file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #chahg-;h4htm or #chahg-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #chahg_/pg#chahg-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#chah g_/chahg-;h4zip7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes ,transcription us$ = ?is e-text3 ,italic text 9 ! orig9al "w is transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores1 z 9 text2 ,bold face text 9 ! orig9al "w is transcrib$ betwe5 equal signs1 z 9 text2 ,bold face und]l9$ text 9 ! orig9al "w is transcrib$ betwe5 tildes1 z 9 text2 ,sup]- & subscripts 9 ! orig9al "w are transcrib$ z text & text1 respectively2 ,greek *>act]s h be5 transcrib$ z alpha1 beta1 etc42 ,! oe-ligature 9 ,pho5ix has be5 transcrib$ z oe4 ,"s 9-l9e multi-l9e =mulas h be5 transcrib$ z s+le-l9e =mulas1 :]e necess>y ) brackets add$4 ,"s table head+s h be5 replac$ by leg5ds ,a1 ,b1 etc2 ^! are li/$ directly above ! relevant tables4 ,m ext5sive ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,design--,con/ruction--,op]ation & ,repair by ,,fir/ ,,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4 ,s4 ,s4 ,c41 ,u4 ,s4 ,r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,j ,,publi%$ ,,aviation ,,eng9es4 ,_! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation & ,repair4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,aviation ,section1 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,a practical "w conta9+ valuable in/ructions = aviation /ud5ts1 me*anicians1 squadron eng9e]+ (fic]s & all int]e/$ 9 ! con/ruction & upkeep ( airplane p[] plants4 #egf octavo pages4 #bej illu/rations4 ,price #c4jj4 ,,aviation ,,*>t1 or ! ,location ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,a l>ge *>t outl9+ all p>ts ( a typical airplane p[] plant1 %[+ ! po9ts :]e tr\ble is apt to occur & sugge/+ rem$ies = ! common defects4 ,int5d$ especially = aviators & aviation me*anics on s*ool & field duty4 ,price #ej c5ts4 ,,gloss>y ,,( ,,aviation ,,t]ms4 ,compil$ by ,lieuts4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 & ,,paul ,,mont>iol ( ! ,fr5* ,fly+ ,corps on duty at ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,a complete gloss>y ( practically all t]ms us$ 9 aviation1 hav+ li/s 9 bo? ,fr5* & ,engli%1 ) equival5ts 9 ei!r language4 ,a v valuable book = all :o are ab\t to leave = duty ov]seas4 ,price1 clo?1 #a4jj4 ,,! ,,norman ,w4 ,,h5ley ,,publi%+ ,,company #b ,,we/ #de,,? ,,/41 ,,new ,,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,motor1 ,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,p>ts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,c5sor$ ,?is ,book ,entitl$ ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,by ,,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page has be5 c5sor$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 & pages & p>ts ( pages h be5 omitt$ by special in/ructions f ,wa%+ton4 ,! book has be5 pass$ by ,,! ,,committee ,,on ,,public ,,in=mation & is z complete z we c furni% x1 & we s advise ! pur*as] ( x4 ,,! ,,norman ,w4 ,,h5ley ,,publi%+ ,,company 99 99 99 99 99 ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,design--,con/ruction--,op]ation & ,repair ,a ,complete1 ,practical ,treatise ,outl9+ ,cle>ly ! ,elem5ts ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e]+ ) ,special ,ref]5ce to ! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation & ,repair ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plants2 ,also ! ,auxili>y ,eng9e ,sy/ems1 ,su* z ,lubrication1 ,c>buretion1 ,ignition & ,cool+4 ,x ,includes ,complete ,in/ructions = ,eng9e ,repair+ & ,sy/ematic ,location ( ,tr\bles1 ,tool ,equipm5t & ,use ( ,tools1 ,also ,outl9es ! ,late/ ,me*anical ,processes4 by ,,fir/ ,,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4 ,s4 ,s4 ,c41 ,u4 ,s4 ,r4 ,assi/ant ,eng9e]+ ,(fic]1 ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,au?or ( ,! ,mod]n ,gasol9e ,automobile1 ,etc4 ,illu/ration ,conta9s ,valuable ,in/ructions = ,all ,aviation ,/ud5ts1 ,me*anicians1 ,squadron ,eng9e]+ ,(fic]s & ,all ,int]e/$ 9 ! ,con/ruction & ,upkeep ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plants4 ,new ,york ,! ,norman ,w4 ,h5ley ,publi%+ ,company #b ,we/ #de? ,/reet #aiag ,copyright$1 #aiag ,by ,! ,norman ,w4 ,h5ley ,publi%+ ,co4 ,pr9t$ 9 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,all ,illu/rations 9 ,?is ,book ,h ,be5 ,specially ,made by ! ,publi%]s1 & ,_! ,use1 ,)\t ,p]mission1 ,is ,/rictly ,prohibit$ ,composition1 ,electrotyp+ & ,presswork by ! ,publi%]s ,pr9t+ ,co41 ,new ,york ,,preface ,9 pres5t+ ?is treatise on ,aviation ,eng9es1 ! writ] realizes t ! rapidly develop+ art makes x difficult to outl9e all late/ =ms or describe all curr5t eng9e]+ practice4 ,?is exposition has be5 prep>$ prim>ily = in/ruction purposes & is adapt$ = m5 9 ! ,aviation ,section1 ,signal ,corps1 & /ud5ts :o wi% to become aviators or aviation me*anicians4 ,e ef=t has be5 made to h ! eng9e]+ in=mation accurate1 b ow+ to ! div]sity ( au?orities consult$ & use ( data translat$ f =eign language p]iodicals1 x is expect$ t "s slight errors w be pres5t4 ,! writ] wi%es to ackn[l$ge 8 indebt$ness to su* firms z ! ,curtiss ,a]oplane & ,motor ,co41 ,hall-,scott ,company1 ,?omas-,morse ,aircraft ,corporation & ,g5]al ,vehicle ,company = photographs & helpful descriptive matt]4 ,special att5tion has be5 paid to in/ructions on tool equipm5t1 use ( tools1 tr\ble %oot+ & eng9e repairs1 z x is on ^! po9ts t ! av]age aviation /ud5t is weake/4 ,only su* !oretical consid]ation ( !rmo-dynamics z 0 deem$ absolutely necess>y to secure a prop] und]/&+ ( eng9e action aft] consult+ sev]al in/ructors is includ$1 ! writ]'s ef=ts hav+ be5 conf9$ to ! prep>ation ( a practical s]ies ( in/ructions t w\ld be ( ! greate/ value to ^? :o ne$ a div]sifi$ k ( int]nal-combu/ion eng9e op]ation & repair1 & :o mu/ acquire x quickly4 ,! eng9es describ$ & illu/rat$ are all practical =ms t h be5 fitt$ to airplanes capable ( mak+ flights & may be consid]$ fairly repres5tative ( ! pres5t /ate ( ! art4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 #a/ ,lieut4 ,a4 ,s4 ,s4 ,c41 ,u4 ,s4 ,r4 ,,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i41 ,octob]1 #aiag4 ,,cont5ts ,,pages ,,*apt] ,i ,brief ,consid]ation ( ,aircraft ,types--,ess5tial ,requirem5ts ( ,a]ial ,motors--,aviation ,eng9es ,mu/ ,be ,light--,factors ,influ5c+ ,p[] ,ne$$--,:y ,explosive ,motors ,are ,be/--,hi/orical--,ma9 ,types ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es #ag-cf ,,*apt] ,,ii ,op]at+ ,pr9ciples ( ,two- & ,f\r-,/roke ,eng9es--,f\r-cycle ,action--,two-cycle ,action--,comp>+ ,two- & ,f\r-cycle ,types-- ,!ory ( ,gas & ,gasol9e ,eng9e--,e>ly ,gas-,eng9e ,=ms-- ,iso!rmal ,law--,adiabatic ,law--,temp]ature ,computations--,heat & ,its ,"w--,conv]sion ( ,heat to ,p[]--,requisites = ,be/ ,p[] ,effect #cg-ei ,,*apt] ,,iii ,effici5cy ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es--,v>i\s ,measures ( ,effici5cy--,temp]atures & ,pressures--,factors ,gov]n+ ,economy --,losses 9 ,wall ,cool+--,value ( ,indicator ,c>ds--,compression 9 ,explosive ,motors--,factors ,limit+ ,compression--,causes ( ,heat ,losses & ,ineffici5cy--,heat ,losses to ,cool+ ,wat] #fj-gi ,,*apt] ,,iv ,eng9e ,p>ts & ,functions--,:y ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,are ,be/ --,describ+ ,sequ5ce ( ,op]ations--,simple ,eng9es--,f\r & ,six ,cyl9d] ,v]tical ,t&em ,eng9es--,eight & ,twelve ,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9es--,radial ,cyl9d] ,arrangem5t--,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,=ms #hj-aji ,,*apt] ,v ,prop]ties ( ,liquid ,fuels--,di/illates ( ,crude ,petroleum-- ,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion ,outl9$--,air ,ne$$ to ,burn ,gasol9e-- ,:at a ,c>buretor ,%\ld ,d--,liquid ,fuel ,/orage & ,supply-- ,vacuum ,fuel ,fe$--,e>ly ,vaporiz] ,=ms--,developm5t ( ,float ,fe$ ,c>buretor--,mayba*'s ,e>ly ,design--,conc5tric ,float & ,jet ,type --,s*ebl] ,c>buretor--,claudel ,c>buretor--,/ew>t ,met]+ ,p9 ,type--,multiple ,nozzle ,vaporiz]s--,two-,/age ,c>buretor--,ma/] ,multiple ,jet ,type--,comp\nd ,nozzle ,z5i? ,c>buretor--,utility ( ,gasol9e ,/ra9]s--,intake ,manifold ,design & ,con/ruction-- ,comp5sat+ = ,v>i\s ,atmosph]ic ,conditions--,h[ ,high ,altitude ,affects ,p[]--,! ,diesel ,sy/em--,notes on ,c>buretor ,in/allation--,notes on ,c>buretor ,adju/m5t #aaj-aed ,,*apt] ,,vi ,e>ly ,ignition ,sy/ems--,electrical ,ignition ,be/--,fundam5tals ( ,magnetism ,outl9$--,=ms ( ,magneto--,zones ( ,magnetic ,influ5ce --,h[ ,magnets are ,made--,electricity & ,magnetism ,relat$--,basic ,pr9ciples ( ,magneto ,action--,ess5tial ,p>ts ( ,magneto & ,functions--,trans=m] ,coil ,sy/ems--,true ,high ,t5sion ,type--,! ,b]l+ ,magneto--,tim+ & ,c>e--,! ,dixie ,magneto--,sp>k-,plug ,design & ,application--,two-,sp>k ,ignition--,special ,airplane ,plug #aee-bjj ,,*apt] ,,vii ,:y ,lubrication ,is ,necess>y--,friction ,def9$--,!ory ( ,lubrication--,d]ivation ( ,lubricants--,prop]ties ( ,cyl9d] ,oils --,factors ,influ5c+ ,lubrication ,sy/em ,selection--,gnome ,type ,eng9es ,use ,ca/or ,oil--,hall-,scott ,lubrication ,sy/em--,oil ,supply by ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em--,dry ,crank-,case ,sy/em ,be/ = ,airplane ,eng9es--,:y ,cool+ ,sy/ems ,are ,necess>y--,cool+ ,sy/ems ,g5]ally ,appli$--,cool+ by ,positive ,pump ,circulation-- ,!rmo-,syphon ,sy/em--,direct ,air-,cool+ ,me?ods--,air-,cool$ ,eng9e ,design ,consid]ations #bja-bcb ,,*apt] ,,viii ,me?ods ( ,cyl9d] ,con/ruction--,block ,ca/+s--,influ5ce on ,crank-,%aft ,design--,combu/ion ,*amb] ,design--,bore & ,/roke ,ratio--,mean+ ( ,pi/on ,spe$--,advantage ( ,(f-,set ,cyl9d]s-- ,valve ,location ( ,vital ,import--,valve ,in/allation ,practice--,valve ,design & ,con/ruction--,valve ,op]ation--,me?ods ( ,driv+ ,cam-,%aft--,valve ,spr+s--,valve ,tim+--,bl[+ ,back--,lead ,giv5 ,exhau/ ,valve--,exhau/ ,clos+1 ,inlet ,op5+--,clos+ ! ,inlet ,valve--,"t ( ,ignition--,h[ an ,eng9e is ,tim$--,gnome ,monos\pape ,valve ,tim+--,spr+less ,valves--,f\r ,valves p] ,cyl9d] #bcc-bhf ,,*apt] ,,ix ,con/ructional ,details ( ,pi/ons--,alum9um ,cyl9d]s & ,pi/ons --,pi/on ,r+ ,con/ruction--,leak ,pro( ,pi/on ,r+s--,keep+ ,oil ,out ( ,combu/ion ,*amb]--,connect+ ,rod ,=ms--,connect+ ,rods = ,vee ,eng9es--,cam-,%aft & ,crank-,%aft ,designs--,ball ,be>+ ,crank-,%afts--,eng9e ,base ,con/ruction #bhg-cbc ,,*apt] ,x ,p[] ,plant ,in/allation--,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,eng9e ,m\nt+ & ,op]at+ ,rules--,/&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,eng9e ,b$ ,dim5sions-- ,hall-,scott ,eng9e ,in/allation & ,op]ation--,fuel ,sy/em ,rules --,ignition ,sy/em--,wat] ,sy/em--,prep>ations to ,/>t ,eng9e-- ,m\nt+ ,radial & ,rot>y ,eng9es--,practical ,h9ts to ,locate ,eng9e ,tr\bles--,all ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,summ>iz$--,location ( ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy #cbd-cge ,,*apt] ,,xi ,tools = ,adju/+ & ,erect+--,=ms ( ,wr5*es--,use & ,c>e ( ,files--,split ,p9 ,removal & ,in/allation--,complete ,*isel ,set --,drill+ ,ma*9es--,drills1 ,ream]s1 ,taps & ,dies--,measur+ ,tools--,micromet] ,calip]s & ,_! ,use--,typical ,tool ,outfits --,special ,hall-,scott ,tools--,ov]haul+ ,airplane ,eng9es--,tak+ ,eng9e ,d[n--,defects 9 ,cyl9d]s--,c>bon ,deposits1 ,cause & ,prev5tion--,use ( ,c>bon ,scrap]s--,burn+ ,out ,c>bon ) ,oxyg5 --,repair+ ,scor$ ,cyl9d]s--,valve ,removal & ,inspection --,reseat+ & ,tru+ ,valves--,valve ,gr9d+ ,processes-- ,depreciation 9 ,valve ,op]at+ ,sy/em--,pi/on ,tr\bles--,pi/on ,r+ ,manipulation--,fitt+ ,pi/on ,r+s--,wri/-,p9 ,we>-- ,inspection & ,refitt+ ( ,eng9e ,be>+s--,scrap+ ,brasses to ,fit--,fitt+ ,connect+ ,rods--,te/+ = ,be>+ ,p>allelism-- ,cam-,%afts & ,tim+ ,ge>s--,precautions 9 ,reassembl+ ,p>ts #cgf-def ,,*apt] ,,xii ,aviation ,eng9e ,types--,division 9 ,classes--,anzani ,eng9es--,canton & ,unne ,eng9e--,con/ruction ( ,gnome ,eng9es--,monos\pape ,gnome--,g]man ,gnome ,type--,le ,rhone ,eng9e--,r5ault ,air-,cool$ ,eng9e--,simplex ,model ,a ,hispano-,suiza--,curtiss ,aviation ,motors-- ,?omas-,morse ,model #hh ,eng9e--,dues5b]g ,eng9e--,a]om>9e ,six-,cyl9d]--,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9es--,hall-,scott ,eng9es-- ,m]c$es ,motor--,b5z ,motor--,au/ro-,daiml] ,eng9e--,sunbeam-,coatal5 --,indicat+ & ,measur+ ,in/rum5ts--,air ,/>t+ ,sy/ems-- ,electric ,/>t+--,batt]y ,ignition #deg-ega ,,index #egc ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,,design--,,con/ruction--,,repair ,,*apt] ,i ,brief ,consid]ation ( ,aircraft ,types--,ess5tial ,requirem5ts ( ,a]ial ,motors--,aviation ,eng9es ,mu/ ,be ,light--,factors ,influ5c+ ,p[] ,ne$$--,:y ,explosive ,motors ,are ,be/-- ,hi/orical--,ma9 ,types ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es4 ,,brief ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,aircraft ,,types ,! conque/ ( ! air is "o ( ! mo/ /up5d\s a*ievem5ts ( ! ages4 ,human flight op5s ! sky to man z a new road1 & because x is a road free ( all ob/ructions & leads ev]y:]e1 af=d+ ! %orte/ di/ance to any place1 x (f]s to man ! prospect ( unlimit$ fre$om4 ,! aircraft promises to span cont95ts l railroads1 to bridge seas l %ips1 to g ov] m\nta9s & =e/s l birds1 & to quick5 & simplify ! problems ( transportation4 ,:ile ! actual conque/ ( ! air is an accompli%m5t j be+ realiz$ 9 our days1 ! idea & ye>n+ to conqu] ! air are old1 possibly z old z intellect itself4 ,! my?s ( diff]5t races tell ( w+$ gods & fly+ m51 & %[ t = ages to fly 0 ! highe/ conception ( ! sublime4 ,no o!r ag5t is m responsible = su/a9$ flight ?an ! int]nal combu/ion motor1 & x 0 only :5 ?is =m ( prime mov] _h be5 fully develop$ t x 0 possible = man to leave ! gr\nd & alight at w1 n dep5d+ ^u ! caprices ( ! w9ds or lift+ p[] ( gases z ) ! balloon4 ,x is safe to say t ! solution ( ! problem ( flight w\ld h be5 atta9$ _m ye>s ago if ! prop] s\rce ( p[] _h be5 available z all ! ess5tial elem5ts ( ! mod]n a]oplane & dirigible balloon1 o!r ?an ! p[] plant1 7 kn[n to e>ly philosoph]s & sci5ti/s4 ,a]onautics is divid$ into two fundam5tally diff]5t bran*es--aviatics & a]o/atics4 ,! fir/ comprises all types ( a]oplanes & heavi] ?an air fly+ ma*9es su* z ! helicopt]s1 kites1 etc42 ! second includes dirigible balloons1 passive balloons & all craft :i* rise 9 ! air by utiliz+ ! lift+ =ce ( gases4 ,a]oplanes are ! only practical =m ( heavi]-?an-air ma*9es1 z ! helicopt]s 7ma*9es int5d$ to be lift$ directly into ! air by propell]s1 )\t ! su/a9+ effect ( planes71 & orni?opt]s1 or flapp+ w+ types1 h n be5 ?or\ghly develop$1 & 9 fact1 !re are s _m s]i\s me*anical problems to be solv$ be=e ei!r ( ^! types ( air craft w function prop]ly t exp]ts express grave d\bts reg>d+ ! practicability ( ei!r4 ,a]oplanes are divid$ into two ma9 types--monoplanes or s+le surface =ms1 & bi-planes or ma*9es hav+ two sets ( lift+ surfaces1 "o susp5d$ ov] ! o!r4 ,a ?ird type1 ! triplane1 is n v widely us$4 ,dirigible balloons are divid$ into ?ree classes3 ! rigid1 ! semi-rigid1 & ! non-rigid4 ,! rigid has a frame or skeleton ( ei!r wood or metal inside ( ! bag1 to /iff5 x2 ! semi-rigid is re9=c$ by a wire net & metal atta*m5ts2 :ile ! non-rigid is j a bag fill$ ) gas4 ,! a]oplane1 m ?an ! dirigible & balloon1 /&s z ! emblem ( ! conque/ ( ! air4 ,two reasons = ?is are t p[] flight is a real conque/ ( ! air1 a real victory ov] ! battl+ elem5ts2 secondly1 because ! a]oplane1 or any fly+ ma*9e t may foll[1 br+s air travel )9 ! rea* ( ev]ybody4 ,9 practical developm5t1 ! dirigible may be ! /eam%ip ( ! air1 :i* w r5d] invaluable s]vices ( a c]ta9 k9d1 & ! a]oplane w be ! automobile ( ! air1 to be us$ by ! multitude1 p]haps = z _m purposes z ! automobile is n[ be+ us$4 ,,ess5tial ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,,a]ial ,,motors ,"o ( ! m>k$ features ( aircraft developm5t has be5 ! effect x has _h ^u ! ref9em5t & p]fection ( ! int]nal combu/ion motor4 ,)\t "q gasol9e-motors int5d$ = aircraft are ! ne>e/ to p]fection ( any o!r type yet evolv$4 ,because ( ! peculi> dem&s impos$ ^u ! a]onautical motor x mu/ possess all ! features ( reliability1 economy & effici5cy n[ pres5t ) automobile or m>9e eng9es & !n mu/ h di/9ctive po9ts ( its own4 ,ow+ to ! un/able nature ( ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* x is op]at$ & ! fact t heavi]-?an-air ma*9es c ma9ta9 flight only z long z ! p[] plant is function+ prop]ly1 an air%ip motor mu/ be m reliable ?an any us$ on ei!r l& or wat]4 ,:ile a few p\nds ( metal m or less makes practically no diff]5ce 9 a m>9e motor & has v little effect ^u ! spe$ or hill-climb+ ability ( an automobile1 an air%ip motor mu/ be z light z x is possible to make x because e p\nd c\nts1 :e!r ! motor is to be fitt$ into an a]oplane or 9 a dirigible balloon4 ,air%ip motors1 z a rule1 mu/ op]ate con/antly at high spe$s 9 ord] to obta9 a maximum p[] deliv]y ) a m9imum pi/on displacem5t4 ,9 automobiles1 or motor boats1 motors are n requir$ to run con/antly at _! maximum spe$4 ,mo/ aircraft motors mu/ function = ext5d$ p]iods at spe$ z ne>ly ! maximum z possible4 ,ano!r ?+ t militates aga9/ ! aircraft motor is ! m or less un/eady f\ndation to :i* x is atta*$4 ,! necess>ily light framework ( ! a]oplane makes x h>d = a motor to p]=m at maximum effici5cy on acc\nt ( ! vibration ( its f\ndation :ile ! craft is 9 flight4 ,m>9e & motor c> eng9es1 :ile n plac$ on f\ndations z firm z ^? provid$ = /ation>y p[] plants1 are in/all$ on bases ( mu* m /ability ?an ! light /ructure ( an a]oplane4 ,! aircraft motor1 !re=e1 mu/ be balanc$ to a nicety & mu/ run /eadily "u ! mo/ unfavorable conditions4 ,,a]ial ,,motors ,,mu/ ,,be ,,light ,! capacity ( light motors design$ = a]ial "w p] unit ( mass is surpris+ to ^? n fully conv]sant ) ! possibilities t a ?or\gh k ( proportions ( p>ts & ! use ( special metals develop$ by ! automobile indu/ry make possible4 ,activity 9 ! developm5t ( light motors has be5 m pron\nc$ 9 ,france ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry4 ,"s ( ^! motors h be5 complicat$ types made light by ! skillful proportion+ ( p>ts1 o!rs are ( ! ref9$ simpl] =m modifi$ f curr5t automobile practice4 ,!re is a t5d5cy to dep>t f ! freaki% or unconv5tional con/ruction & to adh]e m closely to /&>d =ms because x is necess>y to h ! p>ts ( su* size t e quality mak+ = reliability1 effici5cy & endurance are incorporat$ 9 ! design4 ,a]oplane motors range f two cyl9d]s to =ms hav+ f\rte5 & sixte5 cyl9d]s & ! arrangem5t ( ^! memb]s v>ies f ! conv5tional v]tical t&em & oppos$ plac+ to ! ,v =m or ! m unusual radial motors hav+ ei!r fix$ or rot>y cyl9d]s4 ,! weight has be5 r$uc$ s x is possible to obta9 a complete p[] plant ( ! revolv+ cyl9d] air-cool$ type t w n weigh m ?an ?ree p\nds p] actual horse-p[] & 9 "s cases less ?an ?is4 ,if we give brief consid]ation to ! requirem5ts ( ! aviator x w be evid5t t "o ( ! mo/ important is secur+ maximum p[] ) m9imum mass1 & x is desirable to cons]ve all ( ! good qualities exi/+ 9 /&>d automobile motors4 ,^! are c]ta9ty ( op]ation1 good me*anical balance & uni=m deliv]y ( p[]--fundam5tal conditions :i* mu/ be atta9$ be=e a p[] plant c be consid]$ practical4 ,!re are 9 addition1 second>y consid]ations1 none ! less desirable1 if n absolutely ess5tial4 ,^! are m9imum consumption ( fuel & lubricat+ oil1 :i* is really a factor ( import1 = ^u ! economy dep5ds ! capacity & fly+ radius4 ,z ! am\nt ( liquid fuel mu/ be limit$ ! mo/ suitable motor w be t :i* is p[]ful & at ! same "t economical4 ,ano!r important feature is to secure accessibility ( compon5ts 9 ord] to make easy repair or adju/m5t ( p>ts possible4 ,x is possible to obta9 suffici5tly light-weight motors )\t radical dep>ture f e/abli%$ practice4 ,wat]-cool$ p[] plants h be5 design$ t w weigh b f\r or five p\nds p] horse-p[] & 9 ^! =ms we h a practical p[] plant capable ( ext5d$ op]ation4 ,,factors ,,influ5c+ ,,p[] ,,ne$$ ,"w is p]=m$ :5ev] an object is mov$ aga9/ a resi/ance1 & ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ dep5ds n only on ! am\nt ( resi/ance ov]come b also ^u ! am\nt ( "t utiliz$ 9 accompli%+ a giv5 task4 ,"w is measur$ 9 horse-p[] = conv5i5ce4 ,x w take "o horse-p[] to move #cc1jjj p\nds "o foot 9 "o m9ute or #eej p\nds "o foot 9 "o second4 ,! same "w w\ld be done if #ccj p\nds 7 mov$ #ajj feet 9 "o m9ute4 ,x requires a def9ite am\nt ( p[] to move a vehicle ov] ! gr\nd at a c]ta9 spe$1 s x mu/ take p[] to ov]come resi/ance ( an airplane 9 ! air4 ,disreg>d+ ! factor ( air d5sity1 x w take m p[] z ! spe$ increases if ! weight or resi/ance rema9s con/ant1 or m p[] if ! spe$ rema9s con/ant & ! resi/ance increases4 ,! airplane is support$ by air reaction "u ! planes or lift+ surfaces & ! value ( ?is reaction dep5ds ^u ! %ape ( ! a](oil1 ! am\nt x is tilt$ & ! spe$ at :i* x is drawn ?r\gh ! air4 ,! angle ( incid5ce or degree ( w+ tilt regulates ! p[] requir$ to a c]ta9 degree z ?is affects ! spe$ ( horizontal flight z well z ! resi/ance4 ,resi/ance may be ( two k9ds1 "o t is necess>y & ! o!r t x is desirable to r$uce to ! l[e/ po9t possible4 ,!re is ! w+ resi/ance & ! sum ( ! resi/ances ( ! re/ ( ! ma*9e su* z fuselage1 /ruts1 wires1 l&+ ge>1 etc4 ,if we assume t a c]ta9 airplane (f]$ a total resi/ance ( #cjj p\nds & we wi%$ to drive x ?r\gh ! air at a spe$ ( sixty miles p] h\r1 we c f9d ! horse-p[] ne$$ by a v simple computation z foll[s3 ,! product ( #cjj p\nds resi/ance times spe$ ( #hh feet p] second times #fj seconds 9 a m9ute ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,h4,p4 ne$$4 divid$ by #cc1jjj foot p\nds p] m9ute 9 "o horse-p[] ,! result is ! horse-p[] ne$$1 or #cjj x #hh x #fj --------------- #dh ,h4,p4 #cc1jjj ,j z x takes m p[] to climb a hill ?an x does to run a c> on ! level1 x takes m p[] to climb 9 ! air ) an airplane ?an x does to fly on ! level4 ,! m rapid ! climb1 ! m p[] x w take4 ,if ! resi/ance rema9s #cjj p\nds & x is necess>y to drive ! plane at #ij miles p] h\r1 we m]ely sub/itute prop] values 9 ! above =mula & we h #cjj p\nds times #acb feet p] second times #fj seconds 9 a m9ute ---------------------------------------- ------- #gb ,h4,p4 #cc1jjj foot p\nds p] m9ute 9 "o horse-p[] ,! same results c be obta9$ by divid+ ! product ( ! resi/ance 9 p\nds times spe$ 9 feet p] second by #eej1 :i* is ! foot-p\nds ( "w done 9 "o second to equal "o horse-p[]4 ,naturally1 ! am\nt ( propell] ?ru/ measur$ 9 p\nds necess>y to drive an airplane mu/ be great] ?an ! resi/ance by a sub/antial m>g9 if ! plane is to fly & climb z well4 ,! foll[+ =mulae 7 giv5 9 ,! ,a]oplane ( ,london & c be us$ to advantage by ^? desir+ to make computations to asc]ta9 p[] requirem5ts3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,diagrams ,illu/rat+ ,computations = ,horse-,p[] ,requir$ = ,airplane ,flight4 ,! ?ru/ ( ! propell] dep5ds on ! p[] ( ! motor1 & on ! diamet] & pit* ( ! propell]4 ,if ! requir$ ?ru/ to a c]ta9 ma*9e is kn[n1 ! calculation = ! horse-p[] ( ! motor %\ld be an easy matt]4 ,! requir$ ?ru/ is ! sum ( ?ree diff]5t resi/ances4 ,! fir/ is ! drift 7dynamical head resi/ance ( ! a](oils71 i4e41 tan alpha x lift 7,l71 lift be+ equal to ! total weight ( ma*9e 7,w7 = horizontal flight & alpha equal to ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,c]ta9ly we mu/ take ! tan alpha at ! maximum ,ky value = m9imum spe$1 z !n ! drift is ! greate/ 7,fig4 #a1 ,a74 ,ano!r me?od = f9d+ ! drift is ,d ,k x ,,av#b1 :5 we take ! drift aga9 s z to be greate/4 ,! second resi/ance is ! total head resi/ance ( ! ma*9e1 at its maximum velocity4 ,& ! ?ird is ! ?ru/ = climb+4 ,! horse-p[] = climb+ c be f\nd out 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,i fir/ propose to deal ) ! me?od1 :]e we f9d out ! actual horse-p[] want$ = a c]ta9 climb+ spe$ to our ma*9e1 :]e climb+ spe$_/sec4 x ,w ,h4,p4 --------------------------- #eej ,9 ?is case we "k already ! horse-p[] = climb+1 & we c proce$ ) our calculation4 ,) ! o!r me?od we %all f9d out ! ?ru/ 9 p\nds or kilograms want$ = climb+ & add x to drift & total head resi/ance1 & we %all h ! total ?ru/ ( our ma*9e & we %all d5ote x ) ,t1 :ile ?ru/ = climb+ %all be ,tc4 ,! foll[+ calculation is at our s]vice to f9d out ,vc x ,w ?is ?ru/ = climb+ --------------- ,h4,p41 #eej ,h4,p4 x #eej !nce ,vc ------------ 7#a7 ,w ,tc x ,v ,h4,p4 --------------1 !n f #eej ,tc x ,v --------------- x #eej #eej ,tc x ,v 7#a7 ,vc ----------------------- ---------------1 !nce1 ,w ,w ,vc x ,w ,tc ---------------4 ,v ,:e!r ,t means drifts1 head resi/ance & ?ru/ = climb+1 or drift & head resi/ance only1 ! foll[+ calculation is ! same1 only 9 ! latt] case1 ( c\rse1 we mu/ add ! horse-p[] requir$ = climb+ to ! result to obta9 ! total horse-p[]4 ,n[1 :5 we "k ! total ?ru/1 we %all f9d ! horse-p[] 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,pr#bpi,r ,we "k t ! ,h4,p4 -------------- 9 kilograms1 or 9 #ge x #fj ,pr#bpi,r ,engli% measure1 ,h4,p4 -------------- 7,fig4 #a1 ,b7 #cc1jjj :]e ,p pressure 9 klgs4 or lbs4 r radius on :i* ,p is act+4 ,r ,revolution_/m94 ,m4,r4#bpi ,:5 ,p x r ,m1 !n ,h4,p4 -------------1 !nce1 #d1ejj ,h4,p4 x #d1ejj #gaf4b ,h4,p4 ,m -------------- ------------ 9 met] kilograms1 ,r#bpi ,r ,h4,p4 #cc1jjj #ebec4a ,h4,p4 or 9 ,engli% sy/em ,m ------------- ------------- 9 ,r#bpi ,r foot p\nds4 ,n[ ! p[] on ! circumf]5ce ( ! propell] w be r$uc$ by its radius1 s x w be ,m_/r p4 ,a "p ( p w be us$ = c\nt]act+ ! air & be>+ friction1 s t ! total p[] on ! circumf]5ce ( ! propell] w be 7,m_/r7 x eta p :]e eta is ! me*anical effici5cy ( ! propell]4 ,n[ eta --------------- ,t1 :]e alpha is tak5 on ! tip ( ! tan alpha propell]4 ,i take alpha at ! tip1 b x c be tak51 ( c\rse1 at any po9t1 b !n 9 equation p ,m_/r1 r mu/ be tak5 only up to ?is po9t1 & n ! :ole radius2 b x is m com=table to take x at ! tip1 z ,pit* tan alpha ---------- 7,fig4 #a1 ,c74 r#bpi ,n[ we c write up ! equation ( ! ?ru/3 #gaf4b ,h4,p4 eta #ebec4a ,h4,p4 eta -------------------1 or 9 ,engli% measure ------------------- ,r r tan alpha ,r r tan alpha ,t x ,r x r tan alpha !nce ,h4,p4 -----------------------------1 or 9 ,engli% measure #gaf4b;eta ,t x ,r x r tan alpha -----------------------------4 #ebec4a;eta ,! computations & =mulae giv5 are ( mo/ value to ! /ud5t eng9e] r ?an matt]s ( g5]al int]e/1 b are giv5 s t a g5]al idea may be secur$ ( h[ airplane design influ5ces p[] ne$$ to secure su/a9$ flight4 ,x w be app>5t t ! resi/ance ( an airplane dep5ds ^u num]\s consid]ations ( design :i* require consid]able rese>* 9 a]odynamics to det]m9e accurately4 ,x is obvi\s t ! m resi/ance !re is1 ! m p[] ne$$ to fly at a giv5 spe$4 ,light monoplanes h be5 fl[n ) z little z #ae horse-p[] = %ort di/ances1 b mo/ planes n[ built use eng9es ( #ajj horse-p[] or m4 ,giant airplanes h be5 con/ruct$ hav+ #b1jjj horse-p[] di/ribut$ 9 f\r p[] units4 ,! am\nt ( p[] provid$ = an airplane ( giv5 design v>ies widely z _m conditions gov]n ?is1 b x w range f approximately "o horse-p[] to ea* #h p\nds weight 9 ! case ( v light1 fa/ ma*9es to "o horse-p[] to #ae or #ah p\nds ( ! total weight 9 ! case ( m$ium spe$ ma*9es4 ,! developm5t 9 airplane & p[] plant design is s rapid1 h[ev]1 t ! figures giv5 c be consid]$ only 9 ! light ( g5]al av]ages r ?an be+ typical ( curr5t practice4 ,,:y ,,explosive ,,motors ,,are ,,be/ ,int]nal combu/ion eng9es are be/ = airplanes & all types ( aircraft = ! same reasons t !y are univ]sally us$ z a s\rce ( p[] = automobiles4 ,! gasol9e eng9e is ! lighte/ kn[n =m ( prime mov] & a m effici5t "o ?an a /eam eng9e1 especially 9 ! small p[]s us$ = airplane propulsion4 ,x has be5 /at$ t by v c>eful design+ a /eam plant an eng9e c\ld be made t w\ld be practical = airplane propulsion1 b ev5 ) ! late/ developm5t x is d\btful if /eam p[] c be utiliz$ 9 aircraft to z good advantage z mod]n gasol9e-eng9es are4 ,:ile ! /eam-eng9e is consid]$ v mu* simpl] ?an a gas-motor1 ! latt] is mu* m easily ma/]$ by ! non-te*nical aviator & c]ta9ly requires less att5tion4 ,a weight ( #aj p\nds p] horse-p[] is possible 9 a cond5s+ /eam plant b ?is figure is ne>ly d\ble or triple :at is easily secur$ ) a gas-motor :i* may weigh b #e p\nds p] horse-p[] 9 ! wat] cool$ =ms & b #b or #c p\nds 9 ! air-cool$ types4 ,! fuel consumption is twice z great 9 a /eam-p[] plant 7ow+ to heat losses7 z w\ld be ! case 9 a gasol9e eng9e ( equal p[] & mu* less weight4 ,! int]nal-combu/ion eng9e has come seem+ly l an avalan*e ( a decade2 b x has come to /ay1 to take its well-des]v$ position among ! p[]s = aid+ labor4 ,its ready adaptation to road1 a]ial & m>9e s]vice has made x a wond] ( ! age 9 ! developm5t ( spe$ n be=e dream$ ( z a possibility2 yet 9 s %ort a "t1 its p[] = spe$ has tak5 rank on ! common road aga9/ ! locomotive on ! rail ) its c5tury's progress4 ,x has made a]ial navigation possible & practical1 x furni%es p[] = all m>9e craft f ! light canoe to ! transatlantic l9]4 ,x op]ates ! ma*9e tools ( ! me*anic1 tills ! soil = ! f>m] & provides heal?ful recreation = ?\s&s by furni%+ an economical means ( transport by l& & sea4 ,x has be5 a univ]sal me*anical education = ! masses1 & 9 its pres5t =ms repres5ts ! great ref9em5t & developm5t made possible by ! conc5tration ( ! _w's ma/] m9ds on ! problems incid5tal to int]nal combu/ion eng9e]+4 ,,hi/orical ,al?\gh ! ideal pr9ciple ( explosive p[] 0 conceiv$ "s two hundr$ ye>s ago1 at :i* "t exp]im5ts 7 made ) gunp[d] z ! explosive elem5t1 x 0 n until ! la/ ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury t ! idea took a pat5table %ape1 & n until ab\t #ahbf 7,br[n's gas-vacuum eng9e7 t a fur!r progress 0 made 9 ,engl& by cond5s+ ! products ( combu/ion by a jet ( wat]1 ?us creat+ a p>tial vacuum4 ,br[n's 0 probably ! fir/ explosive eng9e t did real "w4 ,x 0 clumsy & unwieldy & 0 soon relegat$ to its place among ! failures ( previ\s exp]im5ts4 ,no approa* to active explosive effect 9 a cyl9d] 0 rea*$ 9 practice1 al?\gh _m +5i\s designs 7 describ$1 until ab\t #ahch & ! foll[+ ye>s4 ,b>nett's eng9e 9 ,engl& 0 ! fir/ attempt to compress ! *>ge be=e explod+4 ,f ?is "t on to ab\t #ahfj _m pat5ts 7 issu$ 9 ,europe & a few 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = gas-eng9es1 b ! progress 0 sl[1 & its practical introduction = p[] came ) spasmodic effect & l[ effici5cy4 ,f #ahfj on1 practical improvem5t seems to h be5 made1 & ! ,l5oir motor 0 produc$ 9 ,france & br\ght to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x fail$ to meet expectations1 & 0 soon foll[$ by fur!r improvem5ts 9 ! ,hugon motor 9 ,france 7#ahfb71 foll[$ by ,beau de ,ro*a's f\r-cycle idea1 :i* has be5 sl[ly develop$ ?r\gh a long s]ies ( exp]im5tal trials by diff]5t inv5tors4 ,9 ! h&s ( ,otto & ,langdon a fur!r progress 0 made1 & num]\s pat5ts 7 issu$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 & foll[$ up by an increas+ int]e/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) a few pat5ts4 ,f #ahgj improvem5ts seem to h advanc$ at a /eady rate1 & l>gely 9 ! valve-ge> & precision ( gov]n+ = v>iable load4 ,! e>ly idea ( ! necessity ( sl[ combu/ion 0 a great drawback 9 ! advancem5t ( effici5cy1 & ! sugge/ion ( de ,ro*a 9 #ahfb did n take root z a prophetic tru? until _m failures & ye>s ( exp]i5ce _h taught ! fundam5tal axiom t rapidity ( action 9 bo? combu/ion & expansion 0 ! basis ( success 9 explosive motors4 ,) ?is tru? & ! dem& = small & safe prime mov]s1 ! manufacture ( gas-eng9es increas$ 9 ,europe & ,am]ica at a m rapid rate1 & improvem5ts 9 p]fect+ ! details ( ?is *eap & effici5t prime mov] h f9ally rais$ x to ! dignity ( a /&>d motor & a dang]\s rival ( ! /eam-eng9e = small & int]m$iate p[]s1 ) a prospect ( l>gely increas+ its individual units to _m hundr$1 if n to ! ?\s& horse-p[] 9 a s+le cyl9d]4 ,! unit size 9 a s+le cyl9d] has n[ rea*$ to ab\t #gjj horse-p[] & by comb9+ cyl9d]s 9 ! same ma*9e1 p[]s ( f #a1ejj to #b1jjj horse-p[] are n[ available = l>ge p[]-plants4 ,,ma9 ,,types ,,( ,,int]nal-,,combu/ion ,,eng9es ,?is =m ( prime mov] has be5 built 9 s _m diff]5t types1 all ( :i* h op]at$ ) "s degree ( success t ! div]sity 9 =m w n be g5]ally appreciat$ unless "s attempt is made to classify ! v>i\s designs t h receiv$ practical application4 ,obvi\sly ! same type ( eng9e is n univ]sally applicable1 because ea* class ( "w has individual peculi>ities :i* c be/ be met by an eng9e design$ ) ! peculi> conditions pres5t 9 view4 ,! foll[+ tabul> synopsis w enable ! read] to judge ! ext5t ( ! developm5t ( :at is n[ ! mo/ popul> prime mov] = all purposes4 ,a4 ,int]nal ,combu/ion 7,/&>d ,type7 #a4 ,s+le ,act+ 7,/&>d ,type7 #b4 ,d\ble ,act+ 7,= ,l>ge ,p[] ,only7 #c4 ,simple 7,univ]sal ,=m7 #d4 ,comp\nd 7,r>ely ,us$7 #e4 ,reciprocat+ ,pi/on 7,/&>d ,type7 #f4 ,turb9e 7,revolv+ ,rotor1 n fully develop$7 ,a#a4 ,two-,/roke ,cycle a4 ,two ,port b4 ,?ree ,port c4 ,comb9$ ,two & ,?ree ,port d4 ,f\r? ,port ,accel]ator e4 ,diff]5tial ,pi/on ,type f4 ,di/ributor ,valve ,sy/em ,a#b4 ,f\r-,/roke ,cycle a4 ,automatic ,inlet ,valve b4 ,me*anical ,inlet ,valve c4 ,poppet or ,mu%room ,valve d4 ,slide ,valve d #a4 ,sleeve ,valve d #b4 ,reciprocat+ ,r+ ,valve d #c4 ,pi/on ,valve e4 ,rot>y ,valves e #a4 ,disc e #b4 ,cyl9d] or ,b>rel e #c4 ,s+le ,cone e #d4 ,d\ble ,cone f4 ,two ,pi/on 7,balanc$ ,explosion7 g4 ,rot>y ,cyl9d]1 ,fix$ ,crank 7,a]ial7 h4 ,fix$ ,cyl9d]1 ,rot>y ,crank 7,/&>d ,type7 ,a#c4 ,six-,/roke ,cycle ,b4 ,ext]nal ,combu/ion 7,practically ,obsolete7 a4 ,turb9e1 ,revolv+ ,rotor b4 ,reciprocat+ ,pi/on ,,classification ,,by ,,cyl9d] ,,arrangem5t ,s+le ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal c4 ,inv]t$ ,v]tical ,d\ble ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal 7,side by ,side7 c4 ,horizontal 7,oppos$7 d4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v 7,angul>ly ,dispos$7 e4 ,horizontal ,t&em 7,d\ble ,act+7 ,?ree ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal c4 ,rot>y 7,cyl9d]s ,spac$ at #abj ,degrees7 d4 ,radially ,plac$ 7,/ation>y ,cyl9d]s7 e4 ,"o ,v]tical1 ,"o ,ea* ,side at an ,angle f4 ,comp\nd 7,two ,high ,pressure1 ,"o ,l[ ,pressure7 ,f\r ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal 7,side by ,side7 c4 ,horizontal 7,two ,pairs ,oppos$7 d4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v e4 ,tw9 ,t&em 7,d\ble ,act+7 ,five ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical 7,five ,?r[ ,crank%aft7 b4 ,radially ,spac$ at #gb ,degrees 7,/ation>y7 c4 ,radially ,plac$ ,above ,crank%aft 7,/ation>y7 d4 ,plac$ ,ar\nd ,rot>y ,crankcase 7#gb ,degrees ,spac+7 ,six ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal 7,?ree ,pairs ,oppos$7 c4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v ,sev5 ,cyl9d] a4 ,equally ,spac$ 7,rot>y7 ,eight ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal 7,f\r ,pairs ,oppos$7 c4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v ,n9e ,cyl9d] a4 ,equally ,spac$ 7,rot>y7 ,twelve ,cyl9d] a4 ,v]tical b4 ,horizontal 7,six ,pairs ,oppos$7 c4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v ,f\rte5 ,cyl9d] a4 ,rot>y ,sixte5 ,cyl9d] a4 #de to #ij ,degrees ,v b4 ,horizontal 7,eight ,pairs ,oppos$7 ,eighte5 ,cyl9d] a4 ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--,plate ,%[+ ,heavy1 ,sl[ ,spe$ ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es ,us$ ,only = ,/ation>y ,p[] 9 ,l>ge ,in/allations ,giv+ ,weight to ,horse-,p[] ,ratio4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es ,%[+ ,decrease 9 ,weight to ,horse-,p[] ,ratio ) ,augm5t+ ,spe$ ( ,rotation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e ,types ( ,extremely ,f9e ,con/ruction & ,ref9$ ,design1 ,%[+ ,great ,p[] ,outputs = ,v ,small ,weight1 a ,feature ,v ,mu* ,desir$ 9 ,airplane ,p[] ,plants4 ,( all ! types enum]at$ above eng9es hav+ less ?an eight cyl9d]s are ! mo/ popul> 9 ev]y?+ b aircraft "w4 ,! f\r-cyl9d] v]tical is )\t d\bt ! mo/ widely us$ ( all types ow+ to ! l>ge numb] employ$ z automobile p[] plants4 ,/ation>y eng9es 9 small & m$ium p[]s are inv>iably ( ! s+le or d\ble =m4 ,?ree-cyl9d] eng9es are seldom us$ at ! pres5t "t1 except 9 m>9e "w & 9 "s /ation>y =ms4 ,eight- & twelve-cyl9d] motors h receiv$ b limit$ application & practically always 9 automobiles1 rac+ motor boats or 9 aircraft4 ,! only example ( a f\rte5-cyl9d] motor to be us$ to any ext5t is incorporat$ 9 a]oplane con/ruction4 ,?is is also true ( ! sixte5- & eighte5-cyl9d] =ms & ( tw5ty-f\r-cyl9d] eng9es n[ 9 process ( developm5t4 ,! duty an eng9e is design$ = det]m9es ! weight p] horse-p[]4 ,high p[]$ eng9es int5d$ = /eady s]vice are always ( ! sl[ spe$ type & consequ5tly are ( v massive con/ruction4 ,v>i\s =ms ( heavy duty type /ation>y eng9es are %[n at ,fig4 #b4 ,"s ( ^! eng9es may weigh z mu* z #fjj p\nds p] horse-p[]4 ,a fur!r /udy is possible by consult+ data giv5 on ,figs4 #c & #d4 ,z ! crank-%aft spe$ increases & cyl9d]s are multipli$ ! eng9es become light]4 ,:ile ! big /ation>y p[] plants may run = ye>s )\t att5tion1 airplane eng9es require rebuild+ aft] ab\t #fj to #hj h\rs air s]vice = ! fix$ cyl9d] types & #dj h\rs or less = ! rot>y cyl9d] air-cool$ =ms4 ,!re is evid5tly a decrease 9 durability & reliability z ! weight is less5$4 ,^! illu/rations also p]mit ( obta9+ a good idea ( ! v>iety ( =ms int]nal combu/ion eng9es are made 94 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,op]at+ ,pr9ciples ( ,two- & ,f\r-,/roke ,eng9es--,f\r-cycle ,action--,two-cycle ,action--,comp>+ ,two- & ,f\r-cycle ,types-- ,!ory ( ,gas & ,gasol9e ,eng9e--,e>ly ,gas-,eng9e ,=ms-- ,iso!rmal ,law--,adiabatic ,law--,temp]ature ,computations--,heat & ,its ,"w--,conv]sion ( ,heat to ,p[]--,requisites = ,be/ ,p[] ,effect4 ,,op]at+ ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,two- ,,& ,,f\r-,,/roke ,,cycle ,,eng9es ,be=e discuss+ ! con/ruction ( ! v>i\s =ms ( int]nal combu/ion eng9es x may be well to describe ! op]at+ cycle ( ! types mo/ g5]ally us$4 ,! two-cycle eng9e is ! simple/ because !re are no valves 9 connection ) ! cyl9d]1 z ! gas is introduc$ into t memb] & expell$ f x ?r\gh ports cor$ into ! cyl9d] walls4 ,^! are cov]$ by ! pi/on at a c]ta9 portion ( its travel & uncov]$ at o!r p>ts ( its /roke4 ,9 ! f\r-cycle eng9e ! explosive gas is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] ?r\gh a port at ! head end clos$ by a valve1 :ile ! exhau/ gas is expell$ ?r\gh ano!r port controll$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,^! valves are op]at$ by me*anism di/9ct f ! pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,outl9+ ,fir/ ,two ,/rokes ( ,pi/on 9 ,f\r-,cycle ,eng9e4 ,! action ( ! f\r-cycle type may be easily und]/ood if "o ref]s to illu/rations at ,figs4 #e & #f4 ,x is call$ ! f\r-/roke eng9e because ! pi/on mu/ make f\r /rokes 9 ! cyl9d] = ea* explosion or p[] impulse obta9$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! gas-eng9e ( ! int]nal combu/ion type is simil> to t ( a gun1 i4e41 p[] is obta9$ by ! rapid combu/ion ( "s explosive or o!r quick burn+ sub/ance4 ,! bullet is driv5 out ( ! gun b>rel by ! pressure ( ! gas evolv$ :5 ! *>ge ( p[d] is ignit$4 ,! pi/on or movable elem5t ( ! gas-eng9e is driv5 f ! clos$ or head end to ! crank end ( ! cyl9d] by a simil> expansion ( gases result+ f combu/ion4 ,! fir/ op]ation 9 fir+ a gun or secur+ an explosion 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! gas-eng9e is to fill ! combu/ion space ) combu/ible mat]ial4 ,?is is done by a d[n /roke ( ! pi/on dur+ :i* "t ! inlet valve op5s to admit ! gase\s *>ge to ! cyl9d] int]ior4 ,?is op]ation is %[n at ,fig4 #e1 ,a4 ,! second op]ation is to compress ?is gas :i* is done by an upw>d /roke ( ! pi/on z %[n at ,fig4 #e1 ,b4 ,:5 ! top ( ! compression /roke is rea*$1 ! gas is ignit$ & ! pi/on is driv5 d[n t[>d ! op5 end ( ! cyl9d]1 z indicat$ at ,fig4 #f1 ,c4 ,! f\r? op]ation or exhau/ /roke is p]=m$ by ! return upw>d movem5t ( ! pi/on z %[n at ,fig4 #f1 ,d dur+ :i* "t ! exhau/ valve is op5$ to p]mit ! burnt gases to leave ! cyl9d]4 ,z soon z ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( its exhau/ /roke1 ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! fly-:eel rim dur+ ! p[] /roke causes t memb] to cont9ue revolv+ & z ! pi/on aga9 travels on its d[n /roke ! inlet valve op5s & admits a *>ge ( fre% gas & ! cycle ( op]ations is repeat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,outl9+ ,second ,two ,/rokes ( ,pi/on 9 ,f\r-,cycle ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,sectional ,view ( ,l ,head ,gasol9e ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,%[+ ,pi/on ,movem5ts ,dur+ ,f\r-,/roke ,cycle4 ,! illu/rations at ,fig4 #g %[ h[ ! v>i\s cycle functions take place 9 an ,l head type wat] cool$ cyl9d] eng9e4 ,! sections at ,a & ,c are tak5 ?r\gh ! inlet valve1 ^? at ,b & ,d are tak5 ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve4 ,! two-cycle eng9e works on a diff]5t pr9ciple1 z :ile only ! combu/ion *amb] end ( ! pi/on is employ$ to d useful "w 9 ! f\r-cycle eng9e1 bo? upp] & l[] portions are call$ ^u to p]=m ! functions necess>y to two-cycle eng9e op]ation4 ,in/ead ( ! gas be+ admitt$ into ! cyl9d] z is ! case ) ! f\r-/roke eng9e1 x is fir/ drawn into ! eng9e base :]e x receives a prelim9>y compression prior to its transf] to ! work+ end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! views at ,fig4 #h %\ld indicate cle>ly ! op]ation ( ! two-port two-cycle eng9e4 ,at ,a ! pi/on is se5 rea*+ ! top ( its /roke & ! gas above ! pi/on is be+ compress$ ready = ignition1 :ile ! suction 9 ! eng9e base causes ! automatic valve to op5 & admits mixture f ! c>buretor to ! crank case4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( its /roke1 ! compress$ gas is ignit$ & ! pi/on is driv5 d[n on ! p[] /roke1 compress+ ! gas 9 ! eng9e base4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,%[+ ,two-port1 ,two-cycle ,eng9e ,op]ation4 ,:5 ! top ( ! pi/on uncov]s ! exhau/ port ! flam+ gas escapes because ( its pressure4 ,a d[nw>d movem5t ( ! pi/on uncov]s ! inlet port opposite ! exhau/ & p]mits ! fre% gas to bypass ?r\gh ! transf] passage f ! eng9e base to ! cyl9d]4 ,! conditions ) ! intake & exhau/ port fully op5$ are cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #h1 ,c4 ,! deflector plate on ! top ( ! pi/on directs ! ent]+ fre% gas to ! top ( ! cyl9d] & prev5ts ! ma9 portion ( ! gas /ream f fl[+ out ?r\gh ! op5 exhau/ port4 ,on ! next up/roke ( ! pi/on ! gas 9 ! cyl9d] is compress$ & ! inlet valve op5$1 z %[n at ,a to p]mit a fre% *>ge to ent] ! eng9e base4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,def9+ ,?ree-port1 ,two-cycle ,eng9e ,action4 ,! op]at+ pr9ciple ( ! ?ree-port1 two-cycle eng9e is practically ! same z t previ\sly describ$ ) ! exception t ! gas is admitt$ to ! crank-case ?r\gh a ?ird port 9 ! cyl9d] wall1 :i* is uncov]$ by ! pi/on :5 t memb] rea*es ! end ( its up/roke4 ,! action ( ! ?ree-port =m c be readily asc]ta9$ by /udy+ ! diagrams giv5 at ,fig4 #i4 ,comb9ation two- & ?ree-port eng9es h be5 evolv$ & o!r modifications made to improve ! action4 ,,! ,,two-,,cycle ,,& ,,f\r-,,cycle ,,types ,9 ! e>li] ye>s ( explosive-motor progress 0 evolv$ ! two types ( motors 9 reg>d to ! cycles ( _! op]ation4 ,! e>ly attempts to p]fect ! two-cycle pr9ciple 7 = _m ye>s held 9 abeyance f ! pressure ( int]e/s 9 ! f\r-cycle type1 until its simplicity & p[] possibilities 7 demon/rat$ by ,mr4 ,dugald ,cl]k 9 ,engl&1 :o gave ! pr9ciples ( ! two-cycle motor a broad be>+ lead+ to imm$iate improvem5ts 9 design1 :i* has made fur!r progress 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 until at ! pres5t "t x has an equal /&>d value z a motor-p[] 9 "s applications z its anci5t rival ! f\r-cycle or ,otto type1 z demon/rat$ by ,beau de ,ro*a 9 #ahfb4 ,!rmodynamically1 ! me?ods ( ! two types are equal z f> z combu/ion is conc]n$1 & compression may favor 9 a small degree ! f\r-cycle type z well z ! purity ( ! *>ge4 ,! cyl9d] volume ( ! two-cycle motor is mu* small] p] unit ( p[]1 & ! envelop+ cyl9d] surface is !re=e great] p] unit ( volume4 ,h5ce m heat is c>ri$ (f by ! jacket wat] dur+ compression1 & ! high] compression available f ?is t5ds to increase ! economy dur+ compression :i* is lo/ dur+ expansion4 ,f ! above consid]ations x may be safely /at$ t a l[] temp]ature & high] pressure ( *>ge at ! beg9n+ ( compression is obta9$ 9 ! two-cycle motor1 great] weight ( *>ge & great] specific p[] ( high] compression result+ 9 high] !rmal effici5cy4 ,! small] cyl9d] = ! same p[] ( ! two-cycle motor gives less friction surface p] impulse ?an ( ! o!r type2 al?\gh ! crank-*amb] pressure may1 9 a measure1 balance ! friction ( ! f\r-cycle type4 ,probably ! /ronge/ po9ts 9 favor ( ! two-cycle type are ! light] fly-:eel & ! abs5ce ( valves & valve ge>1 mak+ ?is type ! mo/ simple 9 con/ruction & ! lighte/ 9 weight = its develop$ p[]4 ,yet1 = ! l>g] p[] units1 ! f\r-cycle type w no d\bt always ma9ta9 ! /&>d = effici5cy & durability ( action4 ,! di/ribution ( ! *>ge & its degree ( mixture ) ! rema9s ( ! previ\s explosion 9 ! cle>ance space1 has be5 a matt] ( discussion = bo? types ( explosive motors1 ) d\btful results4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj1 ,a we illu/rate :at !ory sugge/s z to ! di/ribution ( ! fre% *>ge 9 a two-cycle motor1 & 9 ,fig4 #aj1 ,b :at is ! probable di/ribution ( ! mixture :5 ! pi/on />ts on its compressive /roke4 ,! arr[s %[ ! probable direction ( fl[ ( ! fre% *>ge & burnt gases at ! crucial mom5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,diagrams ,contra/+ ,action ( ,two- & ,f\r-,cycle ,cyl9d]s on ,exhau/ & ,intake ,/roke4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj1 ,c is %[n ! complete out-sweep ( ! products ( combu/ion = ! full ext5t ( ! pi/on /roke ( a f\r-cycle motor1 leav+ only ! volume ( ! cle>ance to mix ) ! new *>ge & at ,d ! mann] by :i* ! new *>ge sweeps by ! ignition device1 keep+ x cool & avoid+ possibilities ( pre-ignition by undue heat+ ( ! t]m9als ( ! sp>k+ device4 ,?us1 by envelop+ ! sp>k+ device ) ! pure mixture1 ignition spreads ?r\gh ! *>ge ) its greate/ possible velocity1 a mo/ desirable condition 9 high-spe$ motors ) side-valve *amb]s & ignit]s )9 ! valve *amb]4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,gas ,,& ,,gasol9e ,,eng9e ,! laws controll+ ! elem5ts t create a p[] by _! expansion by heat due to combu/ion1 :5 prop]ly und]/ood1 become a matt] ( computation 9 reg>d to _! value z an ag5t = g5]at+ p[] 9 ! v>i\s k9ds ( explosive eng9es4 ,! me?od ( heat+ ! elem5ts ( p[] 9 explosive eng9es greatly wid5s ! limits ( temp]ature z available 9 o!r types ( heat-eng9es4 ,x disposes ( _m ( ! practical tr\bles ( hot-air1 & ev5 ( /eam-eng9es1 9 ! simplicity & directness ( application ( ! elem5ts ( p[]4 ,9 ! explosive eng9e ! difficulty ( convey+ heat = produc+ expansive effect by convection is displac$ by ! g5]ation ( ! requir$ heat )9 ! expansive elem5t & at ! in/ant ( its useful "w4 ,! l[ conductivity ( heat to & f air has be5 ! great ob/acle 9 ! practical developm5t ( ! hot-air eng9e2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 x has become ! s\rce ( economy & practicability 9 ! developm5t ( ! int]nal-combu/ion eng9e4 ,! action ( air1 gas1 & ! vapors ( gasol9e & petroleum oil1 :e!r s+ly or mix$1 is affect$ by *anges ( temp]ature practically 9 ne>ly ! same ratio2 b :5 ! elem5ts t produce combu/ion are int]*ang$ 9 conf9$ spaces1 !re is a m>k$ diff]5ce ( effect4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air1 ! hydrog5 & c>bon ( a gas1 or vapor ( gasol9e or petroleum oil are ! elem5ts t by combu/ion produce heat to exp& ! nitrog5 ( ! air & ! wat]y vapor produc$ by ! union ( ! oxyg5 9 ! air & ! hydrog5 9 ! gas1 z well z also ! monoxide & c>bonic-acid gas t may be =m$ by ! union ( ! c>bon ( gas or vapor ) "p ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! v>i\s mixtures z betwe5 air & gas1 or air & vapor1 ) ! proportion ( ! products ( combu/ion left 9 ! cyl9d] f a previ\s combu/ion1 =m ! elem5ts to be consid]$ 9 e/imat+ ! am\nt ( pressure t may be obta9$ by _! combu/ion & expansive =ce4 ,,e>ly ,,gas ,,eng9e ,,=ms ,! work+ process ( ! explosive motor may be divid$ into ?ree pr9cipal types3 #a4 ,motors ) *>ges ignit+ at con/ant volume )\t compression1 su* z ! ,l5oir1 ,hugon1 & o!r simil> types n[ ab&on$ z wa/eful 9 fuel & effect4 #b4 ,motors ) *>ges ignit+ at con/ant pressure ) compression1 9 :i* a receiv] is *>g$ by a pump & ! gases burn$ :ile be+ admitt$ to ! motor cyl9d]1 su* z types ( ! ,simon & ,brayton eng9e4 #c4 ,motors ) *>ges ignit+ at con/ant volume ) v>iable compression1 su* z ! lat] two- & f\r-cycle motors ) compression ( ! indrawn *>ge2 limit$ 9 ! two-cycle type & v>iable 9 ! f\r-cycle type ) ! ratios ( ! cle>ance space 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is pr9ciple produces ! explosive motor ( greate/ effici5cy4 ,! ph5om5a ( ! brilliant light & its accompany+ heat at ! mom5t ( explosion h be5 witness$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,dugald ,cl]k 9 ,engl&1 ! illum9ation la/+ ?r\gh\t ! /roke2 b 9 reg>d to "t 9 a f\r-cycle eng9e1 ! inc&esc5t /ate exi/s only "o-qu>t] ( ! runn+ "t4 ,?us ! "t int]val1 toge!r ) ! non-conductibility ( ! gases1 makes ! ph5om5a ( a high-temp]ature combu/ion )9 ! comp>atively cool walls ( a cyl9d] a practical possibility4 ,,! ,,iso!rmal ,,law ,! natural laws1 long s9ce promulgat$ by ,boyle1 ,gay ,lussac1 & o!rs1 on ! subject ( ! expansion & compression ( gases by =ce & by heat1 & _! v>iable pressures & temp]atures :5 conf9$1 are conc$$ to be practically true & applicable to all gases1 :e!r s+le1 mix$1 or comb9$4 ,! law =mulat$ by ,boyle only relates to ! compression & expansion ( gases )\t a *ange ( temp]ature1 & is /at$ 9 ^! words3 ,if ! temp]ature ( a gas be kept con/ant1 its pressure or ela/ic =ce w v>y inv]sely z ! volume x occupies4 ,x is express$ 9 ! =mula ,p x ,v ,c1 or pressure x volume con/ant4 ,h5ce1 ,c_/,p ,v & ,c_/,v ,p4 ,?us ! curve =m$ by increm5ts ( pressure dur+ ! expansion or compression ( a giv5 volume ( gas )\t *ange ( temp]ature is designat$ z ! iso!rmal curve 9 :i* ! volume multipli$ by ! pressure is a con/ant value 9 expansion1 & inv]sely ! pressure divid$ by ! volume is a con/ant value 9 compress+ a gas4 ,b z compression & expansion ( gases require =ce = _! accompli%m5t me*anically1 or by ! application or ab/raction ( heat *emically1 or by convection1 a second condition becomes involv$1 :i* 0 =mulat$ into a law ( !rmodynamics by ,gay ,lussac "u ! foll[+ conditions3 ,a giv5 volume ( gas "u a free pi/on exp&s by heat & contracts by ! loss ( heat1 its volume caus+ a proportional movem5t ( a free pi/on equal to #a_/bgc "p ( ! cyl9d] volume = ea* degree ,c5tigrade diff]5ce 9 temp]ature1 or #a_/dib "p ( its volume = ea* degree ,fahr5heit4 ,) a fix$ pi/on 7con/ant volume71 ! pressure is increas$ or decreas$ by an increase or decrease ( heat 9 ! same proportion ( #a_/bgc "p ( its pressure = ea* degree ,c5tigrade1 or #a_/dib "p ( its pressure = ea* degree ,fahr5heit *ange 9 temp]ature4 ,?is is ! natural sequ5ce ( ! law ( me*anical equival5t1 :i* is a necess>y d$uction f ! pr9ciple t no?+ 9 nature c be lo/ or wa/$1 = all ! heat t is imp>t$ to or ab/ract$ f a gase\s body mu/ be acc\nt$ =1 ei!r z heat or its equival5t trans=m$ into "s o!r =m ( en]gy4 ,9 ! case ( a pi/on mov+ 9 a cyl9d] by ! expansive =ce ( heat 9 a gase\s body1 all ! heat exp5d$ 9 expansion ( ! gas is turn$ into "w2 ! balance mu/ be acc\nt$ = 9 absorption by ! cyl9d] or radiation4 ,,! ,,adiabatic ,,law ,?is !ory is equally applicable to ! cool+ ( gases by ab/raction ( heat or by cool+ due to expansion by ! motion ( a pi/on4 ,! d5om9ators ( ^! heat fractions ( expansion or contraction repres5t ! absolute z]o ( cold bel[ ! freez+-po9t ( wat]1 & read -#bgc deg4 ,c4 or -#dib4ff deg4 -#dfj4ff deg4 ,f4 bel[ z]o2 & ^! are ! />t+-po9ts ( ref]5ce 9 comput+ ! heat expansion 9 gas-eng9es4 ,accord+ to ,boyle's law1 call$ ! fir/ law ( gases1 !re are b two *>act]i/ics ( a gas & _! v>iations to be consid]$1 viz41 volume & pressure3 :ile by ! law ( ,gay ,lussac1 call$ ! second law ( gases1 a ?ird is add$1 consi/+ ( ! value ( ! absolute temp]ature1 c\nt+ f absolute z]o to ! temp]atures at :i* ! op]ations take place4 ,?is is ! ,adiabatic law4 ,! ratio ( ! v>iation ( ! ?ree conditions--volume1 pressure1 & heat--f ! absolute z]o temp]ature has a c]ta9 rate1 9 :i* ! volume multipli$ by ! pressure & ! product divid$ by ! absolute temp]ature equals ! ratio ( expansion = ea* degree4 ,if a volume ( air is conta9$ 9 a cyl9d] hav+ a pi/on & fitt$ ) an indicator1 ! pi/on1 if mov$ to & fro sl[ly1 w alt]nately compress & exp& ! air1 & ! indicator p5cil w trace a l9e or l9es ^u ! c>d1 :i* l9es regi/] ! *ange ( pressure & volume occurr+ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,if ! pi/on is p]fectly free f leakage1 & x be suppos$ t ! temp]ature ( ! air is kept q con/ant1 !n ! l9e s trac$ is call$ an ,iso!rmal l9e1 & ! pressure at any po9t :5 multipli$ by ! volume is a con/ant1 accord+ to ,boyle's law1 pv a con/ant4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! pi/on is mov$ v rapidly1 ! air w n rema9 at con/ant temp]ature1 b ! temp]ature w increase because "w has be5 done ^u ! air1 & ! heat has no "t to escape by conduction4 ,if no heat :atev] is lo/ by any cause1 ! l9e w be trac$ ov] & ov] aga9 by ! indicator p5cil1 ! cool+ by expansion do+ "w precisely equall+ ! heat+ by compression4 ,?is is ! l9e ( no transmission ( heat1 !re=e kn[n z ,adiabatic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,diagram ,iso!rmal & ,adiabatic ,l9es4 ,! expansion ( a gas #a_/bgc ( its volume = e degree ,c5tigrade1 add$ to its temp]ature1 is equal to ! decimal 4#jjcff1 ! coeffici5t ( expansion = ,c5tigrade units4 ,to any giv5 volume ( a gas1 its expansion may be comput$ by multiply+ ! coeffici5t by ! numb] ( degrees1 & by rev]s+ ! process ! degree ( acquir$ heat may be obta9$ approximately4 ,^! me?ods are n /rictly 9 con=mity ) ! absolute ma!matical =mula1 because !re is a small increase 9 ! increm5t ( expansion ( a dry gas1 & !re is also a slight diff]5ce 9 ! increm5t ( expansion due to moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e & to ! vapor ( wat] =m$ by ! union ( ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ( explosive eng9es4 ,,temp]ature ,,computations ,! ratio ( expansion on ! ,fahr5heit scale is d]iv$ f ! absolute temp]ature bel[ ! freez+-po9t ( wat] 7#cb deg47 to correspond ) ! ,c5tigrade scale2 !re=e #a_/dib4ff 4#jjbjbig1 ! ratio ( expansion f #cb deg4 = ea* degree rise 9 temp]ature on ! ,fahr5heit scale4 ,z an example1 if ! temp]ature ( any volume ( air or gas at con/ant volume is rais$1 say f #fj deg4 to #bjjj deg4 ,f41 ! increase 9 temp]ature w be #aidj deg44 ,! ratio w be #a_/ebj4ff 4#jjaibjf4 ,!n by ! =mula3 ,ratio x acquir$ temp4 x initial pressure ! gauge pressure2 & 4#jjaibjf x #aidj deg4 x #ad4g #ed4gg lbs4 ,by ano!r =mula1 a conv5i5t ratio is obta9$ by 7absolute pressure7_/7absolute temp47 or #ad4g_/ebj4ff 4#jbhbcc2 !n1 us+ ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature z be=e1 4#jbhbcc x #aidj deg4 #ed4gg lbs4 pressure4 ,by ano!r =mula1 leav+ out a small increm5t due to specific heat at high temp]atures3 ,atmosph]ic pressure x absolute temp4 acquir$ temp4 ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,absolute temp4 initial temp4 absolute pressure due to ! acquir$ temp]ature1 f :i* ! atmosph]ic pressure is d$uct$ = ! gauge pressure4 ,us+ ! =ego+ example1 we h 7#ad4g x #dfj4ff deg4 #bjjj deg47_/7#dfj4ff #fj deg47 #fi4dg - #ad4g #ed4gg1 ! gauge pressure1 #dfj4ff be+ ! absolute temp]ature = z]o ,fahr5heit4 ,= obta9+ ! volume ( expansion ( a gas f a giv5 increm5t ( heat1 we h ! approximate =mula3 ,volume x absolute temp4 acquir$ temp4 ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,absolute temp4 initial temp4 heat$ volume4 ,9 apply+ ?is =mula to ! =ego+ example1 ! figures become3 #dfj4ff deg4 #bjjj deg4 ,i4 x ------------------------- #d4gbfjd volumes4 #dfj4ff #fj deg4 ,f ?is la/ t]m ! gauge pressure may be obta9$ z foll[s3 ,,iii4 #d4gbfjd x #ad4g #fi4dg lbs4 absolute - #ad4g lbs4 atmosph]ic pressure #ed4gg lbs4 gauge pressure2 :i* is ! !oretical pressure due to heat+ air 9 a conf9$ space1 or at con/ant volume f #fj deg4 to #bjjj deg4 ,f4 ,by inv]sion ( ! heat =mula = absolute pressure we h ! =mula = ! acquir$ heat1 d]iv$ f combu/ion at con/ant volume f atmosph]ic pressure to gauge pressure plus atmosph]ic pressure z d]iv$ f ,example ,i41 by :i* ! expression absolute pressure x absolute temp4 initial temp4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ initial absolute pressure absolute temp]ature temp]ature ( combu/ion1 f :i* ! acquir$ temp]ature is obta9$ by subtract+ ! absolute temp]ature4 ,!n1 = example1 7#fi4dg x #dfj4ff #fj7_/ad4g #bdfj4ff1 & #bdfj4ff - #dfj4ff #bjjj deg41 ! !oretical heat ( combu/ion4 ,! dropp+ ( t]m9al decimals makes a small decimal diff]5ce 9 ! result 9 ! diff]5t =mulas4 ,,heat ,,& ,,its ,,"w ,by ,j\le's law ( ! me*anical equival5t ( heat1 :5ev] heat is imp>t$ to an ela/ic body1 z air or gas1 en]gy is g5]at$ & me*anical "w produc$ by ! expansion ( ! air or gas4 ,:5 ! heat is imp>t$ by combu/ion )9 a cyl9d] conta9+ a movable pi/on1 ! me*anical "w becomes an am\nt measurable by ! obs]v$ pressure & movem5t ( ! pi/on4 ,! heat g5]at$ by ! explosive elem5ts & ! expansion ( ! non-comb9+ elem5ts ( nitrog5 & wat] vapor t may h be5 inject$ into ! cyl9d] z moi/ure 9 ! air1 & ! wat] vapor =m$ by ! union ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air ) ! hydrog5 ( ! gas1 all add to ! en]gy ( ! "w f _! expansion by ! heat ( int]nal combu/ion4 ,z aga9/ ?is1 ! absorption ( heat by ! walls ( ! cyl9d]1 ! pi/on1 & cyl9d]-head or cle>ance walls1 becomes a modify+ condition 9 ! =ce imp>t$ to ! mov+ pi/on4 ,x is f\nd t :5 any explosive mixture ( air & gas or hydroc>bon vapor is fir$1 ! pressure falls f> %ort ( ! pressure comput$ f ! !oretical effect ( ! heat produc$1 & f gaug+ ! expansion ( ! cont5ts ( a cyl9d]4 ,x is n[ well kn[n t 9 practice ! high effici5cy :i* is promis$ by !oretical calculation is nev] realiz$2 b x mu/ always be rememb]$ t ! heat ( combu/ion is ! real ag5t1 & t ! gases & vapors are b ! m$ium = ! conv]sion ( in]t elem5ts ( p[] into ! activity ( en]gy by _! *emical union4 ,! !ory ( combu/ion has be5 ! lead+ /imulus to l>ge expectations ) inv5tors & con/ructors ( explosive motors2 its entanglem5t ) ! modify+ elem5ts 9 practice has delay$ ! be/ developm5t 9 con/ruction1 & z yet no really positive design ( be/ =m or action seems to h be5 accompli%$1 al?