture1 and allow currents of air to play freely across the country4#ab ,an atmosphere which holds suspended a large quantity of watery vapour1 is always extremely chilling to an animal body4 ,this is accounted for by the well-known fact1 that a moist air1 being a better conductor of caloric than a dry one1 robs an animal more quickly of heat4 ,thus1 in passing from the dry air of the hills into the vapour of the valleys in a winter morning1 we feel as if the transition had been from a temperate to an icy region4 ,hence one of the reasons why sheep thrive best in a rather elevated situation4 ,moist air1 however1 is exceedingly oppressive in hot weather1 because evaporation1 from the surface of the body1 is to a great extent diminished2 and it is only by the perspiration being allowed to escape rapidly1 and to convey away the heated particles1 that we can manage to be in any degree comfortable during the heat of summer4 ,this free evaporation we endeavour in every way to obtain1 and often in a manner that ignorant people would consider as the reverse of sensible4 ,it is well known that draughts of cold liquids are very far from answering the purpose of lowering our temperature when above a pleasant standard2 but we find that a basin of hot soup1 or tea1 will speedily bring about the desired end1 by producing a copious determination of fluid to the skin4 ,yet1 if the air contained no moisture1 we should experience sensations just as unpleasant as those already mentioned2 for evaporation from our bodies would proceed at such a rate1 that we would soon be parched4 ,it is to counteract this tendency of dry air that the ,americans are in the habit of placing a small vessel of water on their stoves1 by which contrivance a quantity of vapour is diffused through the apartment1 sufficient to balance the loss from the arid warmth of the fire4 #ab ,it is to secure equality of temperature that the ,spanish flocks are twice in the year exposed to the hazard of an overland journey of #djj miles1 that they may pass the summer in the mountains of the north1 and the winter in the southern plains4 ,that an equable temperature is only to be obtained by draining and clearing a marshy and wooded country1 is sufficiently authenticated4 ,in the thickly wooded and swampy territories of ,guiana1 rain falls continually during nearly eight months of the year2 and the cold is so intense1 that fires are necessary in the houses throughout the night4 ,but in ,cayenne and its neighbourhood1 which were cleared of wood about one hundred and fifty years ago1 the increase of temperature is now so great1 that during the night the people are annoyed by the warmth1 and the rains are neither so frequent nor so heavy as in the rest of the country4 ,paris and ,quebec are nearly under the same latitude2 yet the air of the latter is much colder than that of the former1 evidently from its being surrounded by forests so dense and umbrageous1 that sun and wind are alike denied access to the earth4 ,the difference between a cleared and an uncleared country1 in regard to wool1 is well illustrated1 by contrasting ,north ,america1 its heavy woods and stagnant atmosphere1 with the thinly timbered surface and constantly renovated air of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,it is only within the last few years that ,canada has been enabled to compete with ,britain in the article of wool1 and that the sheep1 which were of the coarsest kind1 have been so improved as to do away with the prejudices against their mutton4 ,australia1 on the other hand1 has1 from its earliest colonization1 figured as a sheep-rearing country of the first importance2 and nothing has conduced so much to this as its freedom from closely planted trees1 by the absence of which the settler is enabled at once to stock his farm with the best of sheep4 ,nature1 in fact1 could never have intended sheep to pasture in a wooded country1 as is clearly evinced by their coat1 to which every thing in the shape of bush or tree is in the highest degree inimical4 7#ge47 ,geographical limits of the ,sheep4--,every plant and animal has certain geographical limits1 out of which it cannot exist4 ,with the exception of man and the dog1 no animal has a wider range than the sheep1 extending as it does from ,iceland almost to the equator1 and from a few degrees south of that to the polar extremity of ,south ,america4 ,but though existing under so great a variety of exposures1 it must not be inferred that it can come to perfection in them all4 ,on the contrary1 it rather delights in the temperate zones1 and can evidently only be raised to its highest point of excellence in the countries of the vine4 ,the western parts of continents produce better sheep than the eastern1 and the southern hemisphere better than the northern2 as in the former situations the temperature is more nearly equable than in the latter4 ,the same may be said of maritime districts1 as compared with such as are inland4 ,temperature is affected in the same way by elevation as by northern or southern position--the mean heat diminishing in the same ratio when ascending a mountain1 as in receding from the equator4 ,on this account1 ,humboldt compared the earth to two mountains with their bases at the equator1 and their summits at the poles4 ,the mean temperature1 when resulting from the height of the place above the level of the sea1 is at the same time influenced by the nature of the aspect1 as we notice in the ,alps1 where the ,glacier exists on the northern side1 at the same elevation at which the vineyard yields a perfect fruit upon the southern4 7#gf47 ,particular forms induced by certain limits4--,the character which a predominance of heat1 or cold1 impresses on the animal as a whole1 extends also to individual parts of the body4 ,the sheep of ,south ,africa are1 as all the world know1 remarkable for the magnitude of the tail1 which forms an immense fatty appendage4 ,the sheep of ,persia1 ,tartary1 and ,china1 are distinguished from all others by the tail forming a double globe of fat4 ,the ,north of ,europe1 and ,north of ,asia1 are overrun by a breed in which the tail is almost wanting1 while that of ,southern ,russia1 ,india1 and ,guinea1 stands pre-eminent from the elongation of the tail1 and1 in respect to that of the two last named places1 also of the legs4 7#gg47 ,influence of vegetation on form and disposition4--,vegetation influences1 to a great extent1 the form and disposition of the animal4 ,such changes may be brought about either by the plenty1 or scarceness1 of the herbage2 or by the nature of the country on which that herbage is produced4 ,animals found on hilly countries are always widely different from those of the plains4 ,their bodies are light1 their legs long1 and their habits of that unquiet kind which renders them hostile to any thing like restraint4 ,it is for these reasons1 that when once a flock attaches itself to a range of hills1 and becomes suited to the means of subsistence1 it may preserve itself for ages apart from neighbouring varieties1 and present1 after a long series of years1 those qualities in their native purity for which it was noted by the earliest observers4 ,the sheep of a level country are distinguished1 on the contrary1 by heavy bodies1 short legs1 and easy tempers4 ,they are1 in fact1 constructed on ,dutch proportions1 and are imbued1 as a natural consequence1 with those imperturbable and steady-going habits so characteristic of the bulbous bottomed ,hollander4 ,subdued as they are by the nature of their locality1 they readily submit to man1 who tutors them at will1 and works on them those profitable changes from which have originated our improved varieties4 ,as connected with the unquiet dispositions of hill sheep1 ,i may mention the prevalence of a notion1 that domesticated sheep cannot by any possibility become wild4 ,from all that ,i have seen1 and read1 ,i am led to believe1 though the sheep1 according to ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,oriental philosophers1 was the first animal domesticated1 that when at liberty it will soon return to its primitive and instinctive habits4 ,bonnycastle1 in his work on ,spanish ,america1 remarks1 that sheep are found in a state of nature1 in the northern parts of ,new ,spain1 having multiplied to an extraordinary degree in the wide-spread plains1 and savannahs4 ,in ascending our ,scottish mountains1 every one must observe the state bordering upon wildness1 in which the sheep appear1 roving in detached but well-led parties2 bounding away to the most inaccessible places on the approach of danger1 and peering from the eminences in all the pride of scornful independence4 ,professor ,blumenbach at one time doubted the possibility of domestic sheep ever becoming wild2 but his opinion was changed on perusing the work of ,vincentius1 where there occurs a remarkable passage1 in which ,nearchus1 when speaking of the desert island of ,cataia1 on the coast of ,caramania1 says1 that the inhabitants of the neighbouring islands yearly carried thither sheep1 as offerings to ,venus and ,mercury1 and that1 in course of time1 they became wild in the deserts4#ac ,constant attendance is1 therefore1 called for on the part of man1 to ensure that untroubled reliance on his care so conducive to the welfare of the flock1 for even on a temporary cessation of his protection1 those instincts1 which can be subdued but not eradicated1 are brought into operation1 and their presence will go far to retard the advancement of those qualities1 on the perfection of which a profit can alone be hoped for4 #ac ,edin4 ,philosophical ,journal4 7#gh47 ,breeds required for ,britain4--,of the numerous breeds at present in our island1 a few only are indispensably necessary for the continuance of its prosperity4 ,these stand1 according to ,marshall1 thus3--,a very long-woolled sheep1 as the ,lincolnshire1 or ,teeswater1 for the richest grass lands1 and finest worsted manufactures--the ,new ,leicester1 for less fertile grass land1 and for rich enclosed arable land1 on which the fold is not used2 intended to supply coarser worsted1 stockings1 coarse cloths1 blankets1 and carpets--a middle-woolled breed1 as the ,wiltshire1 the ,norfolk1 or the ,southdown1 for arable lands on which folding is practised1 and for cloths of middle qualities--a fine-woolled1 as the ,ryeland1 for the finest cloths2 and a hardy race for heathy mountains4 ,some argue1 and rightly1 that only three breeds are necessary for ,scotland1 inasmuch as only three are required by the nature of the country4 ,scotland may be regarded1 in an agricultural point of view1 as divided into highland1 upland1 and plain4 ,the highland consists of primitive rocks1 covered by peaty soil and heath1 on which these indefatigable gleaners1 the black-faced sheep1 alone can gain a subsistence4 ,the upland is formed by the transition series of rocks1 covered with grass2 and to it the ,cheviots appear indigenous4 ,the plain is formed by alluvial deposits1 covered with rich pasture1 and capable of supporting races of large sheep1 as the ,leicesters4 ,sheep are the only kind of live-stock which ought to be kept in mountainous districts1 especially when green crop cannot be cultivated4 ,sheep-farming must necessarily prevail in the ,highlands1 where there are few tracts suited for the pasturage of black cattle3 ,the value of its adaptation to the natural circumstances of that district is proved by the rapid progress which it made1 and the profits which resulted to the individuals with whom it originated4 ,places which formerly were not of the slightest utility1 now yielded heavy rents4 ,the spots among the mountains1 susceptible of cultivation1 were found to be advantageously kept in grass1 to serve as pasture for the flock during the rigour of winter1 and it was well ascertained that more than double rent might be paid by stocking with sheep in preference to cattle4 ,the ,dishley sheep are excellent specimens of what may be done with the form of an animal1 when the endeavours of the breeder are seconded by a pasture suitable for the intended breed4 ,they are admirably adapted1 as every breed ought to be1 to the soil and situation where they were called into existence2 and their crosses are now spread over most part of the country2 principally the corn districts1 as they are supposed to be the most profitable kind on farms where the best tillage crops are combined with the fattening of livestock1 though ,marshall supposes they will only be reckoned profitable so long as other breeds of long-woolled sheep remain with thin chines1 and loose mutton2 or1 in other words1 that there are plenty of kinds which would prove equal1 if not superior1 to the present1 if they only received the same studied attention4 7#gi47 ,varied nature of the food of ,sheep4--,sheep will take1 sometimes from choice1 sometimes from necessity1 to food of a directly opposite nature to what they have been used4 ,the mutton1 says the ,rev4 ,george ,low1 writing of ,orkney1 is here in general but ordinary1 owing to the sheep feeding much on sea-ware1 to procure which these creatures show a wonderful sagacity1 for no sooner has the tide of ebb begun to run1 but they1 though at a great distance1 immediately betake themselves full speed1 one and all1 to the shore1 where they continue till it begins to flow4 ,the sheep of ,iceland are content during severe winters to feed1 and be preserved1 on messes of chopped fish-bones1 being all that the ingenuity of their masters can provide in the way of a precarious sustenance4 ,during the long continuance of snow-storms1 when the herbage is beyond the reach of their utmost efforts1 sheep are known to devour the wool on each other's backs1 and1 in some instances to acquire a relish for this unnatural food1 which adheres to them through life4 ,this1 though on first thoughts hardly credible1 is scarcely more wonderful than the partiality which cows display1 when instigated by the depraved appetites created by pregnancy1 for blankets1 and any similar domestic articles which may be exposed to the gratification of their longings4 ,the ,puruk sheep of ,ladusk1 in the ,himalaya mountains1 is1 as described by ,mr ,moorecraft1 in the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society1 in respect to the varied nature of its food1 a most remarkable animal4 ,the ,puruk sheep1 if permitted1 thrusts its head into the cooking pot1 picks up crumbs1 is eager to drink the remains of a cup of broth1 and examine the hand of its master for barley1 flour1 or a cleanly picked bone1 which it disdains not to nibble2 a leaf of lettuce1 a peeling of turnip1 the skin of the apricot1 give a luxury2 and the industry is indefatigable with which this animal detects1 and appropriates substances1 so minute and uninviting as would be unseen and neglected by ordinary sheep2 perhaps the dog of the cottager is not so completely domesticated as it is4 ,that ,mr ,moorecraft is correct in this statement of its omnivorous propensities1 there cannot be the slightest doubt1 as any farmer can testify from what he has seen of lambs reared by children for amusement4 ,the celebrated ,john ,hunter showed1 that a pigeon might be made to live on flesh1 and that its stomach became adapted to the nature of this food3 and ,i have somewhere read of a sheep1 which1 after being long on ship-board1 and accustomed1 from scarcity of vegetables1 to an animal diet1 could never after be prevailed upon to take to grass4 ,nor need these circumstances excite surprise1 since the food of every living creature is1 for a certain period at the commencement of existence1 limited to such as is purely animal4 ,but to keep to our subject4 ,those in the habit of opening the stomachs of sheep1 must have remarked the eroded appearance which the inner coat occasionally presents4 ,this phenomenon is owing to the action of the gastric juice1 which1 if competent to turn at once from the food with which it is mingled to attack the texture which has secreted it1 will also be1 during life1 capable of digesting with tolerable ease1 such dead animal matter as may be brought into contact with it4 ,in regard to vegetable food1 they will1 when necessary1 devour such as is even of an acrid nature1 and calculated to poison any animals but themselves4 ,thunberg1 while in ,southern ,africa1 frequently noticed sheep eating1 with impunity1 the ,mortimia acris1 the ,rhus lucidum1 and the ,lycium afrum1 which are all of a poisonous nature2 and1 in this country1 hemlock is known to be quite innocuous to sheep4 ,what is poison to one animal often constitutes a wholesome food for others1 and that which will1 when given in immediate large doses1 destroy an animal1 will1 when taken in a gradually-increasing allowance1 prove extremely salutary4 7#hj47 ,influence of the food on the quality of ,mutton4--,diet has a powerful influence on the constituents of the body4 ,a rank succulent pasture taints the flesh1 or renders it insipid and unpleasant1 while a dry aromatic herbage communicates a delightful flavour1 and enables people versed in the pleasures of the table easily to discriminate between turnip-fed and grass-fed mutton2 and again1 between the latter1 and that which has spent its existence on the hills4 ,in ,touchwood's ,syllabus of ,culinary ,lectures1 appended to the ,cook and ,housewive's ,manual1 by ,mistress ,dods1 we are briefly informed1 that the black-faced1 or short-sheep1 are best for the table1 though more depends on the pasture than the breed4 ,more1 in fact1 depending on feeding and management1 than on the variety of the animal1 though this of course is not to be neglected4 ,a notion has been advanced in this country1 that artificial pastures are less nutritious than natural ones1 and that the animals which are raised upon them are1 consequently1 of a laxer fibre1 and the flesh less wholesome1 as well as less savoury4 ,this1 ,i have no doubt1 is perfectly correct1 as many diseases may be traced to such improper food1 and what is calculated to produce in some cases actual disease1 cannot fail to prove at all times capable of retarding the advancement of the animal4 ,these soft succulent pastures appear not to be positively poisonous1 but to be negatively so from their deficiency in saline matter2 the rapid growth of the plant preventing the elimination and absorption1 of many of these ingredients with which the soil abounds4 ,this is proved by the greater necessity which exists for the use of salt in the food of the herbivorous animals of hot climates1 than in that of such as inhabit temperate1 or cold latitudes2 vegetation being in the former more rapid in its details1 and in certain states of the atmosphere hurried in the extreme1 while in the latter the process proceeds with that leisure which enables the plant to make good the measure of its constituents1 as it increases in size4 ,in many parts of ,north ,america it is well known1 that1 at certain seasons1 the wild animals make eagerly for the salt licks2 and1 following up this hint1 the settlers easily induce their oxen to keep near their dwellings1 by serving them periodically with salt4 ,when the wild cattle of ,south ,america had greatly increased1 it was discovered that they could not exist unless they had access to streams which had acquired brackish particles from the soil4 ,if salt1 in places devoid of it1 was not furnished to them by man1 they became stunted1 unfruitful1 and the herds soon disappeared4 ,even in this country1 the free use of salt is found to be highly beneficial to our domestic animals1 preventing the occurrence of many of those diseases which are otherwise sure to follow the use of food such as is mentioned above1 and ensuring that sound health which is so conducive to the accumulation of fat4 7#ha47 ,differences in the quality of ,mutton4--,i shall now enter a little into the manner in which the quality of the flesh may be affected1 and the methods of judging of the different states or conditions1 in which it may be found under various circumstances2 premising that it requires much experience1 to enable a person to pronounce with confidence1 as to the value of the muscular parts1 from the inspection of a living animal3--,the flesh of different specimens of the same animal1 varies not so much from breed or descent1 as from age1 feeding1 and exercise4 ,that of the young is soft and gelatinous1 the fibres being small1 weak1 and much interspersed with a substance termed1 from its loose appearance1 cellular tissue4 ,this tissue exhibits in the spaces between the muscles 7layers of flesh7 small masses of delicate fat4 ,the greater bulk of the latter is situated immediately beneath the skin1 and occasions that beautiful rotundity so much admired in children4 ,as the animal advances in life1 the fibres become firmer1 larger1 and more approximated1 the cellular tissue disappears to a great extent1 the fat shifts from the outward to the inward parts1 allowing the outline of the muscles to be distinctly seen1 but giving at the same time to the figure that portly symptom of good keeping1 so unpleasant to the eye when carried to the extent of ,aldermanic dignity4 ,all these appearances are1 however1 varied by exercise1 which tends1 in a marked degree1 to increase the muscular parts at the expense of the fat--the former becoming1 when employed within proper limits1 large1 and unyielding to the touch1 while at the same time the colour is heightened from a pale or purple hue1 to the bright vermilion so justly relied upon by housewives1 as a guarantee for the superior qualities of the article4 ,the wild horses in ,south ,america1 which form the principal part of ,indian diet1 are said by these epicures to be much improved for the table by gentle labour1 and to be quite on a par when thus cared for1 with some of our best beef4 ,this plan is1 however1 only pursued for the purpose of rendering the flesh of their horses moderately firm2 but where an opposite effect is desired it is readily1 though cruelly1 produced by putting the animal to a lingering death2 examples of which practice are to be met with in the annals of most civilized nations2 as in the ,german mode of whipping pigs1 and the ,english custom of baiting bulls2#ad both tending to the same end1 by so exhausting vital contractibility as to prevent its last and faint display in the stiffening of the carcass4 #ad ,by the old ,english law1 no bull beef could be sold unless the bull had been baited4 ,marshall1 who touches very slightly on the subject1 says1 ,the flesh of sheep when slaughtered is well known to be of various qualities3 some is composed of large coarse grains1 interspersed with wide empty pores1 like a sponge2 others of large grains1 with wide pores filled with fat2 others of fine close grains with smaller pores filled with fat2 and a fourth of close grains without any mixture of fatness4 ,the flesh of sheep when dressed is equally well known to possess a variety of qualities3 some mutton is coarse1 dry1 and insipid1--a dry sponge affording little or no gravy of any colour4 ,another sort is somewhat firmer1 imparting a light-coloured gravy only4 ,a third plump1 short1 and palatable1 affording a mixture of white and red gravy4 ,a fourth likewise plump1 and well-flavoured1 but discharging red gravy only1 and this in various quantities4 ,it is likewise observable that some mutton1 when dressed1 appears covered with a thick1 tough1 parchment-like integument2 others with a membrane comparatively fine and flexible4 ,this membrane ought to be rather thin than thick1 as1 when of the latter texture1 you may safely affirm that the animal was aged4 ,looseness is reckoned a bad quality of the flesh of sheep during life1 as indicating a coarse-grained porous mutton1 and as equally exceptionable with that of hardness3 while mellowness1 and firmness1 are much to be desired1 as forming a happy mixture1 deemed by some the point of perfection4 ,the tendency to become fat at an early age1 though a valuable one in some points1 is not so in others4 ,premature decay is always the result1 showing with certainty that a healthy action has not been going on4 ,an animal when loaded with fat cannot be looked upon otherwise than as in a diseased state1 and liable to embarassment of many organs1 especially of the heart and brain4 ,sudden death on any hurried exertion is far from rare1 and life1 from the difficulty of enjoying it1 is any thing but desirable4 7#hb47 ,abuses in ,feeding4--,the custom of over-feeding was carried to an absurd extent on the promulgation of ,bakewell's method1 nothing less being aspired to than the glory of laying seven or eight inches of fat on the ribs of sheep4 ,this folly however had its day3 the ridiculous parts of the system have to a great extent disappeared1 while attention to the production of an increased quantity of mutton1 without too great an abundance of fat1 has remained to prove to the world the value of the benefits which the ,english farmer conferred upon his country4 ,overgrown sheep are indeed good for nothing save in the words of ,meg ,dods1 to obtain premiums at cattle shows1 and deluge dripping-pans with liquid fat2 and in this every one will agree1 excepting always boarding-school cooks1 and others who depend for their principal perquisites on the over-roasting of oily meat6 ,the fat1 though not reckoned as offal in the slaughter-house1 will speedily show itself as such in the kitchen1 by the waste during the cooking process1 even in ,england where fat meat is so much admired2 and it is surely absurd to pay the price of good mutton for tallow1 when if the latter were really wanted1 it could be procured at a cheaper rate by itself1 than when forming part of a dear commodity4 ,the only way in which over-fat meat can at all be reckoned profitable1 is in its application to the wants of the working classes1 whose bodily labour enables them to enjoy what would to others prove displeasing in the extreme1 and to digest and assimilate with ease1 food which to the sons of sloth would prove a poison4 ,so far as these wants have been supplied1 the attempt of ,bakewell has been attended with the happiest results1 as he and his disciples have placed by their well-spent exertions much good food within the reach of the poorer classes1 which they must otherwise have gone without2 while in many instances it has driven bacon from the market1 being a cheaper and more palatable commodity1 which cannot but contribute to the health of the people1 seeing the continued use of salted meat is calculated to injure the body1 and render it liable to many diseases4 ,marshall remarks1 that fat1 like charity1 covers a multitude of faults3 and he is right1 for an ill-shaped animal if well fed1 has all its angles speedily effaced1 and if its ugliness has not amounted to absolute deformity1 it acquires that rotundity of contour so pleasing to the eye1 and so apt to mislead us4 ,the rapidity is various with which animals take on fat1 much depending on hereditary predisposition1 and the nature of the food2 and much also on the state of the atmosphere1 and quiet habits2 a moist and rather warm air tending greatly to the advancement of the process1 some birds becoming fat in twenty-four hours of wet weather4 ,children that have been emaciated by diseases often resume their original plump condition in a few days2 and animals that have been famished1 as hogs1 afterwards fatten very rapidly4 ,moderate and repeated bleedings1 mild farinaceous diet1 and emasculation conjoined1 tend to the repletion of the body1 and to the speedy deposition of fat2 yet it would appear1 that when acquired in this rapid manner1 it never possesses the value in a culinary point of view1 that is yielded to such as has been slowly formed1 when1 as one may say1 the worthless particles have had time to be removed1 and the remaining part to become a firm and healthy deposit4 ,it is partly owing to this1 that animals are never at their best when forced to take on fat at an early age1 but are most esteemed by the gourmand when they1 as in the case of the sheep1 have lived from three to four years4 7#hc47 ,tendency to acquire ,fat4--,a disposition to early obesity1 as well as a tendency to that form which indicates a propensity to fatten1 is materially promoted by a good supply of rich food1 while the animal is in a growing state4 ,the ,spanish shepherds are so well aware of this1 that half of the lambs are annually killed1 that the survivors may obtain every indulgence in the way of milk4 ,care should be taken never to place animals suddenly on food much superior in feeding qualities to what they have left4 ,very lean sheep are never put to full turnips in winter1 nor to rich pastures in summer1 but are prepared for turnips on good grass lands1 and kept on second years' leys1 and afterwards given a moderate allowance of turnips if they are to be fatted on pastures4 ,it is an invariable rule with all good managers1 never to allow this or any other animal1 reared solely for the shambles1 to lose flesh from its earliest age till it is sent to the butcher as more food is necessary to bring it to a certain condition than to keep it at it4 ,in the case of the ,dishleys1 it is customary to keep all in a state of fatness1 except those intended for breeding1 and after full feeding on turnips during winter and spring1 to finish them on the first year's clover early in summer1 when the prices of meat are usually the highest2 so that this variety is always fit for market at eighteen months1 while the ,highland breeds1 though prepared by means of turnips1 a year at least1 sooner than in former times1 do not usually go to the shambles till from three to four years old4 7#hd47 ,frequent change of ,pasture necessary4--,sheep ought never to be permitted to remain too long on one pasture3--,great benefit will be derived from their removal from time to time to different parts even of the same farm1 by which arrangement a change of herbage will be ensured4 ,no animal can be kept for any length of time in health1 if restricted to one unvarying routine of diet4 ,this has been satisfactorily proved by the experiments of ,majendie1 who found that health could not be sustained on one or even two kinds of food beyond the thirtieth day4 ,now1 though such immediate injury cannot result to a flock from retention on a particular pasture1 owing to the variety of sustenance being considerable1 yet proportional harm will ensue sufficient to induce us not to repeat the risk4 ,nature1 the best of guides in all that relates to the protection of her creatures1 is no where more pointed in her directions than on this head4 ,a necessity for a variety of food1 and a desire to secure it1 are implanted in the disposition of every animal2 and where is the creature more prone to extensive rambles than the sheep8 ,we limit it to a paltry pasture-ground of roods and acres1 but does it not show1 by its determination to transgress our barriers1 that such is not the treatment nature has designed for it8 ,there is something more than wildness of character1 and restless disposition1 in the powerful attempts it continually makes to defy our artificial boundaries4 ,there is in these efforts a longing for fresh fields and other herbage1 an instinctive feeling that all is not as it ought to be2 and yet we attend not to the hint6 ,nothing will conduce so much to the health of the sheep1 and to the speedy taking on of fat1 as the frequent shifting of the flock4 ,disease will doubtless still affect the animals1 but illness will be rare1 and mortality diminished1 if by the care of their rulers1 they are enabled to obtain what instinct tells them is the best of medicine4 7#he47 ,varieties induced by apparently trivial causes4--,surrounded in a civilized state1 by all that can minister to the supply of wants1 whether real or supposed1 man is not on that account to be imagined as always so situated4 ,look to savage nations1 and remark their destitute condition1 their dependence on the uncertain proceeds of the chase1 and their reliance on modes of agriculture as unprofitable as they are unmatured4 ,countries there are certainly to be found1 where the elements of temperature1 are so fortunately balanced and combined as to produce only good effects1 and in which the rude inhabitants reap the fruits of a spontaneous plenty2 but these form only a small proportion of the globe1 and in most regions man must give his unceasing endeavours to the cultivation of a plant or animal1 before he