\gh great progress has be5 made dur+ ! pa/ decade 9 ! developm5t ( spe$1 reliability1 economy1 & p[] output ( ! individual units ( ?is comp>atively new p[]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s]i\s difficulties 9 ! practical developm5t ( pressure1 due to ! !oretical computations ( ! pressure value ( ! full heat1 is probably caus$ by imp>t+ ! heat ( ! fre% *>ge to ! balance ( ! previ\s *>ge t has be5 cool$ by expansion f ! maximum pressure to ne> ! atmosph]ic pressure ( ! exhau/4 ,! ret>dation 9 ! velocity ( combu/ion ( p]fectly mix$ elem5ts is n[ well kn[n f exp]im5tal trials ) measur$ quantities2 b ! pr9cipal difficulty 9 apply+ ^! conditions to ! practical "w ( an explosive eng9e :]e a necessity = a l>ge cle>ance space _c be obviat$1 is 9 ! inability to obta9 a maximum effect f ! imp]fect mixture & ! m+l+ ( ! products ( ! la/ explosion ) ! new mixture1 :i* produces a cl\d$ condition t makes ! ignition ( ! mass irregul> or *att]+1 z obs]v$ 9 ! expansion l9es ( indicator c>ds2 b ?is mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! reaction ( ! spr+ 9 ! indicator4 ,/ratification ( ! mixture has be5 claim$ z tak+ place 9 ! cle>ance *amb] ( ! cyl9d]2 b ?is is n a satisfactory explanation 9 view ( ! vortical effect ( ! viol5t injection ( ! air & gas or vapor mixture4 ,x c]ta9ly _c become a p]fect mixture 9 ! "t ( a /roke ( a high-spe$ motor ( ! two-cycle class4 ,9 a f\r-cycle eng9e1 mak+ #a1ejj revolutions p] m9ute1 ! injection & compression 9 any "o cyl9d] take place 9 "o tw5ty-fif? ( a second--=m]ly consid]$ f> too %ort a "t = a p]fect infusion ( ! elem5ts ( combu/ion b n[ v easily tak5 c>e ( despite ! extremely high spe$ ( num]\s aviation & automobile p[]-plants4 ,,table ,i4--,,explosion ,,at ,,con/ant ,,volume ,,9 ,a ,,clos$ ,,*amb]4 ,dia- ,temp4 ,"t ,ob- ,com- gram ( ( s]v$ put$ ,curve ,mixture ,inject$4 ,injec-,explo- ,gauge ,temp4 ,fig4 tion sion ,pressure,fahr4 #h4 ,fahr4,second4 ,p\nds ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- a #a volume gas to #ad volumes air4 #fd deg #j4de #dj4 #a1dhc deg4 b #a #ac #ea deg #j4ca #ea4e #a1hei deg4 c #a #ab #ea deg #j4bd #fj4 #b1aie deg4 d #a #aa #ea deg #j4ag #fa4 #b1bbh deg4 e #a #i #fb deg #j4jh #gh4 #b1hce deg4 f #a #g #fb deg #j4jf #hg4 #c1aea deg4 g #a #f #ea deg #j4jd #ij4 #c1beg deg4 h #a #e #ea deg #j4jee #ia4 #c1bic deg4 i #a #d #ff deg #j4af #hj4 #b1hga deg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,9 an exam9ation ( ! times ( explosion & ! correspond+ pressures 9 bo? tables1 x w be se5 t a mixture ( #a "p gas to #f p>ts air is ! mo/ effective & w give ! highe/ mean pressure 9 a gas-eng9e4 ,!re is a limit to ! relative proportions ( illum9at+ gas & air mixture t is explosive1 some:at v>iable1 dep5d+ ^u ! proportion ( hydrog5 9 ! gas4 ,) ord9>y coal-gas1 #a ( gas to #ae p>ts ( air2 & on ! l[] end ( ! scale1 #a volume ( gas to #b p>ts air1 are non-explosive4 ,) gasol9e vapor ! explosive effect ceases at #a to #af1 & a saturat$ mixture ( equal volumes ( vapor & air w n explode1 :ile ! mo/ int5se explosive effect is f a mixture ( #a "p vapor to #i p>ts air4 ,9 ! use ( gasol9e & air mixtures f a c>buretor1 ! be/ effect is f #a "p saturat$ air to #h p>ts free air4 ,,table ,,ii4--,,prop]ties ,,& ,,explosive ,,temp]ature ,,( ,a ,,mixture ,,( ,,"o ,,"p ,,( ,,illum9at+ ,,gas ,,( #ffj ,,!rmal ,,units ,,p] ,,cubic ,,foot ,,) ,,v>i\s ,,proportions ,,( ,,air ,,)\t ,,mixture ,,( ,,*>ge ,,) ,,! ,,products ,,( ,a ,,previ\s ,,explosion4 ,a ,proportion1 ,air to ,gas by ,volumes4 ,b ,p\nds 9 ,"o ,cubic ,foot ( ,mixture4 ,c ,specific ,heat4 ,heat ,units ,requir$ to ,raise #a ,lb4 #a ,deg4 ,fahr5heit4 ,con/ant ,pressure4 ,d ,specific ,heat4 ,heat ,units ,requir$ to ,raise #a ,lb4 #a ,deg4 ,fahr5heit4 ,con/ant ,volume4 ,e ,heat to ,raise ,"o ,cubic ,foot ( ,mixture #a ,deg4 ,fahr4 ,f ,heat ,units ,evolv$ by ,combu/ion4 ,g ,ratio ,col4 #f_/e ,h ,usual ,combu/ion ,effici5cy4 ,i ,usual ,rise ( ,temp]ature due to ,explosion at ,con/ant ,volume4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #f to #a 4#jgdaie 4#bffh 4#aiac 4#jadahi #id4bh #ffdd4f 4#dfe #cjij #g to #a 4#jgejab 4#bfbh 4#ahhb 4#jadaaf #hb4 #ehdd4d 4#eah #cjbg #h to #a 4#jgefdg 4#beih 4#aheh 4#jadjei #gc4cc #ebaf4a 4#edc #bhcb #i to #a 4#jgfaee 4#bege 4#ahdf 4#jadjac #ff4 #dgji4i 4#ef #bfcg #aj to #a 4#jgfega 4#beee 4#ahbe 4#jacigf #fj4 #dbic4 4#ege #bdfh #aa to #a 4#jgfiag 4#bedj 4#ahac 4#jacide #ee4 #cidd4 4#ehe #bcjg #ab to #a 4#jggbaa 4#bebf 4#ahjc 4#jacibb #ej4gg #cfdf4g 4#eh #baae ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,! weight ( a cubic foot ( gas & air mixture z giv5 9 ,col4 #b is f\nd by add+ ! numb] ( volumes ( air multipli$ by its weight1 4#jhjg1 to "o volume ( gas ( weight 4#jce p\nd p] cubic foot & divid+ by ! total numb] ( volumes2 = example1 z 9 ! table1 #f x 4#jhjg 4#eaib_/g 4#jgdaie z 9 ! fir/ l9e1 & s on = any mixture or = o!r gases ( diff]5t specific weight p] cubic foot4 ,! heat units evolv$ by combu/ion ( ! mixture 7,col4 #f7 are obta9$ by divid+ ! total heat units 9 a cubic foot ( gas by ! total proportion ( ! mixture1 #ffj_/g #id4bh z 9 ! fir/ l9e ( ! table4 ,col4 #e is obta9$ by multiply+ ! weight ( a cubic foot ( ! mixture 9 ,col4 #b by ! specific heat at a con/ant volume 7,col4 #d71 ,col4 #f_/;,col4 #e ,col4 #g ! total heat ratio1 ( :i* ,col4 #h gives ! usual combu/ion effici5cy--,col4 #g x ,col4 #h gives ! absolute rise 9 temp]ature ( a pure mixture1 z giv5 9 ,col4 #i4 ,! _m record$ exp]im5ts made to solve ! discrepancy betwe5 ! !oretical & ! actual heat developm5t & result+ pressures 9 ! cyl9d] ( an explosive motor1 to :i* mu* discussion has be5 giv5 z to ! possibilities ( dissociation & ! increas$ specific heat ( ! elem5ts ( combu/ion & non-combu/ion1 z well1 also1 ( absorption & radiation ( heat1 h z yet furni%$ no satisfactory conclusion z to :at really takes place )9 ! cyl9d] walls4 ,!re seems to be v little kn[n ab\t dissociation1 & some:at vague !ories h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! ph5om5on4 ,! fact is1 nev]!less1 app>5t z %[n 9 ! production ( wat] & o!r produc] gases by ! use ( /eam 9 contact ) highly inc&esc5t fuel4 ,x is kn[n t a maximum explosive mixture ( pure gases1 z hydrog5 & oxyg5 or c>bonic oxide & oxyg51 suff]s a contraction ( "o-?ird _! volume by combu/ion to _! comp\nds1 /eam or c>bonic acid4 ,9 ! explosive mixtures 9 ! cyl9d] ( a motor1 h[ev]1 ! comb9+ elem5ts =m s small a proportion ( ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d] t ! %r9kage ( _! volume am\nts to no m ?an #c p] c5t4 ( ! cyl9d] volume4 ,?is by no means acc\nts = ! great heat & pressure diff]5ces betwe5 ! !oretical & actual effects4 ,,conv]sion ,,( ,,heat ,,to ,,p[] ,! utilization ( heat 9 any heat-eng9e has long be5 a !me ( inquiry & exp]im5t ) sci5ti/s & eng9e]s1 = ! purpose ( obta9+ ! be/ practical conditions & con/ruction ( heat-eng9es t w\ld repres5t ! highe/ effici5cy or ! ne>e/ approa* to ! !oretical value ( heat1 z measur$ by empirical laws t h be5 d]iv$ f exp]im5tal rese>*es relat+ to its ultimate volume4 ,x is well kn[n t ! /eam-eng9e returns only f #ab to #ah p] c5t4 ( ! p[] due to ! heat g5]at$ by ! fuel1 ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( ! total heat be+ lo/ 9 ! *imney1 ! only use ( :i* is to create a draught = ! fire2 ! balance1 "s #fj p] c5t41 is lo/ 9 ! exhau/ & by radiation4 ,! problem ( utmo/ utilization ( =ce 9 /eam has ne>ly rea*$ its limit4 ,! int]nal-combu/ion sy/em ( creat+ p[] is comp>atively new 9 practice1 & is b j settl+ into def9ite %ape by repeat$ trials & modification ( details1 s z to give some:at reliable data z to :at may be expect$ f ! rival ( ! /eam-eng9e z a prime mov]4 ,= small p[]s1 ! gas1 gasol9e1 & petroleum-oil eng9es are =g+ ahead at a rapid rate1 fill+ ! ?\s& wants ( manufacture & bus9ess = a p[] t does n require exp5sive c>e1 t is p]fectly safe at all times1 t c be us$ 9 any place 9 ! wide _w to :i* its conc5trat$ fuel c be convey$1 & t has elim9at$ ! con/ant h&l+ ( crude fuel & wat]4 ,,requisites ,,= ,,be/ ,,p[] ,,effect ,! utilization ( heat 9 a gas-eng9e is ma9ly due to ! mann] 9 :i* ! products ent]+ into combu/ion are di/ribut$ 9 relation to ! movem5t ( ! pi/on4 ,! inve/igation ( ! =emo/ expon5t ( ! !ory ( ! explosive motor 0 prophetic 9 consid]ation ( ! lat] realization ( ! be/ conditions "u :i* ^! motors c be made to meet ! requirem5ts ( economy & practicability4 ,z e>ly z #ahfb1 ,beau de ,ro*a ann\nc$1 9 reg>d to ! com+ p[]1 t f\r requisites 7 ! basis ( op]ation = economy & be/ effect4 #a4 ,! greate/ possible cyl9d] volume ) ! lea/ possible cool+ surface4 #b4 ,! greate/ possible rapidity ( expansion4 ,h5ce1 high spe$4 #c4 ,! greate/ possible expansion4 ,long /roke4 #d4 ,! greate/ possible pressure at ! comm5cem5t ( expansion4 ,high compression4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,effici5cy ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es--,v>i\s ,measures ( ,effici5cy--,temp]atures & ,pressures--,factors ,gov]n+ ,economy--,losses 9 ,wall ,cool+--,value ( ,indicator ,c>ds-- ,compression 9 ,explosive ,motors--,factors ,limit+ ,compression-- ,causes ( ,heat ,losses & ,ineffici5cy--,heat ,losses to ,cool+ ,wat]4 ,,effici5cy ,,( ,,int]nal ,,combu/ion ,,eng9es ,effici5cies are work$ out ?r\gh intricate =mulas = a v>iety ( !oretical & unkn[n conditions ( combu/ion 9 ! cyl9d]3 ratios ( cle>ance & cyl9d] volume1 & ! unc]ta9 condition ( ! products ( combu/ion left f ! la/ impulse & ! wall temp]ature4 ,b !y are ( b little value1 except z a ma!matical inquiry z to possibilities4 ,! real comm]cial effici5cy ( a gas or gasol9e-eng9e dep5ds ^u ! volume ( gas or liquid at "s assign$ co/1 requir$ p] actual brake horse-p[] p] h\r1 9 :i* an indicator c>d %\ld %[ t ! me*anical action ( ! valve ge> & ignition 0 z p]fect z practicable1 & t ! ratio ( cle>ance1 space1 & cyl9d] volume gave a satisfactory t]m9al pressure & compression3 i4e41 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! p[] figur$ f ! indicator c>d & ! brake p[] be+ ! friction loss ( ! eng9e4 ,9 f\r-cycle motors ( ! compression type1 ! effici5cies are greatly advanc$ by compression1 produc+ a m complete infusion ( ! mixture ( gas or vapor & air1 quick] fir+1 & f> great] pressure ?an is possible ) ! two-cycle type previ\sly describ$4 ,9 ! practical op]ation ( ! gas-eng9e dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s1 ! gas-consumption effici5cies p] indicat$ horse-p[] h gradually ris5 f #ag p] c5t4 to a maximum ( #dj p] c5t4 ( ! !oretical heat1 & ?is has be5 done *iefly ?r\gh a decreas$ combu/ion *amb] & increas$ compression--! compression hav+ gradually increas$ 9 practice f #cj lbs4 p] squ>e in* to above #ajj2 b !re seems to be a limit to compression1 z ! effici5cy ratio decreases ) great] increase 9 compression4 ,x has be5 %[n t an ideal effici5cy ( #cc p] c5t4 = #ch lbs41 compression w increase to #dj p] c5t4 = #ff lbs41 & #dc p] c5t4 = #hh lbs4 compression4 ,on ! o!r h&1 great] compression means great] explosive pressure & great] /ra9 on ! eng9e /ructure1 :i* w probably reta9 9 future practice ! compression betwe5 ! limits ( #dj & #ij lbs4 except 9 sup]-compression eng9es int5d$ = high altitude "w :]e compression pressures z high z #abe p\nds h be5 us$4 ,9 exp]im5ts made by ,dugald ,cl]k1 9 ,engl&1 ) a combu/ion *amb] equal to #j4f ( ! space swept by ! pi/on1 ) a compression ( #ch lbs41 ! consumption ( gas 0 #bd cubic feet p] indicat$ horse-p[] p] h\r4 ,) #j4d compression space & #fa lbs4 compression1 ! consumption ( gas 0 #bj cubic feet p] indicat$ horse-p[] p] h\r2 & ) #j4cd compression space & #hg lbs4 compression1 ! consumption ( gas fell to #ad4h cubic feet p] indicat$ horse-p[] p] h\r--! actual effici5cies be+ respectively #ag1 #ba1 & #be p] c5t4 ,?is 0 ) a ,crossley f\r-cycle eng9e4 ,,v>i\s ,,measures ,,( ,,effici5cy ,! effici5cies 9 reg>d to p[] 9 a heat-eng9e may be divid$ into f\r k9ds1 z foll[s3 ,i4 ,! fir/ is kn[n z ! maximum !oretical effici5cy ( a p]fect eng9e 7repres5t$ by ! l9es 9 ! indicator diagram74 ,x is express$ by ! =mula 7,t#a - ,t#j7_/,t#a & %[s ! "w ( a p]fect cycle 9 an eng9e work+ betwe5 ! receiv$ temp]ature absolute temp]ature 7,t#a7 & ! initial atmosph]ic temp]ature absolute temp]ature 7,t#j74 ,,ii4 ,! second is ! actual heat effici5cy1 or ! ratio ( ! heat turn$ into "w to ! total heat receiv$ by ! eng9e4 ,x expresses ! indicat$ horse-p[]4 ,,iii4 ,! ?ird is ! ratio betwe5 ! second or actual heat effici5cy & ! fir/ or maximum !oretical effici5cy ( a p]fect cycle4 ,x repres5ts ! greate/ possible utilization ( ! p[] ( heat 9 an int]nal-combu/ion eng9e4 ,,iv4 ,! f\r? is ! me*anical effici5cy4 ,?is is ! ratio betwe5 ! actual horse-p[] deliv]$ by ! eng9e ?r\gh a dynamomet] or measur$ by a brake 7brake horse-p[]71 & ! indicat$ horse-p[]4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is ! p[] lo/ by eng9e friction4 ,9 reg>d to ! g5]al heat effici5cy ( ! mat]ials ( p[] 9 explosive eng9es1 we f9d t ) good illum9at+ gas ! practical effici5cy v>ies f #be to #dj p] c5t42 k]os5e-motors1 #bj to #cj2 gasol9e-motors1 #bj to #cb2 acetyl5e1 #be to #ce2 alcohol1 #bj to #cj p] c5t4 ( _! heat value4 ,! great v>iation is no d\bt due to imp]fect mixtures & v>iable conditions ( ! old & new *>ge 9 ! cyl9d]2 unc]ta9ty z to leakage & ! p]fection ( combu/ion4 ,9 ! ,diesel motors op]at+ "u high pressure1 up to ne>ly #ejj p\nds1 an effici5cy ( #cf p] c5t4 is claim$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,graphic ,diagram ,%[+ ,approximate ,utilization ( ,fuel ,burn$ 9 ,int]nal-,combu/ion ,eng9e4 ,! graphic diagram at ,fig4 #ab is ( special value z x %[s cle>ly h[ ! heat produc$ by *>ge combu/ion is exp5d$ 9 an eng9e ( av]age design4 ,on g5]al pr9ciples ! great] diff]5ce betwe5 ! heat ( combu/ion & ! heat at exhau/ is ! relative measure ( ! heat turn$ into "w1 :i* repres5ts ! degree ( effici5cy )\t loss dur+ expansion4 ,! ma!matical =mulas app]ta9+ to ! computation ( ! elem5t ( heat & its "w 9 an explosive eng9e are 9 a l>ge measure dep5d5t ^u assum$ values1 z ! conditions ( ! heat ( combu/ion are made unc]ta9 by ! mix+ ( ! fre% *>ge ) ! products ( a previ\s combu/ion1 & by absorption1 radiation1 & leakage4 ,! computation ( ! temp]ature f ! obs]v$ pressure may be made z be=e expla9$1 b = compression-eng9es ! ne$$ />t+-po9ts = computation are v unc]ta91 & c only be approximat$ f ! exact measure & value ( ! elem5ts ( combu/ion 9 a cyl9d] *>ge4 ,,temp]atures ,,& ,,pressures ,ow+ to ! decrease f atmosph]ic pressure 9 ! indraw+ *>ge ( ! cyl9d]1 caus$ by valve & frictional ob/ruction1 ! compression seldom />ts above #ac lbs4 absolute1 especially 9 high-spe$ eng9es4 ,col4 #c 9 ! foll[+ table repres5ts ! approximate absolute compression pressure = ! cle>ance p]c5tage & ratio 9 ,cols4 #a & #b1 :ile ,col4 #d indicates ! gauge pressure f ! atmosph]ic l9e4 ,! temp]atures 9 ,col4 #e are due to ! compression 9 ,col4 #c f an assum$ temp]ature ( #efj deg4 ,f4 9 ! mixture ( ! fre% *>ge ( #f air to #a gas ) ! products ( combu/ion left 9 ! cle>ance *amb] f ! exhau/ /roke ( a m$ium-spe$ motor4 ,?is temp]ature is subject to consid]able v>iation f ! diff]5ce 9 ! heat-unit p[] ( ! gases & vapors us$ = explosive p[]1 z also ( ! cyl9d]-cool+ effect4 ,9 ,col4 #f is giv5 ! approximate temp]atures ( explosion = a mixture ( air #f to gas #a ( #ffj heat units p] cubic foot1 = ! relative values ( ! cle>ance ratio 9 ,col4 #b at con/ant volume4 ,,table ,,iii4--,,gas-,,eng9e ,,cle>ance ,,ratios1 ,,approximate ,,compression1 ,,temp]atures ,,( ,,explosion ,,& ,,explosive ,,pressures ,,) ,a ,,mixture ,,( ,,gas ,,( #ffj ,,heat ,,units ,,p] ,,cubic ,,foot ,,& ,,mixture ,,( ,,gas #a ,,to #f ,,( ,,air4 ,a ,cle>ance ,p] ,c5t4 ( ,pi/on ,volume4 ,b ,ratio 7,v_/,vc7 7,p ,c ,vol47_/,cle>ance ,c ,approximate ,compression f #ac ,p\nds ,absolute4 ,d ,approximate ,gauge ,pressure4 ,e ,absolute ,temp]ature ( ,compression f #efj ,deg4 ,fahr5heit 9 ,cyl9d]4 ,f ,absolute ,temp]ature ( ,explosion4 ,gas1 #a "p2 ,air1 #f p>ts4 ,g ,approximate ,explosion ,pressure ,absolute4 ,h ,approximate ,gauge ,pressure4 ,i ,approximate ,temp]ature ( ,explosion1 ,fahr5heit4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ---------------------------------------- --------- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ---------------------------------------- --------- ,lbs4 ,deg4 ,deg4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,deg4 4#ej #c4 #eg4 #db4 #hbb4 #bdhh #afi #add #bjbg 4#ddd #c4be #fe4 #ej4 #hdf4 #befh #aig #ahb #bajg 4#dj #c4ej #gj4 #ee4 #hfh4 #bfch #bab #aig #bagg 4#cfc #c4ge #gg4 #fb4 #hhi4 #bgja #bcd #bai #bbdj 4#ccc #d4 #hd4 #fi4 #iaj4 #bgea #bed #bci #bbij 4#bhe #d4ej #ajb4 #hh4 #iee4 #bhdb #cjc #bhh #bcha 4#be #e4 #aad4 #ii4 #ihc4 #bija #ccf #cba #bddj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,factors ,,gov]n+ ,,economy ,9 view ( ! exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction1 x cle>ly %[s t 9 practical "w1 to obta9 ! greate/ economy p] effective brake horse-p[]1 x is necess>y3 #a/4 ,to trans=m ! heat into "w ) ! greate/ rapidity me*anically all[able4 ,?is means high pi/on spe$4 #b;d4 ,to h high initial compression4 #c;d4 ,to r$uce ! duration ( contact betwe5 ! hot gases & ! cyl9d] walls to ! smalle/ am\nt possible2 :i* means %ort /roke & quick spe$1 ) a sph]ical cyl9d] head4 #d?4 ,to adju/ ! temp]ature ( ! jacket wat] to obta9 ! mo/ economical output ( actual p[]4 ,?is means wat]-tanks or wat]-coils1 ) air-cool+ surfaces suitable & adju/able to ! mo/ economical requirem5t ( ! eng9e1 :i* by late trials requires ! jacket wat] to be dis*>g$ at ab\t #bjj deg4 ,f4 #e?4 ,to r$uce ! wall surface ( ! cle>ance space or combu/ion *amb] to ! smalle/ possible area1 9 proportion to its requir$ volume4 ,?is less5s ! loss ( ! heat ( combu/ion by exposure to a l>ge surface1 & all[s ( a high] mean wall temp]ature to facilitate ! heat ( compression4 ,,losses ,,9 ,,wall ,,cool+ ,9 an exp]im5tal inve/igation ( ! effici5cy ( a gas-eng9e "u v>iable pi/on spe$s made 9 ,france1 x 0 f\nd t ! useful effect increases ) ! velocity ( ! pi/on--t is1 ) ! rate ( expansion ( ! burn+ gases ) mixtures ( uni=m volumes3 s t ! v>iations ( "t ( complete combu/ion at con/ant pressure1 & ! v>iations due to spe$1 9 a way comp5sate 9 _! effici5cies4 ,! dilute mixture1 be+ sl[ burn+1 w h its "t & pressure quick5$ by increas+ ! spe$4 ,c>eful trials give unmi/akable evid5ce t ! useful effect increases ) ! velocity ( ! pi/on--t is1 ) ! rate ( expansion ( ! burn+ gases4 ,! "t necess>y = ! explosion to become complete & to atta9 its maximum pressure dep5ds n only on ! composition ( ! mixture1 b also ^u ! rate ( expansion4 ,?is has be5 v]ifi$ 9 exp]im5ts ) a high-spe$ motor1 at spe$s f #ejj to #b1jjj revolutions p] m9ute1 or pi/on spe$s ( f #af to #fd feet p] second4 ,! increas$ spe$ ( combu/ion due to increas$ pi/on spe$ is a matt] ( great importance to build]s ( gas-eng9es1 z well z to ! us]s1 z indicat+ ! me*anical direction ( improvem5ts to less5 ! we>+ /ra9 due to high spe$ & to light5 ! vibrat+ p>ts ) increas$ /r5g?1 9 ord] t ! balanc+ ( high-spe$ eng9es may be accompli%$ ) ! lea/ weight4 ,f _m exp]im5ts made 9 ,europe & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x has be5 conclusively prov$ t excessive cyl9d] cool+ by ! wat]-jacket results 9 a m>k$ loss ( effici5cy4 ,9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) a simplex eng9e 9 ,france1 x 0 f\nd t a sav+ ( #g p] c5t4 9 gas consumption p] brake horse-p[] 0 made by rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! jacket wat] f #ada deg4 to #afe deg4 ,f4 ,a /ill great] sav+ 0 made 9 a trial ) an ,otto eng9e by rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! jacket wat] f #fa deg4 to #adj deg4 ,f4--x be+ #i4e p] c5t4 less gas p] brake horse-p[]4 ,x has be5 /at$ t volumes ( simil> cyl9d]s increase z ! cube ( _! diamet]s1 :ile ! surface ( _! cold walls v>ies z ! squ>e ( _! diamet]s2 s t = l>ge cyl9d]s ! ratio ( surface to volume is less ?an = small ones4 ,?is po9ts to great] economy 9 ! l>g] eng9es4 ,! /udy ( _m exp]im5ts goes to prove t combu/ion takes place gradually 9 ! gas-eng9e cyl9d]1 & t ! rate ( increase ( pressure or rapidity ( fir+ is controll$ by dilution & compression ( ! mixture1 z well z by ! rate ( expansion or pi/on spe$4 ,! rate ( combu/ion also dep5ds on ! size & %ape ( ! explosion *amb]1 & is increas$ by ! me*anical agitation ( ! mixture dur+ combu/ion1 & /ill m by ! mode ( fir+4 ,,value ,,( ,,indicator ,,c>ds ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,otto ,f\r-,cycle ,c>d4 ,to ! un9itiat$1 indicator c>ds are consid]able ( a my/]y2 to ^? capable ( read+ !m !y =m an index relative to ! action ( any eng9e4 ,an indicator c>d1 su* z %[n at ,fig4 #ac1 is m]ely a graphical repres5tation ( ! v>i\s pressures exi/+ 9 ! cyl9d] = diff]5t positions ( ! pi/on4 ,! l5g? is to "s scale t repres5ts ! /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,dur+ ! intake /roke1 ! pressure falls bel[ ! atmosph]ic l9e4 ,dur+ compression1 ! curve gradually becomes high] ow+ to increas+ pressure z ! volume is r$uc$4 ,aft] ignition ! pressure l9e moves upw>d almo/ /raight1 !n z ! pi/on goes d[n on ! explosion /roke1 ! pressure falls gradually to ! po9t ( exhau/ valve1 op5+ :5 ! sudd5 release ( ! imprison$ gas causes a r$uction 9 pressure to ne>ly atmosph]ic4 ,an indicator c>d1 or a s]ies ( !m1 w always %[ by its l9es ! normal or defective condition ( ! inlet valve & passages2 ! actual l9e ( compression2 ! fir+ mom5t2 ! pressure ( explosion2 ! velocity ( combu/ion2 ! normal or defective l9e ( expansion1 z measur$ by ! adiabatic curve1 & ! normal or defective op]ation ( ! exhau/ valve1 exhau/ passages1 & exhau/ pipe4 ,9 fact1 all ! cycles ( an explosive motor may be made a practical /udy f a close inve/igation ( ! l9es ( an indicator c>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,diesel ,motor ,c>d4 ,a mo/ unique c>d is t ( ! ,diesel motor 7,fig4 #ad71 :i* involves a di/9ct pr9ciple 9 ! design & op]ation ( int]nal-combu/ion motors1 9 t in/ead ( tak+ a mix$ *>ge = in/antane\s explosion1 its *>ge prim>ily is ( air & its compression to a pressure at :i* a temp]ature is atta9$ above ! ignit+ po9t ( ! fuel1 !n inject+ ! fuel "u a /ill high] pressure by :i* spontane\s combu/ion takes place gradually ) increas+ volume ov] ! compression = "p ( ! /roke or until ! fuel *>ge is consum$4 ,! motor ?us op]at+ betwe5 ! pressures ( #ejj & #ce lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 ) a cle>ance ( ab\t #g p] c5t41 has giv5 an effici5cy ( #cf p] c5t4 ( ! total heat value ( k]os5e oil4 ,,compression ,,9 ,,explosive ,,motors ,t ! compression 9 a gas1 gasol9e1 or oil-eng9e has a direct relation to ! p[] obta9$1 has be5 long kn[n to exp]i5c$ build]s1 hav+ be5 sugge/$ by ,m4 ,beau de ,ro*a1 9 #ahfb1 & aft]w>d br\ght into practical use 9 ! f\r-cycle or ,otto type ab\t #ahhj4 ,! degree ( compression has _h a gr[? f z]o1 9 ! e>ly eng9es1 to ! highe/ available due to ! v>y+ ignition temp]atures ( ! diff]5t gases & vapors us$ = explosive fuel1 9 ord] to avoid premature explosion f ! heat ( compression4 ,mu* ( ! increas$ p[] = equal-cyl9d] capacity is due to compression ( ! *>ge f ! fact t ! mo/ p[]ful explosion ( gases1 or ( any =m ( explosive mat]ial1 takes place :5 ! p>ticles are 9 ! close/ contact or cohesion ) "o ano!r1 less en]gy 9 ?is =m be+ consum$ by ! +r$i5ts !mselves to br+ ab\t _! *emical comb9ation1 & consequ5tly m en]gy is giv5 out 9 useful or available "w4 ,?is is be/ %[n by ! ignition ( gunp[d]1 :i*1 :5 ignit$ 9 ! op5 air1 burns rapidly1 b )\t explosion1 an explosion only tak+ place if ! p[d] be conf9$ or compress$ into a small space4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,diagram ( ,heat 9 ! ,gas ,eng9e ,cyl9d]4 ,9 a gas or gasol9e-motor ) a small cle>ance or compression space--) high compression--! surface ) :i* ! burn+ gases come into contact is mu* small] 9 comp>ison ) ! compression space 9 a l[-compression motor4 ,ano!r advantage ( a high-compression motor is t on acc\nt ( ! small] cle>ance ( combu/ion space less cool+ wat] is requir$ ?an ) a l[-compression motor1 z ! temp]ature1 & consequ5tly ! pressure1 falls m rapidly4 ,! loss ( heat ?r\gh ! wat]-jacket is ?us less 9 ! case ( a high-compression ?an 9 t ( a l[-compression motor4 ,9 ! non-compression type ( motor ! be/ results 7 obta9$ ) a *>ge ( #af to #ah p>ts ( gas & #ajj p>ts ( air1 :ile 9 ! compression type ! be/ results are obta9$ ) an explosive mixture ( #g to #aj p>ts ( gas & #ajj p>ts ( air1 ?us %[+ t by ! utilization ( compression a weak] *>ge ) a great] !rmal effici5cy is p]missible4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! explosive pressure result+ f ! ignition ( ! *>ge ( gas or gasol9e-vapor & air 9 ! gas-eng9e cyl9d] is ab\t #d-a_/b times ! pressure prior to ignition4 ,! difficulty ab\t gett+ high compression is t if ! pressure is too high ! *>ge is likely to ignite prematurely1 z compression always results 9 increas$ temp]ature4 ,! cyl9d] may become too hot1 a deposit ( c>bon1 a project+ electrode or plug body 9 ! cyl9d] may become inc&esc5t & ignite ! *>ge :i* has be5 excessively heat$ by ! high compression & mixture ( ! hot gases ( ! previ\s explosion4 ,,factors ,,limit+ ,,compression ,) gasol9e-vapor & air ! compression %\ld n be rais$ above ab\t #ij to #ie p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 _m manufactur]s n go+ above #fe or #gj p\nds4 ,= natural gas ! compression pressure may easily be rais$ to f #he to #ajj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,= gases ( l[ calorific value1 su* z bla/-furnace or produc]-gas1 ! compression may be increas$ to f #adj to #aij p\nds4 ,9 fact ! ability to raise ! compression to a high po9t ) ^! gases is "o ( ! pr9cipal reasons = _! successful adoption = gas-eng9e use4 ,9 k]os5e injection eng9es ! compression ( #bej p\nds p] squ>e in* has be5 us$ ) m>k$ economy4 ,_m tr\bles 9 reg>d to loss ( p[] & increase ( fuel h occurr$ & w no d\bt cont9ue1 ow+ to ! we> ( valves1 pi/on1 & cyl9d]1 :i* produces a loss 9 compression & explosive pressure & a wa/e ( fuel by leakage4 ,faulty adju/m5t ( valve movem5t is also a cause ( loss ( p[]2 :i* may be f t>dy clos+ ( ! inlet-valve or a too e>ly op5+ ( ! exhau/-valve4 ,! explosive pressure v>ies to a consid]able am\nt 9 proportion to ! compression pressure by ! diff]5ce 9 fuel value & ! proportions ( air mixtures1 s t = good illum9at+ gas ! explosive pressure may be f #b4e to #d times ! compression pressure4 ,= natural gas #c to #d4e1 = gasol9e #c to #e1 = produc]-gas #b to #c1 & = k]os5e by injection #c to #f4 ,! compression temp]atures1 al?\gh well kn[n & easily comput$ f a kn[n normal temp]ature ( ! explosive mixture1 are subject to ! effect ( ! unc]ta9 temp]ature ( ! gases ( ! previ\s explosion rema9+ 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! temp]ature ( its walls1 & ! relative volume ( ! *>ge1 :e!r full or scant2 :i* are t]ms too v>iable to make any computations reliable or available4 ,= ! !oretical compression temp]atures f a kn[n normal temp]ature1 we app5d a table ( ! rise 9 temp]ature = ! compression pressures 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,,table ,,iv4--,,compression ,,temp]atures ,,f ,a ,,normal ,,temp]ature ,,( #fj ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit4 #ajj lbs4 gauge #dhd deg4 #fj lbs4 gauge #cgc deg4 #ij lbs4 gauge #dei deg4 #ej lbs4 gauge #cci deg4 #hj lbs4 gauge #dcc deg4 #dj lbs4 gauge #cja deg4 #gj lbs4 gauge #djd deg4 #cj lbs4 gauge #beh deg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,*>t ,,= ,,det]m9+ ,,compression ,,pressures ,a v useful *>t 7,fig4 #af7 = det]m9+ compression pressures 9 gasol9e-eng9e cyl9d]s = v>i\s ratios ( compression space to total cyl9d] volume is giv5 by ,p4 ,s4 ,tice1 & describ$ 9 ! ,*ilton ,automobile ,directory by ! orig9ator z foll[s3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,*>t ,%[+ ,relation ,betwe5 ,compression ,volume & ,pressure4 ,x is _m times desirable to h at h& a conv5i5t means = at once det]m9+ ) accuracy :at ! compression pressure w be 9 a gasol9e-eng9e cyl9d]1 ! relation%ip betwe5 ! volume ( ! compression space & ! total cyl9d] volume or t swept by ! pi/on be+ kn[n4 ,! curve at ,fig4 #af is (f]$ z su* a means4 ,x is bas$ on empirical data ga!r$ f upw>d ( two doz5 mod]n automobile eng9es & repres5ts :at may be tak5 to be ! results z f\nd 9 practice4 ,x is usual = ! design] to f9d compression pressure values1 kn[+ ! volumes f ! equation ,p#b ,p#a 7,v#a_/,v#b7a4d #a :i* is = adiabatic compression ( air4 ,equation 7#a7 is "r en\gh 9 g5]al =m b gives results :i* are entirely too high1 z almo/ all design]s "k f exp]i5ce4 ,! tr\ble lies 9 ! int]*ange ( heat betwe5 ! compress$ gases & ! cyl9d] walls1 9 ! dim9ution ( ! expon5t 7#a4d 9 ! above7 due to ! less] ratio ( specific heat ( gasol9e vapor & 9 ! transf] ( heat f ! gases :i* are be+ compress$ to :atev] fuel may ent] ! cyl9d] 9 an unvaporiz$ condition4 ,also1 !re is always "s pi/on leakage1 &1 if ! =m ( ! equation 7#a7 is to be reta9$1 ?is also t5ds to l[] ! value ( ! expon5t4 ,f exp]i5ce ) _m eng9es1 x appe>s t compression rea*es its highe/ value 9 ! cyl9d] = b a %ort range ( motor spe$s1 usually dur+ ! mid-range4 ,also1 x appe>s t1 at ^? spe$s at :i* compression %[s its highe/ values1 ! initial pressure at ! />t ( ! compression /roke is f 4#e to 4#i lb4 bel[ atmosph]ic4 ,tak+ ?is latt] loss value1 :i* %[s m (t5 ?an ^? ( less] value1 ! compression is se5 to />t f an initial pressure ( #ac4i lbs4 p] sq4 94 absolute4 ,also1 exp]im5t %[s t if ! expon5t be giv5 ! value #a4bf1 in/ead ( #a4d1 ! equation w embrace all heat losses 9 ! compress$ gas1 & comp5sate = ! *ang$ ratio ( specific heats = ! mixture & also = all pi/on leakage1 9 ! av]age eng9e ) r+s 9 good condition & tight4 ,9 ! light ( ! =ego+1 & 9 view ( results obta9$ f its use1 ! above curve is (f]$--values ( ,p#b be+ f\nd f ! equation ,p#b #ac4h 7,v#a_/,v#b7a4bf ,9 us+ ?is curve x mu/ be rememb]$ t pressures are absolute4 ,?us3 suppose x is desir$ to "k ! volumetric relation%ips ( ! cyl9d] = a compression pressure ( #ge lbs4 gauge4 ,add atmosph]ic pressure to ! desir$ gauge pressure #ad4g #ge #hi4g lbs4 absolute4 ,locate ?is pressure on ! scale ( ord9ates & foll[ horizontally across to ! curve & !n v]tically d[nw>d to ! scale ( abscissas1 :]e ! ratio ( ! combu/ion *amb] volume to ! total cyl9d] volume is giv51 :i* latt] is equal to ! sum ( ! combu/ion *amb] volume & t ( ! pi/on sweep4 ,9 ! above case x is f\nd t ! combu/ion space = a compression pressure ( #ge lbs4 gauge w be 4#bbe ( ! total cyl9d] volume1 or 4#bbe _/ 4#gge 4#bije ( ! pi/on sweep volume4 ,conv]sely1 kn[+ ! volumetric ratios1 compression pressure c be read directly by proce$+ f ! scale ( abscissas v]tically to ! curve & !nce horizontally to ! scale ( ord9ates4 ,,causes ,,( ,,heat ,,loss ,,& ,,ineffici5cy ,,9 ,,explosive ,,motors ,! diff]5ce realiz$ 9 ! practical op]ation ( an int]nal combu/ion heat eng9e f ! comput$ effect d]iv$ f ! values ( ! explosive elem5ts is probably ! mo/ s]i\s difficulty t eng9e]s h enc\nt]$ 9 _! endeavors to arrive at a rational conclusion z to :]e ! losses 7 locat$1 & ! ways & means ( design t w\ld elim9ate ! causes ( loss & raise ! effici5cy /ep by /ep to a reasonable p]c5tage ( ! total effici5cy ( a p]fect cycle4 ,an au?ority on ! relative condition ( ! *emical elem5ts "u combu/ion 9 clos$ cyl9d]s attributes ! v>iation ( temp]ature %[n 9 ! fall ( ! expansion curve1 & ! suppression or ret>d$ evolution ( heat1 entirely to ! cool+ action ( ! cyl9d] walls1 & to ?is ne>ly all ! ph5om5a hi!rto obscure 9 ! cyl9d] ( a gas-eng9e4 ,o!rs attribute ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! !oretical temp]ature ( combu/ion & ! actual temp]ature realiz$ 9 ! practical op]ation ( ! gas-eng9e1 a loss ( m ?an "o-half ( ! total heat en]gy ( ! combu/ibles1 p>tly to ! dissociation ( ! elem5ts ( combu/ion at extremely high temp]atures & _! reassociation by expansion 9 ! cyl9d]1 to acc\nt = ! suppos$ cont9u$ combu/ion & extra adiabatic curve ( ! expansion l9e on ! indicator c>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,! ,?ompson ,indicator1 an ,in/rum5t = ,det]m9+ ,compressions & ,explosion ,pressure ,values & ,record+ ,!m on ,*>t4 ,! loss ( heat to ! walls ( ! cyl9d]1 pi/on1 & cle>ance space1 z reg>ds ! proportion ( wall surface to ! volume1 has gradually br\ght ?is po9t to its smalle/ ratio 9 ! concave pi/on-head & globul> cyl9d]-head1 ) ! smalle/ possible space 9 ! inlet & exhau/ passage4 ,! wall surface ( a cyl9drical cle>ance space or combu/ion *amb] ( "o-half its unit diamet] 9 l5g? is equal to #c4adaf squ>e units1 its volume b #j4cibg ( a cubic unit2 :ile ! same wall surface 9 a sph]ical =m has a volume ( #j4ebcf ( a cubic unit4 ,x w be readily se5 t ! volume is increas$ #cc-a_/c p] c5t4 9 a sph]ical ov] a cyl9drical =m = equal wall surfaces at ! mom5t ( explosion1 :5 x is desirable t ! greate/ am\nt ( heat is g5]at$1 & c>ry+ ) x ! greate/ possible pressure f :i* ! expansion takes place by ! movem5t ( ! pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,sph]ical ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,enl>g$ ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,! sph]ical =m _c cont9ue dur+ ! /roke = me*anical reasons2 !re=e "s proportion ( pi/on /roke ( cyl9d] volume mu/ be f\nd to correspond ) a sph]ical =m ( ! combu/ion *amb] to produce ! lea/ loss ( heat ?r\gh ! walls dur+ ! combu/ion & expansion "p ( ! /roke4 ,?is idea is illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #ah & #ai1 %[+ h[ ! relative volumes ( cyl9d] /roke & combu/ion *amb] may be v>i$ to suit ! requirem5ts due to ! quality ( ! elem5ts ( combu/ion4 ,al?\gh ! concave pi/on-head %[s economy 9 reg>d to ! relation ( ! cle>ance volume to ! wall area at ! mom5t ( explosive combu/ion1 x may be cle>ly se5 t its concavity increases its surface area & its capacity = absorb+ heat1 = :i* !re is no provision = cool+ ! pi/on1 save its contact ) ! walls ( ! cyl9d] & ! slight air cool+ ( its back by its reciprocal motion4 ,= ?is reason ! concave pi/on-head has n be5 g5]ally adopt$ & ! concave cyl9d]-head1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1 ) a flat pi/on-head is ! late/ & be/ practice 9 airplane eng9e con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,m]c$es ,aviation ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,section ,%[+ ,approximately ,sph]ical ,combu/ion ,*amb] & ,concave ,pi/on ,top4 ,! practical application ( ! pr9ciple j outl9$ to "o ( ! mo/ effici5t airplane motors ev] design$1 ! ,m]c$es1 is cle>ly outl9$ at ,fig4 #bj4 ,,heat ,,losses ,,to ,,cool+ ,,wat] ,! mean temp]ature ( ! wall surface ( ! combu/ion *amb] & cyl9d]1 z indicat$ by ! temp]atures ( ! circulat+ wat]1 has be5 f\nd to be an important item 9 ! economy ( ! gas-eng9e4 ,dugald ,cl]k1 9 ,engl&1 a high au?ority 9 practical "w ) ! gas-eng9e1 f\nd t #aj p] c5t4 ( ! gas = a /at$ am\nt ( p[] 0 sav$ by us+ wat] at a temp]ature 9 :i* ! eject$ wat] f ! cyl9d]-jacket 0 ne> ! boil+-po9t1 & v5tures ! op9ion t a /ill high] temp]ature = ! circulat+ wat] may be us$ z a s\rce ( economy4 ,?is c\ld be made practical 9 ! case ( aviation eng9es by adju/+ ! air-cool+ surface ( ! radiator s z to ma9ta9 ! inlet wat] at j bel[ ! boil+ po9t1 & by ! rapid circulation induc$ by ! pump pressure1 to return ! wat] f ! cyl9d]-jacket a few degrees above ! boil+ po9t4 ,! !rmal displacem5t sy/ems ( cool+ employ$ 9 automobiles are work+ "u m favorable temp]ature conditions ?an ^? eng9es 9 :i* cool+ is m en]getic4 ,= a giv5 am\nt ( heat tak5 f ! cyl9d] by ! l>ge/ volume ( circulat+ wat]1 ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 inlet & outlet ( ! wat]-jacket %\ld be ! lea/ possible1 & ?is condition ( ! wat] circulation gives a m ev5 temp]ature to all p>ts ( ! cyl9d]2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 a cold-wat] supply1 say at #fj deg4 ,f41 s sl[ z to all[ ! eject$ wat] to fl[ (f at a temp]ature ne> ! boil+-po9t1 mu/ make a great diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! bottom & top ( ! cyl9d]1 ) a loss 9 economy 9 gas & o!r fuels1 z well z 9 wat]1 if x is obta9$ by measurem5t4 ,f ! =ego+ consid]ations ( losses & ineffici5cies1 we f9d t ! practice 9 motor design & con/ruction has n yet rea*$ ! desir$ p]fection 9 its cycul> op]ation4 ,/ep by /ep improvem5ts h be5 made ) _m *anges 9 design ?\gh _m h be5 )\t m]it z an improvem5t1 f>!r ?an to gratify ! long+s ( design]s = some?+ diff]5t f ! o!r ?+1 & to e/abli% a special con/ruction ( _! own4 ,^! ef=ts may 9 "t produce a motor ( normal or /&>d design = ea* k9d ( fuel t w give ! highe/ possible effici5cy = all conditions ( s]vice4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,eng9e ,p>ts & ,functions--,:y ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,are ,be/--,describ+ ,sequ5ce ( ,op]ations--,simple ,eng9es--,f\r & ,six ,cyl9d] ,v]tical ,t&em ,eng9es--,eight & ,twelve ,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9es--,radial ,cyl9d] ,arrangem5t--,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,=ms4 ,,eng9e ,,p>ts ,,& ,,functions ,! pr9cipal elem5ts ( a gas eng9e are n difficult to und]/& & _! functions are easily def9$4 ,9 place ( ! b>rel ( ! gun "o has a smoo?ly ma*9$ cyl9d] 9 :i* a small cyl9drical or b>rel-%ap$ elem5t fitt+ ! bore closely may be lik5$ to a bullet or cannon ball4 ,x diff]s 9 ?is important respect1 h[ev]1 z :ile ! %ot is dis*>g$ f ! m\? ( ! cannon ! pi/on memb] slid+ inside ( ! ma9 cyl9d] _c leave x1 z its movem5ts back & =? f ! op5 to ! clos$ end & back aga9 are limit$ by simple me*anical connection or l9kage :i* comprises crank & connection rod4 ,x is by ?is means t ! reciprocat+ movem5t ( ! pi/on is trans=m$ into a rot>y motion ( ! crank-%aft4 ,! fly-:eel is a heavy memb] atta*$ to ! crank-%aft ( an automobile eng9e :i* has en]gy /or$ 9 its rim z ! memb] revolves1 & ! mom5tum ( ?is revolv+ mass t5ds to equalize ! int]mitt5t pu%es on ! pi/on head produc$ by ! explosion ( ! gas 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,9 aviation eng9es1 ! weight ( ! propell] or t ( rotat+ cyl9d]s !mselves p]=ms ! duty ( a fly-:eel1 s no sep>ate memb] is ne$$4 ,if "s explosive is plac$ 9 ! *amb] =m$ by ! pi/on & clos$ end ( ! cyl9d] & explod$1 ! pi/on w\ld be ! only "p t w\ld yield to ! pressure :i* w\ld produce a d[nw>d movem5t4 ,z ?is is =c$ d[n ! crank-%aft is turn$ by ! connect+ rod1 & z ?is "p is h+$ at bo? ends x is free to oscillate z ! crank turns1 & ?us ! pi/on may slide back & =? :ile ! crank-%aft is rotat+ or describ+ a curvil9e> pa?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,side ,sectional ,view ( ,typical ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,p>ts & ,_! ,relation to ,ea* ,o!r4 ,?is ,eng9e is an ,a]om>9e ,design & ,utilizes a ,di/9ctive ,conc5tric ,valve ,con/ruction4 ,9 addition to ! simple elem5ts describ$ x is evid5t t a gasol9e eng9e mu/ h o!r p>ts4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are ! valves1 ( :i* !re are g5]ally two to ea* cyl9d]4 ,"o closes ! passage connect+ to ! gas supply & op5s dur+ "o /roke ( ! pi/on 9 ord] to let ! explosive gas into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! o!r memb]1 or exhau/ valve1 s]ves z a cov] = ! op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! burn$ gases c leave ! cyl9d] aft] _! "w is done4 ,! sp>k plug is a simple device :i* may be comp>$ to ! fuse or p]cussion cap ( ! cannon4 ,x p]mits "o to produce an electric sp>k 9 ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on is at ! be/ po9t to utilize ! pressure :i* obta9s :5 ! compress$ gas is fir$4 ,! valves are op5 "o at a "t1 ! inlet valve be+ lift$ f its seat :ile ! cyl9d] is fill+ & ! exhau/ valve is op5$ :5 ! cyl9d] is be+ cle>$4 ,!y are normally kept seat$ by means ( compression spr+s4 ,9 ! simple motor %[n at ,fig4 #e1 ! exhau/ valve is op]at$ by means ( a pivot$ bell crank rock$ by a cam :i* turns at half ! spe$ ( ! crank-%aft4 ,! inlet valve op]ates automatically1 z w be expla9$ 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a p]fectly tight combu/ion *amb]1 bo? intake & exhau/ valves are clos$ be=e ! gas is ignit$1 because all ( ! pressure produc$ by ! explod+ gas is to be direct$ aga9/ ! top ( ! movable pi/on4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! bottom ( its p[] /roke1 ! exhau/ valve is lift$ by means ( ! bell crank :i* is rock$ because ( ! po9t or lift on ! cam4 ,! cam-%aft is driv5 by positive ge>+ & revolves at half ! eng9e spe$4 ,! exhau/ valve rema9s op5 dur+ ! :ole ( ! return /roke ( ! pi/on1 & z ?is memb] moves t[>d ! clos$ end ( ! cyl9d] x =ces out burn$ gases ahead ( x1 ?r\gh ! passage controll$ by ! exhau/ valve4 ,! cam-%aft is revolv$ at half ! eng9e spe$ because ! exhau/ valve is rais$ f its seat dur+ only "o /roke out ( f\r1 or only once e two revolutions4 ,obvi\sly1 if ! cam 0 turn$ at ! same spe$ z ! crank-%aft x w\ld rema9 op5 once e revolution1 :]eas ! burn$ gases are expell$ f ! individual cyl9d]s only once 9 two turns ( ! crank-%aft4 ,,:y ,,multiple ,,cyl9d] ,,=ms ,,are ,,be/ ,ow+ to ! vibration :i* obta9s f ! heavy explosion 9 ! l>ge s+le-cyl9d] eng9es us$ = /ation>y p[] o!r =ms 7 evolv$ 9 :i* ! cyl9d] 0 small] & p[] obta9$ by runn+ ! eng9e fa/]1 b ^! are suitable only = v l[ p[]s4 ,:5 a s+le-cyl9d] eng9e is employ$ a v heavy fly-:eel is ne$$ to c>ry ! mov+ p>ts ?r\gh idle /rokes necess>y to obta9 a p[] impulse4 ,= ?is reason automobile & aircraft design]s mu/ use m ?an "o cyl9d]1 & ! t5d5cy is to produce p[] by frequ5tly occurr+ light impulses r ?an by a small] numb] ( explosions hav+ great] =ce4 ,:5 a s+le-cyl9d] motor is employ$ ! con/ruction is heavi] ?an is ne$$ ) a multiple-cyl9d] =m4 ,us+ two or m cyl9d]s conduces to /eady p[] g5]ation & a less5+ ( vibration4 ,mo/ mod]n motor c>s employ f\r-cyl9d] eng9es because a p[] impulse may be secur$ twice e revolution ( ! crank-%aft1 or a total ( f\r p[] /rokes dur+ two revolutions4 ,! p>ts are s arrang$ t :ile ! *>ge ( gas 9 "o cyl9d] is explod+1 ^? :i* come next 9 fir+ ord] are compress+1 dis*>g+ ! in]t gases & draw+ 9 a fre% *>ge respectively4 ,:5 ! p[] /roke is complet$ 9 "o cyl9d]1 ! pi/on 9 t memb] 9 :i* a *>ge ( gas has j be5 compress$ has rea*$ ! top ( its /roke & :5 ! gas is explod$ ! pi/on is reciprocat$ & keeps ! crank-%aft turn+4 ,:5 a multiple-cyl9d] eng9e is us$ ! fly-:eel c be made mu* light] ?an t ( ! simpl] =m & elim9at$ altoge!r 9 "s designs4 ,9 fact1 _m mod]n multiple-cyl9d] eng9es develop+ #cjj horse-p[] weigh less ?an ! e>ly s+le- & d\ble-cyl9d] =ms :i* develop$ b "o-t5? or "o-tw5tie? t am\nt ( en]gy4 ,,describ+ ,,sequ5ce ,,( ,,op]ations ,ref]r+ to ,fig4 #bb1 ,a1 ! sequ5ce ( op]ation 9 a s+le-cyl9d] motor c be easily und]/ood4 ,assum+ t ! crank-%aft is turn+ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 x w be se5 t ! intake /roke comes fir/1 !n ! compression1 :i* is foll[$ by ! p[] impulse1 & la/ly ! exhau/ /roke4 ,if two cyl9d]s are us$1 x is possible to balance ! explosions 9 su* a way t "o w occur ea* revolution4 ,?is is true ) ei!r "o ( two =ms ( f\r-cycle motors4 ,at ,b1 a two-cyl9d] v]tical eng9e us+ a crank-%aft 9 :i* ! crank-p9s are on ! same plane is %[n4 ,! two pi/ons move up & d[n simultane\sly4 ,ref]r+ to ! diagram describ+ ! /rokes1 & assum+ t ! out] circle repres5ts ! cycle ( op]ations 9 "o cyl9d] :ile ! inn] circle repres5ts ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts 9 ! o!r cyl9d]1 :ile cyl9d] ,no4 #a is tak+ 9 a fre% *>ge ( gas1 cyl9d] ,no4 #b is explod+4 ,:5 cyl9d] ,no4 #a is compress+1 cyl9d] ,no4 #b is exhau/+4 ,dur+ ! "t t ! *>ge 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #a is explod$1 cyl9d] ,no4 #b is be+ fill$ ) fre% gas4 ,:ile ! exhau/ gases are be+ dis*>g$ f cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 cyl9d] ,no4 #b is compress+ ! gas previ\sly tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,diagrams ,illu/rat+ ,sequ5ce ( ,cycles 9 ,"o- & ,two-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,%[+ ,m ,uni=m ,turn+ ,ef=t on ,crank-,%aft ) ,two-,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,! same condition obta9s :5 ! crank-p9s are arrang$ at "o hundr$ & eighty degrees & ! cyl9d]s are oppos$1 z %[n at ,c4 ,! reason t ! two-cyl9d] oppos$ motor is m popul> ?an t hav+ two v]tical cyl9d]s is t x is difficult to balance ! con/ruction %[n at ,b1 s t ! vibration w n be excessive4 ,! two-cyl9d] oppos$ motor has mu* less vibration ?an ! o!r =m1 & z ! explosions occur ev5ly & ! motor is a simple "o to con/ruct1 x has be5 v popul> 9 ! pa/ on light c>s & has receiv$ limit$ application on "s e>ly1 light airplanes4 ,to demon/rate v cle>ly ! advantages ( multiple-cyl9d] eng9es ! diagrams at ,fig4 #bc h be5 prep>$4 ,at ,a1 a ?ree-cyl9d] motor1 hav+ crank-p9s at "o hundr$ & tw5ty degrees1 :i* means t !y are spac$ at ?irds ( ! circle1 we h a =m ( con/ruction t gives a m ev5 turn+ ?an t possible ) a two-cyl9d] eng9e4 ,in/ead ( "o explosion p] revolution ( ! crank-%aft1 "o w obta9 ?ree explosions 9 two revolutions4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! explosion /rokes occur & ! mann] !y ov]lap /rokes 9 ! o!r cyl9d] is %[n at ,a4 ,assum+ t ! cyl9d]s fire 9 ! foll[+ ord]1 fir/ ,no4 #a1 !n ,no4 #b1 & la/ ,no4 #c1 we w see t :ile cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 repres5t$ by ! out] circle1 is on ! p[] /roke1 cyl9d] ,no4 #c has complet$ ! la/ two-?irds ( its exhau/ /roke & has />t$ on its intake /roke4 ,cyl9d] ,no4 #b1 repres5t$ by ! middle circle1 dur+ ?is same p]iod has complet$ its intake /roke & two-?irds ( its compression /roke4 ,a /udy ( ! diagram w %[ t !re is an appreciable lapse ( "t betwe5 ea* explosion4 ,?ree-cyl9d] eng9es are n us$ on aircraft at ! pres5t "t1 ?\gh ,bl]iot's flight across ! ,briti% ,*annel 0 made ) a ?ree-cyl9d] ,anzani motor4 ,x 0 n a conv5tional =m1 h[ev]4 ,! ?ree-cyl9d] eng9e is practically obsolete at ?is "t = any purpose except p5gu9s or s*ool ma*9es t are incapable ( flight & :i* are us$ 9 "s ,fr5* tra9+ s*ools = aviators4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,diagrams ,demon/rat+ ,cle>ly ,advantages :i* ,obta9 :5 ,multiple-,cyl9d] ,motors are ,us$ z ,p[] ,plants4 ,,f\r- ,,& ,,six-,,cyl9d] ,,eng9es ,9 ! f\r-cyl9d] eng9e op]ation :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #bc1 ,b1 x w be se5 t ! p[] /rokes foll[ ea* o!r )\t loss ( "t1 & "o cyl9d] beg9s to fire & ! pi/on moves d[n j z soon z ! memb] ahead ( x has complet$ its p[] /roke4 ,9 a f\r-cyl9d] motor1 ! crank-p9s are plac$ at "o hundr$ & eighty degrees1 or on ! halves ( ! crank circle4 ,! crank-p9s = cyl9d]s ,no4 #a & ,no4 #d are on ! same plane1 :ile ^? = cyl9d]s ,no4 #b & ,no4 #c also move 9 unison4 ,! diagram describ+ sequ5ce ( op]ations 9 ea* cyl9d] is bas$ on a fir+ ord] ( "o1 two1 f\r1 ?ree4 ,! out] circle1 z 9 previ\s in/ances1 repres5ts ! cycle ( op]ations 9 cyl9d] "o4 ,! next "o t[>d ! c5t]1 cyl9d] ,no4 #b1 ! ?ird circle repres5ts ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #c1 :ile ! inn] circle outl9es ! /rokes 9 cyl9d] f\r4 ,! v>i\s cyl9d]s are work+ z foll[s3 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,explosion ,compression ,exhau/ ,intake ,exhau/ ,explosion ,intake ,compression ,intake ,exhau/ ,compression ,explosion ,compression ,intake ,explosion ,exhau/ ,x w be obvi\s t reg>dless ( ! me?od ( con/ruction1 or ! numb] ( cyl9d]s employ$1 exactly ! same numb] ( p>ts mu/ be us$ 9 ea* cyl9d] assembly & "o c conv5i5tly comp>e any multiple-cyl9d] p[] plant z a s]ies ( s+le-cyl9d] eng9es jo9$ "o beh9d ! o!r & s c\pl$ t "o w deliv] p[] & produce useful en]gy at ! crank-%aft :]e ! o!r leaves (f4 ,! same fundam5tal laws gov]n+ ! action ( a s+le cyl9d] obta9 :5 a numb] are employ$1 & ! sequ5ce ( op]ation is ! same 9 all memb]s1 except t ! necess>y functions take place at diff]5t times4 ,if1 = in/ance1 all ! cyl9d]s ( a f\r-cyl9d] motor 7 fir$ at ! same "t1 "o w\ld obta9 ! same effect z ?\gh a "o-pi/on eng9e 0 us$1 :i* _h a pi/on displacem5t equal to t ( ! f\r small] memb]s4 ,z is ! case ) a s+le-cyl9d] eng9e1 ! motor w\ld be out ( correct me*anical balance because all ! connect+ rods w\ld be plac$ on crank-p9s t lie 9 ! same plane4 ,a v l>ge fly-:eel w\ld be necess>y to c>ry ! pi/on ?r\gh ! idle /rokes1 & l>ge balance weights w\ld be fitt$ to ! crank-%aft 9 an ef=t to comp5sate = ! weight ( ! f\r pi/ons1 & ?us r$uce vibratory /resses :i* obta9 :5 p>ts are n 9 correct balance4 ,!re w\ld be no advantage ga9$ by us+ f\r cyl9d]s 9 ?is mann]1 & !re w\ld be m loss ( heat & m p[] consum$ 9 friction ?an 9 a "o-pi/on motor ( ! same capacity4 ,?is is ! reason t :5 f\r cyl9d]s are us$ ! arrangem5t ( crank-p9s is always z %[n at ,fig4 #bc1 ,b--i4e41 two pi/ons are up1 :ile ! o!r two are at ! bottom ( ! /roke4 ,) ?is con/ruction1 we h se5 t x is possible to /r+ out ! explosions s t !re w always be "o cyl9d] apply+ p[] to ! crank-%aft4 ,! explosions are spac$ equally4 ,! p>ts are 9 correct me*anical balance because two pi/ons are on ! up/roke :ile ! o!r two are desc5d+4 ,c>e is tak5 to h "o set ( mov+ memb]s weigh exactly ! same z ! o!r4 ,) a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e "o has correct balance & cont9u\s application ( en]gy4 ,?is insures a smoo!r runn+ motor :i* has great] effici5cy ?an ! simpl] "o-1 two-1 & ?ree-cyl9d] =ms previ\sly describ$4 ,elim9at+ ! /resses :i* w\ld obta9 if we _h an unbalanc$ me*anism & irregul> p[] application makes = long] life4 ,obvi\sly a l>ge numb] ( relatively light explosions w produce less we> & /ra9 ?an w\ld a less] numb] ( p[]ful ones4 ,z ! p>ts c be built light] if ! explosions are n heavy1 ! eng9e c be op]at$ at high] rotative spe$s ?an :5 l>ge & cumb]some memb]s are utiliz$4 ,f\r-cyl9d] eng9es int5d$ = aviation "w h be5 built accord+ to ! designs %[n at ,fig4 #bd1 b ^! =ms are unconv5tional & seldom if ev] us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,%[+ ,?ree ,possible ,?\gh ,unconv5tional ,arrangem5ts ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,eng9es4 ,! six-cyl9d] type ( motor1 ! action ( :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #bc1 ,c1 is sup]ior to ! f\r-cyl9d]1 inasmu* z ! p[] /rokes ov]lap1 & in/ead ( hav+ two explosions ea* revolution we h ?ree explosions4 ,! conv5tional crank-%aft arrangem5t 9 a six-cyl9d] eng9e is j ! same z ?\gh "o us$ two ?ree-cyl9d] %afts fa/5$ toge!r1 s pi/ons #a & #f are on ! same plane z are pi/ons #b & #e4 ,pi/ons #c & #d also travel toge!r4 ,) ! cranks arrang$ z outl9$ at ,fig4 #bc1 ,c1 ! fir+ ord] is "o1 five1 ?ree1 six1 two1 f\r4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! p[] /rokes ov]lap is cle>ly %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,an int]e/+ comp>ison is also made 9 ! diagrams at ,fig4 #be & 9 ! upp] corn] ( ,fig4 #bc1 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,diagrams ,outl9+ ,advantages ( ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,motors1 & ,:y ,!y ,deliv] ,p[] ,m ,ev5ly ,?an ,s+le ,cyl9d] ,types4 ,a rectangle is divid$ into f\r columns2 ea* ( ^! corresponds to "o hundr$ & eighty degrees1 or half a revolution4 ,?us ! fir/ revolution ( ! crank-%aft is repres5t$ by ! fir/ two columns1 :ile ! second revolution is repres5t$ by ! la/ two4 ,tak+ ! portion ( ! diagram :i* %[s ! p[] impulse 9 a "o-cyl9d] eng9e1 we see t dur+ ! fir/ revolution !re has be5 no p[] impulse4 ,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! second revolution1 h[ev]1 an explosion takes place & a p[] impulse is obta9$4 ,! la/ portion ( ! second revolution is devot$ to exhau/+ ! burn$ gases1 s t !re are ?ree idle /rokes & b "o p[] /roke4 ,! effect :5 two cyl9d]s are employ$ is %[n imm$iately bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,duration ( ,ev5ts = a ,f\r-,/roke ,cycle1 ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,"h we h "o explosion dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! fir/ revolution 9 "o cyl9d] & ano!r dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! second revolution 9 ! o!r cyl9d]4 ,) a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e !re is an explosion ea* half revolution1 :ile 9 a six-cyl9d] eng9e !re is "o & "o-half explosions dur+ ea* half revolution4 ,:5 six cyl9d]s are us$ !re is no lapse ( "t betwe5 p[] impulses1 z ^! ov]lap & a cont9u\s & smoo?-turn+ movem5t is imp>t$ to ! crank %aft4 ,! diagram %[n at ,fig4 #bf1 prep>$ by ,e4 ,p4 ,pulley1 c be /udi$ to advantage 9 secur+ an idea ( ! coord9ation ( ef=t t takes place 9 an eng9e ( ! six-cyl9d] type4 ,,actual ,,duration ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,/rokes ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,diagram ,%[+ ,actual ,duration ( ,diff]5t ,/rokes 9 ,degrees4 ,9 ! diagrams previ\sly pres5t$ ! writ] has assum$1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 t ea* /roke takes place dur+ half ( "o revolution ( ! crank-%aft1 :i* corresponds to a crank-p9 travel ( "o hundr$ & eighty degrees4 ,! actual duration ( ^! /rokes is some:at diff]5t4 ,= example1 ! inlet /roke is usually a trifle m ?an a half revolution1 & ! exhau/ is always consid]ably m4 ,! diagram %[+ ! comp>ative duration ( ! /rokes is %[n at ,fig4 #bg4 ,! inlet valve op5s t5 degrees aft] ! pi/on />ts to g d[n & rema9s op5 ?irty degrees aft] ! pi/on has rea*$ ! bottom ( its /roke4 ,?is means t ! suction /roke corresponds to a crank-p9 travel ( two hundr$ degrees1 :ile ! compression /roke is measur$ by a movem5t ( b "o hundr$ & fifty degrees4 ,x is common practice to op5 ! exhau/ valve be=e ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! p[] /roke s t ! actual duration ( ! p[] /roke is ab\t "o hundr$ & =ty degrees1 :ile ! exhau/ /roke corresponds to a crank-p9 travel ( two hundr$ & tw5ty-five degrees4 ,9 ?is diagram1 :i* repres5ts prop] "t = ! valves to op5 & close1 ! dim5sions 9 in*es giv5 are measur$ on ! fly-:eel & apply only to a c]ta9 automobile motor4 ,if ! fly-:eel 7 small] t5 degrees w\ld take up less ?an ! dim5sions giv51 :ile if ! fly-:eel 0 l>g] a great] space on its circumf]5ce w\ld repres5t ! same crank-p9 travel4 ,aviation eng9es are tim$ by us+ a tim+ disc atta*$ to ! crank-%aft z !y are n provid$ ) fly-:eels4 ,obvi\sly1 ! di/ance measur$ 9 in*es w dep5d ^u ! diamet] ( ! disc1 ?