can raise it from the miniature condition in which he finds it1 to such a size and richness as will satisfy his wants4 ,nor need we go far for illustrations4 ,the crab has been transformed into the apple1 and the sloe into the plum4 ,none of our cereal grasses1 as now cultivated1 are to be met with in a wild state2 they have evidently been brought to their present fulness by the care of ages4 ,the red cabbage and the cauliflower are the altered descendants of a widely different sea-side plant4 ,the different races of cabbages are examples of a wonderful deviation from the natural type1 and they all require much nicety in cultivation to prevent them assuming the characters of the original stock1 as1 when permitted to grow wild1 especially on a sterile soil as that of the sea coast1 they are sure in no long time to become exact counterparts of their originals4 ,cultivation1 also1 though taken in rather a different sense1 influences to a great extent the form and features of animals4 ,in proof of this may be adduced the differences that exist between different ranks of inhabitants in almost all countries4 ,buffon says1 that in ,france you may distinguish by their aspect not only the nobles from the peasantry1 but the superior orders of nobility from the inferior--these from citizens1 and citizens from peasants4 ,the ,african field-slaves in ,america1 are extremely different from the domestic servants of the former nation1 retaining as they do their original peculiarities from poor living and degrading duties2 while the latter have nearly approached to the habits and modes of thinking of their masters1 from living with them1 and being well treated under the same roof4 ,the ,south ,sea islanders1 says ,dr ,elliotson1 who appear to be all of one family1 vary according to their degree of cultivation4 ,the ,new ,zealanders1 for example1 are savages1 and chiefly black2 the ,new ,hollanders half civilized1 and chiefly tawny2 the ,friendly islanders are more advanced1 and not quite so dark2 several are lighter than olive colour1 and hundreds of ,european faces are found among them4 ,indeed the examples are almost endless which ,i could bring forward to aid my explanations2 but these it would be needless to give1 since it is in the power of every one to study the differences in form and features of the classes of society in our own island1 and by so doing understand the influence of otherwise trivial and unimportant circumstances1 on an animal at all times so easily moulded to situation as the sheep4 7#hf47 ,varieties from mode of ,breeding4--,changes are wrought for the most part by attention to the mode of propagation of the plant or animal1 by the plan of crossing2 and by careful selection of the parent stock4 ,every one must be struck with the varieties constantly occurring in the vegetable world3 ,flowers change their colours1 and become double2 and these characters can be perpetuated by seed4 ,hedge-row plants may be observed to vary even in the limits of an ordinary walk1 and to be continued as varieties so long as they remain in the same locality4 ,the following striking example of the extent to which plants may be made to vary by altering their circumstances1 is related by ,mr ,herbert in the ,horticultural ,transactions1 vol4 iv3--,i raised from the natural seed of an umbel of a highly manured red cowslip1 a primrose1 a cowslip1 oxlips of the usual and other colours1 a black polyanthus1 a hose-in-hose cowslip1 and a natural primrose bearing its flower on a polyanthus stalk4 ,from the seed of that very hose-in-hose cowslip1 ,i have since raised a hose-in-hose primrose4 ,i therefore consider all these to be only local varieties1 depending upon soil and situation4 ,fifty years ago1 says ,buffon 7writing in #agdi71 our pot-herbs consisted of a single species of succory1 and two of lettuce1 both very bad2 but we have now more than fifty kinds of lettuce and succory1 all of which are good4 ,our best fruits and nuts1 which are so different from those formerly cultivated that they have no resemblance but in the name1 must likewise be referred to a very modern date4 ,in general1 substances remain1 and names change with times3 but in this case names remain1 and substances are changed4 ,our peaches1 our apricots1 our pears1 are new productions with ancient names4 ,to remove every doubt upon this subject1 we have only to compare our flowers and fruits with the descriptions1 or rather notices of them transmitted to us by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,all their flowers were single1 and all their fruit-trees were wild stocks1 and their species very ill-chosen4 ,their fruits of course1 were small1 dry1 sour1 and had neither the flavour nor the beauty of ours4 ,these new and good species originally sprung from the wild kinds2 but how many times have their seeds been sown before this happy effect was produced8 ,it was only by sowing and rearing an infinite number of vegetables of the same species1 that some individuals were recognized to bear better and more succulent fruit than others2 and this first discovery1 which supposes much care and observation1 would have remained for ever useless if a second had not been made1 which implies an equal degree of genius as the first required of patience--,i mean the mode of multiplying by engrafting those precious individuals which unfortunately cannot propagate or transmit their excellent qualities to their posterity4 99 99 99 ,in the animal kingdom1 most of those qualities which appear to be individual are propagated and transmitted in the same manner as their specific qualities4 ,it was therefore more easy for man to have influence upon the nature of animals than upon that of vegetables4 ,particular races in any species of animals1 are only constant varieties1 which are perpetuated by generation4 ,but in the vegetable kingdom there are no races1 no varieties so constant as to be perpetuated by reproduction4 ,in the species of the hen and pigeon1 a great number of races have been very lately produced1 all of which propagate their kinds4 ,in other species1 we daily rear and improve races by crossing the breeds4 7#hg47 ,breeding in-and-in4--,though there are several methods pursued by breeders for the improvement of flocks1 the one most in vogue is1 that of choosing individuals of the same family1 and breeding in-and-in4 ,it is however a plan requiring1 for the safety of the flock1 either very great skill in selecting the males and females1 or only to be followed to a very limited extent4 ,no subject ever called forth so much random controversy1 and no evil has ever so clearly shown itself as such2 yet it is only recently1 that people have opened the intellectual eye to the dangers of a practice1 against which the ablest pens were long and vainly blunted4 ,the object of breeding in-and-in is to strengthen good qualities and get rid of bad ones1 as speedily as possible2 and it is plain1 that if we happen to select animals with slight imperfections1 these imperfections will become hereditary1 and will go on assuming a worse and worse type till the breed be destroyed4 ,culley1 however1 was of opinion1 that less risk is run by breeding in-and-in than is generally supposed1 and instances the wild cattle in ,chillingham ,park1 in the county of ,northumberland1 which1 having been confined for several hundred years without intermixture1 must have bred from the nearest affinities1 and yet are just as they were five hundred years since4 ,with all due deference1 however1 to the opinion of the late ,mr ,culley1 ,i must assert1 that ,i cannot perceive in what manner wild cattle can be made to illustrate the case in point1 as it must be evident1 that animals in a state of nature differ essentially from those in charge of man1 in regard to the propagation of infirmities1 as the former1 if born with a radical defect1 will1 ten to one1 never see the age which suits them for reproduction2 while the latter1 from the care bestowed upon them1 will1 even when very delicate1 in many instances be bolstered up till they have entailed upon posterity an accumulation of their already aggravated maladies4 ,the system of breeding in-and-in proves1 in fact1 as destructive to flocks1 as marriages of near relations to the human kind4 ,we would not witness an every-day entailment of diseases1 if people would forego their unnatural love of money1 and cease their endeavours to keep it in the family1 by forming matrimonial alliances with those who are near of kin4 ,the law of ,god forbids us to wed those who stand in certain degrees of propinquity2 but1 if we and our descendants avail ourselves of the limits of this law1 and marry on its verge a certain number of times1 misery must infallibly be the lot even of the tenth generation2 and instead of being fathers of a mighty people1 few and full of sorrow will be the days of our children2 while in place of retaining in their possession our darling wealth1 it will1 ere long1 pass into the hand of the stranger4 7#hh47 ,opponents of in-and-in breeding4--,different individuals at various times1 and in widely separate places1 have by their observations rendered the criminal absurdity of this system perfectly apparent to all1 who1 unbiased by party principle1 are anxious for a knowledge of the truth4 ,a few of these ,i shall mention4 ,ezra ,l',hommedieu1 ,vice-president of the ,agricultural ,society of ,new ,york1 collected1 in the year #ahjj1 a great many observations on the breeding of sheep1 and came to the conclusion1 that changing and crossing the breed of the animals is a matter of great importance1 in preventing a dwindling and degeneracy of the flock4 ,dr ,coventry1 in his pamphlet on ,live-,stock1 gives it as his opinion1 that ,the most perfect race of animals may be debased by improper mixture1 or injured by improper treatment4 ,indiscriminate matches in breeding1 and inattentive management in rearing1 are alike capable of producing a worthless progeny4 ,here the matter is made very plain1 from comparing an evil1 the progress of which is insidious1 with the injurious consequences1 which the most unobserving can easily trace to a parallel neglect4 ,mr ,dick of ,edinburgh1 so well known for the valuable and trustworthy information he has accumulated1 has been informed by eminent farmers1 that cattle bred in-and-in1 are very subject to clyers in the throat after they have attained their first year4 ,by clyers are meant enlarged lymphatic glands1 which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofulous habit1 a breaking up of the constitution1 which1 though produced by a variety of causes1 is yet frequently the result of an owr sib connection4 ,these are1 ,i may say1 the accidental opinions of men who had no point to make good1 in which their credit was at all at stake1 and who are not endeavouring to support the crude opinions of former years4 ,for these reasons1 they possess a value which ought to give them a proportional weight in an investigation like the present4 ,mr ,bakewell succeeded in bringing his sheep to great perfection as regards form1 and rapidity of fattening1 by breeding in the same family for a great many years2 but it was attended with considerable deterioration in the quality of the wool1 and engendered a liability to disease1 sufficient to deter any one from proceeding a similar length in the same track1 to what is so dubiously called improvement4 ,see what ,mr ,dickson says to this effect1 in a recent number of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture4 ,the evil of breeding in-and-in1 or in other words1 producing too great refinement of tone1 is manifested in the first instance by a tenderness of constitution2 the animals not being able to withstand the extremes of heat and cold1 rain and drought4 ,if the evil is prolonged through several generations1 the forms of the animals become affected1 the bone becomes very small1 the neck droops1 the skin of the head becomes tight and scantily covered with hair1 the expression of the eye indicates extreme sensibility1 the hair on the body becomes thin and short1 and the skin as thin as paper2 the points continue good1 and predisposition to fatness increases1 but the whole carcass becomes much diminished in size1 though retaining its plumpness1 and beautiful symmetry4 ,the evil1 however1 does not terminate in the production of these symptoms4 ,internal diseases ensue1 such as disorganization of the liver1 or rot1 polypi in the trachea1 clyers1 malformation of the bones of the neck and legs1 and general deformity4 ,this position1 however1 will be strengthened by drawing attention to insulated portions of our race1 where the effects of such a system are exhibited on a considerable scale4 ,the ,members of the ,society of ,friends were1 at one time1 supposed to be of all others the least subject to insanity2 but the very reverse is the case2 being1 from the limited nature of their sect1 driven to frequent intermarriages1 and to a consequent deterioration of the most active part of the human frame--the brain4 ,it is for the same reason1 that almost every royal family contains a large proportion of idiots1 or1 at the best1 persons of very weak intellect2 and1 such will continue to occur1 till legislators fall on some plan of striking at the groundwork of the mischief4 ,if the laws of ,god and man define to us so clearly the evils of intermarrying with relatives2 and if1 as all animals are constructed on one grand plan1 we admit the proximity of the sheep to the human race1 it follows1 that what is destructive1 in this respect1 to the one1 is destructive to the other2 and that we should seek1 by a nearly similar1 if not wider1 range of rules1 to obviate many of those diseases of which1 when under our protection1 they are so frequently the subjects4 7#hi47 ,breeding from different families of the same race4--,mr ,culley1 though believing that no great harm can result from breeding in-and-in1 yet appears to have in a manner preferred the preferable practice of breeding from different families of the same race2 as he1 for many years1 hired his rams from ,mr ,bakewell1 at a time when other breeders were paying a liberal price for his own valuable animals4 ,this is of all methods deservedly the best1 as the males1 which are inter-changed1 have always had shades of difference impressed upon them1 by various soils and treatment1 so that the defects of each family have a good chance to be counteracted by the perfections of the other4 ,by this means the bad points are gradually exhausted1 and their valuable properties as gradually heightened4 ,breeders have been much aided in the furtherance of this desirable plan1 by the rearing of superior rams having become1 of late years1 a separate pursuit4 ,the letting of them out to distant parts of the country has long been a branch of this speculation2 diffusing some of the most valuable points of particular breeds1 and leading to a spirit of competition4 ,the practice has been reprobated1 but1 ,i presume1 rather hastily2 for with all its attendant evils1 such as leading to deception1 by what is termed the making up of rams1 it possesses excellencies which will1 ,i hope1 lead to its continuance4 7#ij47 ,crossing4-,the only other method of improving a breed is by crossing two distinct races1 one of which possesses the properties it is desirable to acquire1 and wants the defects we wish to remove4 ,this1 however1 is a measure not to be recommended1 and only to be resorted to when neither of the others will do2 for it is scarcely possible to obtain the desirable properties without at the same time imparting qualities sufficient to neutralize them2 and with which1 in fact1 we would rather dispense4 ,to cross1 as ,mr ,cleghorn remarks1 any mountain breed with ,leicester rams1 with a view to obtain a propensity to fatten at an early age1 would be attended with an enlargement of size1 which the mountain pasture could not support1 and the progeny would be a mongrel race1 not suited to the pastures of either of the parent breeds4 ,the folly of such a proceeding is beautifully shown in the failure of the attempts made1 some years ago1 to better the fleece of the mountain sheep1 in the ,south of ,scotland4 ,to effect this desirable end1 rams were brought from the ,cheviot range of hills1 and the consequences were1 as described by ,mr ,william ,hogg1 of ,stobbo1 in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 just what a preliminary consideration of the existing circumstances would have proved to be unavoidable4 ,the independent habits of the mountain flocks were lost1 and a mongrel progeny1 of a clumsy figure1 occupied the lowest and warmest of the pastures4 ,as they were very improper subjects to breed from1 they were often a drug in the market3 but the store-master had no other resource1 but to struggle on against the opposition which the animal itself made to the change1 and1 also1 against the influence of bad seasons1 in order to get the influence of the ,cheviot breed fully established4 99 99 99 ,with its shaggy coat the animal lost its bold independent look1 its stout shape1 its unvitiated taste1 and its sound constitution4 ,a course of severe winters too occurred during the time of changing1 while every property calculated to resist privation and fatigue was unconfirmed in the progeny2 and1 in consequence1 the ravages by rot1 and poverty1 among the flocks that occupied soft pastures were immense4 ,how did it happen1 that the store-master had no other resource but to persevere in an unprofitable course8 ,was he obliged to strive against natural obstacles1 which even a short experience might have taught him were1 in that manner1 insurmountable8 ,why not recur at once to the old mode of management1 rather than injure himself by kicking against the pricks4 ,sundry store-masters were not aware1 says ,mr ,hogg1 that their old breed would so obstinately resist the impression of the ,cheviot blood1 nor did they ever dream that the mongrel issue would be so easily subdued by the hardships and cold of winter3 thus finding their scheme opposed1 at points where they anticipated little resistance1 they gave up the experiment ere it was half completed1 and introduced mountain rams to the mongrel issue4 ,enough1 however1 has been said to prove that this plan ought not to be pursued3 let me now say a few words as to the reasons which should deter us from its adoption4 ,to take a familiar illustration3--,how would one of the worshipful company of ,aldermen1 or a dignitary of the ,church1 manage to keep up an appearance1 if suddenly transported from the luxurious plenty which surrounds him1 to the meagre fare1 and churlish climate1 of our ,highlands8 ,would their offspring1 which ten to one would be prone to rapid growth1 and1 therefore1 requiring at the least a large supply of porridge and milk2 would they1 ,i ask1 arrive at a healthy maturity1 if supported only on the oaten cake1 and whang of skimmed-milk cheese1 of the hardy ,northern8 ,the answer is1 they would not4 ,they would1 doubtless1 bear the climate2 but the habit of body imprinted on them1 by the full living of the parents1 would require a more nutritious food to bring it to the adult age1 than what might be necessary for the sustenance of any child descended from the possessors of the soil4 ,if such then is the case with the young of an animal shielded from inclemency on every hand1 how can we expect the progeny of a rather heavy variety of a defenceless creature like the sheep to thrive1 in defiance of every thing ungenial1 on a pasture which requires for its collection1 in any quantity1 a degree of experience and activity1 the result of time and well-trained instinct4 ,the mongrel is not unfitted for the locality1 as ,mr ,hogg would have it1 by a weakness resulting from the constant and continued exertions of the two bloods1 the one endeavouring to overpower the other1 there is no war waging in the progeny between the blood of sire and dam2 the secret lies in the animal being unsuited for the pasture where it is produced4 ,place it in a country possessing a herbage something between that of the ,highland and ,cheviot hills1 and it will do passing well2 but do not ascribe the want of success to a natural hatred of the breeds4 ,again1 do not fall into the error1 that the figure1 wool1 and other qualities1 of the ,cheviot ram1 are most conspicuous 7in this cross7 in the smallest and feeblest of the progeny1 while the properties of the mountain breed are more fully exhibited in the strongest and most robust lambs1 a circumstance which1 unfortunately1 induced many of the store-farmers to throw aside the best of the lambs1 and select those to breed from1 which had apparently most of the ,cheviot figure2 or1 in other words1 do not suppose1 as ,mr ,hogg strangely enough infers1 that only the weak animals took on the ,cheviot form1 and only the strong ones assumed the ,highland character4 ,the correct explanation is1 that such as had most ,cheviot blood were sure to become puny1 from being unadapted to a herbage on which those that resembled the mountain stock throve tolerably well4 ,strength and feebleness were1 in this instance1 mere secondary matters4 7#ia47 ,things to be attended to in ,crossing4--,the fact is1 that1 if you wish to have a particular kind of sheep1 you must first of all be in possession of a pasture suitable for the new comers4 ,you must consider the influence of the individual parents on the progeny1 the size of the animals1 their habits and dispositions1 and their peculiarities in regard to the time of their maturity1 and fattening properties2 and1 having anticipated these apparently trifling affairs1 you must see that the surface of your farm1 its degree of exposure1 and the quantity and quality of its productions1 are calculated for the profitable maintenance of the animal in view4 ,far too little attention is bestowed1 at the commencement of such an undertaking1 on these all-swaying matters4 ,farmers enter upon this1 the most arduous of all professions1 with the settled conviction1 that nothing is so simple as the engrafting of a race of animals on a particular part of a country4 ,they have read1 or heard1 of others who have gained fame1 and a fortune1 by successful endeavours of the kind1 and they think that nothing is easier than to follow their example2 but they forget the thoughtful hours1 and irksome duties1 these men had to tolerate1 before they could speak of any thing like success4 ,no animal can be made to forego at once a long used food1 an ancient locality1 peculiarity of clime and season1 and the instinctive habits that have been long nurtured by these1 without both it and its progeny suffering from the change3--,nature cannot thus be made to bend to human intention2 it will give way in the attempt4 ,in crossing there are several important things to be attended to4 ,well formed parents ought to be selected1 and1 if enlargement of the carcass be wanted1 the issue should be better fed than its originators1 which ought to be of a size rather under1 than above what the pasture is capable of supporting4 ,the size of the parents should not be much disproportioned at first1 as nature abhors sudden extremes1 and does every thing in the most gradual manner4 ,it is better1 when some increase has been attained1 to bring the breed to the required size by one or two crossings4#ae ,in choosing a breed1 we should adopt that which affords the greatest quantity of market produce1 in return for the food consumed2#af and a particular breed ought always to be preferred to the sheep of a district4 ,we must not imagine1 that when1 by dint of crossing1 we have obtained the variety wanted1 that it will remain in the condition to which we have brought it1 without the slightest liability to alter4 ,many farmers believe they have done all that is required1 if they subject their stock to three or four crossings with a breed of acknowledged excellence4 ,they think that the improved animals they have obtained will support their acquired characters1 uninfluenced by extraneous agency4 ,now nothing can be more faulty than this mode of management1 as is proved by a comparison of stock so treated1 with flocks which have uninterruptedly received that undeviating attention1 which can alone ensure a continuance of the properties desired4 ,such men forget1 that the climate is operating with as great certainty on the animals as on the rocks around2 and that as the herbage is determined by the nature of the adjacent rocks1 so are the peculiarities of the sheep influenced by the herbage2 and that if they manage to change the characters of the breed1 it can1 in a majority of cases1 be only for a time1 unless the tendencies of the surrounding elements are counteracted1 by a constant recurrence to the originators of the flock4 ,i am sorry1 says ,little1 in his valuable practical observations1 to say1 that there are too many examples of those1 who thought themselves at the head of improvement in stock1 relaxing their exertions1 and keeping by their own stock2 and the consequence has been1 that such stocks have degenerated1 become delicate1 tender1 and diminutive in size2 and from no other cause but that the same pains have not been taken to preserve the improvement1 that was taken to effect it4 ,i could mention many improvers who were of the first class formerly1 but who are now only in the second4 ,changes1 in fact1 by crossing are not to be effected in a short space of time2 you must look forward to several years of constant exertion1 before you can hope1 in this manner1 to alter your stock4#ag ,then1 again1 we must be aware of the tendency which nature1 in numerous instances1 displays to perpetuate diseases1 dispositions1 and aberrations from the normal structure4 ,many qualities and diseases1 are known1 in man1 to be hereditary2 of the former1 ,i may instance peculiarities in walking1 and writing2 a passion for intoxicating liquors1 and other habits too trivial to mention2 and of the latter1 gout1 pulmonary consumption1 and blindness from cataract1 which are well known to harass a family for generations4 ,features1 in like manner1 may remain for ages of the same undeviating cast2 thus the ,jews of to-day are the very counterparts of the ,jews of three thousand years back1 and1 in all likelihood1 will so remain till the end of time4 ,a predisposition to many diseases is engendered in the sheep1 by too great a refinement in breeding1 which tends to diminish the size of the animal1 prevents them feeding to perfection1 destroys their fecundity1 and imparts great tenderness of constitution4 ,accidental deviations from the natural type may1 also1 be hereditary1 as is seen in those races of dogs which have a supernumerary toe on the hind foot1 and tarsal bones to correspond4 ,in the human race also several generations of a particular family have been distinguished1 by having six fingers and six toes1 on their hands and feet4 ,it is in like manner to an accidental malformation1 that the ,americans are indebted for their ,otter breed of sheep4 ,mr ,livingston1 who wrote in #ahaa1 thus describes them3 ,the ,otter sheep were first discovered on some island1 on the eastern coast1 and have spread to the adjoining states4 ,the sheep are long-bodied rather than large1 and weigh about #ae lbs4 a quarter4 ,their wool is of a medium fineness1 and a medium length2 but that which particularly characterizes these sheep is the length of their bodies1 and the shortness of their legs1 which are1 also1 turned out in such a manner as to appear rickety4 ,they cannot run1 or jump1 and they even walk with some difficulty4 ,they appear as if their legs had been broken and set by some awkward surgeon4 ,they can scarcely exist in a deep country1 and they cannot possibly be driven to a distant pasture or market4 ,dr ,dwight1 in his travels in ,new ,england1 remarks of this curious variety1 that the fore legs are remarkably short1 and bent inward1 so as distinctly to resemble what are called club-feet4#ah ,i believe this to be the only instance where man has availed himself of a defect in the animal kingdom1 and turned it to his advantage4 ,attention ought also to be bestowed on the order in which different parts of the animal are subjected to changes during crossing4 ,these1 according to ,dr ,sturm1 the latest observer on this head1 are first exhibited in those parts that possess a power of being reproduced1 as the hair1 horns1 and hoofs4 ,the fleshy parts change slowly1 in proportion as the mother has much of the blood of the original race4 ,the first changes take place in the head1 and are gradually developed towards the hind quarters4 ,lastly1 look to the condition in which your sheep are as regards fatness4 ,if fat1 they will be averse to becoming pregnant1 and considerable annoyance will1 in all likelihood1 be experienced4 ,a moderately low diet is most suitable for ewes1 for some time before the ram is admitted1 in the same way that fruit trees1 when unproductive in a rich soil1 are rendered fertile by placing straw and stones between their roots and the too nutritious earth4 ,a rather poor diet1 also1 during pregnancy1 will be found to obviate many of those risks which are sure to be incurred from repletion during this period4 #ae ,dr ,cline1 in a communication to the ,board of ,agriculture1 observes on this point3 ,experience has proved1 that crossing has only succeeded in an eminent degree1 in those instances in which the females were larger1 than in the usual proportion of females to males1 and that it has generally failed when the males were proportionally large4 #af ,it was owing to a peculiar view taken of this maxim1 that so enormous sums were asked and given1 for the hire of rams1 at the time ,mr ,bakewell brought the new ,leicester to perfection4 ,that gentleman would never have obtained #abjj guineas for the hire of three rams if the speculators had not intended to procure nearly similar prices for the use of the offspring of these animals2 and it may be pretty safely affirmed1 that this traffic was ultimately the cause of much mischief to the breed in question1 by inducing many to speculate on what was likely to prove a fashionable article1 without caring much for the endurance of the really valuable points4 #ag ,dr ,sturm1 professor of ,agriculture1 at ,bonn1 says1 that a new race may be produced in the same number of years as are required for perfecting the teeth4 #ah ,sheep are as liable to distortions of the skeleton as other animals4 ,the ,museum of ,guy's ,hospital contains a very good specimen of distorted spine taken from a sheep4 7#ib47 ,choice of ,parents4--,however faulty sheep may be1 some are always to be found surpassing their fellows1 and these it ought to be the aim of every breeder to discover4 ,without acknowledge of an animal's points1 it is in vain that the breeder can hope for improvement4 ,he may by accident make a lucky hit1 but1 unless he has studied his business from the bottom1 he cannot follow up and avail himself of an advantage1 which a more knowing individual would1 from previous training1 turn at once to a profitable account4 ,much may be done by letter-press description2 and this ,i shall endeavour to achieve2 but more will be accomplished by a close and attentive examination of a few well-selected animals1 which it is now no difficult matter to get a view of1 as1 thanks to the spirited exertions of the ,highland ,society1 valuable specimens are far from rare4 ,in breeding and rearing rams1 two divisions of these animals are recognised1--ram getters1 and wedder getters1--the former1 from their fineness1 being kept for the procreation of animals like themselves1 while the latter1 from their coarseness1 are set aside as fitted only for parent stock for grazier's sheep1 the mere grazier liking a ram no worse for having a massy frame1 and being less scrupulous about his form than the ram breeder1 whose grand object is fineness1 and who trusts to the ewes for giving the offspring size and substance4 ,the principal ram-breeders are guided in the choice of their ram-lambs1 more by blood or parentage1 than by form1 on which1 at so early an age1 little dependance can be placed4 ,in the case of the ,dishleys1 they allow them every indulgence1 from the time of weaning till that of shearing1 as they push them forward with the intent of letting them the first season1 while yet yearlings4 ,it is this early arrival at maturity1 which is1 with truth1 supposed by some to occasion their early falling off2 for by a law of the animal economy1 premature adult age is always succeeded by premature decay2 life appearing to be dated from the time the animal enters on the fulfilment of the ends for which it was created4 ,according to ,mr ,bakewell1 the shape which should be the criterion of a sheep1 is that of a hogshead or firkin1 truly circular1 with small and as short legs as possible3 upon the plain principle1 that the value lies in the barrel1 not in the legs2 and all breeds the backs of which rise in the least ridge are bad4 ,their bodies should be as true barrels as can be seen1 their backs round and broad1 and their legs not much exeeeding six inches in length4 ,the following is a measurement of a three-years' old ram of ,mr ,bakewell1 ,feet4 ,inches4 ,girth1 #e #aj ,height1 #b #e ,breadth of ,collar1 #a #d ,breadth of shoulders1 #a #aa-a_/b ,breadth across the ribs1 #a #aj-a_/b ,breadth across the hips1 #a #i-a_/b ,a most unusual proof of kindly feeding in the animals of this shape1 is their feeling quite fat1 just within their fore legs1 on the rib2 a point in which sheep are seldom examined1 from common breeds never carrying fat there4 ,they are particularly distinguished by the lightness of the offal1 the bones being one-half smaller than in some other breeds1 and the meat proportionally thicker1 while the pelt is thin1 and the head small--a thing of some consequence in most parts of ,england1 where that ,scottish luxury1 sheep-head broth1 is so cordially despised4 ,the best form for a cheviot ram is thus described by ,mr ,cully1 in his excellent work on ,live-,stock3 ,his head should be fine and small2 his nostrils wide and expanded2 his eyes prominent1 and rather bold or daring2 ears thin2 his collar full from his breast and shoulders1 but tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join1 which should be very fine and graceful1 being perfectly free from any coarse leather hanging down2 the shoulders broad and full1 which must at the same time join so easy to the collar forward and chine backward1 as to leave not the least hollow in either place2 the mutton upon his arm or fore-thigh must come quite to the knee2 his legs upright1 with a clean fine bone1 being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse hairy wool from the knee and hough downwards2 the breast broad and well forward1 which will keep his forelegs at a proper wideness2 his girth or chest full and deep1 and instead of a hollow behind the shoulders1 that part by some called the fore-flank1 should be quite full2 the back and loins broad1 flat1 and straight1 from which the ribs must rise in a fine circular arch2 his belly straight2 the quarters long and full1 with the mutton quite down to the hough1 which should neither stand in nor out2 his twist deep1 wide and full1 which1 with the broad breast1 will keep his four legs open and upright2 the whole body covered with a thin pelt1 and that with bright soft wool4 ,the nearer any breed comes up to the above description1 the nearer they approach towards excellence of form4 ,as an amusing contrast to this well drawn picture1 ,i give an extract from the work of that ancient agriculturist ,columella4 ,therefore1 the way to judge and approve of a ram1 is not only that of observing if he is clothed with a white fleece1 but also if his palate and tongue are of the same colour with his wool2 for when these parts of his body are black or spotted1 there arises a black or speckled offspring4 ,and this1 among other things1 the same poet ,i mentioned above1 7,virgil1 ,georg4 ,lib4 iii47 has excellently pointed out in such numbers as these3 ,reject him1 tho' the ram himself be white1 ,under whose ousy palate lies concealed ,a black or spotted tongue2 for with black spots ,he'll stain the fleeces of his future race4 ,after some amusing remarks on the same subject1 delivered in a very quaint way1 he concludes his description with the mention of twisted horns1--not because this last is more useful1 7for a ram without horns is better17 but because horns that are twisted and bended inwards are not at all so hurtful as those that are set upright and expanded4 ,nevertheless1 in some countries where the climate is wet and windy1 we would wish for he-goats and rams even with the very largest horns2 because1 when they are high and extended1 they defend the greatest part of the head from the storm4 ,it is thus that among some of his most beautiful remarks1 we have generally a something occurring which upsets the gravity of the whole by its childish absurdity4 7#ic47 ,influence of ,sex4--,in early ages1 the greater share of attention appears to have been bestowed on male domesticated animals1 on account of the more numerous offspring of which they would become the parents2 and from this1 as the ,rev4 ,henry ,berry1 of ,acton ,beauchamp1 ,worcestershire1 supposes1 7in a valuable essay on the breeding of live stock1 published in the ,british ,farmer's ,magazine17 has originated the prevalent idea1 that the male has a more decided influence1 than the female1 on the form of the progeny4 ,the ideas entertained respecting the useful qualities of an animal would 7in former times7 be very similar1 and lead to the adoption of a general standard of excellence1 towards which it would be required that each male should approximate2 and thus there would exist1 among what may be termed fashionable sires1 a corresponding form and character1 different from1 and superior to1 those of the general stock of the country4 ,this form and character would1 in most instances1 have been acquired by perseverance in breeding from animals which possessed the important or fancied requisites1 and might1 therefore1 be said to be almost confirmed in such individuals4 ,under these circumstances1 striking results would doubtless follow the introduction of these sires to a common stock2 results which would lead superficial observers to remark1 that individual sires possessed properties as males1 which1 in fact1 were only assignable to them as improved animals4 ,in general1 the qualities of the male and female parents are visible to an equal extent in the offspring1 as is well exemplified among horses1 in the mixture of the blood and cart breed1 where the great difference in form and character is nicely blended2 but1 occasionally1 the peculiarities of the male1 or female1 are visible only on some particular part of the offspring1 as in the crossing of the ,merino ram with the ,ryeland ewe1 when the former affects the fleece1 and the latter the carcass4 ,though there are many opinions as to the comparative influence of the sexes on the progeny1 yet1 as before stated1 the majority of voices represent the male as the more influential4 ,mr ,boswell1 in his essay on this subject1 published in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 and in the ,farmer's ,magazine1 is decidedly of this opinion1 ,being fully convinced of the power of the male on the offspring1 ,i have always accounted it as a loss to put a bad male to a high bred female1 and have never done so4 ,i have1 however1 observed1 where the country people have purchased high bred sheep at any sale of mine1 and bred from them with the ordinary rams1 that the breed very quickly got bad3 whereas1 when a ,bakewell ram had been purchased1 ,i have seen a most remarkable change on the quality of the sheep2 and1 in several instances1 where the ewes 7,highlanders7 had been tolerable from which they had bred1 the cross was so nearly resembling a new ,leicester1 as to deceive any one who was not a thorough judge4 ,bewick1 the natural historian1 supports this opinion when speaking of the original breed of wild cattle1 still to be found in a few ,english and ,scottish parks4 ,they are uniformly pure white1 with black or red ears and noses4 ,he says1 that cows1 when in season1 used often to be turned into the park at ,chillingham ,castle1 in ,northumberland1 and that1 when covered by the wild bull1 all their produce was uniformly white1 with red ears and noses4 ,on the other hand1 the female is1 also1 prevalently believed to have some share in the matter1 and much may be adduced as evidence of its power over the form of the offspring1 equally authentic with the former4 ,mr ,ferguson1 in a paper on live-stock1 in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 relates the following apposite and amusing story3-- ,naturalists are1 ,i believe1 nearly agreed1 that the influence of the male exceeds that of the female in communicating qualities to the offspring1 and a very providential arrangement it is1 in respect that good points may be thus diffused with far more rapidity than could otherwise occur4 ,the choice of the female is by no means1 however1 a matter of indifference1 and it is only by due attention to both that perfection can be looked for4 ,i recollect several years ago1 at a distinguished breeder's in ,northumberland1 meeting with a shrewd ,scottish borderer1 7indeed1 if report be true1 the original and identical ,dandy ,dinmont17 who1 after admiring1 with a considerable spice of national pique1 a very fine short-horn bull1 demanded anxiously to see the dam4 ,the cow having been accordingly produced1 and having undergone a regular survey1 ,dandy vociferated1 with characteristic pith1 ',i think naething o' your bull now1 wi' sic a caumb2' and1 unquestionably1 the mould or 'caumb' must have its own share in producing shapes1 though in his haste to detract1 7as he thought17 from the merits of the bull1 poor ,dandy totally overlooked the additional compliment paid to the judgment of the ',southron4' ,it is in general supposed1 that if the female be by descent small1 that the length of the legs of the issue will not be influenced by the male4 ,the weight of the carcass is a good deal affected by the male1 but not so much as by the female4 ,the impressions of one or other1 especially of the male1 do not cease on the birth of the fruits of a connection1 for though he may have no further meeting with that female1 yet are the succeeding offspring tinged with his peculiar colour1 or modelled after his form4 ,this is well illustrated by a fact which came under the notice of the ,earl of ,morton4 ,his lordship bred from a male quagga and a mare of seven-eights ,arabian blood1 a female hybrid1 displaying in form and colour her mixed origin4 ,the mare was then given to ,sir ,gore ,ouseley1 who bred from her first a filly and afterwards a colt1 by a fine black ,arabian horse1 but both these1 in their colour and in the hair of their manes1 strongly resembled the quagga4 ,this isolated fact would be1 however1 but of small value if unsupported by others1 which are luckily now of common occurrence1 among which the following tends strongly to its corroboration3--,in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahba1 ,dr ,wollaston relates that ,d4 ,giles1 ,esq41 had a sow of the black and white kind1 which1 after littering by a chestnut boar of the wild breed1 was put1 some time after the death of this1 to boars of quite a different variety1 yet the offspring were covered with chestnut marks1 so as closely to resemble the long-departed animal4 ,the progeny of most domesticated animals often bear a striking resemblance to the grandmother or grandfather1 and it is well known that the desired changes cannot be effected on a breed1 or that the desired breed cannot be produced1 till the third1 fourth1 or even the fifth crossing1 so that the importance of having few defects in a stock will be readily admitted1 seeing their debasing consequences are carried through whole generations1 and that though absent in one remove1 yet that they may appear in the next4 ,both sire and dam should be chosen as free from defects as possible1 a thing often neglected in rearing domestic animals1 especially horses1 where the opinion is in vogue1 that no matter how debilitated and worn out may be the dam1 yet that if coupled with a young and perfect sire1 a healthy handsome offspring will be the issue2 than which idea nothing can be more absurd1 as such animals1 if left to nature1 would seldom or never come in contact1 owing to the one party never attaining a decrepit age1 but perishing on its verge4 7#id47 ,the sex of the progeny is supposed to be the result of the relative ages of the parents2 thus1 issue from a young male and an old female will in general be feminine1 while that from an old male and a young female will generally be masculine2 and it has been proposed to turn this1 apparently a law of nature1 to account1 in the management of flocks1 as it must often be of consequence to obtain1 at will1 a considerable increase of the sex most wanted4 ,on this subject there will be found an interesting paper in the first number of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 entitled1 ,a method of obtaining a greater number of ,one ,sex at the option of the ,proprietor1 in the ,breeding of ,live-,stock1 and from this ,i extract the following3-- ,in the ,annales de l',agriculture ,francaise1 ,vols4 xxxvii4 and xxxviii41 some very interesting experiments are recorded1 which have lately been made in ,france1 on the breeding of live-stock4 ,m4 ,charles ,girou de ,buzareingues proposed1 at a meeting of the ,agricultural ,society of ,severac1 on the #c;d of ,july1 #ahbf1 to divide a flock of sheep into two equal parts1 so that a greater number of males or females1 at the choice of the proprietor1 should be produced from each of them4 ,two of the members of the society offered their flocks to become the subjects of his experiments1 and the results have now been communicated1 which are in accordance with the author's expectations4 ,the first experiment was conducted in the following manner3--,he recommended very young rams to be put to the flock of ewes from which the proprietor wished the greater number of females in their offspring and also1 that during the season when the rams were with the ewes1 they should have more abundant pasture than the other2 while to the flock from which the proprietor wished to obtain male lambs chiefly1 he recommended him to put strong and vigorous rams1 four or five years old4 ,the following tabular view contains the result of his experiment3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,flock for female lambs4 ,flock for male lambs4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,age of the mothers4 ,sex of the ,age of the mothers4 ,sex of the ,lambs4 ,lambs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,males4 ,fem4 ,males4,fem4 ,two years1 #ad #bf ,two years1 #g #c ,three years1 #af #bi ,three years1 #ae #ad ,four years1 #e #ba ,four years1 #cc #ad -- -- -- -- ,total1 #ce #gf ,total1 #ee #ca ,five years and older1 #ah #h ,five years and older1 #be #bd -- -- -- -- ,total1 #ec #hd ,total1 #hj #ee ,n4,b4--,there were three twin-births,n4,b4--,there were no twin-births in this flock4 ,two rams in this flock4 ,two strong served it2 one fifteen months1 rams1 one four1 the other five the other nearly two years old4 years old1 served it4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the general law1 as far as we are able to detect it1 seems to be1 that when animals are in good condition1 plentifully supplied with food1 and kept from breeding as fast as they might do1 they are most likely to produce females4 ,or1 in other words1 when a race of animals is in circumstances favourable for its increase1 ,nature produces the greatest number of that sex which1 in animals that do not pair1 is most efficient for increasing the number of the race4 ,but if they are in a bad climate1 or on a stinted pasture1 or if they have already given birth to a numerous offspring1 then ,nature1 setting limits to the increase of the race1 produces more males than females4 ,yet1 perhaps1 it may be premature to attempt to deduce any law from experiments which have not yet been sufficiently extended4 ,m4 ,girou is disposed to ascribe much of the effect to the age of the ram1 independent of the condition of the ewe4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,management ,,of ,,sheep4 7#ie47 ,those who have attended to the subject are well aware1 that the profitable management of livestock is the most difficult department in the business of a farm4 ,so much depends on the nature of the locality where sheep are kept1 and on its situation in regard to markets for the disposal of its produce1 that little but what is of general application need be written on this head4 ,precise rules for agricultural conduct can seldom be laid down with any probability of their being followed1 as it must necessarily vary less or more with the peculiar circumstances of the estate1 and must1 therefore1 to a great extent1 be trusted to the intelligence of the farmer4 ,all1 therefore1 that ,i shall aim at in treating of this division1 will be the giving an outline of the more important matters connected with sheep-husbandry1 leaving the tyro to use it as circumstances may point out4 ,for obvious reasons1 a natural arrangement of the subject is the best2 and to this1 therefore1 ,i shall1 as much as possible1 adhere4 7#if47 ,putting ,tups to ,ewes4 ,the middle of ,november is the time at which this is usually done1 but the season is anticipated or delayed according as the spring provender is expected to be early or late1 plentiful or scarce4 ,when the sheep are spread over a wide track1 one ram is in general allotted to thirty ewes2 but when the latter are on a limited range of pasture1 the proportion of one to fifty may be reckoned ample4 ,the rams ought not to be left with the ewes above four or five weeks1 as it does not do to have lambs dropped after the middle of ,may2 indeed much trouble will be saved to the shepherd if he can contrive to have all the lambs yeaned about the same time1 as the flock will1 from its numbers being of a similar standing1 be healthier1 and every way easier to manage1 than one in which there is a great diversity of ages4 ,such ewes1 therefore1 as have not evinced an inclination for the male1 ought1 before the above period has elapsed1 to be driven into a barn or small inclosure1 and made to run about till they have become a little heated1 after which1 when the ram is introduced1 the desired effect will doubtless follow4 ,delay will in many cases be unavoidable1 owing to the ewes being in too high condition2 but this the shepherd should try to obviate1 by administering one or two doses of ,epsom salts1 which1 by reducing the plethora1 will increase the activity of the animal1 and render it in many ways more prone to pregnancy4 ,as it is an object of some importance to retard the yeaning of gimmer hogs till the spring be well advanced1 the rams are never sent to them till a fortnight after they have been put to the older ewes4 ,much nicety is always required in choosing the time at which rams mould be put to gimmers1 as they are in general sorry nurses1 and sure1 in bad seasons1 to lose many lambs4 ,when a farm is provided with suitable enclosures1 careful selection of both ewes and rams should always be attended to1 taking care to make the good points of the one remedy the defects of the other2 but where a farm is destitute of such accommodation1 the next best plan is to send the finest rams to the ewes for a few days before the rest of the males are admitted4 ,great ewes ought always to be well looked after4 ,the driest and best sheltered fields should be set apart for them1 and turnips1 when forming part of their food1 should1 when they are about to yean1 always be carted to their pasture4 ,when they roll awald1 and cannot regain their feet1 prompt assistance should be afforded them1 else they will soon die4 ,death in this case occurs from suffocation1 though the morbid appearances exhibited by the carcass are frequently mistaken for those of braxy4 ,udder locking ought never to be attempted1 as it often leads to abortion1 and is1 besides1 not of the slightest utility4 7#ig47 ,early ,lambs4 ,though in the greater number of our breeds the arrival of the rutting season is fixed and regular1 yet there are several in which pregnancy may1 by proper management1 be induced at any period4 ,of these the ,dorsetshire and ,wicklow varieties are the most noted1 and are on this account selected for the rearing of house-lambs in the vicinity of towns1 the inhabitants of which are opulent enough to create a demand for so expensive an article4 ,the beginning of ,june is the time chosen for the admission of the rams1 so that by the month of ,january the greater proportion of the ewes have yeaned4 ,according to the plan pursued in ,middlesex1 ,the sheep1 which begin to lamb about ,michaelmas1 are kept in the close during the day1 and in the house during the night1 until they have produced twenty or thirty lambs4 ,these lambs are then put into a lamb-house1 which is kept constantly well littered with clean wheat straw2 and chalk1 both in lump and in powder1 is provided for them to lick1 in order to prevent looseness1 and thereby preserve the lambs in health4 ,as a prevention against gnawing the boards1 or eating each other's wool1 a little wheat straw is placed1 with the ears downwards1 in a rack within their reach1 with which they amuse themselves1 and of which they eat a small quantity4 ,in this house they are kept with great care and attention until fit for the butcher4 ,the mothers of the lambs are turned1 every night at eight o'clock1 into the lamb-house to their offspring4 ,at six o'clock in the morning these mothers are separated from their lambs1 and turned into the pastures2 and1 at eight o'clock1 such ewes as have lost their own lambs1 and those ewes whose lambs are sold1 are brought in and held by the head till the lambs by turns suck them clean3 they are then turned into the pasture2 and at twelve o'clock1 the mothers of the lambs are driven from the pasture into the lamb-house for an hour1 in the course of which time each lamb is suckled by its mother4 ,at four o'clock1 all the ewes that have not lambs of their own are again brought to the lamb-house1 and held for the lambs to suck2 and at eight1 the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the night4 ,this method of suckling is continued all the year4 ,the breeders select such of the lambs as become fat enough1 and of proper age 7about eight weeks old7 for slaughter1 and send them to the market during ,december and three or four succeeding months1 at prices which vary from one guinea to four1 and the rest of the year at about two guineas each4 ,this is severe work for the ewes1 and some of them die from exhaustion4 ,however1 care is taken that they have plenty of food2 for when green food 7viz4 turnips1 cole1 rye1 tares1 clover1 c47 begins to fail1 brewers' grains are given them in troughs1 and second-crop hay in racks1 as well to support the ewes as to supply the lambs with plenty of milk2 for if that should not be abundant1 the lambs would become stunted1 in which case no food would fatten them4 ,a lamb-house to suckle from one hundred and sixty to one hundred and eighty lambs at a time1 should be seventy feet long and eighteen feet broad1 with three coops of different sizes at each end1 and so constructed as to divide the lambs according to their ages4#ai #ai ,middlesex ,report1 p4 #cee4 ,in the county of ,wicklow it is the practice to divide the twenty-four hours by four equal periods1 and to feed the lambs with ewe's milk and cow's milk alternately4 ,when commencing with cow's milk1 a quarter of a pint is given1 twice a-day1 to each lamb1 and this is gradually increased to a pint1 exclusive of the milk from the ewe4 ,this method of feeding has been cavilled at1 but ,i think unjustly1 as the ewe is thus saved from the bad effects of exhaustion1 and the lambs are fit for the butcher when six weeks old1 or sooner4 7#ih47 ,lambing time4 ,when the ewes begin to drop their lambs1 a time which ordinarily happens in the first or second week of ,april1 but which1 in other modes of management1 must be dated twenty-two weeks after the tupping season1 the shepherd has many calls upon his skill and watchfulness4 ,in bad seasons1 sheep are apt to prove unkind to their offspring1 and none more so than the ,cheviots4 ,in this event1 the best pastures should be selected for them1 or turnips may be carted to them2 but as gimmer hogs are often quite incapable of furnishing the necessary quantity of milk1 the shepherd ought always to be provided with a bottle of milk1 which he should drop from his own mouth into that of any lambs which may require it4 ,such mothers as appear to suffer in bringing forth1 should be relieved with the utmost gentleness2 and when a miscarriage occurs1 if the weather be at the same time unfavourable1 the dam ought to receive the shelter of a roof4 ,when the ewe is lost in yeaning1 her lamb1 if it survive her1 must be reared by another dam4 ,some little artifice is always necessary to induce a ewe to adopt the offspring of another4 ,covering the lamb with the skin of her own dead one1 is sometimes resorted to1 but this is hardly required1 as any dam will take to another's offspring if the parties be shut up for some time together4 ,ewes that are late in lambing should be collected together1 so as to be more under the care of the shepherd1 and ought to be well fed1 for the sake of bringing forward their lambs4 ,those lambs which are very far behind the rest must be prepared for the butcher1 as they would make but a poor figure at the ,lammas sales4 7#ii47 ,washing4 ,the time for clipping varies much1 being earlier in seasons which have been preceded by favourable weather and an unstinted allowance of food1 than in such as have followed a rigorous winter1 disease1 or any other cause calculated to arrest the growth of wool4 ,the season may be said to be limited by the middle of ,may and the middle of ,july2 but this should not be taken as a rule of conduct1 the best guide being the state of the new coat1 which ought always to be well above the skin before shearing is attempted4 ,the wool1 unless among some mountain flocks1 is always1 in this country1 washed prior to its removal from the sheep's back2 but in ,spain that operation is always deferred till the fleeces have been collected1 when they are subjected to a thorough scouring1 in public buildings appropriated to the purpose1 and termed lavatories4 ,this is a plan in many respects superior to ours4 ,its adoption by our farmers has been recommended by ,dr ,parry4 ,there cannot be a doubt of its being the preferable mode as regards the saving it would effect in the lives of sheep2 but as it is well known that shearing is much facilitated by washing1 and that on the neatness with which the clipping is accomplished the quality of the succeeding crop in a great measure depends1 some little time will be necessary to determine the comparative value of either mode4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales it is customary to make the sheep swim across a stream for two or three mornings before being washed1 by which means the yolk is softened1 and the removal of grease and dirt much promoted2 but this1 though a good plan in that mild and even climate1 could not be looked upon as safe in a temperature so variable as that of ,britain4 ,in cases however1 where great nicety is required1 the plan in vogue in the former country1 that of dipping each sheep1 before washing1 into a caldron of warm water1 might be beneficially adopted4 ,mountain sheep are cleaned by being forced to swim across a pool1 but the finer or lowland breeds are washed entirely by the hand4 ,the latter method alone demands a short explanation4 ,dry1 and1 if possible1 sunny weather1 is selected for the operation1 on the morning of which the lambs are separated from the flock1 and the latter is conveyed to the margin of some pebbly-bottomed pool4 ,here they are penned or otherwise kept together1 while they are seized1 one by one1 by a man standing mid-thigh deep near the water-edge1 and turned back downwards1 the head alone being above the surface4 ,plate ,v4 fig4 #a4bj ,it is then turned from side to side1 and moved backwards and forwards1 so as to make the wool catch upon the stream and wave about4 ,when the first washer has held it for a few minutes1 and partially cleansed the fleece1 he passes it up the river to the next1 who goes through the same routine1 and1 on being convinced that the skin is free from filth1 compels the sheep to land by swimming in an oblique direction up the water4 ,three and even four men are sometimes employed in washing sheep1 but two1 as here described1 will1 under ordinary circumstances1 be found sufficient4 ,the bank on which the dripping sheep are collected1 should have a clean and firm turf1 and the flock should1 till fairly dry and fit for shearing1 be kept on heavy grass land1 or1 what is better1 in straw-bedded folds4 #bj ,for the figures #a1 #b and #c in ,plate ,v4 ,i am indebted to the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture for #ahcb1 p4 #hfi4 7#ajj47 ,shearing4 ,after allowing eight days1 off or on1 to elapse from the time of washing1 so as to permit the wool to gain a fresh supply of yolk1 and along with it lustre and elasticity1 the sheep may be stripped of its fleece4 ,as there is no saving in employing an unskilful clipper1 every encouragement should be given to induce servants to cut close1 smoothly and evenly1 and to avoid injuring the skin1 or going twice over the same part4 ,there are two ways in this country of depriving sheep of their wool4 ,in the first1 or coarser method1 which is only adopted in the case of ,cheviot and heath sheep1 the operator sits upon the ground1 and placing the animal on its back between his knees1 shears the wool first from the belly and legs1 and then1 after tying the latter1 proceeds to clear the back4 ,in the second method1 the legs are never tied1 as the disposition of the sheep is such as to render it unnecessary4 ,the animal is placed as in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,v41 and the shearer clips first one side1 cutting from the middle of the belly to that of the back1 down to the loins4 ,it is then placed on its side1 as in ,fig1 #c1 ,plate ,v41 the knee of the operator pressing on its neck1 and the wool is removed from the legs and buttocks4 ,the fleece is next rolled up1 with the cut side outwards1 commencing at the tail1 and using the wool of the other extremity as a fastening for the bundle4 ,a cool dry apartment should be selected in which to store the wool1 always remembering that heat and damp are equally injurious to it1 and that the greater the perfection in which it retains its natural oily moisture1 the more valuable will it prove both to the grower and the manufacturer4 7#aja47 ,weaning1 where milking is not practised1 ought to be set about in the end of ,july or beginning of ,august4 ,in some places the ewe lambs are never speaned1 but allowed to go at large with their mothers2 and though by this plan the dam is apt to be kept in poor condition1 yet is this counterbalanced by the comparative freedom of the hogs from braxy4 ,as an improvement1 however1 the gimmer lambs may be withheld for a fortnight from their mothers1 and at the end of that time may be permitted to pasture with them4 ,in the few places where the farmer continues to manufacture ewe-milk cheese and butter1 speaning is carried into effect somewhat earlier1 and is of course attended1 in the long run1 with no little detriment to the stock and its proprietor4 ,the sooner that the practice be laid aside the better2 for though ewe-milk cheese is pretty universally relished and admired1 yet those who are acquainted with the scenes which happen at the bughts1 know well that the cheese itself cannot but contain much1 the mere mention of which would pall at once the appetite even of the least fastidious4 ,in addition to this1 a great waste of grass is occasioned by the sheep going to and from the bught1 while the inconveniences they are on every hand exposed to1 at a season when they are peculiarly liable to disease and accident1 ought of themselves to lead to the abolition of the practice4 ,when the udders of the ewes appear1 after their separation from the lambs1 to be much distended1 they may be once or twice milked1 to prevent bad consequences2 but it is much better to obviate the necessity for this1 by reducing their allowance of food for a few days4 ,when the animal seems to suffer much irritation about the udder1 it will always be safe to give a brisk dose of any of the common saline