\gh ! numb] ( degrees int]val w\ld n *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,ano!r ,diagram to ,facilitate ,und]/&+ ,sequ5ce ( ,functions 9 ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,,eight- ,,& ,,twelve-,,cyl9d] ,v ,,eng9es ,^? :o h foll[$ ! developm5t ( ! gasol9e eng9e w recall ! argum5ts t 7 made :5 ! six-cyl9d] motor 0 introduc$ at a "t t ! f\r-cyl9d] type 0 consid]$ /&>d4 ,! arrival ( ! eight-cyl9d] has creat$ simil> futile discussion ( its practicability z ?is is s cle>ly e/abli%$ z to be accept$ )\t "q4 ,x has be5 a /&>d p[] plant = a]oplanes = _m ye>s1 e>ly expon5ts hav+ be5 ! ,anto9ette1 ! ,woolsley1 ! ,r5ault1 ! ,e4 ,n4 ,v4 9 ,europe & ! ,curtiss 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,types ( ,eight-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,%[+ ! ,advantage ( ! ,v ,me?od ( ,cyl9d] ,plac+4 ,! reason ! ,v type %[n at ,fig4 #bi1 ,a is favor$ is t ! all-9-l9e =m :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #bi1 ,b is n practical = aircraft because ( its l5g?4 ,comp>$ to ! /&>d f\r-cyl9d] eng9e x is ne>ly twice z long & x requir$ a mu* /rong] & long] crank-%aft4 ,x w be evid5t t x c\ld n be locat$ to advantage 9 ! airplane fuselage4 ,^! undesirable factors are elim9at$ 9 ! ,v type eight-cyl9d] motor1 z x consi/s ( two blocks ( f\r cyl9d]s ea*1 s arrang$ t "o set or block is at an angle ( =ty-five degrees f ! v]tical c5t] l9e ( ! motor1 or at an angle ( n9ety degrees ) ! o!r set4 ,?is arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s produces a motor t is no long] ?an a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e ( half ! p[] w\ld be4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,curves ,%[+ ,torque ( ,v>i\s ,eng9e ,types ,demon/rate ,graphically ,m>k$ ,advantage ( ! ,eight-,cyl9d] ,type4 ,app>5tly !re is consid]able misconception z to ! advantage ( ! two extra cyl9d]s ( ! eight z comp>$ ) ! six-cyl9d]4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! multiplication 9 ! numb] ( cyl9d]s notic$ s9ce ! e>ly days ( automobile developm5t has n be5 = solely increas+ ! p[] ( ! eng9e1 b to secure a m ev5 turn+ movem5t1 great] flexibility & to elim9ate de/ructive vibration4 ,! ideal int]nal combu/ion motor1 is ! "o hav+ ! mo/ uni=m turn+ movem5t ) ! lea/ me*anical friction loss4 ,/udy ( ! torque outl9es or plott$ graphics %[n at ,figs4 #be & #cj w %[ h[ multiplication ( cyl9d]s w produce /eady p[] deliv]y due to ov]lapp+ impulses4 ,! mo/ practical =m w\ld be t :i* m ne>ly con=ms to ! /eady runn+ produc$ by a /eam turb9e or electric motor4 ,! advocates ( ! eight-cyl9d] eng9e br+ up ! item ( uni=m torque z "o ( ! mo/ important advantages ( ! eight-cyl9d] design4 ,a numb] ( torque diagrams are %[n at ,fig4 #cj4 ,:ile ^! appe> to be deeply te*nical1 !y may be v easily foll[$ :5 _! purpose is expla9$4 ,at ! top is %[n ! torque diagram ( a s+le-cyl9d] motor ( ! f\r-cycle type4 ,! high po9t 9 ! l9e repres5ts ! p]iod ( greate/ torque or p[] g5]ation1 & x w be evid5t t ?is occurs e>ly 9 ! fir/ revolution ( ! crank-%aft4 ,bel[ ?is diagram is %[n a simil> curve except t x is produc$ by a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e4 ,inspection w %[ t ! turn+-mom5t is mu* m uni=m ?an 9 ! s+le cyl9d]2 simil>ly1 ! six-cyl9d] diagram is an improvem5t ov] ! f\r1 & ! eight-cyl9d] diagram is an improvem5t ov] ! six-cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,increas+ ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s ,makes = ,m ,uni=m ,p[] ,application4 ,! reason t practically cont9u\s torque is obta9$ 9 an eight-cyl9d] eng9e is t "o cyl9d] fires e n9ety degrees ( crank-%aft rotation1 & z ea* impulse la/s ne>ly sev5ty-five p] c5t4 ( ! /roke1 "o c easily appreciate t an eng9e t w give f\r explosions p] revolution ( ! crank-%aft w run m uni=mly ?an "o t gives b ?ree explosions p] revolution1 z ! six-cyl9d] does1 & w be twice z smoo? runn+ z a f\r-cyl9d]1 9 :i* b two explosions occur p] revolution ( ! crank-%aft4 ,! comp>ison is s cle>ly %[n 9 graphical diagrams & 9 ,fig4 #ca t fur!r description is unnecess>y4 ,any eight-cyl9d] eng9e may be consid]$ a tw9-f\r1 twelve-cyl9d] eng9es may be consid]$ tw9 sixes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,h[ ! ,angle ,betwe5 ! ,cyl9d]s ( an ,eight- & ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,v ,motor ,v>ies4 ,! only po9ts 9 :i* an eight-cyl9d] motor diff]s f a f\r-cyl9d] is 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! connect+ rod1 z 9 _m designs x is necess>y to h two rods work+ f ! same crank-p94 ,?is difficulty is easily ov]come 9 "s designs by /agg]+ ! cyl9d]s & hav+ ! two connect+ rod big ends ( conv5tional =m side by side on a common crank-p94 ,9 o!r designs "o rod is a =k$ =m & works on ! outside ( a rod ( ! regul> patt]n4 ,/ill ano!r me?od is to h a boss j above ! ma9 be>+ on "o connect+ rod to :i* ! l[] portion ( ! connect+ rod 9 ! opposite cyl9d] is h+$4 ,z ! eight-cyl9d] eng9e may actually be made light] ?an ! six-cyl9d] ( equal p[]1 x is possible to use small] reciprocat+ p>ts1 su* z pi/ons1 connect+ rods & valve ge>1 & obta9 high] eng9e spe$ ) practically no vibration4 ,! fir+ ord] 9 ne>ly e case is ! same z 9 a f\r-cyl9d] except t ! explosions occur alt]nately 9 ea* set ( cyl9d]s4 ,! fir+ ord] ( an eight-cyl9d] motor is apt to be confus+ to ! motori/1 especially if "o consid]s t !re are eight possible sequ5ces4 ,! majority ( eng9e]s favor ! alt]nate fir+ f side to side4 ,fir+ ord]s w be consid]$ 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,! ,hall-,scott ,f\r-,cyl9d] #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,two ,views ( ! ,dues5b]g ,sixte5 ,valve ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,motor4 ,! dem& ( aircraft design]s = m p[] has /imulat$ design]s to "w out twelve-cyl9d] motors4 ,^! are high-spe$ motors incorporat+ all rec5t features ( design 9 secur+ light reciprocat+ p>ts1 l>ge valve op5+s1 etc4 ,! twelve-cyl9d] motor incorporates ! be/ features ( high-spe$ motor design & !re is no ne$ at ?is "t to discuss fur!r ! pros & cons ( ! twelve-cyl9d] v]sus ! eight or six1 because x is conc$$ by all t !re is ! same degree ( /eady p[] application 9 ! twelve ov] ! eight z !re w\ld be 9 ! eight ov] ! six4 ,! "q resolves itself into hav+ a motor ( high p[] t w run ) m9imum vibration & t produces smoo? action4 ,?is is well %[n by diagrams at ,fig4 #ca4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t if an eight-cyl9d] eng9e w give f\r explosions p] revolution ( ! fly-:eel1 a twelve-cyl9d] type w give six explosions p] revolution1 & in/ead ( ! impulses com+ #ij degrees crank travel ap>t1 z 9 ! case ( ! eight-cyl9d]1 ^! w come b #fj degrees ( crank travel ap>t 9 ! case ( ! twelve-cyl9d]4 ,= ?is reason1 ! cyl9d]s ( a twelve are usually sep>at$ by #fj degrees :ile ! eight has ! blocks spac$ #ij degrees ap>t4 ,! comp>ison c be easily made by comp>+ ! sectional views ( ,vee eng9es at ,fig4 #cb4 ,:5 "o realizes t ! actual duration ( ! p[] /roke is consid]ably great] ?an #abj degrees crank travel1 x w be app>5t t ! ov]lapp+ ( explosions mu/ deliv] a v uni=m application ( p[]4 ,vee eng9es h be5 devis$ hav+ ! cyl9d]s spac$ b #de degrees ap>t1 b ! explosions _c be tim$ at equal int]vals z :5 #ij degrees sep>ate ! cyl9d] c5t] l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,! ,hall-,scott ,six-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,,radial ,,cyl9d] ,,arrangem5ts ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,! ,curtiss ,eight-,cyl9d]1 #bjj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,:ile ! fix$ cyl9d] =ms ( eng9es1 hav+ ! cyl9d]s 9 t&em 9 ! f\r- & six-cyl9d] models z %[n at ,figs4 #cc to #ce inclusive & ! eight-cyl9d] ,v types z outl9$ at ,figs4 #cf & #cg h be5 g5]ally us$ & are mo/ 9 favor at ! pres5t "t1 o!r =ms ( motors hav+ unconv5tional cyl9d] arrangem5ts h be5 devis$1 ?\gh mo/ ( ^! are practically obsolete4 ,:ile _m me?ods ( decreas+ weight & increas+ me*anical effici5cy ( a motor are kn[n to design]s1 "o ( ! fir/ to be appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a]onautical p[] plants 0 an endeavor to gr\p ! compon5ts1 :i* 9 !mselves 7 n extremely light1 into a =m t w\ld be consid]ably light] ?an ! conv5tional design4 ,z an example1 we may consid] ^? multiple-cyl9d] =ms 9 :i* ! cyl9d]s are dispos$ ar\nd a %ort crank-case1 ei!r radiat+ f a common c5t] z at ,fig4 #ch or ( ! fan %ape %[n at ,fig4 #ci4 ,?is makes x possible to use a crank-case b slightly l>g] ?an t ne$$ = "o or two cyl9d]s & x also p]mits ( a correspond+ decrease 9 l5g? ( ! crank-%aft4 ,! weight ( ! eng9e is less5$ because ( ! r$uction 9 crank-%aft & crank-case weight & ! elim9ation ( a numb] ( int]m$iate be>+s & _! support+ webs :i* w\ld be necess>y ) ! usual t&em con/ruction4 ,:ile !re are six p[] impulses to e two revolutions ( ! crank-%aft1 9 ! six-cyl9d] eng9e1 !y are n ev5ly spac$ z is possible ) ! conv5tional arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,! ,/urtevant ,eight-,cyl9d]1 ,high ,spe$ ,aviation ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,anzani #dj-ej ,horse-,p[] ,five-,cyl9d] ,air ,cool$ ,eng9e4 ,9 ! ,anzani =m1 :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #ch1 ! crank-case is /ation>y & a revolv+ crank-%aft is employ$ z 9 conv5tional con/ruction4 ,! cyl9d]s are five 9 numb] & ! eng9e develops #dj to #ej ,h4,p4 ) a weight ( #gb kilograms or #aeh4d lbs4 ,! cyl9d]s are ( ! usual air-cool$ =m hav+ cool+ flanges only "p ( ! way d[n ! cyl9d]4 ,by us+ five cyl9d]s x is possible to h ! p[] impulses come regul>ly1 !y com+ #ade deg4 crank-%aft travel ap>t1 ! crank-%aft mak+ two turns to e five explosions4 ,! balance is good & p[] output regul>4 ,! valves are plac$ directly 9 ! cyl9d] head & are op]at$ by a common pu%rod4 ,att5tion is direct$ to ! novel me?od ( in/all+ ! c>buretor :i* supplies ! mixture to ! eng9e base f :i* inlet pipes radiate to ! v>i\s cyl9d]s4 ,?is eng9e is us$ on ,fr5* s*ool ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,unconv5tional ,six-,cyl9d] ,aircraft ,motor ( ,masson ,design4 ,9 ! =m %[n at ,fig4 #ci six cyl9d]s are us$1 all be+ plac$ above ! crank-%aft c5t] l9e4 ,?is eng9e is also ( ! air-cool$ =m & develops #ej ,h4 ,p4 & weighs #aje kilograms1 or #bca lbs4 ,! c>buretor is connect$ to a manifold ca/+ atta*$ to ! eng9e base f :i* ! induction pipes radiate to ! v>i\s cyl9d]s4 ,! propell] design & size relative to ! eng9e is cle>ly %[n 9 ?is view4 ,:ile flights h be5 made ) bo? ( ! eng9es describ$1 ?is me?od ( con/ruction is n g5]ally foll[$ & has be5 almo/ entirely displac$ abroad by ! revolv+ motors or by ! m conv5tional eight-cyl9d] ,v eng9es4 ,bo? ( ! eng9es %[n 7 design$ ab\t eight ye>s ago & w\ld be entirely too small & weak = use 9 mod]n airplanes int5d$ = active duty4 ,,rot>y ,,eng9es ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,! ,gnome ,f\rte5-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,motor4 ,rot>y eng9es su* z %[n at ,fig4 #dj are g5]ally associat$ ) ! idea ( light con/ruction & x is r an int]e/+ po9t t is (t5 ov]look$ 9 connection ) ! application ( ?is idea to flight motors1 t ! reason :y rot>y eng9es are popul>ly suppos$ to be light] ?an ! o!rs is because !y =m _! own fly-:eel1 yet on a]oplanes1 eng9es are seldom fitt$ ) a fly-:eel at all4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! ,gnome eng9e is n s light because x is a rot>y motor1 & x is a rot>y motor because ! design t has be5 adopt$ z t mo/ conducive to lightness is also mo/ suit$ to an eng9e work+ 9 ?is way4 ,! cyl9d]s c\ld be fix$ & crank-%aft revolve )\t increas+ ! weight to any ext5t4 ,!re are two prime factors gov]n+ ! lightness ( an eng9e1 "o be+ ! initial design1 & ! o!r ! quality ( ! mat]ials employ$4 ,! consid]ation ( r$uc+ weight by cutt+ away metal is a subsidi>y me?od t ought n to play a "p 9 /&>d practice1 h[ev] useful x may be 9 special cases4 ,9 ! ,gnome rot>y eng9e ! lightness is entirely due to ! initial design & to ! mat]ials employ$ 9 manufacture4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ case1 ! eng9e is a radial eng9e1 & has its sev5 or n9e cyl9d]s spac$ equally ar\nd a crank-*amb] t is no wid] or r long] ?an w\ld be requir$ = any "o ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,?is %ort5+ ( ! crank-*amb] n only effects a consid]able sav+ ( weight on its own acc\nt1 b !re is a correspond+ sav+ 9 ! %afts & o!r memb]s1 ! dim5sions ( :i* are gov]n$ by ! size ( ! crank-*amb]4 ,) reg>d to mat]ials1 no?+ b /eel is us$ ?r\gh\t1 & mo/ ( ! metal is =g$ *rome nickel /eel4 ,! beautifully /eady runn+ ( ! eng9e is l>gely due to ! fact t !re are lit]ally no reciprocat+ p>ts 9 ! absolute s5se1 ! app>5t reciprocation betwe5 ! pi/ons & cyl9d]s be+ solely a relative reciprocation s9ce bo? travel 9 circul> pa?s1 t ( ! pi/ons1 h[ev]1 be+ electric by "o-half ( ! /roke l5g? to t ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:ile ! ,gnome eng9e has _m advantages1 on ! o!r h& ! head resi/ance (f]$ by a motor ( ?is type is consid]able2 !re is a l>ge wa/e ( lubricat+ oil due to ! c5trifugal =ce :i* t5ds to ?r[ ! oil away f ! cyl9d]s2 ! gyroscopic effect ( ! rot>y motor is detrim5tal to ! be/ work+ ( ! a]oplane1 & moreov] x requires ab\t sev5 p] c5t4 ( ! total p[] develop$ by ! motor to drive ! revolv+ cyl9d]s ar\nd ! %aft4 ,( necessity1 ! compression ( ?is type ( motor is r l[1 & an additional disadvantage manife/s itself 9 ! fact t !re is z yet no satisfactory way ( muffl+ ! rot>y type ( motor4 ,! mod]n ,gnome eng9e has be5 widely copi$ 9 v>i\s ,european c\ntries1 b its design 0 orig9at$ 9 ,am]ica1 ! e>ly ,adams-,f>well eng9e be+ ! pione] =m4 ,x has be5 made 9 sev5- & n9e-cyl9d] types & =ms ( d\ble ^! numb]s4 ,! eng9e illu/rat$ at ,fig4 #dj is a f\rte5-cyl9d] =m4 ,! simple eng9es h an odd numb] ( cyl9d]s 9 ord] to secure ev5ly spac$ explosions4 ,9 ! sev5-cyl9d]1 ! impulses come #ajb4h deg4 ap>t4 ,9 ! n9e-cyl9d] =m1 ! p[] /rokes are spac$ #hj deg4 ap>t4 ,! f\rte5-cyl9d] eng9e is virtually two sev5-cyl9d] types m\nt$ toge!r1 ! cranks be+ j ! same z 9 a d\ble cyl9d] oppos$ motor1 ! explosions com+ #ea4d deg4 ap>t2 :ile 9 ! eighte5-cyl9d] model ! p[] impulses come e #dj deg4 cyl9d] travel4 ,o!r rot>y motors h be5 devis$1 su* z ! ,le ,rhone & ! ,cl]get 9 ,france & sev]al ,g]man copies ( ^! v>i\s types4 ,! me*anical features ( ^! motors w be fully consid]$ lat]4 ,,*apt] ,v ,prop]ties ( ,liquid ,fuels--,di/illates ( ,crude ,petroleum-- ,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion ,outl9$--,air ,ne$$ to ,burn ,gasol9e --,:at a ,c>buretor ,%\ld ,d--,liquid ,fuel ,/orage & ,supply-- ,vacuum ,fuel ,fe$--,e>ly ,vaporiz] ,=ms--,developm5t ( ,float ,fe$ ,c>buretor--,mayba*'s ,e>ly ,design--,conc5tric ,float & ,jet ,type--,s*ebl] ,c>buretor--,claudel ,c>buretor--,/ew>t ,met]+ ,p9 ,type--,multiple ,nozzle ,vaporiz]s--,two-,/age ,c>buretor--,ma/] ,multiple ,jet ,type--,comp\nd ,nozzle ,z5i? ,c>buretor--,utility ( ,gasol9e ,/ra9]s--,intake ,manifold ,design & ,con/ruction--,comp5sat+ = ,v>i\s ,atmosph]ic ,conditions--,h[ ,high ,altitude ,affects ,p[]--,! ,diesel ,sy/em-- ,notes on ,c>buretor ,in/allation--,notes on ,c>buretor ,adju/m5t4 ,!re is no appliance t has m mat]ial value ^u ! effici5cy ( ! int]nal combu/ion motor ?an ! c>buretor or vaporiz] :i* supplies ! explosive gas to ! cyl9d]s4 ,x is only 9 rec5t ye>s t eng9e]s h realiz$ ! importance ( us+ c>buretors t are effici5t & t are s /rongly & simply made t !re w be little liability ( d]angem5t4 ,z ! p[] obta9$ f ! gas-eng9e dep5ds ^u ! combu/ion ( fuel 9 ! cyl9d]s1 x is evid5t t if ! gas suppli$ does n h ! prop] proportions ( elem5ts to insure rapid combu/ion ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e w be l[4 ,:5 a gas eng9e is us$ z a /ation>y in/allation x is possible to use ord9>y illum9at+ or natural gas = fuel1 b :5 ?is prime mov] is appli$ to automobiles or airplanes x is evid5t t consid]able difficulty w\ld be exp]i5c$ 9 c>ry+ en\gh compress$ coal gas to supply ! eng9e = ev5 a v %ort trip4 ,=tunately1 ! developm5t ( ! int]nal-combu/ion motor 0 n delay$ by ! lack ( suitable fuel4 ,eng9e]s 7 famili> ) ! prop]ties ( c]ta9 liquids :i* gave (f vapors t c\ld be mix$ ) air to =m an explosive gas :i* burn$ v well 9 ! eng9e cyl9d]s4 ,a v small quantity ( su* liquids w\ld suffice = a v satisfactory p]iod ( op]ation4 ,! problem to be solv$ be=e ^! liquids c\ld be appli$ 9 a practical mann] 0 to evolve suitable app>atus = vaporiz+ !m )\t wa/e4 ,among ! liquids t c be comb9$ ) air & burn$1 gasol9e is ! mo/ volatile & is ! fuel utiliz$ by int]nal-combu/ion eng9es4 ,! widely increas+ scope ( usefulness ( ! int]nal-combu/ion motor has made x imp]ative t o!r fuels be appli$ 9 "s in/ances because ! supply ( gasol9e may 9 "t become inadequate to supply ! dem&4 ,9 fact1 abroad ?is fuel sells = fifty to two hundr$ p] c5t4 m ?an x does 9 ,am]ica because mo/ ( ! gasol9e us$ mu/ be import$ f ?is c\ntry or ,russia4 ,because ( ?is =eign eng9e]s h exp]im5t$ widely ) o!r sub/ances1 su* z alcohol1 b5zol1 & k]os5e1 b m to det]m9e if !y c be us$ to advantage 9 motor c>s ?an 9 airplane eng9es4 ,,di/illates ,,( ,,crude ,,petroleum ,crude petroleum is f\nd 9 small quantities 9 almo/ all p>ts ( ! _w1 b a l>ge portion ( t produc$ comm]cially is d]iv$ f ,am]ican wells4 ,! petroleum obta9$ 9 ?is c\ntry yields m ( ! volatile products ?an ^? ( =eign production1 & = t reason ! dem& = x is great]4 ,! oil fields ( ?is c\ntry are f\nd 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,indiana1 & ,ohio1 & ! crude petroleum is usually 9 association ) natural gas4 ,?is m9]al oil is an ag5t f :i* _m comp\nds & products are d]iv$1 & ! products w v>y f heavy sludges1 su* z asphalt1 to ! light] & m volatile compon5ts1 "s ( :i* w evaporate v easily at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,! comp\nds d]iv$ f crude petroleum are compos$ pr9cipally ( hydrog5 & c>bon & are t]m$ ,hydroc>bons4 ,9 ! crude product "o f9ds _m impurities1 su* z free c>bon1 sulphur1 & v>i\s e>?y elem5ts4 ,be=e ! oil c be utiliz$ x mu/ be subject$ to a process ( purify+ :i* is kn[n z ref9+1 & x is dur+ ?is process1 :i* is "o ( de/ructive di/illation1 t ! v>i\s liquids are sep>at$4 ,! oil 0 =m]ly brok5 up into ?ree ma9 gr\ps ( products z foll[s3 ,highly volatile1 naph?a1 b5z9e1 gasol9e1 eight to t5 p] c5t4 ,light oils1 su* z k]os5e & light lubricat+ oils sev5ty to eighty p] c5t4 ,heavy oils or residuum five to n9e p] c5t4 ,f ! =ego+ x w be se5 t ! available supply ( gasol9e is det]m9$ l>gely by ! dem& exi/+ = ! light oils =m+ ! l>g] "p ( ! products d]iv$ f crude petroleum4 ,new processes h be5 rec5tly discov]$ by :i* ! light] oils1 su* z k]os5e1 are r$uc$ 9 proportion & t ( gasol9e increas$1 ?\gh ! result+ liquid is nei!r ! high grade1 volatile gasol9e kn[n 9 ! e>ly days ( motor+ nor ! l[ grade k]os5e4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,c>buretion ,,outl9$ ,! process ( c>buretion is comb9+ ! volatile vapors :i* evaporate f ! hydroc>bon liquids ) c]ta9 proportions ( air to =m an inflammable gas4 ,! quantities ( air ne$$ v>y ) diff]5t liquids & "s mixtures burn quick] ?an d o!r comb9ations ( air & vapor4 ,combu/ion is simply burn+ & x may be rapid1 mod]ate or sl[4 ,mixtures ( gasol9e & air burn quickly1 9 fact ! combu/ion is s rapid t x is almo/ in/antane\s & we obta9 :at is commonly t]m$ an explosion4 ,!re=e ! explosion ( gas 9 ! automobile eng9e cyl9d] :i* produces ! p[] is really a comb9ation ( *emical elem5ts :i* produce heat & an increase 9 ! volume ( ! gas because ( ! increase 9 temp]ature4 ,if ! gasol9e mixture is n prop]ly proportion$ ! rate ( burn+ w v>y1 & if ! mixture is ei!r too ri* or too weak ! p[] ( ! explosion is r$uc$ & ! am\nt ( p[] appli$ to ! pi/on is decreas$ proportionately4 ,9 det]m9+ ! prop] proportions ( gasol9e & air1 "o mu/ take ! *emical composition ( gasol9e into acc\nt4 ,! ord9>y liquid us$ = fuel is said to conta9 ab\t eight-f\r p] c5t4 c>bon & sixte5 p] c5t4 hydrog54 ,air is compos$ ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 & ! =m] has a great aff9ity1 or comb9+ p[]1 ) ! two con/itu5ts ( hydroc>bon liquids4 ,!re=e1 :at we call an explosion is m]ely an indication t oxyg5 9 ! air has comb9$ ) ! c>bon & hydrog5 ( ! gasol9e4 ,,air ,,ne$$ ,,to ,,burn ,,gasol9e ,9 figur+ ! prop] volume ( air to mix ) a giv5 quantity ( fuel1 "o takes into acc\nt ! fact t "o p\nd ( hydrog5 requires eight p\nds ( oxyg5 to burn x1 & "o p\nd ( c>bon ne$s two & "o-?ird p\nds ( oxyg5 to insure its combu/ion4 ,air is compos$ ( "o "p ( oxyg5 to ?ree & "o-half portions ( nitrog5 by weight4 ,!re=e = ea* p\nd ( oxyg5 "o ne$s to burn hydrog5 or c>bon f\r & "o-half p\nds ( air mu/ be all[$4 ,to insure combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( gasol9e :i* is compos$ ( hydrog5 & c>bon we mu/ furni% ab\t t5 p\nds ( air to burn ! c>bon & ab\t six p\nds ( air to insure combu/ion ( hydrog51 ! o!r compon5t ( gasol9e4 ,?is means t to burn "o p\nd ( gasol9e "o mu/ provide ab\t sixte5 p\nds ( air4 ,:ile "o does n usually consid] air z hav+ mu* weight1 at a temp]ature ( sixty-two degrees ,fahr5heit ab\t f\rte5 cubic feet ( air w weigh a p\nd1 & to burn a p\nd ( gasol9e "o w\ld require ab\t two hundr$ cubic feet ( air4 ,?is am\nt w provide = combu/ion !oretically1 b x is common practice to all[ twice ?is am\nt because ! elem5t nitrog51 :i* is ! ma9 con/itu5t ( air1 is an in]t gas & in/ead ( aid+ combu/ion x acts z a det]r5t ( burn+4 ,9 ord] to be explosive1 gasol9e vapor mu/ be comb9$ ) def9ite quantities ( air4 ,mixtures t are ri* 9 gasol9e ignite quick] ?an ^? :i* h m air1 b ^! are only suitable :5 />t+ or :5 runn+ sl[ly1 z a ri* mixture ignites mu* quick] ?an a weak mixture4 ,! ri*] mixture ( gasol9e & air n only burns quick] b produces ! mo/ heat & ! mo/ effective pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* ( pi/on top area4 ,! am\nt ( compression ( ! *>ge be=e ignition also has mat]ial be>+ on ! =ce ( ! explosion4 ,! high] ! degree ( compression ! great] ! =ce ex]t$ by ! rapid combu/ion ( ! gas4 ,x may be /at$ t z a g5]al ?+ ! maximum explosive pressure is some:at m ?an f\r times ! compression pressure prior to ignition4 ,a *>ge compress$ to sixty p\nds w h a maximum ( approximately two hundr$ & =ty p\nds2 compact$ to eighty p\nds x w produce a pressure ( ab\t ?ree hundr$ p\nds on ea* squ>e in* ( pi/on area at ! beg9n+ ( ! p[] /roke4 ,mixtures v>y+ f "o "p ( gasol9e vapor to f\r ( air to o!rs hav+ "o "p ( gasol9e vapor to ?irte5 ( air c be ignit$1 b ! be/ results are obta9$ :5 ! proportions are "o to five or "o to sev51 z ?is mixture is said to be ! "o t w produce ! highe/ temp]ature1 ! quicke/ explosion1 & ! mo/ pressure4 ,,:at ,a ,,c>buretor ,,%\ld ,,d ,:ile x is app>5t t ! *ief function ( a c>buret+ device is to mix hydroc>bon vapors ) air to secure mixtures t w burn1 !re are a numb] ( factors :i* mu/ be consid]$ be=e describ+ ! pr9ciples ( vaporiz+ devices4 ,almo/ any device :i* p]mits a curr5t ( air to pass ov] or ?r\gh a volatile liquid w produce a gas :i* w explode :5 compress$ & ignit$ 9 ! motor cyl9d]4 ,mod]n c>buretors are n only call$ ^u to supply c]ta9 quantities ( gas1 b ^! mu/ deliv] a mixture to ! cyl9d]s t is accurately proportion$ & :i* w be ( prop] composition at all eng9e spe$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,h[ ,gravity ,fe$ ,fuel ,tank ,may ,be ,m\nt$ ,back ( ,eng9e & ,secure ,%ort ,fuel ,l9e4 ,flexible control ( ! eng9e is s\ght by v>y+ ! eng9e spe$ by regulat+ ! supply ( gas to ! cyl9d]s4 ,! p[] plant %\ld run f its l[e/ to its highe/ spe$ )\t any irregul>ity 9 torque1 i4e41 ! accel]ation %\ld be gradual r ?an spasmodic4 ,z ! degree ( compression w v>y 9 value ) ! am\nt ( ?rottle op5+1 ! conditions necess>y to obta9 maximum p[] diff] ) v>y+ eng9e spe$s4 ,:5 ! ?rottle is b>ely op5$ ! eng9e spe$ is l[ & ! gas mu/ be ri*] 9 fuel ?an :5 ! ?rottle is wide op5 & ! eng9e spe$ high4 ,:5 an eng9e is turn+ ov] sl[ly ! compression has l[ value & ! conditions are n s favorable to rapid combu/ion z :5 ! compression is high4 ,at high eng9e spe$s ! gas velocity ?r\gh ! intake pip+ is high] ?an at l[ spe$s1 & regul> eng9e action is n s apt to be di/urb$ by cond5sation ( liquid fuel 9 ! manifold due to excessively ri* mixture or a sup]abundance ( liquid 9 ! /ream ( c>buret$ air4 ,,liquid ,,fuel ,,/orage ,,& ,,supply ,! problem ( gasol9e /orage & me?od ( supply+ ! c>buretor is "o t is det]m9$ solely by design ( ! airplane4 ,:ile ! object ( design]s %\ld be to supply ! fuel to ! c>buretor by z simple means z possible ! fuel supply sy/em ( "s airplanes is q complex4 ,! fir/ po9t to consid] is ! location ( ! gasol9e tank4 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( fuel ne$$ & ! space available 9 ! fuselage4 ,a v simple & compact fuel supply sy/em is %[n at ,fig4 #da4 ,9 ?is in/ance ! fuel conta9] is plac$ imm$iately back ( ! eng9e cyl9d]4 ,! c>buretor :i* is c>ri$ z indicat$ is jo9$ to ! tank by a %ort piece ( copp] or flexible rubb] tub+4 ,?is is ! simple/ possible =m ( fuel supply sy/em & "o us$ on a numb] ( excell5t airplanes4 ,z ! sizes ( eng9es increase & ! p[] plant fuel consumption augm5ts x is necess>y to use m fuel1 & to obta9 a satisfactory fly+ radius )\t frequ5t l&+s = fill+ ! fuel tank x is necess>y to supply l>ge conta9]s4 ,:5 a v p[]ful p[] plant is fitt$1 z on battle planes ( high capacity1 x is necess>y to c>ry l>ge quantities ( gasol9e4 ,9 ord] to use a tank ( suffici5tly l>ge capacity x may be necess>y to c>ry x l[] ?an ! c>buretor4 ,:5 in/all$ 9 ?is mann] x is necess>y to =ce fuel out ( ! tank by air pressure or to pump x ) a vacuum tank because ! gasol9e tank is l[] ?an ! c>buretor x supplies & ! gasol9e _c fl[ by gravity z 9 ! simpl] sy/ems4 ,:ile ! pressure & gravity fe$ sy/ems are g5]ally us$ 9 airplanes1 x may be well to describe ! vacuum lift sy/em :i* has be5 widely appli$ to motor c>s & :i* may h "s use 9 connection ) airplanes z ^! ma*9es are develop$4 ,,/ew>t ,,vacuum ,,fuel ,,fe$ ,"o ( ! m>k$ t5d5cies has be5 ! adoption ( a vacuum fuel fe$ sy/em to draw ! gasol9e f tanks plac$ l[] ?an ! c>buretor in/ead ( us+ ei!r exhau/ gas or air pressure to a*ieve ?is end4 ,! device g5]ally fitt$ is ! ,/ew>t vacuum fe$ tank :i* is cle>ly %[n 9 section at ,fig4 #db4 ,9 ?is sy/em ! suction ( a motor is employ$ to draw gasol9e f ! ma9 fuel tank to ! auxili>y tank incorporat$ 9 ! device & f ?is tank ! liquid fl[s to ! c>buretor4 ,x is claim$ t all ! advantages ( ! pressure sy/em are obta9$ ) v little m complication ?an is f\nd on ! ord9>y gravity fe$4 ,! me*anism is all conta9$ 9 ! cyl9drical tank %[n1 :i* may be m\nt$ ei!r on ! front ( ! da% or on ! side ( ! eng9e z %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--,! ,/ew>t ,vacuum ,fuel ,fe$ ,tank4 ,! tank is divid$ into two *amb]s1 ! upp] "o be+ ! fill+ *amb] & ! l[] "o ! empty+ *amb]4 ,! =m]1 :i* is at ! top ( ! device1 conta9s ! float valve1 z well z ! pipes runn+ to ! ma9 fuel conta9] & to ! intake manifold4 ,! l[] *amb] is us$ to supply ! c>buretor ) gasol9e & is "u atmosph]ic pressure at all times1 s ! fl[ ( fuel f x is by means ( gravity only4 ,s9ce ?is *amb] is locat$ some:at above ! c>buretor1 !re mu/ always be free fl[ ( fuel4 ,atmosph]ic pressure is ma9ta9$ by ! pipes ,a & ,b1 ! latt] op5+ into ! air4 ,9 ord] t ! fuel w be suck$ f a ma9 tank to ! upp] *amb]1 ! suction valve mu/ be op5$ & ! atmosph]ic valve clos$4 ,"u ^! conditions ! float is at ! bottom & ! suction at ! intake manifold produces a vacuum 9 ! tank :i* draws ! gasol9e f ! ma9 tank to ! upp] *amb]4 ,:5 ! upp] *amb] is fill$ at ! prop] height ! float rises to ! top1 ?is clos+ ! suction valve & op5+ ! atmosph]ic valve4 ,z ! suction is n[ cut (f1 ! l[] *amb] is fill$ by gravity ow+ to !re be+ atmosph]ic pressure 9 bo? upp] & l[] *amb]s4 ,a flap valve is provid$ betwe5 ! two *amb]s to prev5t ! gasol9e 9 ! l[] "o f be+ suck$ back into ! upp] "o4 ,! atmosph]ic & suction valves are controll$ by ! lev]s ,c & ,d1 bo? ( :i* are pivot$ at ,e1 _! out] ends be+ connect$ by two coil spr+s4 ,x is se5 t ! arrangem5t ( ^! two spr+s is su* t ! float mu/ be held at ! extremity ( its movem5t1 & t x _c assume an int]m$iate position4 ,?is int]mitt5t action is requir$ to insure t ! upp] "p ( ! tank may be "u atmosph]ic pressure "p ( ! "t = ! gasol9e to fl[ to ! l[] *amb]4 ,:5 ! level ( gasol9e drops to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! float falls1 ?us op5+ ! suction valve & clos+ ! atmosph]ic valve4 ,! suction ( ! motor !n causes a fl[ ( fuel f ! ma9 conta9]4 ,z soon z ! level rises to ! prop] height ! float returns to its upp] position4 ,x takes ab\t two seconds = ! *amb] to become full en\gh to raise ! float1 z b 4#je gallon is transf]r$ at a "t4 ,! pipe runn+ f ! bottom ( ! l[] *amb] to ! c>buretor ext5ds up a ways1 s t !re is b little *ance ( dirt or wat] be+ c>ri$ to ! float *amb]4 ,if ! eng9e is all[$ to /& long en\gh s t ! tank becomes empty1 x w be repl5i%$ aft] ! motor has be5 crank$ ov] f\r or five times ) ! ?rottle clos$4 ,! in/allation ( ! ,/ew>t ,vacuum-,gravity ,sy/em is v simple4 ,! suction pipe is tapp$ into ! manifold at a po9t z ne> ! cyl9d]s z possible1 :ile ! fuel pipe is ins]t$ into ! gasol9e tank & runs to ! bottom ( t memb]4 ,!re is a scre5 at ! end ( ! fuel pipe to prev5t any tr\ble due to deposits ( s$im5t 9 ! ma9 conta9]4 ,z ! fuel is suck$ f ! gasol9e tank a small v5t mu/ be made 9 ! tank fill] cap s t ! pressure 9 ! ma9 tank w always be t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,e>ly ,,vaporiz] ,,=ms ,! e>ly types ( c>buret+ devices 7 v crude & cumb]some1 & ! mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air 0 accompli%$ 9 ?ree ways4 ,! air /ream 0 pass$ ov] ! surface ( ! liquid itself1 ?r\gh loosely plac$ absorb5t mat]ial saturat$ ) liquid1 or directly ?r\gh ! fuel4 ,! fir/ type is kn[n z ! surface c>buretor & is n[ practically obsolete4 ,! second =m is call$ ! wick c>buretor because ! air /ream 0 pass$ ov] or ?r\gh saturat$ wick+4 ,! ?ird =m 0 kn[n z a bubbl+ c>buretor4 ,:ile ^! primitive =ms gave fairly good results ) ! e>ly sl[-spe$ eng9es & ! high grade1 or v volatile1 gasol9e :i* 0 fir/ us$ = fuel1 !y w\ld be entirely unsuitable = pres5t =ms ( eng9es because !y w\ld n c>burate ! l[] grades ( gasol9e :i* are us$ to-day1 & w\ld n supply ! mod]n high-spe$ eng9es ) gas ( ! prop] consi/5cy fa/ en\gh ev5 if !y did n h to use v volatile gasol9e4 ,! =m ( c>buretor us$ at ! pres5t "t op]ates on a diff]5t pr9ciple4 ,^! devices are kn[n z spray+ c>buretors4 ,! fuel is r$uc$ to a spray by ! suction effect ( ! ent]+ air /ream draw+ x ?r\gh a f9e op5+4 ,! advantage ( ?is con/ruction is t a m ?or\gh amalgamation ( ! gasol9e & air p>ticles is obta9$4 ,) ! e>li] types previ\sly consid]$ ! air w\ld comb9e ) only ! m volatile elem5ts1 leav+ ! heavi] con/itu5ts 9 ! tank4 ,z ! fuel became /ale x 0 difficult to vaporize x1 & x _h to be dra9$ (f & fre% fuel provid$ be=e ! prop] mixture w\ld be produc$4 ,x w be evid5t t :5 ! fuel is spray$ into ! air /ream1 all ! fuel w be us$ up & ! heavi] portions ( ! gasol9e w be tak5 into ! cyl9d] & vaporiz$ j z well z ! m volatile vapors4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,m>9e-,type ,mix+ ,valve1 by :i* ,gasol9e is ,spray$ into ,air ,/ream ,?r\gh ,small ,op5+ 9 ,air-,valve ,seat4 ,! simple/ =m ( spray c>buretor is t %[n at ,fig4 #dc4 ,9 ?is ! gasol9e op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! fuel is spray$ into ! ent]+ air /ream is clos$ by ! spr+-controll$ mu%room valve :i* regulates ! ma9 air op5+ z well4 ,:5 ! eng9e draws 9 a *>ge ( air x unseats ! valve & at ! same "t ! air fl[+ ar\nd x is saturat$ ) gasol9e p>ticles ?r\gh ! gasol9e op5+4 ,! mixture ?us =m$ goes to ! eng9e ?r\gh ! mixture passage4 ,two me?ods ( v>y+ ! fuel proportions are provid$4 ,"o ( ^! consi/s ( a ne$le valve to regulate ! am\nt ( gasol9e1 ! o!r is a knurl$ screw :i* controls ! am\nt ( air by limit+ ! lift ( ! jump valve4 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,float-,,fe$ ,,c>buretor ,! mod]n =m ( spray+ c>buretor is provid$ ) two *amb]s1 "o a mix+ *amb] ?r\gh :i* ! air /ream passes & mixes ) a gasol9e spray1 ! o!r a float *amb] 9 :i* a con/ant level ( fuel is ma9ta9$ by simple me*anism4 ,a jet or /&pipe is us$ 9 ! mix+ *amb] to spray ! fuel ?r\gh & ! object ( ! float is to ma9ta9 ! fuel level to su* a po9t t x w n ov]fl[ ! jet :5 ! motor is n draw+ 9 a *>ge ( gas4 ,) ! simple =ms ( g5]ator valve 9 :i* ! gasol9e op5+ is controll$ by ! air valve1 a leak any:]e 9 ei!r valve or valve seat w all[ ! gasol9e to fl[ cont9u\sly :e!r ! eng9e is draw+ 9 a *>ge or n4 ,! liquid fuel collects ar\nd ! air op5+1 & :5 ! eng9e inspires a *>ge x is saturat$ ) gasol9e globules & is excessively ri*4 ,) a float-fe$ con/ruction1 :i* ma9ta9s a con/ant level ( gasol9e at ! "r height 9 ! /&pipe1 liquid fuel w only be suppli$ :5 drawn out ( ! jet by ! suction effect ( ! ent]+ air /ream4 ,,mayba*',s ,,e>ly ,,design ,! fir/ =m ( spray+ c>buretor ev] appli$ successfully 0 evolv$ by ,mayba* = use on "o ( ! e>lie/ ,daiml] eng9es4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples ( op]ation ( ?is pione] float-fe$ c>buretor are %[n at ,fig4 #dd1 ,a4 ,! mix+ *amb] & valve *amb] 7 "o & ! /&pipe or jet protrud$ into ! mix+ *amb]4 ,x 0 connect$ to ! float comp>tm5t by a pipe4 ,! fuel f ! tank ent]$ ! top ( ! float comp>tm5t & ! op5+ 0 clos$ by a ne$le valve c>ri$ on top ( a holl[ metal float4 ,:5 ! level ( gasol9e 9 ! float *amb] 0 l[]$ ! float w\ld fall & ! ne$le valve uncov] ! op5+4 ,?is w\ld p]mit ! gasol9e f ! tank to fl[ into ! float *amb]1 & z ! *amb] fill$ ! float w\ld rise until ! prop] level _h be5 rea*$1 "u :i* conditions ! float w\ld %ut (f ! gasol9e op5+4 ,on e suction /roke ( ! eng9e ! inlet valve1 :i* 0 an automatic type1 w\ld leave its seat & a /ream ( air w\ld be drawn ?r\gh ! air op5+ & ar\nd ! /&pipe or jet4 ,?is w\ld cause ! gasol9e to spray out ( ! tube & mix ) ! ent]+ air /ream4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,trac+ ,evolution ( ,mod]n ,spray ,c>buretor4 ,a--,e>ly ,=m ,evolv$ by ,mayba*4 ,b4--,pho5ix-,daiml] ,modification ( ,mayba*'s ,pr9ciple4 ,c--,mod]n ,conc5tric ,float ,automatic ,comp5sat+ ,c>buretor4 ,! =m %[n at ,b 0 a modification ( ,mayba*'s simple device & 0 fir/ us$ on ! ,pho5ix-,daiml] eng9es4 ,sev]al improvem5ts are not$ 9 ?is device4 ,fir/1 ! c>buretor 0 made "o unit by ca/+ ! float & mix+ *amb]s toge!r in/ead ( mak+ !m sep>ate & jo9+ !m by a pipe1 z %[n at ,a4 ,! float con/ruction 0 improv$ & ! gasol9e %ut-(f valve 0 op]at$ ?r\gh lev]age in/ead ( be+ directly fa/5$ to ! float4 ,! spray nozzle 0 surr\nd$ by a *oke tube :i* conc5trat$ ! air /ream ar\nd x & made = m rapid air fl[ at l[ eng9e spe$s4 ,a conical piece 0 plac$ ov] ! jet to break up ! ent]+ spray into a mi/ & insure m intimate admixture ( air & gasol9e4 ,! air op5+ 0 provid$ ) an air cone :i* _h a %utt] controll+ ! op5+ s t ! am\nt ( air ent]+ c\ld be regulat$ & ?us v>y ! mixture proportions )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,,conc5tric ,,float ,,& ,,jet ,,type ,! =m %[n at ,b has be5 fur!r improv$1 & ! type %[n at ,c is repres5tative ( mod]n s+le jet practice4 ,9 ?is ! float *amb] & mix+ *amb] are conc5tric4 ,a balanc$ float me*anism :i* insures /ead9ess ( fe$ is us$1 ! gasol9e jet or /&pipe is provid$ ) a ne$le valve to v>y ! am\nt ( gasol9e suppli$ ! mixture & two air op5+s are provid$4 ,! ma9 air port is at ! bottom ( ! vaporiz]1 :ile an auxili>y air inlet is provid$ at ! side ( ! mix+ *amb]4 ,!re are two me?ods ( controll+ ! mixture proportions 9 ?is =m ( c>buretor4 ,"o may regulate ! gasol9e ne$le or adju/ ! auxili>y air valve4 ,,s*ebl] ,,c>buretor ,a ,s*ebl] c>buretor1 :i* has be5 us$ on "s airplane eng9es1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,x w be notic$ t a met]+ p9 or ne$le valve op5s ! jet :5 ! air valve op5s4 ,! long arm ( a lev]age is connect$ to ! air valve1 :ile ! %ort arm is connect$ to ! ne$le1 ! r$uction 9 lev]age be+ su* t ! ne$le valve is made to travel mu* less ?an ! air valve4 ,= sett+ ! am\nt ( fuel pass$ or ! size ( ! jet orifice :5 runn+ ) ! air valve clos$1 !re is a screw :i* raises or l[]s ! fulcrum ( ! lev] & !re is also a da% control hav+ ! same effect by pu%+ d[n ! fulcrum aga9/ a small spr+4 ,a long ext5sion is giv5 to ! v5turi tube :i* is v n>r[ ar\nd ! jet orifices1 :i* are horizontal & %[n at ,a 9 ! draw+4 ,fuel ent]s ! float *amb] ?r\gh ! union ,m1 & ! spr+ ,p holds ! met]+ p9 upw>d aga9/ ! re/ra9+ action ( ! lev]4 ,! air valve may be set by an easily adju/able knurl$ screw %[n 9 ! draw+1 & flutt]+ ( ! valve is prev5t$ by ! pi/on da% pot c>ri$ 9 a *amb] above ! valve into :i* ! valve /em projects4 ,! prim>y air ent]s b5ea? ! jet passage & !re is a small ?rottle 9 ! intake to increase ! spe$ ( air fl[ = />t+ purposes4 ,! c>buretor is adapt$ = ! use ( a hot-air connection to ! /ove ar\nd ! exhau/ pipe & x is recomm5d$ t su* a fitt+ be suppli$4 ,! lev] :i* controls ! supply ( air ?r\gh ! prim>y air intake is s arrang$ t if desir$ x c be connect$ ) a l9kage on ! da% or control column by means ( a flexible wire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--,new ,model ( ,s*ebl] ,c>buretor ,) ,met]+ ,valve & ,ext5d$ ,v5turi4 ,note ,me*anical ,connection ,betwe5 ,air ,valve & ,fuel ,regulat+ ,ne$le4 ,,! ,,claudel 7,,fr5*7 ,,c>buretor ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--,! ,claudel ,c>buretor4 ,?is c>buretor is ( extremely simple con/ruction1 because x has no supplem5t>y or auxili>y air valve & no mov+ p>ts except ! ?rottle controll+ ! gas fl[4 ,! con/ruction is already %[n 9 ,fig4 #df4 ,! spray jet is ecc5tric ) a surr\nd+ sleeve or tube 9 :i* !re are two s]ies ( small orifices1 "o at ! top & ! o!r ne> ! bottom4 ,! =m] are ab\t level ) ! spray jet op5+4 ,! sleeve surr\nd+ ! nozzle is clos$ at ! top4 ,! air1 pass+ ! upp] holes 9 ! sleeve1 produces a vacuum 9 ! sleeve1 !reby draw+ air 9 ?r\gh ! bottom holes4 ,x is ?is mov+ int]ior column ( air t controls ! fl[ ( gasol9e f ! nozzle4 ,ow+ to ! friction ( ! small passages1 ! spe$ ( air fl[ ?r\gh ! sleeve does n increase z fa/ z ! spe$ ( air fl[ outside ! sleeve1 h5ce !re is a t5d5cy = ! mixture to rema9 con/ant4 ,! ?rottle ( ?is c>buretor is ( ! b>rel type1 & ! top ( ! spray nozzle & its surr\nd+ sleeve are locat$ inside ! ?rottle4 ,,/ew>t ,,met]+ ,,p9 ,,c>buretor ,! c>buretor %[n at ,fig4 #dg is a met]+ type 9 :i* ! vacuum at ! jet is controll$ by ! weight ( ! met]+ valve surr\nd+ ! upright met]+ p94 ,! only mov+ "p is ! met]+ valve1 :i* rises & falls ) ! *anges 9 vacuum4 ,! air *amb] surr\nds ! met]+ valve1 & !re is a mix+ *amb] above4 ,z ! valve is drawn up ! gasol9e passage is enl>g$ on acc\nt ( ! pr$et]m9$ tap] on ! met]+ p91 & ! air passage also is increas$ proportionately1 giv+ ! correct mixture4 ,a da%pot at ! bottom ( ! valve *ecks flutt]4 ,9 idl+ ! valve re/s on its seat1 practically clos+ ! air & giv+ ! necess>y idl+ mixture4 ,a passage ?r\gh ! valve acts z an aspirat+ tube4 ,:5 ! valve is clos$ altoge!r ! prim>y air passes ?r\gh ducts 9 ! valve itself1 giv+ ! prop] am\nt = idl+4 ,! "o adju/m5t consi/s 9 rais+ or l[]+ ! tap]$ met]+ p91 increas+ or decreas+ ! supply ( gasol9e4 ,da% control is suppli$4 ,?is pulls d[n ! met]+ p91 increas+ ! gasol9e fl[4 ,! duplex type = eight- & twelve-cyl9d] motors is ! same 9 pr9ciple z model #be1 b x is a d\ble c>buretor syn*roniz$ z to ?rottle movem5ts1 adju/m5ts1 etc4 ,! duplex = a]onautical motors is made ( ca/ alum9um alloy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,! ,/ew>t ,met]+ ,p9 ,c>buretor4 ,,multiple ,,nozzle ,,vaporiz]s ,to secure prop]ly proportion$ mixtures "s c>buretor design]s h evolv$ =ms 9 :i* two or m nozzles are us$ 9 a common mix+ *amb]4 ,! usual con/ruction is to use two1 "o hav+ a small op5+ & plac$ 9 a small air tube & us$ only = l[ spe$s1 ! o!r be+ plac$ 9 a l>g] air tube & hav+ a slightly augm5t$ bore s t x is employ$ on int]m$iate spe$s4 ,at high spe$s bo? jets w\ld be us$ 9 s]ies4 ,"s multiple jet c>buretors c\ld be consid]$ z a s]ies ( ^! in/rum5ts1 ea* "o be+ design$ = c]ta9 conditions ( eng9e action4 ,!y w\ld v>y f small size j suffici5t to run ! eng9e at l[ spe$ to o!rs hav+ suffici5t capacity to furni% gas = ! highe/ possible eng9e spe$ :5 us$ 9 conjunction ) ! small] memb]s :i* h be5 br\ght into s]vice progressively z ! eng9e spe$ has be5 augm5t$4 ,! multiple nozzle c>buretor diff]s f t 9 :i* a s+le spray tube is us$ only 9 ! con/ruction ( ! mix+ *amb]1 z a common float b[l c be us$ to supply all spray pipes4 ,x is common practice to br+ ! jets into action progressively by "s =m ( me*anical connection ) ! ?rottle or by automatic valves4 ,! object ( any multiple nozzle c>buretor is to secure great] flexibility & endeavor to supply mixtures ( prop] proportions at all spe$s ( ! eng9e4 ,x %\ld be /at$1 h[ev]1 t :ile devices ( ?is nature l5d !mselves readily to practical application x is m difficult to adju/ !m ?an ! simpl] =ms hav+ b "o nozzle4 ,:5 a numb] ( jets are us$ ! liability ( clogg+ up ! c>buretor is increas$1 & if "o or m ( ! nozzles is *ok$ by a p>ticle ( dirt or wat] ! result+ mixture tr\ble is difficult to detect4 ,"o ( ! nozzles may supply en\gh gasol9e to p]mit ! eng9e to run well at c]ta9 spe$s & yet n be adequate to supply ! prop] am\nt ( gas "u o!r conditions4 ,9 adju/+ a multiple jet c>buretor 9 :i* ! jets are provid$ ) gasol9e regulat+ ne$les1 x is cu/om>y to consid] ea* nozzle z a di/9ct c>buretor & to regulate x to secure ! be/ motor action at t ?rottle position :i* corresponds to ! conditions "u :i* ! jet is br\ght into s]vice4 ,= in/ance1 t suppli$ ! prim>y mix+ *amb] %\ld be regulat$ ) ! ?rottle p>tly clos$1 :ile ! auxili>y jet %\ld be adju/$ ) ! ?rottle fully op5$4 ,,ball ,,& ,,ball ,,two-,,/age ,,c>buretor ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,! ,ball & ,ball ,two-,/age ,c>buretor4 ,?is is a two-/age vaporiz+ device1 hot air be+ us$ 9 ! prim>y or initial /age ( vaporization & cold air 9 ! supplem5t>y /age4 ,ref]r+ to ! sectional illu/ration at ,fig4 #dh1 x w be se5 t !re is a hot-air passage ) a *oke-valve2 ! prim>y v5turi appe>s at ,b2 ,j is its gasol9e jet1 & ,v is a spr+-load$ idl+ valve 9 a fix$ air op5+4 ,^! p>ts con/itute ! prim>y sy/em4 ,9 ! second>y sy/em ,a is a cold-air passage1 ,t a butt]fly valve & ,j a gasol9e jet dis*>g+ into ! cold-air passage4 ,?is sy/em is br\ght into op]ation by op5+ ! butt]fly ,t4 ,a connection betwe5 ! butt]fly ,t & ! ?rottle1 n %[n1 ?r[s ! butt]fly wide op5 :5 ! ?rottle is n q wide op52 at all o!r times ! butt]fly is held clos$ by a spr+4 ,! cyl9drical *amb] at ! "r ( ! mix+ *amb] has an ext5sion ,e ( r$uc$ diamet] connect+ x ) ! intake manifold ?r\gh a passage ,d4 ,a re/rict$ op5+ connects ! float *amb] ) ! cyl9drical *amb] s t ! gasol9e level is ! same 9 bo?4 ,a loosely fitt+ plung] ,p 9 ! cyl9drical *amb] has an upw>d ext5sion into ! small "p ( ! *amb]4 ,o is a small air op5+ & ,m is a passage f ! cyl9drical *amb] to ! mix+ *amb]4 ,air con/antly passes ?r\gh ?is :5 ! c>buretor is 9 op]ation4 ,! c>buretor is really two 9 "o4 ,! prim>y c>buretor is made up ( a c5tral jet 9 a v5turi passage4 ,! float *amb] is ecc5tric4 ,9 ! air passage !re is a fix$ op5+1 & additional air is tak5 9 by ! op5+ ?r\gh suction ( a spr+-oppos$ air valve4 ,! second /age1 :i* comes into play z soon z ! c>buretor is call$ ^u = additional mixture above l[ m$ium spe$s1 is made up ( an indep5d5t air passage conta9+ ano!r air valve4 ,z ! valve is op5$ ?is jet is uncov]$1 & air is l$ pa/ x4 ,= easy />t+ an extra passage leads f ! float b[l passage to a po9t above ! ?rottle4 ,all ! suction falls ^u ?is passage :5 ! ?rottle is clos$4 ,! passage conta9s a plung] & acts z a pick-up device4 ,:5 ! vacuum increases ! plung] rises & %uts (f ! fl[ ( gasol9e f ! intake passage4 ,z ! ?rottle is op5$ ! vacuum 9 ! intake passage is brok51 & ! plung] falls1 caus+ gasol9e to ga!r above x4 ,?is is imm$iately drawn ?r\gh ! pick-up passage & gives ! desir$ mixture = accel]ation4 ,,ma/] ,,multiple-,,jet ,,c>buretor ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,! ,ma/] ,c>buretor4 ,?is c>buretor1 %[n 9 detail 9 ,figs4 #di & #ej1 has be5 v popul> 9 rac+ c>s & aviation eng9es because ( exceptionally good pick-up qualities & its ?or\gh atomization ( fuel4 ,its pr9ciple ( op]ation is ! break+ up ( ! fuel by a s]ies ( jets1 :i* v>y 9 numb] f f\rte5 to tw5ty-"o1 accord+ to ! size ( ! c>buretor4 ,^! are uncov]$ by op5+ ! ?rottle1 :i* is curv$--a pat5t$ feature--to secure ! correct progression ( jets4 ,! c>buretor has an ecc5tric float *amb]1 f :i* ! gasol9e is l$ to ! jet piece f :i* ! jets /& up 9 a r[4 ,! tops ( ^! jets are clos$ until ! ?rottle is op5$ f> en\gh to pass !m1 :i* x does progressively4 ,! air op5+ is at ! bottom1 & ! ?rottle op5+ is su* t a modifi$ v5turi is =m$4 ,! ?rottle is c>ri$ 9 a cyl9drical b>rel ) ! jets plac$ bel[ x1 & ! passage f ! b>rel to ! intake is arrang$ s t !re is no int]ruption 9 ! fl[4 ,= easy />t+ a da%-controll$ %utt] closes (f ! air1 ?r[+ ! suction on ! jets1 ?us giv+ a ri* mixture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,sectional ,view ( ,ma/] ,c>buretor ,%[+ ,p>ts4 ,! only adju/m5t is = idl+1 & once t is fix$ x ne$ nev] be t\*$4 ,?is is 9 ! =m ( a screw & regulates ! position ( ! ?rottle :5 at idl+ position4 ,! da% control has high-spe$1 normal & ri*-/>t+ positions4 ,9 in/all+ ! ,ma/] c>buretor ! float *amb] may be turn$ ei!r t[>d ! radiator or driv]'s seat4 ,if ! float is turn$ t[>d ! radiator1 h[ev]1 a =w>d lug plate %\ld be ord]$2 o!rwise x w be difficult to in/all ! control4 ,! ?rottle lev] mu/ g all ! way to ! /op lug or maximum p[] w n be secur$4 ,9 adju/+ ! idle screw x is turn$ 9 = ri* & out = lean4 ,,comp\nd ,,nozzle ,,z5i? ,,c>buretor ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,sectional ,view ( ,z5i? ,comp\nd ,nozzle ,comp5sat+ ,c>buretor4 ,! ,z5i? c>buretor1 %[n at ,fig4 #ea1 has become v popul> = airplane eng9e use because ( its simplicity1 z mixture comp5sation is secur$ by a comp5sat+ comp\nd nozzle pr9ciple t works v well 9 practice4 ,to illu/rate ?is pr9ciple briefly1 let u consid] ! elem5t>y type ( c>buretor or mix+ valve1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb1 ,a4 ,x consi/s ( a s+le jet or spray+ nozzle plac$ 9 ! pa? ( ! incom+ air & f$ f ! usual float *amb]4 ,x is a natural inf]5ce to suppose t z ! spe$ ( ! motor increases1 bo? ! fl[ ( air & ( gasol9e w increase 9 ! same proportion4 ,unhappily1 su* is n ! case4 ,!re is a law ( liquid bodies :i* /ates t ! fl[ ( gasol9e f ! jet increases "u suction fa/] ?an ! fl[ ( air1 giv+ a mixture :i* gr[s ri*] & ri*]--a mixture conta9+ a mu* high] p]c5tage ( gasol9e at high suction ?an at l[4 ,! t5d5cy is %[n by ! accompany+ curve 7,fig4 #eb1 ,b71 :i* gives ! ratio ( gasol9e to air at v>y+ spe$s f ?is type ( jet4 ,! mixture is practically con/ant only betwe5 n>r[ limits & at v high spe$4 ,! mo/ common me?od ( correct+ ?is defect is by putt+ v>i\s auxili>y air valves :i*1 add+ air1 t5ds to dilute ?is mixture z x gets too ri*4 ,x is difficult ) make%ift devices to gauge ?is dilution accurately = e motor spe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,diagrams ,expla9+ ,action ( ,bav]ey ,comp\nd ,nozzle ,us$ 9 ,z5i? ,c>buretor4 ,n[1 if we h a jet :i* gr[s ri*] z ! suction increases1 ! opposite type ( jet is "o :i* w\ld gr[ lean] "u simil> conditions4 ,bav]ey1 ! inv5tor ( ! ,z5i?1 discov]$ ! pr9ciple ( ! con/ant fl[ device :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb1 ,c4 ,"h a c]ta9 fix$ am\nt ( gasol9e det]m9$ by ! op5+ ,i is p]mitt$ to fl[ by gravity into ! well ,j op5 to ! air4 ,! suction at jet ,h has no effect ^u ! gravity comp5sator ,i because ! suction is de/roy$ by ! op5 well ,j4 ,! comp5sator1 !n1 deliv]s a /eady rate ( fl[ p] unit ( "t1 & z ! motor suction increases m air is drawn up1 :ile ! am\nt ( gasol9e rema9s ! same & ! mixture gr[s poor] & poor]4 ,fig4 #eb1 ,d1 %[s ?is curve4 ,by comb9+ ^! two types ( ri* & poor mixture c>buretors ! ,z5i? comp\nd nozzle 0 evolv$4 ,9 ,fig4 #eb1 ,e1 we h bo? ! direct suction or ri*] type lead+ ?r\gh pipe ,e & nozzle ,g & ! con/ant fl[ device ( ,bav]ey %[n at ,j1 ,i1 ,k & nozzle ,h4 ,"o c\nt]acts ! defects ( ! o!r1 s t f ! crank+ ( ! motor to its highe/ spe$ !re is a con/ant ratio ( air & gasol9e to supply effici5t combu/ion4 ,9 addition to ! comp\nd nozzle ! ,z5i? is equipp$ ) a />t+ & idl+ well1 %[n 9 ! cut ( ,model ,l c>buretor at ,p & ,j4 ,?is t]m9ates 9 a prim+ hole at ! edge ( ! butt]fly valve1 :]e ! suction is greate/ :5 ?is valve is slightly op54 ,! gasol9e is drawn up by ! suction at ! prim+ hole &1 mix$ ) ! air ru%+ by ! butt]fly1 gives an ideal sl[ spe$ mixture4 ,at high] spe$s ) ! butt]fly valve op5$ fur!r ! prim+ well ceases to op]ate & ! comp\nd nozzle dra9s ! well & comp5sates correctly = any motor spe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,! ,z5i? ,duplex ,c>buretor = ,airplane ,motors ( ! ,v ,type4 ,) ! com+ ( ! d\ble motor conta9+ eight or twelve cyl9d]s arrang$ 9 two ,v blocks1 ! "q ( good c>buretion has be5 a problem requir+ mu* /udy4 ,! s+le c>buretor has giv5 only indiff]5t results due to ! /rong cross suction 9 ! inlet manifold f "o set ( cyl9d]s to ! o!r4 ,?is naturally l$ to ! adoption ( two c>buretors 9 :i* ea* set ( cyl9d]s 0 indep5d5tly f$ by a sep>ate c>buretor4 ,results f ?is sy/em 7 v good :5 ! two c>buretors 7 work+ exactly 9 unison1 b z x 0 extremely difficult to accompli% ?is co-op]ation1 especially :]e ! adju/able type 0 employ$1 ?is sy/em nev] ga9$ 9 favor4 ,! next logical /ep 0 ! ,z5i? ,duplex1 %[n at ,fig4 #ec4 ,?is consi/s ( two sep>ate & di/9ct c>buretors jo9$ toge!r s t a common gasol9e float *amb] & air inlet c\ld be us$ by bo?4 ,x does away ) cross suction 9 ! manifold because ea* set ( cyl9d]s has a sep>ate intake ( its own4 ,x does away ) two c>buretors & makes = simplicity4 ,! practical application ( ! ,z5i? c>buretor to ! ,curtiss #ij horse-p[] ,,ox-#b motor us$ on ! ,,jn-#d /&>d tra9+ ma*9e is %[n at ,fig4 #ed1 :i* outl9es a re> view ( ! eng9e 9 "q4 ,! c>buretor is c>ri$ l[ to p]mit ( fuel supply f a gravity tank c>ri$ back ( ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,re> ,view ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#b #ij ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,motor ,%[+ ,c>buretor ,location & ,hot ,air ,leads4 ,,utility ,,( ,,gasol9e ,,/ra9]s ,_m c>buretors include a filt]+ scre5 at ! po9t :]e ! liquid ent]s ! float *amb] 9 ord] to keep dirt or any o!r =eign matt] :i* may be pres5t 9 ! fuel f ent]+ ! float *amb]4 ,?is is n g5]al practice1 h[ev]1 & ! majority ( vaporiz]s d n include a filt] 9 _! con/ruction4 ,x is v desirable t ! dirt %\ld be kept out ( ! c>buretor because x may get "u ! float control fuel valve & cause flood+ by keep+ x rais$ f its seat4 ,if x f9ds its way into ! spray nozzle x may block ! op5+ s t no gasol9e w issue or may s con/rict ! passage t only v small quantities ( fuel w be suppli$ ! mixture4 ,:]e ! c>buretor itself is n provid$ ) a filt]+ scre5 a simple filt] is usually in/all$ 9 ! pipe l9e betwe5 ! gasol9e tank & ! float *amb]4 ,"s simple =ms ( filt]s & sep>ators are %[n at ,fig4 #ee4 ,t at ,a consi/s ( a simple brass ca/+ hav+ a readily deta*able gauze scre5 & a settl+ *amb] ( suffici5t capacity to all[ ! =eign matt] to settle to ! bottom1 f :i* x is dra9$ out by a pet cock4 ,any wat] or dirt 9 ! gasol9e w settle to ! bottom ( ! *amb]1 & z all fuel deliv]$ to ! c>buretor mu/ pass ?r\gh ! wire gauze scre5 x is n likely to conta9 impurities :5 x rea*es ! float *amb]4 ,! heavi] p>ticles1 su* z scale f ! tank or dirt & ev5 wat]1 all ( :i* h great] weight ?an ! gasol9e1 w s9k to ! bottom ( ! *amb]1 :]eas light p>ticles1 su* z l9t1 w be prev5t$ f fl[+ into ! c>buretor by ! filt]+ scre54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,types ( ,/ra9]s ,int]pos$ ,betwe5 ,vaporiz] & ,gasol9e ,tank to ,prev5t ,wat] or ,dirt ,pass+ ,into ,c>buret+ ,device4 ,! filt]+ device %[n at ,b is a l>g] appliance ?an t %[n at ,a1 & %\ld be m effici5t z a sep>ator because ! gasol9e is =c$ to pass ?r\gh ?ree filt]+ scre5s be=e x rea*es ! c>buretor4 ,! gasol9e ent]s ! device %[n at ,c ?r\gh a b5t pipe :i* leads directly to ! settl+ *amb] & f !nce ?r\gh a wire gauze scre5 to ! upp] comp>tm5t :i* leads to ! c>buretor4 ,! device %[n at ,d is a comb9ation /ra9]1 dra91 & s$im5t cup4 ,! filt]+ scre5 is held 9 place by a spr+ & bo? are remov$ by tak+ out a plug at ! bottom ( ! device4 ,! %ut-(f valve at ! top ( ! device is int]pos$ betwe5 ! s$im5t cup & ! c>buretor4 ,?is sep>at+ device is incorporat$ ) ! gasol9e tank & =ms an integral "p ( ! gasol9e supply sy/em4 ,! o!r types %[n are design$ to be int]pos$ betwe5 ! gasol9e tank & ! c>buretor at any po9t 9 ! pipe l9e :]e !y may be conv5i5tly plac$4 ,,intake ,,manifold ,,design ,,& ,,con/ruction ,on f\r- & six-cyl9d] eng9es & 9 fact on all multiple-cyl9d] =ms1 x is important t ! pip+ lead+ f ! c>buretor to ! cyl9d]s be made 9 su* a way t ! v>i\s cyl9d]s w receive _! full quota ( gas & t ea* cyl9d] w receive its *>ge at ab\t ! same po9t 9 ! cycle ( op]ations4 ,9 ord] to make ! passages direct ! b5ds %\ld be z few z possible1 & :5 curves are necess>y !y %\ld be ( l>ge radius because an abrupt corn] w n only imp$e gas fl[ b w t5d to promote cond5sation ( ! fuel4 ,e precaution %\ld be tak5 ) f\r- & six-cyl9d] eng9es to insure equitable gas di/ribution to ! valve *amb]s if regul> action ( ! p[] plant is desir$4 ,if ! gas pipe has _m turns & angles x w be difficult to *>ge all cyl9d]s prop]ly4 ,on "s six-cyl9d] aviation eng9es1 two c>buretors are us$ because ( tr\ble exp]i5c$ ) manifolds design$ = "o c>buretor4 ,duplex c>buretors are necess>y to secure ! be/ results f eight- & twelve-cyl9d] ,v eng9es4 ,! problem ( intake pip+ is simplifi$ to "s ext5t on block motors :]e ! intake passage is cor$ 9 ! cyl9d] ca/+ & :]e b "o %ort pipe is ne$$ to jo9 ?is passage to ! c>buretor4 ,if ! cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 pairs a simple pipe ( ,t or ,y =m c be us$ ) success4 ,:5 ! eng9e is ( a type us+ individual cyl9d] ca/+s1 especially 9 ! six-cyl9d] p[] plants1 ! prop] application & in/allation ( suitable pip+ is a difficult problem4 ,! read] is ref]r$ to ! v>i\s eng9e designs outl9$ to asc]ta9 h[ ! inlet pip+ has be5 arrang$ on repres5tative aviation eng9es4 ,intake pip+ is con/ruct$ 9 two ways1 ! mo/ common me?od be+ to ca/ ! manifold ( brass or alum9um4 ,! o!r me?od1 :i* is m co/ly1 is to use a built-up con/ruction ( copp] or brass tub+ ) ca/ metal elb[s & ,y pieces4 ,"o ( ! disadvantages advanc$ aga9/ ! ca/ manifold is t bl[holes may exi/ :i* produce imp]fect ca/+s & :i* w cause mixture tr\bles because ! ent]+ gas f ! c>buretor1 :i* may be ( prop] proportions1 is dilut$ by ! excess air :i* leaks 9 ?r\gh ! por\s ca/+4 ,ano!r factor ( "s mom5t is t ! r\ghness ( ! walls has a c]ta9 am\nt ( friction :i* t5ds to r$uce ! velocity ( ! gases1 & :5 project+ pieces are pres5t1 su* z core wire or o!r po9ts ( metal1 ^! t5d to collect ! drops ( liquid fuel & ?us promote cond5sation4 ,! advantage ( ! built-up con/ruction is t ! walls ( ! tub+ are v smoo?1 & z ! ca/+s are small x is n difficult to clean !m out ?or\ghly be=e !y are incorporat$ 9 ! manifold4 ,! tub+ & ca/+s are jo9$ toge!r by h>d sold]+1 braz+ or autog5\s weld+4 ,,comp5sat+ ,,= ,,v>y+ ,,atmosph]ic ,,conditions ,! l[-grade gasol9e us$ at ! pres5t "t makes x necess>y to use vaporiz]s t are m susceptible to atmosph]ic v>iations ?an :5 high] grade & m volatile liquids are vaporiz$4 ,sudd5 temp]ature *anges1 sometimes be+ z mu* z =ty degrees rise or fall 9 twelve h\rs1 affect ! mixture proportions to "s ext5t1 & n only *anges 9 temp]ature b v>iations 9 altitude also h a be>+ on mixture proportions by affect+ bo? gasol9e & air4 ,z ! temp]ature falls ! specific gravity ( ! gasol9e increases & x becomes heavi]1 ?is produc+ difficulty 9 vaporiz+4 ,! t5d5cy ( v cold air is to cond5se gasol9e in/ead ( vaporiz+ x & !re=e x is necess>y to supply heat$ air to "s c>buretors to obta9 prop] mixtures dur+ cold wea!r4 ,9 ord] t ! gas mixtures w ignite prop]ly ! fuel mu/ be vaporiz$ & ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! ent]+ air ei!r by heat or high velocity ( ! gases4 ,! application ( air /oves to ! ,curtiss ,,ox-#b motor is cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #ed4 ,x w be se5 t flexible metal pipes are us$ to convey ! heat$ air to ! air intakes ( ! duplex mix+ *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,*>t ,%[+ ,dim9ution ( ,air ,pressure z ,altitude ,increases4 ,,h[ ,,high ,,altitude ,,affects ,,p[] ,any int]nal combu/ion eng9e w %[ less p[] at high altitudes ?an x w deliv] at sea level1 & ?is has caus$ a great deal ( que/ion+4 ,!re is a good reason = ?is1 says a writ] 9 ,motor ,age1 & x is a physical impossibility = ! eng9e to d o!rwise4 ,! diff]5ce is due to ! l[] atmosph]ic pressure ! high] up we get4 ,t is1 at sea level ! atmosph]e has a pressure ( #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*2 at #e1jjj feet above sea level ! pressure is approximately #ab4ac p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & at #aj1jjj feet x is #aj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,f ?is x w be se5 t ! f9al pressure atta9$ aft] ! pi/on has driv5 ! gas into compress$ condition ready = fir+ is l[] z ! atmosph]ic pressure drops4 ,?is means t !re is n s mu* p[] 9 ! compress$ *>ge ( gas ! high] up y get above sea level4 ,= example1 suppose ! compression ratio to be #d-a_/b to #a2 9 o!r words1 suppose ! air space above ! pi/on to h #d-a_/b times ! volume :5 ! pi/on is at ! bottom ( its /roke t x has :5 ! pi/on is at ! top ( ! /roke4 ,t is a common compression ratio = an av]age motor1 & is *os5 because x is consid]$ to be ! be/ = maximum horse-p[] & 9 ord] t ! compression pressure w n be s high z to cause pre-ignition4 ,kn[+ ! compression ratio1 we c det]m9e ! f9al pressure imm$iately be=e ignition by sub/itut+ 9 ! /&>d =mula3 ,p#a ,p7,v_/,v#a7a4c 9 :i* ,p is ! atmosph]ic pressure2 ,p#a is ! f9al pressure1 & ,v_/,v#a is ! compression ratio1 !re=e ,p#a #ad4g 7#d4e7a4c #ajd p\nds p] squ>e in*1 absolute4 ,t is1 #ajd p\nds p] squ>e in* is ! mo/ effici5t f9al compression pressure to h = ?is eng9e at sea level1 s9ce x comes directly f ! compression ratio4 ,n[ suppos+ we consid] t ! altitude is #g1jjj feet above sea level4 ,at ?is height ! atmosph]ic pressure is #aa4be p\nds p] squ>e in*1 approximately4 ,9 ?is case we c aga9 sub/itute 9 ! =mula1 us+ ! new atmosph]ic pressure figure4 ,! equation becomes3 ,p#a #aa4be 7#d4e7a4c--gi4d p\nds p] squ>e in*1 absolute4 ,!re=e we n[ h a f9al compression pressure ( only #gi4d p\nds p] squ>e in*1 :i* is consid]ably bel[ ! pressure we h j f\nd to be ! mo/ effici5t = ! motor4 ,! result+ p[] drop is evid5t4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ^! f9al compression pressures are absolute pressures--t is1 !y include ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 to get ! pressure above atmosph]ic y w\ld subtract #ad4g & 9 ! latt] #aa4be w\ld h to be d$uct$4 ,9 o!r words1 :]e ! sea level compression is #hi4c p\nds p] squ>e in* above ! atmosph]e1 ! same motor w h only a compression pressure ( #fh4ae p\nds p] squ>e in* above ! atmosph]e at #g1jjj feet elevation4 ,f ! above x is evid5t t 9 ord] to br+ ! f9al compression pressure up to ! effici5t figure we h det]m9$1 a diff]5t compression ratio w\ld h to be us$4 ,t is1 ! f9al volume w\ld h to be less1 & z x is impossible to v>y ?is to meet ! conditions ( altitude1 ! loss ( p[] _c be help$ except by ! replac+ ( ! /&>d pi/ons ) "s t are long] above ! wri/-p9 s z to r$uce ! space above ! pi/ons :5 on top c5t]4 ,!n if ! ratio is !reby rais$ to "s su* figures z #e to #a1 ! eng9e w aga9 h its prop] f9al pressure1 b x w /ill n h z mu* p[] z x w\ld h at sea level1 s9ce ! horse-p[] v>ies directly ) ! atmosph]ic pressure1 f9al compression be+ kept con/ant4 ,t is1 at #g1jjj feet ! horse-p[] ( an eng9e t _h #dj horse-p[] at sea level w\ld be equal to #aa4be ------- #cj4f horse-p[]4 #ad4g ,if ! orig9al compression ratio ( #d4e 7 reta9$1 ! drop 9 horse-p[] w\ld be ev5 great] ?an ?is4 ,^! computations & rem>ks w make x cle> t ! design] :o contemplates build+ an airplane = high altitude use %\ld see to x t x is ( suffici5t p[] to comp5sate = ! drop t is inevitable :5 x is up 9 ! air4 ,?is is (t5 illu/rat$ 9 /ation>y gas-eng9e in/allations4 ,an eng9e t _h a sea-level rat+ amply suffici5t = ! "w requir$1 might n be p[]ful en\gh :5 br\ght up sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,:5 "o consid]s t airplanes atta9 heights ( ov] #ah1jjj feet1 x w be evid5t t an ample m>g9 ( eng9e p[] is necess>y4 ,,! ,,diesel ,,sy/em ,a sy/em ( fuel supply develop$ by ! late ,dr4 ,diesel1 a ,g]man *emi/ & eng9e]1 is attract+ consid]able att5tion at ! pres5t "t on acc\nt ( ! ability ( ! ,diesel eng9e to burn l[-grade fuels1 su* z crude petroleum4 ,9 ?is sy/em ! eng9es are built s t v high compressions are us$1 & only pure air is tak5 into ! cyl9d] on ! induction /roke4 ,?is is compress$ to a pressure ( ab\t #ejj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & suffici5t heat is produc$ by ?is compression to explode a hydroc>bon mixture4 ,z ! air :i* is compress$ to ?is high po9t _c burn1 ! fuel is introduc$ into ! cyl9d] combu/ion *amb] "u /ill high] compression ?an t ( ! compress$ air1 & z x is inject$ 9 a f9e /ream x is imm$iately vaporiz$ because ( ! heat4 ,j z soon z ! compress$ air becomes ?or\ghly saturat$ ) ! liquid fuel1 x w explode on acc\nt ( ! degree ( heat pres5t 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,su* motors h be5 us$ 9 m>9e & /ation>y applications1 b are n practical = airplanes or motor c>s because ( lack ( flexibility & great weight 9 proportion to p[] develop$4 ,! ,diesel eng9e is ! /&>d p[] plant us$ 9 subm>9e boats & motor %ips1 z its effici5cy r5d]s x p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = l>ge units4 ,,notes ,,on ,,c>buretor ,,in/allation ,,9 ,,airplanes ,a writ] 9 ,! ,a]oplane1 an ,engli% publication1 disc\rses on "s features ( c>buretor in/allation t may be ( int]e/ to ! aviation /ud5t1 s portions ( ! diss]tation are reproduc$ h]e)4 ,us]s ( airplanes fitt$ ) ord9>y type c>buretors w d well to note c>efully ! way 9 :i* ^! are fitt$1 = sev]al co/ly ma*9es h be5 burnt lately ?r\gh ! %e] c>elessness ( _! us]s4 ,^! p>ticul> ma*9es 7 fitt$ ) a high p[]$ ,v-type eng9e1 made by a firm :i* is fam\s z manufactur]s ( automobiles de luxe4 ,9 ^! eng9es !re are f\r c>buretors1 m\nt$ 9 ! ,v betwe5 ! cyl9d]s4 ,:5 ! eng9e is fitt$ z a tractor1 ! float *amb]s are 9 front ( ! jet *amb]s4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 ! tail ( ! ma*9e is re/+ on ! gr\nd1 ! jets are l[] ?an ! level ( ! gasol9e 9 ! float *amb]4 ,q naturally1 ! gasol9e runs out ( ! jet1 if x is left turn$ on :5 ! ma*9e is /&+ 9 its normal position1 & trickles into ! ,v at ! top ( ! crank-case4 ,!nce x runs d[n to ! tail ( ! eng9e1 :]e ! magnetos are fitt$1 & saturates !m4 ,if left long en\gh1 ! gasol9e manages to soak well into ! fuselage be=e evaporat+4 ,& :at does evaporate makes an inflammable gas 9 ! =w>d cockpit4 ,!n "s "o comes along & />ts up ! eng9e4 ,! sp>k-gap ( ! magneto gives "o fla%1 & ! :ole front ( ! ma*9e proce$s to give a ,f\r? ( ,july p]=mance =?)4 ,naturally1 "o safegu>d is to turn ! petrol (f directly ! ma*9e l&s4 ,ano!r is nev] to turn x on till ! eng9e is actually be+ />t$ up4 ,"o w\ld be ask+ too mu* ( ! human boy--:o is (ficially reg>d$ z ! only p]son fit to fly an a]oplane--if "o dep5d$ ^u 8 memory ( su* a detail to save 8 ma*9e1 ?