purgatives4 ,the store lambs are at this period sent to good pasture1 or1 where the farm cannot afford it1 are summered at a distance2 that is to say1 the farmer pays so much a head for permission to feed his flock1 during a couple of months1 on another person's ground1 at the end of which period they are turned upon the pasture which has just been vacated by the gimmers1 they having been sent to join the older ewes4 7#ajb47 ,smearing1 in those places where it is still carried on1 is performed in two ways1 according to the quality of the wool4 ,slipping1 as the one method is termed1 is only employed in high1 wet districts1 where the sheep are covered with long wool2 while rolling1 as the other is usually called1 is only required for such as1 in dry situations1 are surrounded by a short close pile4 ,in pursuing the former plan1 the smearer takes up the mixture on the forefinger of his right hand1 and while holding the locks of wool apart with his arms and left hand1 allows the salve to drop into the groove or shed1 along which it is spread by the other fingers4 ,in rolling1 a small quantity only of smearing stuff is raised on the point of the forefinger1 with which it is laid evenly upon the skin4 ,this is by far the neater way of salving1 as less of the ointment is permitted to get upon the wool2 but as it is altogether a tardier process1 it is not so frequently resorted to4 ,november is the month usually chosen for this operation1 but as it cannot be properly done unless the day fixed upon has been preceded by dry weather1 the time ought rather to be selected by the aspect of the season4 ,the composition of smearing stuffs is so very various1 that it is quite beyond my power to give the reader even a list of the ordinary ingredients and their proportions2 nor need ,i recommend any of them in particular to the attention of the shepherd1 knowing1 as ,i do1 the bigoted opinions which are held upon the subject1 and the aversion with which every one regards a mixture not of their own composing4 ,i can only observe1 that where tar is employed1 it ought to be well diluted with grease1 so as to enable two ,english quarts of it to be spread over six sheep4 ,in this way it will be less liable to adhere to the wool1 and will be much more readily laid upon the skin4 ,when sheep are salved without due attention to the even spreading of the mixture1 the insects with which the skin is infested are1 instead of being destroyed1 allowed here and there a resting place2 and as the severity of their attack is in proportion to the limited nature of their range1 the skin at these points soon becomes crusted with scabs4 ,the smaller the quantity of tar employed1 as consistent with the keeping down of vermin1 so much the better1 as the wool is of more value to the manufacturer1 the sheep is saved the discomfort of having its fleece plastered and matted1 and the shepherd is spared the vexation of losing lambs through their inability to reach an udder surrounded by locks of hard and tangled wool4 7#ajc47 ,fatting4 ,the age at which sheep are prepared for the butcher depends upon the breed1 its situation1 and its propensity to take on fat4 ,the heath sheep may be considered as requiring to be the greatest length of time in the hands of the farmer1 and the ,leicesters as the reverse2 wethers of the former variety being usually disposed off when from three to four years old1 and ewes when from four to five2 while wethers of the latter kind are fit for market often at eighteen months1 and the ewes are in general fed off after the third year4 ,sheep1 in spring and autumn1 are peculiarly liable to diseases of the intestines1 a circumstance mainly to be ascribed to the changes which are1 in these seasons1 constantly occurring in the nature of their food4 ,much of this is owing to careless management in the economy of the pastures1 and to restricting them for great lengths of time to one kind of provender1 a thing guarded against by all good breeders4 ,sudden transitions1 however1 from a poor to a nutritive pasture1 and the reverse1 are always bad1 and therefore to be avoided2 but change of feeding ground1 with these restrictions1 cannot be too much inculcated--it is1 in fact1 the soul of sheep husbandry4 ,the bleakest portions of a farm should be pastured off in autumn1 so as to reserve the sheltered spots for winter use4 ,the cast ewes may then be drafted off to feed on a more succulent herbage1 previous to being penned on turnips4 ,most of the points worthy of attention in sheep feeding having already been detailed in the article on ,crossing1 ,i shall only add a few particulars in regard to management on turnips4 ,when sheep are fed on turnips1 they are in general confined to a particular portion of the field by nets or hurdles4 ,the latter1 when made of ,scotch fir1 cost about a shilling each2 but1 when constructed of larch1 the price is fourteen-pence4 ,those made of larch are by far the more durable1 and will last three years if kept under cover during summer4 ,two men are required to set them up1 besides a horse and cart to take them to the field1 on which account nets have a decided preference1 being easy of transportation1 and requiring little house-room4 ,though valuable in windy situations1 nets cannot be used to enclose horned sheep1 as their heads become entangled with the cords4 ,they will seldom serve for more than three years1 but as they cost only threepence per yard1 they may be considered as every way cheaper than hurdles4 ,when the turnips allotted to the sheep1 which seldom exceed a week's supply1 are consumed1 another portion of the field is enclosed2 while the shells are torn up with a two-pronged hook1 and either left there to be consumed by the flock1 or carted to another field for the use of sheep not then intended to be fattened4 ,a fresh supply should always be afforded them before the old one is eaten clean1 otherwise their fattening will be much retarded4 ,it is usual to allow them at the same time plenty of salt1 placed up and down the field in troughs or boxes1#ba and about a ton of hay in the ten or fourteen days1 to every hundred sheep2 though that number1 if supplied with what1 and permitted to run about1 will consume that quantity in a week4 ,in spring1 from half a pound to a pound of oil cake is given daily to each of them1 along with turnips4 #ba ,old casks1 wanting ends1 form the best of all contrivances for holding salt for sheep1 as when laid on their sides1 and retained in that position by stakes1 they allow the sheep free admission1 at the same time that the salt is defended from rain4 ,in places where the cold during spring is any way severe1 the ,swedish turnip ought always to be preferred for feeding sheep1 as from the formation of the upper part of the bulb1 water cannot collect within it as it does in other varieties1 to their serious injury when frost sets in4 ,turnips must be cut for such sheep as are shedding their teeth4 ,the mouths of those that refuse to eat them should be examined1 that in the event of a tooth being loose or broken it may be removed4 ,occasionally a sheep will be unable to gnaw a turnip1 owing to a peculiar formation of the head1 the lower jaw being so very short as to give the profile some resemblance to that of a pig4 ,such deformed animals are said in this quarter to be grun-7ground7-mouthed3 ,i believe from the elongation of the nose suiting them better for poking in the earth than for feeding in the usual way4 ,the fattening of sheep on turnips is much promoted by their having access to a grass field1 more especially if it happen to contain whins or heather4 ,it is from want of attention to this that sheep are so liable to disease when eating turnips1 for1 apart from the benefit that accrues to them from a dry lair1 they are enabled to turn their food to better account when consuming bitter herbs4 ,it is no unusual thing for turnip-fed sheep and cattle to become quite lean1 as the farmers say1 almost at the lifting1 for no other reason than that they have been confined too strictly to one article of diet4 ,they have been denied access to plants containing of all things the one most necessary for the maintenance of their health--bitter extractive matter--as it is called by chemists--without a due proportion of which the most nutritious substances cannot be turned to account4 ,as an essential ingredient in the provender of herbivorous animals1 it may1 ,i think1 be admitted as a fact1 that its importance is in an inverse ratio with the nutritive powers of the food4#bb ,thus accounting for the length of time that sheep will continue to thrive on turnips alone4 #bb ,paris's ,pharmacologia1 sixth edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #adg4 ,with all the advantages1 however1 which accrue to the sheep when on turnips1 from the quantity of nutritive matter which these roots contain1 its progress when restricted to them frequently falls very far short of the expectations of the owner4 ,in the greater number of instances1 also1 farmers are unable to account for their want of success in this department1 so that ,i may be excused for endeavouring to point out1 at some length1 the causes of their failure4 ,to proceed3-- ,the point in sheep management in which our farmers are most deficient1 is turnip-feeding2 one upon which most will pique themselves as being perfect1 though1 speaking guardedly1 hardly one man in twenty understands the rudimentary principles on which sheep-feeding should be conducted4 ,they are unacquainted with the habits of the wild animal1 and1 unlike any other class of men1 interest themselves little in the fundamental study of their calling4 ,there is not a showman1 or a bird-fancier1 but knows to a tittle the peculiarities of the creature that he has in charge1 and endeavours1 to the best of his ability1 to provide such food as its instincts crave4 ,not so1 however1 with the store-farmer4 ,he cares not to inquire whether the sheep is naturally calculated to subsist on one kind of nutriment2 and if so1 whether they will1 when left to the exercise of instinct1 resort to turnips of their own accord2 whether the sheep is usually restricted to confined localities similar to our fields1 or is the unrestrained rover over an extensive pasture4 ,yet it is from investigations of this kind that we are to derive our mode of treating sheep1 and are to form plans beneficial to ourselves1 from their being1 in a manner1 improvements upon nature4 ,we find1 from a perusal of the works of travellers1 and from the anatomical peculiarities of the sheep1 that it is fitted for residence in countries precipitous in surface1 and scantily supplied with herbage2 consequently1 it must range over a vast extent of ground for a subsistence1 and its food must1 owing to the varied features of the country1 consist1 not of one or of a few plants1 but of a most extensive mixture of herbage4 ,experiment also points out that the deductions from these observations are correct4 ,sheep1 in fact1 consume a greater number of plants than any other domestic animal4 ,linnaeus1 in examining into this subject1 found1 by offering fresh plants to such animals1 in the ordinary mode of feeding1 that horses ate #bfb species1 and refused #bab2 cattle ate #bgf species1 and refused #bah2 while sheep took #chg species1 and only refused #ada4 ,we find1 too1 great difficulty in preventing sheep from springing over the dykes and hedges that we place as boundaries to their rambling habits1 yet how seldom do we see the true cause of their determination to set them at defiance4 ,we may partly account for it by considering their analogy to the goat1 and their propensity to scale rugged eminences2 but ,i think these movements rather indicate an anxiety to change a pasture already exhausted of variety1 for fresh fields1 and herbage abounding in that miscellaneous provision which nature apparently reckons essential for them4 ,shepherds own as much1 and will tell you that frequent change of pasture is the soul of sheep husbandry1 though they see no reason why sheep should not be kept for many successive weeks on a patch of turnips4 ,they admit the necessity of a frequent shifting in the one case1 but deny it in the other4 ,magendie1 a celebrated ,french physiologist1 has shown1 by experiment1 that it is impossible to keep an animal in a healthy state longer than six weeks on one article of diet1 death frequently taking place even before the end of that period2 but our sheep-farmers1 in happy ignorance of the fact1 confine their flocks for months to turnips only4 ,and what1 may ,i ask them1 is the consequence of the practice8 ,why1 that it is not unusual to meet with sheep-owners who lose at least one out of every fifteen1 and all owing1 as may easily be proved1 to this mode of management4 ,in the first place1 the turnip is a kind of food entirely foreign to the nature of the sheep1 and one to which1 at first1 they evince great repugnance4 ,there are many varieties of sheep incapable of feeding on turnips1 owing to the form of the face1 the upper-jaw projecting considerably past the lower1 hindering the chisel-shaped teeth from being brought to bear upon the root4 ,none of our ,british breeds certainly have this as a regular feature1 nevertheless they are liable to it2 and there are few farmers that have not1 several times in their lives1 met with grun-mouthed sheep1 as they are called in ,scotland1 from their profile resembling that of the pig1 and suiting them for poking in earth1 rather than for eating in the usual way4 ,again1 if the structure of the sheep's mouth proves that it is not adapted for eating turnips1 the composition of the turnip no less satisfactorily shows that it is not calculated as food for sheep4 ,bitterness is essentially necessary in the food of all herbivorous animals2 without it1 indeed1 they sooner or later fall into ill health4 ,this property is shown by chemists to reside in the extractive matter of plants1 which has1 therefore1 been called bitter extractive4 ,the quantity is also found to be in the inverse ratio of the nutritive powers of the plant2 that is to say1 where the plant abounds in alimentary matter1 the proportion of bitter extractive is small1 compared with what it is where the former is deficient4 ,turnips contain a large quantity of matter capable of affording nourishment to the body1 but they yield little or none of the bitter principle4 ,in consequence of this1 sheep acquire fat rapidly for a time1 when placed on turnips2 but1 experiencing a want of the medicinal bitter1 begin with equal rapidity to lose the advantages they so recently gained4 ,their appetite becomes depraved1 and1 from being shut out from access to the stomachic intended for them by nature1 they take to devouring earth1 or any substance capable of serving as a substitute for it4 ,with regard to the natural use of bitter extractive1 it may be laid down as a truth1 that it stimulates the stomach1--corrects putrefying and unwholesome nutriment1--promotes tardy digestion1--increases the nutritive powers of those vegetable substances to which it is united1--and furnishes a natural remedy for the deranged functions of the stomach in particular1 and through the sympathetic medium of that organ1 for the atony of remote parts in general4#bc ,all1 indeed1 concur in setting a high value on this constituent of plants--all1 with the exception of those whose interests are most deeply concerned in a knowledge of its importance4 ,farmers1 in general1 cannot perceive the utility of attending to concerns apparently so trifling1 though in the right conduct of these they depend materially for success4 ,nay1 ,i have known men arguing1 that in six weeks they have given ordinary sheep an excellent coating of fat1 by keeping them on turnips only2 though1 on strict inquiry being made into the nature of the field in which they had been penned1 it has always turned out that the sheep had access to other things1 their owners having wilfully shut their eyes to the true circumstances of the case4 ,depend on it1 no sheep will continue in health during six weeks on turnips alone1 much less will it continue throughout that time to take on fat4 ,much of the mischief attending a want of bitter matter is obviated by the plan of allowing the sheep corn1 salt1 oilcake1 and hay1 which1 serve1 especially the last1 as tolerable substitutes for it4 ,good hay ought always to be plentifully supplied to sheep on turnips1 as1 from the variety of the plants composing it1 it contains much that is not to be found in turnips4 ,besides1 one of the most useful bitters with which we are acquainted 7the ,bogbean--,menyanthes ,trifoliata7 occurs in meadow hay1 and is a plant sufficient of itself to save the animal from the consequences of neglect4 ,whenever you hear of remarkable instances of sheep becoming quickly fat on turnips1 you may safely believe they have had liberty to nibble something in addition to the ordinary provender4 ,they have had access to broom or whins1 perhaps only to bushes that are laid as a defence on dykes1 or only to the scanty pickings on the edges of fields--still they have by such means in a manner satisfied the craving for bitter aliment1 and enabled their stomachs to turn to better account the otherwise unprofitable turnips4 ,broom is at all times an excellent medicine for sheep1 and one which they are partial to1 and which ought1 therefore1 to be placed1 if possible1 within their reach4 #bc ,paris's ,pharmacologia1 vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,accidents ,,and ,,operations4 7#ajd47 ,sheep being about as liable as other animals to a variety of accidents1 it is necessary that the shepherd should possess a competent knowledge of the means which art affords for the remedy of those mishaps4 ,it is from a want of such knowledge that farmers are frequently led to slaughter valuable sheep1 though only labouring under the effects of some commonplace disease or accident4 ,if the animal is attended by a professional person1 an expense is sure to be incurred nearly equal to the worth of the patient1 and in so far as they endeavour to obviate this1 by killing the sheep1 they are free from blame2 but why not rather contrive to save the cost of veterinary attendance1 by making themselves conversant with its diseases1 and able to prescribe for their own flocks1 in which there can be no difficulty1 as the remedies are1 in the majority of cases1 few1 simple1 and of easy application4 ,in the surgical and medical management of flocks1 much mystery has1 as in other matters1 all along existed2 but that fantastic age is well nigh its close1 and thanks to the spirit of candid inquiry now abroad1 we may hope ere long to boast of valuable information in this department4 ,the spread of correct ideas regarding the nature and treatment of accidents and diseases1 has from first to last been prevented by the diffuseness of those who have written on the subject1 and by their so clothing it in a mass of verbiage1 as to render scarcely intelligible what would otherwise be easy of acquirement4 ,to obviate the liability to a similar charge1 the following observations are given as briefly as is consistent with a due regard to the importance of the subject4 7#aje47 ,wounds4 ,all the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed under the heads of incised1 punctured1 and lacerated4 ,an incised wound is one made by a cutting instrument1 such as a knife or a piece of glass4 ,punctured wounds are those produced by sharp pointed bodies1 such as pins or thorns4 ,lacerated wounds are those occasioned by blunt bodies1 as the teeth of the dog1 tearing rather than cutting the flesh4 ,when a sheep has received any of these injuries1 the following rules ought to be attended to1 and in the order here recommended3-- #ast4 ,arrest the bleeding1 if profuse1 and likely to endanger life4 #b;d4 ,clip away the wool for a few inches around the injured part4 #c;d4 ,remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound4 #dth4 ,bring the separated parts as nearly together as circumstances will at the moment permit1 and retain them there by suitable apparatus4 7#ajf47 ,to stop ,bleeding4 ,bleeding will1 if no large arteries are divided1 cease on the free exposure of the surface for a few minutes to the air2 but when a large vessel has been cut1 more determined means must be had recourse to4 ,pressure on the bleeding surface and its neighbourhood will in many cases succeed1 but this or any similar method is far inferior to that of securing the open vessel by a thread4 ,to accomplish this1 the mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out from the contiguous surface1 by means of a small hook1 called by surgeons a tenaculum1 and easily procured from any blacksmith4 ,while the mouth of the vessel is thus held exposed1 an assistant must surround it with a noose of thread1 which1 on being secured with a double knot1 will effectually close it4 ,the thread ought to be of white silk1 though any undyed thread1 which is firm1 round1 and capable of standing a pull1 will answer the purpose4 ,care must be taken to place the thread1 before tying it1 fairly behind the point of the tenaculum1 so as to avoid including the instrument within the ligature1 a circumstance which would lead to the slipping of the noose and failure of the operation4 ,the hook is now to be withdrawn1 and one end of the ligature cut off by scissars within a little of the noose4 ,the remaining threads are allowed to hang out of the wound1 so as to admit of their removal when they become loose1 which does not1 however1 take place till the termination of the first four days1 and they are frequently retained for a much longer period4 ,at each time the wound is dressed1 after the fourth day1 the ligatures should be gently pulled1 or1 which is preferable1 twisted1 to disengage them1 if at all loose1 so that the wound may be more speedily closed4 ,before proceeding to any operation where bleeding is expected1 the operator should provide himself with a few well-waxed threads1 each twelve inches long1 so that no delay may ensue on a division of large vessels4 7#ajg47 ,removal of ,extraneous ,matter4 ,dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge or old linen rag and warm water4 ,other foreign bodies may in general be extracted by the finger and thumb4 ,in some cases1 however1 it may be necessary to dilate or enlarge the wound with a fine-edged knife1 in order to facilitate the removal of substances which1 from their shape or situation1 cannot be otherwise displaced4 7#ajh47 ,closure of a ,wound4 ,the last thing to be done is to bring the edges of the wound into as accurate contact as the state of the parts will at the moment permit1 without1 however1 using any force4 ,this1 with a little care1 is readily accomplished1 the only difficulty being to retain them in the desired position4 ,they may be held in contact either by stitches1 7sutures17 plasters1 or bandages1 or by a union of the three4 ,stitches are only required when the wound gapes to a considerable extent1 as it will always do when running across a muscle4 ,they may be applied in the following manner4 ,transfix one side of the wound with a curved needle 7armed with a well waxed thread7 forcing the needle from without obliquely towards the bottom of the wound1 then carry it through the opposite side from within1 taking care to bring it out about the same distance from the edge as that at which it entered on the other margin4 ,the needle must now be removed1 by cutting the threads close to its eye1 and while the ends are allowed to hang loose1 the same operation should be repeated1 at the distance of an inch or an inch and a half from the first stitch1 as often as the length of the wound may render necessary4 ,your assistant will now bring the sides of the wound together as accurately as possible1 and retain them there till you have tied the corresponding ends of the threads in a double knot4 7#aji47 ,bandaging4 ,adhesive plaster is in some instances of service1 but upon the whole ought rather to be dispensed with1 being of difficult application1 and moreover tending to the accumulation of filth and the discomfort of the animal4 ,nothing will be found to serve the purpose of supporting the parts so well as a properly adjusted bandage1 which is useful in every instance1 and sure to stay on if sewed here and there to the fleece4 ,the bandage should never be omitted where the wound has any tendency to gape1 as too great a strain upon the stitches cannot but lead to delay in the healing process4 ,in bandaging a limb or part of a limb1 commence always at the foot1 and proceed upwards2 in other parts of the body begin where you find it most convenient4 ,before applying a bandage to an injured surface1 a couple of pieces of old linen of cotton rag should be folded into pads or compresses1 and laid one on each side of the cut1 and over these the bandage should be rolled1 evenly and with moderate and uniform firmness4 ,by this plan the separated surfaces are supported and preserved in close juxtaposition1 especially at the bottom of the wound1 a thing of some importance where the cavity is deep4 ,transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep require more careful and more complicated treatment than cuts in other parts1 as there is a constant tendency of the edges to retract4 ,this retraction of the edges may be in some degree obviated by the application of a splint1 which may be made of a slip of stiff leather 7such as is used for saddle flaps7 well wetted1 so as to be easily adapted to the form of the limb4 ,it is intended to impede the motion of the leg1 which occasions the gaping of the wound1 and must therefore be made to pass over one or more joints as circumstances may require4 ,tow must be laid along the surface 7a sound one if possible7 on which the leather is to be placed1 and a bandage then rolled over it so as to make all secure4 7#aaj47 ,clean cuts1 as every one knows1 heal readily in a healthy animal1 seldom demanding above three dressings2 lacerations1 on the other hand1 require a longer period for their reparation1 inasmuch as the process which nature goes through is more complicated4 ,in the former1 the parts are speedily glued together1 so soon almost as in contact1 and the union is generally complete within the first thirty-six hours4 ,not so1 however1 with the latter4 ,here the parts are bruised1 torn1 and perhaps to a considerable extent awanting4 ,some of the bruised portions may die1 and are of course to be renewed4 ,this is a process requiring a great effort on the part of the vital powers1 which are often inadequate to the task1 and on this account we ought1 when the injury is severe1 to sacrifice the animal rather than run the risk of its dying during the process of the attempted cure4 ,to replace the lost part1 suppuration1 or the formation of matter commences2 while under cover of this1 a crop of fleshy particles 7granulations7 rise to fill the vacancy4 ,granulations are best promoted by warm emollient applications1 such as poultices of oatmeal1 linseed-meal1 or barley-flour1 which ought to be frequently renewed to prevent their becoming cold or dry4 ,when the granulations become too luxuriant1 and rise1 as they are apt to do1 above the level of the skin1 the poultices must be laid aside1 the sore washed once or twice a-day with a solution of sulphate of copper 7made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue vitriol in an ,english pint of soft water71 and covered carefully over with a pledget of fine tow1 spread with lard1 or any simple ointment1 by which means1 conjoined with cleanliness1 a cure will easily be accomplished4 7#aaa47 ,punctured ,wounds4 ,the orifice being small in these1 and the depth considerable1 the sides are apt to adhere irregularly1 and prevent the free escape of matter1 which is certain to collect at the bottom4 ,to avoid such occurrences1 it is in many cases proper to convert a punctured into an incised wound4 ,when1 from neglecting this1 the matter is denied an outlet1 an incision must be made to allow it to escape1 otherwise much harm will ensue from its burrowing between the different textures4 ,fomentations will also here be serviceable1 and should be preferred to poultices4 ,to apply them1 place well-boiled meadow hay1 when very hot and moist1 within a fold of old blanket or woollen cloth1 and lay it on the injured parts1 taking care to renew the heat frequently1 by dipping the bundle in the hot decoction4 7#aab47 ,bruises and ,sprains4 ,these1 unless severe1 need not be interfered with4 ,when the shepherd1 however1 considers it necessary to make any application1 he cannot do better than foment the part for an hour or so with meadow hay1 in the same manner as recommended for punctured wounds4 7#aac47 ,wounds of ,joints4 ,such wounds are highly dangerous and apt to baffle the most experienced4 ,the grand object in every case1 however1 where a cure is attempted1 is to produce a speedy union of the wound1 as directed in 7#ajh7 to 7#aji74 ,if the injury be extensive1 the best thing the farmer can do is to slaughter the animal4 7#aad47 ,poisoned ,wounds4 ,it is said that sheep are sometimes bitten by snakes1 and strange stories are told of their milk being sucked by these reptiles4 ,in such a case but small dependence can be placed on any inward treatment1 beyond the administration of one or two full doses of castor oil4 ,if the bite can be discovered1 the part should be frequently fomented with a decoction of meadow hay and foxglove 7fairy-cap of the ,irish1 and bluidy-finger of the ,scotch74 7#aae47 ,fractures4 ,if there be no wound of the soft parts1 the bone being simply broken1 the treatment is extremely easy4 ,apply a piece of wet leather1 as recommended at 7#aji71 taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes4 ,when the swelling is considerable1 and fever present1 you cannot do better than open a vein of the head or neck1 allowing a quantity of blood to escape1 proportioned to the size and condition of the animal and the urgency of the symptoms4 ,the exhibition of purgatives should never be neglected4 ,epsom salt1 in one ounce doses1 given either as a gruel or a drench1 will be found to answer the purpose well4 ,if the broken bones are kept steady1 the cure will be complete in from three weeks to a month1 the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep4 ,should the soft parts be injured to any extent1 or the ends of the bone protruding1 recovery is very uncertain1 and it will become a question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton2 indeed1 removal of portions of bone and amputation1 of which some well known writers on the surgery of the sheep speak so learnedly and confidently1 may be viewed1 as1 in this case1 chimerical1 if not absurd4 ,,operations4 7#aaf47 ,cutting ,lambs4 ,polled sheep should be castrated about the tenth day after birth1 but the end of the fifth week is soon enough for horned sheep1 as early castration has always a tendency to spoil the beauty of the horns4 ,the risk is always in proportion to the age1 therefore no great length of time ought ever to elapse from the period of birth to that of the operation4 ,a large flock of ewes and lambs should never be collected preparatory to cutting1 as the latter1 from the excitement and crowding1 are less likely to recover from the operation4 ,it is much better to take up a small number so soon as they are ready4 ,instead of driving them about in attempts to secure them1 it will be safer to station a person at a division of the fold1 who may lay hold of them individually as they are made to pass through slowly4 ,the best method of cutting is to grasp the bag containing the testicles with the left hand1 so as to tighten the skin1 and push them forward1 after which an incision may be made through the skin at the end of the bag1 large enough to permit the stones to pass4 ,they may then be removed either by cutting or tearing2 the latter plan1 however1 is the better1 as there is little risk of bleeding1 which is almost sure to prove troublesome if the former be adopted4 ,at this time a portion of the tail ought to be removed1 if it has not been done at an earlier period1 as a remedy for pinding4 ,the bleeding will serve to lessen the danger consequent on the previous operation4 ,when all have been operated on1 the ewes may be allowed to find their lambs1 and the whole conducted quietly to their pasture4 7#aag47 ,blood-letting4 ,in describing this operation1 too much stress is always laid on the importance of opening particular veins1 or divisions of a vein1 in certain diseases4 ,such directions are altogether unnecessary1 as it matters not from what part of the animal the blood be drawn1 provided it be taken quickly4 ,nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required1 as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice4 ,little impression can be made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood1 as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss1 which might1 for any good it will do1 as well be dispensed with4 ,either bleed rapidly or not at all4 ,the nearer the commencement of an ailment1 in which you employ bleeding1 the operation is resorted to1 the greater the chance of its doing good2 no time ought1 therefore1 to be lost in using the lancet1 when once it is known to be required4 ,bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail does very well where no great deal of blood is required1 but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened4 ,these are to be taken in preference to a vein on the leg1 as they are much more readily got at4 ,the facial vein 7f4v4 ,fig4 #c4 ,pl4 ,,iii47 commences by small branches on the side of the face1 and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw1 where it may be felt within two inches of the angle1 or opposite the middle grinding tooth4 ,it is here that the orifice must be made1 the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein1 so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart1 will make it rise4 ,some prefer opening the jugular vein 7j4v4 ,fig4 #c4 ,p#a471 which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck4 ,this vessel is1 however1 more difficult to open than the former1 being better covered with wool1 and not so easily exposed or made to swell4 ,stringing is the mode commonly resorted to for this end2 that is to say a cord is drawn tightly round the neck1 close to the shoulder1 so as to stop the circulation through the vein1 and render it perceptible to the finger4 ,a lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding1 though a well-pointed pen knife will do at a pinch4 ,the opening must always be made obliquely1 in the direction marked in the cut2 but before attempting this1 the animal must be secured1 by placing it between the operator's legs1 with its croup against a wall4 ,the selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand1 so as to prevent it rolling or slipping before the lancet4 ,having fairly entered the vein1 the point of the instrument must be elevated1 at the same time that it is pushed a little forward1 by which motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein4 ,a prescribed quantity of blood should never be drawn1 for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated4 ,if the symptoms are urgent1 as in all likelihood they will1 your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall4 ,when this occurs1 run a pin through the edges of the orifice1 and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool4 7#aah47 ,removal of ,hydatids from within the head4 ,this animal1 and the symptoms which it causes1 ,i have fully described at 7#afi74 ,their removal has been attempted in a variety of ways1 but the simplest method1 and one most likely to succeed1 is that followed in this quarter4 ,a couple of incisions1 forming when completed the letter ,t1 are made in the integument covering the soft part of the bone under which the hydatid is supposed to be4 ,two flaps are in this way marked out1 and are dissected back so as to expose the skull4 ,the yielding portion of the latter is then pared away1 which brings the sac into view4 ,this will be seen alternately to sink and rise1 following in this respect the motions of the brain4 ,a moderate-sized needle1 slightly curved and filled with thread1 is now passed through the exposed portion of the cyst1 and the thread allowed to remain4 ,the fluid is thus permitted slowly to escape1 and at the same time the sac becomes collapsed1 after which it is easily removed by pulling gently at the thread with which it is connected4 ,as good a hold should be taken with the string as possible1 and all the water should be allowed to flow out before any attempt is made to extract the remains of the hydatid4 ,to conclude the operation1 lay down the flaps of skin in their original position1 covering them with a small piece of folded linen smeared with lard1 and over all apply a cap4 ,never try to save the bone which you cut1 by turning it back in the form of a lid1 for by so doing you will only endanger the life of the animal1 which is otherwise in little jeopardy4 ,it will often happen that the hydatid1 from being in the interior of the brain1 will not be brought into view by the removal of a portion of the skull4 ,in this case the brain must be punctured in order to reach the sac and evacuate its contents4 ,when the skull above the eye is very thin1 the disease may be at once ended by cautiously thrusting a short1 stout1 sharp-pointed piece of steel wire through the skin and bone down towards the centre of the brain1 taking care to pull the skin a little to one side before making the puncture1 so that on letting it loose the openings in the skull and integument will not be opposite to one another4 ,this plan is much superior to that of thrusting a needle up the nostril1 in the manner devised by ,mr ,hogg1 as in his way we are always poking in the dark1 in ignorance of the situation of the instrument1 and are in all probability doing so much injury to the delicate parts within the nose as to preclude the possibility of recovery4 ,indeed1 ,i some time ago examined a head on which ,mr ,hogg's operation had been twice unsuccessfully performed1 and found traces of inflammation at the upper part of the nostril severe enough of itself to have occasioned death4 ,the needle had not entered the brain1 but the ethmoid was very much injured4 ,i believe the instrument is very seldom pushed more than half way through the bone1 at least it never reaches the hydatid1 which would appear to be destroyed rather by the inflammatory process which follows the attempt1 unfitting the brain for supplying it with the secretions on which it lives1 than by any direct injury done to it by the needle4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,sheep4 7#aai47 ,there is no department in the management of sheep so little understood as the nature and treatment of their diseases4 ,every part of the sheep itself has been used1 at one time or another1 in this country1 as medicine for man1 a folly still prevailing among the boors of ,southern ,africa1 who1 according to ,thunberg1 employ the inner coat of the stomach1 dried and powdered1 as a safe emetic4 ,quackish absurdities of so glaring a nature have1 however1 long been scorned in civilized society4 ,not so1 however1 when the sheep is the object of treatment4 ,scientific innovations have been slow in reaching it1 and specimens of barbarian usage are far from rare4 ,we may feel for the benighted credulity which could place reliance1 for a rescue from mortal ailment1 on the secretions or excretions of a sheep2 but we are compelled to laugh on reading1 in the ,family ,dictionary1 published in #ageb1 the following3-- ,in general1 'tis affirmed that the belly of a sheep boiled in water and wine1 and given the sheep to drink1 cures several diseases incident to them4 ,only fancy a farmer dosing a sheep with mutton broth1 and adding1 for its stomach's sake1 a little wine6 ,i suspect the prescriber was1 in this instance1 putting himself1 in point of intellect1 far below the level of his patient4 ,thanks to him1 however1 for the benefit he has thus unwittingly conferred1 by holding ignorance up to the derision it so richly merits2 no means being so powerful as broadly-drawn caricatures in exposing the extent of such delusions4 ,though faith has long since ceased to be reposed in the medicinal virtues of mutton broth1 a variety of nostrums have from time to time appeared1 the composition and application of which are invaluable for the amount of negative information they are calculated to convey4 ,further notice of these trashy recipes it is not my intention to take1 as a list of them alone would make a volume2--they are in the hands of every one4 7#abj47 ,cautions in prescribing4 ,great reliance is in general placed upon prescriptions1 which profess to suit diseases in every stage and circumstance4--,than this1 however1 scarcely any thing can be more absurd4 ,it is an opinion engendered not so much by ignorance as by laziness1 a determination not to be put about by thinking of a remedy for the evils which surround us1 but1 while we contrive to soothe ourselves by doing something1 to leave every thing to the hit-or-miss practice of charlatans4#bd ,there are many1 who on being informed of the presence of disease in a neighbour's flock1 confidently advise the employment of a favourite nostrum1 on the empirical supposition that because it cured1 or was thought to cure1 one flock1 it will cure another4 ,nothing is taken into account saving that1 in both cases1 the affected animals are sheep2 and it is at once concluded1 that what benefited one will benefit another4 ,the many niceties in prescribing are never thought of3 oh no1 that would be of no use6 of course it can be of no importance to give a moment's attention to age and sex1 pasture and situation1 or to leanness or fatness1 or to the presence of pregnancy6 ,these are of trifling moment1 and only to be despised by a person armed with a recipe1 which some one has shown to be capable of walking like a constable through the body1 and bearing off the intruder6 ,but enough of this2 sufficient has1 ,i think1 been said to prove the utter folly of confiding in things of the above nature or intention1 and to show that such confidence can lead to nothing but a waste of life and capital4 ,even though the remedy is a harmless one1 it ought 7unless calculated from known powers to arrest the disease7 to be viewed with distrust1 as incurring a loss of time1 during which other and better measures might have been resorted to4 #bd ,whenever we hear a person recommending a medicine of universal virtues1 we may safely set him down either for a fool or an impostor4 ,things which are good for every thing are good for nothing4 7#aba47 ,classification of diseases4#be ,as the acquirement of correct ideas regarding the treatment of diseases is much facilitated by a simple arrangement of the diseases themselves1 numerous attempts have been made to accomplish it1 and in a variety of ways4 ,the best of these tabular views with which ,i am acquainted is the one laid before the ,highland ,society some years ago1 by ,mr ,stevenson1 who appears to have been the first to publish any thing like a satisfactory classification4 ,his arrangement is1 however1 defective in several points1 more especially as it necessitates the placing in the same division diseases of organs essentially different4 ,thus he is compelled to admit under ,diseases of the head ,scabs on the mouth side by side with ,sturdy1 and ,louping ill3 in this way mingling affections of the skin with diseases of totally different organs--the brain and spinal marrow--and causing much embarassment to the reader4 ,to obviate this inconvenience1 as well as to render the remembrance of the remedies an easy matter1 ,i have adopted the above arrangement1 in which each disease is placed opposite the textures it invades4 #be ,diseases affecting ,blown or ,blast4 ,braxy1 ,sickness1 or ,blood4 ,the ,stomach and ,pining1 ,daising1 ,vinquish or ,vanquish4 ,intestines4 ,staggers4 ,diarrhoea or ,rush4 ,dysentery1 ,cling1 ,breckshaw or ,breckshuach4 ,scab or ,itch4 ,erysipelas or ,wild-fire4 ,red ,water4 ,leg ,evil or ,black-leg4#bf ,the ,skin and ,inflammatory #a4 ,maggot4 ,hoofs4 appearances #b4 ,ked4 caused by the #c4 ,tick4 #d4 ,o,estrus bovis4 ,sore ,teats4 ,foot-rot4 ,inflammation #a4 ,o,estrus ovis4 ,the ,air ,passages4 caused #b4 ,pentastoma4 by the #c4 ,strongylus filaria4 ,coryza4 ,glandular tissues1,rot4 --viz4 the ,lungs1 ,jaundice4 ,liver1 ,kidney4 ,dropsy4 ,sturdy1 #a4 ,hydatids or ,bloba4 ,gid or ,dizzy1 #b4 ,hydrocephalus1 or ,the ,brain and caused by ,water in the ,head4 ,spinal ,marrow4 ,trembling1 ,thwarter or ,leaping-ill4 ,wood ,evil4 ,the ,eye4 ,ophthalmia4 ,soft ,cancer4 #bf ,leg evil ought properly to be classed with diseases of the vascular system1 being in many instances merely a symptom of disease in the heart or great vessels2 but as the same results are arrived at by placing it under the present head1 nicer distinctions would only tend to create confusion4 7#abb47 ,blown or ,blast4 ,can scarcely be reckoned a disease as it is but a symptom caused by a mechanical impediment to respiration and circulation4 ,when a sheep has been brought from a poor pasture to a rich one it is prone to gorge itself to an extent which may endanger life4 ,the lower end of the gullet becomes obstructed1 the gases which accumulate in the paunch are hindered from escaping1 and the latter becomes so enormously distended as speedily to suffocate the animal by being forced into the chest4 7#abc47 ,treatment#bg of ,blown4 ,if the difficulty in breathing be only slight1 keep the sheep moving gently up and down as the air will thus have a chance of escaping from the stomach4 ,if the symptoms are more alarming1 pass the elastic tube employed in the same complaint in cattle down the throat1 or if that cannot be procured use a cane with an ivory or wooden bullet at the end of it4 ,never stick the animal1 as recovery by this plan is almost hopeless4 ,if you cannot obtain the aforesaid instruments1 bleed the animal till it becomes very faint1 and if this is of no avail proceed to kill it4 ,shepherds often prescribe a purgative dose after this occurrence4 ,in general1 however1 it is not required4 ,to prevent a flock becoming blown1 always when1 for the first time on rich pasture1 make the dog move leisurely among them so as to prevent them feeding hastily4 #bg ,in speaking of remedial measures1 the word treatment ought to be used in preference to cure which figures at the head of the medical advice in veterinary works4 ,it is sheer nonsense to blazon such a word in pages having any pretentions to candour1 for how seldom are we able conscientiously to affirm that our endeavours will be followed by a cure4 ,all we can do is to pursue the treatment best adapted for the attainment of so desirable an end4 7#abd47 ,braxy or ,sickness4 ,six or eight species of braxy are enumerated by shepherds1 but as they all bear a striking resemblance one to another1 in their origin and progress1 it is preferable to treat of them as one disease4 ,indeed wire-drawn distinctions1 though occasionally serviceable in cattle-medicine1 ought in most instances to be avoided1 as they are of but little avail1 and in this disease straw-splitting can only serve to tantalize the farmer1 by giving rise to ideas of finical modes of treatment1 which before the ,chapter ends are reduced to the simplest aids which medicine affords4 ,whatever may be the seat or seats of the disease1 the identically same resources are employed in all3--why therefore ought the reader to be troubled with a hundred trifling phases1 which1 not being essential to the malady1 can only tend to perplex him in his search for the little that is practically available4 7#abe47 ,symptoms of ,braxy4 ,in those rare cases where the animal is seen at the commencement of the disease1 it will appear uneasy1 lying down and rising up repeatedly1 loathing food1 and drinking frequently4 ,in a little while the symptoms become more decided1 and fever shows itself4 ,the wool is clapped1 the skin hot1 the pulse quick and strong1 respiration is rapid and laborious1 while the blood is thick and black1 issuing from the orifice1 in attempts at bleeding1 drop by drop4 ,sometimes the heart beats irregularly3 the mouth is parched1 and the eyes are red1 languid1 partly closed1 and watery4 ,the head is down1 the back drawn up1 and the belly swollen2 there is scarcely any passage through the bowels1 the urine is small in quantity1 high coloured1 and sometimes bloody4 ,the sheep shuns the flock1 slowly dragging itself to some retired spot1 where convulsed and screaming it shortly dies4 ,death may occur in a few hours1 or may1 in some rare cases1 be delayed for a week4 ,a fatal termination is not so sudden as some have fancied1 since the animal is in general seriously ill for many hours before it is discovered4 7#abf47 ,appearances on dissection4 ,though many parts are commonly implicated in the sickness1 there is every reason for believing the reed to be primarily affected4 ,inflammatory appearances1 and mortification1 the usual result of violent inflammation in this quarter1 are visible on its coats1 especially at the pyloric extremity 7,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #b1 py47 ,the inner coat presents a blackish-red1 and gelatinous appearance1--the entire bowel being soft1 pulpy1 and easily permeable to the finger4 ,the intestines1 kidneys1 and bladder1 will1 in all probability1 exhibit similar changes1 while the lining membrane of the abdomen 7the peritoneum7 is frequently affected3 when this membrane has been much inflamed1 the intestines are glued together1 are surrounded with bloody or floculent serum1 occasioning before death tumidity of the under part of the belly1 and communicating1 when struck1 a feeling of fluctuation to a hand placed at a distance from the blow4 ,the muscles in various parts of the body frequently participate in the disease1 bloody serum being infiltrated between the layers4 ,as the brain1 in severe cases1 exhibits symptoms of oppression1 so on dissection it will be found red and turgid1 enabling us to account for the convulsive movements during the termination of the malady4 ,the whole body1 more particularly the abdomen1 gives out a fetid gangrenous odour1 which has procured for braxy the pastoral appellation of stinking ill and renders the dissection far from pleasant4 ,after death putrefaction goes on with great rapidity1 especially in moist weather1 hence the necessity of testing the solidity of the carcass by giving it1 as is customary in some parts1 three shakes before proceeding to prepare it for household use6 7#abh47 ,causes of ,braxy4 ,whatever tends to constipate the bowels may be reckoned a predisposing cause4 ,whenever constipation occurs1 especially if on a sickrife pasture1 the sheep may be looked upon as ripe for the disease4 ,any crude indigestible substance1 taken into the stomach when the animal is in this state1 will have a tendency to kindle braxy1 and the liability to it will not only be heightened1 but the chances of recovery will also be lessened1 by the animal being in high condition4 ,wedder hogs are peculiarly its victims1 but only when hirsled1 as when allowed to pasture with their mothers they are less liable to it4 ,this is accounted for by the fact1 that hirsled hogs are comparatively dull1 not being familiar with the proper times for feeding1 and incapable of selecting the suitable herbage1 from having wanted the tutoring of the mother4 ,from the beginning of ,november till the middle of ,march1 sickness commits its greatest ravages1 especially among heath sheep1 from their being more confined than others to dry binding provender4 ,frozen grass is also a common exciting cause1 rapidly inducing inflammation by lowering the temperature of the stomachs so very much as to arrest digestion1 and lead to its acting as an irritant4 ,the succulent grass in the sheltered hollows of mountains is more liable to frost than a sapless herbage1 and to it1 owing to its moisture1 the young sheep resort1 devouring it eagerly to assuage their thirst4 ,braxy1 however1 may arise from other and more obvious causes4 ,the sheep1 perhaps when heated by rash dogging1 is suddenly chilled by exposure to a shower1 or a plunge in a morass1 and if the bowels be at the time any way bound up1 immediate mischief cannot but ensue4 ,one of the rarest accidents to which it has been attributed is the prevention of the passage of the faeces by a knot1 or intussusception1 forming on the intestines1 but this occurrence would be of difficult discovery1 and even if made known1 our treatment1 though not differing much from that of braxy1 could hardly be successful4 7#abh47 ,treatment of ,braxy4 ,recovery is in many instances almost hopeless1 owing to the length of time which in general elapses between the onset of the disease and the shepherd's discovery of the animal4 ,nevertheless1 the best treatment ought in every instance to have a proper trial1 as life may often be saved when such a result is least expected4 ,many plans have been resorted to1 but none are found to suit so well as that of bleeding and purging4 ,the first thing to be attempted is the procuring of a copious flow of blood1 but1 as before mentioned1 this is a difficult matter1 owing to the stagnant state of the circulation at the surface of the body4 ,its abstraction may1 however1 be rendered easy1 by placing the sheep in a tub of warm water1 or1 where this cannot be procured1 by rolling a blanket wrung out of hot water round the body of the animal4 ,the tub of water should always be preferred1 and the moment the sheep is placed in it1 the tail should be nicked1 and one or both jugular veins opened4 ,retain the sheep in the bath for half an hour1 adding hot water from time to time1 so as to sustain the original temperature4 ,this of itself will alleviate the sufferings of the animal4 ,when a copious flow of blood has been obtained1 remove the sheep from the tub1 and administer two ounces of ,glauber's or ,epsom salt1 dissolved in warm water1 substituting a handful of common salt when these cathartics cannot be procured4 ,it is needless to give a purgative without bleeding1 as1 till this is done1 it will not operate4 ,when in spite of this the bowels continue obstinately constipated1 give a glyster of tobacco decoction1 made by boiling a drachm of the leaf 7the full of a pipe will do7 for a few minutes in a pint of water4 ,half of this only should be injected1 using the other if circumstances require it4 ,place the sheep in a house1 or any comfortable situation1 bed it with straw1 throw a horse-rug over it1 and promote the purging by warm gruels4 ,when out of danger supply it with moderate quantities of laxative provender1 and keep it for ten days apart from its fellows1 by which time it will1 in all likelihood1 be well recruited4 7#abi47 ,prevention of ,braxy4 ,change of pasture will at once suggest itself4 ,let it be to a succulent one1 on which old sheep have been for some time feeding2 the hogs will thus be hindered from filling their paunches too rapidly4 ,but1 if heathy food is the staple provender1 allow your sheep four or five hours of turnips in the twenty-four1 permitting at the same time free access to common salt4 ,these1 from their laxative effects1 will serve as antidotes to the dry sapless grasses1 which have led to the disease4 ,such places as mossy soils1 abounding in evergreen plants1 will also serve the purpose4 ,burn your ley heather1 as nothing is more decidedly prejudicial1 not only from its constipating qualities1 but also from being surrounded by a grass1 which is so much relished by the sheep1 that they resort to the spot long after it has been eaten to the quick1 and devour in their eagerness much that is foul and unwholesome from frequent puddling4 ,you thus obtain a good supply of sprouts1 as invaluable for opening qualities1 as the old heather is to be dreaded for its astringency4 ,finally1 be aware that careful herding is not the least efficacious of preventives2 a quiet1 even-tempered1 and thoughtful shepherd1 being here of far more value than the stores of the apothecary4 7#acj47 ,pining4 ,symptoms and ,causes4 ,the name has arisen from the rapid wasting1 which is a prominent symptom in this complaint4 ,a farm can hardly be subject to a more ruinous distemper1 as the same sheep will be affected by it year after year1 and if a ewe be attacked during autumn it is ten to one she will not have a lamb in the ensuing season4 ,pining only seizes on thriving sheep1 preferring young ones1 those more especially of the larger breeds1 and is confined to farms where the land is principally micaceous and covered with occasional stripes of benty grasses4 ,a whole flock sickens at once1 their usual alacrity appears to have deserted them1 their eyes are dull1 and the whole animal seems weary and languid4 ,at a more advanced stage the wool acquires a bluish tinge1 the blood becomes thick1 diminishing in quantity1 and the muscles assume a pale and bloodless appearance4 ,the bowels are constipated1 and to this the feverish symptoms apparently owe their origin4 ,if the disease progress1 death will ensue in about a month4#bh #bh ,a gradual wasting of the animal1 similar to what occurs in pining1 may result from the irritation consequent on swallowing pointed bodies1 as pins or needles4 ,i have in my possession a very stout needle1 given me by ,mr ,wilkin of ,tinwald ,downs1 which was found buried in the coats of the stomach of a young sheep which died under the above symptoms1 having been ill about three months4 7#aca47 ,treatment and ,prevention4 ,the first object is to obtain a free discharge from the bowels by means of purgatives1 as1 whenever a flux appears1 the animal is safe4 ,two ounces of ,castor oil given in a gruel1 or the same quantity of ,epsom salts1 will do1 care being taken that the purging be carried to some length4 ,removal to a rich pasture is the only preventive4 ,that pasture should be preferred which contains a good proportion of bitter plants1 for the emaciation appears to be owing in a considerable degree to torpor of the bowels occasioned by long abstinence from these necessaries4 7#acb47 ,staggers4 ,the symptoms nearly resemble those of sturdy1 which ,i have afterwards to describe1 and with which indeed ,i might have classed it1 were it not that it appears to be merely the result of a poisonous plant being taken into the stomach4 ,it is rarely seen hereabouts2 ,i shall1 therefore1 quote the account of it presented to the ,highland ,society by ,mr ,stevenson3--,this is a disease seldom or never affecting the sheep in this country1 those excepted which feed in forests1 or amongst planting4 ,the symptoms of it are more violent than those of sturdy1 during the time of their continuance4 ,the animal1 after staggering for some time1 falls on the ground1 when a general trembling comes on over the limbs2 they are violently convulsed1 and quite insensible to every thing4 ,during the continuance of the paroxysm they throw the body into various positions1 and sometimes roll to a considerable distance4 ,the fit continues for a quarter1 sometimes half an hour1 or an hour4 ,when they rise1 they seem perfectly bewildered1 till they regain the flock1 when they continue to feed well1 till another paroxysm supervenes4 ,this disease appears in ,autumn1 and various causes are said to produce it4 ,improper food1 the leaves of the oak1 from their astringent quality1 cobwebs sprinkled with dew1 have all been reckoned as causes4 ,i am inclined1 however1 to suppose1 that it arises from the action of a poisonous grass 7,lolium temulentum71 which is the only one of that description in this country1 and grows only in those situations where staggers prevail4 ,what effect these causes have on the brain to produce this disease1 ,i cannot explain4 ,when it continues for any time on the same individual1 it is apt to be fatal4 ,change of pasture is the only effectual cure for it4 7#acc47 ,diarrhoea4 ,by this is meant a constant purging1 affecting the younger portions of the flock between ,april and ,june1 leading to great emaciation1 and proceeding from one of the following causes4 #ast4 ,eating a soft tathy pasture1 particularly if fouled by the inundations of the previous winter4 #b;d4 ,feeding on too rich a pasture1 or a sudden change from an herbage deficient in nutritive qualities1 to one that is much superior4 #c;d4 ,transitions from heat to cold4 #dth4 ,weakness and relaxation of the bowels4 7#acd47 ,treatment of ,diarrhoea4 ,when either of the first two causes has given rise to purging1 a moderate allowance of good hay will gradually stop it4 ,this may be discontinued when the sheep has taken with its altered fare4 ,when diarrhoea has been occasioned by exposure to damp1 or sudden transitions from heat to cold1 it may be arrested by keeping the animal in a house for a few days1 and feeding it on any dry aliment1 but when crude trashy matter has been swallowed1 and keeps up irritation by its presence1 medicine must be resorted to4 ,administer an ounce of castor oil in gruel1 adding twenty drops of ,laudanum if there has been straining or evidences of pain4 ,when the bowels have been thoroughly cleared by this cathartic1 it will be proper1 if the discharge still continue1 to check it by astringents4 ,the medicine found by experience to answer best1 is prepared as follows3-- ,take of ,logwood four ounces1 ,extract of ,catechu 7,japan earth7 one drachm1 ,cinnamon two drachms1 ,water three ,english pints4 ,boil for a quarter of an hour1 strain1 and then add sixty drops of ,laudanum4 ,administer half an ,english pint of this night and morning so long as the flux continues4 ,diarrhoea seldom proves fatal1 and is indeed an easily managed disease2 but as it is frequently only a symptom of some other affection1 or a critical effort of the constitution to ward off some more serious mischief1 the attempts at stopping it should always be cautiously conducted4 7#ace47 ,dysentery4--,symptoms4 ,the pulse is quick and the respirations hurried4 ,the skin is harsh and hot1 and the wool in general clapped4 ,the mouth is dry1 the eyes red and languid1 and the ears drooping4 ,food is taken only in small quantities and rumination is stopped4 ,the discharges from the bowels are frequent1 slimy1 sometimes green1 and a little further on in the disease are mixed with blood4 ,the belly is drawn towards the back4 ,it is knotted and lumpy to the touch and a rumbling noise 7borborygmus7 is heard within it4 ,as a careless observer might have some difficulty in distinguishing dysentery from diarrhoea the following diagnostic summary1 drawn up by ,professor ,duncan1 will be found of service4 #a4 ,diarrhoea attacks chiefly hogs and weak gimmers and dinmonts2 whereas dysentery is frequent among older sheep4 #b4 ,diarrhoea almost always occurs in the spring1 and ceases about ,june1 when dysentery only commences4 #c4 ,in diarrhoea there is no fever or tenesmus1 or pain before the stools1 as in dysentery4 #d4 ,in diarrhoea the faeces are loose1 but in other respects natural1 without any blood or slime2 whereas in dysentery1 the faeces consists of hard lumps passed occasionally without any blood or slime4 #e4 ,there is not that degree of foetor in the faeces in diarrhoea which takes place in dysentery4 #f4 ,in dysentery1 the appetite is totally gone1 in diarrhoea it is rather sharper than usual4 #g4 ,in dysentery1 the animal wastes rapidly1 but by diarrhoea only a temporary stop is put to its thriving1 after which it makes rapid advances to strength1 vigour and proportion4 ,if dysentery continue to advance it will terminate fatally within a fortnight4 ,death is generally preceded by the black scour1 which is only an aggravation of the purging1 the stools being mixed with shreds of dark gangrenous matter from the decomposed interior of the intestines4 7#acf47 ,causes of ,dysentery4 ,many absurd opinions have gone abroad regarding the contagious nature of this affection4 ,contagion1 however1 has nothing to do with the matter1 the spread of the disease depending entirely on the state of the atmosphere and the nature of the locality4 ,when dysentery occurs the weather is usually sultry1 the ground upon which the flock has been going1 foul1 and the management of the sheep so improper1 as to be sufficient of itself to produce the disease very generally4 ,there is in fact only one proof of a disease being infectious1 viz41 its immediate occurrence on the introduction of an affected animal among such as are in good health1 on sound food1 and in easy circumstances4 ,this proof1 however1 in regard to dysentery has never been established1 and no medical person will now affirm that it is contagious4 ,some think that it travels from flock to flock in the direction of the wind1 but its appearing simultaneously in many folds ought rather to be charged to the fact of the predisposing causes being nearly similar in all4 7#acg47 ,treatment of ,dysentery4 ,bleed freely if the disease has continued only for a few days1 but moderately if a longer time has unfortunately elapsed4 ,stoving1 by which is meant shutting the animal in a wash-house1 and allowing the apartment to become filled with steam1 though urged by some writers1 cannot here be recommended4 ,the intended object is the promotion of perspiration1 by exciting the action of the skin1 but this may be brought about by means much more conducive to the safety of the animal4 ,after the bleeding immerse the sheep in a tub of hot water1 and retain it there for twenty minutes2 then administer an ounce of ,castor oil1 with thirty drops of ,laudanum1 and cover the sheep up in a snug corner4 ,after the oil has operated1 thin well-boiled flour-porridge1 given at intervals1 in small quantities1 will help to defend the ulcerated bowels1 sooth the pain1 and stop the purging4 ,if these fail1 you may use the astringent mixture recommended in diarrhoea at page #age1 and in the same manner1 adding to each dose a grain of ipecacuanha4 ,when the appetite returns1 and the stools begin to acquire consistency1 speedy recovery may be prognosticated4 ,during recovery part of the wool always falls off4 7#ach47 ,prevention of ,dysentery4 ,if you wish your sheep to take the disease1 do as some wiseacres recommend--put tar upon their tails1 and noses2 you will thus render them feverish1 and uncomfortable1 and every way fit for an attack4 ,gathering sheep into confined places is always bad1 nothing will tend more to ward off dysentery than an open frequently-changed easy-lying pasture1 combined with gentle usage on the part of the shepherd4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 7#aci47 ,scab1 or ,itch4--,symptoms and ,causes4 ,these are so well known that they hardly merit a description4 ,little white specks appear upon the wool1 and are soon followed by a small pustule at the root4 ,the pustules are produced by a minute insect burrowing in the skin1 which accounts for one external application of any active substance being sufficient to eradicate the malady4 ,the infected sheep is restless1 tearing off the wool with its teeth1 and rubbing itself against every resisting body4 ,the skin is red and fretted1 discharging an ichor which hardens into crusts4 ,these gradually extend1 inducing a premature failure of the wool4 ,if the sheep be not relieved1 it sinks under its accumulated miseries4 ,scab was little known any where1 but in the ,highlands1 and the south of ,england1 till the good old custom of smearing with tar and butter gave way before the elegant modern innovations4 ,into flocks anointed in the old manner it may be carried by infection1 but will seldom or never arise spontaneously among them4 ,it usually commences in spring among hogs1 making its first appearance among the rams1 especially those of the fine-woolled breeds1 and is supposed to be induced by overheating1 want1 or even excess of nutriment1 or pasturing on wet lands in rainy seasons4 7#adj47 ,treatment of ,itch4 ,subject the flock to a minute examination whenever the movements of any animal excite suspicion1 and remove every one that is in the least affected4 ,place them in a separate enclosure1 and apply either of the following recipes4 ,take of ,mercurial ,ointment four pounds1 ,venice ,turpentine half a pound1 ,oil of ,turpentine one pint3 mix thoroughly4 ,separate the wool from the head to the tail and draw the fore finger loaded with a portion of the ointment1 along the bottom of the groove4 ,then make lines from the middle of the back down each leg and score them in the same manner1 thus concluding the operation4 ,some farmers prefer rubbing the size of a walnut of the ointment into the delicate skin inside the thigh4 ,the former plan is1 however1 the better of the two1 and is the one recommended by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 who communicated the recipe to the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce1 in the #gth volume of whose transactions it was published4 ,a most important benefit to be derived from the application of the mercurial ointment1 is the security it affords the sheep from the attack of the sheep fag or ked 7,hippobosca ovina74 ,the wool of sheep annoyed by this fly always contains joints or knots1 owing to the occasional stoppage of its growth consequent on the fretting of the irritated animal4 ,on this account dealers in wool are said to give a higher price for fleeces having the mercurial tinge1 as they are supposed to be sound in the pile from having been exempted from the fly4 ,the next prescription is one of very great efficacy where the disease has reached the length of scabs1 and has1 with many variations1 gone the round of almost every agricultural publication4 ,the form ,i prefer is one submitted to me by ,mr ,wilkin of ,tinwald ,downs1 near ,dumfries1 who at one time1 several years ago1 applied it with immediate good effects1 to six hundred infected sheep4 ,take of ,tobacco scrapings one pound1 ,strong decoction of ,broom six gallons3 boil for half an hour1 and then add three ,english pints of spirit of tar4 ,this quantity is sufficient to cover two dozen of sheep4 ,the scabs1 if large1 should be raised a little with a knife to permit the free contact of the fluid1 and no more of it should be applied than is here directed2 for though it be in this dose comparatively harmless1 a very small addition will destroy the animal4 ,a very good ,french remedy is made by melting a pound of fat or suet1 and mixing with it 7when off the fire7 a fourth part of oil of turpentine4 ,rub it into the affected parts4 ,whatever outward means may be employed1 laxative medicines ought never to be neglected4 ,one of the best and most generally used1 consists of a tea-spoonful of flour of sulphur1 given for two or three successive nights in double the quantity of molasses4 ,if ill-conditioned sheep are the victims of itch1 convey them to a better pasture1 but where the animals are fat1 reduce their diet1 and give each a dose of ,epsom salts4 7#ada47 ,prevention of ,itch4 ,do not turn a healthy flock on to pasture1 from which itchy sheep have recently been driven4 ,if the disease occasionally breaks out on your ground1 apply the mercurial ointment at clipping time3 and1 when you salve1 add a pound of sulphur to every tub of smearing composition whatever it may be4 7#adb47 ,erysipelas or wild-fire4 ,this is an inflammatory affection of the skin1 sometimes accompanied by blebs or blisters1 occurring in ,august and ,september1 and spreading rapidly through a flock4 ,though there is considerable ambiguity in the employment of these terms1 ,i believe they are synonymous with red-water1 the disease of which ,i have next to treat4 7#adc47 ,red-water4 ,the occurrence of this disease among sheep is very rare4 ,its nature and treatment are however allowed1 by those who have seen it1 to be admirably described by ,mr ,stevenson1 in the #c;d vol4 of the ,highland ,society's ,transactions4 ,this disease commonly makes its appearance about the beginning1 or end of winter1 and first affects about the breast and belly1 although at times it spreads itself over other parts of the body4 ,it consists in an inflammation of the skin1 that raises it into blisters which contain a thin1 reddish1 and watery fluid4 ,these continue for a short time1 break1 discharge their matter1 and are followed by a blackish scab4 ,when the sheep are exposed to cold or wetness1 the skin being fretted makes the blisters rise1 or they often arise from cold1 affecting the animal internally1 thus producing a slight fever1 which throws out these vesicles on the body1 similar to the scabby eruptions1 which appear about the face1 and more particularly the mouth of those persons affected with cold4 ,the blood in this disease is but little affected1 though a little of it oozes into the vesicles on the skin1 and communicates to them that reddish tinge1 which gives origin to the name4 ,red-water is a disease that but seldom appears in this country1 and is almost never fatal4 ,in cases where the disease is violent1 a little blood should be taken4 99 99 99 99 ,the sheep should be placed in a fold by itself1 99 99 99 99 and the following medicine may be given for three or four mornings successively3-- ,take of ,flour of ,sulphur two ounces1 ,molasses three ounces3 mix them1 and divide them into six doses1 of which one may be given every morning1 in half a pound 7half a mutchkin7 of warm water4 ,if this is found unsuccessful1 half an ounce of nitre1 mixed with the foregoing recipe1 will be attended with good effects2 after which1 a dose of salts may be given1 and the body washed with lime-water upon the part affected4 7#add47 ,leg ,evil4--,symptoms and ,causes4 ,like many other diseases1 this is usually supposed to be contagious1 merely because it often spreads quickly through a flock2 the obvious fact of the exposure of the animals composing it to the same causes1 such as peculiar diet and atmospheric variations1 being entirely overlooked2 but1 as ,i have already remarked in paragraph 7#acf71 the only proof of a disease being contagious1 is its spreading rapidly on the introduction1 from a distance1 of an infected individual into a previously-healthy flock4 ,sheep which acquire fat at an early age1 are peculiarly liable to this disease3 a sufficient argument1 if all others were wanting1 against the unnatural and foolish practice of accumulating a load of grease on the bodies of young animals4 ,by so doing1 the action of the heart and lungs is materially embarrassed1 and1 on the animal being chilled1 or the balance of its circulation otherwise accidentally deranged1 mortification 7leg evil7 is almost certain to occur4 ,even simple scratches are often fatal in these over-fat animals1 from inducing gangrene4 ,the first intimation the shepherd has of the approach of leg evil1 is the occurrence of fever and lameness1 accompanied by blue or livid patches on the leg1 generally about the upper part of the hoof or knee4 ,the skin on the affected parts1 in a few days1 exhibits scattered vesicles1 not unlike the blebs which form in erysipelas2 it then gives way1 and the parts beneath are seen of a darker tinge1 soft1 pulpy1 and completely gangrenous4 ,leg evil may prove fatal in a few days1 or not for several weeks1 much depending on the extent of the sloughing portions1 which may include the entire leg1 or legs1 or may be limited to a single patch4 7#ade47 ,treatment of ,leg ,evil4 ,when the animal is in high condition1 and the disease has arisen spontaneously1 bleeding is the first thing to be thought of4 ,it must1 however1 be conducted cautiously1 it being better to use the lancet a second time1 than1 by withdrawing too much blood1 to reduce the vital powers below the standard which is necessary for replacing the gangrenous portions4 ,should a leg be affected to any extent1 the sheep must be at once destroyed1 as there is scarcely a possibility of its surviving1 without a degree of care and nicety in the treatment1 which it is beyond the power of unprofessional persons to bestow4 ,where the livid spots are limited1 rags dipped in spirit of turpentine1 which has been heated by immersing the bottle containing it in hot water1 may be laid upon the skin2 but when dead portions have begun to separate1 the best application is either a warm poultice1 made of carrots1 which have been boiled and mashed1 or one made of boiled oatmeal1 which has been fermented by adding to it a table-spoonful of yeast1 and placing it for an hour before a fire4 ,when the sore is becoming clean1 and the granulations are rising freely1 pursue the methods recommended in paragraph 7#aaj74 7#adf47 ,prevention of ,leg ,evil4 ,remove the diseased animals from the flock1 and1 in dressing their sores1 never use a sponge1 or any thing which1 from its value1 is apt to be preserved1 and1 perhaps1 applied in no long time to the cuts or scratches of a healthy animal2 for1 though leg evil is not communicable by ordinary means1 yet is it readily excited by inoculation1 or the application of putrid matter to a broken surface4 ,if the odour from the affected parts is any way offensive1 wash them with1 and sprinkle round the fold1 either a weak solution of chloride of lime1 or the disinfecting liquid of ,labarraque1 articles which may now be procured from every provincial apothecary4 ,finally1 let the shepherd wash his hands carefully before going from diseased to healthy sheep1 using1 if need be1 a little of either of these solutions2 and let him look well to any injuries which his charges may receive in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 for these are the months most favourable to the occurrence of leg evil4 7#adg74 ,inflammation caused by ,maggots4 ,the insects passing under the name of ,fly1 though most troublesome in ,august1 attack the sheep from the month of ,may to ,september1 inclusive1 depositing their eggs among the wool1 in general about the tail1 the roots of the horns1 or any part which affords1 from its filthy appearance1 a prospect of suitable provision for the maggot4 ,when these eggs are hatched1 a process which is1 in sultry weather1 almost instantaneous1 the maggot erodes the skin1 and speedily brings the adjacent parts into a fit condition for the reception of succeeding numbers of its species4 ,the backs of long-woolled sheep are1 from their exposure1 more liable to be selected by the flies1 as a receptacle for their eggs1 than the corresponding parts in such as are covered by a short thick fleece4 ,no sooner has the maggot begun its operations1 than the sheep becomes uneasy and restless1 rubbing itself on stones and trees1 and endeavouring1 by every means in its power to free itself from the annoyance4 ,teazed by the constant irritation1 fever soon sets in1 and1 if the sheep be unrelieved by the shepherd's aid1 death ensues in four-and-twenty hours4 ,it is only lately that attention has been paid to the history of the insect pests which originate the mischief1 so little damage do they appear to have occasioned in former periods4 ,in a valuable paper1 containing the result of observations made on this subject in the ,highlands1 and published in the second number of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 they are thus described3-- ,the fly which is the immediate cause of this disease1 seems1 as far as my observations could extend1 to consist of four species1 viz4--the ,musca ,ceasar1 ,cadaverina1 ,vomitoria1 and ,carnaria1 of ,linnaeus4 99 99 99 ,m4 ,ceasar is of a shining green colour4 ,m4 ,cadaverina1 the thorax shining bluish1 the abdomen green1 like the ,ceasar4 ,m4 ,vomitoria1 thorax black1 or dark-blue grey1 abdomen dark glossy blue4 ,this is the common ,blue-,bottle or ,flesh-fly4 ,m4 ,carnaria1 grey2 the thorax has three black longitudinal markings on the upper surface2 the abdomen is checquered1 in some positions shining whitish4 ,in all those instances in which ,i observed them1 the green flies were the first to attack1 and this is the common opinion among the shepherds4 ,after a time1 when the larvae 7maggots7 commenced gnawing the flesh1 the putrid stench1 which was thereby occasioned1 attracted numerous other species4 ,the ,vomitoria 7blue-bottle7 was very common1 more numerous than both the former species1 and perhaps contributed most to accelerate the death of the animal1 after the others had commenced4 ,the ,carnaria was rare4 ,i observed but few of them1 and these seemed not concerned2 which is the more remarkable1 as in the fenny counties of ,england it is said to be most troublesome4 ,all the species of this genus resemble one another closely1 both in appearance and mode of life4 ,they are exceedingly voracious1 feeding upon carcasses and filth of every description4 ,in five days after being hatched they arrive at full growth1 provided they have plenty of food2 they then cease to eat1 and seek to assume the pupa state1 crawling under ground two or three inches4 ,here they remain about fourteen days1 when the shell cracks1 and the imago1 or fly1 appears4 ,in this last state1 they feed also on putrid juices1 sucking them through their probosces4 ,the correctness of this description of their transformations ,i can attest1 from having watched their habits during my anatomical pursuits in the summer months4 7#adh47 ,treatment of ,fly-blown ,sheep4 ,when the sheep is fly-blown1 dislodge the maggots with a knife1 and shake a little powdered white lead into the wound4 ,do not apply tar to the abraded surface1 as1 from its cauterizing effects1 the wound will be enlarged1 and a repetition of the visit speedily ensured4 ,to ward off the onset of the flies1 various substances noxious to them are rubbed or poured upon the wool4 ,tar1 in small quantities1 and of pungent quality1 is by some daubed upon the ears1 horns1 and tail4 ,others prefer rubbing a little melted butter1 thickened by flour of sulphur1 along the sheep's back3 this is an effectual preventive4 ,some1 again1 prefer dressing the sheep1 when in low situations1 with the following recipe1 which ,i take the liberty of copying from ,mr ,mather's paper on the fly1 in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 ,no4 ,,xxiv4 ,take of ,arsenic1 finely pounded1 one pound ,potash twelve ounces1 ,common yellow soap six ounces1 ,rain or river water thirty gallons4 ,boil the ingredients together for fifteen minutes4 99 99 99 99 ,the liquid is in no degree injurious to wool4 ,it cleans and dries the offensive perspiration of the sheep1 and destroys the smell caused by the dew in the mornings1 or by damp hot weather4 ,in most situations1 one dressing in ,july and another in ,august will suffice2 but as the expense is trifling1 and the process simple1 it may be better to apply it more frequently1 especially in low and damp situations4 ,the liquid is applied only in dry weather4 ,a teapot1 or any vessel of a similar form1 is filled with it1 and one person pours it on the wool1 while another rubs the fleece to facilitate the passage of the fluid4 ,at the times of using the solution1 all superfluous wool ought to be shorn from the buttocks1 but not too closely4 ,when the insects are very troublesome1 drive the sheep if possible to higher ground4 ,examine carefully all wounds and ulcers1 however trifling1 and dress them with any simple ointment containing a small proportion of sulphur1 mercury1 or white-lead4 ,lastly1 bury all useless carcasses as speedily as possible1 by which means you will keep down the number of the flies4 7#adi47 ,the ,sheep-,fag or ,ked 7,hippobosca ovina7 and ,the ,tick 7,acarus reduvius71 are destroyed or stopped in their attacks by the same remedies and preventives detailed in the preceding paragraphs on the fly4 7#aej47 ,inflammation produced by the ,o,estrus bovis4 ,this insect infests not only cattle but also sheep and goats1 depositing its eggs on the back of the animal1 where it forms a small tumour1 in which the larvae remain from autumn till the commencement of the ensuing summer4 ,only the fattest and most vigorous animals are attacked1 and the larvae are very difficult to destroy4 ,fischer found1 from numerous experiments1 that even spirits1 and a strong solution of salt1 could not affect them4 ,the fumes of burning sulphur alone seemed to annoy them1 and to it they speedily fell victims4 ,this1 however1 is a remedy which cannot be applied to the skin of the sheep1 so that our only resource is the repeated application of turpentine to the tumours on the back1 taking care to slit them up so as to facilitate its action4 7#aea47 ,sore ,teats4 ,when a ewe is observed to hinder the lamb from sucking1 its teats should be examined4 ,if much inflamed1 a poultice should be applied1 and the lamb placed under the charge of another nurse4 ,suppuration will thus be promoted1 and the matter may be allowed to escape by making an opening for it at the place it points4 ,if there is only a little tenderness of the skin1 all that is required is the washing it with a solution either of sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc1 eight grains to the ounce of water4 7#aeb47 ,foot-rot4 ,no disease occasions more acute suffering to the sheep1 and annoyance to the farmer1 than foot-rot1 and no disease has led to longer arguments as to its contagious or non-contagious nature4 ,thanks1 however1 to ,mr ,dick of ,edinburgh1 these disputes are closed for ever1 as any one may be convinced1 by perusing his clever and sarcastic paper at page #heb1 ,vol4 ii4 of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture4 ,his excellent remarks on the popular ideas of the infectious nature of foot-rot1 ,i have not space to quote1 but shall lay before the reader his views as to the situations and circumstances which give origin to the disease4#bi #bi ,to enable the reader more easily to understand ,mr ,dick's views of this disease1 ,i have added a drawing of the foot of the sheep1 which it may be well to consult before entering on the subject4 ,fig4 #d4 ,plate4 ,i4 ,section of a toe3--c4c4 ,crust of the hoof2 s4 ,sole2 g4g4 ,gland which secretes the hoof4 7#aec47 ,causes of ,foot-rot4 ,what do we gain1 says ,mr ,dick1 by enticing the sheep from his native and natural haunts to the richer pasturage of our meadows or lawns8 ,there the animal enjoys a more luxuriant repast2 it fattens to a larger size1 and will1 in this respect1 repay the increased allowance which has been made to it4 ,but instead of moving about in small troops1 with the alacrity of the wild kinds1 the sheep are seen in flocks of thousands1 moving slowly over their pastures1 and gorging themselves to an extent which cuts short the thread of life1 by the advancement of various diseases4 ,instead of wandering from the summit of one peak to another1 in quest of a scanty subsistence1 or instead of being compelled to descend from the summits of the mountain in the morning1 and ascend again in the evening1 they are compelled1 in many cases1 to remain within a few yards of a particular spot for weeks together1 and there engorge themselves to satiety4 ,but what1 it may be asked1 has this to do with the foot-rot8 ,more1 ,i am inclined to think1 than is generally imagined4 ,the hoofs of the sheep being intended to receive a degree of friction from hard surfaces1 are not acted upon when the animal is placed under such circumstances2 and the necessary consequence is an overgrowth of the hoof4 ,the crust1--the part naturally intended to support the weight of the animal1 and to endure the greatest share of fatigue1--is here allowed to grow out of all due bounds1 because the softness of the pasturages1 upon which it now moves1 presents little1 if any1 of that rough friction to which the feet of the animal is naturally intended to be exposed4 ,the crust1 therefore1 grows unrestrained1 until it either laps over the sole1 like the loose sole of an old shoe1 and serves to retain and accumulate earth and filth1 or is broken off in detached parts1 in some cases exposing the quick1 or opening new pores1 into which the particles of earth or sand force their way1 until reaching the quick1 an inflammation is set up1 which1 in its progress1 alters or destroys the whole foot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particularly liable to this disease2 soft1 marshy1 and luxuriant meadows are equally so2 and it is also found in light1 soft or sandy districts4 ,in the first of these it is perhaps most prevalent in a moist season1 and in the latter in a dry one2 in short1 it exists to a greater or less extent in every situation which has a tendency to increase the growth of the hoofs without wearing them away1 and more especially where they are kept soft by moisture4 ,it is so prevalent in fine lawns and pleasure grounds1 that they are1 in many instances1 reduced in value to a mere trifle as a pasture for sheep2 they are said to be infected with this disease1 and having once become so1 the vicissitudes of seven seasons are scarcely sufficient to destroy the contagion6 ,a luxuriant herbage1 on soft pastures1 is equally subject to it2 and1 in both cases1 the disease is increased in a wet season4 ,the reason why1 in these situations1 sheep are so liable to the disease1 is quite obvious4 ,they are generally brought from lands where their range of pasturage was greater than in these situations4 ,in their former state1 from the exercise which the animal took1 and the nature of the grounds on which it pastured1 the hoof was worn down as it grew2 but1 under the state in question1 the hoofs not only continue to grow1 but1 where the land is moist1 that growth is greatly increased2 and the animal does not tread upon hard ground1 nor has it exercise to wear them down4 ,now1 in the case of man himself1 when the nails of his fingers or toes exceed the proper length1 they break1 or give him such uneasiness as to induce him to pare them4 ,and the same takes place with the hoof of sheep4 ,but there is this difference in the case of the latter1 that when their hoof once breaks1 as the animal has not the power of paring it1 the part thus broken must continue a wound4 ,some parts grow out of their natural and proper proportions2 the crust of the hoof 7c4c47 grows too long2 and the overgrown parts either break off in irregular rents and unnatural forms1 or1 by over-shooting the sole 7s471 allow small particles of sand or earth to enter into the pores of the hoof4 ,these particles reach the quick1 and set up an inflammation1 which is followed by the destructive effects which are too well known to require description4 ,similar effects are produced on soft1 wet grounds4 ,the feet1 in such a situation1 are not only not subject to a proper degree of friction to wear down the hoofs1 but the growth of the hoofs is materially increased by the soft and moist state in which they are kept4 ,and this state renders the feet the more liable to the disease1 as it opens up the pores of the horn1 and allows the earth or sand to penetrate1 and wound the quick1 in the manner ,i have already stated4 ,on soft sandy ground1 of a dry nature1 the same circumstances may occur4 ,the soft sand gives way by the weight of the animal1 and the crust of the hoof is not worn down4 ,the sand penetrates between the sole and the crust1 as has been already explained1 and produces inflammation4 ,the disease1 however1 is not so common on sand as in the other situations to which ,i have alluded1 the sand seldom being found in such a loose state4 ,another variety of foot-rot is produced by the friction of long grass between the hoofs1 but is mostly confined to hill sheep1 when first pastured on lowland districts4 ,these animals1 from having been accustomed to collect their food on extensive ranges of bare pasture1 are more exposed than heavy breeds to this frequent exciting cause of the complaint4 ,the rubbing of the grass frets the skin in the cleft of the hoof1 the gland in that situation swells1 becomes enlarged1 and suppurates1 and in no long time the animal is compelled to rest upon its knees4#cj ,this complaint is1 however1 more readily remedied than the former1 and does not cause nearly so much suffering to the sheep4 #cj ,fig4 #e4 ,plate4 ,i4 ,gives a view of the inner surface of the toe of a sheep1 with the interdigital gland laid open4 g4 ,the gland4 d4 ,the duct of the gland1 opening upon the anterior surface of the leg4 ,when the interdigital gland is much enlarged1 it becomes necessary to cut it out4 ,this ought to be a last resource1 as the part appears to be of too much importance to be easily dispensed with4 7#aed47 ,treatment and ,prevention of ,foot-rot4 ,as foot-rot1 in nine cases out of ten1 is an attempt on the part of nature to get rid of a portion of the hoof1 which ought1 in the proper course of things1 to have been worn away as fast as it appeared1 the prevention and treatment of the first stage of the complaint will naturally suggest themselves4 ,as this disease1 says ,mr ,dick1 at the conclusion of the aforementioned paper1 arises in consequence of the hoofs not being exposed to sufficient friction to wear them down1 or keep them in their proper state1 or where their natural growth is increased by the nature and moisture of the ground1 the hoofs of all the flock should be regularly rasped or pared at short intervals1 say from eight days to a fortnight1 according to the rapidity with which a particular pasture produces the disease4 ,in certain situations1 they might be made to travel upon a hard surface1 similar to natural sheep tracts1 or be folded in a place purposely prepared1 upon which they could move about and wear their hoofs4 ,for that purpose1 they should be placed in it every day4 ,when foot-rot has fairly commenced1 pare the hoof from the affected part1 and trim away any ragged portions1 wash the foot with soap and water1 and place the animal in a situation where as few irritating things as possible will be in the way of the tender surface1 and give a purgative4 ,if not properly attended to1 the suppuration soon terminates in mortification4 ,cleanliness in every stage and variety of foot-rot1 is of the first importance4 ,many corrosive preparations are recommended for the cure of this disease1 but ,i have decided objections to one and all of them4 ,when the foot is clean1 endeavour1 by frequent applications of soap and water1 to keep and treat the ulcers as directed in paragraph #aaj4 7#aee47 ,inflammation produced by ,insects in the ,air ,passages4 ,much annoyance is caused to the sheep by the presence of animals in the air passages4 ,the ,o,estrus ovis deposits its eggs on the margin of the nostril in autumn2 these are soon hatched1 and the larvae immediately find their way up the interior of the nose1 till they arrive at the frontal sinus1 a cavity situated between the layers of the frontal bone1 and of considerable size in the sheep4 ,here they remain till the following spring1 when they quit their hold1 become winged insects1 and enter upon the career of torment so ably gone through by their predecessors4 ,the ,pentastoma1 an animal supposed at one time only to exist in the frontal sinus and lungs1 and on the surface of the liver1 of the dog1 wolf1 and horse1 as well as in some reptiles1 has been discovered by an able naturalist1 my friend ,mr ,rhind of ,edinburgh1 in the frontal sinus of the sheep4 ,it spends its whole existence there1 and is distinguished from other entozoa by having the mouth between two pores on each side1 through which a spicular process comes out4 ,figure #c1 ,plate ,,vii4 is taken from a drawing kindly furnished by ,mr ,rhind4 7#aef47 ,removal of ,insects from the ,nostril4 ,the ,o,estrus ovis occasions much distress to the sheep at the moment of depositing its eggs within the nostril4 ,the animal on feeling the movements of the fly1 rubs its nose against the ground1 or1 carrying it low1 darts off at a rapid pace1 vainly endeavouring to escape from its tormentor4 ,during this period1 a thin limpid fluid distils from the nostrils1 leading a careless observer to confound the symptoms with those which accompany ,coryza4 ,in general the irritation is now terminated1 as1 while in the larvae state1 the insects are incapable of offensive measures4 ,if they are clustered in considerable numbers in the frontal sinuses1 they will doubtless lead to great suffering1 parallel to what is recorded to have followed the nestling of insects in the same situation in the human being2 and it is1 therefore1 advisable1 when the cause of sturdy 7paragraph #afi7 is in any way doubtful1 first to apply those substances to the nostril1 which are calculated to destroy both these larvae and the pentastoma1 should they happen to be there4 ,tobacco smoke is the only available remedy1 and a very good one1 being easily brought in contact with the worms1 and1 when properly administered1 certain in its effects4 ,one person secures the sheep holding the head in a convenient position1 while another1 having half filled a pipe with tobacco1 and kindled it in the usual manner1 places one or two folds of a handkerchief over the opening of the bowl1 then passes the tube a good way up the nostril1 applies his mouth to the covered bowl1 and blows vigorously through the napkin4 ,when this has continued for a few seconds1 the pipe is