\gh "o might p]haps reasonably expect ! old] pilots to rememb] n to =get4 ,ev5 s1 o!r means ( prev5tion are pref]able1 = fire is q z likely to occur f j ! same cause if ! eng9e happ5s to be a trifle ob/9ate 9 />t+1 & s gives ! c>buretors sev]al m9utes 9 :i* to drip--9 :i* op]ation !y w\ld probably be assi/$ by air-me*anics 'tickl+' !m4 ,"o way out ( ! tr\ble is to fit drip t9s "u ! jet *amb] to cat* ! gasol9e z x falls4 ,?is is all v well j to prev5t fire :ile ! ma*9e is be+ />t$ up1 b x w n save x if x is left /&+ ) ! tail on ! gr\nd & ! petrol turn$ on1 = ! drip t9s w !n fill up & run ov]4 ,& if x cat*es !n1 ! cont5ts ( ! drip t9s m]ely add fuel to ! fire4 ,rev]s+ ,c>buretors ,yet ano!r way is to turn ! c>buretors r\nd1 s t ! float *amb]s are beh9d ! jets1 & s come bel[ !m :5 ! tail is on ! gr\nd1 ?us cutt+ (f ! gasol9e l[ d[n 9 ! jets4 ,!re seems to be no p>ticul> me*anical difficulty ab\t ?is1 ?\gh ,i mu/ confess t ,i did n note v c>efully :e!r ! rev]sal ( ! float *amb]s w\ld make !m f\l any o!r fitt+s on ! eng9e4 ,x has be5 argu$1 h[ev]1 t do+ ?is w\ld />ve ! eng9e ( gasol9e :5 climb+ at a /eep angle1 z ! gasol9e w\ld !n be l[]$ 9 ! jets & ne$ m suction to get into ! cyl9d]s4 ,?is is r a pretty po9t ( amateur motor me*anics to discuss1 =1 obvi\sly1 :5 ! same eng9e is us$ z a 'pu%]' in/ead ( a tractor1 ! jets are 9 front ( ! floats1 & !re seems to be no fall+ (f 9 p[]4 ,/>vation ( ,mixture ,moreov]1 ! high] a ma*9e goes ! l[] is ! atmosph]ic pressure1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! less is ! am\nt ( air suck$ 9 at ea* induction /roke4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t ) ! gasol9e supply ! mixture at high altitudes is too ri*1 s t1 9 ord] to get precisely ! "r mixture :5 v high up1 x is necess>y to r$uce ! gasol9e supply by screw+ d[n ! ne$le valve betwe5 ! tank & ! c>buretor--at lea/1 t has be5 ! exp]i5ce ( v>i\s high-fly+ pilots4 ,no d\bt some?+ might be done 9 ! way ( =c$ air fe$ to comp5sate = r$uc$ atmosph]ic pressure1 b x rema9s to be prov$ :e!r ! extra weight ( me*anism involv$ w\ld pay = ! extra p[] obta9$4 ,v>iable compression might d some?+1 also1 to ev5 ?+s up1 b "h1 also1 weight ( me*anism has to be consid]$4 ,9 any case1 at pres5t1 ! high] "o goes ! m ! p[] ( ! eng9e is r$uc$1 = less air means a less volume ( mixture p] cyl9d]1 & z ! petrol fe$ has to be />v$ to suit ! small] am\nt ( air available1 ?is means fur!r loss ( p[]4 ,i d n "k :e!r anyone has evolv$ a c>buretor :i* automatically />ves ! gasol9e fe$ :5 high up1 b x seems possible t :5 an airplane is sagg+ ab\t 'up aga9/ ! ceil+'--z a ,fr5* pilot describ$ ! absolute limit ( climb = 8 p>ticul> ma*9e--x might be a good ?+ to h ! jets 9 front ( ! float *amb]1 = !n a c]ta9 am\nt ( automatic />vation w\ld take place4 ,:5 a ma*9e is "r up at its limit+ height1 & ! pilot is do+ 8 be/ to make x g high] /ill1 x is probably fly+ ) its tail z l[ z ! pilot d>es to let x g1 & ! lat]al & longitud9al controls are on ! v]ge ( vani%+1 s t if ! c>buretor jets are beh9d ! float *amb]s !re is b\nd to be an ov]-ri* mixture 9 any case4 ,!re is ev5 a possibility ( a c>eless or ignorant pilot c>ry+ on 9 ?is tail-d[n position till "o set ( cyl9d]s cuts out altoge!r1 9 :i* case ! c>buretor fe$+ t set may flood ov]1 j z if ! ma*9e 7 on ! gr\nd1 & ! :ole ?+ may cat* fire4 ,:]eas1 ) ! jets 9 front ( ! floats1 ?\gh ! mixture may />ve a trifle1 !re is1 at any rate1 no dang] ( fire ?r\gh climb+ ) ! tail d[n4 ,a ,div+ ,dang] ,on ! o!r h&1 9 a 'pu%]' ) ?is type ( eng9e1 if ! jets are 9 _! normal position--:i* is 9 front ( ! floats--!re is dang] ( fire 9 a dive4 ,t is to say1 if ! pilot ?rottles "r d[n1 or swit*es (f & relies on air pressure on 8 propell] to />t ! eng9e aga91 s t ! gasol9e is flood+ ov] out ( ! jets in/ead ( be+ suck$ into ! eng9e1 !re may be flood+ ov] ! magnetos if ! dive is v /eep & prolong$4 ,9 any case1 a long dive w mean a c]ta9 am\nt ( flood+1 &1 probably1 a good deal ( *ok+ & spitt+ by ! eng9e be=e x gets rid ( ! ov]-ri* mixture & picks up /eady fir+ aga94 ,:i* may indicate to "y pilots t x is n good to come d[n too l[ "u su* circum/ances1 tru/+ entirely to _! eng9es to pick up at once & get go+ be=e !y hit ! gr\nd4 ,on ! :ole1 x seems t x might be bett] practice to set ! c>buretors ?w>twise ( eng9es1 = !n jets & floats w\ld always be at approximately ! same level1 no matt] :at ! longitud9al position ( ! ma*9e1 & x is nev] long en\gh 9 "o position at a big lat]al angle to raise any s]i\s c>buretor tr\bles4 ,c> manufactur]s :o dive *e]fully into ! tr\bl$ wat]s ( a]o-eng9e designs are a trifle apt to =get t _! eng9es are put into positions on airplanes :i* w\ld be positively indec5t 9 a motor c>4 ,an angle ( #a 9 #aj is ! exception on a c>1 b x is common on an airplane1 & no "o ev] he>d ( a c> go+ d[n a hill ( #aj to #a--:i* is n q a v]tical dive4 ,!re=e1 !re is e excuse = a well-design$ & prop]ly br\ght-up c>buretor misbehav+ itself 9 an a]oplane4 ,x seems1 !n1 t x is up to ! manufactur]s to produce bett] c>buretors--say1 ) ! jet c5tral ) ! float4 ,b x also behooves ! us] to %[ ord9>y common s5se 9 h&l+ ! mat]ial at pres5t available1 & n to make a practice ( burn+ up #be1jjj wor? or s ( airplane j because he is too lazy to turn (f 8 gasol9e1 or to h ! tail ( 8 ma*9e lift$ up :ile he is t9k]+ ) 8 eng9es4 ,,notes ,,on ,,c>buretor ,,adju/m5t ,! mod]n float fe$ c>buretor is a delicate & nicely balanc$ appliance t requires a c]ta9 am\nt ( att5tion & c>e 9 ord] to obta9 ! be/ results4 ,! adju/m5ts c only be made by "o possess+ an intellig5t k ( c>buretor con/ruction & mu/ nev] be made unless ! reason = *ang+ ! old adju/m5t is und]/ood4 ,be=e alt]+ ! adju/m5t ( ! lead+ =ms ( c>buretors1 a few h9ts reg>d+ ! quality to be obta9$ 9 ! mixture %\ld be giv5 "s consid]ation1 z if ^! are prop]ly und]/ood ?is k w prove ( great assi/ance 9 adju/+ ! vaporiz] to give a good work+ proportion ( fuel & air4 ,!re is "s "q reg>d+ ! be/ mixture proportions & x is e/imat$ t gas w be explosive 9 :i* ! proportions ( fuel vapor & air w v>y f "o "p ( ! =m] to a wide range includ$ betwe5 f\r & eighte5 p>ts ( ! latt]4 ,a "o to f\r mixture is mu* too ri*1 :ile ! "o 9 eighte5 is mu* too lean to provide positive ignition4 ,a ri* mixture %\ld be avoid$ because ! excessive fuel us$ w deposit c>bon & w soot ! cyl9d] walls1 combu/ion *amb] int]ior1 pi/on top & valves & also t5d to ov]heat ! motor4 ,a ri* mixture w also s]i\sly int]f]e ) flexible control ( ! eng9e1 z x w *oke up on l[ ?rottle & run well on op5 ?rottle :5 ! full am\nt ( gas is ne$$4 ,a ri* mixture may be quickly discov]$ by black smoke issu+ f ! muffl]1 ! exhau/ gas hav+ a v pung5t odor4 ,if ! mixture conta9s a surplus ( air !re w be popp+ s\nds 9 ! c>buretor1 :i* is commonly t]m$ bl[+ back4 ,to adju/ a c>buretor is n a difficult matt] :5 ! purpose ( ! v>i\s control memb]s is und]/ood4 ,! fir/ ?+ to d 9 adju/+ a c>buretor is to />t ! motor & to ret>d ! sp>k+ lev] s ! motor w run sl[ly leav+ ! ?rottle ab\t half op54 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 if ! mixture is too ri* cut d[n ! gasol9e fl[ gradually by screw+ d[n ! ne$le valve until ! motor comm5ces to run irregul>ly or misfire4 ,close ! ne$le valves z f> z possible )\t hav+ ! eng9e come to a /op1 & aft] hav+ f\nd ! m9imum am\nt ( fuel gradually unscrew ! adju/+ valve until y arrive at ! po9t :]e ! eng9e develops its highe/ spe$4 ,:5 ?is adju/m5t is secur$ ! lock nut is screw$ 9 place s ! ne$le valve w keep ! adju/m5t4 ,! next po9t to look out = is regulation ( ! auxili>y air supply on ^? types ( c>buretors :]e an adju/able air valve is provid$4 ,?is is done by advanc+ ! sp>k lev] & op5+ ! ?rottle4 ,! air valve is fir/ op5$ or ! spr+ t5sion r$uc$ to a po9t :]e ! eng9e misfires or pops back 9 ! c>buretor4 ,:5 ! po9t ( maximum air supply ! eng9e w run on is ?us det]m9$1 ! air valve spr+ may be tight5$ by screw+ 9 on ! regulat+ screw until ! po9t is rea*$ :]e an appreciable spe$+ up ( ! eng9e is notic$4 ,if bo? fuel & air valves are set "r1 x w be possible to accel]ate ! eng9e spe$ uni=mly )\t int]f]+ ) regul>ity ( eng9e op]ation by mov+ ! ?rottle lev] or accel]ator p$al f its clos$ to its wide op5 position1 ?is be+ done ) ! sp>k lev] advanc$4 ,all types ( c>buretors d n h ! same means ( adju/m5t2 9 fact1 "s adju/ only ) ! gasol9e regulat+ ne$le2 o!rs mu/ h a complete *ange ( spray nozzles2 :ile 9 o!rs ! mixture proportions may be v>i$ only by adju/m5t ( ! quantity ( ent]+ air4 ,*ang+ ! float level is effective 9 "s c>buretors1 b ?is %\ld nev] be done unless x is c]ta9 t ! level is n correct4 ,full in/ructions = locat+ c>buretion tr\bles w be giv5 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,x is a fact well kn[n to exp]i5c$ repairm5 & motori/s t atmosph]ic conditions h mu* to d ) c>buretor action4 ,x is (t5 obs]v$ t a motor seems to develop m p[] at night ?an dur+ ! day1 a circum/ance :i* is attribut$ to ! pres5ce ( m moi/ure 9 ! cool] night air4 ,likewise1 tak+ a motor f sea level to an altitude ( #aj1jjj feet involves us+ r>efi$ air 9 ! eng9e cyl9d]s & atmosph]ic pressures rang+ f #ad4g p\nds at sea level to #aj4a p\nds p] squ>e in* at ! high altitude4 ,all c>buretors w require "s adju/m5t 9 ! c\rse ( any mat]ial *ange f "o level to ano!r4 ,great *anges ( altitude also h a m>k$ effect on ! cool+ sy/em ( an airplane4 ,wat] boils at #bab degrees ,f4 only at sea level4 ,at an altitude ( #aj1jjj feet x w boil at a temp]ature n9ete5 degrees l[]1 or #aic degrees ,f4 ,9 high altitudes ! r$uc$ atmosph]ic pressure1 = #e1jjj feet or high] ?an sea level1 results 9 n en\gh air rea*+ ! mixture1 s t ei!r ! auxili>y air op5+ has to be increas$1 or ! gasol9e 9 ! mixture cut d[n4 ,if ! us] is to be cont9ually at high altitudes he %\ld imm$iately pur*ase ei!r a l>g] dome or a small] /rangl+ tube1 m5tion+ ! size c>buretor t is at pres5t 9 use & ! type ( motor t x is on1 includ+ details z to ! bore & /roke4 ,! small] /rangl+ tube makes an increas$ suction at ! spray nozzle2 ! air w h to be readju/$ to meet x & y c use m auxili>y air1 :i* is necess>y4 ,! effect on ! motor )\t a small] /rangl+ tube is a p]ceptible sluggi%ness & failure to spe$ up to its normal crank-%aft revolutions1 z well z failure to give p[]4 ,x means t ab\t "o-?ird ( ! regul> spe$ is cut out4 ,! r$uc$ atmosph]ic pressure r$uces ! p[] ( ! explosion1 9 t !re is n ! same quantity ( oxyg5 9 ! combu/ion *amb] z at sea level2 to increase ! am\nt tak5 91 y mu/ also increase ! gasol9e spe$1 :i* is done by an increas$ suction ?r\gh ! small] /rangl+ ap]ture4 ,"s =ms ( c>buretors are affect$ m ?an o!rs by *anges ( altitude1 :i* expla9s :y ! ,z5i? is s widely employ$ = airplane eng9e use4 ,! comp5sat+ nozzle con/ruction is n influ5c$ z mu* by *anges ( altitude z ! simpl] nozzle types are4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,e>ly ,ignition ,sy/ems--,electrical ,ignition ,be/--,fundam5tals ( ,magnetism ,outl9$--,=ms ( ,magneto--,zones ( ,magnetic ,influ5ce--,h[ ,magnets are ,made--,electricity & ,magnetism ,relat$--,basic ,pr9ciples ( ,magneto ,action--,ess5tial ,p>ts ( ,magneto & ,functions--,trans=m] ,coil ,sy/ems--,true ,high ,t5sion ,type--,! ,b]l+ ,magneto--,tim+ & ,c>e--,! ,dixie ,magneto--,sp>k ,plug ,design & ,application--,two-,sp>k ,ignition-- ,special ,airplane ,plug4 ,,e>ly ,,ignition ,,sy/ems ,"o ( ! mo/ important auxili>y gr\ps ( ! gasol9e eng9e compris+ ! airplane p[] plant & "o absolutely necess>y to insure eng9e action is ! ignition sy/em or ! me?od employ$ ( k9dl+ ! compress$ gas 9 ! cyl9d] to produce an explosion & useful p[]4 ,! ignition sy/em has be5 fully z well develop$ z o!r p>ts ( ! eng9e1 & at ! pres5t "t practically all ignition sy/ems foll[ pr9ciples :i* h become /&>d ?r\gh wide acceptance4 ,dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( developm5t ( ! gasol9e eng9e v>i\s me?ods ( explod+ ! *>ge ( combu/ible gas 9 ! cyl9d] 7 employ$4 ,on "s ( ! e>lie/ eng9es a flame burn$ close to ! cyl9d] head1 & at ! prop] "t = ignition a slide or valve mov$ to provide an op5+ :i* p]mitt$ ! flame to ignite ! gas back ( ! pi/on4 ,?is sy/em 0 practical only on ! primitive =m ( gas eng9es 9 :i* ! *>ge 0 n compress$ be=e ignition4 ,lat]1 :5 x 0 f\nd desirable to compress ! gas a c]ta9 degree be=e explod+ x1 an inc&esc5t plat9um tube 9 ! combu/ion *amb]1 :i* 0 kept 9 a heat$ condition by a flame burn+ 9 x1 explod$ ! gas4 ,! nak$ flame 0 n suitable 9 ?is application because :5 ! slide 0 op5$ to provide communication betwe5 ! flame & ! gas ! compress$ *>ge escap$ f ! cyl9d] ) en\gh pressure to bl[ out ! flame at times & ?us cause irregul> ignition4 ,:5 ! flame 0 h\s$ 9 a plat9um tube x 0 protect$ f ! direct action ( ! gas1 & z long z ! tube 0 ma9ta9$ at ! prop] po9t ( inc&esc5ce regul> ignition 0 obta9$4 ,"s eng9e]s utiliz$ ! prop]ty ( gases fir+ !mselves if compress$ to a suffici5t degree1 :ile o!rs dep5d$ ^u ! heat /or$ 9 ! cyl9d]-head to fire ! highly compress$ gas4 ,none ( ^! me?ods 7 practical 9 _! application to motor c> eng9es because !y did n p]mit flexible eng9e action :i* is s desirable4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 electrical ignition sy/ems 9 :i* ! compress$ gas is explod$ by ! heat+ value ( ! m9ute electric arc or sp>k 9 ! cyl9d] are /&>d1 & ! g5]al practice seems to be t[>d ! use ( me*anical produc]s ( electricity r ?an *emical batt]ies4 ,,electrical ,,ignition ,,be/ ,two g5]al =ms ( electrical ignition sy/ems may be us$1 ! mo/ popul> be+ t 9 :i* a curr5t ( electricity "u high t5sion is made to leap a gap or air space betwe5 ! po9ts ( ! sp>k+ plug screw$ into ! cyl9d]4 ,! o!r =m1 :i* has be5 almo/ entirely ab&on$ 9 automobile & :i* 0 nev] us$ ) airplane eng9e practice1 b :i* is /ill us$ to "s ext5t on m>9e eng9es1 is call$ ! l[-t5sion sy/em because curr5t ( l[ voltage is us$ & ! sp>k is produc$ by mov+ electrodes 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! ess5tial elem5ts ( any electrical ignition sy/em1 ei!r high or l[ t5sion1 are3 ,fir/1 a simple & practical me?od ( curr5t production2 second1 suitable tim+ app>atus to cause ! sp>k to occur at ! "r po9t 9 ! cycle ( eng9e action2 ?ird1 suitable wir+ & o!r app>atus to convey ! curr5t produc$ by ! g5]ator to ! sp>k+ memb] 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! v>i\s appliances necess>y to secure prompt ignition ( ! compress$ gases %\ld be describ$ 9 "s detail because ( ! importance ( ! ignition sy/em4 ,x is pat5t t ! scope ( a "w ( ?is "* does n p]mit "o to g fully into ! !ory & pr9ciples ( op]ation ( all appliances :i* may be us$ 9 connection ) gasol9e motor ignition1 b at ! same "t x is important t ! elem5t>y pr9ciples be consid]$ to "s ext5t 9 ord] t ! read] %\ld h a prop] und]/&+ ( ! v ess5tial ignition app>atus4 ,! fir/ po9t consid]$ w be ! common me?ods ( g5]at+ ! electricity1 !n ! appliances to utilize x & produce ! requir$ sp>k 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,inasmu* z magneto ignition is univ]sally us$ 9 connection ) airplane eng9e ignition x w n be necess>y to consid] batt]y ignition sy/ems4 ,,fundam5tals ,,( ,,magnetism ,,outl9$ ,to prop]ly und]/& ! ph5om5a & =ces involv$ 9 ! g5]ation ( electrical en]gy by me*anical means x is necess>y to become famili> ) "s ( ! elem5t>y pr9ciples ( magnetism & its relation to electricity4 ,! foll[+ matt] c be read ) pr(it by ^? :o are n famili> ) ! subject4 ,mo/ p]sons "k t magnetism exi/s 9 c]ta9 sub/ances1 b _m are n able to grasp ! t]ms us$ 9 describ+ ! op]ation ( v>i\s electrical devices because ( n possess+ a k ( ! basic facts ^u :i* ! action ( su* app>atus is bas$4 ,magnetism is a prop]ty possess$ by c]ta9 sub/ances & is manife/$ by ! ability to attract & repel o!r mat]ials susceptible to its effects4 ,:5 ?is ph5om5on is manife/$ by a conductor or wire ?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( electricity is fl[+ x is t]m$ electro-magnetism4 ,magnetism & electricity are closely relat$1 ea* be+ capable ( produc+ ! o!r4 ,practically all ( ! ph5om5a manife/$ by mat]ials :i* possess magnetic qualities naturally c be easily reproduc$ by pass+ a curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh a body :i*1 :5 n "u electrical influ5ce1 is n a magnetic sub/ance4 ,only c]ta9 sub/ances %[ magnetic prop]ties1 ^! be+ iron1 nickel1 cobalt & _! alloys4 ,! e>lie/ kn[n sub/ance possess+ magnetic prop]ties 0 a /one fir/ f\nd 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,x 0 call$ ! lode/one or lead+ /one1 because ( its t5d5cy1 if arrang$ s x c\ld be mov$ freely1 ( po9t+ "o p>ticul> portion t[>d ! nor?4 ,! compass ( ! anci5t ,*9ese m>9]s 0 a piece ( ?is mat]ial1 n[ kn[n to be iron ore1 susp5d$ by a light ?read or float$ on a cork 9 "s liquid s "o end w\ld po9t t[>d ! nor? magnetic pole ( ! e>?4 ,! reason t ?is /one 0 magnetic 0 h>d to def9e = a "t1 until x 0 le>n$ t ! e>? 0 "o huge magnet & t ! iron ore1 be+ p>ticul>ly susceptible1 absorb$ & reta9$ "s ( ?is magnetism4 ,mo/ ( u are famili> ) "s ( ! prop]ties ( ! magnet because ( ! ext5sive sale & use ( small horse%oe magnets z toys4 ,z !y only co/ a few p5nies e "o has own$ "o at "s "t or o!r & has exp]im5t$ ) v>i\s mat]ials to see if !y w\ld be attract$4 ,small pieces ( iron or /eel 7 quickly attract$ to ! magnet & adh]$ to ! pole pieces :5 br\ght )9 ! zone ( magnetic influ5ce4 ,x 0 soon le>n$ t brass1 copp]1 t9 or z9c 7 n affect$ by ! magnet4 ,a simple exp]im5t t s]ves to illu/rate magnetic attraction ( sev]al sub/ances is %[n at ,a1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,9 ?is1 sev]al balls are hung f a /&>d or support1 "o ( ^! be+ ( iron1 ano!r ( /eel4 ,:5 a magnet is br\ght ne> ei!r ( ^! !y w be attract$ t[>d x1 :ile ! o!rs w rema9 indiff]5t to ! magnetic =ce4 ,exp]im5t]s soon le>n$ t ( ! common metals only iron or /eel 7 magnetic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,"s ,simple ,exp]im5ts to ,demon/rate ,v>i\s ,magnetic ,ph5om5a & ,cle>ly ,outl9e ,effects ( ,magnetism & ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,magnets4 ,if ! ord9>y b> or horse%oe magnet be c>efully exam9$1 "o end w be f\nd to be m>k$ ,n4 ,?is indicates ! nor? pole1 :ile ! o!r end is n usually m>k$ & is ! s\? pole4 ,if ! nor? pole ( "o magnet is br\ght ne> ! s\? pole ( ano!r1 a /rong attraction w exi/ betwe5 !m1 ?is dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! magnets us$ & ! air gap sep>at+ ! poles4 ,if ! s\? pole ( "o magnet is br\ght close to ! end ( ! same pol>ity ( ! o!r !re w be a pron\nc$ repulsion ( l =ce4 ,^! facts are easily prov$ by ! simple exp]im5t outl9$ at ,b1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,a magnet w only attract or influ5ce a sub/ance hav+ simil> qualities4 ,! l poles ( magnets w repel ea* o!r because ( ! obvi\s impossibility ( unit+ two influ5ces or =ces ( practically equal /r5g? b fl[+ 9 opposite directions4 ,! unlike poles ( magnets attract ea* o!r because ! =ce is fl[+ 9 ! same direction4 ,! fl[ ( magnetism is ?r\gh ! magnet f s\? to nor? & ! circuit is complet$ by ! fl[ ( magnetic influ5ce ?r\gh ! air gap or metal armature bridg+ x f ! nor? to ! s\? pole4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,magnets ,,& ,,zone ,,( ,,magnetic ,,influ5ce ,,def9$ ,magnets are commonly made 9 two =ms1 ei!r 9 ! %ape ( a b> or horse%oe4 ,^! two =ms are made 9 two types1 simple or comp\nd4 ,! latt] are compos$ ( a numb] ( magnets ( ! same =m unit$ s ! ends ( l pol>ity are lac$ toge!r1 & su* a con/ruction w be m effici5t & h m /r5g? ?an a simple magnet ( ! same weight4 ,! two common =ms ( simple & comp\nd magnets are %[n at ,c1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,! zone 9 :i* a magnetic influ5ce occurs is call$ ! magnetic field1 & ?is =ce c be graphically %[n by means ( imag9>y l9es1 :i* are t]m$ l9es ( =ce4 ,z w be se5 f ! diagram at ,d1 ,fig4 #eg1 ! l9es %[ ! direction ( action ( ! magnetic =ce & also %[ its /r5g?1 z !y are clos] toge!r & m num]\s :5 ! int5sity ( ! magnetic field is at its maximum4 ,a simple me?od ( demon/rat+ ! pres5ce ( ! =ce is to lay a piece ( ?9 pap] ov] ! pole pieces ( ei!r a b> or horse%oe magnet & spr9kle f9e iron fil+s on x4 ,! p>ticles ( metal arrange !mselves 9 v mu* ! mann] %[n 9 ! illu/rations & prove t ! magnetic field actually exi/s4 ,! =m ( magnet us$ w mat]ially affect ! size & area ( ! magnetic field4 ,x w be not$ t ! field w be conc5trat$ to a great] ext5t ) ! horse%oe =m because ( ! proximity ( ! poles4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ^! l9es h no actual exi/5ce1 b are imag9>y & assum$ to exi/ only to %[ ! way ! magnetic field is di/ribut$4 ,! magnetic influ5ce is always great] at ! poles ?an at ! c5t]1 & t is :y a horse%oe or ,u-=m magnet is us$ 9 practically all magnetos or dynamos4 ,?is great] attraction at ! poles c be cle>ly demon/rat$ by spr9kl+ iron fil+s on b> & ,u magnets1 z outl9$ at ,e1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,a l>ge mass ga!rs at ! pole pieces1 gradually tap]+ d[n t[>d ! po9t :]e ! attraction is lea/4 ,f ! diagrams x w be se5 t ! fl[ ( magnetism is f "o pole to ! o!r by means ( curv$ pa?s betwe5 !m4 ,?is circuit is complet$ by ! magnetism fl[+ f "o pole to ! o!r ?r\gh ! magnet1 & z ?is fl[ is cont9u$ z long z ! body rema9s magnetic x con/itutes a magnetic circuit4 ,if ?is fl[ 7 tempor>ily int]rupt$ by means ( a conductor ( electricity mov+ ?r\gh ! field !re w\ld be a curr5t ( electricity induc$ 9 ! conductor e "t x cut ! l9es ( =ce4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( magnetic circuits4 ,a non-magnetic circuit is "o 9 :i* ! magnetic influ5ce completes its circuit ?r\gh "s sub/ance n susceptible to ! =ce4 ,a clos$ magnetic circuit is "o 9 :i* ! influ5ce completes its circuit ?r\gh "s magnetic mat]ial :i* bridges ! gap betwe5 ! poles4 ,a comp\nd circuit is t 9 :i* ! magnetic influ5ce passes ?r\gh magnetic sub/ances & non-magnetic sub/ances 9 ord] to complete its circuit4 ,,h[ ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,b>s ,,are ,,made ,,magnetic ,magnetism may be produc$ 9 two ways1 by contact or induction4 ,if a piece ( /eel is rubb$ on a magnet x w be f\nd a magnet :5 remov$1 hav+ a nor? & s\? pole & all ( ! prop]ties f\nd 9 ! en]giz+ magnet4 ,?is is magnetiz+ by contact4 ,a piece ( /eel w reta9 ! magnetism imp>t$ to x = a consid]able l5g? ( "t1 & ! influ5ce t rema9s is kn[n z residual magnetism4 ,?is prop]ty may be increas$ by alloy+ ! /eel ) tung/5 & h>d5+ x be=e x is magnetiz$4 ,any mat]ial t w reta9 its magnetic influ5ce aft] removal f ! s\rce ( magnetism is kn[n z a p]man5t magnet4 ,if a piece ( iron or /eel is br\ght into ! magnetic field ( a p[]ful magnet x becomes a magnet )\t actual contact ) ! en]giz]4 ,?is is magnetiz+ by magnetic induction4 ,if a p[]ful electric curr5t fl[s ?r\gh an insulat$ conductor w\nd ar\nd a piece ( iron or /eel x w make a magnet ( x4 ,?is is magnetiz+ by electro-magnetic induction4 ,a magnet made 9 ?is mann] is t]m$ an electro-magnet & usually ! metal is ( su* a nature t x w n reta9 its magnetism :5 ! curr5t ceases to fl[ ar\nd x4 ,/eel is us$ 9 all cases :]e p]man5t magnets are requir$1 :ile s(t iron is employ$ 9 all cases :]e an int]mitt5t magnetic action is desir$4 ,magneto field magnets are always made ( tung/5 /eel alloy1 s treat$ t x w reta9 its magnetism = l5g?y p]iods4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism ,,closely ,,relat$ ,!re are _m po9ts 9 :i* magnetism & electricity are alike4 ,= in/ance1 air is a m$ium t (f]s consid]able resi/ance to ! passage ( bo? magnetic influ5ce & electric en]gy1 al?\gh x (f]s m resi/ance to ! passage ( ! latt]4 ,m9]als l iron or /eel are v easily influ5c$ by magnetism & easily p5etrat$ by x4 ,:5 "o ( ^! is pres5t 9 ! magnetic circuit ! magnetism w fl[ ?r\gh ! metal4 ,any metal is a good conductor = ! passage ( ! electric curr5t1 b few metals are good conductors ( magnetic en]gy4 ,a body ( ! prop] metal w become a magnet due to induction if plac$ 9 ! magnetic field1 hav+ a s\? pole :]e ! l9es ( =ce ent] x & a nor? pole :]e !y pass out4 ,we h se5 t a magnet is con/antly surr\nd$ by a magnetic field & t an electrical conductor :5 c>ry+ a curr5t is also surr\nd$ by a field ( magnetic influ5ce4 ,n[ if ! conductor c>ry+ a curr5t ( electricity w induce magnetism 9 a b> ( iron or /eel1 by a rev]sal ( ?is process1 a magnetiz$ iron or /eel b> w produce a curr5t ( electricity 9 a conductor4 ,x is ^u ?is pr9ciple t ! mod]n dynamo or magneto is con/ruct$4 ,if an electro-motive =ce is induc$ 9 a conductor by mov+ x across a field ( magnetic influ5ce1 or by pass+ a magnetic field ne> a conductor1 electricity is said to be g5]at$ by magneto-electric induction4 ,all me*anical g5]ators ( ! electric curr5t us+ p]man5t /eel magnets to produce a field ( magnetic influ5ce are ( ?is type4 ,,basic ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,magneto ,,outl9$ ,! accompany+ diagram1 ,fig4 #eh1 w %[ ^! pr9ciples v cle>ly4 ,z /at$ on an e>li] page1 if ! l9es ( =ce 9 ! magnetic field are cut by a suitable conductor an electrical impulse w be produc$ 9 t conductor4 ,9 ?is simple ma*9e ! l9es ( =ce exi/ betwe5 ! poles ( a horse%oe magnet4 ,! conductor1 :i* 9 ?is case is a loop ( copp] wire1 is m\nt$ ^u a sp9dle 9 ord] t x may be rotat$ 9 ! magnetic field to cut ! l9es ( magnetic influ5ce pres5t betwe5 ! pole pieces4 ,bo? ( ! ends ( ?is loop are connect$1 "o ) ! insulat$ drum %[n ^u ! %aft1 ! o!r to ! %aft4 ,two metal bru%es are employ$ to collect ! curr5t & cause x to fl[ ?r\gh ! ext]nal circuit4 ,x c be se5 t :5 ! %aft is turn$ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[ ! loop w cut ?r\gh ! l9es ( magnetic influ5ce & a curr5t w be g5]at$ !re94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,elem5t>y ,=m ( ,magneto ,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,p>ts ,simplifi$ to ,make ,me?od ( ,curr5t ,g5]ation ,cle>4 ,! pressure ( ! curr5t & ! am\nt produc$ v>y 9 accordance to ! rapidity ) :i* ! l9es ( magnetic influ5ce are cut4 ,! armature ( a practical magneto1 !re=e1 diff]s mat]ially f t %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,a l>ge numb] ( loops ( wire w\ld be m\nt$ ^u ?is %aft 9 ord] t ! l9es ( magnetic influ5ce w\ld be cut a great] numb] ( times 9 a giv5 p]iod & a core ( iron us$ z a back+ = ! wire4 ,?is w\ld give a m rapid alt]nat+ curr5t & a high] electro-motive =ce ?an w\ld be ! case ) a small] numb] ( loops ( wire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,%[+ ,h[ ,/r5g? ( ,magnetic ,influ5ce & ( ! ,curr5ts ,induc$ 9 ! ,w9d+s ( ,armature ,v>y ) ! ,rapidity ( ,*anges ( ,fl[4 ,! illu/rations at ,fig4 #ei %[ a conv5tional d\ble w9d+ armature & field magnetic ( a practical magneto 9 "p section & w s]ve to m fully emphasize ! po9ts previ\sly made4 ,if ! armature or sp9dle 7 remov$ f betwe5 ! pole pieces !re w\ld exi/ a field ( magnetic influ5ce z %[n at ,fig4 #eg1 b ! introduction ( ?is compon5t provides a conductor 7! iron core7 = ! magnetic en]gy1 reg>dless ( its position1 ?\gh ! facility ) :i* ! influ5ce w be transmitt$ dep5ds entirely ^u ! position ( ! core4 ,z %[n at ,a1 ! magnetic fl[ is ?r\gh ! ma9 body 9 a /raight l9e1 :ile at ,b1 :i* position ! armature has atta9$ aft] "o-eigh? revolution1 or #de degrees travel 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 ! magnetism mu/ pass ?r\gh 9 ! mann] indicat$4 ,at ,c1 :i* position is atta9$ e half revolution1 ! magnetic en]gy ab&ons ! long] pa? ?r\gh ! body ( ! core = ! %ort] passage (f]$ by ! side pieces1 & ! field ?r[n out by ! cross b> disappe>s4 ,on fur!r rotation ( ! armature1 z at ,d1 ! body ( ! core aga9 becomes en]giz$ z ! magnetic influ5ce resumes its fl[ ?r\gh x4 ,^! *anges 9 ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field :5 di/ort$ by ! armature core1 z well z ! int5sity ( ! en]gy exi/+ 9 ! field1 affect ! w9d+s1 & ! electrical en]gy induc$ !re9 corresponds 9 /r5g? to ! rapidity ) :i* ^! *anges 9 magnetic fl[ occur4 ,! mo/ pron\nc$ *anges 9 ! /r5g? ( ! field w occur z ! armature passes f position ,b to ,d1 because ! magnetic field exi/+ ar\nd ! core w be de/roy$ & aga9 re-e/abli%$4 ,dur+ ! mo/ ( ! armature rotation ! *anges 9 /r5g? w be slight & ! curr5ts induc$ 9 ! wire correspond+ly small2 b at ! in/ant ! core becomes remagnetiz$1 z ! armature leaves position ,c1 ! curr5t produc$ w be at its maximum1 & x is necess>y to s "t ! rotation ( ! armature t at ?is in/ant "o ( ! cyl9d]s is 9 condition to be fir$4 ,x is imp]ative t ! armature be driv5 9 su* relation to ! crank-%aft t ea* production ( maximum curr5t co9cides ) ! ignition po9t1 ?is condition exi/+ twice dur+ ea* revolution ( ! armature1 or at e #ahj degrees travel4 ,ea* position %[n corresponds to #de degrees travel ( ! armature1 or "o-eigh? ( a turn1 & x takes j ?ree-eigh?s revolution to *ange ! position f ,a to t %[n at ,d4 ,,ess5tial ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,magneto ,,& ,,_! ,,functions ,! magnets :i* produce ! influ5ce t 9 turn induces ! electrical en]gy 9 ! w9d+ or loops ( wire on ! armature1 & :i* may h any ev5 numb] ( oppos$ poles1 are call$ field magnets4 ,! loops ( wire :i* are m\nt$ ^u a suitable drum & rotate 9 ! field ( magnetic influ5ce 9 ord] to cut ! l9es ( =ce is call$ an armature w9d+1 :ile ! core is ! metal portion4 ,! entire assembly is call$ ! armature4 ,! expos$ ends ( ! magnets are call$ pole pieces & ! arrangem5t us$ to collect ! curr5t is ei!r a commutator or a collector4 ,! /ation>y pieces :i* be> aga9/ ! collector or commutator & act z t]m9als = ! outside circuit are call$ bru%es4 ,^! bru%es are (t5 ( copp]1 or "s ( its alloys1 because copp] has a great] electrical conductivity ?an any o!r metal4 ,^! bru%es are ne>ly always ( c>bon1 :i* is sometimes electroplat$ ) copp] to increase its electrical conductivity1 ?\gh cyl9d]s ( copp] wire gauze impregnat$ ) graphite are utiliz$ at times4 ,c>bon is us$ because x is n s liable to cut ! metal ( ! commutator z might be ! case if ! contact 0 ( ! metal to metal type4 ,! reason = ?is is t c>bon has ! peculi> prop]ty 9 t x mat]ially assi/s 9 ! lubrication ( ! commutator1 & be+ ( s(t1 unctu\s composition1 w we> & con=m to any irregul>ities on ! surface ( ! metal collector r+s4 ,! magneto 9 common use consi/s ( a numb] ( horse%oe magnets :i* are comp\nd 9 =m & atta*$ to suitable ca/-iron pole pieces us$ to collect & conc5trate ! magnetic influ5ce ( ! v>i\s magnets4 ,betwe5 ^! pole pieces an armature rotates4 ,?is is usually %ap$ l a %uttle1 ar\nd :i* are w\nd coils ( insulat$ wire4 ,^! are compos$ ( a l>ge numb] ( turns & ! curr5t produc$ dep5ds 9 great measure ^u ! size ( ! wire & ! numb] ( turns p] coil4 ,an armature w9d+ ( l>ge wire w deliv] a curr5t ( great amp]age1 b ( small voltage4 ,an armature w\nd ) v f9e wire w deliv] a curr5t ( high voltage b ( l[ amp]age4 ,9 ! ord9>y =m ( magneto1 su* z us$ = ignition1 ! curr5t is alt]nat+ 9 "* & ! break 9 ! circuit %\ld be tim$ to occur :5 ! armature is at ! po9t ( its greate/ pot5tial or pressure4 ,:]e su* a g5]ator is design$ = direct curr5t production ! ends ( ! w9d+ are atta*$ to ! segm5ts ( a commutator1 b :]e ! in/rum5t is design$ to deliv] an alt]nat+ curr5t "o end ( ! w9d+ is fa/5$ to an insulator r+ on "o end ( ! armature %aft & ! o!r end is gr\nd$ on ! frame ( ! ma*9e4 ,! quantity ( ! curr5t dep5ds ^u ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field & ! numb] ( l9es ( magnetic influ5ce act+ ?r\gh ! armature4 ,! electro-motive =ce v>ies z to ! l5g? ( ! armature w9d+ & ! numb] ( revolutions at :i* ! armature is rotat$4 ,,! ,,trans=m] ,,sy/em ,,uses ,,l[ ,,voltage ,,magneto ,! magneto 9 ! v>i\s sy/ems :i* employ a trans=m] coil is v simil> to a l[-t5sion g5]ator 9 g5]al con/ruction1 & ! curr5t deliv]$ at ! t]m9als seldom exce$s #ajj volts4 ,z x requires _m times t pot5tial or pressure to leap ! gap :i* exi/s betwe5 ! po9ts ( ! conv5tional sp>k plug1 a sep>ate coil is plac$ 9 circuit to int5sify ! curr5t to "o ( great] capacity4 ,! ess5tial p>ts ( su* a sy/em & _! relation to ea* o!r are %[n 9 diagrammatic =m at ,fig4 #fj & z a complete sy/em at ,fig4 #fa4 ,z is true ( o!r sy/ems ! magnetic influ5ce is produc$ by p]man5t /eel magnets clamp$ to ! ca/-iron pole pieces betwe5 :i* ! armature rotates4 ,at ! po9t ( greate/ pot5tial 9 ! armature w9d+ ! curr5t is brok5 by ! contact break]1 :i* is actuat$ by a cam1 & a curr5t ( high] value is induc$ 9 ! second>y w9d+ ( ! trans=m] coil :5 ! l[ voltage curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh ! prim>y w9d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,diagrams ,expla9+ ,action ( ,l[ ,t5sion ,trans=m] ,coil & ,true ,high ,t5sion ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj;,a4--,side ,sectional ,view ( ,bos* ,high-,t5sion ,magneto ,%[s ,disposition ( ,p>ts4 ,end ,elevation ,depicts ,arrangem5t ( ,int]ruptor & ,di/ributor ,me*anism4 ,x w be not$ t ! po9ts ( ! contact break] are toge!r except = ! brief in/ant :5 sep>at$ by ! action ( ! po9t ( ! cam ^u ! lev]4 ,x is obvi\s t ! armature w9d+ is %ort-circuit$ ^u itself except :5 ! contact po9ts are sep>at$4 ,:ile ! armature w9d+ is ?us %ort-circuit$ !re w be practically no g5]ation ( curr5t4 ,:5 ! po9ts are sep>at$ !re is a sudd5 fl[ ( curr5t ?r\gh ! prim>y w9d+ ( ! trans=m] coil1 induc+ a second>y curr5t 9 ! o!r w9d+1 :i* c be v>i$ 9 /r5g? by c]ta9 consid]ations 9 ! prelim9>y design ( ! app>atus4 ,?is curr5t ( high] pot5tial or voltage is conduct$ directly to ! plug if ! device is fitt$ to a s+le-cyl9d] eng9e1 or to ! di/ributor arm if fitt$ to a multiple-cyl9d] motor4 ,! di/ributor consi/s ( an insulator 9 :i* is plac$ a numb] ( segm5ts1 "o = ea* cyl9d] to be fir$1 & s spac$ t ! numb] ( degrees betwe5 !m correspond to ! ignition po9ts ( ! motor4 ,a two-cyl9d] motor w\ld h two segm5ts1 a ?ree-cyl9d]1 ?ree segm5ts1 & s on )9 ! capacity ( ! in/rum5t4 ,9 ! illu/ration a f\r-cyl9d] di/ributor is fitt$1 & ! di/ribut+ arm is 9 contact ) ! segm5t correspond+ to ! cyl9d] ab\t to be fir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,b]l+ ,two-,sp>k ,dual ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,,true ,,high-,,t5sion ,,magnetos ,,are ,,self-,,conta9$ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4--;,b]l+ ,d\ble-,sp>k ,indep5d5t ,sy/em4 ,! true high-t5sion magneto diff]s f ! prec$+ inasmu* z ! curr5t ( high voltage is produc$ 9 ! armature w9d+ direct1 )\t ! use ( ! sep>ate coil4 ,in/ead ( b "o coil1 ! armature c>ries two1 "o ( comp>atively co>se wire1 ! o!r ( _m turns ( f9] wire4 ,! arrangem5t ( ^! w9d+s c be readily asc]ta9$ by ref]5ce to ! diagram ,b1 ,fig4 #fj1 :i* %[s ! pr9ciple ( op]ation v cle>ly4 ,! simplicity ( ! ignition sy/em is evid5t by inspection ( ,fig4 #fb4 ,"o end ( ! prim>y w9d+ 7co>se wire7 is c\pl$ or gr\nd$ to ! armature core1 & ! o!r passes to ! insulat$ "p ( ! int]rupt]4 ,:ile 9 "s =ms ! int]rupt] or contact break] me*anism does n revolve1 ! desir$ motion be+ imp>t$ to ! contact lev] to sep>ate ! po9ts ( a revolv+ cam1 9 ?is ! cam or tripp+ me*anism is /ation>y & ! contact break] revolves4 ,?is arrangem5t makes x possible to conduct ! curr5t f ! revolv+ prim>y coil to ! int]rupt] by a direct connection1 elim9at+ ! use ( bru%es1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be necess>y4 ,9 o!r =ms ( ?is appliance :]e ! w9d+ is /ation>y1 ! int]rupt] may be op]at$ by a revolv+ cam1 ?\gh1 if desir$1 ! us$ ( a bru% at ?is po9t w p]mit ?is con/ruction ) a revolv+ w9d+4 ,dur+ ! revolution ( ! armature ! gr\nd$ lev] makes & breaks contact ) ! insulat$ po9t1 %ort-circuit+ ! prim>y w9d+ ^u itself until ! armature rea*es ! prop] position ( maximum int5sity ( curr5t production1 at :i* "t ! circuit is brok51 z 9 ! =m] in/ance4 ,"o end ( ! second>y w9d+ 7f9e wire7 is gr\nd$ on ! live end ( ! prim>y1 ! o!r end be+ atta*$ to ! revolv+ arm ( ! di/ributor me*anism4 ,s long z a clos$ circuit is ma9ta9$ feeble curr5ts w pass ?r\gh ! prim>y w9d+1 & s long z ! contact po9ts are toge!r ?is condition w exi/4 ,:5 ! curr5t rea*es its maximum value1 because ( ! armature be+ 9 ! be/ position1 ! cam op]ates ! int]rupt] & ! po9ts are sep>at$1 break+ ! %ort circuit :i* has exi/$ 9 ! prim>y w9d+4 ,! second>y circuit has be5 op5 :ile ! di/ributor arm has mov$ f "o contact to ano!r & !re has be5 no fl[ ( en]gy ?r\gh ?is w9d+4 ,:ile ! electrical pressure w rise 9 ?is1 ev5 if ! di/ributor arm contact$ ) "o ( ! segm5ts1 !re w\ld be no sp>k at ! plug until ! contact po9ts sep>at$1 because ! curr5t 9 ! second>y w9d+ w\ld n be ( suffici5t /r5g?4 ,:5 ! int]rupt] op]ates1 h[ev]1 ! maximum prim>y curr5t w be div]t$ f its %ort circuit & c fl[ to ! gr\nd only ?r\gh ! second>y w9d+ & sp>k-plug circuit4 ,! high pressure n[ exi/+ 9 ! second>y w9d+ w be greatly increas$ by ! sudd5 fl[ ( prim>y curr5t1 & en]gy ( high en\gh pot5tial to successfully bridge ! gap at ! plug is !reby produc$ 9 ! w9d+4 ,,! ,,b]l+ ,,magneto ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,type ,,dd ,b]l+ ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! ,b]l+ magneto is a true high t5sion type deliv]+ two impulses p] revolution1 b x is made 9 a v>iety ( =ms1 bo? s+le & d\ble sp>k4 ,its pr9ciple ( action does n diff] 9 ess5tials f ! high t5sion type previ\sly describ$4 ,?is magneto is us$ on ,curtiss aviation eng9es & w deliv] sp>ks 9 a positive mann] suffici5t to insure ignition ( eng9es up to #bjj horse-p[] & at rotative spe$s ( ! magneto armature up to #d1jjj r4 p4 m4 :i* is suffici5t to take c>e ( an eight-cyl9d] ,v eng9e runn+ up to #b1jjj r4 p4 m4 ,! magneto is driv5 at crank-%aft spe$ on f\r-cyl9d] eng9es1 at #a-a_/b times crank-%aft spe$ on six-cyl9d] eng9es & at twice crank-%aft spe$ on eight-cyl9d] ,v types4 ,! types ,d & ,,dd ,,b]l+ ,magnetos are int]*angeable ) correspond+ magnetos ( o!r /&>d makes4 ,! dim5sions ( ! f\r-1 six- & eight-cyl9d] types ,d & ,,dd are all ! same4 ,! ideal me?od ( driv+ ! magneto is by means ( flexible direct connect+ c\pl+ to a %aft int5d$ = ! purpose ( driv+ ! magneto4 ,z ! magneto mu/ be driv5 at a high spe$1 a c\pl+ ( "s flexibility is pref]able4 ,! employm5t ( su* a c\pl+ w facilitate ! m\nt+ ( ! magneto1 because a small inaccuracy 9 ! l9+ up ( ! magneto ) ! driv+ %aft w be tak5 c>e ( by ! flexible c\pl+1 :]eas ) a p]fectly rigid c\pl+ ! l9e-up ( ! magneto mu/ be absolutely accurate4 ,ano!r advantage ( ! flexible c\pl+ is t ! vibration ( ! motor w n be z fully transmitt$ to ! armature %aft on ! magneto z 9 case a rigid c\pl+ is us$4 ,?is means prolong$ life = ! magneto4 ,! next be/ me?od ( driv+ ! magneto is by means ( a ge> key$ to ! armature %aft4 ,:5 ?is me?od ( driv+ is employ$1 great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 provid+ suffici5t cle>ance betwe5 ! ge> on ! magneto & ! driv+ ge>4 ,if !re %\ld be a tight spot betwe5 ^! two ge>s x w react disadvantage\sly on ! magneto4 ,! ?ird available me?od is to drive ! magneto by means ( a *a94 ,?is is ! lea/ desirable ( ! ?ree me?ods & %\ld be resort$ to only 9 case ( absolute necessity4 ,x is difficult to provide suffici5t cle>ance :5 us+ a *a9 )\t r5d]+ ! tim+ less accurate & positive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,wir+ ,diagrams ( ,b]l+ ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,fig4 #fd1 ,a %[s diagrammatically ! circuit ( ! ,d type two-sp>k indep5d5t magneto & ! swit* us$ ) x4 ,9 position ,,(f ! prim>y w9d+ ( ! magneto is %ort-circuit$ & 9 ?is position ! swit* s]ves z an ord9>y cut-out or gr\nd+ swit*4 ,9 position #a ! swit* connects ! magneto 9 su* a way t x op]ates z an ord9>y s+le-sp>k magneto4 ,9 ?is position "o end ( ! second>y w9d+ is gr\nd$ to ! body ( ! motor4 ,?is is ! />t+ position4 ,9 ?is position ( ! swit* ! entire voltage g5]at$ 9 ! magneto is conc5trat$ at "o sp>k-plug in/ead ( be+ divid$ 9 half4 ,) ! motor turn+ ov] v sl[ly1 z is ! case 9 />t+1 ! full voltage g5]at$ by ! magneto w n 9 all cases be suffici5t to bridge simultane\sly two sp>k gaps1 b is amply suffici5t to bridge "o4 ,also1 ?is position ( ! swit* t5ds to ret>d ! ignition & %\ld be us$ 9 />t+ to prev5t back-fir+4 ,) ! swit* 9 position #b ! magneto applies ignition to bo? plugs 9 ea* cyl9d] simultane\sly4 ,?is is ! normal runn+ position4 ,fig4 #fd1 ,b %[s diagrammatically ! circuit ( ! type ,,dd ,,b]l+ high-t5sion two-sp>k dual magneto4 ,?is type is recomm5d$ = c]ta9 types ( heavy-duty airplane motors1 :i* x is impossible to turn ov] fa/ en\gh to give ! magneto suffici5t spe$ to g5]ate ev5 a s+le sp>k ( volume great en\gh to ignite ! gas 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! dual feature consi/s ( ! addition to ! magneto ( a batt]y int]rupt]4 ,! equipm5t consi/s ( ! magneto1 coil & special high-t5sion swit*4 ,! coil is int5d$ to op]ate on six volts4 ,ei!r a /orage batt]y or dry cells may be us$4 ,) ! swit* 9 ! ,,(f position1 ! magneto is gr\nd$1 & ! batt]y circuit is op54 ,) ! swit* 9 ! second or batt]y position m>k$ ,,bat1 "o end ( ! second>y w9d+ ( ! magneto is gr\nd$1 & ! magneto op]ates z a s+le-sp>k magneto deliv]+ high-t5sion curr5t to ! inside di/ributor1 & ! batt]y circuit be+ clos$ ! high-t5sion curr5t f ! coil is deliv]$ to ! outside di/ributor4 ,9 ?is position ! batt]y curr5t is suppli$ to "o set ( sp>k plugs1 no matt] h[ sl[ly ! motor is turn$ ov]1 b z soon z ! motor />ts1 ! magneto supplies curr5t z a s+le-sp>k magneto to ! o!r set ( ! sp>k-plugs4 ,aft] ! eng9e is runn+1 ! swit* %\ld be ?r[n to ! position m>k$ ,,mag4 ,! batt]y & coil are !n disconnect$1 & ! magneto furni%es ignition to bo? plugs 9 ea* cyl9d]4 ,?is is ! normal runn+ position4 ,ei!r a non-vibrat+ coil type ,n-#a is furni%$ or a comb9$ vibrat+ & non-vibrat+ coil type ,,vn-#a4 ,,sett+ ,,b]l+ ,,magneto ,! magneto may be set accord+ to "o ( two diff]5t me?ods1 ! selection ( :i* is1 to "s ext5t1 gov]n$ by ! *>act]i/ics ( ! eng9e1 b l>gely due to ! p]sonal pref]5ce on ! "p ( ! us]4 ,9 ! fir/ me?od describ$ bel[1 ! mo/ advantage\s position ( ! pi/on = fully advanc$ ignition is det]m9$ 9 relation to ! extreme advanc$ position ( ! magneto4 ,9 ?is case1 ! fully ret>d$ ignition w n be a matt] ( selection1 b ! tim+ range ( ! magneto is wide en\gh to br+ ! fully ret>d$ ignition aft] top-c5t] position ( ! pi/on4 ,! second me?od = ! sett+ ( ! magneto fixes ! fully ret>d$ position ( ! magneto 9 relation to t position ( ! pi/on :]e fully ret>d$ ignition is desir$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! extreme advance position ( ! magneto w n always correspond ) ! be/ position ( ! pi/on = fully advanc$ ignition1 & ! am\nt ( advance ! magneto %\ld h to meet ideal requirem5ts 9 ?is respect mu/ be det]m9$ by exp]im5t4 ,fir/ ,me?od3 #a4 ,designate "o cyl9d] z cyl9d] ,no4 #a4 #b4 ,turn ! crank-%aft until ! pi/on 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #a is 9 ! position :]e ! fully advanc$ sp>k is desir$ to occur4 #c4 ,remove ! cov] f ! di/ributor block & turn ! armature %aft 9 ! direction ( rotation ( ! magneto until ! di/ributor f+]-bru% comes into su* a position t ?is bru% makes contact ) ! segm5t :i* is connect$ to ! cable t]m9al m>k$ #a4 ,?is is ei!r "o ( ! two bottom segm5ts1 dep5d+ ^u ! direction ( rotation4 #d4 ,place ! cam h\s+ 9 extreme advance1 i4e41 turn ! cam h\s+ until x /ops1 9 ! direction opposite to ! direction ( rotation ( ! armature4 ,) ! cam h\s+ 9 ?is position1 op5 ! cov]4 #e4 ,) ! armature 9 ! approximate position z describ$ 9 #c1 turn ! armature slightly 9 ei!r direction to su* a po9t t ! plat9um po9ts ( ! magneto int]rupt] w j beg9 to op5 at ! end ( ! cam1 adjac5t to ! fibre lev] on ! int]rupt]4 #f4 ,) ?is exact position ( ! armature1 fix ! magneto to ! driv+ memb] ( ! eng9e4 ,second ,me?od3 #a4 ,designate "o cyl9d] z cyl9d] ,no4 #a4 #b4 ,turn ! crank-%aft until ! pi/on 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #a is 9 ! position at :i* ! fully ret>d$ sp>k is desir$ to occur4 #c4 ,same z ,no4 #c "u ,fir/ ,me?od4 #d4 ,place ! cam h\s+ 9 extreme ret>d1 i4e41 turn ! cam h\s+ until x /ops1 9 ! same direction z ! direction ( rotation ( ! armature4 ,) ! cam h\s+ 9 ?is position1 op5 ! cov]4 #e4 ,same z ,no4 #e "u ,fir/ ,me?od4 #f4 ,same z ,no4 #f "u ,fir/ ,me?od4 ,,wir+ ,,! ,,magneto ,! wir+ ( ! magneto is cle>ly %[n by wir+ diagram4 ,fir/ det]m9e ! sequ5ce ( fir+ = ! cyl9d]s & !n connect ! cables to ! sp>k plug 9 ! cyl9d]s 9 prop] sequ5ce1 beg9n+ ) cyl9d] ,no4 #a m>k$ on ! di/ributor block4 ,! swit* us$ ) ! indep5d5t type mu/ be m\nt$ 9 su* a mann] t !re w be a metallic connection betwe5 ! frame ( ! magneto & ! metal portion ( ! swit*4 ,x is advisable to use a sep>ate batt]y1 ei!r /orage or dry cells1 z a s\rce ( curr5t = ! dual equipm5t4 ,connect+ to ! same batt]y t is us$ ) ! g5]ator & o!r electrical equipm5t may cause tr\ble1 z a gr\nd 9 ?is batt]y causes ! coil to ov]heat4 ,,c>e ,,& ,,ma9t5ance ,lubrication3 ,use only ! v be/ ( oil = ! oil cups4 ,put five drops ( oil 9 ! oil cup at ! driv+ end ( ! magneto = e fifty h\rs ( actual runn+4 ,put five drops ( oil 9 ! oil cup at ! int]rupt] end ( ! magneto1 locat$ at "o side ( ! cam h\s+1 = e hundr$ h\rs ( actual runn+4 ,lubricate ! emboss$ cams 9 ! cam h\s+ ) a ?9 film ( vasel9e e fifty h\rs ( actual runn+4 ,wipe (f all sup]flu\s vasel9e4 ,nev] use oil 9 ! int]rupt]4 ,d n lubricate any o!r "p ( ! int]rupt]4 ,adju/+ ! ,int]rupt]3 ,) ! fibre lev] 9 ! c5t] ( "o ( ! emboss$ cams1 z at ,fig4 #fe1 ! op5+ betwe5 ! plat9um contacts %\ld be n less ?an 4#jaf & n m ?an 4#jbj4 ,! gauge rivet$ to ! adju/+ wr5* %\ld b>ely be able to pass betwe5 ! contacts :5 fully op54 ,! plat9um contacts mu/ be smoo!d (f ) a v f9e file4 ,:5 9 clos$ position1 ! plat9um contacts %\ld make contact ) ea* o!r ov] _! entire surfaces4 ,:5 inspect+ ! int]rupt]1 make sure t ! gr\nd bru% 9 ! back ( ! int]rupt] base is mak+ good contact ) ! surface on :i* x rubs4 ,clean+ ! ,di/ributor3 ,! di/ributor block cov] %\ld be remov$ = inspection e tw5ty-five h\rs ( actual runn+ & ! c>bon deposit f ! di/ributor f+]-bru% wip$ (f ! di/ributor block by rubb+ ) a rag or piece ( wa/e dipp$ 9 gasol9e or k]os5e4 ,! high-t5sion t]m9al bru% on ! side ( ! magneto %\ld also be c>efully inspect$ = prop] t5sion4 ,,locat+ ,,tr\ble ,tr\ble 9 ! ignition sy/em is indicat$ by ! motor miss+1 /opp+ entirely1 or by inability to />t4 ,x is safe to assume t ! tr\ble is n 9 ! magneto1 & ! c>buretor1 gasol9e supply & sp>k-plugs %\ld fir/ be inve/igat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,! ,b]l+ ,magneto ,break] ,box ,%[+ ,contact ,po9ts ,sep>at$ & ,int]ruptor ,lev] on ,cam4 ,if ! magneto is suspect$1 ! fir/ ?+ to d is to det]m9e if x w deliv] a sp>k4 ,to det]m9e ?is1 disconnect "o ( ! high-t5sion leads f ! sp>k-plug 9 "o ( ! cyl9d]s & place x s t !re is approximately #a_/af betwe5 ! t]m9al & ! cyl9d] frame4 ,op5 ! pet cocks on ! o!r cyl9d]s to prev5t ! eng9e f fir+ & turn ov] ! eng9e until ! pi/on is approa*+ ! end ( ! compression /roke 9 ! cyl9d] f :i* ! cable has be5 remov$4 ,set ! magneto 9 ! advance position & rapidly rock ! eng9e ov] ! top-c5t] position1 obs]v+ closely if a sp>k occurs betwe5 ! end ( ! high-t5sion cable & ! frame4 ,if ! magneto is ( ! dual type1 ! tr\ble may be ei!r 9 ! magneto or 9 ! batt]y or coil sy/em1 !re=e disconnect ! batt]y & place ! swit* 9 ! position m>k$ ,,mag4 ,! magneto w !n op]ate z an indep5d5t magneto & %\ld sp>k 9 ! prop] mann]4 ,aft] ?is ! batt]y sy/em %\ld be inve/igat$4 ,to te/ ! op]ation ( ! batt]y & coil1 exam9e all connections1 mak+ sure t !y are clean & tight1 & !n ) ! swit*1 9 ! ,,bat1 rock ! pi/on sl[ly back & =?4 ,if a type ,,vn-#a coil is us$1 a %[] ( sp>ks %\ld jump betwe5 ! high-t5sion cable t]m9al & ! cyl9d] frame :5 ! pi/on is 9 ! correct position = fir+4 ,if no sp>k occurs1 remove ! cov] f ! coil & see t ! vibrat+ tongue is free4 ,if a type ,n-#a coil is us$1 a s+le sp>k w occur4 ,! batt]y %\ld furni% six volts :5 connect$ to ! coil1 & ?is %\ld also be v]ifi$4 ,if ! coil /ill refuses to give a sp>k & all connections are correct1 ! coil %\ld be replac$ & ! defective coil return$ to ! manufactur]4 ,if bo? magneto & coil give a sp>k :5 te/$ z j describ$1 ! sp>k-plugs %\ld be inve/igat$4 ,to d ?is1 disconnect ! cables & remove ! sp>k-plugs4 ,!n reconnect ! cables to ! plugs & place !m s t ! frame portions ( ! plugs are 9 metallic connection ) ! frame ( ! motor4 ,!n turn ov] ! motor1 ?us revolv+ ! magneto armature1 & see if a sp>k is produc$ at ! sp>k gaps ( ! plugs4 ,! mo/ common defects 9 sp>k-plugs are break+ d[n ( ! insulation1 f\l+ due to c>bon1 or too l>ge or small a sp>k gap4 ,to clean ! plugs a /iff bru% & gasol9e %\ld be us$4 ,! sp>k gap %\ld be ab\t #a_/cb & nev] less ?an #a_/fd4 ,too small a gap may h be5 caus$ by beads ( metal =m+ due to ! heat ( ! sp>k4 ,too long a gap may h be5 caus$ by ! po9ts burn+ (f4 ,if ! magneto & sp>k plugs are 9 good condition & ! eng9e does n run satisfactorily1 ! sett+ %\ld be v]ifi$ accord+ to in/ructions previ\sly giv51 &1 if necess>y1 readju/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,! ,dixie ,model #fj = ,six-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,eng9e ,ignition4 ,be c>eful to obs]ve t bo? ! type ,,vn-#a & type ,n-#a coils are s arrang$ t ! sp>k occurs on ! op5+ ( ! contacts ( ! tim]4 ,z ?is is j ! rev]se ( ! usual op]ation1 x %\ld be c>efully not$ :5 any *ange 9 ! sett+ ( ! tim] is made4 ,! tim] on ! dual type magneto is adju/$ s t ! batt]y sp>k occurs ab\t #e deg4 lat] ?an ! magneto sp>k4 ,?is provides an automatic advance z soon z ! swit* is ?r[n to ! magneto position ,,mag4 ,?is relative tim+ c be easily adju/$ by remov+ ! int]rupt] & %ift+ ! cam 9 ! direction desir$4 ,,! ,,dixie ,,magneto ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,in/allation ,dim5sions ( ,dixie ,model #fj ,magneto4 ,! ,dixie magneto1 %[n at ,fig4 #ff1 op]ates on a diff]5t pr9ciple ?an ! rot>y armature type4 ,x is us$ on ! ,hall-,scott & o!r aviation eng9es4 ,9 ?is magneto ! rotat+ memb] consi/s ( two pieces ( magnetic mat]ial sep>at$ by a non-magnetic c5t] piece4 ,?is memb] con/itutes true rotat+ poles = ! magnet & rotates 9 a field /ructure1 compos$ ( two lam9at$ field pieces1 rivet$ betwe5 two non-magnetic r+s4 ,! be>+s = ! rotat+ poles are m\nt$ 9 /eel plates1 :i* lie aga9/ ! poles ( ! magnets4 ,:5 ! magnet poles rotate1 ! magnetic l9es ( =ce f ea* magnet pole are c>ri$ directly to ! field pieces & ?r\gh ! w9d+s1 )\t rev]sal ?r\gh ! mass ( ! rotat+ memb] & ) only a s+le air gap4 ,!re are no losses by flux rev]sal 9 ! rotat+ "p1 su* z take place 9 o!r ma*9es1 & ?is is said to acc\nt = ! high effici5cy ( ! in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,! ,rotat+ ,elem5ts ( ! ,dixie ,magneto4 ,& ?is ,mason ,pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! op]ation ( ! ,dixie is simplifi$ by a glance at ! field /ructure1 consi/+ ( ! non-magnetic r+s1 assembl$ to :i* are ! field pieces betwe5 :i* ! rotat+ poles revolve 7see ,fig4 #fh74 ,rotat+ betwe5 ! limbs ( ! magnets1 ^! two pieces ( magnetic mat]ial =m true ext5sions to ! poles ( ! magnets1 & are1 9 consequ5ce1 always ( ! same pol>ity4 ,x w be se5 !re is no rev]sal ( ! magnetism ?r\gh !m1 & consequ5tly no eddy curr5t or hy/]esis losses :i* are pres5t 9 ! usual rotor or inductor types4 ,! simplicity features ( con/ruction /& out prom95tly "h1 9 t !re are no revolv+ w9d+s1 a detail entirely diff]+ f ! or?odox high-t5sion in/rum5t4 ,?is simplicity becomes in/antly app>5t :5 x is f\nd t ! circuit break]1 in/ead ( revolv+ z x does 9 o!r types1 is /ation>y & t ! :ole break] me*anism is expos$ by simply turn+ ! cov] spr+ aside & remov+ cov]4 ,?is makes inspection & adju/m5t p>ticul>ly simple1 & ! fact t no special tool is necess>y = adju/m5t ( ! plat9um po9ts--an ord9>y small screw-driv] is ! :ole kit ( tools ne$$ 9 ! "w ( disassembl+ or assembl+--is a feature ( "s value4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,sugge/ions = ,adju/+ & ,dismantl+ ,dixie ,magneto4 ,a--,screw ,driv] ,adju/s ,contact ,po9ts4 ,b--,di/ributor ,block ,remov$4 ,c--,tak+ (f ,magnets4 ,d--,%[+ ,h[ ,easily ,cond5s] & ,high ,t5sion ,w9d+s are ,remov$4 ,) du/- & wat]-protect+ cas+ remov$1 & "o ( ! magnets )drawn1 z 9 ,fig4 #fi1 ! w9d+ c be se5 ) its core re/+ on ! field pole pieces & ! prim>y lead atta*$ to its side4 ,an important feature ( ! high-t5sion w9d+ is t ! heads are ( insulat+ mat]ial1 & !re is n ! t5d5cy = ! high-t5sion curr5t to jump to ! side z 9 ! ord9>y armature type magneto4 ,! high-t5sion curr5t is c>ri$ to ! di/ributor by means ( an insulat$ block ) a sp9dle1 at "o end ( :i* is a spr+ bru% be>+ directly on ! w9d+1 ?us %ort5+ ! pa? ( ! high-t5sion curr5t & elim9at+ ! use ( rubb] spools & insulat+ p>ts4 ,! mov+ p>ts ( ! magneto ne$ nev] be di/urb$ if ! high-t5sion w9d+ is to be remov$4 ,?is w9d+ con/itutes all ( ! magneto w9d+s1 no ext]nal sp>k coil be+ necess>y4 ,! cond5s] is plac$ directly above ! w9d+ & is easily removable by tak+ out two screws1 in/ead ( be+ plac$ 9 an armature :]e x is inaccessible except to an exp]t1 & :]e x _c be replac$ except at ! factory :5ce x emanat$4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,! ,,dixie ,,magneto ,! be>+s ( ! magneto are provid$ ) oil cups & a few drops ( light oil e #a1jjj miles are suffici5t4 ,! break] lev] %\ld be lubricat$ e #a1jjj miles ) a drop ( light oil1 appli$ ) a too?-pick4 ,! prop] di/ance betwe5 ! plat9um po9ts :5 sep>at$ %\ld n exce$ 4#jbj or "o-fiftie? ( an in*4 ,a gauge ( ! prop] size is atta*$ to ! screwdriv] furni%$ ) ! magneto4 ,! plat9um contacts %\ld be kept clean & prop]ly adju/$4 ,%\ld ! contacts become pitt$1 a f9e file %\ld be us$ to smoo? !m 9 ord] to p]mit !m to come into p]fect contact4 ,! di/ributor block %\ld be remov$ occasionally & inspect$ = an accumulation ( c>bon du/4 ,! inside ( ! di/ributor block %\ld be clean$ ) a clo? moi/5$ ) gasol9e & !n wip$ dry ) a clean clo?4 ,:5 replac+ ! block1 c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 pu%+ ! c>bon bru% into ! socket4 ,d n pull out ! c>bon bru%es 9 ! di/ributor because y ?9k !re is n en\gh t5sion on ! small brass spr+s4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! mo/ effici5t results1 ! normal sett+ ( ! sp>k-plug po9ts %\ld n exce$ 4#jbe ( an in*1 & x is advisable to h ! gap j "r be=e a sp>k-plug is ins]t$4 ,! sp>k-plug electrodes may be easily set by means ( ! gauge atta*$ to ! screwdriv]4 ,! sett+ ( ! sp>k-plug po9ts is an important function :i* is usually ov]look$1 ) ! result t ! magneto is blam$ :5 x is n at fault4 ,,tim+ ,,( ,,! ,,dixie ,,magneto ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi;,a4--,sectional ,views ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,dixie ,magneto ) ,comp\nd ,di/ributor = ,eight-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,ignition4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! utmo/ effici5cy f ! eng9e1 ! magneto mu/ be correctly tim$ to x4 ,?is op]ation is usually p]=m$ :5 ! magneto is fitt$ to ! eng9e at ! factory4 ,! correct sett+ may v>y accord+ to individuality ( ! eng9e1 & "s eng9es may require an e>li] sett+ 9 ord] to obta9 ! be/ results4 ,h[ev]1 %\ld ! occasion arise to retime ! magneto1 ! proc$ure is z foll[s3 ,rotate ! crank-%aft ( ! eng9e until "o ( ! pi/ons1 pref]ably t ( cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 is #a_/af ( an in* ahead ( ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,) ! tim+ lev] 9 full ret>d position1 ! driv+ %aft ( ! magneto %\ld be rotat$ 9 ! direction 9 :i* x w be driv54 ,! circuit break] %\ld be closely obs]v$ & :5 ! plat9um contact po9ts are ab\t to sep>ate1 ! drive ge> or c\pl+ %\ld be secur$ to ! drive %aft ( ! magneto4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to alt] ! position ( ! magneto %aft :5 tight5+ ! nut to secure ! ge> or c\pl+1 aft] :i* ! magneto %\ld be secur$ to its base4 ,remove ! di/ributor block & det]m9e :i* t]m9al ( ! block is 9 contact ) ! c>bon bru% ( ! di/ributor f+] & connect ) plug wire lead+ to ,no4 #a cyl9d] to ?is t]m9al4 ,connect ! rema9+ plug wires 9 turn accord+ to ! prop] sequ5ce ( fir+ ( ! cyl9d]s4 7,see ! wir+ diagram = a typical six-cyl9d] eng9e at ,fig4 #gj47 ,a t]m9al on ! end ( ! cov] spr+ ( ! magneto is provid$ = ! purpose ( connect+ ! wire lead+ to a gr\nd swit* = /opp+ ! eng9e4 ,a special model or type ( magneto is made = ,v eng9es :i* use a comp\nd di/ributor con/ruction in/ead ( ! simple type on ! model illu/rat$ & a diff]5t int]ior arrangem5t p]mits ! production ( f\r sp>ks p] revolution ( ! rotors4 ,?is makes x possible to run ! magneto sl[] ?an w\ld be possible ) ! two-sp>k =m4 ,! application ( two comp\nd di/ributor magnetos ( ?is type to a ,?omas-,morse #ace horse-p[] motor ( ! eight-cyl9d] ,v patt]n is cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #ga4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,wir+ ,diagram ( ,dixie ,magneto ,in/allation on ,hall-,scott ,six-,cyl9d] #abe ,horse-,p[] ,a]onautic ,motor4 ,,sp>k-,,plug ,,design ,,& ,,application ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,h[ ,magneto ,ignition is ,in/all$ on ,?omas-,morse #ace ,horse-,p[] ,motor4 ,) ! high-t5sion sy/em ( ignition ! sp>k is produc$ by a curr5t ( high voltage jump+ betwe5 two po9ts :i* break ! complete circuit1 :i* w\ld exi/ o!rwise 9 ! second>y coil & its ext]nal connections4 ,! sp>k-plug is a simple device :i* consi/s ( two t]m9al electrodes c>ri$ 9 a suitable %ell memb]1 :i* is screw$ into ! cyl9d]4 ,typical sp>k-plugs are %[n 9 section at ,fig4 #gb & ! con/ruction c be easily und]/ood4 ,! second>y wire f ! coil is atta*$ to a t]m9al at ! top ( a c5tral electrode memb]1 :i* is support$ 9 a bu%+ ( "s =m ( insulat+ mat]ial4 ,! type %[n at ,a employs a mold$ porcela9 z an insulator1 :ile t depict$ at ,b uses a bu%+ ( mica4 ,! insulat+ bu%+ & electrode are h\s$ 9 a /eel body1 :i* is provid$ ) a screw ?read at ! bottom1 by :i* means x is screw$ into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,sp>k-,plug ,types ,%[+ ,con/ruction & ,arrangem5t ( ,p>ts4 ,:5 porcela9 is us$ z an insulat+ mat]ial x is kept f direct contact ) ! metal portion by "s =m ( yield+ pack+1 usually asbe/os4 ,?is is necess>y because ! /eel & porcela9 h diff]5t coeffici5ts ( expansion & "s flexibility mu/ be provid$ at ! jo9ts to p]mit ! mat]ials to exp& diff]5tly :5 heat$4 ,! /eel body ( ! plug :i* is screw$ into ! cyl9d] is 9 metallic contact ) x & c>ries sp>k+ po9ts :i* =m "o ( ! t]m9als ( ! air gap ov] :i* ! sp>k occurs4 ,! curr5t ent]+ at ! top ( ! plug _c rea* ! gr\nd1 :i* is repres5t$ by ! metal portion ( ! eng9e1 until x has trav]s$ ! full l5g? ( ! c5tral electrode & ov]come ! resi/ance ( ! gap betwe5 x & ! t]m9al po9t on ! %ell4 ,! porcela9 bu%+ is firmly seat$ aga9/ ! asbe/os pack+ by means ( a brass screw gl& :i* sets aga9/ a flange =m$ on ! porcela91 & :i* screws into a ?read at ! upp] portion ( ! plug body4 ,! mica plug %[n at ,b is some:at simpl] 9 con/ruction ?an t %[n at ,a4 ,! mica core :i* keeps ! c5tral electrode sep>at$ f ! /eel body is compos$ ( sev]al lay]s ( pure %eet mica w\nd ar\nd ! /eel rod longitud9ally1 & hundr$s ( /amp$ /eel wa%]s :i* are =c$ ov] ?is memb] & compact$ "u high pressure ) "s =m ( a b9d+ mat]ial betwe5 !m4 ,porcela9 insulators are usually mold$ f high-grade clay & are approximately ( ! %apes desir$ by ! design]s ( ! plug4 ,! c5tral electrode may be held 9 place by me*anical means su* z nuts1 pack+s1 & a %\ld] on ! rod1 z %[n at ,a4 ,ano!r me?od sometimes us$ is to cem5t ! electrode 9 place by means ( "s =m ( fire-clay cem5t4 ,:atev] me?od ( fa/5+ is us$1 x is imp]ative t ! jo9ts be absolutely tight s t no gas c escape at ! "t ( explosion4 ,porcela9 is ! mat]ial mo/ widely us$ because x c be glaz$ s t x w n absorb oil1 & x is subject$ to su* high temp]ature 9 bak+ t x is n liable to crack :5 heat$4 ,! sp>k-plugs may be screw$ into any conv5i5t "p ( ! combu/ion *amb]1 ! g5]al practice be+ to in/all !m 9 ! caps ov] ! inlet valves1 or 9 ! side ( ! combu/ion *amb]1 s ! po9ts w be directly 9 ! pa? ( ! ent]+ fre% gases f ! c>buretor4 ,o!r insulat+ mat]ials sometimes us$ are glass1 /eatite 7:i* is a =m ( soap/one7 & lava4 ,mica & porcela9 are ! two common mat]ials us$ because !y give ! be/ results4 ,glass is liable to crack1 :ile lava or ! soap/one insulat+ bu%+s absorb oil4 ,! sp>k gap ( ! av]age plug is equal to ab\t #a_/cb ( an in* = coil ignition & #a_/dj ( an in* :5 us$ 9 magneto circuits4 ,a simple gauge = det]m9+ ! gap sett+ is ! ?ickness ( an ord9>y visit+ c>d = magneto plugs1 or a space equal to ! ?ickness ( a worn dime = a coil plug4 ,! insulat+ bu%+s are made 9 a numb] ( diff]5t ways1 & :ile details ( con/ruction v>y1 sp>k-plugs d n diff] ess5tially 9 design4 ,! dim5sions ( ! /&>diz$ plug recomm5d$ by ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 are %[n at ,fig4 #gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,/&>d ,airplane ,eng9e ,plug ,sugge/$ by ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,/&>ds ,committee4 ,x is (t5 desirable to h a wat]-tight jo9t betwe5 ! high-t5sion cable & ! t]m9al screw on top ( ! insulat+ bu%+ ( ! sp>k-plug1 especially 9 m>9e applications4 ,! plug %[n at ,c1 ,fig4 #gb1 is provid$ ) an insulat+ memb] or hood ( porcela91 :i* is secur$ by a clip 9 su* a mann] t x makes a wat]-tight connection4 ,%\ld ! porcela9 ( a conv5tional =m ( plug become cov]$ ) wat] or dirty oil1 ! high-t5sion curr5t is apt to run d[n ?is conduct+ mat]ial on ! porcela9 & rea* ! gr\nd )\t hav+ to complete its circuit by jump+ ! air gap & produc+ a sp>k4 ,x w be evid5t t :]ev] a plug is expos$ to ! elem5ts1 :i* is (t5 ! case 9 airplane s]vice1 t x %\ld be protect$ by an insulat+ hood :i* w keep ! insulator dry & prev5t %ort circuit+ ( ! sp>k4 ,! same end c be atta9$ by slipp+ an ord9>y rubb] nipple ov] ! porcela9 insulator ( any conv5tional plug & br++ up "o end ov] ! cable4 ,,two-,,sp>k ,,ignition ,on mo/ aviation eng9es1 especially ^? hav+ l>ge cyl9d]s1 x is sometimes difficult to secure complete combu/ion by us+ a s+le-sp>k plug4 ,if ! combu/ion is n rapid ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e w be r$uc$ proportionately4 ,! compress$ *>ge 9 ! cyl9d] does n ignite all at once or in/antane\sly1 z _m assume1 b x is ! /rata ( gas ne>e/ ! plug :i* is ignit$ fir/4 ,?is 9 turn sets fire to consecutive lay]s ( ! *>ge until ! entire mass is aflame4 ,"o may comp>e ! combu/ion ( gas 9 ! gas-eng9e cyl9d] to ! ph5om5on :i* obta9s :5 a heavy object is ?r[n into a pool ( /ill wat]4 ,fir/ a small circle is se5 at ! po9t :]e ! object has pass$ into ! wat]1 ?is circle 9 turn induc+ o!r & l>g] circles until ! :ole surface ( ! pool has be5 agitat$ f ! "o c5tral po9t4 ,! me?od ( ignit+ ! gas is v simil>1 z ! sp>k ignites ! circle ( gas imm$iately adjac5t to ! sp>k+ po9t1 & ?is circle 9 turn ignites a little l>g] "o conc5tric ) x4 ,! second circle ( flame sets fire to m ( ! gas1 & f9ally ! entire cont5ts ( ! combu/ion *amb] are burn+4 ,:ile ord9>ily combu/ion is suffici5tly rapid ) a s+le plug s t ! prop] explosion is obta9$ at mod]ate eng9e spe$s1 if ! eng9e is work+ fa/ & ! cyl9d]s are ( l>ge capacity m p[] may be obta9$ by sett+ fire to ! mixture at two diff]5t po9ts in/ead ( b "o4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by us+ two sp>k+-plugs 9 ! cyl9d] in/ead ( "o1 & exp]im5ts h %[n t x is possible to ga9 f tw5ty-five to ?irty p] c5t4 9 motor p[] at high spe$ ) two-sp>k plugs1 because ! combu/ion ( gas is accel]at$ by ignit+ ! gas simultane\sly 9 two places4 ,! d\ble-plug sy/em on airplane eng9es is also a safegu>d1 z 9 ev5t ( failure ( "o plug 9 ! cyl9d] ! o!r w\ld cont9ue to fire ! gas1 & ! eng9e w cont9ue to function prop]ly4 ,9 us+ magneto ignition "s precautions are necess>y relat+ to wir+ & also ! "* ( ! sp>k-plugs employ$4 ,! conductor %\ld be ( good quality1 h ample insulation1 & be well protect$ f accumulations ( oil1 :i* w\ld t5d to decompose rubb] insulation4 ,x is cu/om>y to protect ! wir+ by runn+ x ?r\gh ! conduits ( fib] or metal tub+ l9$ ) insulat+ mat]ial4 ,multiple /r& cables %\ld be us$ = bo? prim>y & second>y wir+1 & ! insulation %\ld be ( rubb] at lea/ #c_/af in* ?ick4 ,! sp>k-plugs commonly us$ = batt]y & coil ignition _c always be employ$ :5 a magneto is fitt$4 ,! curr5t produc$ by ! me*anical g5]ator has a great] amp]age & m heat value ?an t obta9$ f trans=m] coils excit$ by batt]y curr5t4 ,! great] heat may burn or fuse ! sl5d] po9ts us$ on "s batt]y plugs & heavi] electrodes are ne$$ to resi/ ! heat+ effect ( ! m int5se arc4 ,:ile ! curr5t has great] amp]age x is n ( z high pot5tial or voltage z t commonly produc$ by ! second>y w9d+ ( an induction coil1 & x _c ov]come z mu* ( a gap4 ,manufactur]s ( magneto plugs usually set ! sp>k po9ts ab\t #a_/fd ( an in* ap>t4 ,! mo/ effici5t magneto plug has a plurality ( po9ts s t :5 ! di/ance betwe5 "o set becomes too great ! sp>k w take place betwe5 "o ( ! o!r pairs ( electrodes :i* are n sep>at$ by s great an air space4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,special ,mica ,plug = ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,,special ,,plugs ,,= ,,airplane ,,"w ,airplane "w calls = special con/ruction ( sp>k-plugs1 ow+ to ! high compression us$ 9 ! eng9es & ! fact t !y are op]at$ on op5 ?rottle practically all ! "t1 ?us caus+ a great deal ( heat to be develop$4 ,! plug %[n at ,fig4 #gd 0 rec5tly describ$ 9 ,! ,automobile1 & has be5 devis$ especially = airplane eng9es & automobile rac+ p[] plants4 ,! core ,c is built up ( mica wa%]s1 & has squ>e %\ld]s4 ,z mica wa%]s ( diff]5t sizes may be us$1 & accurate ma*9+1 su* z is necess>y ) conical clamp+ surfaces1 is n requir$1 ! plug c be produc$ economically4 ,! squ>e %\ld]s ( ! core af=d two gasket seats1 & :5 ! core is clamp$ 9 ! %ell by means ( *eck nut ,e1 x is accurately c5t]$ & a tight jo9t is =m$4 ,?is con/ruction also makes a %ort] plug ?an :]e conical fits are us$1 ?us improv+ ! heat radiation ?r\gh ! /em4 ,! l[] end ( ! %ell is provid$ ) a baffle plate ,o1 :i* t5ds to keep ! oil away f ! mica4 ,!re are p]=ations ,l 9 ?is baffle plate to prev5t burnt gases be+ pocket$ beh9d ! baffle plate & pre-ignit+ ! new *>ge4 ,?is con/ruction also br+s ! fir+ po9t out into ! fir+ *amb] ( ! eng9e1 & has all ! o!r advantages ( a clos$-end plug4 ,! /em ,p is made ( brass or copp]1 on acc\nt ( _! sup]ior heat conductivity1 & ! electrode ,j is sw$g$ into ! bottom ( ! /em1 z %[n at ,k1 9 a secure mann]4 ,! %ell is f9n$1 z %[n at ,g1 to provide great] heat radiat+ surface4 ,!re is also a f9 ,f at ! top ( ! /em1 to increase ! radiation ( heat f ! /em & electrode4 ,! top ( ?is f9n$ portion is slightly c\nt]sunk1 & ! /em is rivet$ into same1 !reby r$uc+ ! possibility ( leakage pa/ ! ?reads on ! /em4 ,?is f9n$ portion is neck$ at ,a to take a slip t]m9al4 ,9 build+ up ! core a small section ( wa%]s1 ,i1 is built up be=e ! mica insulat+ tube ,d is plac$ on4 ,?is con/ruction gives a bett] support to section ,i4 ,baffle plate ,o is bor$ out to all[ ! electrode ,j to pass ?r\gh1 & ! cle>ance betwe5 baffle plate & electrode is made l>g] ?an ! wid? ( ! gap betwe5 ! fir+ po9ts1 s t !re is no dang] ( ! sp>k jump+ f ! electrode to ! baffle plate4 ,?is plug w be furni%$ ei!r ) or )\t ! f9n$ portion1 to meet individual requirem5ts4 ,! manufactur]s lay special /ress ^u ! simplicity ( con/ruction & ^u ! me?od ( clamp+1 :i* is claim$ to make ! plug absolutely gas-tight4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,:y ,lubrication ,is ,necess>y--,friction ,def9$--,!ory ( ,lubrication--,d]ivation ( ,lubricants--,prop]ties ( ,cyl9d] ,oils--,factors ,influ5c+ ,lubrication ,sy/em ,selection--,gnome ,type ,eng9es ,use ,ca/or ,oil--,hall-,scott ,lubrication ,sy/em--,oil ,supply by ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em--,dry ,crank-,case ,sy/em ,be/ = ,airplane ,eng9es--,:y ,cool+ ,sy/ems ,are ,necess>y-- ,cool+ ,sy/ems ,g5]ally ,appli$--,cool+ by ,positive ,pump ,circulation--,!rmo-,syphon ,sy/em--,direct ,air-,cool+ ,me?ods-- ,air-,cool$ ,eng9e ,design ,consid]ations4 ,,:y ,,lubrication ,,is ,,necess>y ,! importance ( m9imiz+ friction at ! v>i\s be>+ surfaces ( ma*9es to secure me*anical effici5cy is fully recogniz$ by all me*anics1 & prop] lubricity ( all p>ts ( ! me*anism is a v ess5tial factor ^u :i* ! durability & successful op]ation ( ! motor c> p[] plant dep5ds4 ,all ( ! mov+ memb]s ( ! eng9e :i* are 9 contact ) o!r portions1 :e!r ! motion is cont9u\s or int]mitt5t1 ( high or l[ velocity1 or ( rectil9e> or cont9u$ rot>y nature1 %\ld be provid$ ) an adequate supply ( oil4 ,no o!r assemblage ( me*anism is op]at$ "u conditions :i* are s mu* to its disadvantage z ! motor c>1 & ! t5d5cy is t[>d a simplification ( oil+ me?ods s t ! supply w be ample & automatically appli$ to ! po9ts ne$+ x4 ,9 all ma*9]y 9 motion ! memb]s :i* are 9 contact h a t5d5cy to /ick to ea* o!r1 & ! v m9ute projections :i* exi/ on ev5 ! smoo!/ ( surfaces w\ld h a t5d5cy to cl+ or adh]e to ea* o!r if ! surfaces 7 n kept ap>t by "s ela/ic & unctu\s sub/ance4 ,?is w fl[ or spread out ov] ! surfaces & smoo? out ! inequalities exi/+ :i* t5d to produce heat & ret>d motion ( ! pieces relative to ea* o!r4 ,a g5]al impression :i* obta9s is t well ma*9$ surfaces are smoo?1 b :ile !y are app>5tly free f r\ghness1 & no projections are visible to ! nak$ eye1 any smoo? be>+ surface1 ev5 if v c>efully gr\nd1 w h a r\gh appe>ance if exam9$ ) a magnify+ glass4 ,an exagg]at$ condition to illu/rate ?is po9t is %[n at ,fig4 #ge4 ,! am\nt ( friction w v>y 9 proportion to ! pressure on ! surfaces 9 contact & w augm5t z ! loads increase2 ! r\gh] surfaces w h m friction ?an smoo!r ones & s(t bodies w produce m friction ?an h>d sub/ances4 ,,friction ,,def9$ ,friction is always pres5t 9 any me*anism z a resi/+ =ce t t5ds to ret>d motion & br+ all mov+ p>ts to a /ate ( re/4 ,! absorption ( p[] by friction may be gaug$ by ! am\nt ( heat :i* exi/s at ! be>+ po9ts4 ,friction ( solids may be divid$ into two classes3 slid+ friction1 su* z exi/s betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d]1 or ! be>+s ( a gas-eng9e1 & roll+ friction1 :i* is t pres5t :5 ! load is support$ by ball or roll] be>+s1 or t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! tires or ! driv+ :eels & ! road4 ,eng9e]s endeavor to keep friction losses z l[ z possible1 & mu* c>e is tak5 9 all mod]n airplane eng9es to provide adequate me?ods ( lubrication1 or anti-friction be>+s at all po9ts :]e consid]able friction exi/s4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,lubrication ,! reason a lubricant is suppli$ to be>+ po9ts w be easily und]/ood if "o consid]s t ^! ela/ic sub/ances fl[ betwe5 ! close fitt+ surfaces1 & by fill+ up ! m9ute depressions 9 ! surfaces & cov]+ ! high spots act z a cu%ion :i* absorbs ! heat g5]at$ & takes ! we> in/ead ( ! metallic be>+ surface4 ,! clos] ! p>ts fit toge!r ! m fluid ! lubricant mu/ be to pass betwe5 _! surfaces1 & at ! same "t x mu/ possess suffici5t body s t x w n be entirely =c$ out by ! pressure exi/+ betwe5 ! p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,%[+ ,use ( ,magnify+ ,glass to ,demon/rate t ,app>5tly ,smoo? ,metal ,surfaces ,may ,h ,m9ute ,irregul>ities :i* ,produce ,friction4 ,oils %\ld h good adhesive1 z well z cohesive1 qualities4 ,! =m] are necess>y s t ! oil film w cl+ well to ! surfaces ( ! be>+s2 ! latt]1 s ! oil p>ticles w cl+ toge!r & resi/ ! t5d5cy to sep>ation :i* exi/s all ! "t ! be>+s are 9 op]ation4 ,:5 us$ = gas-eng9e lubrication ! oil %\ld be capable ( )/&+ consid]able heat 9 ord] t x w n be vaporiz$ by ! hot portions ( ! cyl9d]4 ,x %\ld h suffici5t cold te/ s t x w rema9 fluid & fl[ readily at l[ temp]ature4 ,lubricants %\ld be free f acid1 or alkalies1 :i* t5d to produce a *emical action ) metals & result 9 corrosion ( ! p>ts to :i* !y are appli$4 ,x is imp]ative t ! oil be exactly ! prop] quality & nature = ! purpose int5d$ & t x be appli$ 9 a positive mann]4 ,! requirem5ts may be briefly summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,fir/--,x mu/ h suffici5t body to prev5t seiz+ ( ! p>ts to :i* x is appli$ & betwe5 :i* x is dep5d$ ^u to ma9ta9 an ela/ic film1 & yet x mu/ n h too mu* viscosity1 9 ord] to m9imize ! int]nal or fluid friction :i* exi/s betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! lubricant itself4 ,second--,! lubricant mu/ n coagulate or gum2 mu/ n injure ! p>ts to :i* x is appli$1 ei!r by *emical action or by produc+ injuri\s deposits1 & x %\ld n evaporate readily4 ,?ird--,! "* ( ! "w w dem& t ! oil %\ld n vaporize :5 heat$ or ?ick5 to su* a po9t t x w n fl[ readily :5 cold4 ,f\r?--,! oil mu/ be free f acid1 alkalies1 animal or vegetable fill]s1 or o!r injuri\s ag5cies4 ,fif?--,x mu/ be c>efully select$ = ! "w requir$ & %\ld be a good conductor ( heat4 ,,d]ivation ,,( ,,lubricants ,! fir/ oils :i* 7 us$ = lubricat+ ma*9]y 7 obta9$ f animal & vegetable s\rces1 ?\gh at ! pres5t "t mo/ ungu5ts are ( m9]al d]ivation4 ,lubricants may exi/ z fluids1 semifluids1 or solids4 ,! viscosity w v>y f light sp9dle or dynamo oils1 :i* h b little m body ?an k]os5e1 to ! heavie/ greases & tall[s4 ,! mo/ common solid employ$ z a lubricant is graphite1 sometimes t]m$ plumbago or black lead4 ,?is sub/ance is ( m9]al d]ivation4 ,! disadvantage ( oils ( organic orig91 su* z ^? obta9$ f animal fats or vegetable sub/ances1 is t !y w absorb oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 :i* causes !m to ?ick5 or become rancid4 ,su* oils h a v poor cold te/1 z !y solidify at comp>atively high temp]atures1 & _! fla%+ po9t is s l[ t !y _c be us$ at po9ts :]e mu* heat exi/s4 ,9 mo/ animal oils v>i\s acids are pres5t 9 great] or less quantities1 & = ?is reason !y are n well adapt$ = lubricat+ metallic surfaces :i* may be rais$ high en\gh 9 temp]ature to cause decomposition ( ! oils4 ,lubricants d]iv$ f ! crude petroleum are call$ ,oleonaph?as & !y are a product ( ! process ( ref9+ petroleum ?r\gh :i* gasol9e & k]os5e are obta9$4 ,!y are ( l[] co/ ?an vegetable or animal oil1 & z !y are ( non-organic orig91 !y d n become rancid or gummy by con/ant exposure to ! air1 & !y w h no corrosive action on metals because !y conta9 no delet]i\s sub/ances 9 *emical composition4 ,by ! process ( fractional di/illation m9]al oils ( all grades c be obta9$4 ,!y h a l[] cold & high] fla% te/ & !re is n ! liability ( spontane\s combu/ion t exi/s ) animal oils4 ,! organic oils are d]iv$ f fatty sub/ances1 :i* are pres5t 9 ! bodies ( all animals & 9 "s portions ( plants4 ,! g5]al me?od ( extract+ oil f animal bodies is by a r5d]+ process1 :i* consi/s ( apply+ suffici5t heat to liquefy ! oil & !n sep>at+ x f ! tissue ) :i* x is comb9$ by compression4 ,! only oil :i* is us$ to any ext5t 9 gas-eng9e lubrication t is n ( m9]al d]ivation is ca/or oil4 ,?is sub/ance has be5 us$ on high-spe$ rac+ automobile eng9es & on airplane p[] plants4 ,x is obta9$ f ! se$s ( ! ca/or plant1 :i* conta9 a l>ge p]c5tage ( oil4 ,among ! solid sub/ances :i* may be us$ = lubricat+ purposes may be m5tion$ tall[1 :i* is obta9$ f ! fat ( animals1 & graphite & soap/one1 :i* are ( m9]al d]ivation4 ,tall[ is nev] us$ at po9ts :]e x w be expos$ to mu* heat1 ?\gh x is (t5 employ$ z a fill] = greases us$ 9 transmission ge>+ ( autos4 ,graphite is sometimes mix$ ) oil & appli$ to cyl9d] lubrication1 ?\gh x is mo/ (t5 us$ 9 connection ) greases 9 ! l&+ ge> p>ts & = coat+ wires & cables ( ! airplane4 ,graphite is n affect$ by heat1 cold1 acids1 or alkalies1 & has a /rong attraction = metal surfaces4 ,x mixes readily ) oils & greases & increases _! effici5cy 9 _m applications4 ,x is sometimes us$ :]e x w\ld n be possible to use o!r lubricants because ( extremes ( temp]ature4 ,! oils us$ = cyl9d] lubrication are obta9$ almo/ exclusively f crude petroleum d]iv$ f ,am]ican wells4 ,special c>e mu/ be tak5 9 ! selection ( crude mat]ial1 z e v>iety w n yield oil ( ! prop] quality to be us$ z a cyl9d] lubricant4 ,! crude petroleum is di/ill$ z rapidly z possible ) fire heat to vaporize (f ! naph?as & ! burn+ oils4 ,aft] ^! vapors h be5 giv5 (f sup]heat$ /eam is provid$ to assi/ 9 di/ill+4 ,:5 en\gh ( ! light elem5ts h be5 elim9at$ ! residue is drawn (f1 pass$ ?r\gh a /ra9] to free x f grit & e>?y matt]s1 & is aft]w>ds cool$ to sep>ate ! wax f x4 ,?is is ! d>k cyl9d] oil & is ! grade usually us$ = /eam-eng9e cyl9d]s4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,cyl9d] ,,oils ,! oil t is to be us$ 9 ! gasol9e eng9e mu/ be ( high quality1 & = t reason ! be/ grades are di/ill$ 9 a vacuum t ! light di/illates may be sep>at$ at mu* l[] temp]atures ?an ord9>y conditions ( di/ill+ p]mit4 ,if ! degree ( heat is n high ! product is n s apt to decompose & deposit c>bon4 ,if x is desir$ to remove ! color ( ! oil :i* is caus$ by free c>bon & o!r impurities x c be accompli%$ by filt]+ ! oil ?r\gh *>coal4 ,! great] ! numb] ( times ! oil is filt]$1 ! light] x w become 9 color4 ,! be/ cyl9d] oils h fla% po9ts usually 9 excess ( #ejj degrees ,f41 & :ile !y h a high degree ( viscosity at #ajj degrees ,f4 !y become m fluid z ! temp]ature increases4 ,! lubricat+ oils obta9$ by ref9+ crude petroleum may be divid$ into ?ree classes3 ,fir/--,! natural oils ( great body :i* are prep>$ = use by all[+ ! crude mat]ial to settle 9 tanks at high temp]ature & f :i* ! impurities are remov$ by natural filtration4 ,^! oils are giv5 ! necess>y body & are free f ! volatile sub/ances !y conta9 by means ( sup]heat$ /eam :i* provides a s\rce ( heat4 ,second--,ano!r grade ( ^! natural oils :i* are filt]$ aga9 at high temp]atures & "u pressure ?r\gh b$s ( animal *>coal to improve _! color4 ,?ird--,pale1 limpid oils1 obta9$ by di/illation & subsequ5t *emical treatm5t f ! residuum produc$ 9 ref9+ petroleum to obta9 ! fuel oils4 ,au?orities agree t any =m ( mix$ oil 9 :i* animal & m9]al lubricants are comb9$ %\ld nev] be us$ 9 ! cyl9d] ( a gas eng9e z ! admixture ( ! lubricants does n prev5t ! decomposition ( ! organic oil into ! glyc]ides & fatty acids peculi> to ! fat us$4 ,9 a gas-eng9e cyl9d] ! flame t5ds to produce m or less *>r+4 ,! deposits ( c>bon w be mu* great] ) animal oils ?an ) ^? d]iv$ f ! petroleum base because ! con/itu5ts ( a fat or tall[ are n ( ! same volatile "* z ^? :i* comprise ! hydro-c>bon oils :i* w evaporate or volatilize be=e !y *> 9 mo/ in/ances4 ,,factors ,,influ5c+ ,,lubrication ,,sy/em ,,selection ,! suitability ( oil = ! prop] & effici5t lubrication ( all int]nal combu/ion eng9es is det]m9$ *iefly by ! foll[+ factors3 #a4 ,type ( cool+ sy/em 7op]at+ temp]atures74 #b4 ,type ( lubricat+ sy/em 7me?od ( apply+ oil to ! mov+ p>ts74 #c4 ,rubb+ spe$s ( contact surfaces4 ,7 ! op]at+ temp]atures1 be>+ surface spe$s & lubrication sy/ems id5tical1 a s+le oil c\ld be us$ 9 all eng9es ) equal satisfaction4 ,! only *ange !n necess>y 9 viscosity w\ld be t due to climatic conditions4 ,z eng9es are n[ design$1 only ?ree grades ( oil are necess>y = ! lubrication ( all types ) ! exception ( ,knight1 air-cool$ & "s eng9es :i* run cont9u\sly at full load4 ,9 ! specification ( eng9e lubricants ! feature ( load c>ri$ by ! eng9e %\ld be c>efully consid]$4 ,full ,load ,eng9es4 #a4 ,m>9e4 #b4 ,rac+ automobile4 #c4 ,aviation4 #d4 ,f>m tractor4 #e4 ,"s /ation>y4 ,v>iable ,load ,eng9es4 #a4 ,pleasure automobile4 #b4 ,comm]cial vehicle4 #c4 ,motor cycle4 #d4 ,"s /ation>y4 ,( ! =ms outl9$1 ! only "o we h any imm$iate conc]n ab\t is ! airplane p[] plant4 ,! ,platt ,wa%burn ,ref9+ ,company1 :o h made a c>eful /udy ( ! lubrication problem z appli$ to all types ( eng9es1 h f\nd a peculi> set ( conditions to apply to oil+ high-spe$ con/ant-duty or full-load eng9es4 ,mod]n airplane eng9es are design$ to op]ate cont9u\sly at a fairly uni=m high rotative spe$ & at full load ov] long p]iods ( "t4 ,z a sequ5ce to ?is heavy duty ! op]at+ temp]atures are elevat$4 ,= ! sake ( extreme lightness 9 weight ( all p>ts1 v ?9 alloy /eel alum9um or ca/ iron pi/ons are fitt$ & ! temp]ature ( ! ?9 pi/on heads at ! c5t] rea*es any:]e betwe5 #fjj deg4 & #a1djj deg4 ,fahr41 z 9 automobile rac+ eng9es4 ,freely expos$ to su* int5se heat hydro-c>bon oils are p>tially crack$ into light & heavy products or polym]iz$ into solid hydro-c>bons4 ,f ^! facts x foll[s t only heavy m9]al oils ( l[ c>bon residue & ( ! greate/ *emical purity & /ability %\ld be us$ to secure good lubrication4 ,9 all cases ! oil %\ld be suffici5tly heavy to assure ! highe/ horse-p[] & fuel & oil economy compatible ) p]fect lubrication1 avoid+1 at ! same "t1 c>bonization & ignition failure4 ,:5 alum9um pi/ons are us$ _! sup]ior heat-conduct+ prop]ties aid mat]ially 9 r$uc+ ! rate ( oil de/ruction4 ,! extraord9>y evolutions describ$ by airplanes 9 flight make x a matt] ( vital necessity to op]ate eng9es incl9$ at all angles to ! v]tical z well z 9 an upside-d[n position4 ,to meet ?is situation lubricat+ sy/ems h be5 elaborat$ s z to deliv] an abundance ( oil :]e ne$$ & to elim9ate possible flood+ ( cyl9d]s4 ,?is is done by apply+ a full =ce fe$ sy/em1 di/ribut+ oil "u consid]able pressure to all work+ p>ts4 ,dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! be>+s1 ! oil dra9s d[n to ! suction side ( a second pump locat$ 9 ! bottom ( ! base *amb]4 ,?is pump be+ ( great] capacity ?an ! fir/ prev5ts ! accumulation ( oil 9 ! crank-case1 & =ces x to a sep>ate oil res]voir-cool]1 :5ce x fl[s back 9 rapid circulation to ! pump fe$+ ! be>+s4 ,) ?is arrangem5t positive lubrication is entirely indep5d5t ( eng9e position4 ,! lubricat+ sy/em ( ! ,?omas-,morse aviation eng9es1 :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #gf1 is typical ( curr5t practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,pressure ,fe$ ,oil+ ,sy/em ( ,?omas ,aviation ,eng9e ,includes ,oil ,cool+ ,means4 ,,gnome ,,type ,,eng9es ,,use ,,ca/or ,,oil ,! con/ruction & op]ation ( rotative radial cyl9d] eng9es introduce additional difficulties ( lubrication to ^? already ref]r$ to & m]it especial att5tion4 ,ow+ to ! peculi> alim5tation sy/ems ( ,gnome type eng9es1 atomiz$ gasol9e mix$ ) air is drawn ?r\gh ! holl[ /ation>y crank-%aft directly into ! crank-case :i* x fills on ! way to ! cyl9d]s4 ,!re9 lies ! tr\ble4 ,hydroc>bon oils are soon dissolv$ by ! gasol9e & wa%$ (f1 leav+ ! be>+ surfaces )\t adequate protection & expos$ to in/ant we> & de/ruction4 ,s ca/or oil is resort$ to z an indisp5sable b un=tunate compromise4 ,( vegetable orig91 x leaves a mu* m bulky c>bon deposit 9 ! explosion *amb]s ?an does m9]al oil & its great aff9ity = oxyg5 causes ! =mation ( volum9\s gummy deposit 9 ! crank-case4 ,eng9es employ+ x ne$ to be dism\nt$ & ?or\ghly scrap$ out at frequ5t int]vals4 ,x is advisable to use only unbl5d$ *emically pure ca/or oil 9 rotative eng9es1 fir/ by virtue ( its insolubility 9 gasol9e & second because its extra heavy body c resi/ ! high temp]ature ( air-cool$ cyl9d]s4 ,,hall-,,scott ,,lubrication ,,sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,diagram ( ,oil+ ,sy/em1 ,hall-,scott ,type ,a #abe ,horse-,p[] ,eng9e4 ,! oil+ sy/em ( ! ,hall-,scott type ,a-#e #abe horse-p[] eng9e is cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #gg4 ,x is completely describ$ 9 ! in/ruction book issu$ by ! company f :i* ! foll[+ extracts are reproduc$ by p]mission4 ,crank-%aft1 connect+ rods & all o!r p>ts )9 ! crank-case & cyl9d]s are lubricat$ directly or indirectly by a =ce-fe$ oil+ sy/em4 ,! cyl9d] walls & wri/ p9s are lubricat$ by oil spray ?r[n f ! l[] end ( connect+ rod be>+s4 ,?is sy/em is us$ only ^u ,a-#e eng9es4 ,^u ,a-#g;a & ,a-#e;a eng9es a small tube supplies oil f connect+ rod be>+ directly ^u ! wri/ p94 ,! oil is drawn f ! /ra9] locat$ at ! l[e/ portion ( ! l[] crank-case1 =c$ ar\nd ! ma9 intake manifold oil jacket4 ,f "h x is circulat$ to ! ma9 di/ribut+ pipe locat$ along ! l[] left h& side ( upp] crank-case4 ,! oil is !n =c$ directly to ! l[] side ( crank-%aft1 ?r\gh holes drill$ 9 ea* ma9 be>+ cup4 ,leakage f ^! ma9 be>+s is caught 9 scupp]s plac$ ^u ! *eeks ( ! crank-%afts furni%+ oil "u pressure to ! connect+ rod be>+s4 ,a-#g;a & ,a-#e;a eng9es h small tubes lead+ f ^! be>+s :i* convey ! oil "u pressure to ! wri/ p9s4 ,a bi-pass locat$ at ! front end ( ! di/ribut+ oil pipe c be regulat$ to less5 or raise ! pressure4 ,by screw+ ! valve 91 ! pressure w raise & m oil w be =c$ to ! be>+s4 ,by unscrew+1 pressure is r$uc$ & less oil is f$4 ,a-#g;a & ,a-#e;a eng9es h oil relief valves locat$ j (f ( ! ma9 oil pump 9 ! l[] crank-case4 ,?is regulates ! pressure at all times s t 9 cold wea!r !re w be no dang] ( bur/+ oil pipes due to excessive pressure4 ,if x is f\nd ! oil pressure is n ma9ta9$ at a high en\gh level1 inspect ?is valve4 ,a /rong] spr+ w n all[ ! oil to bi-pass s freely1 & consequ5tly ! pressure w be rais$2 a weak] spr+ w bi-pass m oil & r$uce ! oil pressure mat]ially4 ,indep5d5t ( ! above-m5tion$ sy/em1 a small1 directly driv5 rot>y oil] fe$s oil to ! base ( ea* individual cyl9d]4 ,! supply ( oil is furni%$ by ! ma9 oil pump locat$ 9 ! l[] crank-case4 ,a small sight-fe$ regulator is furni%$ to control ! supply ( oil f ?is oil]4 ,?is in/rum5t %\ld be plac$ high] ?an ! auxili>y oil di/ributor itself to enable ! oil to dra9 by gravity fe$ to ! oil]4 ,if !re is no available place ) ! necess>y height 9 ! front seat ( plane1 connect x directly to ! intake ,l fitt+ on ! oil] 9 an upright position4 ,x %\ld be regulat$ ) full op5 ?rottle to ma9ta9 an oil level 9 ! glass1 approximately half way4 ,an oil pressure gauge is provid$4 ,?is %\ld be run to ! pilot's in/rum5t bo>d4 ,! gauge regi/]s ! oil pressure ^u ! be>+s1 also det]m9+ its circulation4 ,/rict wat* %\ld be ma9ta9$ ( ?is in/rum5t by pilot1 & if = any reason its h& %\ld drop to #j ! motor %\ld be imm$iately /opp$ & ! tr\ble f\nd be=e re/>t+ eng9e4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! oil does n "w up into ! gauge1 z x w prev5t ! correct gauge regi/]+ ( oil pressure4 ,! oil pressure w v>y accord+ to wea!r conditions & viscosity ( oil us$4 ,9 normal wea!r1 ) ! eng9e prop]ly w>m$ up1 ! pressure w regi/] on ! oil gauge f #e to #aj p\nds :5 ! eng9e is turn+ f #a1bge to #a1cjj r4 p4 m4 ,?is does n apply to all aviation eng9es1 h[ev]1 z ! prop] pressure advis$ = ! ,curtiss ,,ox-#b motor is f #dj to #ee p\nds at ! gauge4 ,! oil sump plug is locat$ at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! l[] crank-case4 ,?is is a comb9ation dirt1 wat] & s$im5t trap4 ,x is easily remov$ by unscrew+4 ,oil is furni%$ me*anically to ! cam-%aft h\s+ "u pressure ?r\gh a small tube lead+ f ! ma9 di/ribut+ pipe at ! propell] end ( eng9e directly into ! end ( cam-%aft h\s+4 ,! opposite end ( ?is h\s+ is amply reliev$ to all[ ! oil to rapidly fl[ d[n ^u cam-%aft1 magneto1 p9ion-%aft1 & crank-%aft ge>s1 aft] :i* x returns to l[] crank-case4 ,an outside ov]fl[ pipe is also provid$ to c>ry away ! surplus oil4 ,,dra9+ ,,oil ,,f ,,crank-,,case ,! oil /ra9] is plac$ at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! l[] crank-case4 ,?is /ra9] %\ld be remov$ aft] e five to eight h\rs runn+ ( ! eng9e & clean$ ?or\ghly ) gasol9e4 ,x is also advisable to squirt di/illate up into ! case ?r\gh ! op5+ :]e ! /ra9] has be5 remov$4 ,all[ ?is di/illate to dra9 out ?or\ghly be=e replac+ ! plug ) /ra9] atta*$4 ,be sure gasket is 9 place on plug be=e replac+4 ,p\r new oil 9 ?r\gh ei!r ( ! two brea!r pipes on exhau/ side ( motor4 ,be sure to replace /ra9] scre5s if remov$4 ,if1 ?r\gh ov]sight1 ! eng9e does n receive suffici5t lubrication & beg9s to heat or p\nd1 x %\ld be /opp$ imm$iately4 ,aft] all[+ eng9e to cool p\r at lea/ ?ree gallons ( oil into oil sump4 ,fill radiator ) wat] aft] eng9e has cool$4 ,%\ld !re be app>5t damage1 ! eng9e %\ld be ?or\ghly inspect$ imm$iately )\t fur!r runn+4 ,if no obvi\s damage has be5 done1 ! eng9e %\ld be giv5 a c>eful exam9ation at ! e>lie/ opportunity to see t ! runn+ )\t oil has n burn$ ! be>+s or caus$ o!r tr\ble4 ,oils be/ adapt$ = ,hall-,scott eng9es h ! foll[+ prop]ties3 ,a fla% te/ ( n less ?an #djj deg4 ,f42 viscosity ( n less ?an #ge to #he tak5 at #ba deg4 ,f4 ) ,saybolt's ,univ]sal ,viscosimet]4 ,z]ol9e heavy duty oil1 manufactur$ by ! ,/&>d ,oil ,company ( ,cali=nia2 also1 ,g>goyle mobile ,b oil1 manufactur$ by ! ,vacuum ,oil ,company1 bo? fulfill ! above specifications4 ,"o or ! o!r ( ^! oils c be obta9$ all ov] ! _w4 ,monogram extra heavy is also recomm5d$4 ,,oil ,,supply ,,by ,,con/ant ,,level ,,spla% ,,sy/em ,! spla% sy/em ( lubrication t dep5ds on ! connect+ rod to di/ribute ! lubricant is "o ( ! mo/ successful & simple/ =ms = simple f\r- & six-cyl9d] v]tical automobile eng9es1 b is n z well adapt$ to ! oil+ ( airplane p[] plants = reasons previ\sly /at$4 ,if too mu* oil is suppli$ ! surplus w "w pa/ ! pi/on r+s & into ! combu/ion *amb]1 :]e x w burn & cause c>bon deposits4 ,too mu* oil w also cause an eng9e to smoke & an excess ( lubricat+ oil is usually manife/$ by a blui%-:ite smoke issu+ f ! exhau/4 ,a good me?od ( ma9ta9+ a con/ant level ( oil = ! successful application ( ! spla% sy/em is %[n at ,fig4 #gh4 ,! eng9e base ca/+ includes a sep>ate *amb] :i* s]ves z an oil conta9] & :i* is bel[ ! level ( oil 9 ! crank-case4 ,! lubricant is drawn f ! sump or oil conta9] by means ( a positive oil pump :i* dis*>ges directly into ! eng9e case4 ,! level is ma9ta9$ by an ov]fl[ pipe :i* all[s all excess lubricant to fl[ back into ! oil conta9] at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,be=e pass+ into ! pump aga9 ! oil is /ra9$ or filt]$ by a scre5 ( wire gauze & all =eign matt] remov$4 ,ow+ to ! rapid circulation ( ! oil x may be us$ ov] & ov] aga9 = q a p]iod ( "t4 ,! oil is introduc$ directly into ! crank-case by a brea!r pipe & ! level is indicat$ by a rod c>ri$ by a float :i* rises :5 ! conta9] is repl5i%$ & falls :5 ! available supply dim9i%es4 ,x w be not$ t ) su* sy/em ! only app>atus requir$ besides ! oil tank :i* is ca/ integral ) ! bottom ( ! crank-case is a suitable pump to ma9ta9 circulation ( oil4 ,?is memb] is always positively driv51 ei!r by means ( %aft & univ]sal c\pl+ or direct ge>+4 ,z ! sy/em is entirely automatic 9 action1 x w furni% a positive supply ( oil at all desir$ po9ts1 & x _c be tamp]$ ) by ! inexp]t because no adju/m5ts are provid$ or ne$$4 ,,dry ,,crank-,,case ,,sy/em ,,be/ ,,= ,,airplane ,,eng9es ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,sectional ,view ( ,typical ,motor ,%[+ ,p>ts ,ne$+ ,lubrication & ,me?od ( ,apply+ ,oil by ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em4 ,note also ,wat] ,jacket & ,spaces = ,wat] ,circulation4 ,9 mo/ airplane p[] plants x is consid]$ desirable to supply ! oil directly to ! p>ts ne$+ x by suitable leads in/ead ( dep5d+ solely ^u ! di/ribut+ action ( scoops on ! connect+ rod big ends4 ,a sy/em ( ?is nature is %[n at ,fig4 #gg4 ,! oil is c>ri$ 9 ! crank-case1 z is common practice1 b ! normal oil level is bel[ ! po9t :]e x w be rea*$ by ! connect+ rod4 ,x is drawn f ! crank-case by a plung] pump :i* directs x to a manifold lead+ directly to conductors :i* supply ! ma9 j\rnals4 ,aft] ! oil has be5 us$ on ^! po9ts x dra9s back into ! bottom ( ! crank-case4 ,an excess is provid$ :i* is suppli$ to ! connect+ rod ends by passages drill$ into ! webs ( ! crank-%aft & "p way into ! crank-p9s z %[n by ! dott$ l9es4 ,! oil :i* is pres5t at ! connect+ rod crank-p9s is ?r[n (f by c5trifugal =ce & lubricates ! cyl9d] walls & o!r int]nal p>ts4 ,regulat+ screws are provid$ s t ! am\nt ( oil suppli$ ! diff]5t po9ts may be regulat$ at w4 ,a relief *eck valve is in/all$ to take c>e ( excess lubricant & to all[ any oil t does n pass back into ! pipe l9e to ov]fl[ or bi-pass into ! ma9 conta9]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,pressure ,fe$ ,oil-,supply ,sy/em ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plants has ,_m ,good ,features4 ,a simple sy/em ( ?is nature is %[n graphically 9 a phantom view ( ! crank-case at ,fig4 #gi1 9 :i* ! oil passages are made specially prom95t4 ,! oil is tak5 f a res]voir at ! bottom ( ! eng9e base by ! usual =m ( ge> oil pump & is suppli$ to a ma9 fe$ manifold :i* ext5ds ! l5g? ( ! crank-case4 ,individual conductors lead to ! five ma9 be>+s1 :i* 9 turn supply ! crank-p9s by passages drill$ ?r\gh ! crank-%aft web4 ,9 ?is p[] plant ! connect+ rods are holl[ section bronze ca/+s & ! passage ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! connect+ rod s]ves to convey ! lubricant f ! crank-p9s to ! wri/-p9s4 ,! cyl9d] walls are oil$ by ! spray ( lubricant ?r[n (f ! revolv+ crank-%aft by c5trifugal =ce4 ,oil projection by ! dipp]s on ! connect+ rod ends f con/ant level tr\ghs is unequal ^u ! cyl9d] walls ( ! two-cyl9d] blocks ( an eight- or twelve-cyl9d] ,v eng9e4 ,?is gives rise1 on "o side ( ! eng9e1 to "u-lubrication1 &1 on ! o!r side1 to ov]-lubrication1 z %[n at ,fig4 #hj1 ,a4 ,?is applies to all modifications ( spla% lubricat+ sy/ems4 ,:5 a =ce-fe$ lubricat+ sy/em is us$1 ! oil1 escap+ pa/ ! *eeks ( bo? ends ( ! crank-p9 be>+s1 is ?r[n (f at a tang5t to ! crank-p9 circle 9 all directions1 supply+ ! cyl9d]s on bo? sides ) an equal quantity ( oil1 z at ,fig4 #hj1 ,b4 ,,:y ,,cool+ ,,sy/ems ,,are ,,necess>y ,! read] %\ld und]/& f prec$+ *apt]s t ! p[] ( an int]nal-combu/ion motor is obta9$ by ! rapid combu/ion & consequ5t expansion ( "s inflammable gas4 ,! op]ation 9 brief is t :5 air or any o!r gas or vapor is heat$1 x w exp& & t if ?is gas is conf9$ 9 a space :i* w n p]mit expansion1 pressure w be ex]t$ aga9/ all sides ( ! conta9+ *amb]4 ,! m a gas is heat$1 ! m pressure x w ex]t ^u ! walls ( ! combu/ion *amb] x conf9es4 ,pressure 9 a gas may be creat$ by increas+ its temp]ature & inv]sely heat may be creat$ by pressure4 ,:5 a gas is compress$ its total volume is r$uc$ & ! temp]ature is augm5t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,:y ,pressure ,fe$ ,sy/em is ,be/ = ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,! effici5cy ( any =m ( heat eng9e is det]m9$ by ! p[] obta9$ f a c]ta9 fuel consumption4 ,a def9ite am\nt ( en]gy w be lib]at$ 9 ! =m ( heat :5 a p\nd ( any fuel is burn$4 ,! effici5cy ( any heat eng9e is proportional to ! p[] develop$ f a def9ite quantity ( fuel ) ! lea/ loss ( !rmal units4 ,if ! great] proportion ( ! heat units d]iv$ by burn+ ! explosive mixture c\ld be utiliz$ 9 do+ useful "w1 ! effici5cy ( ! gasol9e eng9e w\ld be great] ?an t ( any o!r =m ( en]giz+ p[]4 ,!re is a great loss ( heat f v>i\s causes1 among :i* c be cit$ ! r$uction ( pressure ?r\gh cool+ ! motor & ! loss ( heat ?r\gh ! exhau/ valves :5 ! burn$ gases are expell$ f ! cyl9d]4 ,! loss ?r\gh ! wat] jacket ( ! av]age automobile p[] plant is ov] #ej p] c5t4 ( ! total fuel effici5cy4 ,?is means t m ?an half ( ! heat units available = p[] are absorb$ & dissipat$ by ! cool+ wat]4 ,ano!r #af p] c5t4 is lo/ ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve1 & b #cc-a_/c p] c5t4 ( ! heat units d useful "w4 ,! great loss ( heat ?r\gh ! cool+ sy/ems _c be avoid$1 z "s me?od mu/ be provid$ to keep ! temp]ature ( ! eng9e )9 prop] b\nds4 ,x is app>5t t ! rapid combu/ion & cont9u$ s]ies ( explosions w\ld soon heat ! metal portions ( ! eng9e to a r$ heat if "s means 7 n tak5 to conduct mu* ( ?is heat away4 ,! high temp]ature ( ! p>ts w\ld burn ! lubricat+ oil1 ev5 t ( ! be/ quality1 & ! pi/on & r+s w\ld exp& to su* a degree1 especially :5 depriv$ ( oil1 t !y w\ld seize 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is w\ld score ! walls1 & ! friction :i* ensu$ w\ld t5d to b9d ! p>ts s tightly t ! pi/on w\ld /ick1 be>+s w\ld be burn$ out1 ! valves w\ld w>p1 & ! eng9e w\ld soon become inop]ative4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,op]at+ ,temp]atures ( ,automobile ,eng9e ,p>ts ,useful z a ,guide to ,und]/& ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,heat4 ,! be/ temp]ature to secure effici5t op]ation is "o on :i* consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s among eng9e]s4 ,! fact t ! effici5cy ( an eng9e is dep5d5t ^u ! ratio ( heat conv]t$ into useful "w comp>$ to t g5]at$ by ! explosion ( ! gas is an accept$ fact4 ,x is v important t ! eng9e %\ld n get too hot1 & on ! o!r h& x is equally vital t ! cyl9d]s be n robb$ ( too mu* heat4 ,! object ( cyl9d] cool+ is to keep ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] bel[ ! dang] po9t1 b at ! same "t to h x z high z possible to secure maximum p[] f ! gas burn$4 ,! usual op]at+ temp]atures ( an automobile eng9e are %[n at ,fig4 #ha1 & ?is c be tak5 z an approximation ( ! temp]atures apt to exi/ 9 an airplane eng9e ( conv5tional design z well :5 at gr\nd level or n v high 9 ! air4 ,! new] v high compression airplane eng9es 9 :i* compressions ( eight or n9e atmosph]es are us$1 or ab\t #abe p\nds p] squ>e in*1 w run consid]ably hott] ?an ! temp]atures indicat$4 ,,cool+ ,,sy/ems ,,g5]ally ,,appli$ ,!re are two g5]al sy/ems ( eng9e cool+ 9 common use1 t 9 :i* wat] is heat$ by ! absorption ( heat f ! eng9e & !n cool$ by air1 & ! o!r me?od 9 :i* ! air is direct$ onto ! cyl9d] & absorbs ! heat directly in/ead ( ?r\gh ! m$ium ( wat]4 ,:5 ! liquid is employ$ 9 cool+ x is circulat$ ?r\gh jackets :i* surr\nd ! cyl9d] ca/+ & ! wat] may be kept 9 motion by two me?ods4 ,! "o g5]ally favor$ is to use a positive circulat+ pump ( "s =m :i* is driv5 by ! eng9e to keep ! wat] 9 motion4 ,! o!r sy/em is to utilize a natural pr9ciple t heat$ wat] is light] ?an cold liquid & t x w t5d to rise to ! top ( ! cyl9d] :5 x becomes heat$ to ! prop] temp]ature & cool$ wat] takes its place at ! bottom ( ! wat] jacket4 ,air-cool+ me?ods may be by radiation or convection4 ,9 ! =m] case ! effective out] surface ( ! cyl9d] is increas$ by ! addition ( flanges ma*9$ or ca/ !reon1 & ! air is dep5d$ on to rise f ! cyl9d] z heat$ & be replac$ by cool] air4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is f\nd only on /ation>y eng9es4 ,:5 a positive air draught is direct$ aga9/ ! cyl9d] by means ( ! propell] slip /ream 9 an airplane1 cool+ is by convection & radiation bo?4 ,sometimes ! air draught may be direct$ aga9/ ! cyl9d] walls by "s =m ( jacket :i* conf9es x to ! heat$ portions ( ! cyl9d]4 ,,cool+ ,,by ,,positive ,,wat] ,,circulation ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,wat] ,cool+ ( ,salmson ,sev5-,cyl9d] ,radial ,airplane ,eng9e4 ,a typical wat]-cool+ sy/em 9 :i* a pump is dep5d$ ^u to promote circulation ( ! cool+ liquid is %[n at ,figs4 #hb & #hc4 ,! radiator is c>ri$ at ! front end ( ! fuselage 9 mo/ cases1 & s]ves z a comb9$ wat] tank & cool]1 b 9 "s cases x is c>ri$ at ! side ( ! eng9e1 z 9 ,fig4 #hd1 or atta*$ to ! c5tral portion ( ! a](oil or w+ /ructure4 ,x is compos$ ( an upp] & l[] portion jo9$ toge!r by a s]ies ( pipes :i* may be r\nd & provid$ ) a s]ies ( f9s to radiate ! heat1 or :i* may be flat 9 ord] to h ! wat] pass ?r\gh 9 ?9 %eets & cool x m easily4 ,cellul> or honeycomb cool]s are compos$ ( a l>ge numb] ( b5t tubes :i* w expose a l>ge area ( surface to ! cool+ influ5ce ( ! air draught =c$ ?r\gh ! radiator ei!r by ! =w>d movem5t ( ! vehicle or by "s type ( fan4 ,! cellul> & flat tube types h almo/ entirely displac$ ! flange tube radiators :i* 7 =m]ly popul> because !y cool ! wat] m effectively1 & may be made light] ?an ! tubul> radiator c\ld be = eng9es ( ! same capacity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,h[ ,wat] ,cool+ ,sy/em ( ,?omas ,airplane ,eng9e is ,in/all$ 9 ,fuselage4 ,! wat] is drawn f ! l[] head] ( ! radiator by ! pump & is =c$ ?r\gh a manifold to ! l[] portion ( ! wat] jackets ( ! cyl9d]4 ,x becomes heat$ z x passes ar\nd ! cyl9d] walls & combu/ion *amb]s & ! hot wat] passes out ( ! top ( ! wat] jacket to ! upp] portion ( ! radiator4 ,"h x is divid$ 9 ?9 /reams & direct$ aga9/ comp>atively cool metal :i* ab/racts ! heat f ! wat]4 ,z x becomes cool] x falls to ! bottom ( ! radiator because its weight increases z ! temp]ature becomes l[]4 ,by ! "t x rea*es ! l[] tank ( ! radiator x has be5 cool$ suffici5tly s t x may be aga9 pass$ ar\nd ! cyl9d]s ( ! motor4 ,! popul> =m ( circulat+ pump is kn[n z ! c5trifugal type because a rot>y impell] ( paddle-:eel =m ?r[s wat] :i* x receives at a c5tral po9t t[>d ! outside & ?us causes x to ma9ta9 a def9ite rate ( circulation4 ,! pump is always a sep>ate appliance atta*$ to ! eng9e & driv5 by positive ge>+ or direct-%aft connection4 ,! c5trifugal pump is n z positive z ! ge> =m1 & "s manufactur]s pref] ! latt] because ( ! positive pump+ features4 ,!y are v simple 9 =m1 consi/+ ( a suitable ca/ body 9 :i* a pair ( spur p9ions hav+ l>ge tee? are c>ri$4 ,"o ( ^! ge>s is driv5 by suitable means1 & z x turns ! o!r memb] !y ma9ta9 a fl[ ( wat] ar\nd ! pump body4 ,! pump %\ld always be in/all$ 9 s]ies ) ! wat] pipe :i* conveys ! cool liquid f ! l[] comp>tm5t ( ! radiator to ! coole/ portion ( ! wat] jacket4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,f9n$ ,tube ,radiators at ! ,side ( ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,in/all$ 9 ,/&>d ,fuselage4 ,,wat] ,,circulation ,,by ,,natural ,,sy/em ,"s automobile eng9e]s cont5d t ! rapid wat] circulation obta9$ by us+ a pump may cool ! cyl9d]s too mu*1 & t ! temp]ature ( ! eng9e may be r$uc$ s mu* t ! effici5cy w be less5$4 ,= ?is reason !re is a gr[+ t5d5cy to use ! natural me?od ( wat] circulation z ! cool+ liquid is suppli$ to ! cyl9d] jackets j bel[ ! boil+ po9t & ! wat] issues f ! jacket at ! top ( ! cyl9d] aft] x has absorb$ suffici5t heat to raise x j ab\t to ! boil+ po9t4 ,z ! wat] becomes heat$ by contact ) ! hot cyl9d] & combu/ion-*amb] walls x rises to ! top ( ! wat] jacket1 fl[s to ! cool]1 :]e en\gh ( ! heat is absorb$ to cause x to become s5sibly great] 9 weight4 ,z ! wat] becomes cool]1 x falls to ! bottom ( ! radiator & x is aga9 suppli$ to ! wat] jacket4 ,! circulation is entirely automatic & cont9ues z long z !re is a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! liquid 9 ! wat] spaces ( ! eng9e & t 9 ! cool]4 ,! circulation becomes brisk] z ! eng9e becomes hott] & ?us ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]s is kept m ne>ly to a fix$ po9t4 ,) ! !rmosyphon sy/em ! cool+ liquid is ne>ly always at its boil+ po9t1 :]eas if ! circulation is ma9ta9$ by a pump ! eng9e w become cool] at high spe$ & w heat up m at l[ spe$4 ,) ! !rmosyphon1 or natural sy/em ( cool+1 m wat] mu/ be c>ri$ ?an ) ! pump-ma9ta9$ circulation me?ods4 ,! wat] spaces ar\nd ! cyl9d]s %\ld be l>g]1 ! inlet & dis*>ge wat] manifolds %\ld h great] capacity1 & be free f %>p corn]s :i* might imp$e ! fl[4 ,! radiator mu/ also c>ry m wat] ?an ! =m us$ 9 connection ) ! pump because ( ! brisk] pump circulation :i* ma9ta9s ! eng9e temp]ature at a l[] po9t4 ,consid]ation ( ! above w %[ :y ! pump sy/em is almo/ univ]sally us$ 9 connection ) airplane p[] plant cool+4 ,,direct ,,air-,,cool+ ,,me?ods ,! e>lie/ kn[n me?od ( cool+ ! cyl9d] ( gas-eng9es 0 by means ( a curr5t ( air pass$ ?r\gh a jacket :i* conf9$ x close to ! cyl9d] walls & 0 us$ by ,daiml] on 8 fir/ gas-eng9e4 ,! gasol9e eng9e ( t "t 0 n z effici5t z ! lat] =m1 & o!r conditions :i* mat]ializ$ made x desirable to cool ! eng9e by wat]4 ,ev5 z gasol9e eng9es became m & m p]fect$ !re has always exi/$ a prejudice aga9/ air cool+1 ?\gh _m =ms ( eng9es h be5 us$1 bo? 9 automobile & aircraft applications :]e ! air-cool+ me?od has prov5 to be v practical4 ,! simple/ sy/em ( air cool+ is t 9 :i* ! cyl9d]s are provid$ ) a s]ies ( flanges :i* increase ! effective radiat+ surface ( ! cyl9d] & direct+ an air-curr5t f a fan aga9/ ! flanges to absorb ! heat4 ,?is increase 9 ! available radiat+ surface ( an air-cool$ cyl9d] is necess>y because air does n absorb heat z readily z wat] & !re=e m surface mu/ be provid$ t ! excess heat be absorb$ suffici5tly fa/ to prev5t di/ortion ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,air-cool+ sy/ems are bas$ on a law =mulat$ by ,newton1 :i* is3 ,! rate = cool+ = a body 9 a uni=m curr5t ( air is directly proportional to ! spe$ ( ! air curr5t & ! am\nt ( radiat+ surface expos$ to ! cool+ effect4 ,,air-,,cool$ ,,eng9e ,,design ,,consid]ations ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,anzani ,te/+ ,8 ,five-,cyl9d] ,air ,cool$ ,aviation ,motor ,in/all$ 9 ,bl]iot ,monoplane4 ,note ,exposure ( ,flang$ ,cyl9d]s to ,propell] ,slip ,/ream4 ,!re are c]ta9 consid]ations :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 design+ an air-cool$ eng9e1 :i* are (t5 ov]look$ 9 ^? =ms cool$ by wat]4 ,l>ge valves mu/ be provid$ to insure rapid expulsion ( ! flam+ exhau/ gas & also to admit promptly ! fre% cool mixture f ! c>buretor4 ,! valves ( air-cool$ eng9es are usually plac$ 9 ! cyl9d]-head1 9 ord] to elim9ate any pockets or %>p passages :i* w\ld imp$e ! fl[ ( gas or reta9 "s ( ! products ( combu/ion & _! heat4 ,:5 high p[] is desir$ multiple-cyl9d] eng9es %\ld be us$1 z !re is a c]ta9 limit to ! size ( a successful air-cool$ cyl9d]4 ,mu* bett] results are secur$ f ^? hav+ small cubical cont5ts because ! heat f small quantities ( gas w be m quickly c>ri$ (f ?an f great] am\nts4 ,all successful eng9es ( ! aviation type :i* h be5 air-cool$ h be5 ( ! multiple-cyl9d] type4 ,an air-cool$ eng9e mu/ be plac$ 9 ! fuselage1 z at ,fig4 #he1 9 su* a way t !re w be a positive circulation ( air ar\nd x all ! "t t x is 9 op]ation4 ,! air curr5t may be produc$ by ! tractor screw at ! front end ( ! motor1 or by a suction or bl[] fan atta*$ to ! crank-%aft z 9 ! ,r5ault eng9e or by rotat+ ! cyl9d]s z 9 ! ,le ,rhone & ,gnome motors4 ,great] c>e is requir$ 9 lubrication ( ! air-cool$ cyl9d]s & only ! be/ quality ( oil %\ld be us$ to insure satisfactory oil+4 ,! combu/ion *amb]s mu/ be proportion$ s t di/ribution ( metal is z uni=m z possible 9 ord] to prev5t unev5 expansion dur+ increase 9 temp]ature & unev5 contraction :5 ! cyl9d] is cool$4 ,x is ess5tial t ! inside walls ( ! combu/ion *amb] be z smoo? z possible because any %>p angle or projection may absorb suffici5t heat to rema9 inc&esc5t & cause tr\ble by ignit+ ! mixture be=e ! prop] "t4 ,! be/ grades ( ca/ iron or /eel %\ld be us$ 9 ! cyl9d] & pi/on & ! ma*9e "w mu/ be done v accurately s ! pi/on w op]ate ) m9imum friction 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! cyl9d] bore %\ld n exce$ #d-a_/b or #e in*es & ! compression pressure %\ld nev] exce$ #ge p\nds absolute1 or ab\t five atmosph]es1 or s]i\s ov]heat+ w result4 ,z an example ( ! c>e tak5 9 dispos+ ( ! exhau/ gases 9 ord] to obta9 practical air-cool+1 "s cyl9d]s are provid$ ) a s]ies ( auxili>y exhau/ ports uncov]$ by ! pi/on :5 x rea*es ! end ( its p[] /roke4 ,! auxili>y exhau/ ports op5 j z soon z ! full =ce ( ! explosion has be5 sp5t & a portion ( ! flam+ gases is dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! ports 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,less ( ! exhau/ gases rema9s to be dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! regul> exhau/ memb] 9 ! cyl9d]-head & ?is w n heat ! walls ( ! cyl9d] ne>ly z mu* z ! l>g] quantity ( hot gas w\ld4 ,t ! auxili>y exhau/ port is ( consid]able value is conc$$ by _m design]s ( fix$ & fan-%ap$ air-cool$ motors = airplanes4 ,among ! advantages /at$ = direct air cool+1 ! greate/ is ! elim9ation ( cool+ wat] & its cool+ auxili>ies1 :i* is a factor ( "s mom5t1 z x p]mits consid]able r$uction 9 horse-p[]-weight ratio ( ! eng9e1 some?