withdrawn1 and the operation repeated on the other nostril4 ,the round hair-worm 7strongylus filaria7 has been found in great numbers in the trachea and bronchii of calves by ,camper1 and of the sheep by ,daubeuton4 ,it has also been found in the reed and duodenum of the latter animal by ,rudolphi4 ,two other species of the genus ,strongle1 the ,s4 contortus and ,s4 filicollis1 have been detected in the sheep1 the former in the belly1 the latter in the small intestines4 ,they all appear to originate only in such sheep as are exposed to the sapping influence of low damp situations1 combined with stinted diet4 ,those occuring in the air tubes give rise to irritation1 and a consequent harassing cough1 which is only to be arrested by removing the sheep to a dry airy locality1 and a nutritious pasture4 ,unless portions of the worms are thrown up during coughing1 they cannot be pronounced with confidence to exist1 as the symptoms which they produce are very similar to those which accompany the two following diseases4 7#aeg47 ,coryza4 ,during the winter months1 this affection is of very frequent occurence among sheep2 but health is only in a few instances seriously affected4 ,it is brought on by the exposure of the animal to intense cold1 or to sudden chills1 after it has been heated4 ,in slight cases1 the only annoyance to which the sheep is subjected1 is from matter accumulating in the nostril1 and plugging up the orifice1 so that the poor creature is compelled to raise its head every three or four minutes1 and labour hard for breath4#ca ,when the inflammation extends further down the air tubes1 the symptoms assume a severer type1 and death soon occurs1 in general from suffocation4 ,if the inflammation of the bronchial tubes becomes chronic1 that is to say1 if it goes on in a mild form for a length of time1 pulmonary consumption 7rot7 will in all probability succeed1 and destroy the sheep in a more lingering manner4 #ca ,the sheep is more inconvenienced by ,coryza than other animals1 owing to the naturally small calibre of the nostrils1 the inferior turbinated bone being of large dimensions1 and occupying the greater part of the nasal cavity4 ,it is from this peculiar formation of the nose1 that sheep are so very easily blown1 when made to exert themselves in running4 7#aeh47 ,treatment of ,coryza4 ,should this disease prevail in a lenient form among your sheep1 removal to a sheltered field1 and a dose of purgative medicine1 are all that is required4 ,if1 however1 the feverish symptoms are severe1 besides giving a purgative1 bleed at the outset of the disease1 and administer ten grains of the following fever powder1 dissolved in a tea-cupful of warm water3-- ,take of powdered ,digitalis 7,foxglove7 half a drachm4 ,tartarized ,antimony fifteen grains ,nitre two drachms4 ,rub them well together1 and divide the mixture into fifteen parts or powders4 ,half an hour after the powder is swallowed1 give the sheep a basin of warm gruel1 and repeat the powder at the end of six hours1 if the symptoms are not considerably abated4 ,when the sheep is recovering1 keep it on juicy food1 and do not expose it to inclement weather1 as it will be very liable to another and more severe attack4 ,those sheep which are subject to cough on slight changes of temperature1 should always be picked out1 fattened for the market1 and disposed of at the earliest opportunity1 as they will1 in all probability1 sooner or later1 fall victims to the following disease4 7#aei47 ,rot4 ,every animal1 from the serpent up to man1 that is to say1 every animal possessed of lungs1 is liable to rot4 ,the inelegance of the term might be overlooked1 provided a precise meaning were attached to it4 ,every one1 however1 seems to place some peculiar signification1 and to hang some favourite theory1 upon it1 so that little wonder need be expressed either at the varying tenor of the treatment1 or at the unsatisfactory conclusions which have been drawn regarding it4 ,the word rot1 when employed in speaking of man1 implies what1 in popular language1 is called consumption1 and is applied to that disease only when it affects the lungs4 ,thus the fork-grinders of ,sheffield1 who1 from the nature of their employment1 are much exposed to the exciting causes of consumption1 and who1 at an early age1 fall victims to it1 are said1 by the people of that town1 to die of rot4 ,the term1 however1 so far as it has yet been used in relation to the sheep1 has figured as the representative of a host of diseases1 and1 in becoming standard from frequent usage1 has only rendered confusion worse confounded4 ,rot1 says the late ,professor ,coventry1 in his ,introductory ,discourses1 is a word which has been employed to express a variety of disorders affecting this animal1 with no small confusion and detriment4 ,indeed1 in few instances has senseless indiscrimination done more mischief2 for means inapt and injurious have been had recourse to1 where skilful and timely interference would have had the happiest effects4 ,sheep are sometimes said to have the rot1 when they labour under phthisis pulmonalis 7consumption of the lungs71 which they do but rarely2 or under disorders of the liver1 as hepatitis chronica1 and that state of the same organ produced1 or attended by the fasciolae hepaticae 7fluke worms71 hydatides1 c41 which affections of the liver are not unfrequent4 ,but the most common rot is still another and very distinct disorder1 resembling1 in many points1 and probably the very same in its nature with1 scorbutus 7scurvy7 in the human species1 or that miseranda lues1 that direful ruin of the general health and constitution1 which silently supervenes from deficient or depraved aliment2 and from which1 as numerous observations testify1 every flock1 every sufferer1 may be recovered by simple means seasonably used2 but against which1 in its advanced stage1 all remedies prove of no avail4 ,perhaps1 as the last symptoms of debility are very similar1 and are most taken notice of by ordinary observers1 the different kinds of rot might conveniently enough pass under the names of pulmonic1 hepatic1 and general rot4 ,setting aside1 for the moment1 the inaccuracy of part of the above observations1 ,i shall only remark1 that1 though ,dr ,coventry1 in thus calling attention to the conflicting state of opinions on the subject1 has accomplished much in reconciling discrepancies1 he has still left something to be done in simplifying the matter2 while he has1 at the same time1 rendered that something difficult of execution1 from his own high authority being associated with the blunder4 ,the only way1 therefore1 to remedy the thing1 is to quit for the present the views of that learned gentleman1 while ,i endeavour to give a plain account of the disease1 its causes1 and effects4 7#afj47 ,symptoms of ,rot4 ,the first thing which indicates the presence of the disease1 is the unwillingness of the affected animal to move about4 ,it lags behind the flock1 ascends a slope with difficulty1 and has a listless1 heavy1 pithless appearance4 ,cough varying in frequency and violence1 but extremely harassing1 is present at every period of the disease1 and is always increased on the slightest exertion4#cb ,at first this is accompanied by expectoration of the mucus of the air tubes2 but in no long time purulent matter1 indicative of more extensive inroads on the constitution1 begins to be coughed up1 and goes on increasing in quantity and becoming worse in quality till the termination of the disease4 ,the wool becomes fine1 white1 thin1 and brittle in the pile1 and is easily brought away in masses by the slightest pull4 ,the appetite is1 throughout the disease1 voracious1 and though all the bad symptoms may be present1 still the animal keeps up an appearance of plumpness4 ,this1 however1 is hollow and deceitful1 and the rapid loss of flesh which immediately succeeds1 shows with what insidious certainty the malady has been progressing4 ,owing to the falling off in flesh and in fat1 the neck appears to have acquired additional length1 and the eyes to have sunk within the head4 ,sooner or later the skin beneath the neck becomes distended with serous fluid1 and from this the disease has acquired the name of ,poke4 ,the word1 however1 is far from applicable1 as it might1 with equal propriety1 stand for any other disease attended with dropsical accumulations4 ,violent purging soon terminates the disease1 death being generally preceded by the evacuation of a quantity of blackish matter4 #cb ,it is quite possible that a sheep may die of true pulmonary consumption and yet have scarcely any cough4 7#afa47 ,appearances on ,dissection4 ,the first thing which strikes a person on viewing the carcass of a sheep which has died of rot1 is its leanness4 ,in conducting the examination1 the fell appears of a bluish white1 the muscles are pale and wasted1 and fat hardly to be met with4 ,where it once existed1 a tough yellow substance alone remains1 which is so destitute of all pretentions to the name of suet1 that it cannot1 even when thrown upon a fire1 be made to blaze4 ,dropsical accumulations are found in the legs1 chest1 neck1 and belly4 ,on opening the chest1 the lungs are often seen adhering at intervals to the lining membrane of the ribs1 and have always a shrunk1 diminutive appearance4 ,these adhesions are frequently seen where there are no tubercles1 and are in that case simply the result of exposure to cold2 but where they are coincident with tubercles1 they may be ascribed either to the animal having been exposed to cold1 or to the inflammatory action set up by the tubercles themselves4 ,the lungs are always the principal1 and ,i may also1 from my own experience1 add1 the primary seat of the affection4 ,when examined in the early stage of rot1 they have a hard lumpy feel1 especially at the upper part or lobe1 and at this time a great number of irregular yellowish white1 patchy-looking bodies 7,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #b471 will be seen shining through the membrane1 pleura1 which surrounds the organ4 ,these tubercles1 as the hard white bodies are called1 vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a pea4 ,they are sprinkled through all parts of the lung1 and will in every dissection1 be found in a variety of stages1 from the firm condition in which they were deposited1 to the softened state which denotes their speedy expectoration4 ,each tubercle1 however small1 usually holds a particle of calcareous matter in its centre4 ,the lungs1 in the advanced stage of rot1 will be full of cells or caverns1 owing to the destruction of its texture by suppuration in those parts where tubercles existed4 ,the cells or sacs are of all sizes1 from that of a bean to that of a goose egg2 but if the animal has been taken care of during the progress of the complaint1 and lingered long1 the abscesses will be so numerous1 and so closely situated1 as to give the remains of the lung the appearance of a large bag4 ,extreme cases of this nature are1 however1 rare2 as the sheep1 in general1 either falls before the knife1 or is killed from exposure to cold long ere the disease has reached its farthest limit4 ,these sacs contain purulent matter1 of all shades and odours1 and identical with that which the animal coughed up4 ,tubercles1 and all their concomitants as above detailed1 are also met with in the liver1 though not so frequently as in the lungs4 ,they constantly occur in the clyars 7mesenteric or lacteal glands7 which on this account are much above their usual size1 and are occasionally found in other parts2 but ,i need not proceed in their description1 as sufficient has been said about them to enable the unprofessional reader to understand their relation to the complaints4 ,fluke worms and hydatids are almost constant attendants on rot1 and seemingly most important ones1 especially the former1 which have1 ,i may say1 kept a great bulk of the learned and unlearned for many years in a perpetual bustle1 and have so effectually hoodwinked writers on this subject1 as to prevent them seeing the truly important points in the disease4 ,for this reason1 ,i hold them worthy of particular description2 as it is only by becoming acquainted with their history and habits that we can form correct ideas either of their mode of origin or of their supposed ability to cause rot4 7#afb47 ,the ,liver ,fluke 7fasciola hepatica or distoma hepaticum1 ,fig4 #f4 ,plate ,i47 derives its name from the resemblance it bears to the plaice or flounder1 though its shape has been more aptly compared to that of a melon seed4 ,it is flat and oval1 of a brownish-yellow colour1 and varies in size from that of a pin-head to one inch in length1 and half an inch in breadth4 ,each worm is bisexual or hermaphrodite1 on which account they multiply with great rapidity4 ,the generic name--distoma--signifies having two pores1 a4b4 ,fig4 #f1 ,plate ,i41 and is for this reason applied to it4 ,the nipple-like body at the extremity a4 contains the orifice of the pore or opening leading to the female division of the generative apparatus1 situated between a4 and b4 ,in this cavity are formed the eggs1 which are at intervals protruded1 to be hatched when floating in the sheep's bile4 ,the male organ is situated in front of the ventral pore4 ,the anterior opening b4 is equivalent to a mouth1 and leads inwards and backwards1 communicating with the intestinal canals c41 which are easily made out in the recent animal1 from their containing dark bile1 and which1 as in other creatures low in the scale of being1 serve the double purpose of a digestive and circulatory apparatus2 that is to say1 the stomach first prepares a fluid which is equivalent to blood1 and then distributes it throughout the body4#cc #cc ,the examination of fluke worms is much facilitated by placing several of various sizes flat upon a slip of glass1 and allowing them to dry in this position4 ,on holding the glass between a bright light and a lens1 and looking through the latter1 the distribution of the vessels1 and the position and form of the eggs1 are beautifully displayed4 ,flukes are never found in the arteries of the liver1 as has been erroneously stated by some writers1 their abode being limited to the gall bladder and its ducts4 ,in these they are often present in such numbers as to cause great distention of the sac and tubes1 and in some instances the irritation produced by them leads to the thickening of the walls of the gall bladder1 and to a deposition of calcareous matter between its coats2 frequently also to complete obliteration of portions of the ducts4 ,hence the crackling sound sometimes perceived when handling the liver of a rotten sheep4 7#afc47 ,the ,hydatid or ,blob 7,cysticercus tumicollis1 ,fig4 #a4 ,plate ,,vii47 so frequently found in sheep1 is in form one of the simplest of the entozoa 7literally dwellers within71 being little more than a bag containing a quantity of fluid4 ,as relates to outline1 this hydatid bears no small resemblance to a ,florence flask4 ,it is said to have a head1 h4--a neck1 n4--a body1 b4-- and a posterior or caudal vesicle1 c4v4 ,its claims to the title of an animal have been much disputed1 but as it has been seen to move spontaneously1 and as the contained fluid is always essentially different from that by which the hydatid is surrounded1 the question may be looked upon as set at rest4#cd #cd ,the property of acting on organized matter1 so as to convert it into substances similar to those which constitute the agent1 is characteristic of a vital power4 ,the method of their reproduction is in unison with their structure1 simple in the extreme4 ,nothing1 however1 very precise is known about the process4 ,the vesicle which acts as heart and stomach serves also as the reproductive cavity1 but how or by what means it is fecundated would be difficult to determine4 ,the young hydatids are found adhering to the inner surface of the parent cavity4 ,when they have attained maturity1 the parent dies and shrivels1 and the young ones begin to eliminate their nourishment from the juices of the quadruped which they infest4 ,these entozoa are found in general on the surface of the intestines1 between them and their outer membrane 7peritoneum71 and on the exterior of the lungs and liver4 ,they are always included in a cyst1 to the inner surface of which they adhere by means of two hook-shaped processes projecting from the head4 ,these cysts are always on the surface of the different viscera of the sheep1 and in this way may be distinguished from another sacular animal1 or rather supposed animal1 termed acephalocyst or headless bag1 which is sometimes found in clusters in the substance of the lungs1 liver1 c4 and is often confounded with the true hydatid4 7#afd47 ,causes of ,rot4 ,if any one had been asked1 thirty years ago1 the cause or rather causes of the appearances which pass under the name of rot1 he could not have enumerated them even in a day1 for at that time each symptom was a disease1 and as such was reckoned worthy of a separate and proximate cause4 ,nor could any person have had the courage to promulgate a common-sense opinion on the subject2 for simple views regarding the diseases of domestic animals were then either not deemed worthy of a moment's notice1 or1 if considered1 were swept at once1 by the strong current of prejudice1 into the foul ocean of predetermined disapproval4 ,opinions in cattle medicine were at that time valued according to the prolixity of their detail2 and the more improbable the dependence of the effects upon the cause assigned1 so much more was its discoverer lauded1 and in like proportion was the chimerical fabric he had raised admired4 ,times are1 however1 now happily changed2 that potent oculist1 the march of intellect1 has cleared the film from the public eye1 and no one need1 at present1 be afraid to state the unaspiring fact1 that tubercles are the sole and proximate cause of the disease called rot4 ,the observations of the late ,dr ,coventry1 already quoted1 would lead us to suppose that tubercles are of rare occurrence in the lungs of sheep1 but in refutation of this assertion1 ,i need only request the reader to take a ramble through a butcher-market1 and he will perceive1 even on cursory inspection1 the fallacy of this conclusion4 ,what the state of the liver is which is attended with flukes and hydatids1 he has left us to make out4 ,chronic hepatitis1 which accompanies tubercles in the liver1 goes for nothing as a disease of sheep1 and therefore does not require a notice2 besides1 it is not rot1 and is quite incompetent of itself to cause it4 ,as for the scurvy of which he speaks1 he evidently means the disease now generally known by the name of ,pining1 but which1 as it has no connexion with rot1 and has only become prevalent within the last sixteen years1 could not be very well known to him4 ,the following questions will naturally occur to many of my readers4 ,what gives rise to these tubercles8 what are the predisposing causes which lead to their formation8 and1 when formed1 how do these apparently unirritating bodies produce effects so baneful8 ,queries like these1 however1 cannot shortly be replied to1 leading1 as they do1 to discussions which embrace many curious theories2 but as the negative mode of teaching is often of avail where the positive or more direct would fail to bring conviction1 ,i shall1 before proceeding to allude to what the causes are1 endeavour to state what they are not4 ,imaginary ,causes of ,rot4 ,the liver-fluke has long been looked upon as the origin of rot1 and this opinion has now become so deeply rooted1 and taken so fast a hold of the public mind1 that if ,i were to contradict it by plain assertion1 ,i should only be striving to buffet singly a tide of opposition4 ,the best way1 therefore1 will be to examine a few of the theories supposed to be confirmatory of the notion that fluke worms are the beginning of the mischief1 and then see whether their supporters have managed to make good the point4 ,i4 ,the fluke is supposed to get into the liver of the sheep by being swallowed1 and this1 according to our theorists1 may be brought about in some of the following ways3-- #a4 ,the eggs may be floating in the air1 and thus accidentally reach their destination4 ,this is the view taken by the celebrated ,clater2 but if he had been1 in this instance1 a man of experiment1 rather than of idle conjecture1 he would have found1 as any one readily may1 that the eggs of the fluke worm sink in water1 and1 consequently1 that they cannot float in air4#ce #ce ,to obtain the eggs of the fluke worm for examination1 hold a saucer under the gall bladder1 make an opening in it with scissors1 and the bile containing the eggs will flow into the dish4 ,pick out any fluke worms that may be in the fluid1 then dilute it with about twelve times its bulk of water1 agitate for a few minutes1 and filter4 ,the eggs will be found in the corner of the filtering paper4 #b4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr ,singer1 to whom ,scotland at large1 and ,dumfries-shire in particular1 is much indebted for numerous and valuable papers on agricultural subjects1 states1 in the third volume of the ,highland ,society's ,transactions1 page #dgh1 that ,the spawn or eggs of the liver fluke are most probably conveyed upon the grass by summer watering1 and afterwards taken into the stomach with it4 ,a few lines further on1 he speaks of the eggs being wafted thither by harvest waterings4 ,now1 as the fluke is only produced within the sheep1 ,i need only put the unanswerable questions--,how are they conveyed to the grass8 and from whence are they wafted8 to refute at once this hasty notion4 #c4 ,the eggs may be voided by the sheep1 may fall upon the herbage1 and there remain till they are eaten4 ,such is the supposition published by ,mr ,king of ,hammersmith1 in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture1 ,no4 ,,xxxi4 p4 #cca1 in which1 after showing the vast number of eggs which must fall upon the grass1 he says1 ,we must cease to wonder that so many sheep die of rot2 the miracle is1 that every sheep does not die of it46 ,i cannot1 however1 for my part1 see a miracle in the matter1 for the simple reason1 that the eggs of the entozoa are not capable of retaining their vitality when absent even for a very short time from the place of their nativity1 and therefore may be eaten with impunity4 ,,ii4 ,supposing the eggs to have reached the sheep's stomach in a condition to allow of their being hatched1 they1 according to popular voice1 find their way into the gall bladder by one of two routes4 #a4 ,mr ,king1 the gentleman above spoken of1 conjectures1 in the same paper1 that the fluke1 after leaving the egg in the stomach of the sheep1 makes its way up the gall vessels4 ,this is1 ,i am sorry to say1 a very idle conjecture1 as1 from the valvular nature of the opening of the gall duct into the duodenum1 an entrance from that intestine to the gall bladder is perfectly impracticable to any of the entozoa4#cf #cf ,the notion that rot is occasioned by animalcules getting into the liver is not confined to this country4 ,leake1 in his travels in the ,morea1 alludes to an opinion prevalent there1 that the vidhela 7rot7 is caused by the sheep feeding in marshy places in ,august and ,september1 when it is imagined that an insect from the plants finds its way into the biliary vessels4 #b4 ,the eggs are believed by a writer in the ,letters of the ,bath ,society of ,agriculture1 for #agha1 to be taken into the blood along with the chyle from the small intestines1 and to be arrested in the liver by the secretory ducts4 ,this1 it must be clear to every one1 is the most absurd of all the notions2 for if a globule of blood1 which we must suppose to be the largest body capable of being absorbed from the intestine1 is only about #a_/cjjj of an inch in diameter1 how can the egg of a fluke worm pass through the same channel1 when ,mr ,king has1 by careful observation1 shown it to be #a_/cjj an inch in its shortest measurement4 ,again1 allowing that they are taken into the blood1 would they not frequently be hatched there1 and would they not also be found in other quarters besides the liver4 ,but do we ever find them in the blood8 ,do we ever see them in other organs8 ,certainly not4 ,not one of these theories would ever have been broached had their authors been aware of two important circumstances4 #a4 ,that ,m4 ,schreiber1 the director of the ,museum at ,vienna1 has proved that worms and their ova are not capable1 under ordinary circumstances1 of resisting the action of the digestive organs1 and1 therefore1 that they cannot be introduced into the body by this channel4 ,during six months1 he fed a pole-cat almost exclusively on various kinds of intestinal worms1 and their eggs mixed up with milk2 and on killing and examining it1 at the end of this period1 not a single worm of any kind was found in it4#cg ,the reader may perhaps object to this illustration1 on the ground that there is so vast a difference between a sheep and a pole-cat1 that a comparison in regard to their digestive habits cannot possibly hold good1 but if he will turn to paragraph 7#if71 he will see that the stomach of a sheep is as well fitted as that of a carnivorous quadruped for the digestion of animal matters4 #b;dly1 the fluke worm has been found by ,frommen in the foetus of the sheep1 into which it could not have been conveyed by transmission from the mother1 as there is no direct vascular communication between the foetal and maternal side4 #cg ,cyclopedia of ,practical ,medicine1 ,vol4 iv4 p4 #ebd4 ,from a consideration of all these data1 the conclusion must at once be drawn1 that as living flukes cannot reach the liver from without1 they must of a necessity be produced only in particular states of the animal they inhabit4 ,how they originate we cannot of course determine1 and this is not the place to hazard physiological conjectures2 but it will be found that their appearance in the bile is always preceded by tuberculous deposits in the lungs or liver4 ,this ,i have proved by numerous dissections1 in which ,i have occasionally found tubercles without flukes1 but never met with flukes where ,i did not at the same time discover tubercles4 ,fluke worms1 therefore1 can never be regarded as a cause of rot1 they must be looked upon merely as a symptom4 ,we cannot1 however1 say that tubercles give rise to the liver-fluke1 for tubercles are often present in cases where flukes are absent2 and if the latter were the effect of the former1 their presence under such circumstances would in all probability be constant4 ,,iii4 ,particular plants have been said to cause rot1 but the proofs of their evil tendencies being in every instance about as logically supported as the fluke theories already mentioned1 ,i need not trouble myself or the reader by proceeding to details4 ,real ,causes of ,rot4 ,everything that has a tendency to weaken the animal1 will be more or less liable to lead to rot4 ,exposure to cold and wet1 mishaps at lambing time1 food bad in quality or deficient in quantity1 and over-driving1 will all predispose the constitution to the deposition of tubercles4 ,it is from the causes being in this way common to the whole flock1 that contagious properties have been ascribed to rot1 it having been observed1 from the time of ,virgil1 to break out in many animals at once4#ch #ch ,nor oftener are the floods disturb'd with wind ,than sheep with rots2 nor doth the sickness find ,one to destroy1 but suddenly doth fall ,on root and branch1 stock and original4 ,virgil's ,georgics1 ,lib4 ,,iii4 ,the reason of so many different things having1 from first to last1 been reckoned capable of producing this disease1 appears to lie in the known fact1 that if a sheep be exposed to any of the above depressing agents1 rot1 if the animal be as yet untainted1 will not1 at the moment1 shew itself2 but a chain of morbid actions will in all probability then commence1 and1 being beyond the ken of ordinary observers1 will pass unheeded1 till some slight mismanagement in food or shelter1 hastens their progress1 and renders them apparent to the plainest understanding4 ,the final symptoms of rot may thus occur on any kind of pasture1 and the scene of the catastrophe will incur a stigma which ought to be attached to herbage which the sheep have consumed at some distant place or date4 ,bad food is justly regarded as one of the most common causes of rot1 and ranks1 in my estimation1 next to cold and wet1 in its power of producing it4 ,i shall only remark1 on this point1 that of all the food on which sheep can possibly be kept1 none is known to act so deleteriously as grass which has sprouted quickly4 ,rot is well known to occur most frequently on land which has been irrigated during summer1 for at this season any excess of moisture is peculiarly injurious to the economy of a plant4 ,when plants by heat and moisture are stimulated to increased exertion on a poor soil1 they acquire bulk without having it in their power to obtain at the same time those saline matters which constitute a healthy plant1 becoming in fact1 to the eye of an inexperienced person1 thriving vegetables1 while to the palate they prove wersh and watery4 ,the same result may follow from a different process4 ,the saline matter may not be taken up1 even when the soil is rich in such ingredients1 from the functional derangement into which the roots or digestive organs have been thrown by the unnatural circumstances in which it has been placed4 ,a plant is composed1 like all organized bodies1 of a certain number of proximate principles1 which are more or less numerous in different kinds4 ,these are combined with varying quantities of potass1 soda1 lime1 magnesia1 and iron1 which1 though formerly supposed to be too trifling in quantity materially to affect the quality of the plant1 have yet been recently and satisfactorily proved completely to change the character of the compound1 even when the excess or deficiency amounts only to a #a_/ajjjjth part so that1 supposing an animal to thrive on plants which contain salts of any or all of the above bodies1 it will soon fall off if these plants are in any way deprived of a single adjunct2 for by the removal of that one salt1 their nature has been entirely altered4 ,the certainty and rapidity with which ,bakewell could rot his sheep1 by pasturing them1 in ,autumn1 on land over which water had been allowed to flow during the previous summer1 may seem to controvert what ,i have above stated1 as to time and frequent change of pasture often intervening between the origin of the disease1 and its termination2 but when it is recollected that he pursued the destructive system of breeding in and in1 of itself sufficient to induce a tuberculous predisposition1 the reader will perceive that his sheep were1 in all likelihood1 more or less tainted1 and therefore1 sure to fall victims to the disease the moment they were subjected to the deleterious influence of an unwholesome pasture4#ci #ci ,when parcels of ,mr ,bakewell's best sheep became1 from any defect1 unserviceable to him1 he used to fatten them for the butcher4 ,but as there was a probability of their becoming valuable in other hands1 he always gave them the rot before he sold them6 ,an example1 which1 ,i hope1 for the sake both of man and sheep1 never to see followed4 ,over-driving and hurrying of every kind1 is1 in my opinion1 a fruitful source of rot1 not only from the fatigue it causes1 or the risk it leads to of taking cold1 but also from the injury1 which in many cases results1 to the delicate texture of the lungs4 ,as shown in the note to paragraph 7#aeg71 no animal is more easily put out of breath by running1 than the sheep4 ,whenever the breathing is hurried1 the circulation through the lungs is quickened also4 ,if the tissue of the lungs be in any way delicate1 the force with which the blood is propelled is sure to make it yield1 and in this manner the animal is often suffocated by the large quantity of blood1 which issues into the air tubes at once from many points4 ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,vi4 exhibits a good illustration of this taken from a sheep4 ,numerous red points are seen sprinkled over the surface of the section1 indicating that blood has been effused from many minute torn vessels4 ,now1 if this animal had survived1 each speck of blood would have formed a centre1 round which tuberculous matter1 as in ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,vi4 would have been secreted1 and death from rot1 at some ulterior period1 would1 in all probability1 have been the result4#dj #dj ,pathologists differ as to whether tubercle is the cause or consequence of hemoptysis1 as this effusion of blood into the tissue of the lungs is termed4 ,andral1 however1 is decidedly of opinion that hemoptysis is one of the exciting causes1 and1 in domestic animals1 ,i believe it to precede tubercle more frequently than is generally imagined4 7#afe47 ,treatment of ,rot4 ,as reason and experience have taught us that tathy herbage is a common cause of this complaint1 we should1 when it shows itself1 at once remove the animals to a better pasture1 where they should be exempted from teazing of every kind4 ,salt appears1 after every trial1 to be the best medicine1 and to this they should have1 at all times1 ready access4 ,should the disease be rather far advanced1 the breathing hurried1 and the cough annoying1 occasional doses of the following infusion will be of service1 in enabling the farmer to keep down the disease1 till such time as he can conveniently dispose of the animal4 ,take of ,leaves of ,foxglove two ounces1 ,boiling water two ,english pints3 pour the water on the leaves1 cover up the vessel1 and keep it in a warm place for six or eight hours1 then strain4 ,two tea-spoonfuls morning and evening may be given to a sheep1 but as the plant is an active poison1 and the strength of its infusion liable to vary1 a couple of days should always intervene between every six doses4 ,about the year #ahjj1 a notion prevailed in this country1 that an effectual remedy for rot had been discovered by the ,dutch1 but this was quite unfounded1 no cure ever having been hit upon for this sweeping malady2 indeed1 a cure is fairly out of the question3 its prevention and palliation1 but not its eradication1 being all that we can hope for4 ,sundry plausible plans of treatment have1 however1 at one time or another been contrived1 some of them1 in all conscience1 harmless enough1 but others again as well adapted for the destruction of the animal1 as the removal of the disease4 ,as fluke worms have usually been reckoned the cause of rot1 so the treatment has principally consisted in attempts to effect their extermination4 ,with this view1 ,sir ,george ,steuart ,mackenzie of ,coule1 in defiance of all preconceived medical opinion1 advocated1 in his work on ,sheep1 published in #ahji1 the employment of mercury to stay the progress of rot1 and in the same work1 or one very like it1 as lately published anonymously by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 under the title of the ,mountain ,shepherd's ,manual1 the utility of this dangerous procedure is as firmly maintained4 ,at the same time ,sir ,george1 though rather in the dark as to the real nature of the disease1 admits1 in both editions1 that tubercles exist in rot1 especially in the lungs4 ,now1 if he had inquired of any medical person what drug ought1 when tubercles are present1 of all others to be avoided1 he would have found that medicine to be mercury4 ,the administration of it therefore in rot1 no matter what may be the form or mode in which it is exhibited1 will to a certainty aggravate the symptoms1 and shorten life4 ,if1 for the sake of doing something1 you will endeavour to remove the worms1 ,chabert's animal oil will be found a safe and efficacious remedy2 but1 if my opinion can have any weight1 ,i would recommend the farmer to allow them to remain4 ,sheep1 when displaying symptoms of rot1 should always be kept dry and warm4 ,if they must be retained throughout the winter1 good sound solid food1 such as well made hay or oats1 should be afforded them1 and the shelter of a straw yard should if possible be obtained4 ,a liberal supply of salt should be given with all their provender2 and if they do not seem to relish it1 give them occasionally a small quantity in water as a drench4 7#aff47 ,prevention of ,rot4 ,on this head ,i need do little more than remark that attention to the causes will go a great way to point out the necessary means for its prevention4 ,admission of the sheep to rank soft grass1 heavy stocking1 short allowance of food during winter1 every thing in fact which leads to the exposure of the animal should be scrupulously avoided4 ,the strongest constitution cannot with impunity be tampered with1 and the soundest habit will fall before the mining attacks of want and weather4 ,keep your stock always in as high health as possible1 for such is the surest prevention of tuberculous disease4 ,as rot is hereditary1#da the importance of weeding out ewes from the flock on their first exhibiting appearances of unsoundness1 is acknowledged by all4 ,many ways have been pointed out for detecting the incipient symptoms1 but none plainer and better than those written by the late ,mr ,beattie of ,muckledale1 and published in the #c;d vol4 of the ,highland ,society's ,transactions4 ,the first thing to be observed1 says ,mr ,beattie1 is in the spring1 when they are dropping their lambs4 ,a sound ewe1 in good order1 drops a lamb covered with a thick and yellow slime1 which the ewe licks off it1 and the rule is1 the sounder and the higher the condition the ewe is in1 the darker and thicker will be the slime2 but when they observe a ewe drop a lamb covered with thin watery bubbles1 and very white1 they note her down as unsound4 #da ,,mm4 ,dupuy and ,andral have seen tubercles in the foetus of the sheep4 ,about the month of ,september1 when they intend to dispose of their draught ewes1 they put all their sheep into a fold1 and draw them by the hand1 that is1 they catch them all1 viz4 the ewes they design to sell any of1 and clapping their hand upon the small of the back1 they rub the flesh backwards and forwards between their fingers and thumb and the ends of the short ribs3 if the flesh be solid and firm1 they consider her as sound2 if they find it soft and flabby1 and if1 when they rub it against the short ribs1 it ripples1 as we term it1 that is1 a sort of crackling is perceived1 as if there were water or blubber in it1 they are certain she is unsound4 ,this is the most certain of all symptoms1 but is not to be discerned with any degree of certainty but by an experienced hand2 for although1 as ,i have here related it1 it seems a very simple affair1 and easily acquired1 yet it is well known that many shepherds1 who have followed sheep all their lives1 never arrived at any thing like certainty in judging by the hand1 whilst men of superior skill will seldom be mistaken1 and will draw by no other rule4 ,yet still it must be acknowledged that the seeds of this disease will sometimes lie so occult1 as to baffle all skill1 and that no man can with absolute certainty draw a stock tainted with the rot4 ,there is another method1 to which men of inferior skill resort1 which is more easily acquired4 ,they take a sheep's head between their hands1 and press down the eyelids1 they thereby make the sheep turn its eyeball so that they get a view of the vessels in which the eyeball rolls3 if these are thin1 red1 and free of matter1 they consider the sheep as sound2 but if they are thick1 of a dead white colour1 and seem as if there was some white matter in them1 they are confident she is rotten4 ,this is a pretty general rule1 and easily discerned2 but ,i think it is not so certain as when they are judged by the back2 for in firm healthy lands the eye of a sheep is far redder than it is in sheep upon grassy lands4 ,and in some boggy lands the eye is never very red1 be the sheep ever so sound1 so that there you cannot so well judge by the eye2 but when you see the eye of a sheep a good deal whiter and thicker1 and more matter in it 7,i mean the vessels in which the eyeball rolls7 than the run of the flock amongst which it feeds1 you have reason to suspect it is not sound4 ,there is another method by which ,i have seen some men attempt to judge of the soundness of sheep4 ,it is a well known fact1 that when sheep are rotten the lungs swell to a greater size2 they therefore lay the sheep down upon its broad side1 and pressing the skin in at the flank1 up below the ribs1 pretend to feel the lungs4 ,but if there is anything to be learned by this ,i could never perceive it1 and have seen some men1 who pretended to know most by it1 very often mistaken4 ,these are the principal rules by which the ,highland farmers draw their stocks2 and they relate all to ewe stocks2 for as to wedders1 they are generally all sold off when they are three years old1 and those that buy them for feeding mostly buy them by the condition they appear outwardly to be in at the time1 and the character of the ground upon which they were bred4 7#afg47 ,jaundice4 ,i have never seen this disease in the sheep1 and have heard almost nothing of it2 indeed it is very rare1 few having ever witnessed cases of it4 ,it is consequently very imperfectly understood1 every one who has written about it assigning for its occurrence a different cause4 ,the principal symptoms to be depended on1 according to those who have treated it1 are a yellowness of the eyes1 and an obstinate sluggishness of the animal1 almost amounting to sleep4 ,copious bleeding and two ounce doses of ,glauber salts have been recommended for the treatment1 which must be gone about promptly1 as the disease is said to be quickly fatal4 ,reasoning from what is known about jaundice in man1 ,i would1 were a case to occur to me in the sheep1 give a good dose of calomel1 say #ae grains1 in conjunction with the salts1 unless the disease had supervened on rot1 when ,i would substitute ten grains of ipecacuanha for the mercury4 7#afh47 ,dropsy4 ,when it is the concluding symptom of a disease1 it may be reckoned part of the complaint itself1 and treated accordingly4 ,often1 however1 it is the first thing which attracts the attention of the shepherd1 and when such is the case it will usually be traced to long exposure to cold and wet4 ,in this event the best plan is to bleed largely1 and give two or three smart doses of ,epsom salts4 ,when it occurs in young lambs1 sweet spirit of nitre1 given in the quantity of a tea-spoonful twice a-day1 is found to be attended with the happiest effects4 ,tapping1 or1 as it is popularly termed1 stabbing1 or sticking1 to permit the escape of the water1 is the cure resorted to in ,south ,africa1 when it appears in old sheep1 after exposure to rain2 but this ought never to be resorted to unless under the guidance of a medical person4 ,it would be much better at once to kill the sheep4 7#afi47 ,sturdy4 ,as shown in the tabular view of the diseases1 in foot-note to paragraph 7#aba71 this affection may be the result either of pressure on the brain from an animal growth1 or from the accumulation of a fluid4 ,serum is in both cases the mechanical cause of the symptoms1 but in the former it is eliminated from neighbouring parts by a hydatid1 while in the latter it is merely deposited in some of the natural cavities 7the ventricles7 of the brain1 owing to a congested state of the spinal marrow1 the result of continued cold upon the back4 ,figure #b1 ,plate ,,vii41 taken from ,rudolphi1 exhibits a view of the animal which gives rise to the first variety of sturdy4 ,it is the many-headed hydatid of the brain1 ,coenurus ,cerebralis of naturalists4 ,like the ,cysticercus tenuicollis1 already described under the head of ,rot1 it consists of a thin membranous cyst1 full or otherwise of serous fluid2 but1 unlike the aforementioned animal is studded over with groups of little velvety appendages or heads1 each of which has a series of barbs projecting round the mouth4 ,figure #b1 a1 ,plate ,,vii41 is a highly magnified representation of two of these heads4 ,a good idea of the hydatid1 as it exists in the sheep1 may be derived from an inspection of ,fig #a4 ,pl4 ,,viii41 which has been engraved from a sketch kindly furnished to me by my friend ,dr ,kirk of ,deal4 ,fig4 #a represents the brain of a sheep two years old1 which has been affected with sturdy4 ,the right lobe1 a1 of the cerebellum or lesser brain1 is much distended with fluid1 which is enclosed in a membraneous bag1 as shown at b1 where an incision has been made to expose it1 and at c1 where it is shining through one of the coverings of the brain1 the pia mater4 ,the hydatid is found of all sizes1 from that of a pea to that of ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,vii4 ,large ones are far from rare1 and the ventricle is frequently enormously distended4 ,the hydatid in the brain from which ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,viii4 was taken1 though not filled to repletion1 contained ten drachms of serum4 ,the ventricle was consequently much dilated1 as shown at a in that figure1 and the usual course and size of the convolutions completely altered4 ,instead of being folded1 like the intestines1 upon themselves1 they proceeded1 as seen at b b1 from back to front of the brain2 while the furrows between them1 which are1 in the healthy animal1 usually too shallow to be measured1 were in several places as deep as the length of the lines at c d4 ,this excessive accumulation of fluid within the brain leads1 as might be expected1 to the dilatation of the skull1 and to the absorption of its walls1 when the bones1 young though the animal be when affected with sturdy1 can no longer be made to yield4 ,for this reason the skull1 towards the termination of the disease1 generally becomes thin and soft in front of the root of the horn1 and in this way offers a spot which1 from its being easily pierced1 is frequently made the seat of surgical operations4 ,other parts of the skull also undergo considerable thinning1 more so indeed than in front of the horn4 ,the attention of the farmer has hardly1 if ever1 been called to this fact1 though ,i believe that1 for one instance in which perforation occurs in the frontal bone1 it will be noticed a score of times on the sides of the head4 ,in a head with which ,i was favoured by ,mr ,grieve1 ,branxholm braes1 each temple1 exactly beneath the superior extremity of the upright branch of the lower jaw1 displayed a circular opening entirely through the bone1 wide enough to permit the passage of an ounce bullet4 ,whatever may produce pressure on the brain1 the symptoms which indicate it are nearly always the same4 ,the sheep has a dull1 stupid look1 turns very often round and round1 and will1 when water is in its way1 stand staring at it till at last1 giddy and confused1 it plumps fairly in4 ,if1 when the symptoms are very unpromising1 convulsive movements should occur1 they may be taken as a favourable sign1 as they indicate a diminution of the pressure on the brain4 ,a minute description of the morbid appearances in hydrocephalus could serve no good purpose1 ,i therefore pass on to the prevention of sturdy4 7#agj47 ,treatment and ,prevention of ,sturdy4 ,the variety caused by hydatids can only be prevented by the use of dry1 well grown1 wholesome food4 ,dr ,jenner found that he could cause hydatids to form in rabbits at will1 by feeding them on green succulent provision2 and it is well known that this form of sturdy prevails among sheep chiefly in marshy places1 as the fens of ,lincolnshire4 ,water in the head is generally induced1 as first pointed out by the ,ettrick ,shepherd1 in the ,farmer's ,magazine for #ahab1 by the back of the animal being chilled1 as is evident from the following facts3-- #a4 ,it is always most general after a windy and sleety winter4 #b4 ,it is always most destructive on farms that are ill-sheltered1 and on which the sheep are most exposed to those blasts and showers4 #c4 ,it preys only on sheep rising their first year1 the wool of which separates above1 leaving the back quite exposed to the wet and cold4 #d4 ,if a piece of cloth or hide is sewed to the wool1 so as to cover the back1 such a sheep will not be affected with the disease4 ,bratting is therefore the best preventive1 and it is as cheap as it is effectual4 ,one pair of old blankets1 worth only some four or five shillings1 will furnish coverings for forty hogs1 and if laid carefully aside in spring1 they will continue serviceable for two or three years4 ,an operation can avail nothing--slaughtering the sheep is therefore the only expedient4 ,when the existence of a hydatid near the surface of the brain is denoted by the skull yielding1 at some particular spot1 to the firm pressure of the thumb1 its extraction must be set about in the manner described in paragraph 7#aah71 where ,i have also given my objections to the common modes of operating4 7#aga47 ,trembling4 ,several affections are included under the name of trembling or leaping-ill1 all having1 in common1 more or less of the symptoms which these names denote4 ,they may be considered as arising from exposure to cold and damp1 especially on long fatiguing journies1 as in bringing sheep from the ,highlands to the south of ,scotland1 when it frequently prevails to so great an extent1 on reaching the low country1 as to oblige the shepherd to leave eight or ten behind him at every stage4 ,injuries of the loins1 either inflicted by themselves in jumping and running1 or by others from rough usage in the fold1 are common causes of the disease2 but in this variety the hind quarters only are powerless4 ,another species is owing to oppression of the brain from congestion1 in this way resembling incipient sturdy1 and occurring only in very fat sheep4 7#agb47 ,treatment of ,trembling4 ,the first variety is best met by rest1 shelter1 and a supply of nutritious food2 but as the animal is incapable1 in many cases1 of collecting it1 the shepherd must lift it from one rich part of the field to another1 so soon as it has cleared away the grass within its reach4 ,in the second kind1 as caused by accident1 the sheep must be slaughtered1 as1 should a cure be attempted1 the treatment will be too tedious and complicated to succeed in ordinary hands4 ,copious blood-letting1 and doses of ,epsom salts1 will be found of most advantage in the third species2 but if the sheep can be disposed of so much the better1 as this kind of trembling is almost certain1 unless combated by energetic depletion1 to end in sturdy4 7#agc47 ,wood ,evil is nothing more than a cramp of the hind legs1 owing to water dripping upon them from trees after a shower of rain1 and is best treated by enveloping them in flannel1 wrung out of hot water2 but if the sheep is at the time very chill1 gentle friction must first be used1 else dangerous consequences will ensue4 ,rubbing with warm turpentine has been recommended1 and is apparently worthy of a trial4 7#agd47 ,inflamed ,eyes4 ,the pollen of flowers getting into the eyes while feeding1 is a common cause of this annoyance1 which need not be described1 as1 from being visible1 it is known to all4 ,examine the eyes1 and remove any irritating body4 ,then1 if the disease be of recent date1 bleed the animal largely from the jugular vein1 and give it several doses of ,epsom1 or ,glauber's salt4 ,after the inflammation is subdued1 or should it be in the suppurating stage when first noticed1 hold the lids asunder1 and drop upon the eye1 three or four times a day1 a solution of white vitriol1 five grains to the ounce of water4 ,where this cannot be had1 pure cold water dashed against the eyes and head several times a day will serve as a substitute4 ,though sheep are not so much incommoded by blindness as other animals1 from the instinctive care usually taken of the sufferer by the rest of the flock1 still such a mishap should always be prevented by energetic treatment at the commencement of the symptoms4 7#age47 ,soft ,cancer of the ,eye1 or1 as it is also called by medical men1 ,fungus ,hematodes1 is of very rare occurrence among sheep1 and indeed would not have deserved a notice here1 were it not that1 from being a malignant disease1 it might be looked upon as quite incurable4 ,i can only describe it as a soft1 spongy tumour1 rising from the bottom of the eye1 involving all the textures of that organ1 so as to render them scarcely recognizable1 and bleeding on the slightest touch4 ,it is readily removed by passing a stout thread through the front of the eye with a needle1 so as to afford the operator a hold by which to pull it outwards with the left hand1 while1 with the right1 he cuts round it with a narrow-bladed knife4 ,the operation is attended only with slight pain1 but must not be considered the sole curative means2 the sheep must have1 at the same time1 a frequent change of pasture1 to prevent a recurrence of the tumour4 ,there is a very large tumour of this description at present in the museum of ,guy's ,hospital1 taken from a sheep which recovered perfectly4 ,,appendix ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,sheep ,,in ,,australia4 ,as the preceding pages were not written so much for the well-educated farmer1 as for those who practise sheep-husbandry without previous training1 it may not be considered amiss1 consistently with the plan of the work1 to sum up the chief points to be attended to in the management of sheep in ,australia4 ,this ,i shall do from the best authorities1 and guided by the direct advice of extensive sheep proprietors who have long resided there1 and had every experience in the subject4 ,though it was for some time1 according to ,dr ,lang1#db a matter of controversy in the colony1 whether the ,merino or the ,saxon ,merino produced the finer wool or was more profitable for the sheep-farmer2 the preference is now given to the ,saxon breed1 as they not only yield an excellent fleece1 but are much superior in carcass to the pure ,merino4 ,the fact1 however1 of ,australia having been considered1 from its earliest colonization1 as unrivalled by any country in the quality of its wool1 goes far to prove that1 with ordinary care1 almost any variety may be brought to yield a very superior produce4 ,the mildness of the climate1 the extensive range of pasture1 the steady supply of food1 and the consequent unvarying health of the animal1 give the poorest breeds a superiority which could hardly be attained in any other quarter of the world4 ,indeed1 as noticed at paragraph 7#gj471 ,australia appears by nature intended to produce fine wool1 and fine animals1 even from the worst beginnings4 #db ,history of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,vol4 i4 p4 #cji4 ,great1 however1 as the capabilities of the colony are for the growth of the finest wools1 the intending emigrant must not suppose that he will obtain them without devoting to the subject a particular portion of his regard4 ,mild warm air1 and abundant diet1 will go far towards putting him in possession of a superior flock2 but without earnest attention to the minor details required in the management of his sheep1 the most favourable locality will avail him little4 ,let ,australia be ever so much praised1 as being peculiarly adapted for the rearing of sheep1 they have there1 in common with every kind of animal in every part of the world1 a certain liability to disease4 ,with all its boasted steadiness of climate1 bad seasons occasionally occur1 and lead to sickness among the flocks1 and in addition to the usual chances of loss arising from this cause in other countries1 there is1 in some parts of it1 a still more dreaded mischief resulting almost unavoidably from the moral constitution of its society4 ,a convict-servant who has a pique at his master1 has it often entirely in his own power to subject the flocks under his charge to some one or other of the serious diseases to which sheep in all countries are peculiarly liable4 ,he may pasture them on an improper spot1 and thus induce diarrhoea1 or even rot2 or he may drive them a few miles from their usual feeding ground1 as ,dr ,lang remarks1 when there is nobody present to take cognizance of the fact1 and thereby bring them into contact with a scabbed flock4 ,the chief source of the wealth and prosperity of the colony1 says ,dr ,lang1 is thus1 in great measure1 at the mercy of the most worthless of men2 and so much is this the case1 that a highly respectable and intelligent magistrate1 observed in the course of a short conversation ,i had with him before embarking for ,england1 that if there should not be a large annual importation of free emigrant shepherds from the mother country into the colony1 the owners of sheep throughout the territory will in future be under the necessity of reducing1 or rather of preventing the increase of1 their flocks4 ,thus circumstanced1 the ,australian settler has surely sufficient reasons for inducing him to make himself familiar with the management and diseases of the animal1 on which he is placing his principal dependence4 ,when the country is destitute of timber1 the sheep are very easily managed1 and so many as a thousand may be trusted to a single shepherd2 but in general1 they are divided into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes1 or four hundred wethers4 ,every flock1 says ,mr ,cunningham1 has a shepherd1 who takes his sheep out to graze before sunrise in the morning1 and brings them in after sunset at night4 ,he keeps always before the flock to check the forward among them from running onwards1 and wearing out the old1 sick1 and lame2 making all thus feed quietly1 so as to keep them in good condition4 ,in summer1 he sees too that they have water during the heat of the day2 and in drawing up under a tree for shade1 when it is too hot for feeding1 he passes occasionally gently among them1 spreads them out and makes them take a fresh position in as small groups as possible1 under another tree2 because when they remain too long together in one place1 they are apt to become broken winded4 ,it is a rule that sheep should never remain in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their feet2 and hence1 in riding round your sheep stations1 you have something whereby to judge whether or not your instructions are attended to4 ,the shepherd takes out his victuals with him1 and is required to be on the alert all day long1 to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods1 or the native dogs from pouncing in among them4 ,they must always be driven slowly to pasture1 and if you perceive that the shepherd can walk quietly among them1 without disturbing them1 you may set him down as a gentle and careful man2 for if he uses his flock harshly1 they will be naturally terrified by him4 ,three flocks are always penned together under the charge of a watchman1 who counts each regularly in at night1 and the shepherds again count them out in the morning2 so that they form a regular check upon each other1 and prevent losses from carelessness or depredation4 ,the watchman has a small weather-proof watch-box to sleep in1 and is assisted by a watch-dog2 he keeps up a good fire1 which generally deters all native dogs from approaching the fold4 ,the hurdles are made of light swamp oak1 iron bark1 or gum1 measuring seven feet long1 with five bars1 so close together that a young lamb cannot creep through1 and usually cost about #as4 #f;d4 a-piece4 ,they are shifted to fresh ground daily1 being sloped outwards1 and propped together by means of forked sticks1 driving a stake through between the bars here and there to keep the hurdles firm1 and prevent the wind from blowing them over1 little support being derived from their feet1 which are pressed but slightly into the ground4 ,all branches of trees are carefully removed from the hurdled grounds before the sheep are driven in1 to prevent any of the latter being staked2 the hurdles too are never pitched where ant hills are1 or under a tree with rotten boughs upon it1 while the trees with black bark are carefully denuded thereof1 to prevent discolouration of the wool4 ,bells are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders1 to keep the flock together1 and give warning of any thing going wrong within the fold4 ,the breeding season is1 in some instances1 at the commencement of summer1 in others1 at the commencement of winter1 but in general it is in ,march or ,april1 the rams having been put to the ewes in ,october4 ,this deviation from our practice of spring lambing1 is owing1 according to ,mr ,cunningham1 to the breeders finding that the pasture is particularly good in the autumn1 from a sort of second spring taking place1 while the lambs stand the cold better than the heat1 and are less annoyed by the gad-flies4 ,the sheep usually double their number every four years4 ,sheep-shearing takes place at the beginning of summer4 ,the usual plan of washing is previously had recourse to 7see paragraph #ii471 but of late it has become customary1 with some proprietors1 to wash them with a spout4 ,this is done by bringing them one by one under a stream of water1 falling from a moderate height2 but it is not likely that it will ever be generally adopted1 as it requires very peculiar facilities in regard to water1 and is besides a plan fraught with danger to the sheep4 ,it ought to be kept in mind1 that a stream of water playing on the body1 produces a very stunning effect1 which may destroy life in an inconsiderable time1 and has1 in this way1 been often employed for putting criminals to death4 ,be this as it may1 the ,australian sheep-farmers have doubtless been led to resort to the spout1 owing to the fleeces being so full of filth as to be cleaned with difficulty in the common way4 ,the finer the wool1 the more abundant is the yolk or viscid secretion on the skin1 and the greater1 consequently1 is the quantity of filth which sticks to it4 ,the dirtiness of the wool becomes1 in this way1 no mean test of the value of the sheep4 ,some of the fleeces lose fully three-fifths of their weight by washing4 ,the average weight of the fleeces from the improved breeds1 is from two to two-and-a-half pounds4 ,the ewe fleece seldom exceeds one pound and a half4 ,the wool is packed in bales1 wrapped in canvass1 and forwarded for exportation to ,sydney1 on drays drawn by oxen4 ,some of the more extensive sheep-farmers send home their wool direct to their agents in ,london1 where it is sold according to its quality1 at from one to three shillings1 7the freight to ,london being only three-halfpence7 a pound4#dc #dc ,historical ,account of ,new ,south ,wales1 by ,john ,dunmore ,lang1 ,d4,d41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #cej4 ,the highest prices yet obtained for some of the picked parts of the finest fleeces1 are #ajs4 #f;d4 per pound4 ,this1 however1 has been given only once4 ,the quantity of wool shipped in #ahce1 was #c1ggf1aia lbs41 and was valued at ,l#chj1jjj sterling4 ,three acres are required on an average for the support of each sheep1 but on account of the mildness of the climate1 there is no necessity for providing winter food4 ,the range of pasture is so extensive that the sheep are liable to comparatively few diseases4 ,the great dryness of the climate1 keeps the fleece always in so comfortable a state1 that they are almost never struck by the fly which1 as explained at 7#adg471 always deposits its eggs on the moistest part of the skin4 ,mr ,cunningham once observed summer-dropt lambs with milk blotches1 become fly blown1 but this was in wet weather4 ,scab1 or itch1 is the most common disease1 but of it ,i need not say any thing here4 ,it never presents much variety1 and is a disease better understood than almost any other4 ,ample directions for its treatment are given at 7#adj474 ,it is easily checked if the job is gone about with determination4 ,the great points are to take it in hand the moment it appears--for when it gains ground1 all chances of a wool-crop are at an end for that year at least--and to use tobacco-juice most liberally1 as it not only leads to the immediate death of the itch insect1 but appears to have a specific effect in leading to the restoration of the wool4 ,the balm of ,columbia1 which is at present so lauded for accelerating the growth of hair1 is supposed1 on good grounds1 to be an incognito preparation of tobacco-juice4 ,rot is the only other important sheep-disease in the colony4 ,it was unknown till #ahbg1 when it broke out in a wet lying part of the ,bathurst district1 and succeeded1 as ,cunningham says1 in that part of the country scourged by it1 to a long fall of heavy rains1 which supersaturated the blades of grass4 ,for the method of treating this disease1 fortunately rare in ,australia1 ,i must1 in conclusion1 refer to the body of the work4