+ v mu* to be desir$4 ,9 ! temp]ate zone1 :]e ! majority ( airplanes are us$1 ! wea!r conditions *ange 9 a v few mon?s f ! w>m summ] to ! extreme cold w9t]1 & :5 wat]-cool$ sy/ems are employ$ x is necess>y to add "s *emical sub/ance to ! wat] to prev5t x f freez+4 ,! sub/ances commonly employ$ are glyc]9e1 wood alcohol1 or a saturat$ solution ( calcium *loride4 ,alcohol has ! disadvantage 9 t x vaporizes readily & mu/ be (t5 r5ew$4 ,glyc]9e affects ! rubb] hose1 :ile ! calcium *loride solution cry/allizes & deposits salt 9 ! radiator & wat] pipes4 ,"o ( ! disadvantages ( an air-cool+ me?od1 z /at$ by ^? :o d n favor ?is sy/em1 is t eng9es cool$ by air _c be op]at$ = ext5d$ p]iods "u con/ant load or at v high spe$ )\t heat+ up to su* a po9t t premature ignition ( ! *>ge may result4 ,! wat]-cool+ sy/ems1 at ! o!r h&1 ma9ta9 ! temp]ature ( ! eng9e m ne>ly con/ant ?an is possible ) an air-cool$ motor1 & an eng9e cool$ by wat] c be op]at$ "u conditions ( inf]ior lubrication or poor mixture adju/m5t t w\ld s]i\sly int]f]e ) prop] & effici5t cool+ by air4 ,air-cool$ motors1 z a rule1 use less fuel ?an wat]-cool$ eng9es1 because ! high] temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] does n p]mit ( a full *>ge ( gas be+ inspir$ on ! intake /roke4 ,z special c>e is ne$$ 9 op]at+ an air-cool$ eng9e to obta9 satisfactory results & because ( ! great] difficulty :i* obta9s 9 provid+ prop] lubrication & fuel mixtures :i* w n produce undue heat+1 ! air-cool$ sy/em has b few adh]5ts at ! pres5t "t1 & practically all airplanes1 ) b v few exceptions1 are provid$ ) wat]-cool$ p[] plants4 ,^? fitt$ ) air-cool$ eng9es are usually %ort-flight types :]e maximum lightness is desir$ 9 ord] to obta9 high spe$ & quick climb4 ,! wat]-cool$ eng9es are be/ suit$ = airplanes int5d$ = long flights4 ,! ,gnome1 ,le ,rhone & ,cl]get eng9es are ?or\ghly practical & h be5 widely us$ 9 ,france & ,engl&4 ,^! are rot>y radial cyl9d] types4 ,! ,anzani is a fix$ cyl9d] eng9e us$ on tra9+ ma*9es1 :ile ! ,r5ault is a ,v-type eng9e made 9 eight- & twelve-cyl9d] ,v =ms t has be5 us$ on reconnaissance & bomb+ airplanes ) success4 ,^! types w be fully consid]$ 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,me?ods ( ,cyl9d] ,con/ruction--,block ,ca/+s--,influ5ce on ,crank-,%aft ,design--,combu/ion ,*amb] ,design--,bore & ,/roke ,ratio--,mean+ ( ,pi/on ,spe$--,advantage ( ,(f-,set ,cyl9d]s-- ,valve ,location ( ,vital ,import--,valve ,in/allation ,practice-- ,valve ,design & ,con/ruction--,valve ,op]ation--,me?ods ( ,driv+ ,cam-,%aft--,valve ,spr+s--,valve ,tim+--,bl[+ ,back-- ,lead ,giv5 ,exhau/ ,valve--,exhau/ ,clos+1 ,inlet ,op5+-- ,clos+ ! ,inlet ,valve--,"t ( ,ignition--,h[ an ,eng9e ,is ,tim$--,gnome ,monos\pape ,valve ,tim+--,spr+less ,valves--,f\r ,valves p] ,cyl9d]4 ,! improvem5ts not$ 9 ! mod]n int]nal combu/ion motors h be5 due to _m conditions4 ,! cont9ual exp]im5t+ by lead+ me*anical m9ds c\ld h b "o ultimate result4 ,! p>ts ( ! eng9es h be5 light5$ & /r5g!n$1 & great] p[] has be5 obta9$ )\t increas+ pi/on displacem5t4 ,a c>eful /udy has be5 made ( ! _m conditions :i* make = effici5t motor action1 & t ! ma9 pr9ciples are well recogniz$ by all eng9e]s is well %[n by ! /&>dization ( design not$ 9 mod]n p[] plants4 ,!re are _m diff]5t me?ods ( apply+ ! same pr9ciple1 & x w be ! purpose ( ?is *apt] to def9e ! ways 9 :i* ! con/ruction may be *ang$ & /ill a*ieve ! same results4 ,! v>i\s compon5ts may exi/ 9 _m diff]5t =ms1 & all h _! advantages & disadvantages4 ,t all me?ods are practical is be/ %[n by ! l>ge numb] ( successful eng9es :i* use radically diff]5t designs4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,cyl9d] ,,con/ruction ,"o ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! gasol9e eng9e & "o t has mat]ial be>+ ^u its effici5cy is ! cyl9d] unit4 ,! cyl9d]s may be ca/ individually1 or 9 pairs1 & x is possible to make all cyl9d]s a unit or block ca/+4 ,"s typical me?ods ( cyl9d] con/ruction are %[n 9 accompany+ illu/rations4 ,! appe>ance ( individual cyl9d] ca/+s may be asc]ta9$ by exam9ation ( ! ,hall-,scott airplane eng9e4 ,air-cool$ eng9e cyl9d]s are always ( ! individual patt]n4 ,consid]$ f a purely !oretical po9t ( view1 ! individual cyl9d] ca/+ has mu* 9 its favor4 ,x is advanc$ t m uni=m cool+ is possible ?an :]e ! cyl9d]s are ca/ ei!r 9 pairs or ?ree or f\r 9 "o ca/+4 ,m uni=m cool+ insures t ! expansion or *ange ( =m due to heat+ w be m equal4 ,?is is an important condition because ! cyl9d] bore mu/ rema9 true "u all conditions ( op]ation4 ,if ! heat+ effect is n uni=m1 :i* condition is liable to obta9 if metal is n ev5ly di/ribut$1 ! cyl9d] may become di/ort$ by heat & ! bore be out ( tru?4 ,:5 sep>ate cyl9d]s are us$ x is possible to make a uni=m wat] space & h ! cool+ liquid ev5ly di/ribut$ ar\nd ! cyl9d]4 ,9 multiple cyl9d] ca/+s ?is is n always ! rule1 z 9 _m in/ances1 especially 9 f\r-cyl9d] block motors :]e compactness is ! ma9 feature1 !re is b little space betwe5 ! cyl9d]s = ! passage ( wat]4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! cool+ effect is n ev51 & ! /resses :i* obta9 because ( unequal expansion may di/ort ! cyl9d] to "s ext5t4 ,:5 /eel cyl9d]s are made f =g+s1 ! wat] jackets are usually ( copp] or %eet /eel atta*$ to ! =g+ by autog5\s weld+2 9 ! case ( ! latt] &1 9 "s cases1 ! =m] may be electro-deposit$ on ! cyl9d]s4 ,,block ,,ca/+s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,views ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,dues5b]g ,airplane ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,block4 ,! advantage ( ca/+ ! cyl9d]s 9 blocks is t a motor may be mu* %ort] ?an x w\ld be if individual ca/+s 7 us$4 ,x is admitt$ t :5 ! cyl9d]s are ca/ toge!r a m compact1 rigid1 & /rong] p[] plant is obta9$ ?an :5 ca/ sep>ately4 ,!re is a disadvantage1 h[ev]1 9 t if "o cyl9d] becomes damag$ x w be necess>y to replace ! entire unit1 :i* means scrapp+ ?ree good cyl9d]s because "o ( ! f\r has fail$4 ,:5 ! cyl9d]s are ca/ sep>ately "o ne$ only replace ! "o t has become damag$4 ,! ca/+ ( f\r cyl9d]s 9 "o unit is made possible by improv$ f\ndry me?ods1 & :5 prop] provision is made = hold+ ! cores :5 ! metal is p\r$ & ! cyl9d] ca/s are good1 ! con/ruction is "o ( di/9ct m]it4 ,x is sometimes ! case t ! proportion ( s\nd ca/+s is less :5 cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 block1 b if ! prop] precautions are obs]v$ 9 mold+ & ! prop] mixtures ( ca/ iron us$1 ! ratio ( defective ca/+s is no m ?an :5 cyl9d]s are mold$ individually4 ,z an example ( ! c\rage ( eng9e]s 9 dep>t+ f old-e/abli%$ rules1 ! cyl9d] ca/+ %[n at ,fig4 #hf may be consid]$ typical4 ,?is is us$ on ! ,dues5b]g f\r-cyl9d] sixte5-valve #d-c_/d x #g eng9e :i* has a pi/on displacem5t ( #dif cu4 94 ,at a spe$ ( #b1jjj r4p4m41 correspond+ to a pi/on spe$ ( #b1cbe ft4 p] m941 ! eng9e is gu>ante$ to develop #abe horse-p[]4 ,! weight ( ! model eng9e )\t ge> r$uction is #dcf lbs41 b a numb] ( ref9em5ts h be5 made 9 ! design :]eby x is expect$ to get ! weight d[n to #cij lbs4 ,! f\r cyl9d]s are ca/ f semi-/eel 9 a s+le block1 ) integral heads4 ,! cyl9d] con/ruction is ! same z t :i* has always be5 us$ by ,mr4 ,dues5b]g1 inlet & exhau/ valves be+ arrang$ horizontally opposite ea* o!r 9 ! head4 ,!re are l>ge op5+s 9 ! wat] jacket at bo? sides & at ! ends1 :i* are clos$ by means ( alum9um cov]s1 wat]-tightness be+ secur$ by ! use ( gaskets4 ,?is results 9 a sav+ 9 weight because ! alum9um cov]s c be made consid]ably light] ?an x w\ld be possible to ca/ ! jacket walls1 &1 besides1 x p]mits ( obta9+ a m ne>ly uni=m ?ickness ( cyl9d] wall1 z ! cores c be mu* bett] support$4 ,! cool+ wat] passes completely ar\nd ea* cyl9d]1 & !re is a v consid]able space betwe5 ! two c5tral cyl9d]s1 ?is be+ made necess>y 9 ord] to get ! l>ge be>+ area desirable = ! c5tral be>+4 ,x is common practice to ca/ ! wat] jackets integral ) ! cyl9d]s1 if ca/ iron or alum9um is us$1 & ?is is also ! mo/ economical me?od ( apply+ x because x gives good results 9 practice4 ,an important detail is t ! wat] spaces mu/ be proportion$ s t !y are equal ar\nd ! cyl9d]s :e!r ^! memb]s are ca/ individually1 9 pairs1 ?rees or f\rs4 ,:5 cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 block =m x is good practice to leave a l>ge op5+ 9 ! jacket wall :i* w assi/ 9 support+ ! core & make = uni=m wat] space4 ,x w be notic$ t ! ca/+ %[n at ,fig4 #hf has a l>ge op5+ 9 ! side ( ! cyl9d] block4 ,^! op5+s are clos$ aft] ! int]ior ( ! ca/+ is ?or\ghly clean$ ( all s&1 core wire1 etc41 by brass1 ca/ iron or alum9um plates4 ,^! also h p>ticul> value 9 t !y may be remov$ aft] ! motor has be5 9 use1 ?us p]mitt+ "o to clean out ! int]ior ( ! wat] jacket & dispose ( ! ru/1 s$im5t1 & incru/ation :i* are always pres5t aft] ! eng9e has be5 9 active s]vice = a "t4 ,among ! advantages claim$ = ! practice ( ca/+ cyl9d]s 9 blocks may be m5tion$ compactness1 lightness1 rigidity1 simplicity ( wat] pip+1 z well z p]mitt+ ! use ( simple =ms ( inlet & exhau/ manifolds4 ,! light weight is n only due to ! r$uction ( ! cyl9d] mass b because ! block con/ruction p]mits "o to light5 ! entire motor4 ,! fact t all cyl9d]s are ca/ toge!r decreases vibration1 & z ! con/ruction is v rigid1 disalignm5t ( work+ p>ts is practically elim9at$4 ,:5 inlet & exhau/ manifolds are cor$ 9 ! block ca/+1 z is sometimes ! case1 b "o jo9t is ne$$ on ea* ( ^! in/ead ( ! multiplicity ( jo9ts :i* obta9 :5 ! cyl9d]s are individual ca/+s4 ,! wat] pip+ is also simplifi$4 ,9 ! case ( a f\r-cyl9d] block motor b two pipes are us$2 "o = ! wat] to ent] ! cyl9d] jacket1 ! o!r = ! cool+ liquid to dis*>ge ?r\gh4 ,,influ5ce ,,on ,,crank-,,%aft ,,design ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,tw9-,cyl9d] ,block ( ,/urtevant ,airplane ,eng9e is ,ca/ ( ,alum9um1 & ,has ,removable ,cyl9d] ,head4 ,! me?od ( ca/+ ! cyl9d]s has a mat]ial influ5ce on ! design ( ! crank-%aft z w be %[n 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,:5 f\r cyl9d]s are comb9$ 9 "o block x is possible to use a two-be>+ crank-%aft4 ,:]e cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 pairs a ?ree-be>+ crank-%aft is commonly suppli$1 & :5 cyl9d]s are ca/ z individual units x is ?\ght necess>y to supply a five-be>+ crank-%aft1 ?\gh sometimes %afts hav+ b ?ree j\rnals are us$ successfully4 ,obvi\sly ! %afts mu/ be /rong] & /iff] to )/& ! /resses impos$ if two support+ be>+s are us$ ?an if a l>g] numb] are employ$4 ,9 ?is connection x may be /at$ t !re is less difficulty 9 secur+ alignm5t ) a less] numb] ( be>+s & !re is also less friction4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great] ! numb] ( po9ts ( support a crank-%aft has ! light] ! webs c be made & /ill h requisite /r5g?4 ,,combu/ion ,,*amb] ,,design ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,alum9um ,cyl9d] ,pair ,ca/+ ( ,?omas #aej ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e is ( ! ,l ,head ,type4 ,ano!r po9t ( importance 9 ! design ( ! cyl9d]1 & "o :i* has consid]able influ5ce ^u ! p[] develop$1 is ! %ape ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! endeavor ( design]s is to obta9 maximum p[] f a cyl9d] ( c]ta9 proportions1 & ! great] en]gy obta9$ )\t increas+ pi/on displacem5t or fuel consumption ! high] ! effici5cy ( ! motor4 ,to prev5t tr\bles due to pre-ignition x is necess>y t ! combu/ion *amb] be made s t !re w be no r\ghness1 %>p corn]s1 or edges ( metal :i* may rema9 inc&esc5t :5 heat$ or :i* w s]ve to collect c>bon deposits by provid+ a po9t ( an*orage4 ,) ! object ( provid+ an absolutely clean combu/ion *amb] "s mak]s use a sep>able head unit to _! tw9 cyl9d] ca/+s1 su* z %[n at ,fig4 #hg & ,fig4 #hh4 ,^! p]mit "o to ma*9e ! entire int]ior ( ! cyl9d] & combu/ion *amb]4 ,! relation ( valve location & combu/ion *amb] design w be consid]$ 9 prop] sequ5ce4 ,^! cyl9d]s are ca/ ( alum9um1 in/ead ( ca/ iron1 z is cu/om>y1 & are provid$ ) /eel or ca/ iron cyl9d] l9]s =c$ 9 ! s(t metal ca/+ bores4 ,,bore ,,& ,,/roke ,,ratio ,a "q t has be5 a vex$ "o & :i* has be5 ! subject ( consid]able controv]sy is ! prop] proportion ( ! bore to ! /roke4 ,! e>ly gas eng9es _h a c]ta9 well-def9$ bore to /roke ratio1 z x 0 usual at t "t to make ! /roke twice z long z ! bore 0 wide1 b ?is _c be done :5 high spe$ is desir$4 ,) ! developm5t ( ! pres5t-day motor ! /roke or pi/on travel has be5 gradually %ort5$ s t ! relative proportions ( bore & /roke h become ne>ly equal4 ,( late !re seems to be a t5d5cy among design]s to return to ! proportions :i* =m]ly obta9$1 & ! /roke is sometimes "o & a half or "o & ?ree-qu>t] times ! bore4 ,eng9es design$ = high spe$ %\ld h ! /roke n mu* long] ?an ! diamet] ( ! bore4 ,! disadvantage ( %ort-/roke eng9es is t !y w n pull well at l[ spe$s1 ?\gh !y run ) great regul>ity & smoo?ness at high velocity4 ,! long-/roke eng9e is mu* sup]ior = sl[ spe$ "w1 & x w pull /eadily & ) increas+ p[] at l[ spe$4 ,x 0 =m]ly ?\ght t su* eng9es %\ld nev] turn m ?an a mod]ate numb] ( revolutions1 9 ord] n to exce$ ! safe pi/on spe$ ( #a1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,?is old !ory or rule ( practice has be5 disc>d$ 9 design+ high effici5cy automobile rac+ & aviation eng9es1 & pi/on spe$s f #b1ejj to #c1jjj feet p] m9ute are sometimes us$1 ?\gh ! av]age is ar\nd #b1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,:ile bo? %ort- & long-/roke motors h _! advantages1 x w\ld seem desirable to av]age betwe5 ! two4 ,t is :y a proportion ( f\r to five or six seems to be m g5]al ?an t ( f\r to sev5 or eight1 :i* w\ld be a long-/roke ratio4 ,c>eful analysis ( a numb] ( =eign aviation motors %[s t ! av]age /roke is ab\t #a4b times ! bore dim5sions1 ?\gh "s in/ances 7 not$ :]e x 0 z high z #a4g times ! bore4 ,,mean+ ,,( ,,pi/on ,,spe$ ,! factor :i* limits ! /roke & makes ! spe$ ( rotation s dep5d5t ^u ! travel ( ! pi/on is pi/on spe$4 ,lubrication is ! ma9 factor :i* det]m9es pi/on spe$1 & ! high] ! rate ( pi/on travel ! great] c>e mu/ be tak5 to insure prop] oil+4 ,let u fully consid] :at is meant by pi/on spe$4 ,assume t a motor has a pi/on travel or /roke ( six in*es1 = ! sake ( illu/ration4 ,x w\ld take two /rokes ( ! pi/on to cov] "o foot1 or twelve in*es1 & z !re are two /rokes to a revolution x w be se5 t ?is p]mits ( a normal spe$ ( #a1jjj revolutions p] m9ute = an eng9e ) a six-in* /roke1 if "o does n exce$ #a1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,if ! /roke 0 only f\r in*es1 a normal spe$ ( #a1ejj revolutions p] m9ute w\ld be possible )\t exce$+ ! prescrib$ limit4 ,! crank-%aft ( a small eng9e1 hav+ ?ree-in* /roke1 c\ld turn at a spe$ ( #b1jjj revolutions p] m9ute )\t dang] ( exce$+ ! safe spe$ limit4 ,x w be se5 t ! long] ! /roke ! sl[] ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 if "o desires to keep ! pi/on spe$ )9 ! b\nds z recomm5d$1 b mod]n practice all[s ( greatly exce$+ ! spe$s =m]ly ?\ght be/4 ,,advantages ,,( ,,(f-,,set ,,cyl9d]s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,cross ,section ( ,au/ro-,daiml] ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,(fset ,cyl9d] ,con/ruction4 ,note ,appli$ ,wat] ,jacket & ,peculi> ,valve ,action4 ,ano!r po9t ^u :i* consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s relates to ! me?od ( plac+ ! cyl9d] ^u ! crank-case--i4e41 :e!r its c5t] l9e %\ld be plac$ directly ov] ! c5t] ( ! crank-%aft1 or to "o side ( c5t]4 ,! motor %[n at ,fig4 #ij is an (f-set type1 9 t ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] is a little to "o side ( ! c5t] ( ! crank-%aft4 ,diagrams are pres5t$ at ,fig4 #ia :i* %[ ! advantages ( (f-set crank-%aft con/ruction4 ,! view at ,a is a section ?r\gh a simple motor ) ! conv5tional cyl9d] plac+1 ! c5t] l9e ( bo? crank-%aft & cyl9d] co9cid+4 ,! view at ,b %[s ! cyl9d] plac$ to "o side ( c5t] s t its c5t] l9e is di/9ct f t ( ! crank-%aft & at "s di/ance f x4 ,! am\nt ( (f-set all[$ is a po9t ( cont5tion1 ! usual am\nt be+ f fifte5 to tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ( ! /roke4 ,! advantages ( ! (f-set are %[n at ,fig4 #ia1 ,c4 ,if ! crank turns 9 direction ( ! arr[ !re is a c]ta9 resi/ance to motion :i* is proportional to ! am\nt ( en]gy ex]t$ by ! eng9e & ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! load4 ,!re are two ?ru/s act+ aga9/ ! cyl9d] wall to be consid]$1 t due to explosion or expansion ( ! gas1 & t :i* resi/s ! motion ( ! pi/on4 ,^! ?ru/s may be repres5t$ by arr[s1 "o :i* acts directly 9 a v]tical direction on ! pi/on top1 ! o!r along a /raight l9e ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! connect+ rod4 ,betwe5 ^! two ?ru/s "o c draw a l9e repres5t+ a resultant =ce :i* s]ves to br+ ! pi/on 9 =cible contact ) "o side ( ! cyl9d] wall1 ?is be+ kn[n z side ?ru/4 ,z %[n at ,c1 ! crank-%aft is at #ij degrees1 or ab\t "o-half /roke1 & ! connect+ rod is at #bj degrees angle4 ,! %ort] connect+ rod w\ld increase ! diagonal resultant & side ?ru/s1 :ile a long] "o w\ld r$uce ! angle ( ! connect+ rod & ! side ?ru/ ( ! pi/on w\ld be less4 ,) ! (f-set con/ruction1 z %[n at ,d1 x w be notic$ t ) ! same connect+-rod l5g? z %[n at ,c & ) ! crank-%aft at #ij degrees ( ! circle t ! connect+-rod angle is #ad degrees & ! side ?ru/ is r$uc$ proportionately4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,diagrams ,demon/rat+ ,advantages ( ,(fset ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction4 ,ano!r important advantage is t great] effici5cy is obta9$ f ! explosion ) an (f-set crank-%aft1 because ! crank is already incl9$ :5 ! pi/on is at top c5t]1 & all ! en]gy imp>t$ to ! pi/on by ! burn+ mixture c be ex]t$ directly into produc+ a useful turn+ ef=t4 ,:5 a cyl9d] is plac$ directly on a l9e ) ! crank-%aft1 z %[n at ,a1 x w be evid5t t "s ( ! =ce produc$ by ! expansion ( ! gas w be ex]t$ 9 a direct l9e & until ! crank moves ! crank ?r[ & connect+ rod are practically a solid memb]4 ,! pressure :i* might be employ$ 9 obta9+ useful turn+ ef=t is wa/$ by caus+ a direct pressure ^u ! l[] half ( ! ma9 be>+ & ! upp] half ( ! crank-p9 bu%+4 ,v good & easily und]/ood illu/rations %[+ advantages ( ! (f-set con/ruction are %[n at ,e & ,f4 ,?is is a bicycle crank-hang]4 ,x is advanc$ t ! ef=t ( ! rid] is n z well appli$ :5 ! crank is at position ,e z :5 x is at position ,f4 ,position ,e corresponds to ! position ( ! p>ts :5 ! cyl9d] is plac$ directly ov] ! crank-%aft c5t]4 ,position ,f may be comp>$ to ! condition :i* is pres5t :5 ! (f-set cyl9d] con/ruction is us$4 ,,valve ,,location ,,( ,,vital ,,import ,x has (t5 be5 said t a *a9 is no /rong] ?an its weake/ l9k1 & ?is is z true ( ! explosive motor z x is ( any o!r piece ( me*anism4 ,_m motors :i* appe>$ to be excell5tly design$ & :i* 7 well con/ruct$ did n prove satisfactory because "s m9or detail or "p _h n be5 prop]ly consid]$ by ! design]4 ,a factor hav+ mat]ial be>+ ^u ! effici5cy ( ! int]nal combu/ion motor is ! location ( ! valves & ! %ape ( ! combu/ion *amb] :i* is l>gely influ5c$ by _! plac+4 ,! fundam5tal consid]ation ( valve design is t ! gases be admitt$ & dis*>g$ f ! cyl9d] z quickly z possible 9 ord] t ! spe$ ( gas fl[ w n be imp$$ & produce back pressure4 ,?is is imp]ative 9 obta9+ satisfactory op]ation 9 any =m ( motor4 ,if ! inlet passages are con/rict$ ! cyl9d] w n fill ) explosive mixture promptly1 :]eas if ! exhau/ gases are n fully expell$ ! p>ts ( ! in]t products ( combu/ion reta9$ dilute ! fre% *>ge1 mak+ x sl[ burn+ & caus+ lo/ p[] & ov]heat+4 ,:5 an eng9e employs wat] z a cool+ m$ium ?is sub/ance w absorb ! surplus heat readily1 & ! effects ( ov]heat+ are n notic$ z quickly z :5 air-cool$ cyl9d]s are employ$4 ,valve sizes h a decid$ be>+ ^u ! spe$ ( motors & "s valve locations p]mit ! use ( l>g] memb]s ?an d o!r positions4 ,:ile pi/on velocity is an important factor 9 det]m9ations ( p[] output1 x mu/ be consid]$ f ! aspect ( ! we> produc$ ^u ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! motor4 ,x is evid5t t eng9es :i* run v fa/1 especially ( high p[]1 mu/ be "u a great] /ra9 ?an ^? op]at+ at l[] spe$s4 ,! valve-op]at+ me*anism is especially susceptible to ! influ5ce ( rapid movem5t1 & ! sl[] ! eng9e ! long] ! p>ts w we> & ! m reliable ! valve action4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,diagram ,%[+ ,=ms ( ,cyl9d] ,dem&$ by ,diff]5t ,valve ,plac+s4 ,a--,t ,head ,type1 ,valves on ,opposite ,sides4 ,b--,l ,head ,cyl9d]1 ,valves ,side by ,side4 ,c--,l ,head ,cyl9d]1 ,"o ,valve 9 ,head1 ,o!r 9 ,pocket4 ,d--,inlet ,valve ,ov] ,exhau/ ,memb]1 ,bo? 9 ,side ,pocket4 ,e--,valve-9-!-,head ,type ) ,v]tical ,valves4 ,f--,incl9$ ,valves ,plac$ to ,op5 ,directly into ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ! accompany+ illu/ration1 ,fig4 #ib1 !re are _m ways 9 :i* valves may be plac$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,ea* me?od outl9$ possesses "s po9t ( advantage1 because all ( ! types illu/rat$ are us$ by reputable automobile manufactur]s4 ,! me?od outl9$ at ,fig4 #ib1 ,a1 is widely us$1 & because ( its %ape ! cyl9d] is kn[n z ! ,t =m4 ,x is approv$ = automobile use = sev]al reasons1 ! mo/ important be+ t l>ge valves c be employ$ & a well-balanc$ & symmetrical cyl9d] ca/+ obta9$4 ,two indep5d5t cam-%afts are ne$$1 "o op]at+ ! inlet valves1 ! o!r ! exhau/ memb]s4 ,! valve-op]at+ me*anism c be v simple 9 =m1 consi/+ ( a plung] actuat$ by ! cam :i* transmits ! cam motion to ! valve-/em1 rais+ ! valve z ! cam foll[] rides on ! po9t ( ! cam4 ,pip+ may be plac$ )\t cr[d+1 & l>g] manifolds c be fitt$ ?an 9 "s o!r con/ructions4 ,?is has special value1 z x p]mits ! use ( an adequate dis*>ge pipe on ! exhau/ side ) its obvi\s advantages4 ,?is me?od ( cyl9d] con/ruction is nev] f\nd on airplane eng9es because x does n p]mit ( maximum p[] output4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if consid]$ f a viewpo9t ( actual heat effici5cy1 x is !oretically ! wor/ =m ( combu/ion *amb]4 ,?is disadvantage is probably comp5sat$ = by uni=mity ( expansion ( ! cyl9d] because ( balanc$ design4 ,! ignition sp>k-plug may be locat$ directly ov] ! inlet valve 9 ! pa? ( ! incom+ fre% gases1 & bo? valves may be easily remov$ & inspect$ by unscrew+ ! valve caps )\t tak+ (f ! manifolds4 ,! valve in/allation %[n at ,c is some:at unusual1 ?\gh x provides = ! use ( valves ( l>ge diamet]4 ,easy *>g+ is insur$ because ( ! l>ge inlet valve directly 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,conditions may be rev]s$ if necess>y1 & ! gases dis*>g$ ?r\gh ?is l>ge valve4 ,bo? me?ods are us$1 ?\gh x w\ld seem t ! free exhau/ provid$ by all[+ ! gases to escape directly f ! combu/ion *amb] ?r\gh ! ov]head valve to ! exhau/ manifold w\ld make = m p[]4 ,! me?od outl9$ at ,fig4 #ib1 ,f & at ,fig4 #ij is "o t has be5 widely employ$ on l>ge automobile rac+ motors :]e extreme p[] is requir$1 z well z 9 eng9es con/ruct$ = aviation s]vice4 ,! incl9ation ( ! valves p]mits ! use ( l>ge valves1 & ^! op5 directly into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,!re are no pockets to reta9 heat or dead gas1 & free intake & outlet ( gas is obta9$4 ,?is =m is q satisfactory f a !oretical po9t ( view because ( ! almo/ ideal combu/ion *amb] =m4 ,"s difficulty is exp]i5c$1 h[ev]1 9 prop]ly wat]-jacket+ ! valve *amb] :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be necess>y if ! eng9e is to h high p[]4 ,! motor %[n at ,fig4 #ib1 ,b & ,fig4 #hh employs cyl9d]s ( ! ,l type4 ,bo? valves are plac$ 9 a common ext5sion f ! combu/ion *amb]1 & be+ locat$ side by side bo? are actuat$ f a common cam-%aft4 ,! inlet & exhau/ pipes may be plac$ on ! same side ( ! eng9e & a v compact assemblage is obta9$1 ?\gh ?is is optional if passages are cor$ 9 ! cyl9d] pairs to lead ! gases to opposite sides4 ,! valves may be easily remov$ if desir$1 & ! con/ruction is fairly good f ! viewpo9t ( bo? f\ndry man & ma*9i/4 ,! *ief disadvantage is ! limit$ area ( ! valves & ! loss ( heat effici5cy due to ! pocket4 ,?is =m ( combu/ion *amb]1 h[ev]1 is m effici5t ?an ! ,t head con/ruction1 ?\gh ) ! latt] ! use ( l>g] valves probably comp5sates = ! great] heat loss4 ,x has be5 /at$ z an advantage ( ?is con/ruction t bo? manifolds c be plac$ at ! same side ( ! eng9e & a compact assembly secur$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! disadvantage may be cit$ t 9 ord] to put bo? pipes on ! same side !y mu/ be ( small] size ?an c be us$ :5 ! valves are oppositely plac$4 ,! ,l =m cyl9d] is sometimes made m effici5t if b "o valve is plac$ 9 ! pocket :ile ! o!r is plac$ ov] x4 ,?is con/ruction is well %[n at ,fig4 #ib1 ,d & is f\nd on ,anzani motors4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,sectional ,view ( ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,%[+ ,valve & ,cage ,in/allation4 ,! me?od ( valve application %[n at ,fig4 #hg is an +5i\s me?od ( ov]com+ "s ( ! disadvantages inh]5t ) valve-9-!-head motors4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is possible to wat]-jacket ! valves ?or\ghly1 :i* is difficult to accompli% :5 !y are m\nt$ 9 cages4 ,! wat] circulates directly ar\nd ! walls ( ! valve *amb]s1 :i* is sup]ior to a con/ruction :]e sep>ate cages are us$1 z !re are two ?icknesses ( metal ) ! latt]1 t ( ! valve-cage prop] & ! wall ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! cool+ m$ium is 9 contact only ) ! out] wall1 & z !re is always a loss ( heat conductivity at a jo9t x is practically impossible to keep ! exhau/ valves & _! seats at a uni=m temp]ature4 ,! valves may be ( l>g] size )\t ! use ( pockets :5 seat+ directly 9 ! head4 ,9 fact1 !y c\ld be equal 9 diamet] to almo/ half ! bore ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* provides an ideal condition ( *>ge placem5t & exhau/4 ,:5 valve gr9d+ is necess>y ! entire head is easily remov$ by tak+ (f six nuts & loos5+ inlet manifold connections1 :i* op]ation w\ld be necess>y ev5 if cages 7 employ$1 z 9 ! eng9e %[n at ,fig4 #ic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,gas ,ent]s ,cyl9d] ,?r\gh ,ov]head ,valves & ,o!r ,types4 ,a--,tee ,head ,cyl9d]4 ,b--,l ,head ,cyl9d]4 ,c--,ov]head ,valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--;,conv5tional ,me?ods ( ,op]at+ ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,motor ,valves4 ,at ,fig4 #id1 ,a & ,b1 a section ?r\gh a typical ,l-%ap$ cyl9d] is depict$4 ,x w be evid5t t :]e a pocket con/ruction is employ$1 9 addition to its faculty = absorb+ heat1 ! passage ( gas w\ld be imp$$4 ,= example1 ! inlet gas ru%+ 9 ?r\gh ! op5 valve w\ld imp+e %>ply ^u ! valve-cap or combu/ion head directly ov] ! valve & !n mu/ turn at a %>p angle to ent] ! combu/ion *amb] & !n at ano!r %>p angle to fill ! cyl9d]s4 ,! same conditions apply to ! exhau/ gases1 ?\gh !y are rev]s$4 ,:5 ! valve-9-!-head type ( cyl9d] is employ$1 z at ,c1 ! only resi/ance (f]$ ! gas is 9 ! manifold4 ,z f> z ! passage ( ! gases 9 & out ( ! cyl9d] is conc]n$1 ideal conditions obta94 ,x is claim$ t valve-9-!-head motors are m flexible & responsive ?an o!r =ms1 b ! con/ruction has ! disadvantage 9 t ! valves mu/ be op5$ ?r\gh a r complicat$ sy/em ( pu% rods & rock] arms in/ead ( ! simpl] & direct plung] :i* c be us$ ) ei!r ! ,t or ,l head cyl9d]s4 ,?is is cle>ly outl9$ 9 ! illu/rations at ,fig4 #ie1 :]e ,a %[s ! valve 9 ! head-op]at+ me*anism necess>y if ! cam-%aft is c>ri$ at ! cyl9d] base1 :ile ,b %[s ! mo/ direct pu%-rod action obta9$ ) ,t or ,l head cyl9d] plac+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,examples ( ,direct ,valve ,actuation by ,ov]head ,cam-,%aft4 ,a--,m]c$es4 ,b--,hall-,scott4 ,c--,wiscons94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,,c5sor$ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,,c5sor$ ,! objection c be easily met by c>ry+ ! cam-%aft above ! cyl9d]s & driv+ x by means ( ge>+4 ,! types ( eng9e cyl9d]s us+ ?is con/ruction are %[n at ,fig4 #if1 & x w be evid5t t a positive & direct valve action is possible by foll[+ ! con/ruction orig9at$ by ! ,m]c$es 7,g]man7 aviation eng9e design]s & outl9$ at ,a4 ,! o!r =ms at ,b & ,c are v cle>ly adaptations ( ?is design4 ,! ,hall-,scott eng9e at ,fig4 #ig is depict$ 9 "p section & no tr\ble w be exp]i5c$ 9 und]/&+ ! bevel p9ion & ge> drive f ! crank-%aft to ! ov]head cam-%aft ?r\gh a v]tical c\nt]-%aft4 ,a v direct valve action is us$ 9 ! ,dues5b]g eng9es1 "o ( :i* is %[n 9 "p section at ,fig4 #ih4 ,! valves are p>allel ) ! pi/on top & are actuat$ by rock] arms1 "o end ( :i* be>s aga9/ ! valve /em1 & ! o!r rides ! cam-%aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,sectional ,views ,%[+ ,arrangem5t ( ,novel ,conc5tric ,valve ,arrangem5t ,devis$ by ,panh>d = ,a]ial ,eng9es4 ,! =m %[n at ,fig4 #ii %[s an +5i\s application ( ! valve-9-!-head idea :i* p]mits "o to obta9 l>ge valves4 ,x has be5 us$ on "s ( ! ,panh>d aviation eng9es & on ! ,am]ican ,a]om>9e p[] plants4 ,! inlet passage is controll$ by ! slid+ sleeve :i* is holl[ & slott$ s z to p]mit ! inlet gases to ent] ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! regul> type poppet valve :i* seats 9 ! exhau/ sleeve4 ,:5 ! exhau/ valve is op]at$ by ! tappet rod & rock] arm ! intake valve is also c>ri$ d[n ) x4 ,! intake gas passage is clos$1 h[ev]1 & ! burn$ gases are dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! l>ge annul> passage surr\nd+ ! sleeve4 ,:5 ! inlet valve leaves its seat 9 ! sleeve ! passage ( cool gas ar\nd ! sleeve keeps ! temp]ature ( bo? valves to a l[ po9t & ! dang] ( w>p+ is m9imiz$4 ,a dome-%ap$ combu/ion *amb] may be us$1 :i* is an ideal =m 9 cons]v+ heat effici5cy1 & z l>ge valves may be in/all$ ! fl[ ( bo? fre% & exhau/ gases may be obta9$ ) m9imum resi/ance4 ,! intake valve is op5$ by a small auxili>y rock] arm :i* is lift$ :5 ! cam foll[] rides into ! depression 9 ! cam by ! action ( ! /rong spr+ ar\nd ! pu% rod4 ,:5 ! cam foll[] rides on ! high po9t ! exhau/ sleeve is depress$ f its seat aga9/ ! cyl9d]4 ,by us+ a cam hav+ bo? positive & negative pr(iles1 a s+le rod suffices = bo? valves because ( its pu% & pull action4 ,,valve ,,design ,,& ,,con/ruction ,valve dim5sions are an important detail to be consid]$ & c be det]m9$ by sev]al conditions1 among :i* may be cit$ me?od ( in/allation1 op]at+ me*anism1 mat]ial employ$1 eng9e spe$ desir$1 mann] ( cyl9d] cool+ & degree ( lift desir$4 ,a review ( v>i\s me?ods ( valve location has %[n t :5 ! valves are plac$ directly 9 ! head we c obta9 ! ideal cyl9d] =m1 ?\gh l>g] valves may be us$ if h\s$ 9 a sep>ate pocket1 z af=d$ by ! ,t head con/ruction4 ,! me?od ( op]ation has mu* to d ) ! size ( ! valves4 ,= example1 if an automatic inlet valve is employ$ x is good practice to limit ! lift & obta9 ! requir$ area ( port op5+ by augm5t+ ! diamet]4 ,because ( ?is a valve ( ! automatic type is usually made tw5ty p] c5t4 l>g] ?an "o me*anically op]at$4 ,:5 bo? are actuat$ by cam me*anism1 z is n[ common practice1 !y are usually made ! same size & are int]*angeable1 :i* greatly simplifies manufacture4 ,! relation ( valve diamet] to cyl9d] bore is "o t has be5 discuss$ = "s "t by eng9e]s4 ,! writ]'s exp]i5ce w\ld indicate t !y %\ld be at lea/ half ! bore1 if possible4 ,:ile ! mu%room type or poppet valve has become /&>d & is ! mo/ widely us$ =m at ! pres5t "t1 !re is "s diff]5ce ( op9ion among design]s z to ! mat]ials employ$ & ! angle ( ! seat4 ,mo/ valves h a bevel seat1 ?\gh "s h a flat seat+4 ,! flat seat valve has ! di/9ctive advantage ( provid+ a cle> op5+ ) less] lift1 ?is conduc+ to free gas fl[4 ,x also has value because x is sil5t 9 op]ation1 b ! disadvantage is pres5t t be/ mat]ial & workman%ip mu/ be us$ 9 _! con/ruction to obta9 satisfactory results4 ,z x c be made v light x is p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = use z an automatic inlet valve4 ,among o!r disadvantages cit$ is ! claim t x is m susceptible to d]angem5t1 ow+ to ! p>ticles ( =eign matt] gett+ "u ! seat4 ,) a bevel seat x is argu$ t ! =eign matt] w\ld be m easily dislodg$ by ! gas fl[1 & t ! valve w\ld close tight] because x is drawn positively aga9/ ! bevel seat4 ,sev]al me?ods ( valve con/ruction are ! vogue1 ! mo/ popul> =m be+ ! "o-piece type2 ^? :i* are compos$ ( a head ( "o mat]ial & /em ( ano!r are seldom us$ 9 airplane eng9es because !y are n reliable4 ,9 ! built-up con/ruction ! head is usually ( high nickel /eel or ca/ iron1 :i* metals possess good heat-resi/+ qualities4 ,heads made ( ^! mat]ials are n likely to w>p1 scale1 or pit1 z is sometimes ! case :5 ord9>y grades ( ma*9]y /eel are us$4 ,! ca/-iron head con/ruction is n popul> because x is (t5 difficult to keep ! head tight on ! /em4 ,!re is a slight diff]5ce 9 expansion ratio betwe5 ! head & ! /em1 & z ! /em is ei!r screw$ or rivet$ to ! ca/-iron head ! con/ant hamm]+ ( ! valve aga9/ its seat may loos5 ! jo9t4 ,z soon z ! head is loose on ! /em ! action ( ! valve becomes erratic4 ,! be/ practice is to ma*9e ! valves f tung/5 /eel =g+s4 ,?is mat]ial has spl5did heat-resi/+ qualities & w n pit or become scor$ easily4 ,ev5 ! electrically weld$ head to /em types :i* are us$ 9 automobile eng9es are n look$ ^u ) favor 9 ! aviation eng9e4 ,valve /em guides & valve /ems mu/ be ma*9$ v accurately to insure correct action4 ,! usual practice 9 automobile eng9es is %[n at ,fig4 #ajj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,%[+ ,cle>ance ,all[$ ,betwe5 ,valve ,/em & ,valve ,/em ,guide to ,secure ,free ,action4 ,,valve ,,op]ation ,! me?ods ( valve op]ation commonly us$ v>y accord+ to ! type ( cyl9d] con/ruction employ$4 ,9 all cases ! valves are lift$ f _! seats by cam-actuat$ me*anism4 ,v>i\s =ms ( valve-lift+ cams are %[n at ,fig4 #aja4 ,z w be se51 a cam consi/s ( a circle to :i* a rais$1 approximately triangul> memb] has be5 add$ at "o po9t4 ,:5 ! cam foll[] rides on ! circle1 z %[n at ,fig4 #ajb1 !re is no diff]5ce 9 height betwe5 ! cam c5t] & its p]iph]y & !re is no movem5t ( ! plung]4 ,z soon z ! rais$ portion ( ! cam /rikes ! plung] x w lift x1 & ?is reciprocat+ movem5t is transmitt$ to ! valve /em by suitable me*anical connections4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,=ms ( ,valve-,lift+ ,cams ,g5]ally ,employ$4 ,a--,cam ,pr(ile = ,long ,dwell & ,quick ,lift4 ,b--,typical ,inlet ,cam ,us$ ) ,mu%room ,type ,foll[]4 ,c--,av]age ,=m ( ,cam4 ,d--,design$ to ,give ,quick ,lift & ,gradual ,clos+4 ,! cam =ms outl9$ at ,fig4 #aja are ^? commonly us$4 ,t at ,a is us$ on eng9es :]e x is desir$ to obta9 a quick lift & to keep ! valve fully op5$ z long z possible4 ,x is a noisy =m1 h[ev]1 & is n v widely employ$4 ,t at ,b is utiliz$ m (t5 z an inlet cam :ile ! pr(ile %[n at ,c is g5]ally dep5d$ on to op]ate exhau/ valves4 ,! cam %[n at ,d is a composite =m :i* has "s ( ! features ( ! o!r ?ree types4 ,x w give ! quick op5+ ( =m ,a1 ! gradual clos+ ( =m ,b1 & ! "t ( maximum valve op5+ provid$ by cam pr(ile ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,types ( ,cam ,foll[]s :i* ,h ,receiv$ ,g5]al ,application4 ,! v>i\s types ( valve plung]s us$ are %[n at ,fig4 #ajb4 ,t %[n at ,a is ! simple/ =m1 consi/+ ( a simple cyl9drical memb] hav+ a r\nd$ end :i* foll[s ! cam pr(ile4 ,^! are sometimes made ( squ>e /ock or kept f rotat+ by means ( a key or p94 ,a l9e contact is possible :5 ! plung] is kept f turn+1 :]eas b a s+le po9t be>+ is obta9$ :5 ! plung] is cyl9drical & free to revolve4 ,! plung] %[n at ,a w foll[ only cam pr(iles :i* h gradual lifts4 ,! plung] %[n at ,b is left free to revolve 9 ! guide bu%+ & is provid$ ) a flat mu%room head :i* s]ves z a cam foll[]4 ,! type %[n at ,c c>ries a roll] at its l[] end & may foll[ v irregul> cam pr(iles if abrupt lifts are desir$4 ,:ile =ms ,a & ,b are ! simple/1 t outl9$ at ,c 9 its v>i\s =ms is m widely us$4 ,comp\nd plung]s are us$ on ! ,curtiss ,,ox-#b motors1 "o inside ! o!r4 ,! small or inn] "o works on a cam ( conv5tional design1 ! out] plung] foll[s a pr(ile hav+ a flat spot to p]mit ( a pull rod action in/ead ( a pu% rod action4 ,all ! me?ods 9 :i* lev]s are us$ to op]ate valves are m or less noisy because cle>ance mu/ be left betwe5 ! valve /em & ! /op ( ! plung]4 ,! space mu/ be tak5 up be=e ! valve w leave its seat1 & :5 ! eng9e is op]at$ at high spe$s ! =cible contact betwe5 ! plung] & valve /em produces a rattl+ s\nd until ! valves become heat$ & exp& & ! /ems l5g!n out4 ,cle>ance mu/ be left betwe5 ! valve /ems & actuat+ means4 ,?is cle>ance is cle>ly %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajc & %\ld be 4#jbj 7tw5ty ?\s&?s7 :5 eng9e is cold4 ,! am\nt ( cle>ance all[$ dep5ds entirely ^u ! design ( ! eng9e & l5g? ( valve /em4 ,on ! ,curtiss ,,ox-#b eng9es ! cle>ance is b 4#jaj 7t5 ?\s&?s7 because ! valve /ems are %ort]4 ,too little cle>ance w result 9 loss ( p[] or misfir+ :5 eng9e is hot4 ,too mu* cle>ance w n all[ ! valve to op5 its full am\nt & w di/urb ! tim+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,diagram ,%[+ ,prop] ,cle>ance to ,all[ ,betwe5 ,adju/+ ,screw & ,valve ,/ems 9 ,hall-,scott ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,driv+ ,,cam-,,%aft ,two sy/ems ( cam-%aft op]ation are us$4 ,! mo/ common ( ^! is by means ( ge>+ ( "s =m4 ,if ! cam-%aft is at "r angles to ! crank-%aft x may be driv5 by worm1 spiral1 or bevel ge>+4 ,if ! cam-%aft is p>allel to ! crank-%aft1 simple spur ge> or *a9 connection may be us$ to turn x4 ,a typical cam-%aft = an eight-cyl9d] ,v eng9e is %[n at ,fig4 #ajd4 ,x w be se5 t ! sixte5 cams are =g$ integrally ) ! %aft & t x is spur-ge> driv54 ,! cam-%aft drive ( ! ,hall-,scott motor is %[n at ,fig4 #ig4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--;,cam-,%aft ( ,?omas ,airplane ,motor ,has ,cams ,=g$ ,integral4 ,note ,split ,cam-,%aft ,be>+s & ,me?od ( ,ge> ,ret5tion4 ,:ile ge>+ is m commonly us$1 consid]able att5tion has be5 direct$ ( late to sil5t *a9s = cam-%aft op]ation4 ,! ord9>y =ms ( block or roll] *a9 h n prov5 successful 9 ?is application1 b ! sil5t *a91 :i* is 9 reality a l9k belt op]at+ ov] too!d pulleys1 has demon/rat$ its wor?4 ,! t5d5cy to its use is m not$ on =eign motors ?an ^? ( ,am]ican design4 ,x fir/ came to public notice :5 employ$ on ! ,daiml]-,knight eng9e = driv+ ! small auxili>y crank-%afts :i* reciprocat$ ! sleeve valves4 ,! advantages cit$ = ! application ( *a9s are1 fir/1 sil5t op]ation1 :i* obta9s ev5 aft] ! *a9s h worn consid]ably2 second1 9 design+ x is n necess>y to figure on ma9ta9+ c]ta9 absolute c5t] di/ances betwe5 ! crank-%aft & cam-%aft sprockets1 z w\ld be ! case if conv5tional =ms ( ge>+ 7 us$4 ,on "s =ms ( motor employ+ ge>s1 ?ree & ev5 f\r memb]s are ne$$ to turn ! cam-%aft4 ,) a *a9 drive b two sprockets are necess>y1 ! *a9 =m+ a flexible connection :i* p]mits ! driv+ & driv5 memb]s to be plac$ at any di/ance ap>t t ! exig5cies ( ! design dem&4 ,:5 *a9s are us$ x is advis$ t "s means = comp5sat+ *a9 slack be provid$1 or ! valve tim+ w lag :5 *a9s are worn4 ,_m comb9ation drives may be work$ out ) *a9s t w\ld n be possible ) o!r =ms ( ge>+4 ,direct ge> drive is favor$ at ! pres5t "t by airplane eng9e design]s because !y are ! mo/ c]ta9 & positive means1 ev5 :5 a numb] ( ge>s mu/ be us$ z int]m$iate drive memb]s4 ,) ov]head cam-%afts1 bevel ge>s "w out v well 9 practice1 z 9 ! ,hall-,scott motors & o!rs ( t type4 ,,valve ,,spr+s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,section ,?r\gh ,cyl9d] ( ,knight ,motor1 ,%[+ ,important ,p>ts ( ,valve ,motion4 ,ano!r consid]ation ( importance is ! use ( prop] valve-spr+s1 & p>ticul> c>e %\ld be tak5 ) ^?1 ( automatic valves4 ,! spr+ mu/ be weak en\gh to all[ ! valve to op5 :5 ! suction is light1 & mu/ be ( suffici5t /r5g? to close x 9 "t at high spe$s4 ,x %\ld be made z l>ge z possible 9 diamet] & ) a l>ge numb] ( convolutions1 9 ord] t fatigue ( ! metal be obviat$1 & x is imp]ative t all spr+s be ( ! same /r5g? :5 us$ on a multiple-cyl9d] eng9e4 ,practically all valves us$ to control ! gas fl[ 9 airplane eng9es are me*anically op]at$4 ,on ! exhau/ valve ! spr+ mu/ be /rong en\gh s t ! valve w n be suck$ 9 on ! inlet /roke4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t if ! spr+ is too /rong a /ra9 w be impos$ on ! valve-op]at+ me*anism1 & a hamm]+ action produc$ :i* may cause de=mation ( ! valve-seat4 ,only pressure en\gh to insure t ! op]at+ me*anism w foll[ ! cam is requir$4 ,x is common practice to make ! inlet & exhau/ valve spr+s ( ! same t5sion :5 ! valves are ( ! same size & bo? me*anically op]at$4 ,?is is done m]ely to simplify manufacture & n because x is necess>y = ! inlet valve-spr+ to be z /rong z ! o!r4 ,valve spr+s ( ! helical coil type are g5]ally us$1 ?\gh torsion or scissors spr+s & lam9at$ or s+le-leaf spr+s are also utiliz$ 9 special applications4 ,two spr+s are us$ on ea* valve 9 "s valve-9-!-head types2 a spr+ ( small pit* diamet] inside ! regul> valve-spr+ & conc5tric ) x4 ,its function is to keep ! valve f fall+ into ! cyl9d] 9 ev5t ( breakage ( ! ma9 spr+ 9 "s cases1 & to provide a /rong] return action 9 o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,knight ,sleeve ,valve ,action4 ,,knight ,,slide ,,valve ,,motor ,! sectional view ?r\gh ! cyl9d] at ,fig4 #aje %[s ! ,knight slid+ sleeves & _! actuat+ means v cle>ly4 ,! diagrams at ,fig4 #ajf %[ graphically ! sleeve movem5ts & _! relation to ! crank-%aft & pi/on travel4 ,! action may be summ$ up z foll[s3 ,! inlet port beg9s to op5 :5 ! l[] edge ( ! op5+ ( ! outside sleeve :i* is mov+ d[n passes ! top ( ! slot 9 ! inn] memb] also mov+ d[nw>dly4 ,! inlet port is clos$ :5 ! l[] edge ( ! slot 9 ! inn] sleeve :i* is mov+ up passes ! top edge ( ! port 9 ! out] sleeve :i* is also mov+ t[>d ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! inlet op5+ ext5ds ov] two hundr$ degrees ( crank motion4 ,! exhau/ port is uncov]$ slightly :5 ! l[] edge ( ! port 9 ! inn] sleeve :i* is mov+ d[n passes ! l[] edge ( ! portion ( ! cyl9d] head :i* protrudes 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! top ( ! port 9 ! out] sleeve travel+ t[>d ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] passes ! l[] edge ( ! slot 9 ! cyl9d] wall ! exhau/ passage is clos$4 ,! exhau/ op5+ ext5ds ov] a p]iod correspond+ to ab\t two hundr$ & =ty degrees ( crank motion4 ,! ,knight motor has n be5 appli$ to aircraft to ! writ]'s k1 b an eight-cyl9d] ,vee design t might be useful 9 t connection if light5$ is %[n at ,fig4 #ajg4 ,! ma9 object is to %[ t ! ,knight valve action is ! only o!r besides ! mu%room or poppet valve t has be5 appli$ successfully to high spe$ gasol9e eng9es4 ,,valve ,,tim+ ,x is 9 valve tim+ t ! greate/ diff]5ce ( op9ion prevails among eng9e]s1 & x is r>e t "o w see ! same =mula 9 diff]5t motors4 ,x is true t ! same tim+ c\ld n be us$ ) motors ( diff]5t con/ruction1 z !re are _m factors :i* det]m9e ! am\nt ( lead to be giv5 to ! valves4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! relative size ( ! valve to ! cyl9d] bore1 ! spe$ ( rotation x is desir$ to obta91 ! fuel effici5cy1 ! location ( ! valves1 & o!r factors too num]\s to m5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,cross ,sectional ,view ( ,knight ,type ,eight ,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9e4 ,mo/ ( ! read]s %\ld be famili> ) ! cycle ( op]ation ( ! int]nal combu/ion motor ( ! f\r-/roke type1 & x seems unnecess>y to g into detail except to pres5t a review4 ,! fir/ /roke ( ! pi/on is "o 9 :i* a *>ge ( gas is tak5 into ! motor2 ! second /roke1 :i* is 9 rev]se direction to ! fir/1 is a compression /roke1 at ! end ( :i* ! sp>k takes place1 explod+ ! *>ge & driv+ ! pi/on d[n on ! ?ird or expansion /roke1 :i* is 9 ! same direction z ! intake /roke1 & f9ally1 aft] ! pi/on has ne>ly rea*$ ! end ( ?is /roke1 ano!r valve op5s to all[ ! burn$ gases to escape1 & rema9s op5 until ! pi/on has rea*$ ! end ( ! f\r? /roke & is 9 a position to beg9 ! s]ies ov] aga94 ,! ends ( ! /rokes are rea*$ :5 ! pi/on comes to a /op at ei!r top or bottom ( ! cyl9d] & rev]ses its motion4 ,t po9t is kn[n z a c5t]1 & !re are two = ea* cyl9d]1 top & bottom c5t]s1 respectively4 ,all circles may be divid$ into #cfj p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is kn[n z a degree1 &1 9 turn1 ea* ( ^! degrees may be aga9 divid$ into m9utes & seconds1 ?\gh we ne$ n conc]n ourselves ) any?+ less ?an ! degree4 ,ea* /roke ( ! pi/on repres5ts #ahj degrees travel ( ! crank1 because two /rokes repres5t "o complete revolution ( ?ree hundr$ & sixty degrees4 ,! top & bottom c5t]s are !re=e sep>at$ by #ahj degrees4 ,!oretically ea* phase ( a f\r-cycle eng9e beg9s & ends at a c5t]1 ?\gh 9 actual practice ! in]tia or movem5t ( ! gases makes x necess>y to all[ a lead or lag to ! valve1 z ! case may be4 ,if a valve op5s be=e a c5t]1 ! di/ance is call$ lead2 if x closes aft] a c5t]1 ?is di/ance is kn[n z lag4 ,! pr(ile ( ! cams ord9>ily us$ to op5 or close ! valves repres5ts a consid]able "t 9 relation to ! #ahj degrees ( ! crank-%aft travel1 & ! area ( ! passages ?r\gh :i* ! gases are admitt$ or exhau/$ is q small ow+ to ! necessity ( hav+ to op5 or close ! valves at /at$ times2 !re=e1 to op5 an adequately l>ge passage = ! gases x is necess>y to op5 ! valves e>li] & close !m lat] ?an at c5t]s4 ,t advanc+ ! op5+ ( ! exhau/ valve 0 ( value 0 discov]$ on ! e>ly motors & is expla9$ by ! necessity ( releas+ a l>ge am\nt ( gas1 ! volume ( :i* has be5 greatly rais$ by ! heat ( combu/ion4 ,:5 ! inlet valves 7 me*anically op]at$ x 0 f\nd t all[+ !m to lag at clos+ enabl$ ! inspiration ( a great] volume ( gas4 ,disreg>d+ ! in]tia or fl[ ( ! gases1 op5+ ! exhau/ at c5t] w\ld enable "o to obta9 full value ( ! exp&+ gases ! entire l5g? ( ! pi/on /roke1 & x w\ld n be necess>y to keep ! valve op5 aft] ! top c5t]1 z ! rev]se /roke w\ld produce a suction effect :i* might draw "s ( ! in]t *>ge back into ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 giv+ full consid]ation to ! in]tia ( ! gas1 op5+ ! valve be=e c5t] is rea*$ w provide = quick expulsion ( ! gases1 :i* h suffici5t velocity at ! end ( ! /roke1 s t if ! valve is all[$ to rema9 op5 a little long]1 ! am\nt ( lag v>y+ ) ! op9ions ( ! design]1 ! cyl9d] is cle>$ 9 a m ?or\gh mann]4 ,,bl[+ ,,back ,:5 ! factor ( ret>d$ op5+ is consid]$ )\t reckon+ ! in]tia ( ! gases1 x w\ld appe> t if ! valve 7 all[$ to rema9 op5 aft] c5t] _h pass$1 say1 on ! clos+ ( ! inlet1 ! pi/on1 hav+ rev]s$ its motion1 w\ld h ! effect ( expell+ "p ( ! fre% *>ge ?r\gh ! /ill op5 valve z x pass$ inw>d at its compression /roke4 ,?is effect is call$ bl[+ back1 & is (t5 not$ ) motors :]e ! valve sett+s are n absolutely correct1 or :]e ! valve-spr+s or seats are defective & prev5t prop] clos+4 ,?is factor is n ( z mu* import z might appe>1 z on clos] consid]ation x w be se5 t ! movem5t ( ! pi/on z ! crank rea*es ei!r end ( ! /roke is less p] degree ( angul> movem5t ?an x is :5 ! angle ( ! connect+ rod is great]4 ,!n1 aga91 a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t is requir$ = ! rev]sal ( motion ( ! pi/on1 dur+ :i* "t ! crank is 9 motion b ! pi/on practically at a /&/ill4 ,if ! valves are all[$ to rema9 op5 dur+ ?is p]iod1 ! passage ( ! gas 9 or out ( ! cyl9d] w be by its own mom5tum4 ,,lead ,,giv5 ,,exhau/ ,,valve ,! fa/] a motor turns1 all o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! great] ! am\nt ( lead or advance x is necess>y to give ! op5+ ( ! exhau/ valve4 ,x is self-evid5t tru? t if ! spe$ ( a motor is d\bl$ x travels twice z _m degrees 9 ! "t necess>y to l[] ! pressure4 ,z mo/ design]s are cognizant ( ?is fact1 ! valves are proportion$ accord+ly4 ,x is well to consid] 9 ?is respect t ! cam pr(ile has mu* to d ) ! mann] 9 :i* ! valve is op5$2 t is1 ! lift may be abrupt & ! gas all[$ to escape 9 a body1 or ! op5+ may be gradual1 ! gas issu+ f ! cyl9d] 9 ?9 /reams4 ,an analogy may be made ) ! op5+ ( any bottle :i* conta9s liquid highly c>bonat$4 ,if ! cork is remov$ sudd5ly ! gas escapes ) a l\d pop1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! bottle is uncork$ gradually1 ! gas escapes f ! receptacle 9 ?9 /reams ar\nd ! cork1 & passage ( ! gases to ! air is accompli%$ )\t noise4 ,:ile ! second plan is n h>%1 x is sl[] ?an ! =m]1 z mu/ be evid5t4 ,,exhau/ ,,clos+1 ,,inlet ,,op5+ ,a po9t :i* has be5 mu* discuss$ by eng9e]s is ! prop] relation ( ! clos+ ( ! exhau/ valve & ! op5+ ( ! inlet4 ,!oretically !y %\ld succe$ ea* o!r1 ! exhau/ clos+ at upp] dead c5t] & ! inlet op5+ imm$iately aft]w>d4 ,! reason :y a c]ta9 am\nt ( lag is giv5 ! exhau/ clos+ 9 practice is t ! pi/on _c drive ! gases out ( ! cyl9d] unless !y are compress$ to a degree 9 excess ( t exi/+ 9 ! manifold or passages1 & :ile t[>d ! end ( ! /roke ?is pressure may be feeble1 x is nev]!less indisp5sable4 ,at ! end ( ! pi/on's /roke1 z m>k$ by ! upp] dead c5t]1 ?is compression /ill exi/s1 no matt] h[ little x may be1 s t if ! exhau/ valve is clos$ & ! inlet op5$ imm$iately aft]w>d1 ! pressure :i* exi/s 9 ! cyl9d] may ret>d ! entrance ( ! fre% gas & a c]ta9 portion ( ! in]t gas may p5etrate into ! manifold4 ,z ! pi/on imm$iately beg9s to aspirate1 ?is may n be s]i\s1 b z ^! gases are drawn back into ! cyl9d] ! fre% *>ge w be dilut$ & weak5$ 9 value4 ,if ! sp>k-plug is 9 a pocket1 ! po9ts may be surr\nd$ by ?is weak gas1 & ! explosion w n be ne>ly z en]getic z :5 ! ignition sp>k takes place 9 pure mixture4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t ! exhau/ valve %\ld close aft] dead c5t] & t a c]ta9 am\nt ( lag %\ld be giv5 to op5+ ( ! inlet4 ,! lag giv5 ! clos+ ( ! exhau/ valve %\ld n be z great z t giv5 ! clos+ ( ! inlet valve4 ,assum+ t ! excess pressure ( ! exhau/ w equal ! depression dur+ aspiration1 ! "t necess>y to complete ! empty+ ( ! cyl9d] w be proportional to ! volume ( ! gas )9 x4 ,at ! end ( ! suction /roke ! volume ( gas conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] is equal to ! cyl9drical volume plus ! space ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,at ! end ( ! exhau/ /roke ! volume is b t ( ! dead space1 & f "o-?ird to "o-fif? its volume be=e compression4 ,:ile x is natural to assume t ?is excess ( burn$ gas w escape fa/] ?an ! fre% gas w ent] ! cyl9d]1 x w be se5 t if ! inlet valve 7 all[$ to lag tw5ty degrees1 ! exhau/ valve lag ne$ n be m ?an five degrees1 provid+ t ! capacity ( ! combu/ion *amb] 0 su* t ! gases occupi$ "o-qu>t] ( _! =m] volume4 ,x is evid5t t no absolute rule c be giv51 z back pressure w v>y ) ! design ( ! valve passages1 ! manifolds1 & ! con/ruction ( ! muffl]4 ,! m direct ! op5+1 ! soon] ! valve c be clos$ & ! bett] ! cyl9d] cle>$4 ,t5 degrees repres5t an appreciable angle ( ! crank1 & ! "t requir$ = ! crank to cov] ?is angul> motion is n inconsid]able & an important quantity ( ! exhau/ may escape1 b ! pi/on is v close to ! dead c5t] aft] ! di/ance has be5 cov]$4 ,be=e ! inlet valve op5s !re %\ld be a c]ta9 depression 9 ! cyl9d]1 & consid]able lag may be all[$ be=e ! depression is appreciable4 ,s f> z ! volume ( fre% gas introduc$ dur+ ! admission /roke is conc]n$1 ?is is det]m9$ by ! displacem5t ( ! pi/on betwe5 ! po9t :]e ! inlet valve op5s & ! po9t ( clos+1 assum+ t suffici5t gas has be5 inspir$ s t an equilibrium ( pressure has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] & ! out] air4 ,! po9t ( inlet op5+ v>ies ) diff]5t motors4 ,x w\ld appe> t a fair am\nt ( lag w\ld be fifte5 degrees pa/ top c5t] = ! inlet op5+1 z a c]ta9 depression w exi/ 9 ! cyl9d]1 assum+ t ! exhau/ valve has clos$ five or t5 degrees aft] c5t]1 & at ! same "t ! pi/on has n gone d[n f> en\gh on its /roke to mat]ially decrease ! am\nt ( gas :i* w be tak5 into ! cyl9d]4 ,,clos+ ,,! ,,inlet ,,valve ,z 9 ! case ) ! o!r po9ts ( op5+ & clos+1 !re is a wide div]sity ( practice z relates to clos+ ! inlet valve4 ,"s ( ! design]s close ?is exactly at bottom c5t]1 b ?is practice _c be comm5d$1 z !re is a consid]able portion ( "t1 at lea/ t5 or fifte5 degrees angul> motion ( ! crank1 be=e ! pi/on w comm5ce to travel to any ext5t on its compression /roke4 ,! gases ru%+ into ! cyl9d] h consid]able velocity1 & unless an equilibrium is obta9$ betwe5 ! pressure inside & t ( ! atmosph]e outside1 !y w cont9ue to ru% into ! cyl9d] ev5 aft] ! pi/on ceases to ex]t any suction effect4 ,= ?is reason1 if ! valve is clos$ exactly on c5t]1 a full *>ge may n be inspir$ into ! cyl9d]1 ?\gh if ! "t ( clos+ is delay$1 ?is mom5tum or in]tia ( ! gas w be en\gh to insure t a maximum *>ge is tak5 into ! cyl9d]4 ,! writ] consid]s t no?+ w be ga9$ if ! valve is all[$ to rema9 op5 long] ?an tw5ty degrees1 & an analysis ( practice 9 ?is respect w\ld seem to confirm ?is op9ion4 ,f t po9t 9 ! crank movem5t ! pi/on travel increases & ! compressive effect is appreciable1 & x w\ld appe> t a consid]able proportion ( ! *>ge might be exhau/$ into ! manifold & c>buretor if ! valve 7 all[$ to rema9 op5 beyond a po9t correspond+ to tw5ty degrees angul> movem5t ( ! crank4 ,,"t ,,( ,,ignition ,9 ?is c\ntry eng9e]s unite 9 provid+ a v>iable "t ( ignition1 ?\gh abroad "s diff]5ce ( op9ion is not$ on ?is po9t4 ,! practice ( advanc+ ! "t ( ignition1 :5 affect$ electrically1 0 sev]ely condemn$ by e>ly mak]s1 ^! ma9ta9+ t x 0 necess>y because ( insuffici5t heat & volume ( ! sp>k1 & x 0 ?\ght t advanc+ ignition 0 injuri\s4 ,! eng9e]s ( to-day appreciate ! fact t ! heat ( ! electric sp>k1 especially :5 f a me*anical g5]ator ( electrical en]gy1 is ! only means by :i* we c obta9 practically in/antane\s explosion1 z requir$ by ! op]ation ( motors at high spe$s1 & = ! combu/ion ( l>ge volumes ( gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--;,diagrams ,expla9+ ,valve & ,ignition ,tim+ ( ,hall-,scott ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,x is app>5t t a motor ) a fix$ po9t ( ignition is n z desirable1 9 e way1 z "o 9 :i* ! ignition c be advanc$ to be/ meet diff]5t requirem5ts1 & ! writ] does n readily p]ceive any advantage outside ( simplicity ( control 9 e/abli%+ a fix$ po9t ( ignition4 ,9 fact1 !re seems to be "s diff]5ce ( op9ion among ^? design]s :o favor fix$ ignition1 & 9 "o case ?is is locat$ =ty-?ree degrees ahead ( c5t]1 & 9 ano!r motor ! po9t is fix$ at tw5ty degrees1 s t x may be said t ?is w v>y z mu* z "o hundr$ p] c5t4 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,?is po9t w v>y ) diff]5t me?ods ( ignition1 z well z ! location ( ! sp>k-plug or ignit]4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity1 mo/ airplane eng9es use set sp>k2 if an advanc+ & ret>d+ me*anism is fitt$1 x is only to facilitate />t+1 z ! sp>k is kept advanc$ :ile 9 flight1 & control is by ?rottle alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,tim+ ,diagram ( ,typical ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,x is obvi\s by consid]ation ( ! =ego+ t !re c be no arbitr>y rules e/abli%$ = tim+1 because ( ! _m conditions :i* det]m9e ! be/ times = op5+ & clos+ ! valves4 ,x is cu/om>y to try v>i\s sett+s :5 a new motor is design$ until ! mo/ satisfactory po9ts are det]m9$1 & ! sett+ :i* w be v suitable = "o motor is n always "r = "o ( diff]5t design4 ,! tim+ diagram %[n at ,fig4 #ajh applies to ! ,hall-,scott eng9e1 & may be consid]$ typical4 ,x %\ld be easily foll[$ 9 view ( ! v complete explanation giv5 9 prec$+ pages4 ,ano!r six-cyl9d] eng9e diagram is %[n at ,fig4 #aji1 & an eight-cyl9d] tim+ diagram is %[n at ,fig4 #aaj4 ,9 tim+ automobile eng9es no tr\ble is exp]i5c$1 because tim+ m>ks are always indicat$ on ! eng9e fly-:eel regi/] ) an indicat+ trammel on ! crank-case4 ,to "t an airplane eng9e accurately1 z is necess>y to te/ = a suspect$ cam-%aft defect1 a tim+ disc ( alum9um is atta*$ to ! crank-%aft :i* has ! tim+ m>ks indicat$ !reon4 ,if ! disc is made #aj or #ab in*es 9 diamet]1 x may be divid$ into degrees )\t difficulty4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,tim+ ,diagram ( ,typical ,eight-,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9e4 ,,h[ ,,an ,,eng9e ,,is ,,tim$ ,9 tim+ a motor f ! m>ks on ! tim+ disc rim x is necess>y to regulate ! valves ( b "o cyl9d] at a "t4 ,assum+ t ! disc is revolv+ 9 ! direction ( eng9e rotation1 & t ! fir+ ord] ( ! cyl9d]s is #a-c-d-b1 ! op]ation ( tim+ w\ld be c>ri$ on z foll[s3 ,! crank-%aft w\ld be revolv$ until ! l9e m>k$ ,exhau/ op5s #a & #d regi/]$ ) ! trammel on ! motor b$4 ,at ?is po9t ! exhau/-valve ( ei!r cyl9d] ,no4 #a or ,no4 #d %\ld beg9 to op54 ,?is c be easily det]m9$ by not+ :i* ( ^! cyl9d]s holds ! compress$ *>ge ready = ignition4 ,assum+ t ! sp>k has occurr$ 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 !n :5 ! fly-:eel is turn$ f ! position to t 9 :i* ! l9e m>k$ ,exhau/ op5s #a & #d co9cides ) ! trammel po9t1 ! valve-plung] "u ! exhau/-valve ( cyl9d] ,no4 #a %\ld be adju/$ 9 su* a way t !re is no cle>ance betwe5 x & ! valve /em4 ,fur!r movem5t ( ! :eel 9 ! same direction %\ld produce a lift ( ! exhau/ valve4 ,! disc is turn$ ab\t two hundr$ & tw5ty-five degrees1 or a little less ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( a revolution2 !n ! l9e m>k$ ,exhau/ closes #a & #d w regi/] ) ! trammel po9t4 ,at ?is p]iod ! valve-plung] & ! valve-/em %\ld sep>ate & a c]ta9 am\nt ( cle>ance obta9 betwe5 !m4 ,! next cyl9d] to "t w\ld be ,no4 #c4 ,! crank-%aft is rotat$ until m>k ,exhau/ op5s #b & #c comes 9 l9e ) ! trammel4 ,at ?is po9t ! exhau/ valve ( cyl9d] ,no4 #c %\ld be j ab\t op5+4 ,! clos+ is det]m9$ by rotat+ ! %aft until ! l9e ,exhau/ closes #b & #c comes "u ! trammel4 ,?is op]ation is c>ri$ on ) all ! cyl9d]s1 x be+ well to rememb] t b "o cyl9d] is work+ at a "t & t a half-revolution ( ! fly-:eel corresponds to a full work+ /roke ( all ! cyl9d]s1 & t :ile "o is exhau/+ ! o!rs are respectively tak+ 9 a new *>ge1 compress+ & explod+4 ,= in/ance1 if cyl9d] ,no4 #a has j complet$ its p[]-/roke1 ! pi/on 9 cyl9d] ,no4 #c has rea*$ ! po9t :]e ! gas may be ignit$ to advantage4 ,! pi/on ( cyl9d] ,no4 #d1 :i* is next to fire1 is at ! bottom ( its /roke & w h inspir$ a *>ge1 :ile cyl9d] ,no4 #b1 :i* is ! la/ to fire1 w h j f9i%$ expell+ a *>ge ( burn$ gas1 & w be />t+ ! intake /roke4 ,?is tim+ relates to a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e 9 ord] to simplify ! explanation4 ,! tim+ in/ructions giv5 apply only to ! conv5tional motor types4 ,rot>y cyl9d] eng9es1 especially ! ,gnome monos\pape1 h a di/9ctive valve tim+ on acc\nt ( ! peculi>ities ( design4 ,,gnome ,,monos\pape ,,valve ,,tim+ ,9 ! pres5t design ( ! ,gnome motor1 a cycle ( op]ations some:at diff]5t f t employ$ 9 ! ord9>y f\r-cycle eng9e is made use (1 says a writ] 9 ,! ,automobile1 9 describ+ ! action ( ?is p[]-plant4 ,?is cycle does away ) ! ne$ = ! usual inlet valve & makes ! eng9e op]able ) only a s+le valve1 h5ce ! "n monos\pape1 or s+le-valve4 ,! cycle is z foll[s3 ,a *>ge be+ compress$ 9 ! out] end ( ! cyl9d] or combu/ion *amb]1 x is ignit$ by a sp>k produc$ by ! sp>k-plug locat$ 9 ! side ( ?is *amb]1 & ! burn+ *>ge exp&s z ! pi/on moves d[n 9 ! cyl9d] :ile ! latt] revolves ar\nd ! crank-%aft4 ,:5 ! pi/on is ab\t half-way d[n on ! p[] /roke1 ! exhau/ valve1 :i* is locat$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d]-head1 is me*anically op5$1 & dur+ ! foll[+ up/roke ( ! pi/on ! burnt gases are expell$ f ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve directly into ! atmosph]e4 ,in/ead ( clos+ at ! end ( ! exhau/ /roke1 or a few degrees !reaft]1 ! exhau/ valve is held op5 = ab\t two-?irds ( ! foll[+ inlet /roke ( ! pi/on1 ) ! result t fre% air is drawn ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve into ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] is /ill #fe degrees f ! end ( ! inlet half-revolution1 ! exhau/ valve closes4 ,z no m air c get into ! cyl9d]1 & z ! pi/on cont9ues to move inw>dly1 x is obvi\s t a p>tial vacuum is =m$4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] approa*es )9 #bj degrees ( ! end ( ! inlet half-revolution a s]ies ( small inlet ports all ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! cyl9d] wall is uncov]$ by ! top edge ( ! pi/on1 :]eby ! combu/ion *amb] is plac$ 9 communication ) ! crank *amb]4 ,z ! pressure 9 ! crank *amb] is sub/antially atmosph]ic & t 9 ! combu/ion *amb] is bel[ atmosph]ic1 !re results a suction effect :i* causes ! air f ! crank *amb] to fl[ into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! air 9 ! crank *amb] is heavily *>g$ ) gasol9e vapor1 :i* is due to ! fact t a spray nozzle connect$ ) ! gasol9e supply tank is locat$ inside ! *amb]4 ,! proportion ( gasol9e vapor 9 ! air 9 ! crank *amb] is sev]al times z great z 9 ! ord9>y combu/ible mixture drawn f a c>buretor into ! cyl9d]4 ,?is extra-ri* mixture is dilut$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ) ! air :i* ent]$ x ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve dur+ ! fir/ "p ( ! inlet /roke1 ?us =m+ a mixture ( ! prop] proportion = complete combu/ion4 ,! inlet ports 9 ! cyl9d] wall rema9 op5 until #bj degrees ( ! compression half-revolution has be5 complet$1 & f t mom5t to ne> ! end ( ! compression /roke ! gases are compress$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,ne> ! end ( ! /roke ignition takes place & ?is completes ! cycle4 ,! exact tim+ ( ! diff]5t phases ( ! cycle is %[n 9 ! diagram at ,fig4 #aaa4 ,x w be se5 t ignition occurs sub/antially #bj degrees ahead ( ! out] dead c5t]1 & expansion ( ! burn+ gases cont9ues until #he degrees pa/ ! out] dead c5t]1 :5 ! pi/on is a little pa/ half-/roke4 ,!n ! exhau/-valve op5s & rema9s op5 = some:at m ?an a complete revolution ( ! cyl9d]s1 or1 to be exact1 = #cij degrees ( cyl9d] travel1 until #aae degrees pa/ ! top dead c5t] on ! second revolution4 ,!n = #de degrees ( travel ! *>ge )9 ! cyl9d] is exp&$1 :]eupon ! inlet ports are uncov]$ & rema9 op5 = #dj degrees ( cyl9d] travel1 #bj degrees on ea* side ( ! inw>d dead c5t] position4 ,,spr+less ,,valves ,spr+less valves are ! late/ developm5t on ,fr5* rac+ c> eng9es1 & x is possible t ! positively-op]at$ types w be introduc$ on aviation eng9es also4 ,two makes ( positively-actuat$ valves are %[n at ,fig4 #aab4 ,! positive-valve motor diff]s f ! conv5tional =m by hav+ no necessity = valve-spr+s1 z a cam n only assures ! op5+ ( ! valve1 b also causes x to return to ! valve-seat4 ,9 ?is respect x is mu* l ! sleeve-valve motor1 :]e ! uncov]+ ( ! ports is absolutely positive4 ,! c>s equipp$ ) ^! valves 7 a success 9 long-di/ance auto races4 ,claims made = ?is type ( valve me*anism include ! possibility ( a high] numb] ( revolutions & consequ5tly great] eng9e p[]4 ,) ! spr+-controll$1 s+le-cam op]at$ valve a po9t is rea*$ :]e ! spr+ is n capable ( return+ ! valve to its seat be=e ! cam has aga9 begun its op5+ movem5t4 ,x is possible to ext5d ! limits consid]ably by us+ a light valve on a /rong spr+1 b ! valve /ill rema9s a limit+ factor 9 ! spe$ ( ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,tim+ ,diagram ,%[+ ,peculi> ,valve ,tim+ ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,rot>y ,motor4 ,a "p sectional view ?r\gh a cyl9d] ( an eng9e design$ by ,g4 ,mi*aux is %[n at ,fig4 #aab1 ,a4 ,!re are two valves p] cyl9d]1 incl9$ at ab\t t5 degrees f ! v]tical4 ,! valve-/ems are ( l>ge diamet]1 z ow+ to positive control1 !re is no necessity ( light5+ ?is "p 9 an unusual degree4 ,a s+le ov]head cam-%aft has eight pairs ( cams1 :i* are %[n 9 detail at ,b4 ,= ea* valve !re is a ?ree-arm$ rock]1 "o arm ( :i* is connect$ to ! /em ( ! valve & ! two o!rs are 9 contact respectively ) ! op5+ & clos+ cams4 ,! connection to ! end ( ! valve-/em is made by a %ort connect+ l9k1 :i* is screw$ on to ! end ( ! valve-/em & lock$ 9 position4 ,?is all[s "s adju/m5t to be made betwe5 ! valves & ! actuat+ rock]4 ,x w be evid5t t "o cam & "o rock] arm produce ! op5+ ( ! valve & t ! correspond+ rock] arm & cam result 9 ! clos+ ( ! valve4 ,if ! op5+ cam has ! usual convex pr(ile1 ! clos+ cam has a correspond+ly concave pr(ile4 ,x w be notic$ t a light valve-spr+ is %[n 9 draw+4 ,?is is provid$ to give a f9al seat+ to its valve aft] x has be5 clos$ by ! cam4 ,?is is n absolutely necess>y1 z an eng9e has be5 run successfully )\t ^! spr+s4 ,! :ole me*anism is conta9$ )9 an ov]head alum9um cov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,two ,me?ods ( ,op]at+ ,valves by ,positive ,cam ,me*anism ,:i* ,closes z ,well z ,op5s ,!m4 ,! positive-valve sy/em us$ on ! ,de ,lage motor is %[n at ,d4 ,9 ?is ! valves are actuat$ z %[n 9 sectional views ,d & ,e4 ,! valve sy/em is unique 9 t f\r valves are provid$ p] cyl9d]1 two = exhau/ & two = intake4 ,! valves are m\nt$ side by side1 z %[n at ,e1 s ! d\ble actuator memb] may be op]at$ by a s+le set ( cams4 ,! valve-op]at+ memb] consi/s ( a yoke hav+ guide b>s at ! top & bottom4 ,! actuat+ cam works inside ( ?is yoke4 ,! usual =m ( cam acts on ! l[] portion ( ! yoke to op5 ! valve1 :ile ! concave cam acts on ! upp] "p to close ! valves4 ,9 ?is design provision is made = expansion ( ! valve-/ems due to heat1 & ^! are n positively connect$ to ! actuat+ memb]4 ,z %[n at ,e1 ! valves are held aga9/ ! seat by %ort coil spr+s at ! upp] end ( ! /em4 ,^! are v /iff & are only int5d$ to provide = expansion4 ,a slight space is left betwe5 ! top ( ! valve-/em & ! portion ( ! op]at+ memb] t be>s aga9/ !m :5 ! regul> pr(ile cam ex]ts its pressure on ! bottom ( ! valve-op]at+ me*anism4 ,ano!r novelty 9 ?is motor design is t ! cam-%afts & ! valve-op]at+ memb]s are c>ri$ 9 cas+ atta*$ above ! motor by h\s+ supports 9 ! =m ( small /eel pill>s4 ,! ov]head cam-%afts are op]at$ by means ( bevel ge>+4 ,,f\r ,,valves ,,p] ,,cyl9d] ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--;,diagram ,comp>+ ,two ,l>ge ,valves & ,f\r ,small ,ones ( ,practically ! ,same ,area4 ,note ,h[ ,easily ,small ,valves are ,in/all$ to ,op5 ,directly ,into ! ,cyl9d]4 ,m5tion has be5 previ\sly made ( ! sixte5-valve f\r-cyl9d] ,dues5b]g motor & its great p[] output = ! pi/on displacem5t4 ,?is is made possible by ! sup]ior volumetric effici5cy ( a motor provid$ ) f\r valves 9 ea* cyl9d] in/ead ( b two4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 ?or\ghly tri$ out 9 rac+ automobile motors1 & is especially valuable 9 p]mitt+ ( great] spe$ & p[] output f simple f\r- & six-cyl9d] eng9es4 ,on eight- & twelve-cyl9d] types1 x is d\btful if ! result+ complication due to us+ a v l>ge numb] ( valves w\ld be wor? :ile4 ,:5 extremely l>ge valves are us$1 z %[n 9 diagram at ,fig4 #aac1 x is difficult to h !m op5 directly into ! cyl9d]1 & pockets are sometimes necess>y4 ,a l>ge valve w\ld weigh m ?an two small] valves hav+ an area slightly l>g] 9 ! aggregate2 x w\ld require a /iff] valve spr+ on acc\nt ( its great] weight4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( metal 9 ! valve-head is necess>y to prev5t w>p+2 !re=e1 ! in]tia =ces w be great] 9 ! l>ge valve ?an 9 ! two small] valves4 ,z a great] port area is obta9$ by ! use ( two valves1 ! gases w be drawn into ! cyl9d] or expell$ fa/] ?an ) a less] area4 ,ev5 if ! areas are practically ! same z 9 ! diagram at ,fig4 #aac1 ! small] valves may h a great] lift )\t impos+ great] /resses on ! valve-op]at+ me*anism & quick] gas intake & exhau/ obta9$4 ,! small] valves are n affect$ by heat z mu* z l>g] ones are4 ,! quick] gas movem5ts made possible1 z well z r$uction ( in]tia =ces1 p]mits ( high] rotative spe$1 &1 consequ5tly1 great] p[] output = a giv5 pi/on displacem5t4 ,! draw+s at ,fig4 #aad %[ a sixte5-valve motor ( ! f\r-cyl9d] type t has be5 design$ = automobile rac+ purposes1 & x is app>5t t v slight modifications w\ld make x suitable = aviation purposes4 ,"p ( ! effici5cy is due to ! r$uction ( be>+ friction by ! use ( ball be>+s1 b ! multiple-valve feature is prim>ily responsible = ! excell5t p]=mance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,sectional ,views ( ,sixte5-,valve ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,automobile ,rac+ ,eng9e ,t ,may ,h ,possibilities = ,aviation ,s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4--;,front ,view ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#c ,aviation ,motor1 ,%[+ ,unconv5tional ,valve ,action by ,conc5tric ,pu% ,rod & ,pull ,tube4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,con/ructional ,details ( ,pi/ons--,alum9um ,cyl9d]s & ,pi/ons--,pi/on ,r+ ,con/ruction--,leak ,pro( ,pi/on ,r+s-- ,keep+ ,oil ,out ( ,combu/ion ,*amb]--,connect+ ,rod ,=ms-- ,connect+ ,rods = ,vee ,eng9es--,cam-,%aft & ,crank-,%aft ,designs--,ball ,be>+ ,crank-,%afts--,eng9e ,base ,con/ruction4 ,,con/ructional ,,details ,,( ,,pi/ons ,! pi/on is "o ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! gasol9e motor inasmu* z x is ! reciprocat+ memb] t receives ! impact ( ! explosion & :i* trans=ms ! p[] obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( gas to me*anical motion by means ( ! connect+ rod to :i* x is atta*$4 ,! pi/on is "o ( ! simple/ elem5ts ( ! motor1 & x is "o compon5t :i* does n v>y mu* 9 =m 9 diff]5t types ( motors4 ,! pi/on is a cyl9drical memb] provid$ ) a s]ies ( grooves 9 :i* pack+ r+s are plac$ on ! outside & two bosses :i* s]ve to hold ! wri/ p9 9 its int]ior4 ,x is usually made ( ca/ iron or alum9um1 ?\gh 9 "s motors :]e extreme lightness is desir$1 su* z ^? us$ = a]onautic "w1 x may be made ( /eel4 ,! use ( ! m resi/+ mat]ial enables ! eng9e] to use light] sections :]e x is important t ! weight ( ?is memb] be kept z l[ z possible consi/5t ) /r5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,=ms ( ,pi/ons ,commonly ,employ$ 9 ,gasol9e ,eng9es4 ,a--,dome ,head ,pi/on & ,?ree ,pack+ ,r+s4 ,b--,flat ,top ,=m ,almo/ ,univ]sally ,us$4 ,c--,concave ,pi/on ,utiliz$ 9 ,knight ,motors & ,"s ,hav+ ,ov]head ,valves4 ,d--,two-,cycle ,eng9e ,memb] ) ,deflector ,plate ,ca/ ,integrally4 ,e--,diff]5tial ( ,two-,diamet] ,pi/on ,us$ 9 ,"s ,eng9es ,op]at+ on ,two-,cycle ,pr9ciple4 ,a numb] ( pi/on types are %[n at ,fig4 #aaf4 ,t at ,a has a r\nd top & is provid$ ) f\r split pack+ r+s & two oil grooves4 ,a pi/on ( ?is type is g5]ally employ$ 9 motors :]e ! combu/ion *amb] is l>ge & :]e x is desir$ to obta9 a high] degree ( compression ?an w\ld be possible ) a flat top pi/on4 ,?is con/ruction is also /rong] because ( ! ar*$ pi/on top4 ,! mo/ common =m ( pi/on is t %[n at ,b1 & x diff]s f t previ\sly describ$ only 9 t x has a flat top4 ,! pi/on outl9$ 9 section at ,c is a type us$ on "s ( ! sleeve-valve motors ( ! ,knight patt]n1 & has a concave head in/ead ( ! convex =m %[n at ,a4 ,! design %[n at ,d 9 side & plan views is ! conv5tional =m employ$ 9 two-cycle eng9es4 ,! deflector plate on ! top ( ! cyl9d] is ca/ integral & is utiliz$ to prev5t ! incom+ fre% gases f fl[+ directly ov] ! pi/on top & out ( ! exhau/ port1 :i* is usually opposite ! inlet op5+4 ,on ^! types ( two-cycle eng9es :]e a two-diamet] cyl9d] is employ$1 ! pi/on %[n at ,e is us$4 ,?is is kn[n z a diff]5tial pi/on1 & has an enl>g$ portion at its l[] end :i* fits ! pump+ cyl9d]4 ,! usual =m ( deflector plate is provid$ at ! top ( ! pi/on & "o may consid] x z two pi/ons 9 "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,typical ,me?ods ( ,pi/on ,p9 ,ret5tion ,g5]ally ,us$ 9 ,eng9es ( ,am]ican ,design4 ,a--,s+le ,set ,screw & ,lock ,nut4 ,b--,set ,screw & ,*eck ,nut ,fitt+ ,groove 9 ,wri/ ,p94 ,c1 ,d--,two ,lock+ ,screws ,pass+ ,into ,int]ior ( ,holl[ ,wri/ ,p94 ,e--,split ,r+ ,holds ,p9 9 ,place4 ,f--,use ( ,tap] ,exp&+ ,plugs ,outl9$4 ,g--,spr+ ,press$ ,plung] ,type4 ,h--,pi/on ,p9 ,p9n$ to ,connect+ ,rod4 ,i--,wri/ ,p9 ,clamp$ 9 ,connect+ ,rod ,small ,end by ,bolt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,typical ,pi/on & ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,p>ts ( ,/urtevant ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,a--,cyl9d] ,head ,%[+ ,valves4 ,b--,connect+ ,rod4 ,c--,pi/on & ,r+s4 ,"o ( ! important conditions 9 pi/on design is ! me?od ( secur+ ! wri/ p9 :i* is us$ to connect ! pi/on to ! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod4 ,v>i\s me?ods h be5 devis$ to keep ! p9 9 place1 ! mo/ common ( ^! be+ %[n at ,fig4 #aag4 ,! wri/ p9 %\ld be reta9$ by "s positive means :i* is n liable to become loose "u ! vibratory /resses :i* obta9 at ?is po9t4 ,if ! wri/ p9 0 free to move x w\ld "w out ( ! bosses en\gh s t ! end w\ld be> aga9/ ! cyl9d] wall4 ,z x is usually made ( /eel1 :i* is a h>d] mat]ial ?an ca/ iron us$ 9 cyl9d] con/ruction1 ! rubb+ action w\ld t5d to cut a groove 9 ! cyl9d] wall :i* w\ld make = loss ( p[] because x w\ld p]mit escape ( gas4 ,! wri/ p9 memb] is a simple cyl9drical elem5t t fits ! bosses closely1 & x may be ei!r holl[ or solid /ock4 ,a typical pi/on & connect+ rod assembly :i* %[s a pi/on 9 section also is giv5 at ,fig4 #aah4 ,! pi/on ( ! ,/urtevant a]onautical motor is %[n at ,fig4 #aai1 ! alum9um pi/on ( ! ,?omas airplane motor ) pi/on r+s 9 place is %[n at ,fig4 #abj4 ,a good view ( ! wri/ p9 & connect+ rod are also giv54 ,! iron pi/on ( ! ,gnome ,monos\pape airplane eng9e & ! unconv5tional connect+ rod assembly are cle>ly depict$ at ,fig #aba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,alum9um ,pi/on & ,light ,b ,/rong ,/eel ,connect+ ,rod & ,wri/ ,p9 ( ,?omas ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,! me?od ( ret5tion %[n at ,a is ! simple/ & consi/s ( a set screw hav+ a project+ portion pass+ into ! wri/ p9 & hold+ x 9 place4 ,! screw is kept f turn+ or loos5+ by means ( a *eck nut4 ,! me?od outl9$ at ,b is simil> to t %[n at ,a1 except t ! wri/ p9 is solid & ! po9t ( ! set screw engages an annul> groove turn$ 9 ! p9 = its reception4 ,a v positive me?od is %[n at ,c4 ,"h ! ret5tion screws pass into ! wri/ p9 & are !n lock$ by a piece ( /eel wire :i* passes ?r\gh suitable holes 9 ! ends4 ,! me?od outl9$ at ,d is sometimes employ$1 & x v>ies f t %[n at ,c only 9 t ! lock+ wire1 :i* is made ( spr+ /eel1 is pass$ ?r\gh ! heads ( ! lock+ screws4 ,"s design]s ma*9e a l>ge groove ar\nd ! pi/on at su* a po9t t :5 ! wri/ p9 is put 9 place a l>ge pack+ r+ may be sprung 9 ! groove & utiliz$ to hold ! wri/ p9 9 place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4--;,ca/ ,iron ,pi/on ( ,monos\pape ,gnome ,eng9e ,in/all$ ,on ,"o ( ! ,%ort ,connect+ ,rods4 ,! sy/em %[n at ,f is n s widely us$ z ! simpl] me?ods1 because x is m co/ly & does n (f] any great] security :5 ! p>ts are new ?an ! simple lock %[n at ,a4 ,9 ?is a holl[ wri/ p9 is us$1 hav+ a tap]$ ?read cut at ea* end4 ,! wri/ p9 is slott$ at ?ree or f\r po9ts1 = a di/ance equal to ! l5g? ( ! boss1 & :5 tap] expansion plugs are screw$ 9 place ! ends ( ! wri/ p9 are exp&$ aga9/ ! bosses4 ,?is me?od has ! advantage ( provid+ a c]ta9 degree ( adju/m5t if ! wri/ p9 %\ld loos5 up aft] x has be5 9 use = "s "t4 ,! tap] plugs w\ld be screw$ 9 deep] & ! ends ( ! wri/ p9 exp&$ proportionately to take up ! loss motion4 ,! me?od %[n at ,g is an +5i\s "o4 ,"o ( ! pi/on bosses is provid$ ) a projection :i* is drill$ out to receive a plung]4 ,! wri/ p9 is provid$ ) a hole ( suffici5t size to receive ! plung]1 :i* is kept 9 place by means ( a spr+ 9 back ( x4 ,?is makes a v positive lock & "o t c be easily loos5$ :5 x is desir$ to remove ! wri/ p94 ,to unlock1 a piece ( f9e rod is ?ru/ into ! hole at ! bottom ( ! boss :i* pu%es ! plung] back aga9/ ! spr+ until ! wri/ p9 c be pu%$ out ( ! pi/on4 ,"s eng9e]s ?9k x advisable to oscillate ! wri/ p9 9 ! pi/on bosses1 in/ead ( 9 ! connect+ rod small end4 ,x is argu$ t ?is con/ruction gives m be>+ surface at ! wri/ p9 & also provides = m /r5g? because ( ! long] bosses t c be us$4 ,:5 ?is sy/em is foll[$ ! pi/on p9 is held 9 place by lock+ x to ! connect+ rod by "s means4 ,at ,h ! simple/ me?od is outl9$4 ,?is consi/$ ( driv+ a tap] p9 ?r\gh bo? rod & wri/ p9 & !n prev5t+ x f back+ out by putt+ a split cott] ?r\gh ! small end ( ! tap]$ lock+ p94 ,ano!r me?od1 :i* is depict$ at ,i1 consi/s ( clamp+ ! wri/ p9 by means ( a suitable bolt :i* br+s ! slit connect+ rod end toge!r z %[n4 ,,alum9um ,,= ,,cyl9d]s ,,& ,,pi/ons ,alum9um pi/ons outl9$ at ,fig4 #abb1 h replac$ ca/ iron memb]s 9 _m airplane eng9es1 z ^! weigh ab\t "o-?ird z mu* z ! ca/ iron =ms ( ! same size1 :ile ! r$uction 9 ! in]tia =ces has made x possible to increase ! eng9e spe$ )\t correspond+ly /ress+ ! connect+ rods1 crank-%aft & eng9e be>+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,types ( ,alum9um ,pi/ons ,us$ ,9 ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,alum9um has n only be5 us$ = pi/ons1 b a numb] ( motors w be built = ! com+ season t w use alum9um cyl9d] block ca/+s z well4 ,( c\rse1 ! alum9um alloy is too s(t to be us$ z a be>+ = ! pi/on1 & x w n )/& ! hamm]+ action ( ! valve4 ,?is makes ! use ( ca/ iron or /eel imp]ative 9 all motors4 ,:5 us$ 9 connection ) an alum9um cyl9d] block ! ca/ iron pieces are plac$ 9 ! m\ld s t !y act z cyl9d] l9]s & valve seats1 & ! molt5 metal is p\r$ ar\nd !m :5 ! cyl9d] is ca/4 ,x is said t ?is con/ruction results 9 an intimate bond betwe5 ! ca/ iron & ! surr\nd+ alum9um metal4 ,/eel l9]s may also be press$ into ! alum9um cyl9d]s aft] ^! are bor$ out to receive !m4 ,alum9um has = a numb] ( ye>s be5 us$ 9 _m motor c> p>ts4 ,alloys h be5 develop$ t h great] /r5g? ?an ca/ iron & t are n s brittle4 ,its use = manifolds & eng9e crank & ge> cases has be5 g5]al = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,at fir/ ?\ght x w\ld seem z ?\gh alum9um w\ld be entirely unsuit$ = use 9 ^? portions ( int]nal combu/ion eng9es expos$ to ! heat ( ! explosion1 on acc\nt ( ! l[ melt+ po9t ( t metal & its disadvantage\s quality ( sudd5ly wilt+ :5 a critical po9t 9 ! temp]ature is rea*$4 ,^? :o hesitat$ to use alum9um on acc\nt ( ?is defect lo/ sight ( ! great heat conductivity ( t metal1 :i* is consid]ably m ?an t ( ca/ iron4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 e>ly exp]im5ts ) alum9um pi/ons t ?is quality ( quick radiation meant t alum9um pi/ons rema9$ consid]ably cool] ?an ca/ iron ones 9 s]vice1 :i* 0 atte/$ to by ! r$uc$ =mation ( c>bon deposit !reon4 ,! use ( alum9um makes possible a m>k$ r$uction 9 p[] plant weight4 ,a small f\r-cyl9d] eng9e :i* 0 n p>ticul>ly heavy ev5 ) ca/ iron cyl9d]s 0 f\nd to weigh #ajj p\nds less :5 ! cyl9d] block1 pi/ons1 & upp] half ( ! crank-case _h be5 made ( alum9um in/ead ( ca/ iron4 ,alum9um motors are no long] an exp]im5t1 z a consid]able numb] ( ^! h be5 9 use on c>s dur+ ! pa/ ye> )\t ! own]s ( ! c>s be+ appris$ ( ! fact4 ,absolutely no compla9t 0 made 9 any case ( ! alum9um motor & x 0 demon/rat$1 9 addition to ! sav+ 9 weight1 t ! motors co/ no m to assemble & cool$ mu* m effici5tly ?an ! ca/ iron =m4 ,"o ( ! drawbacks to ! use ( alum9um is its gr[+ sc>city1 :i* results 9 mak+ x a ne> preci\s metal4 ,,pi/on ,,r+ ,,con/ruction ,z all pi/ons mu/ be free to move up & d[n 9 ! cyl9d] ) m9imum friction1 !y mu/ be less 9 diamet] ?an ! bore ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! am\nt ( fre$om or cle>ance provid$ v>ies ) ! con/ruction ( ! eng9e & ! mat]ial ! pi/on is made (1 z well z its size1 b x is usual to provide f 4#jje to 4#jaj ( an in* to comp5sate = ! expansion ( ! pi/on due to heat & also to leave suffici5t cle>ance = ! introduction ( lubricant betwe5 ! work+ surfaces4 ,obvi\sly1 if ! pi/on 7 n provid$ ) pack+ r+s1 ?is am\nt ( cle>ance w\ld enable a portion ( ! gases evolv$ :5 ! *>ge is explod$ to escape by x into ! eng9e crank-case4 ,! pack+ memb]s or pi/on r+s1 z !y are call$1 are split r+s ( ca/ iron1 :i* are sprung into suitable grooves ma*9$ on ! ext]ior ( ! pi/on1 ?ree or f\r ( ^! be+ ! usual numb] suppli$4 ,^! h suffici5t ela/icity s t !y be> tightly aga9/ ! cyl9d] wall & ?us make a gas-tight jo9t4 ,ow+ to ! limit$ am\nt ( surface 9 contact ) ! cyl9d] wall & ! ela/icity ( ! split r+s ! am\nt ( friction result+ f ! contact ( prop]ly fitt$ r+s & ! cyl9d] is n ( en\gh mom5t to cause any damage & ! pi/on is free to slide up & d[n 9 ! cyl9d] bore4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,types ( ,pi/on ,r+s & ,r+ ,jo9ts4 ,a--,conc5tric ,r+4 ,b--,ecc5trically ,ma*9$ ,=m4 ,c--,lap ,jo9t ,r+4 ,d--,butt ,jo9t1 ,seldom ,us$4 ,e--,diagonal ,cut ,memb]1 a ,popul> ,=m4 ,^! r+s are made 9 two =ms1 z outl9$ at ,fig4 #abc4 ,! design %[n at ,a is t]m$ a conc5tric r+1 because ! inn] circle is conc5tric ) ! out] "o & ! r+ is ( uni=m ?ickness at all po9ts4 ,! r+ %[n at ,b is call$ an ecc5tric r+1 & x is ?ick] at "o "p ?an at o!rs4 ,x has !oretical advantages 9 t x w make a tight] jo9t ?an ! o!r =m1 z x is claim$ its expansion due to heat is m uni=m4 ,! pi/on r+s mu/ be split 9 ord] t !y may be sprung 9 place 9 ! grooves1 & also to insure t !y w h suffici5t ela/icity to take ! =m ( ! cyl9d] at ! diff]5t po9ts 9 _! travel4 ,if ! cyl9d] bore v>ies by small am\nts ! r+s w spr+ out at ! po9ts :]e ! bore is l>g] ?an /&>d1 & spr+ 9 at ^? portions :]e x is small] ?an /&>d4 ,x is important t ! jo9t %\ld be z ne>ly gas-tight z possible1 because if x 7 n a portion ( ! gases w\ld escape ?r\gh ! slots 9 ! pi/on r+s4 ,! jo9t %[n at ,c is t]m$ a lap jo9t1 because ! ends ( ! r+ are cut 9 su* a mann] t !y ov]lap4 ,?is is ! approv$ jo9t4 ,! butt jo9t %[n at ,d is seldom us$ & is a v poor =m1 ! only advantage be+ its *eapness4 ,! diagonal cut %[n at ,e is a compromise betwe5 ! v good =m %[n at ,c & ! poor jo9t depict$ at ,d4 ,x is also widely us$1 ?\gh mo/ con/ructors pref] ! lap jo9t1 because x does n p]mit ! leakage ( gas z mu* z ! o!r two types4 ,!re seems to be "s diff]5ce ( op9ion relative to ! be/ pi/on r+ type--"s favor+ ! ecc5tric patt]n1 o!rs ! conc5tric =m4 ,! conc5tric r+ has advantages f ! lubricat+ eng9e]'s po9t ( view2 z /at$ by ! ,platt ,wa%burn ,company 9 _! text-book on eng9e lubrication1 ! small] cle>ance beh9d ! r+ possible ) ! r+ ( uni=m section is advantage\s4 ,fig4 #abd1 ,a1 %[s a conc5tric pi/on r+ 9 its groove4 ,s9ce ! r+ itself is conc5tric ) ! groove1 v small cle>ance betwe5 ! back ( ! r+ & ! bottom ( its groove may be all[$4 ,small cle>ance leaves less space = ! accumulation ( oil & c>bon deposits4 ,! gasket effect ( ?is r+ is uni=m ?r\gh\t ! entire l5g? ( its edges1 :i* is its m>k$ advantage ov] ! ecc5tric r+4 ,?is type ( pi/on r+ r>ely burns fa/ 9 its groove4 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t conc5tric r+s manufactur$ ( diff]5t designs & ( diff]5t effici5cy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,advantages ( ,conc5tric ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,figs4 #abd1 ,b & #abd1 ,c %[ ecc5tric r+s assembl$ 9 ! r+ groove4 ,x w be not$ t !re is a l>ge space betwe5 ! ?9 ends ( ?is r+ & ! bottom ( ! groove4 ,?is empty space fills up ) oil :i* 9 ! case ( ! upp] r+ frequ5tly is c>boniz$1 re/rict+ ! action ( ! r+ & nullify+ its usefulness4 ,! edges ( ! ?9 ends are n suffici5tly wide to prev5t rapid escape ( gases pa/ !m4 ,9 a practical way ?is leakage means loss ( compression & noticeable drop 9 p[]4 ,:5 new & prop]ly fitt$1 v little diff]5ce c be not$ betwe5 ! tightness ( ecc5tric & conc5tric r+s4 ,nev]!less1 aft] sev]al mon?s' use1 a m rapid leakage w always occur pa/ ! ecc5tric ?an pa/ ! conc5tric4 ,if cont9u\s tr\ble ) ! c>bonization ( cyl9d]s1 smok+ & soot+ ( sp>k-plugs is exp]i5c$1 x is a sure indication t me*anical defects exi/ 9 ! eng9e1 assum+ ( c\rse1 t a suitable oil has be5 us$4 ,su* tr\ble c be greatly less5$1 if n entirely elim9at$1 by ! application ( conc5tric r+s 7lap jo9t71 ( any good make1 prop]ly fitt$ into ! grooves ( ! pi/on4 ,too mu* emphasis _c be put ^u ?is po9t4 ,if ! oil us$ 9 ! eng9e is ( ! correct viscosity1 & s]i\s c>bon deposit1 smok+1 etc41 /ill result1 ! only c]ta9 rem$y !n is to h ! cyl9d]s rebor$ & fitt$ ) prop]ly design$1 ov]siz$ pi/ons & pi/on r+s4 ,,leak-,,pro( ,,pi/on ,,r+s ,9 ord] to r$uce ! compression loss & leakage ( gas by ! ord9>y simple =m ( diagonal or lap jo9t "o-piece pi/on r+ a numb] ( comp\nd r+s h be5 devis$ & are (f]$ by _! mak]s to use 9 mak+ replacem5ts4 ,! lead+ =ms are %[n at ,fig4 #abe4 ,t %[n at ,a is kn[n z ! ,/atite & consi/s ( ?ree r+s1 "o c>ri$ inside :ile ! o!r two are c>ri$ on ! outside4 ,! r+ %[n at ,b is a d\ble r+ & is kn[n z ! ,mc,cadden4 ,?is is compos$ ( two ?9 conc5tric lap jo9t r+s s dispos$ relative to ea* o!r t ! op5+ 9 ! inn] r+ comes opposite to ! op5+ 9 ! out] r+4 ,! =m %[n at ,c is kn[n z ! ,leektite1 & is a s+le r+ provid$ ) a peculi> =m ( lap & dove tail jo9t4 ,! r+ %[n at ,d is kn[n z ! ,dunham & is ( ! d\ble conc5tric type be+ compos$ ( two r+s ) lap jo9ts :i* are weld$ toge!r at a po9t opposite ! jo9t s t !re is no passage by :i* ! gas c escape4 ,! ,burd high compression r+ is %[n at ,e4 ,! jo9ts ( ^! r+s are seal$ by means ( an ,h-%ap$ c\pl] ( bronze :i* closes ! op5+4 ,! r+ ends are made ) tongues :i* int]lock ) ! c\pl+4 ,! r+ %[n at ,f is call$ ! ,ev]tite & is a ?ree-piece r+ compos$ ( ?ree memb]s z %[n 9 ! sectional view bel[ ! r+4 ,! ma9 "p or inn] r+ has a circumf]5tial *annel 9 :i* ! two out] r+s lock1 ! result+ cross-section be+ rectangul> j ! same z t ( a regul> patt]n r+4 ,all ?ree r+s are diagonally split & ! jo9ts are spac$ equally & ! di/ances ma9ta9$ by small p9s4 ,?is results 9 ea* jo9t be+ seal$ by ! solid portion ( ! o!r r+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,leak-,pro( & ,o!r ,comp\nd ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,! use ( a numb] ( light /eel r+s in/ead ( "o wide r+ 9 ! groove is f\nd on a numb] ( automobile p[] plants1 b z f> z kn[n1 ?is con/ruction is n us$ 9 airplane p[] plants4 ,x is cont5d$ t :]e a numb] ( light r+s is employ$ a m flexible pack+ means is obta9$ & ! possibility ( leakage is r$uc$4 ,r+s ( ?is design are made ( squ>e section /eel wire & are giv5 a spr+ temp]4 ,ow+ to ! limit$ wid? ! diagonal cut jo9t is g5]ally employ$ in/ead ( ! lap jo9t :i* is s popul> on wid] r+s4 ,,keep+ ,,oil ,,out ,,( ,,combu/ion ,,*amb]s ,an exam9ation ( ! eng9e design t is economical 9 oil consumption discloses ! use ( tight pi/on r+s1 l>ge c5trifugal r+s on ! crank-%aft :]e x passes ?r\gh ! case1 ample cool+ f9s 9 ! pi/ons1 v5ts betwe5 ! crank-case *amb] & ! valve enclosures1 etc4 ,briefly put1 cool+ ( ! oil 9 ?is eng9e has be5 prop]ly c>$ = & leakage r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,to be specific reg>d+ details ( design3 ,oil surplus c be kept out ( ! explosion *amb]s by leav+ ! l[] edge ( ! pi/on skirt %>p & by ! use ( a %all[ groove 7,c71 ,fig4 #abf1 j bel[ ! l[] pi/on r+4 ,small holes are bor$ ?r\gh ! pi/on walls at ! base ( ?is groove & communicate ) ! crank-case4 ,! simil>ity ( ! %>p edges ( pi/on skirt 7,d7 & pi/on r+ to a c>p5t]'s plane bit1 makes _! op]ation pla94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4--,sectional ,view ( ,eng9e ,%[+ ,means ( ,prev5t+ ,oil ,leakage ,by ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,! cool+ ( oil 9 ! sump 7,a7 c be accompli%$ mo/ effectively by radiat+ f9s on its out] surface4 ,! l[] crank-case %\ld be fully expos$ to ! out] air4 ,a settl+ bas9 = s$im5t 7,b7 %\ld be provid$ hav+ a cubic cont5t n less ?an "o-t5? ( ! total oil capacity z outl9$ at ,fig4 #abf4 ,! dep? ( ?is bas9 %\ld be at lea/ #b-a_/b in*es1 & its walls v]tical1 z %[n1 to r$uce ! mix+ ( s$im5t ) ! oil 9 circulation4 ,! inlet op5+ to ! oil pump %\ld be ne> ! top ( ! s$im5t bas9 9 ord] to prev5t ! entrance into ! pump ) ! oil ( any solid matt] or wat] cond5s$ f ! products ( combu/ion4 ,?is s$im5t bas9 %\ld be dra9$ aft] e five to sev5 h\rs air s]vice ( an airplane eng9e4 ,conc]n+ filt]+ scre5s !re is little to be said1 save t _! areas %\ld be ample & ! me% co>se en\gh 7"o-sixte5? ( an in*7 to (f] no s]i\s resi/ance to ! free fl[ ( cold or heavy oil ?r\gh !m2 o!rwise ! oil 9 ! crank-case may build up above !m to an undesirable level4 ,! necess>y frequ5cy ( dra9+ & flu%+ out ! oil sump diff]s greatly ) ! age 7condition7 ( ! eng9e & ! suitability ( ! oil us$4 ,9 broad t]ms1 ! oil sump ( a new eng9e %\ld be ?or\ghly dra9$ & flu%$ ) k]os5e at ! end ( ! fir/ #bjj miles1 next at ! end ( #ejj miles & !reaft] e #a1jjj miles4 ,:ile ^! in/ructions apply specifically to automobile motors1 x is v good practice to *ange ! oil 9 airplane eng9es frequ5tly4 ,9 _m cases1 ! be/ results h be5 secur$ :5 ! oil supply is completely repl5i%$ e five h\rs t ! eng9e is 9 op]ation4 ,,connect+ ,,rod ,,=ms ,! connect+ rod is ! simple memb] t jo9s ! pi/on to ! crank-%aft & :i* transmits ! p[] imp>t$ to ! pi/on by ! explosion s t x may be usefully appli$4 ,x trans=ms ! reciprocat+ movem5t ( ! pi/on to a rot>y motion at ! crank-%aft4 ,a typical connect+ rod & its wri/ p9 are %[n at ,fig4 #abj4 ,x w be se5 t x has two be>+s1 "o at ei!r end4 ,! small end is bor$ out to receive ! wri/ p9 :i* jo9s x to ! pi/on1 :ile ! l>ge end has a hole ( suffici5t size to g on ! crank-p94 ,! airplane & automobile eng9e connect+ rod is inv>iably a /eel =g+1 ?\gh 9 m>9e eng9es x is sometimes made a /eel or high t5sile /r5g? bronze ca/+4 ,9 all cases x is desirable to h s(t] metals ?an ! crank-%aft & wri/ p9 at ! be>+ po9t1 & = ?is reason ! connect+ rod is usually provid$ ) bu%+s ( anti-friction or :ite metal at ! l[] end1 & bronze at ! upp]4 ,! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod may be "o piece1 because ! wri/ p9 c be introduc$ aft] x is 9 place betwe5 ! bosses ( ! pi/on4 ,! l[] be>+ mu/ be made 9 two p>ts 9 mo/ cases1 because ! crank-%aft _c be pass$ ?r\gh ! be>+ ow+ to its irregul> =m4 ,! rods ( ! ,gnome eng9e are all "o piece types1 z %[n at ,fig4 #abg1 ow+ to ! con/ruction ( ! "m rod :i* receives ! crank-p9s4 ,! complete connect+ rod assembly is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aba1 also at ,a1 ,fig4 #abg4 ,! "m rod1 ) "o ( ! o!r rods 9 place & "o ab\t to be ins]t$1 is %[n at ,fig4 #abg1 ,b4 ,! built-up crank-%aft :i* makes ?is con/ruction feasible is %[n at ,fig4 #abg1 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4--;,connect+ ,rod & ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,eng9e4 ,"s ( ! v>i\s designs ( connect+ rods t h be5 us$ are %[n at ,fig4 #abh4 ,t at ,a is a simple =m (t5 employ$ 9 s+le-cyl9d] motors1 hav+ built-up crank-%afts4 ,bo? ends ( ! connect+ rod are bu%$ ) a "o-piece be>+1 z x c be assembl$ 9 place be=e ! crank-%aft assembly is built up4 ,a built-up crank-%aft su* z ?is type ( connect+ rod w\ld be us$ ) is %[n at ,fig4 #ajf4 ,! patt]n %[n at ,b is "o t has be5 us$ to "s ext5t on heavy "w1 & is kn[n z ! m>9e type4 ,x is made 9 ?ree pieces1 ! ma9 portion be+ a /eel =g+ hav+ a flang$ l[] end to :i* ! bronze boxes are secur$ by bolts4 ,! modifi$ m>9e type depict$ at ,c is ! =m t has receiv$ ! wide/ application 9 automobile & aviation eng9e con/ruction4 ,x consi/s ( two pieces1 ! ma9 memb] be+ a /eel drop =g+ hav+ ! wri/-p9 be>+ & ! upp] crank-p9 be>+ =m$ integral1 :ile ! l[] crank-p9 be>+ memb] is a sep>ate =g+ secur$ to ! connect+ rod by bolts4 ,9 ?is con/ruction bu%+s ( anti-friction metal are us$ at ! l[] end1 & a bronze bu%+ is =c$ into ! upp]- or wri/-p9 end4 ,! rod %[n at ,d has also be5 widely us$4 ,x is simil> 9 con/ruction to ! =m %[n at ,c1 except t ! upp] end is split 9 ord] to p]mit ( a degree ( adju/m5t ( ! wri/-p9 bu%+1 & ! l[] be>+ cap is a h+$ memb] :i* is reta9$ by "o bolt in/ead ( two4 ,:5 x is desir$ to assemble x on ! crank-%aft ! l[] cap is swung to "o side & br\ght back into place :5 ! connect+ rod has be5 prop]ly locat$4 ,sometimes ! l[] be>+ memb] is split diagonally in/ead ( horizontally1 su* a con/ruction be+ outl9$ at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,connect+ ,rod ,types ,summ>iz$4 ,a--,s+le ,connect+ ,rod ,made 9 ,"o ,piece1 ,usually ,fitt$ 9 ,small ,s+le-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,hav+ ,built-,up ,crank-,%afts4 ,b--,m>9e ,type1 a ,popul> ,=m on ,heavy ,eng9es4 ,c--,conv5tional ,automobile ,type1 a ,modifi$ ,m>9e ,=m4 ,d--,type ,hav+ ,h+$ ,l[] ,cap & ,split ,wri/ ,p9 ,bu%+4 ,e--,connect+ ,rod ,hav+ ,diagonally ,divid$ ,big ,end4 ,f--,ball-,be>+ ,rod4 ,g--,sections ,%[+ ,/ructural ,%apes ,commonly ,employ$ 9 ,connect+ ,rod ,con/ruction4 ,9 a numb] ( in/ances1 in/ead ( pla9 bu%$ be>+s anti-friction =ms us+ ball or roll]s h be5 us$ at ! l[] end4 ,a ball-be>+ connect+ rod is %[n at ,f4 ,! big end may be made 9 "o piece1 because if x is possible to get ! ball be>+ on ! crank-p9s x w be easy to put ! connect+ rod 9 place4 ,ball be>+s are n us$ v (t5 on connect+ rod big ends because ( difficulty ( in/allation1 ?\gh :5 appli$ prop]ly !y give satisfactory s]vice & r$uce friction to a m9imum4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( ! ball be>+ is t x requires no adju/m5t1 :]eas ! pla9 bu%+s depict$ 9 ! o!r connect+ rods mu/ be tak5 up f "t to "t to comp5sate = we>4 ,?is c be done 9 =ms %[n at ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e by br++ ! l[] be>+ caps clos] to ! upp] "o & scrap+ out ! brasses to fit ! %aft4 ,a numb] ( l9]s or %ims ( ?9 brass or copp] /ock1 v>y+ f 4#jjb in* to 4#jje in*1 are sometimes int]pos$ betwe5 ! halves ( ! be>+s :5 x is fir/ fitt$ to ! crank-p94 ,z ! brasses we> ! %ims may be remov$ & ! portions ( ! be>+s br\ght close en\gh toge!r to take up any lo/ motion t may exi/1 ?\gh 9 "s motors no %ims are provid$ & depreciation c be rem$i$ only by in/all+ new brasses & scrap+ to fit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,d\ble ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly ,= ,use ,on ,s+le ,crank-,p9 ( ,vee ,eng9e4 ,! v>i\s /ructural %apes 9 :i* connect+ rods are =m$ are %[n 9 section at ,g4 ,( ^! ! ,i section is mo/ widely us$ 9 airplane eng9es1 because x is /rong & a v easy %ape to =m by ! drop-=g+ process or to ma*9e out ( ! solid b> :5 extra good /eel is us$4 ,:]e extreme lightness is desir$1 z 9 small high-spe$ motors us$ = cycle propulsion1 ! section %[n at ! extreme left is (t5 us$4 ,if ! rod is a ca/ memb] z 9 "s m>9e eng9es1 ! cross1 holl[ cyl9d]1 or ,u sections are sometimes us$4 ,if ! sections %[n at ! "r are employ$1 advantage is (t5 tak5 ( ! opportunity = pass+ lubricant ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! holl[ r\nd section on v]tical motors or at ! bottom ( ! ,u section1 :i* w\ld be us$ on a horizontal cyl9d] p[] plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,ano!r ,type ( ,d\ble ,connect+ ,rod = ,vee ,eng9es4 ,connect+ rods ( ,vee eng9es are made 9 two di/9ct /yles4 ,! =k$ or scissors jo9t rod assembly is employ$ :5 ! cyl9d]s are plac$ directly opposite ea* o!r4 ,! blade rod1 z %[n at ,fig4 #abi1 fits betwe5 ! l[] ends ( ! =k$ rod1 :i* oscillate on ! be>+ :i* encircles ! crank-p94 ,! l[] end ( ! blade rod is usually atta*$ to ! be>+ brasses1 ! ends ( ! =k$ rod move on ! out] surfaces ( ! brasses4 ,ano!r =m ( rod devis$ = use "u ^! conditions is %[n at ,fig4 #acj & in/all$ 9 an aviation eng9e at ,fig4 #acb4 ,9 ?is con/ruction ! %ort] rod is atta*$ to a boss on ! ma/] rod by a %ort p9 to =m a h+e & to p]mit ! %ort rod to oscillate z ! conditions dictate4 ,?is =m ( rod c be easily adju/$ :5 ! be>+ depreciates1 a proc$ure t is difficult ) ! =k$ type rod4 ,! be/ practice1 9 ! writ]'s op9ion1 is to /agg] ! cyl9d]s & use side-by-side rods z is done 9 ! ,curtiss eng9e4 ,ea* rod may be fitt$ indep5d5tly ( ! o!r & p]fect comp5sation = we> ( ! big ends is possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,f\r-,be>+ ,crank-,%aft1 ,ov]head ,cam-,%aft1 & ,me?od ( ,comb9+ ,cyl9d]s 9 ,pairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4--,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,connect+ ,rod ,con/ruction & ,o!r ,important ,int]nal ,p>ts4 ,,cam-,,%aft ,,& ,,crank-,,%aft ,,design ,be=e go+ ext5sively into ! subject ( crank-%aft con/ruction x w be well to consid] cam-%aft design1 :i* is prop]ly a "p ( ! valve sy/em & :i* has be5 consid]$ 9 connection ) ! o!r elem5ts :i* h to d directly ) cyl9d] con/ruction to "s ext5t4 ,cam-%afts are usually simple memb]s c>ri$ at ! base ( ! cyl9d] 9 ! eng9e case ( ,vee type motors by suitable be>+s & hav+ ! cams employ$ to lift ! valves atta*$ at int]vals4 ,a typical cam-%aft design is %[n at ,fig4 #acc4 ,two ma9 me?ods ( cam-%aft con/ruction are foll[$--t 9 :i* ! cams are sep>ate memb]s1 key$ & p9n$ to ! %aft1 & ! o!r :]e ! cams are =m$ integral1 ! latt] be+ ! mo/ suitable = airplane eng9e requirem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4--,typical ,cam-,%aft1 ) ,valve ,lift+ ,cams & ,ge>s to ,op]ate ,auxili>y ,devices ,=g$ ,integrally4 ,! cam-%afts %[n at ,figs4 #acc & #acd1 ,b1 are ( ! latt] type1 z ! cams are ma*9$ integrally4 ,9 ?is case n only ! cams b also ! ge>s us$ 9 driv+ ! auxili>y %afts are =g$ integral4 ,?is is a m exp5sive con/ruction1 because ( ! high initial co/ ( =g+ dies z well z ! great] exp5se ( ma*9+4 ,x has ! advantage ov] ! o!r =m 9 :i* ! cams are key$ 9 place 9 t x is /rong]1 & z ! cams are a "p ( ! %aft !y c nev] become loose1 z might be possible :]e !y are sep>ately =m$ & assembl$ on a simple %aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4--;,important ,p>ts ( ,dues5b]g ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,a--,?ree ,ma9 ,be>+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,b--,cam-,%aft ) ,integral ,cams4 ,c--,pi/on & ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly4 ,d--,valve ,rock] ,gr\p4 ,e--,pi/on4 ,f--,ma9 ,be>+ ,brasses4 ,! importance ( ! crank-%aft has be5 previ\sly consid]$1 & "s ( its =ms h be5 %[n 9 views ( ! motors pres5t$ 9 e>li] portions ( ?is "w4 ,! crank-%aft is "o ( ! p>ts subject$ to ! greate/ /ra9 & extreme c>e is ne$$ 9 its con/ruction & design1 because practically ! entire duty ( transmitt+ ! p[] g5]at$ by ! motor to ! ge>set devolves ^u x4 ,crank-%afts are usually made ( high t5sile /r5g? /eel ( special composition4 ,!y may be made 9 f\r ways1 ! mo/ common be+ f a drop or ma*9e =g+ :i* is =m$ approximately to ! %ape ( ! f9i%$ %aft & 9 r>e in/ances 7exp]im5tal motors only7 !y may be /eel ca/+s4 ,sometimes !y are made f ma*9e =g+s1 :]e consid]ably m ma*9e "w is necess>y ?an w\ld be ! case :]e ! %aft is =m$ betwe5 dies4 ,"s eng9e]s favor block+ ! %aft out ( a solid slab ( metal & !n ma*9+ ?is r\gh blank to =m4 ,9 "s radial-cyl9d] motors ( ! ,gnome & ,le ,rhone type ! crank-%afts are built up ( two pieces1 held toge!r by tap] fa/5+s or bolts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4--,%[+ ,me?od ( ,mak+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,a--,! ,r\gh ,/eel ,=g+ ,be=e ,ma*9+4 ,b--,! ,f9i%$ ,six-,?r[1 ,sev5-,be>+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,! =m ( ! %aft dep5ds on ! numb] ( cyl9d]s & ! =m has mat]ial influ5ce on ! me?od ( con/ruction4 ,= in/ance1 a f\r-cyl9d] crank-%aft c\ld be made by ei!r ( ! me?ods outl9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ?ree- or six-cyl9d] %aft is be/ made by ! ma*9e =g+ process1 because if drop =g$ or cut f ! blank x w h to be heat$ & ! crank ?r[s b5t ar\nd s t ! p9s w lie 9 ?ree planes "o hundr$ & tw5ty degrees ap>t1 :ile ! o!r types describ$ ne$ no fur!r att5tion1 z ! crank-p9s lie 9 planes "o hundr$ & eighty degrees ap>t4 ,?is c be bett] und]/ood by ref]r+ to ,fig4 #ace1 :i* %[s a six-cyl9d] %aft 9 ! r\gh & f9i%$ /ages4 ,at ,a ! appe>ance ( ! ma*9e =g+ be=e any ( ! mat]ial is remov$ is %[n1 :ile at ,b ! appe>ance ( ! f9i%$ crank-%aft is cle>ly depict$4 ,! built-up crank-%aft is seldom us$ on multiple-cyl9d] motors1 except 9 "s cases :]e ! crank-%afts revolve on ball be>+s z 9 "s automobile rac+ eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,%[+ ,=m ( ,crank-,%aft = ,tw9-,cyl9d] ,oppos$ ,p[] ,plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4--;,crank-,%aft ( ,?omas-,morse ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e4 ,crank-%aft =m w v>y ) a numb] ( cyl9d]s & x is possible to use a numb] ( diff]5t arrangem5ts ( crank-p9s & be>+s = ! same numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,! simple/ =m ( crank-%aft is t us$ on simple radial cyl9d] motors z x w\ld consi/ ( b "o crank-p91 two webs1 & ! crank-%aft4 ,z ! numb] ( cyl9d]s increase 9 ,vee motors z a g5]al rule m crank-p9s are us$4 ,! crank-%aft t w\ld be us$ on a two-cyl9d] oppos$ motor is %[n at ,fig4 #acf4 ,?is has two ?r[s & ! crank-p9s are spac$ #ahj degrees ap>t4 ,! be>+s are exceptionally long4 ,f\r-cyl9d] crank-%afts may h two1 ?ree or five ma9 be>+s & ?ree or f\r crank-p9s4 ,9 "s =ms ( two-be>+ crank-%afts1 su* z us$ :5 f\r-cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 a block1 or unit ca/+1 two ( ! pi/ons are atta*$ to "o common crank-p91 s t 9 reality ! crank-%aft has b ?ree crank-p9s4 ,a typical ?ree be>+1 f\r-cyl9d] crank-%aft is %[n at ,fig4 #acd1 ,a4 ,! same type c be us$ = an eight-cyl9d] ,vee eng9e1 except = ! great] l5g? ( crank-p9s to p]mit ( side by side rods z %[n at ,fig4 #acg4 ,six cyl9d] v]tical t&em & twelve-cyl9d] ,vee eng9e crank-%afts usually h f\r or sev5 ma9 be>+s dep5d+ ^u ! disposition ( ! crank-p9s & arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s4 ,at ,fig4 #ach1 ,a1 ! bottom view ( a twelve-cyl9d] eng9e ) bottom half ( crank case remov$ is giv54 ,?is illu/rates cle>ly ! arrangem5t ( ma9 be>+s :5 ! crank-%aft is support$ on f\r j\rnals4 ,! crank-%aft %[n at ,fig4 #ach1 ,b1 is a twelve-cyl9d] sev5-be>+ type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4--;,crank-,case & ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction = ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,a--,dues5b]g4 ,b--,curtiss4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4--;,c\nt]balanc$ ,crank-,%afts ,r$uce ,eng9e ,vibration & ,p]mit ( ,high] ,rotative ,spe$s4 ,9 "s automobile eng9es1 extremely good results h be5 secur$ 9 obta9+ /eady runn+ ) m9imum vibration by c\nt]balanc+ ! crank-%afts z outl9$ at ,fig4 #aci4 ,! %aft at ,a is a type suitable = a high spe$ f\r-cyl9d] v]tical or an eight-cyl9d] ,vee type4 ,t at ,b is = a six-cyl9d] v]tical or a twelve-cyl9d] ,v ) scissors jo9t rods4 ,if c\nt]balanc+ crank-%afts helps 9 an automobile eng9e1 x %\ld h advantages ( "s mom5t 9 airplane eng9es1 ev5 ?\gh ! crank-%aft weight is great]4 ,,ball-,,be>+ ,,crank-,,%afts ,:ile crank-%afts are usually support$ 9 pla9 j\rnals !re seems to be a gr[+ t5d5cy ( late to use anti-friction be>+s ( ! ball type = _! support4 ,?is is especially noticeable on block motors :]e b two ma9 be>+s are utiliz$4 ,:5 ball be>+s are select$ ) prop] relation to ! load :i* obta9s !y w give v satisfactory s]vice4 ,!y p]mit ! crank-%aft to turn ) m9imum friction1 & if prop]ly select$ w nev] ne$ adju/m5t4 ,! front end is support$ by a be>+ :i* is clamp$ 9 su* a mann] t x w take a c]ta9 am\nt ( load 9 a direction p>allel to ! axis ( ! %aft1 :ile ! re> end is s support$ t ! out] race ( ! be>+ has a c]ta9 am\nt ( axial fre$om or float4 ,! inn] race or cone ( ea* be>+ is firmly clamp$ aga9/ %\ld]s on ! crank-%aft4 ,at ! front end ( ! crank-%aft tim+ ge> & a suitable *eck nut are us$1 :ile at ! back end ! be>+ is clamp$ by a ?read$ ret5tion memb] betwe5 ! fly-:eel & a %\ld] on ! crank-%aft4 ,! fly-:eel is held 9 place by a tap] & key ret5tion4 ,! ball be>+s are c>ri$ 9 a light h\s+ ( bronze or malleable iron1 :i* 9 turn are held 9 ! crank-case by bolts4 ,! ,r5ault eng9e uses ball be>+s at front & re> ends ( ! crank-%aft1 b has pla9 be>+s ar\nd int]m$iate crank-%aft j\rnals4 ,! rot>y eng9es ( ! ,gnome1 ,le ,rhone & ,cl]get =ms w\ld n be practical if ball be>+s 7 n us$ z ! be>+ friction & consequ5t depreciation w\ld be v high4 ,,eng9e-,,base ,,con/ruction ,"o ( ! important p>ts ( ! p[] plant is ! sub/antial cas+ or b$ memb]1 :i* is employ$ to support ! cyl9d]s & crank-%aft & :i* is atta*$ directly to ! fuselage eng9e support+ memb]s4 ,?is w v>y widely 9 =m1 b z a g5]al ?+ x is an approximately cyl9drical memb] :i* may be divid$ ei!r v]tically or horizontally 9 two or m p>ts4 ,airplane eng9e crank-cases are usually made ( alum9um1 a mat]ial :i* has ab\t ! same /r5g? z ca/ iron1 b :i* only weighs a ?ird z mu*4 ,9 r>e cases ca/ iron is employ$1 b is n favor$ by mo/ eng9e]s because ( its brittle nature1 great weight & l[ resi/ance to t5sile /resses4 ,:]e exceptional /r5g? is ne$$ alloys ( bronze may be us$1 & 9 "s cases :]e eng9es are produc$ 9 l>ge quantities a portion ( ! crank-case may be a %eet /eel or alum9um /amp+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,view ( ,?omas #ace ,horse-,p[] ,a]omotor1 ,model #h1 ,%[+ ,conv5tional ,me?od ( ,crank-,case ,con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,views ( ,upp] ,half ( ,?omas ,a]omotor ,crank-,case4 ,crank-cases are always l>ge en\gh to p]mit ! crank-%aft & p>ts atta*$ to x to turn inside & obvi\sly its l5g? is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( cyl9d]s & _! disposition4 ,! crank-case ( ! radial cyl9d] or d\ble-oppos$ cyl9d] eng9e w\ld be sub/antially ! same 9 l5g?4 ,t ( a f\r-cyl9d] w v>y 9 l5g? ) ! me?od ( ca/+ ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! f\r-cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 "o unit & a two-be>+ crank-%aft is us$1 ! crank-case is a v compact & %ort memb]4 ,:5 a ?ree-be>+ crank-%aft is utiliz$ & ! cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 pairs1 ! eng9e base is long] ?an x w\ld be to support a block ca/+1 b is %ort] ?an "o design$ to su/a9 individual cyl9d] ca/+s & a five-be>+ crank-%aft4 ,x is n[ common con/ruction to ca/ an oil conta9] integral ) ! bottom ( ! eng9e base & to draw ! lubricat+ oil f x by means ( a pump1 z %[n at ,fig4 #adj4 ,! arms by :i* ! motor is support$ 9 ! fuselage are sub/antial-ribb$ memb]s ca/ integrally ) ! upp] half4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4--,me?od ( ,con/ruct+ ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e1 ,possible if ,alum9um ,cyl9d] & ,crank-,case ,ca/+s are ,us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,simple & ,compact ,crank-,case1 ,possible ,:5 ,radial ,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,design is ,foll[$4 ,! approv$ me?od ( crank-case con/ruction favor$ by ! majority ( eng9e]s is %[n at ! top ( ,fig4 #ada1 bottom side up4 ,! upp] half n only =ms a b$ = ! cyl9d] b is us$ to hold ! crank-%aft z well4 ,9 ! illu/ration1 ! ?ree-be>+ boxes =m "p ( ! case1 :ile ! l[] brasses are 9 ! =m ( sep>ately ca/ caps reta9$ by suitable bolts4 ,9 ! con/ruction outl9$ ! bottom "p ( ! case s]ves m]ely z an oil conta9] & a protection = ! int]ior me*anism ( ! motor4 ,! cyl9d]s are held d[n by means ( /uds screw$ into ! crank-case top1 z %[n at ,fig4 #ada1 l[] view4 ,if ! alum9um cyl9d] motor has any future1 ! me?od ( con/ruction outl9$ at ,fig4 #adb1 :i* has be5 us$ 9 ca/ iron = an automobile motor1 might be us$ = an eight-cyl9d] ,vee eng9e = airplane use4 ,! simplicity ( ! crank-case ne$$ = a revolv+ cyl9d] motor & its small weight c be well und]/ood by exam9ation ( ! illu/ration at ,fig4 #adc1 :i* %[s ! eng9e crank-case = ! n9e-cyl9d] ,monos\pape ,gnome eng9e4 ,?is consi/s ( two accurately ma*9$ =g+s held toge!r by bolts z cle>ly indicat$4 ,,*apt] ,x ,p[] ,plant ,in/allation--,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,eng9e ,m\nt+ & ,op]at+ ,rules--,/&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,eng9e ,b$ ,dim5sions-- ,hall-,scott ,eng9e ,in/allation & ,op]ation--,fuel ,sy/em ,rules --,ignition ,sy/em--,wat] ,sy/em--,prep>ations to ,/>t ,eng9e-- ,m\nt+ ,radial & ,rot>y ,eng9es--,practical ,h9ts to ,locate ,eng9e ,tr\bles--,all ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,summ>iz$--,location ( ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,! prop] in/allation ( ! airplane p[] plant is m important ?an is g5]ally suppos$1 z :ile ^! eng9es are usually well balanc$ & run ) little vibration1 x is necess>y t !y be securely an*or$ & t v>i\s connections to ! auxili>y p>ts be c>efully made 9 ord] to prev5t breakage f vibration & t att5dant risk ( motor /oppage :ile 9 ! air4 ,! type ( motor to be in/all$ det]m9es ! me?od ( in/allation to be foll[$4 ,z a g5]al rule six-cyl9d] v]tical eng9e & eight-cyl9d] ,vee type are m\nt$ 9 sub/antially ! same way4 ,! radial1 fix$ cyl9d] =ms & ! radial1 rot>y cyl9d] ,gnome & ,le ,rhone rot>y types require an entirely diff]5t me?od ( m\nt+4 ,"s unconv5tional m\nt+s h be5 devis$1 notably t %[n at ,fig4 #add1 :i* is a six-cyl9d] ,g]man eng9e t is in/all$ 9 j ! opposite way to t commonly foll[$4 ,! inv]t$ cyl9d] con/ruction is n g5]ally foll[$ because ev5 ) pressure fe$1 dry crank-case type lubricat+ sy/em !re is consid]able dang] ( ov]-lubrication & ( oil collect+ & c>boniz+ 9 ! combu/ion *amb] & gumm+ up ! valve action mu* quick] ?an w\ld be ! case if ! eng9e 0 op]at$ 9 ! conv5tional upright position4 ,! reason = m\nt+ an eng9e 9 ?is way is to obta9 a l[] c5t] ( gravity & also to make = m p]fect /reaml9+ ( ! front end ( ! fuselage 9 "s cases4 ,x is r d\btful if ?is slight advantage w comp5sate = ! disadvantages introduc$ by ?is unusual con/ruction4 ,x is n us$ to any ext5t n[ b is pres5t$ m]ely to %[ "o ( ! possible sy/ems ( in/all+ an airplane eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4--,unconv5tional ,m\nt+ ( ,g]man ,inv]t$ ,cyl9d] ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,h[ ,curtiss ,model ,,ox-#b ,motor is ,in/all$ 9 ,fuselage ( ,curtiss ,tractor ,biplane4 ,note ,simil>ity ( ,m\nt+ to ,automobile ,p[] ,plant4 ,9 a numb] ( airplanes ( ! tractor-biplane type ! p[] plant in/allation is n v mu* diff]5t ?an t :i* is f\nd 9 automobile practice4 ,! illu/ration at ,fig4 #ade is a v cle> repres5tation ( ! me?od ( m\nt+ ! ,curtiss eight-cyl9d] #ij ,h4 ,p4 or model ,,ox-#b eng9e 9 ! fuselage ( ! ,curtiss ,,jn-#d tractor biplane :i* is s g5]ally us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a tra9+ ma*9e4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! fuel tank is m\nt$ "u a c[l directly beh9d ! motor & t x fe$s ! c>buretor by means ( a flexible fuel pipe4 ,z ! tank is m\nt$ high] ?an ! c>buretor1 x w fe$ t memb] by gravity4 ,! radiator is m\nt$ at ! front end ( ! fuselage & connect$ to ! wat] pip+ on ! motor by ! usual rubb] hose connections4 ,an oil pan is plac$ "u ! eng9e & ! top is cov]$ ) a hood j z 9 motor c> practice4 ,! panels ( alum9um are atta*$ to ! sides ( ! fuselage & are suppli$ ) doors :i* op5 & provide access to ! c>buretor1 oil-gauge & o!r p>ts ( ! motor requir+ inspection4 ,! complete in/allation ) ! p[] plant enclos$ is giv5 at ,fig4 #adf1 & 9 ?is x w be obs]v$ t ! exhau/ pipes are connect$ to dis*>ge memb]s t lead ! gases above ! top plane4 ,9 ! eng9e %[n at ,fig4 #ade ! exhau/ fl[s directly into ! air at ! sides ( ! ma*9e ?r\gh %ort pipes bolt$ to ! exhau/ gas outlet ports4 ,! in/allation ( ! radiator j back ( ! tractor screw insures t adequate cool+ w be obta9$ because ( ! rapid air fl[ due to ! propell] slip /ream4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,late/ ,model ( ,curtiss ,,jn-#d ,tra9+ ,ma*9e1 ,%[+ ,?or\gh ,enclosure ( ,p[] ,plant & ,me?od ( ,dispos+ ( ! ,exhau/ ,gases4 ,,in/allation ,,( ,,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4--;,front ,view ( ,l4 ,w4 ,f4 ,tractor ,biplane ,fuselage1 ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,in/all+ ,?omas ,a]omotor & ,me?od ( ,dispos+ ( ,exhau/ ,gases4 ,! foll[+ in/ructions are giv5 9 ! ,curtiss ,in/ruction ,book = in/all+ ! ,,ox-#b eng9e & prep>+ x = flights1 & tak5 9 connection ) ! v cle> illu/ration pres5t$ no difficulty %\ld be exp]i5c$ 9 und]/&+ ! prop] in/allation1 & m\nt+ ( ?is p[] plant4 ,! be>]s or b$s %\ld be #b in*es wide by #c in*es deep1 pref]ably ( lam9at$ h>d wood1 & plac$ #aa-e_/h in*es ap>t4 ,!y mu/ be well brac$4 ,! six arms ( ! base ( ! motor are drill$ = #c_/h-;in* bolts1 & none b ?is size %\ld he us$4 #a4 ,an*or+ ! ,motor4 ,put ! bolts 9 f ! bottom1 ) a l>ge wa%] "u ! head ( ea* s ! head _c cut into ! wood4 ,on e bolt use a ca/ellat$ nut & a cott] p91 or an ord9>y nut & a lock wa%]1 s ! bolt w n "w loose4 ,always set motor 9 place & fa/5 be=e atta*+ any auxili>y app>atus1 su* z c>buretor1 etc4 #b4 ,inspect+ ! ,ignition-,swit* ,wires4 ,! wires lead+ f ! ignition swit* mu/ be prop]ly connect$--"o end to ! motor body = gr\nd1 & ! o!r end to ! po/ on ! break] box ( ! magneto4 #c4 ,fill+ ! ,radiator4 ,be sure t ! wat] f ! radiator fills ! cyl9d] jackets4 ,pockets ( air may rema9 9 ! cyl9d] jackets ev5 ?\gh ! radiator may appe> full4 ,turn ! motor ov] a few times by h& aft] fill+ ! radiator1 & !n add m wat] if ! radiator w take x4 ,! air pockets1 if all[$ to rema91 may cause ov]heat+ & develop s]i\s tr\ble :5 ! motor is runn+4 #d4 ,fill+ ! ,oil ,res]voir4 ,oil is admitt$ into ! crank-case ?r\gh ! brea!r tube at ! re>4 ,x is well to /ra9 all oil put into ! crank-case4 ,9 fill+ ! oil res]voir be sure to turn ! h&le on ! oil sight-gauge till x is at "r angles ) ! gauge4 ,! oil sight-gauge is on ! side ( ! l[] half ( ! crank-case4 ,put 9 ab\t #c gallons ( ! be/ obta9able oil1 ,mobile ,b recomm5d$4 ,x is important to rememb] t ! v be/ oil is none too good4 #e4 ,oil+ ,expos$ ,mov+ ,p>ts4 ,oil all rock]-arm be>+s be=e ea* flight4 ,a little oil %\ld be appli$ :]e ! pu% rods pass ?r\gh ! /irrup /raps4 #f4 ,fill+ ! ,gasol9e ,tanks4 ,be c]ta9 t all connections 9 ! gasol9e sy/em are tight4 #g4 ,turn+ on ! ,gasol9e4 ,op5 ! cock lead+ f ! gasol9e tank to ! c>buretor4 #h4 ,*>g+ ! ,cyl9d]s4 ,) ! ignition swit* ,,(f1 prime ! motor by squirt+ a little gasol9e 9 ea* exhau/ port & !n turn ! propell] backw>d two revolutions4 ,nev] op5 ! exhau/ valve by op]at+ ! rock]-arm by h&1 z ! pu%-rod is liable to come out ( its socket 9 ! cam foll[] & b5d ! rock]-arm :5 ! motor turns ov]4 #i4 ,/>t+ ! ,motor by ,h&4 ,always ret>d ! sp>k "p way1 to prev5t back-fir+1 by pull+ =w>d ! wire atta*$ to ! break] box4 ,failure to s ret>d ! sp>k 9 />t+ may result 9 s]i\s injury to ! op]ator4 ,turn on ! ignition swit* ) ?rottle p>tly op52 give a quick1 /rong pull d[n & outw>d on ! />t+ crank or propell]4 ,z soon z ! motor is />t$ advance ! sp>k by releas+ ! ret>d wire4 #aj4 ,oil ,circulation4 ,let ! motor run at l[ spe$ = a few m9utes 9 ord] to e/abli% oil circulation 9 all be>+s4 ,) all p>ts function+ prop]ly1 ! ?rottle may be op5$ gradually = w>m+ up be=e flight4 ,,/&>d ,s4,a4,e4 ,,eng9e ,,b$ ,,dim5sions ,! ,society ( ,automotive ,eng9e]s h made ef=ts to /&>dize dim5sions ( b$ timb]s = support+ p[] plant 9 an a]oplane4 ,ow+ to ! great diff]5ce 9 l5g? no /&>dization is ?\ght possible 9 ?is reg>d4 ,! dim5sions recomm5d$ are z foll[s3 ,di/ance betwe5 timb]s #ab 94 #ad 94 #af 94 ,wid? ( b$ timb]s #a-a_/b 94 #a-c_/d 94 #b 94 ,di/ance betwe5 c5t]s ( bolts #ac-a_/b 94 #ae-c_/d 94 #ah 94 ,x w be evid5t t if any /&>d ( ?is nature 7 adopt$ by eng9e build]s t ! design]s ( fuselage c\ld easily arrange _! b$ timb]s to con=m to ^! dim5sions1 :]eas x w\ld be difficult to h !m adh]e to any /&>d longitud9al dim5sions :i* are mu* m easily v>i$ 9 fuselages ?an ! transv]se dim5sions are4 ,x1 h[ev]1 %\ld be possible to /&>dize ! longitud9al positions ( ! hold+ d[n bolts z ! eng9e design] w\ld /ill be able to all[ himself consid]able space =e-&-aft ( ! bolts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4--;,end ,elevation ( ,hall-,scott ,a-#g ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,motor1 ) ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,,hall-,,scott ,,eng9e ,,in/allation ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,plan & ,side ,elevation ( ,hall-,scott ,a-#g ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ) ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,! v ?or\gh mann] 9 :i* in/allation diagrams are prep>$ by ! lead+ eng9e mak]s leaves no?+ to ! imag9ation4 ,! dim5sions ( ! ,hall-,scott f\r-cyl9d] airplane eng9e are giv5 cle>ly 9 our in* measurem5ts ) ! metric equival5ts at ,figs4 #adh & #adi1 ! =m] %[+ a v]tical elevation :ile ! latt] has a plan view & side elevation4 ,! in/allation ( ?is eng9e 9 airplanes is cle>ly %[n at ,figs4 #aej & #aea1 ! =m] hav+ ! radiator in/all$ at ! front ( ! motor & hav+ all exhau/ pipes jo9$ to "o common dis*>ge funnel1 :i* deflects ! gas ov] ! top plane :ile ! latt] has ! radiator plac$ v]tically above ! motor at ! back end & has a direct exhau/ gas dis*>ge to ! air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,,c5sor$ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,,c5sor$ ,! dim5sions ( ! six-cyl9d] ,hall-,scott motor :i* is kn[n z ! type ,a-#e #abe ,h4 ,p4 are giv5 at ,fig4 #aeb1 :i* is an end sectional elevation1 & at ,fig4 #aec1 :i* is a plan view4 ,! dim5sions are giv5 bo? 9 in* sizes & ! metric equival5ts4 ,! appe>ance ( a ,hall-,scott six-cyl9d] eng9e in/all$ 9 a fuselage is giv5 at ,fig4 #aed1 :ile a diagram %[+ ! location ( ! eng9e & ! v>i\s pipes lead+ to ! auxili>y gr\ps is outl9$ at ,fig4 #aee4 ,! foll[+ in/ructions = in/all+ ! ,hall-,scott p[] plant are reproduc$ f ! in/ruction book issu$ by ! mak]4 ,op]at+ in/ructions :i* are giv5 %\ld enable any good me*anic to make a prop] in/allation & to keep ! eng9e 9 good runn+ condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,,c5sor$ ,,fuel ,,sy/em ,,in/allation ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,plan ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,gasol9e giv+ ! be/ results ) ?is equipm5t is z foll[s3 ,gravity #eh-fb deg4 ,baume ,a4 ,initial boil+ po9t--,ri*mond me?od--#ajb deg4 ,fahr4 ,sulphur 4#jad4 ,calorimetric bomb te/ #bjfaj ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 p] p\nd4 ,if ! gasol9e tank is plac$ 9 ! fuselage bel[ ! level ( ! c>buretor1 a h& pump mu/ be us$ to ma9ta9 air pressure 9 gas tank to =ce ! gasol9e to ! c>buretor4 ,aft] />t+ ! eng9e ! small auxili>y air pump ^u ! eng9e w ma9ta9 suffici5t pressure4 ,a-#g;a & ,a-#e;a eng9es are furni%$ ) a new type auxili>y air pump4 ,?is %\ld be frequ5tly oil$ & c>e tak5 s no grit or s& w ent] :i* might lodge betwe5 ! valve & its seat1 :i* w\ld make x fail to op]ate prop]ly4 ,an air relief valve is furni%$ ) ea* eng9e4 ,x %\ld be screw$ into ! gas tank & prop]ly regulat$ to ma9ta9 ! pressure requir$4 ,?is is done by screw+ ! rat*et on top ei!r up or d[n4 ,if two tanks are us$ 9 a plane "o %\ld be in/all$ 9 ea* tank4 ,all air pump l9es %\ld be c>efully gone ov] q frequ5tly to asc]ta9 if !y are tight4 ,*eck valves h to be plac$ 9 ^! l9es4 ,9 "s cases ! gasol9e tank is plac$ above ! eng9e1 all[+ x to dra9 by gravity to ! c>buretor4 ,:5 us+ ?is sy/em !re %\ld be a drop ( n less ?an two feet f ! l[e/ portion ( ! gasol9e tank to ! upp] "p ( ! c>buretor float *amb]4 ,ev5 ?is height might n be suffici5t to ma9ta9 ! prop] volume ( gasol9e to ! c>buretor at high spe$s4 ,air pressure is advis$ ^u all tanks to insure ! prop] supply ( gasol9e4 ,:5 us+ gravity fe$ )\t air pressure be sure to v5t ! tank to all[ circulation ( air4 ,if gravity tank is us$ & ! eng9e runs satisfactorily at l[ spe$s b cuts out at high spe$s ! tr\ble is und\bt$ly due to insuffici5t height ( ! tank above ! c>buretor4 ,! tank %\ld be rais$ or air pressure sy/em us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,?ree-,qu>t] ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e1 ) ,"o ( ! ,side ,radiators ,remov$ to ,%[ ,in/allation 9 ,/&>d ,fuselage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4--;,diagram ,%[+ ,prop] ,in/allation ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,eng9e ) ,pressure ,fe$ ,fuel ,supply ,sy/em4 ,,ignition ,,swit*es ,two ,,dixie swit*es are furni%$ ) ea* eng9e4 ,bo? ( ^! %\ld be in/all$ 9 ! pilot's seat1 "o controll+ ! ,r4 ,h41 & ! o!r ! ,l4 ,h4 magneto4 ,by %ort+ ei!r "o or ! o!r x c be quickly det]m9$ if bo? magnetos1 ) _! respective sp>k-plugs1 are work+ correctly4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to use sp>k-plugs hav+ special ext5sions or long protrud+ po9ts4 ,plugs giv+ be/ results are extremely small ) %ort po9ts4 ,,wat] ,,sy/ems ,a temp]ature gauge %\ld be in/all$ 9 ! wat] pipe1 com+ directly f ! cyl9d] ne>e/ ! propell] 7note illu/ration above74 ,?is in/rum5t in/all$ 9 ! radiator cap has n always giv5 satisfactory results4 ,?is is especially noticeable :5 ! wat] 9 ! radiator becomes l[1 n all[+ x to t\* ! bulb on ! moto-met]4 ,= ord9>y runn+1 x %\ld n indicate ov] #aej degrees ,fahr4 ,9 climb+ te/s1 h[ev]1 a temp]ature ( #afj degrees ,fahr4 c be ma9ta9$ )\t any ill effects ^u ! eng9e4 ,9 case ! eng9e becomes ov]heat$1 ! indicator w regi/] above #ahj degrees ,fahr41 9 :i* case x %\ld be /opp$ imm$iately4 ,ov]heat+ is mo/ g5]ally caus$ by ret>d$ sp>k1 excessive c>bon 9 ! cyl9d]s1 insuffici5t lubrication1 improp]ly tim$ valves1 lack ( wat]1 clogg+ ( wat] sy/em 9 any way :i* w\ld ob/ruct ! free circulation ( ! wat]4 ,ov]heat+ w cause ! eng9e to knock1 ) possible damag+ results4 ,suction pipes %\ld be made out ( ?9 tub+1 & run )9 a qu>t] or an eigh? ( an in* ( ea* o!r1 s t :5 a hose is plac$ ov] ! two1 x w n be possible to suck toge!r4 ,?is is (t5 ! case :5 a long rubb] hose is us$1 :i* causes ov]heat+4 ,radiators %\ld be flu%$ out & clean$ ?or\ghly q (t54 ,a dirty radiator may cause ov]heat+4 ,:5 fill+ ! radiator x is v important to remove ! plug on top ( ! wat] pump until wat] appe>s4 ,?is is to avoid air pockets be+ =m$ 9 ! circulat+ sy/em1 :i* might n only heat up ! eng9e1 b cause consid]able damage4 ,all wat] pump hoses & connections %\ld be tightly tap$ & %ellack$ aft] ! eng9e is prop]ly in/all$ 9 ! plane4 ,! greate/ c>e %\ld be tak5 :5 mak+ eng9e in/allation n to use small] inside diamet] hose connection ?an wat] pump suction end ca/+4 ,"o in* & a qu>t] inside diamet] %\ld be us$ on ,a-#g & ,a-#e motors1 :ile no?+ less ?an "o in* & a half inside diamet] hose or tub+ on all ,a-#g;a & ,a-#e;a eng9es4 ,x is fur!r important to h light spun tub+1 void ( any %>p turns1 leads f pump to radiator & cyl9d] wat] outlet to radiator4 ,9 o!r words1 ! wat] circulation ?r\gh ! eng9e mu/ be z little re/rict$ z possible4 ,be sure no light hose is us$1 t w (t5 suck toge!r :5 eng9e is />t$4 ,to ?or\ghly dra9 ! wat] f ! entire sy/em1 op5 ! dra9 cock at ! l[e/ side ( ! wat] pump4 ,,prep>ations ,,to ,,/>t ,,eng9e ,always repl5i% gasol9e tanks ?r\gh a /ra9] :i* is clean4 ,?is /ra9] mu/ cat* all wat] & o!r impurities 9 ! gasol9e4 ,p\r at lea/ ?ree gallons ( fre% oil into ! l[] crank-case4 ,oil all rock] arms ?r\gh oil]s ^u rock] arm h\s+ caps4 ,be sure radiators are fill$ )9 "o in* ( ! top4 ,aft] all ! p>ts are oil$1 & ! tanks fill$1 ! foll[+ mu/ be look$ aft] be=e />t+3 ,see if crank-%aft flange is tight on %aft4 ,see if propell] bolts are tight & ev5ly drawn up4 ,see if propell] bolts are wir$4 ,see if propell] is tru$ up to )9 #a_/h4 ,e f\r days ! magnetos %\ld be oil$ if ! eng9e is 9 daily use4 ,e mon? all cyl9d] hold-d[n nuts %\ld be gone ov] to asc]ta9 if !y are tight4 7,be sure to recott] nuts47 ,see if magnetos are bolt$ on tight & wir$4 ,see if magneto cables are 9 good condition4 ,see if rock] arm tappets h a 4#jbj cle>ance f valve /em :5 valve is seat$4 ,see if tappet clamp screws are tight & cott]$4 ,see if all gasol9e1 oil1 wat] pipes & connections are 9 p]fect condition4 ,air on gas l9e %\ld be te/$ = leaks4 ,pump at lea/ ?ree p\nds air pressure into gasol9e tank4 ,aft] mak+ sure t above rules h be5 obs]v$1 te/ compression ( cyl9d]s by turn+ propell]4 ,,d ,,n ,,=get ,,to ,,%ort ,,bo? ,,magnetos ,be sure all compression release & prim+ cocks d n leak compression4 ,if !y d1 replace same ) a new "o imm$iately1 z ?is might cause premature fir+4 ,op5 prim+ cocks & squirt "s gasol9e into ea*4 ,close cocks4 ,op5 compression release cocks4 ,op5 ?rottle slightly4 ,if us+ ,b]l+ magnetos !y %\ld be ?ree-qu>t]s advanc$4 ,if all ! =ego+ directions h be5 c>efully foll[$1 ! eng9e is ready = />t+4 ,9 crank+ eng9e ei!r by />t+ crank1 or propell]1 x is ess5tial to ?r[ x ov] compression quickly4 ,imm$iately ^u />t+1 close compression release cocks4 ,:5 eng9e is runn+1 advance magnetos4 ,aft] x has w>m$ up1 %ort "o magneto & !n ! o!r1 to be sure bo? magnetos & sp>k-plugs are fir+ prop]ly4 ,if !re is a miss1 ! f\l$ plug mu/ be locat$ & clean$4 ,!re is a possibility t ! jets 9 ! c>buretor are /opp$ up4 ,if ?is is ! case1 d n attempt to clean same ) any %>p in/rum5t4 ,if ?is is done1 x might *ange ! op5+ 9 ! jets1 ?us spoil+ ! adju/m5t4 ,jets & nozzles %\ld be bl[n out ) air or /eam4 ,an op5 intake or exhau/ valve1 :i* might h become sluggi% or /uck f c>bon1 might cause tr\ble4 ,be sure to rem$y ?is at once by us+ a little coal-oil or k]os5e on same1 work+ ! valve by h& until x becomes free4 ,we recomm5d us+ graphite on valve /ems mix$ ) oil to gu>d aga9/ /ick+ or undue we>4 ,,in/all+ ,,rot>y ,,& ,,radial ,,cyl9d] ,,eng9es ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,diagram ,def9+ ,in/allation ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,motor 9 ,tractor ,biplane4 ,note ,necess>y ,pip+ = ,fuel1 ,oil1 & ,air ,l9es4 ,:5 rot>y eng9es are in/all$ simple /eel /amp+ or spid]s1 are atta*$ to ! fuselage to hold ! fix$ crank-%aft4 ,inasmu* z ! motor projects cle> ( ! fuselage prop] !re is pl5ty ( room back ( ! front spid] plate to in/all ! auxili>y p>ts su* z ! oil pump1 air pump & ignition magneto & also ! fuel & oil conta9]s4 ,! diagram giv5 at ,fig4 #aef %[s h[ a ,gnome monos\pape eng9e is in/all$ on ! an*orage plates & x also outl9es cle>ly ! pip+ necess>y to convey ! oil & fuel & also ! air-pip+ ne$$ to put pressure on bo? fuel & oil tanks to insure positive supply ( ^! liquids :i* may be c>ri$ 9 tanks plac$ l[] ?an ! motor 9 "s in/allations4 ,! diagram giv5 at ,figs4 #aeg & #aeh %[s o!r m\nt+s ( ,gnome eng9es & are self-explanatory4 ,! simple m\nt+ possible :5 ! ,anzani t5-cyl9d] radial fix$ type eng9e is us$ giv5 at ,fig4 #aei4 ,! front end ( ! fuselage is provid$ ) a sub/antial press$ /eel plate hav+ memb]s project+ f x :i* may be bolt$ to ! long]ons4 ,! bolts t hold ! two halves ( ! crank-case toge!r project ?r\gh ! /eel plate & hold ! eng9e securely to ! front end ( ! fuselage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,%[+ ,two ,me?ods ( ,plac+ ,propell] on ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor4 ,,practical ,,h9ts ,,to ,,locate ,,eng9e ,,tr\bles ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,h[ ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor ,may ,be ,atta*$ to ,airplane ,fuselage ,memb]s4 ,"o :o is n ?or\ghly famili> ) eng9e con/ruction w seldom locate tr\bles by haphaz>d exp]im5t+ & x is only by a sy/ematic se>* t ! cause c be discov]$ & ! defects elim9at$4 ,9 ?is *apt] ! writ] proposes to outl9e "s ( ! mo/ common p[]-plant tr\bles & to give suffici5t advice to enable ^? :o are n ?or\ghly in=m$ to locate !m by a logical process ( elim9ation4 ,! int]nal-combu/ion motor1 :i* is ! p[] plant ( all gasol9e automobiles z well z airplanes1 is compos$ ( a numb] ( di/9ct gr\ps1 :i* 9 turn include di/9ct compon5ts4 ,^! v>i\s appliances are s closely relat$ to ea* o!r t defective action ( any "o may int]rupt ! op]ation ( ! entire p[] plant4 ,"s ( ! auxili>y gr\ps are m necess>y ?an o!rs & ! p[] plant w cont9ue to op]ate = a "t ev5 aft] ! failure ( "s important p>ts ( "s ( ! auxili>y gr\ps4 ,! gasol9e eng9e 9 itself is a complete me*anism1 b x is evid5t t x _c deliv] any p[] )\t "s means ( supply+ gas to ! cyl9d]s & ignit+ ! compress$ gas *>ge aft] x has be5 compress$ 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,f ?is x is pat5t t ! ignition & c>buretion sy/ems are j z ess5tial p>ts ( ! p[] plant z ! pi/on1 connect+ rod1 or cyl9d] ( ! motor4 ,! failure ( ei!r ! c>buretor or ignit+ means to function prop]ly w be imm$iately app>5t by faulty action ( ! p[] plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,h[ ,anzani ,t5-,cyl9d] ,radial ,eng9e is ,in/all$ to ,plate ,securely ,atta*$ to ,front ,end ( ,tractor ,airplane ,fuselage4 ,to insure t ! motor w cont9ue to op]ate x is necess>y to keep x f ov]heat+ by "s =m ( cool+ sy/em & to supply oil to ! mov+ p>ts to r$uce friction4 ,! cool+ & lubrication gr\ps are n s important z c>buretion & ignition1 z ! eng9e w\ld run = a limit$ p]iod ( "t ev5 %\ld ! cool+ sy/em fail or ! oil supply cease4 ,x w\ld only be a few mom5ts1 h[ev]1 be=e ! eng9e w\ld ov]heat if ! cool+ sy/em 0 at fault1 & ! p>ts seize if ! lubricat+ sy/em %\ld fail4 ,any d]angem5t 9 ! c>buretor or ignition me*anism w\ld manife/ itself at once because ! eng9e op]ation w\ld be affect$1 b a defect 9 ! cool+ or oil+ sy/em w\ld n be notic$ s readily4 ,! c>eful aviator w always inspect ! motor me*anism be=e />t+ on a trip ( any consequ5ce1 & if inspection is c>efully c>ri$ out & loose p>ts tight5$ x is seldom t irregul> op]ation w be f\nd due to actual breakage ( any ( ! compon5ts ( ! me*anism4 ,det]ioration due to natural causes matures sl[ly1 & suffici5t w>n+ is always giv5 :5 p>ts beg9 to we> s satisfactory repairs may be promptly made be=e s]i\s d]angem5t or failure is manife/$4 ,a ,,typical ,,eng9e ,,/oppage ,,analyz$ ,be=e describ+ ! po9ts t may fail 9 ! v>i\s auxili>y sy/ems x w be well to assume a typical case ( eng9e failure & %[ ! process ( locat+ ! tr\ble 9 a sy/ematic mann] by indicat+ ! v>i\s /eps :i* are 9 logical ord] & :i* c\ld reasonably be foll[$4 ,9 any case ( eng9e failure ! ignition sy/em1 motor compression1 & c>buretor %\ld be te/$ fir/4 ,if ! ignition sy/em is function+ prop]ly "o %\ld det]m9e ! am\nt ( compression 9 all cyl9d]s & if ?is is satisfactory ! c>buret+ gr\p %\ld be te/$4 ,if ! ignition sy/em is work+ prop]ly & !re is a decid$ resi/ance 9 ! cyl9d]s :5 ! propell] is turn$1 prov+ t !re is good compression1 "o may suspect ! c>buretor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,side ,elevation ( ,?omas #ace ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,giv+ ,important ,dim5sions4 ,if ! c>buretor appe>s to be 9 good condition1 ! tr\ble may be caus$ by ! ignition be+ out ( "t1 :i* condition is possible :5 ! magneto tim+ ge> or c\pl+ is atta*$ to ! armature %aft by a tap] & nut ret5tion in/ead ( ! m positive key or tap]-p9 fa/5+4 ,x is possible t ! inlet manifold may be brok5 or p]=at$1 t ! exhau/ valve is /uck on its seat because ( a brok5 or b5t /em1 brok5 or loose cam1 or failure ( ! cam-%aft drive because ! tee? are /ripp$ f ! eng9e %aft or cam-%aft ge>s2 or because ! key or o!r fa/5+ on ei!r ge> has fail$1 all[+ t memb] to turn indep5d5tly ( ! %aft to :i* x normally is atta*$4 ,! gasol9e fe$ pipe may be clogg$ or brok51 ! fuel supply may be deplet$1 or ! %ut-(f cock 9 ! gasol9e l9e may h j>r$ clos$4 ,! gasol9e filt] may be fill$ ) dirt or wat] :i* prev5ts passage ( ! fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,front ,elevation ( ,?omas-,morse #ace ,horse-,p[] ,a]omotor1 ,%[+ ,ma9 ,dim5sions4 ,! defects outl9$ above1 except ! failure ( ! gasol9e supply1 are v r>e1 & if ! conta9] is f\nd to conta9 fuel & ! pipe l9e to be cle> to ! c>buretor1 x is safe to assume ! vaporiz+ device is at fault4 ,if fuel cont9ually runs out ( ! mix+ *amb] ! c>buretor is said to be flood$4 ,?is condition results f failure ( ! %ut-(f ne$le to seat prop]ly or f a punctur$ holl[ metal float or a gasol9e-soak$ cork float4 ,x is possible t n en\gh gasol9e is pres5t 9 ! float *amb]4 ,if ! passage controll$ by ! float-ne$le valve is clogg$ or if ! float 0 badly out ( adju/m5t1 ?is cont+5cy w\ld be probable4 ,:5 ! c>buretor is exam9$1 if ! gasol9e level appe>s to be at ! prop] height1 "o may suspect t a p>ticle ( l9t1 or du/1 or f9e scale1 or ru/ f ! gasol9e tank has clogg$ ! bore ( ! jet 9 ! mix+ *amb]4 ,if ! ignition sy/em & c>buretor appe> to be 9 good work+ ord]1 & ! h& crank %[s t !re is no compression 9 "o or m ( ! cyl9d]s1 x means "s defect 9 ! valve sy/em4 ,if ! eng9e is a multiple-cyl9d] type & "o f9ds poor compression 9 all ( ! cyl9d]s x may be due to ! r>e defect ( improp] valve tim+4 ,?is may be caus$ by a ge> hav+ alt]$ its position on ! cam-%aft or crank-%aft1 because ( a %e>$ key or p9 hav+ p]mitt$ ! ge> to turn ab\t half ( a revolution & !n hav+ caught & held ! ge> 9 place by a brok5 or jagg$ end s t cam-%aft w\ld turn1 b ! valves op5 at ! wrong "t4 ,if b "o ( ! cyl9d]s is at fault & ! re/ appe> to h good compression ! tr\ble may be due to a defective condition ei!r inside or outside ( t cyl9d]4 ,! ext]nal p>ts may be inspect$ easily1 s ! foll[+ %\ld be look$ =3 a brok5 valve1 a w>p$ valve-head1 brok5 valve-spr+s1 /ick+ or b5t valve-/ems1 dirt "u valve-seat1 leak at valve-*amb] cap or sp>k-plug gasket4 ,defective prim+ cock1 crack$ cyl9d] head 7r>ely occurs71 leak ?r\gh crack$ sp>k-plug insulation1 valve-plung] /uck 9 ! guide1 lack ( cle>ance betwe5 valve-/em end & top ( plung] caus$ by loose adju/+ screw :i* has work$ up & kept ! valve f seat+4 ,! faulty compression may be due to defects inside ! motor4 ,! pi/on-head may be crack$ 7r>ely occurs71 pi/on r+s may be brok51 ! slots 9 ! pi/on r+s may be 9 l9e1 ! r+s may h lo/ _! ela/icity or h become gumm$ 9 ! grooves ( ! pi/on1 or ! pi/on & cyl9d] walls may be badly scor$ by a loose wri/ p9 or by defective lubrication4 ,if ! motor is a type ) a sep>ate head x is possible ! gasket or pack+ betwe5 ! cyl9d] & combu/ion *amb] may leak1 ei!r admitt+ wat] to ! cyl9d] or all[+ compression to escape4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,front & ,side ,elevations ( ,/urtevant ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,giv+ ,pr9cipal ,dim5sions to ,facilitate ,in/allation4 ,,conditions ,,t ,,cause ,,failure ,,( ,,ignition ,,sy/em ,if ! fir/ te/ ( ! motor _h %[$ t ! compression 0 z x %\ld be & t !re 7 no s]i\s me*anical defects & !re 0 pl5ty ( gasol9e at ! c>buretor1 ?is w\ld h demon/rat$ t ! ignition sy/em 0 n function+ prop]ly4 ,if a batt]y is employ$ to supply curr5t ! fir/ /ep is to take ! sp>k-plugs out ( ! cyl9d]s & te/ ! sy/em by turn+ ov] ! eng9e by h&4 ,if !re is no sp>k 9 any ( ! plugs1 ?is may be consid]$ a positive indication t !re is a brok5 ma9 curr5t lead f ! batt]y1 a defective gr\nd connection1 a loose batt]y t]m9al1 or a brok5 connector4 ,if none ( ^! conditions are pres5t1 x is safe to say t ! batt]y is no long] capable ( deliv]+ curr5t4 ,:ile magneto ignition is g5]ally us$ on airplane eng9es1 !re is apt to be "s developm5t ( batt]y ignition1 especially on eng9es equipp$ ) electric self-/>t]s :i* are n[ be+ exp]im5t$ )4 ,! sp>k-plugs may be %ort circuit$ by crack$ insulation or c>bon & oil deposits ar\nd ! electrode4 ,! second>y wires may be brok5 or h defective insulation :i* p]mits ! curr5t to gr\nd to "s metal "p ( ! fuselage or motor4 ,! electrodes ( ! sp>k-plug may be too f> ap>t to p]mit a sp>k to ov]come ! resi/ance ( ! compress$ gas1 ev5 if a sp>k jumps ! air space1 :5 ! plug is laid on ! cyl9d]4 ,if magnetos are fitt$ z is usually ! case at pres5t & a sp>k is obta9$ betwe5 ! po9ts ( ! plug & t device or ! wire lead+ to x f ! magneto is 9 prop] condition1 ! tr\ble is probably caus$ by ! magneto be+ out ( "t4 ,?is may result if ! driv+ ge> is loose on ! armature-%aft or crank-%aft1 & is a r>e occurr5ce4 ,if no sp>k is produc$ at ! plugs ! second>y wire may be brok51 ! gr\nd wire may make contact ) "s metallic portion ( ! *assis be=e x rea*es ! swit*1 ! c>bon collect+ bru%es may be brok5 or n mak+ contact1 ! contact po9ts ( ! make-&-break device may be out ( adju/m5t1 ! wir+ may be atta*$ to wrong t]m9als1 ! di/ributor fill$ ) metallic p>ticles1 c>bon1 du/ or oil accumulations1 ! di/ributor contacts may n be mak+ prop] connection because ( we> & !re may be a m s]i\s d]angem5t1 su* z a burn$ out second>y w9d+ or a punctur$ cond5s]4 ,if ! motor runs int]mitt5tly1 i4e41 />ts & runs only a few revolutions1 aside f ! conditions previ\sly outl9$1 defective op]ation may be due to seiz+ betwe5 p>ts because ( insuffici5t oil or defici5t cool+1 too mu* oil 9 ! crank-case :i* f\ls ! cyl9d] aft] ! crank-%aft has revolv$ a few turns1 & d]angem5ts 9 ! ignition or c>buretion sy/ems t may be easily rem$i$4 ,!re are a numb] ( defective conditions :i* may exi/ 9 ! ignition gr\p1 t w result 9 skipp+ or irregul> op]ation & ! foll[+ po9ts %\ld be consid]$ fir/3 weak s\rce ( curr5t due to worn out dry cells or dis*>g$ /orage batt]ies2 weak magnets 9 magneto1 or defective contacts at magneto2 dirt 9 magneto di/ributor or poor contact at collect+ bru%es4 ,dirty or crack$ insulator at sp>k-plug w cause %ort circuit & c only be detect$ by c>eful exam9ation4 ,! foll[+ po9ts %\ld also be *eck$ ov] :5 ! plug is inspect$3 ,excessive space betwe5 electrodes1 po9ts too close toge!r1 loose c5tral electrodes1 or loose po9t on plug body1 soot or oil p>ticles betwe5 electrodes1 or on ! surface ( ! insulator1 crack$ insulator1 oil or wat] on outside ( insulator4 ,%ort circuits 9 ! cond5s] or int]nal wir+ ( induction coils or magnetos1 :i* are =tunately n common1 c seldom be rem$i$ except at ! factory :]e ^! devices 7 made4 ,if an eng9e /ops sudd5ly & ! defect is 9 ! ignition sy/em ! tr\ble is usually nev] m s]i\s ?an a brok5 or loose wire4 ,?is may be easily locat$ by inspect+ ! wir+ at ! t]m9als4 ,irregul> op]ation or misfir+ is h>d] to locate because ! tr\ble c only be f\nd aft] ! _m possible defective conditions h be5 *eck$ ov]1 "o by "o4 ,,common ,,defects ,,9 ,,fuel ,,sy/ems ,defective c>buretion (t5 causes misfir+ or irregul> op]ation4 ,! common d]angem5t ( ! compon5ts ( ! fuel sy/em t are common en\gh to w>rant suspicion & ! be/ me?ods = _! location foll[s3 ,fir/1 disconnect ! fe$ pipe f ! c>buretor & see if ! gasol9e fl[s freely f ! tank4 ,if ! /ream com+ out ( ! pipe is n ! full size ( ! orifice x is an indication t ! pipe is clogg$ ) dirt or t !re is an accumulation ( ru/1 scale1 or l9t 9 ! /ra9] scre5s ( ! filt]4 ,x is also possible t ! fuel %ut-(f valve may be :olly or p>tly clos$4 ,if ! gasol9e fl[s by gravity ! liquid may be air b\nd 9 ! tank1 :ile if a pressure-fe$ sy/em is utiliz$ ! tank may leak s t x does n reta9 pressure2 ! *eck valve reta9+ ! pressure may be defective or ! pipe convey+ ! air or gas "u pressure to ! tank may be clogg$4 ,if ! gasol9e fl[s f ! pipe 9 a /eady /ream ! c>buretor dem&s exam9ation4 ,!re may be dirt or wat] 9 ! float *amb]1 :i* w con/rict ! passage betwe5 ! float *amb] & ! spray nozzle1 or a p>ticle ( =eign matt] may h ent]$ ! nozzle & /opp$ up ! f9e holes !re94 ,! float may b9d on its guide1 ! ne$le valve regulat+ ! gasol9e-inlet op5+ 9 b[l may /ick to its seat4 ,any ( ! conditions m5tion$ w\ld cut d[n ! gasol9e supply & ! eng9e w\ld n receive suffici5t quantities ( gas4 ,! air-valve spr+ may be weak or ! air valve brok54 ,! gasol9e-adju/+ ne$le may be loose & j> out ( adju/m5t1 or ! air-valve spr+-adju/+ nuts may be su* a poor fit on ! /em t adju/m5ts w n be reta9$4 ,^! in/ructions apply only to c>buretors hav+ air valves & mixture regulat+ means :i* are us$ only 9 r>e in/ances 9 airplane "w4 ,air may leak 9 ?r\gh ! manifold1 due to a por\s ca/+1 or leaky jo9ts 9 a built up =m & dilute ! mixture4 ,! air-intake du/ scre5 may be s clogg$ ) dirt & l9t t n en\gh air w pass ?r\gh ! me%4 ,wat] or s$im5t 9 ! gasol9e w cause misfir+ because ! fuel fe$ v>ies :5 ! wat] or dirt con/ricts ! /&pipe bore4 ,x is possible t ! c>buretor may be out ( adju/m5t4 ,if cl\ds ( black smoke are emitt$ at ! exhau/ pipe x is positive indication t too mu* gasol9e is be+ suppli$ ! mixture & ! supply %\ld be cut d[n by screw+ 9 ! ne$le valve on types :]e ?is me?od ( regulation is provid$1 & by mak+ sure t ! fuel level is at ! prop] height1 or t ! prop] nozzle is us$ 9 ^? =ms :]e ! spray nozzle has no means ( adju/m5t4 ,if ! mixture conta9s too mu* air !re w be a pron\nc$ popp+ back 9 ! c>buretor4 ,?is may be ov]come by screw+ 9 ! air-valve adju/m5t s ! spr+ t5sion is increas$ or by slightly op5+ up ! gasol9e-supply regulation ne$le4 ,:5 a c>buretor is prop]ly adju/$ & ! mixture deliv]$ ! cyl9d] burns prop]ly1 ! exhau/ gas w be clean & free f ! objectionable odor pres5t :5 gasol9e is burn$ 9 excess4 ,! "* ( combu/ion may be judg$ by ! color ( ! flame :i* issues f x :5 ! eng9e is runn+ ) an op5 ?rottle aft] nightfall4 ,if ! flame is r$1 x indicates too mu* gasol9e4 ,if yell[i%1 x %[s an excess ( air1 :ile a prop]ly proportion$ mixture w be evid5c$ by a pron\nc$ blue flame1 su* z giv5 by a gas-/ove burn]4 ,! ,duplex ,model ,o4 ,d4 ,z5i? c>buretor us$ ^u mo/ ( ! six- & eight-cyl9d] airplane eng9es consi/s ( a s+le float *amb]1 & a s+le air intake1 jo9$ to two sep>ate & di/9ct spray nozzles1 v5turi & idl+ adju/m5ts4 ,x is to be not$ t z ! c>buretor b>rels are arrang$ side by side1 bo? valves are m\nt$ on ! same %aft1 & "w 9 unison ?r\gh a s+le op]at+ lev]4 ,x is n necess>y to alt] _! position4 ,9 ord] to make ! eng9e idle well1 x is ess5tial t ! ignition1 especially ! sp>k-plugs1 %\ld be 9 good condition4 ,! gaskets betwe5 c>buretor & manifold1 & betwe5 manifold & cyl9d]s %\ld be absolutely air-tight4 ,! adju/m5t = l[ spe$ on ! c>buretor is made by turn+ 9 or out ! two knurl$ screws1 plac$ "o on ea* side ( ! float *amb]4 ,aft] />t+ ! eng9e & all[+ x to become ?or\ghly w>m$1 "o side ( ! c>buretor %\ld be adju/$ s t ! ?ree cyl9d]s x affects fire prop]ly at l[ spe$4 ,! o!r side %\ld be adju/$ 9 ! same mann] until all six cyl9d]s fire p]fectly at l[ spe$4 ,z ! adju/m5t is *ang$ on ! knurl$ screw a diff]5ce 9 ! idl+ ( ! eng9e %\ld be notic$4 ,if ! eng9e beg9s to run ev5ly or spe$s up x %[s t ! mixture becomes "r 9 its proportion4 ,be sure ! butt]fly ?rottle is clos$ z f> z possible by screw+ out ! /op screw :i* regulates ! clos$ position = idl+4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to h ! butt]fly held firmly aga9/ ?is /op screw at all times :ile idl+ eng9e4 ,if ?ree cyl9d]s seem to run irregul>ly aft] *ang+ ! position ( ! butt]fly1 /ill ano!r adju/m5t may h to be made ) ! knurl$ screw4 ,unscrew+ ?is makes ! mixture lean]4 ,screw+ 9 closes (f "s ( ! air supply to ! idl+ jet1 mak+ x ri*]4 ,aft] "o side has be5 made to idle satisfactorily repeat ! same proc$ure ) ! opposite ?ree cyl9d]s4 ,9 o!r words1 ea* side %\ld be idl$ indep5d5tly to ab\t ! same spe$4 ,rememb] t ! ma9 jet & comp5sat+ jet h no appreciable effect on ! idl+ ( ! eng9e4 ,! idl+ mixture is drawn directly ?r\gh ! op5+ det]m9$ by ! knurl$ screw & ent]s ! c>buretor b>rel ?r\gh ! small hole at ! edge ( ea* butt]fly4 ,?is is call$ ! prim+ hole & is only effective dur+ idl+4 ,beyond t po9t ! suction is transf]r$ to ! ma9 jet & comp5sator1 :i* controls ! p[] ( ! eng9e beyond ! idl+ position ( ! ?rottle4 ,,defects ,,9 ,,oil+ ,,sy/ems ,:ile tr\bles exi/+ 9 ! ignition or c>buretion gr\ps are usually d5ot$ by imp]fect op]ation ( ! motor1 su* z lo/ p[]1 & misfir+1 d]angem5ts ( ! lubrication or cool+ sy/ems are usually evid5t by ov]heat+1 dim9ution 9 eng9e capacity1 or noisy op]ation4 ,ov]heat+ may be caus$ by poor c>buretion z mu* z by defici5t cool+ or insuffici5t oil+4 ,:5 ! oil+ gr\p is n function+ z x %\ld ! friction betwe5 ! motor p>ts produces heat4 ,if ! cool+ sy/em is 9 prop] condition1 z w be evid5c$ by ! condition ( ! wat] 9 ! radiator1 & ! c>buretion gr\p appe>s to be 9 good condition1 ! ov]heat+ is probably caus$ by "s defect 9 ! oil+ sy/em4 ,! conditions t mo/ commonly result 9 poor lubrication are3 ,insuffici5t oil 9 ! eng9e crank-case or sump1 brok5 or clogg$ oil pipes1 scre5 at filt] fill$ ) l9t or dirt1 brok5 oil pump1 or defective oil-pump drive4 ,! supply ( oil may be r$uc$ by a defective inlet or dis*>ge-*eck valve at ! me*anical oil] or worn pumps4 ,a clogg$ oil passage or pipe lead+ to an important be>+ po9t w cause tr\ble because ! oil _c get betwe5 ! work+ surfaces4 ,x is well to rememb] t mu* ( ! tr\ble caus$ by defective oil+ may be prev5t$ by us+ only ! be/ grades ( lubricant1 & ev5 if all p>ts ( ! oil sy/em are work+ prop]ly1 oils ( poor quality w cause friction & ov]heat+4 ,,defects ,,9 ,,cool+ ,,sy/ems ,,outl9$ ,cool+ sy/ems are v simple & are n liable to give tr\ble z a rule if ! radiator is kept full ( clean wat] & ! circulation is n imp$$4 ,:5 ov]heat+ is due to defective cool+ ! mo/ common tr\bles are ^? t imp$e wat] circulation4 ,if ! radiator is clogg$ or ! pip+ ( wat] jackets fill$ ) ru/ or s$im5t ! spe$ ( wat] circulation w be sl[1 :i* w also be ! case if ! wat] pump or its driv+ means fail4 ,any scale or s$im5t 9 ! wat] jackets or 9 ! pip+ or radiator passages w r$uce ! heat conductivity ( ! metal expos$ to ! air1 & ! wat] w n be cool$ z quickly z ?\gh ! scale 0 n pres5t4 ,! rubb] hose (t5 us$ 9 mak+ ! flexible connections dem&$ betwe5 ! radiator & wat] manifolds ( ! eng9e may det]iorate inside & p>ticles ( rubb] hang d[n t w r$uce ! area ( ! passage4 ,! grease f ! grease cups m\nt$ on ! pump-%aft be>+ to lubricate t memb] (t5 f9ds its way into ! wat] sy/em & rots ! inn] walls ( ! rubb] hose1 ?is result+ 9 /rips ( ! p>tly decompos$ rubb] l9+ hang+ d[n & re/rict+ ! passage4 ,! cool+ sy/em is prone to ov]heat aft] antifreez+ solutions ( :i* calcium *loride =ms a "p h be5 us$4 ,?is is due to ! =mation ( cry/als ( salt 9 ! radiator passages or wat] jackets1 & ^! cry/als c only be dissolv$ by suitable *emical means1 or remov$ by scrap+ :5 ! con/ruction p]mits4 ,ov]heat+ is (t5 caus$ by "s condition 9 ! fuel sy/em t produces too ri* or too lean mixture4 ,excess gasol9e may be suppli$ if any ( ! foll[+ conditions are pres5t3 ,bore ( spray nozzle or /&pipe too l>ge1 auxili>y air-valve spr+ too tight1 gasol9e level too high1 loose regulat+ valve1 fuel-soak$ cork float1 punctur$ %eet-metal float1 dirt "u float control %ut-(f valve or insuffici5t air supply because ( a clogg$ air scre54 ,if pressure fe$ is utiliz$ !re may be too mu* pressure 9 ! tank1 or ! float controll$ me*anism op]at+ ! %ut-(f 9 ! float b[l ( ! c>buretor may n act quickly en\gh4 ,,"s ,,causes ,,( ,,noisy ,,op]ation ,!re are a numb] ( p[]-plant d]angem5ts :i* give positive indication because ( noisy op]ation4 ,any knock+ or rattl+ s\nds are usually produc$ by we> 9 connect+ rods or ma9 be>+s ( ! eng9e1 ?\gh sometimes a %>p metallic knock1 :i* is v mu* ! same z t produc$ by a loose be>+1 is due to c>bon deposits 9 ! cyl9d] heads1 or premature ignition due to advanc$ sp>k-"t lev]4 ,squeak+ s\nds inv>iably indicate dry be>+s1 & :5ev] su* a s\nd is he>d x %\ld be imm$iately locat$ & oil appli$ to ! p>ts ?us d5ot+ _! dry condition4 ,:i/l+ or bl[+ s\nds are produc$ by leaks1 ei!r 9 ! eng9e itself or 9 ! gas manifolds4 ,a %>p :i/le d5otes ! escape ( gas "u pressure & is usually caus$ by a defective pack+ or gasket t seals a portion ( ! combu/ion *amb] or t is us$ = a jo9t z ! exhau/ manifold4 ,a bl[+ s\nd indicates a leaky pack+ 9 crank-case4 ,gr9d+ noises 9 ! motor are usually caus$ by ! tim+ ge>s & w obta9 if ^! ge>s are dry or if !y h become worn4 ,:5ev] a l\d knock+ s\nd is he>d c>eful inspection %\ld be made to locate ! cause ( ! tr\ble4 ,mu* h>m may be done 9 a few m9utes if ! eng9e is run ) loose connect+ rod or be>+s t w\ld be prev5t$ by tak+ up ! we> or loos5ess betwe5 ! p>ts by "s means ( adju/m5t4 ,,brief ,,summ>y ,,( ,,h9ts ,,= ,,/>t+ ,,eng9e ,fir/ make sure t all cyl9d]s h compression4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is1 op5 pet cocks ( all cyl9d]s except ! "o to be te/$1 crank ov] motor & see t a /rong opposition to crank+ is met ) once 9 two revolutions4 ,if motor has no pet cocks1 crank & notice t oppositions are met at equal di/ances1 two to e revolution ( ! />t+ crank 9 a f\r-cyl9d] motor4 ,if compression is lack+1 exam9e ! p>ts ( ! cyl9d] or cyl9d]s at fault 9 ! foll[+ ord]1 try+ to />t ! motor :5ev] any "o fault is f\nd & rem$i$4 ,see t ! valve pu% rods or rock] arms d n t\* valve /ems = m ?an approximately #a_/b revolution 9 e #b revolutions1 & t !re is n m ?an 4#jaj to 4#jbj in* cle>ance betwe5 !m dep5d+ on ! make ( ! motor4 ,make sure t ! exhau/ valve seats4 ,to det]m9e ?is exam9e ! spr+ & see t x is connect$ to ! valve /em prop]ly4 ,take out valve & see t !re is no ob/ruction1 su* z c>bon1 on its seat4 ,see t valve works freely 9 its guide4 ,exam9e inlet valve 9 same mann]4 ,li/5 = hiss+ s\nd :ile crank+ motor = leaks at o!r places4 ,make sure t a sp>k occurs 9 ea* cyl9d] z foll[s3 ,if magneto or magneto & batt]y ) non-vibrat+ coil is us$3 ,disconnect wire f sp>k-plug1 hold end ab\t #a_/h in* f cyl9d] or t]m9al ( sp>k-plug4 ,h motor crank$ briskly & see if sp>k occurs4 ,exam9e adju/m5t ( int]rupt] po9ts4 ,see t wires are plac$ correctly & n %ort circuit$4 ,take out sp>k-plug & lay x on ! cyl9d]1 be+ c>eful t base ( plug only t\*es ! cyl9d] & t ignition wire is connect$4 ,h motor crank$ briskly & see if sp>k occurs4 ,*eck tim+ ( magneto & see t all bru%es are mak+ contact4 ,see if !re is gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor4 ,see t !re is gasol9e 9 ! tank4 ,exam9e valve at tank4 ,prime c>buretor & see t spray nozzle passage is cle>4 ,be sure ?rottle is op54 ,prime cyl9d]s by putt+ ab\t a teaspoonful ( gasol9e 9 ?r\gh pet cock or sp>k-plug op5+4 ,adju/ c>buretor if necess>y4 ,,location ,,( ,,eng9e ,,tr\bles ,,made ,,easy ,! foll[+ tabulation has be5 prep>$ & orig9at$ by ! writ] to outl9e 9 a simple mann] ! v>i\s tr\bles & d]angem5ts t int]f]e ) effici5t int]nal-combu/ion eng9e action4 ,! p>ts & _! functions are practically ! same 9 all gas or gasol9e eng9es ( ! f\r-cycle type1 & ! g5]al in/ructions giv5 apply j z well to all hydro-c>bon eng9es1 ev5 if ! p>ts diff] 9 =m mat]ially4 ,! ess5tial compon5ts are cle>ly indicat$ 9 ! _m "p sectional draw+s 9 ?is book s !y may be easily recogniz$4 ,! v>i\s defects t may mat]ialize are tabulat$ 9 a mann] t makes = ready ref]5ce1 & ! v>i\s defective conditions are f\nd opposite ! "p affect$1 & "u a head+ t d5otes ! ma9 tr\ble to :i* ! o!rs are contribut+ causes4 ,! v>i\s symptoms d5ot+ ! individual tr\bles outl9$ are giv5 to facilitate _! recognition 9 a positive mann]4 ,brief note is also made ( ! rem$ies = ! re/oration ( ! defective "p or condition4 ,x is app>5t t a table ( ?is "* is int5d$ m]ely z a guide1 & x is a compilation ( practically all ! kn[n tr\bles t may mat]ialize 9 gas-eng9e op]ation4 ,:ile mo/ ( ! defects outl9$ are common en\gh to w>rant suspicion1 !y w nev] exi/ 9 an eng9e all at ! same "t1 & x w be necess>y to make a sy/ematic se>* = su* ( ^? z exi/4 ,to use ! li/ advantage\sly1 x is necess>y to "k "o ma9 tr\ble easily recogniz$4 ,= example1 if ! p[] plant is noisy1 look = ! possible tr\bles "u ! head ( ,noisy ,op]ation2 if x lacks capacity1 ! d]angem5t w und\bt$ly be f\nd "u ! head ( ,lo/ ,p[]4 ,x is assum$ 9 all cases t ! tr\ble exi/s 9 ! p[] plant or its compon5ts1 & n 9 ! auxili>y memb]s ( ! ignition1 c>buretion1 lubrication1 or cool+ sy/ems4 ,! novice & /ud5t w readily recognize ! p>ts ( ! av]age aviation eng9e by ref]r+ to ! v complete & cle>ly lett]$ illu/rations ( me*anism giv5 9 _m p>ts ( ?is treatise4 ,,lo/ ,,p[] ,,& ,,ov]heat+ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,"p ,,affect$ ,,nature ,,( ,,tr\ble ,,symptoms ,,& ,,rem$y ,,effects ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,wat] ,pipe ,jo9t4 ,loose4 ,loss ( wat]1 ,tight5 bolts1 heat+4 replace gaskets4 ,sp>k ,plug4 ,leakage 9 ,loss ( p[]4 ,replace insulation ?reads1 ,hiss+ caus$ by if defective1 screw insulation1 escap+ gas4 d[n tight]4 pack+4 ,compression ,leak 9 ?reads4 ,loss ( p[]4 ,tight5 if loose4 ,release ,cock4 ,leak 9 fitt+4 ,:i/l+ or ,gr9d fitt+ to hiss+4 new seat+ 9 body4 ,combu/ion ,crack or bl[hole4,loss ( compres- ,fill by weld+4 ,*amb]4 ,r\ghness4 ,c>bon sion4 ,preignition4,smoo? out deposits4 ,%>p r\ghness4 ,scrape edges4 out or dissolve c>bon4 ,valve ,*amb] ,cap4,leak 9 ?reads4 ,loss ( compres- ,remove4 ,apply pipe ,defective gasket4 sion4 ,hiss+4 comp\nd to ?reads & replace4 ,use new gasket or pack+4 ,valve ,head4 ,w>p$4 ,scor$ or ,loss ( compres- ,true up 9 la!4 pitt$4 ,c>bon- sion4 ,gr9d to seat4 iz$4 ,cov]$ ) ,scrape (f4 ,smoo? scale4 ,loose on ) em]y clo?4 /em 7two-piece ,tight5 by valves only74 rivet+4 ,valve ,seat4 ,w>p$ or pitt$4 ,loss ( compres- ,use reseat+ ,cov]$ ) c>- sion4 ream]4 ,clean (f bon4 ,=eign mat- & gr9d valve to t] betwe5 valve seat4 & seat4 ,valve ,/em4 ,cov]$ ) ,valve does n ,clean ) em]y scale4 ,b5t4 ,b9d-close4 ,loss ( clo?2 /raight54 + 9 guide4 compression4 ,true up & smoo? ,/uck 9 guide4 (f4 free ) k]os5e4 ,valve ,/em ,guide4 ,burnt or r\gh4 ,valve may /ick4 ,clean out hole4 ,loose 9 valve ,action irregul>4 ,screw 9 tight]4 *amb]4 ,valve ,spr+4 ,weak or brok54 ,valve does n close4 ,valve ,op]at+ ,loose 9 guide4 ,valve action poor4,replace ) new4 ,plung]4 ,too mu* cle>ance,lift insuffici5t4,adju/ screw clos]4 betwe5 valve /em4 ,valve ,lift ,ad- ,?reads /ripp$4 ,poor valve action4,replace ) new4 ju/+ ,screw4 ,too ne> valve4 ,adju/ ) prop] ,too f> f ref]5ce to valve valve4 /em4 ,valve ,lift ,cam4 ,worn cam cont\r4 ,n en\gh valve ,replace ) new4 ,loose on %aft4 lift4 ,w n ,replace p9s or ,out ( "t4 lift valve4 ,valve keys4 ,set to op5 op5s at wrong prop]ly4 "t4 ,cam-%aft4 ,sprung or twi/$4,valves out ( ,/raight54 "t4 ,cam-%aft ,bu%+4,worn4 ,n en\gh valve ,replace4 lift4 ,cam-%aft ,drive ,loose on %aft4 ,irregul> valve ,fa/5 securely4 ,ge>4 ,out ( "t4 ,worn action4 ,"t prop]ly4 or brok5 tee?4 ,replace ) new4 ,cam ,fa/5+s4 ,worn or brok54 ,valves out ( ,replace ) new4 "t4 ,cyl9d] ,wall4 ,scor$1 gas leaks4,poor compression4 ,gr9d out bore4 ,poor lubrication ,ov]heat+4 ,repair oil+ causes friction4 sy/em4 ,pi/on4 ,b9ds 9 cyl9d]4,ov]heat+4 ,poor ,lap (f excess ,walls scor$4 ,worncompression4 metal4 ,replace ) out ( r\nd4 new4 ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,loss ( spr+4 ,loss ( compres- ,pe5 r+ or ,loose 9 grooves4 sion4 ,gas bl[s replace4 ,fit new ,scor$4 ,worn or by4 r+s4 ,gr9d smoo?4 brok54 ,slots 9 ,replace4 ,turn slots l9e4 ap>t4 ,c>bon 9 grooves4,ov]heat+ be- ,remove deposits4 ,insuffici5t op5-cause ( friction4,file slot4 ,gr9d or +4 ,b9d+ on lap to fit cyl9d] cyl9d]4 bore4 ,wri/p94 ,loose1 scores ,loss ( compres- ,fa/5 securely4 cyl9d]4 sion4 ,replace cyl9d] if groove is deep4 ,crank-%aft4 ,scor$ or r\gh on,ov]heat+ be- ,smoo? up4 j\rnals4 ,sprung4 cause ( friction4,/raight54 ,crank ,be>+s4 ,adju/$ too ,ov]heat+ be- ,adju/ freely1 clean ,ma9 ,be>+s4 tight4 ,defective cause ( friction4out oil holes & oil+4 ,brasses enl>ge oil grooves4 burn$4 ,oil ,sump4 ,insuffici5t oil4 ,ov]heat+4 ,repl5i% supply4 ,poor lubricant4 ,use be/ oil4 ,wa% ,dirty oil4 out ) k]os5e2 put 9 clean oil4 ,wat] ,space4 ,wat],clogg$ ) s$i-,ov]heat+4 ,dissolve =eign ,pipes4 m5t or scale4 matt] & remove4 ,pi/on ,head4 ,crack$ 7r>e74 ,loss ( compres- ,weld by autog5\s ,c>bon deposits4 sion4 ,preignition4process4 ,scrape (f c>bon accumula- tions4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,noisy ,,op]ation ,,( ,,p[] ,,plant ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,"p ,,affect$ ,,nature ,,( ,,tr\ble ,,"* ,,( ,,rem$y ,,noise ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,compression ,re- ,leakage4 ,hiss+4 ,previ\sly giv54 lease ,cock4 ,sp>k ,plug4 ,leakage4 ,hiss+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,valve ,*amb] ,cap4,leakage4 ,hiss or :i/le4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,combu/ion ,c>bon deposits4 ,knock+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,*amb]4 ,inlet ,valve ,seat4 ,defects previ\sly,popp+ 9 c>bu- ,previ\sly giv54 giv54 retor4 ,valve ,head4 ,loose on /em4 ,click+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,valve ,/em4 ,valve ,we> or loos5ess4,rattle or click- ,previ\sly giv54 ,/em ,guide4 +4 ,inlet ,valve4 ,closes too late4 ,bl[back 9 c>bu-,previ\sly giv54 ,op5s too e>ly4 retor4 ,valve ,spr+4 ,weak or brok54 ,bl[back 9 c>bu-,previ\sly giv54 retor4 ,cyl9d] ,ca/+4 ,reta9+ bolts ,%>p metallic ,tight5 bolts4 ,r\nd loose4 ,pi/on knock4 edges ( pi/on /rikes at upp] top4 end4 ,cyl9d] ,wall4 ,scor$4 ,hiss+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,valve ,/em ,too mu*4 ,click+4 ,bl[back,previ\sly giv54 ,cle>ance4 ,too little 7inlet 9 c>buretor4 valve74 ,valve ,op]at+ ,loos5ess4 ,rattle or click- ,previ\sly giv54 ,plung]4 ,plung] +4 ,guide4 ,tim+ ,ge>s4 ,loose on fa/5- ,metallic knock4 ,previ\sly giv54 +s4 ,worn tee?4 ,rattle4 ,gr9d+4 ,cyl9d] or ,no oil1 or poor ,gr9d+4 ,repair oil sy/em4 ,pi/on4 lubricant4 ,cam4 ,loose on %aft4 ,metallic knock4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,worn cont\r4 ,cam-%aft ,be>+4,loos5ess or we>4,slight knock4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,cam ,fa/5+4 ,loos5ess4 ,click+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,pi/on4 ,b9d+ 9 cyl9- ,gr9d+ or dull ,previ\sly giv54 d]4 ,worn oval1 squeak4 ,dull causes side slap hamm]+4 9 cyl9d]4 ,pi/on ,head4 ,c>bon deposits4 ,knock+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,defective oil+4 ,squeak+4 ,hiss- ,previ\sly giv54 ,leakage4 ,b9d+ +4 ,gr9d+4 9 cyl9d]4 ,wri/-p94 ,loose 9 pi/on4 ,dull metallic ,replace ) new ,worn4 knock4 memb]4 ,connect+ ,rod4 ,we> 9 upp] ,di/9ct knock4 ,adju/ or replace4 bu%+4 ,we> at ,scrape & fit4 ,use crank-p94 ,side long] wri/-p9 play 9 pi/on4 bu%+4 ,crank ,be>+s4 ,loos5ess4 ,exces- ,metallic knock4 ,refit be>+s4 sive end play4 ,int]mitt5t ,long] bu%+s ,b9d+1 fitt$ knock4 ,squeak+4 ne$$4 ,ins]t %ims too tight4 to all[ m play4 ,ma9 ,be>+s4 ,loos5ess4 ,defec- ,metallic knock4 ,fit brasses clos] tive lubrication4 ,squeak+4 to %aft4 ,clean out oil holes & grooves4 ,connect+ ,rod ,loose4 ,%>p knock4 ,tight54 ,bolts4 ,ma9 ,be>+ ,bolts4 ,crank-%aft4 ,defective oil+4 ,squeak+4 ,previ\sly giv54 ,eng9e ,base4 ,loose on frame4 ,%>p p\nd+4 ,tight5 bolts4 ,l[] ,half ,crank- ,bolts loose4 ,knock+4 ,tight5 bolts4 case4 ,fly-:eel4 ,loose on crank- ,v %>p knock4 ,tight5 ret5tion %aft4 bolts or fit new keys4 ,oil ,sump4 ,oil level too l[4,gr9d+ & ,repl5i% ) be/ ,poor lubricant4 squeak 9 all cyl9d] oil4 be>+s4 ,valve ,plung] ,re- ,loos5ess4 ,click+4 ,tight5 nuts4 t5tion ,/irrups4 ,fan4 ,blade loose4 ,blade,click+ or ,tight54 ,b5d back4 /rikes cool]4 rattle4 ,exhau/ ,pipe ,leakage4 ,%>p hiss+4 ,tight5 or use new ,jo9ts4 gasket4 ,crank-case ,leakage4 ,bl[+ s\nd4 ,use new pack+4 ,pack+4 ,tight5 bolts4 ,wat] ,pipe4 ,leaks4 ,loss ( ,p\nd+ because ,previ\sly giv54 wat]4 ,clogg$ eng9e heats4 ) s$im5t4 ,wat] ,jacket4 ,clogg$ ) s$i-,knock+ because ,dissolve scale & m5t4 ,walls eng9e heats4 flu% out wat] cov]$ ) space ) wat] scale4 "u pressure4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,skipp+ ,,or ,,irregul> ,,op]ation ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,"p ,,affect$ ,,nature ,,( ,,tr\ble ,,symptoms ,,& ,,rem$y ,,effects ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,compression ,relief,leak 9 ?reads or,dilutes mixture ,screw d[n tight]4 ,cock4 spigot4 ) air1 causes ,gr9d spigot to seat bl[back4 ) em]y4 ,sp>k-,plug4 ,leak 9 ?reads4 ,dilutes mixture4 ,screw d[n tight]4 ,defective gasket4 ,all[s %ort ,replace ) new4 ,crack$ insulator4circuit4 ,no sp>k4,set po9ts #a_/fd ,po9ts too ne>4 ap>t = magneto1 ,po9ts cov]$ #a_/cb = batt]y ) c>bon4 ,too sp>k4 mu* air gap4 ,valve ,*amb] ,cap4,leak 9 ?reads4 ,dilutes mixture by,previ\sly giv54 ,defective gasket4 all[+ air to ent] cyl9d] on suction /roke4 ,combu/ion ,c>bon deposits4 ,preignition4 ,scrape out4 ,*amb]4 ,valve ,head4 ,w>p$ or pitt$4 ,dilutes *>ge ,previ\sly giv54 ,loose on /em4 ) poor air or gas4 ,valve ,/em4 ,b9d+ 9 guide4 ,irregul> valve ,previ\sly giv54 ,/ick+4 action4 ,valve ,seat4 ,scor$ or w>p$4 ,gas leak1 poor ,previ\sly giv54 ,crack$4 ,cov]$ mixture4 ,poor com- ) scale4 ,dirt pression4 ,valve "u valve4 w n close4 ,induction ,pipe4 ,leak at jo9ts4 ,mixture dilut$ ,/op all leaks4 ,crack or bl[hole4) excess air4 ,inlet ,valve4 ,closes too late4 ,bl[back 9 c>bu-,"t prop]ly4 ,op5s too e>ly4 retor4 ,exhau/ ,valve4 ,op5s too late4 ,ret5tion ( burnt,"t prop]ly4 ,closes too e>ly4 gas dilutes *>ge4 ,valve ,/em ,guide4 ,b5t or c>bon- ,causes valve to ,previ\sly giv54 iz$4 /ick4 ,inlet ,valve ,/em ,worn1 /em loose4 ,air drawn 9 on ,bu% guide or use ,guide4 suction ?9s gas4new memb]4 ,valve ,spr+4 ,weak5$ or ,irregul> action4 ,use new spr+4 brok54 ,valve ,/em ,too little4 ,too ,valve w n ,adju/ gap 4#jji ,cle>ance4 mu*4 %ut4 ,valve op5s inlet1 4#jaj late1 closes exhau/4 e>ly4 ,valve ,spr+ ,brok54 ,releases spr+4 ,replace4 ,coll> ,key4 ,cam4 ,worn cam cont\r4 ,valve lift re- ,previ\sly giv54 ,loose on %aft4 duc$4 ,does n ,out ( "t4 lift valve4 ,valves op]ate at wrong "t4 ,cam-%aft ,be>+4,loos5ess or we>4,valve tim+ ,replace4 alt]$4 ,valve lift decreas$4 ,cam-%aft4 ,twi/$4 ,valves out ( ,previ\sly giv54 "t4 ,cam ,fa/5+4 ,worn or brok54 ,valve action ,replace ) new4 irregul>4 ,valve ,op]at+ ,loose 9 guide4 ,alt]s valve ,replace ) new4 ,plung]4 tim+4 ,valve ,plung] ,we> 9 bore4 ,alt]s valve ,replace or bu%4 ,guide4 ,loose on eng9e tim+4 ,fa/5 securely4 base4 ,tim+ ,ge>s4 ,n prop]ly ,valves out ( ,retime prop]ly4 me%$4 ,loose on "t4 ,valves d ,fa/5 to %aft4 %aft4 n op]ate4 ,pi/on4 ,walls scor$4 ,leakage ( gas4 ,smoo? up if possible4 ,pi/on ,head4 ,c>bon deposits4 ,cause premature ,previ\sly giv54 ,crack or bl[hole ignition4 7r>e74 ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,no spr+4 ,loose ,leakage weak5s ,previ\sly giv54 9 grooves4 ,worn suction4 or brok54 ,cyl9d] ,wall4 ,scor$ by wri/- ,gas leaks by4 ,poor,previ\sly giv54 p94 ,scor$ by suction4 lack ( oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,ignition ,,sy/em ,,tr\bles ,,only ,motor ,w ,n ,/>t or ,/>ts ,h>d ,loose ,batt]y ,t]m9al4 ,magneto ,gr\nd ,wire ,%ort$4 ,magneto ,defective 7,no ,sp>k at ,plugs74 ,brok5 ,sp>k ,plug ,insulation4 ,c>bon ,deposits or ,oil ,betwe5 ,plug ,po9ts4 ,sp>k-,plug ,po9ts ,too ,ne> ,toge!r or ,f> ,ap>t4 ,wrong ,cables to ,plugs4 ,%ort ,circuit$ ,second>y ,cable4 ,brok5 ,second>y ,cable4 ,dry ,batt]y ,weak4 ,/orage ,batt]y ,dis*>g$4 ,batt]y ,sy/ems ,poor ,contact at ,tim]4 ,only4 ,tim] ,po9ts ,dirty4 ,poor ,contact at ,swit*4 ,prim>y ,wires ,brok51 or ,%ort ,circuit$4 ,batt]y & ,batt]y ,gr\nd$ 9 ,metal ,conta9]4 ,coil ,ignition ,batt]y ,connectors ,brok5 or ,loose4 ,sy/em ,only4 ,tim] ,po9ts ,out ( ,adju/m5t4 ,defects 9 ,induction ,coil4 ,ignition ,tim+ ,wrong1 ,sp>k ,too ,late or ,too ,e>ly4 ,defective ,plat9um ,po9ts 9 ,break] ,box 7,magneto74 ,po9ts ,n ,sep>at+4 ,brok5 ,contact ,mak] ,spr+4 ,no ,contact at ,second>y ,collector ,bru%4 ,plat9um ,contact ,po9ts ,burnt or ,pitt$4 ,contact ,break] ,bell ,crank ,/uck4 ,fib] ,bu%+ 9 ,bell ,crank ,swoll54 ,%ort ,circuit+ ,spr+ ,always 9 ,contact4 ,dirt or ,wat] 9 ,magneto ,cas+4 ,oil 9 ,contact ,break]4 ,oil ,soak$ ,bru% & ,collector ,r+4 ,di/ributor ,fill$ ) ,c>bon ,p>ticles4 ,motor ,/ops ,)\t ,w>n+ ,brok5 ,magneto ,c>bon ,bru%4 ,brok5 ,lead ,wire4 ,brok5 ,gr\nd ,wire4 ,batt]y ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,wat] on ,high ,t5sion ,magneto ,t]m9al4 ,ma9 ,second>y ,cable ,burnt ,?r\gh by ,hot ,exhau/ ,pipe 7,trans=m] ,coil1 ,magneto ,sy/ems74 ,p>ticle ( ,c>bon ,betwe5 ,sp>k ,plug ,po9ts4 ,magneto ,%ort ,circuit$ by ,gr\nd ,wire4 ,magneto ,out ( ,"t1 ,due to ,slipp+ ,drive4 ,wat] or ,oil 9 ,safety ,sp>k ,gap 7,multi-cyl9d] ,magneto74 ,magneto ,contact ,break] or ,tim] ,/uck 9 ,ret>d ,position4 ,worn ,fib] ,block 9 ,magneto ,contact ,break]4 ,b9d+ ,fib] ,bu%+ 9 ,contact ,break] ,bell ,crank4 ,sp>k ,advance ,rod or ,wire ,brok54 ,contact ,break] ,p>ts ,/uck4 ,motor ,runs ,irregul>ly or ,misfires ,loose ,wir+ or ,t]m9als4 ,brok5 ,sp>k-,plug ,insulator4 ,sp>k-,plug ,po9ts ,soot$ or ,oily4 ,wrong ,sp>k ,gap at ,plug ,po9ts4 ,leak+ ,second>y ,cable4 ,prematurely ,gr\nd$ ,prim>y ,wire4 ,batt]ies ,runn+ ,d[n 7,batt]y ,ignition only74 ,poor ,adju/m5t ( ,contact ,po9ts at ,tim]4 ,wire ,brok5 ,inside ( ,insulation4 ,loose ,plat9um ,po9ts 9 ,magneto4 ,weak ,contact ,spr+4 ,brok5 ,collector ,bru%4 ,dirt 9 ,magneto ,di/ributor ,cas+ or ,contact ,break]4 ,worn ,fib] ,block or ,cam ,plate 9 ,magneto4 ,worn ,cam or ,contact ,roll 9 ,tim] 7,batt]y ,sy/em only74 ,dirty ,oil 9 ,tim]4 ,/ick+ ,coil ,vibrators4 ,coil ,vibrator ,po9ts ,pitt$4 ,oil ,soak$ ,magneto ,w9d+4 ,punctur$ ,magneto or ,coil ,w9d+4 ,di/ributor ,contact ,segm5ts ,r\gh4 ,sulphat$ ,/orage ,batt]y ,t]m9als4 ,weak ,magnets 9 ,magneto4 ,poor ,contact at ,magneto ,contact ,break] ,po9ts4 ,,defects ,,9 ,,electrical ,,sy/em ,,compon5ts ,to fur!r simplify ! location ( electrical sy/em faults x is ?\ght desirable to outl9e ! defects t c be pres5t 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! individual devices compris+ ! ignition sy/em4 ,if an airplane eng9e is provid$ ) magneto ignition solely1 z mo/ eng9es are at ! pres5t "t1 no att5tion ne$ be paid to su* items z /orage or dry batt]ies1 tim] or induction coil4 ,!re seems to be "s developm5t 9 ! direction ( batt]y ignition s x has be5 consid]$ desirable to include compon5ts ( ^! sy/ems z well z ! almo/ univ]sally us$ magneto gr\p4 ,sp>k-plugs1 wir+ & swit*es are ne$$ ) ei!r sy/em4 ,,sp>k-,,plugs ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,insulation crack$4 ,plug inop]ative4 ,new insulation4 ,insulation oil soak$4 ,cyl9d] misfires4 ,clean4 ,c>bon deposits4 ,%ort circuit$ sp>k4 ,remove4 ,insulator loose4 ,cyl9d] misfires4 ,tight54 ,gasket brok54 ,gas leaks by4 ,new gasket4 ,electrode loose on %ell4 ,cyl9d] misfires4 ,tight54 ,wire loose 9 insulator4 ,cyl9d] misfires4 ,tight54 ,air gap too close4 ,%ort circuits sp>k4 ,set correctly4 ,air gap too wide4 ,sp>k w n jump4 ,set po9ts #a_/cb ap>t4 ,loose t]m9al4 ,cyl9d] may misfire4 ,tight54 ,plug loose 9 cyl9d]4 ,gas leaks4 ,tight54 ,mica insulation oil soak$4 ,%ort circuits sp>k4 ,replace4 ,,magneto ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,dirty oil 9 di/ributor4 ,eng9e misfires4 ,clean4 ,metal du/ 9 di/ributor4 ,eng9e misfires4 ,clean4 ,bru%es n mak+ contact4 ,curr5t _c pass4 ,/r5g!n spr+4 ,di/ributor segm5ts worn4 ,eng9e misfires4 ,secure ev5 be>+4 ,collect+ bru% brok54 ,eng9e misfires4 ,new bru%4 ,di/ribut+ bru% brok54 ,eng9e misfires4 ,new bru%4 ,oil soak$ w9d+4 ,eng9e misfires4 ,clean4 ,magnets loose on pole ,eng9e misfires4 ,tight5 screws4 pieces4 ,armature rubs4 ,eng9e misfires4 ,repair be>+s4 ,be>+s worn4 ,noisy4 ,replace4 ,magnets weak4 ,weak sp>k4 ,re*>ge4 ,contact break] po9ts ,eng9e misfires4 ,clean4 pitt$4 ,break] po9ts out ( ,eng9e misfires4 ,reset4 adju/m5t4 ,defective w9d+ 7r>e74 ,no sp>k4 ,replace4 ,punctur$ cond5s] 7r>e74 ,weak or no sp>k4 ,replace4 ,driv+ ge> loose4 ,noise4 ,tight54 ,magneto armature out ( ,sp>k w n fire ,retime4 "t4 *>ge4 ,magneto loose on base4 ,misfir+ & noisy4 ,tight54 ,contact break] cam worn4 ,misfir+4 ,replace4 ,fibre %oe or rolls worn ,misfir+4 ,replace4 7,bos*74 ,fibre bu%+ b9d+ 9 ,misfir+4 ,ream slightly4 contact lev] 7,bos*74 ,contact lev] return spr+ ,no sp>k4 ,replace4 brok54 ,contact lev] return spr+ ,misfir+4 ,replace4 weak4 ,gr\nd wire gr\nd$4 ,no sp>k4 ,insulate4 ,gr\nd wire brok54 ,eng9e w n /op4 ,connect up4 ,safety sp>k gap dirty4 ,no sp>k4 ,clean4 ,fus$ metal 9 sp>k gap4 ,no sp>k4 ,remove4 ,safety sp>k gap po9ts too ,misfir+4 ,set prop]ly4 close4 ,loose di/ributor t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,contact break] /icks4 ,no sp>k control4 ,remove & clean be>+s4 ,magneto swit* %ort- ,no sp>k4 ,insulate4 circuit$4 ,magneto swit* op5 circuit4 ,no eng9e /op4 ,re/ore contact4 ,,/orage ,,batt]y ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,electrolyte l[4 ,weak curr5t4 ,repl5i% ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,loose t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,sulphat$ t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,clean ?or\ghly & coat ) vasel9e4 ,batt]y dis*>g$4 ,misfir+ or no sp>k4 ,new *>ge4 ,electrolyte weak4 ,weak curr5t4 ,br+ to prop] specific gravity4 ,plates sulphat$4 ,poor capacity4 ,special sl[ *>ge4 ,s$im5t or mud 9 bottom4 ,weak curr5t4 ,clean out4 ,active mat]ial loose 9 ,poor capacity4 ,new plates4 grids4 ,moi/ure or acid on top ( ,%orts t]m9als4 ,remove4 cells4 ,plugg$ v5t cap4 ,buckles cell j>s4 ,make v5t hole4 ,crack$ v5t cap4 ,acid spills out4 ,new cap4 ,crack$ cell j>4 ,electrolyte runs out4 ,new j>4 ,,dry ,,cell ,,batt]y ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,brok5 wires4 ,no curr5t4 ,new wires4 ,loose t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,weak cell 7#g amp]es or ,misfir+4 ,new cells4 less74 ,cells 9 contact4 ,%ort circuit4 ,sep>ate & insulate4 ,wat] 9 batt]y box4 ,%ort circuit4 ,dry out4 ,,tim] ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,contact segm5ts worn or ,misfir+4 ,gr9d d[n pitt$4 smoo?4 ,plat9um po9ts pitt$4 ,misfir+4 ,smoo? ) oil /one4 ,dirty oil or metal du/ 9 ,misfir+4 ,clean out4 int]ior4 ,worn be>+4 ,misfir+4 ,replace4 ,loose t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,worn revolv+ contact ,misfir+4 ,replace4 bru%4 ,out ( "t4 ,irregul> sp>k4 ,reset4 ,,induction ,,coil ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,loose t]m9als4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,brok5 connections4 ,no sp>k4 ,make new jo9ts4 ,vibrators out ( adju/m5t4 ,misfir+4 ,readju/4 ,vibrator po9ts pitt$4 ,misfir+4 ,clean4 ,defective cond5s] r>e4 ,no sp>k4 ,s5d to mak] ,defective w9d+ = repairs4 ,poor contact at swit*4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,brok5 int]nal wir+4 ,no sp>k4 ,replace4 ,poor coil unit4 ,"o cyl9d] affect$4 ,replace4 ,,wir+ ,,defect ,,tr\ble ,,caus$ ,,rem$y ,loose t]m9als any:]e4 ,misfir+4 ,tight54 ,brok5 plug wire4 ,"o cyl9d] w n ,replace4 fire4 ,brok5 tim] wire4 ,"o coil w n buzz4 ,replace4 ,brok5 ma9 batt]y wire4 ,no sp>k4 ,replace4 ,brok5 batt]y gr\nd wire4 ,brok5 magneto gr\nd wire4 ,eng9e w n /op4 ,replace4 ,*af$ insulation any:]e4 ,misfir+4 ,insulate4 ,%ort circuit any:]e4 ,,c>buretion ,,sy/em ,,faults ,,summ>iz$ ,motor ,/>ts ,h>d or ,w ,n ,/>t ,no ,gasol9e 9 ,tank4 ,no ,gasol9e 9 ,c>buretor ,float ,*amb]4 ,tank ,%ut-,(f ,clos$4 ,clogg$ ,filt] ,scre54 ,fuel ,supply ,pipe ,clogg$4 ,gasol9e ,level ,too ,l[4 ,gasol9e ,level ,too ,high 7,flood+74 ,b5t or ,/uck ,float ,lev]4 ,loose or ,defective ,inlet ,manifold4 ,n ,en\gh ,gasol9e at ,jet4 ,cyl9d]s ,flood$ ) ,gas4 ,fuel ,soak$ ,cork ,float 7,causes ,flood+74 ,wat] 9 ,c>buretor ,spray ,nozzle4 ,dirt 9 ,float ,*amb]4 ,gas ,mixture ,too ,lean4 ,c>buretor ,froz5 7,w9t] ,only74 ,motor ,/ops ,9 ,flight ,gasol9e ,%ut-,(f ,valve ,j>r$ ,clos$4 ,gasol9e ,supply ,pipe ,clogg$4 ,no ,gasol9e 9 ,tank4 ,spray ,nozzle ,/opp$ ,up4 ,wat] 9 ,spray ,nozzle4 ,p>ticles ( ,c>bon ,betwe5 ,sp>k-,plug ,po9ts4 ,magneto ,%ort ,circuit$ by ,gr\nd 9 ,wire4 ,air ,lock 9 ,gasol9e ,pipe4 ,brok5 ,air ,l9e or ,leaky ,tank 7,pressure ,fe$ ,sy/em ,only74 ,fuel ,supply ,pipe ,p>tially ,clogg$4 ,air ,v5t 9 ,tank ,fill] ,cap ,/opp$ ,up 7,gravity & ,vacuum ,fe$ ,sy/em74 ,float ,ne$le ,valve ,/uck4 ,wat] or ,dirt 9 ,spray ,nozzle4 ,mixture ,adju/+ ,ne$le ,j>r$ ,loose 7,rot>y ,motors ,only74 ,motor ,races1 ,w ,n ,?rottle ,d[n ,air ,leak 9 ,inlet ,pip+4 ,air ,leak ,?r\gh ,inlet ,valve ,guides4 ,control ,rods ,brok54 ,defective ,induction ,pipe ,jo9ts4 ,leaky ,c>buretor ,flange ,pack+4 ,?rottle ,n ,clos+4 ,poor ,sl[ ,spe$ ,adju/m5t 7,z5i? ,c>buretor74 ,motor ,misfires ,c>buretor ,float ,*amb] ,gett+ ,dry4 ,wat] or ,dirt 9 ,gasol9e4 ,poor ,gasol9e ,adju/m5t 7,rot>y ,motors74 ,n ,en\gh ,gasol9e 9 ,float ,*amb]4 ,too ,mu* ,gasol9e1 ,c>buretor ,flood+4 ,incorrect ,jet or ,*oke 7,z5i? ,c>buretor74 ,brok5 ,cyl9d] ,head ,pack+ ,betwe5 ,cyl9d]s4 ,noisy ,op]ation ,popp+ or ,bl[+ ,back 9 ,c>buretor4 ,incorrectly ,tim$ ,inlet ,valves4 ,inlet ,valve ,n ,seat+4 ,defective ,inlet ,valve ,spr+4 ,dirt ,"u ,inlet ,valve ,seat4 ,n ,en\gh ,gasol9e 7,op5 ,ne$le ,valve74 ,muffl] or ,manifold ,explosions4 ,mixture ,n ,explod+ ,regul>ly4 ,exhau/ ,valve ,/ick+4 ,dirt ,"u ,exhau/ ,valve ,seat4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,tools = ,adju/+ & ,erect+--,=ms ( ,wr5*es--,use & ,c>e ( ,files--,split ,p9 ,removal & ,in/allation--,complete ,*isel ,set--,drill+ ,ma*9es--,drills1 ,ream]s1 ,taps & ,dies-- ,measur+ ,tools--,micromet] ,calip]s & ,_! ,use--,typical ,tool ,outfits--,special ,hall-,scott ,tools--,ov]haul+ ,airplane ,eng9es --,tak+ ,eng9e ,d[n--,defects 9 ,cyl9d]s--,c>bon ,deposits1 ,cause & ,prev5tion--,use ( ,c>bon ,scrap]s--,burn+ ,out ,c>bon ) ,oxyg5--,repair+ ,scor$ ,cyl9d]s--,valve ,removal & ,inspection--,reseat+ & ,tru+ ,valves--,valve ,gr9d+ ,processes--,depreciation 9 ,valve ,op]at+ ,sy/em--,pi/on ,tr\bles--,pi/on ,r+ ,manipulation--,fitt+ ,pi/on ,r+s-- ,wri/-,p9 ,we>--,inspection & ,refitt+ ( ,eng9e ,be>+s-- ,scrap+ ,brasses to ,fit--,fitt+ ,connect+ ,rods--,te/+ = ,be>+ ,p>allelism--,cam-,%afts & ,tim+ ,ge>s--,precautions 9 ,reassembl+ ,p>ts4 ,,tools ,,= ,,adju/+ ,,& ,,erect+ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,practical ,h& ,tools ,useful 9 ,dismantl+ & ,repair+ ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,a v complete outfit ( small tools1 "s ( :i* are furni%$ z "p ( ! tool equipm5t ( v>i\s eng9es are %[n 9 gr\p at ,fig4 #afc4 ,?is gr\p includes all ( ! tools necess>y to complete a v practical kit & x is n unusual = ! me*anic :o is cont9ually dismantl+ & erect+ eng9es to possess ev5 a l>g] assortm5t ?an indicat$4 ,! small b5* vise provid$ is a useful auxili>y t c be clamp$ to any conv5i5t b5* or table or ev5 fuselage long]on 9 an em]g5cy & %\ld h jaws at lea/ ?ree in*es wide & capable ( op5+ f\r or five in*es4 ,x is especially useful 9 t x w save trips to ! b5* vises1 z x has adequate capacity to h&le practically any ( ! small p>ts t ne$ to be work$ on :5 mak+ repairs4 ,a bl[ tor*1 t9n]'s snips & sold]+ copp] are v useful 9 %eet metal "w & 9 mak+ any repairs requir+ ! use ( sold]4 ,! tor* c be us$ 9 any op]ation requir+ a s\rce ( heat4 ,! l>ge box wr5* %[n "u ! vise is us$ = remov+ l>ge special nuts & sometimes has "o end ( ! prop] size to fit ! valve *amb] cap4 ,! pi/on r+ remov]s are easily made f ?9 /rips ( %eet metal securely braz$ or sold]$ to a light wire h&le4 ,^! are us$ 9 sets ( ?ree = remov+ & apply+ pi/on r+s 9 a mann] to be indicat$4 ,! uses ( ! wr5*es1 screw driv]s1 & pli]s %[n are kn[n to all & ! v>iety outl9$ %\ld be suffici5t = all ord9>y "w ( re/oration4 ,! wr5* equipm5t is v complete1 includ+ a set ( op5 end ,s-wr5*es to fit all /&>d bolts1 a spann] wr5*1 socket or box wr5*es = bolts t are inaccessible ) ! ord9>y type1 adju/able end wr5*es1 a ?9 monkey wr5* ( m$ium size1 a bicycle wr5* = h&l+ small nuts & bolts1 a ,/illson wr5* = pipe & a l>ge adju/able monkey wr5* = ! /ubborn fa/5+s ( l>ge size4 ,f\r diff]5t types ( pli]s are %[n1 "o be+ a p>allel jaw type ) size cutt+ atta*m5t1 :ile ! o!r illu/rat$ ne> x is a comb9ation p>allel jaw type adapt$ = use on r\nd "w z well z 9 h&l+ flat /ock4 ,! mo/ popul> =m ( pli]s is ! comb9ation patt]n %[n b5ea? ! socket wr5* set4 ,?is is made ( sub/antial drop =g+s hav+ a h+$ jo9t t c be set s t a v wide op5+ at ! jaws is possible4 ,^! c be us$ on r\nd "w & = wire cutt+ z well z = h&l+ flat "w4 ,r\nd nose pli]s are v useful also4 ,a v complete set ( files1 includ+ squ>e1 half r\nd1 mill1 flat ba/>d1 ?ree-corn]$ & rat tail are also necess>y4 ,a hacksaw frame & a numb] ( saws1 "s ) f9e tee? = tub+ & o!rs ) co>s] tee? = b> or solid /ock w be f\nd almo/ indisp5sable4 ,a complete pun* & *isel set %\ld be provid$1 samples ( :i* are %[n 9 ! gr\p :ile ! complete outfit is outl9$ 9 ano!r illu/ration4 ,a numb] ( diff]5t =ms & sizes ( *isels are necess>y1 z "o type is n suitable = all classes ( "w4 ,! adju/able end wr5*es c be us$ 9 _m places :]e a monkey wr5* _c be fitt$ & :]e x w be difficult to use a wr5* hav+ a fix$ op5+4 ,! ,/illson pipe wr5* is useful 9 turn+ /uds1 r\nd rods1 & pipes t _c be turn$ by any o!r means4 ,a complete %op kit mu/ necess>ily include v>i\s sizes = ,/illson & monkey wr5*es1 z no "o size c be expect$ to h&le ! wide range ( "w ! eng9e repairman mu/ cope )4 ,?ree sizes ( ea* =m ( wr5* c be us$1 "o1 a #f in*1 is z small z is ne$$ :ile1 a #ab in* tool w h&le almo/ any piece ( pipe or nut us$ 9 eng9e con/ruction4 ,?ree or f\r sizes ( hamm]s %\ld be provid$1 accord+ to individual requirem5t1 ^! be+ small rivet+1 m$ium & heavyweight ma*9i/'s hamm]s4 ,a v practical tool ( ?is nature = ! repair %op c be us$ z a hamm]1 screw driv] or pry iron4 ,x is kn[n z ! ,sp>tan hamm] & is a tool /eel drop =g+ 9 "o piece hav+ ! work+ surfaces prop]ly h>d5$ & temp]$ :ile ! metal is di/ribut$ s z to give a good balance to ! head & a com=table grip to ! h&le4 ,! hamm] head provides a positive & com=table ,t-h&le :5 ! tool is us$ z a screw driv] or tommy b>4 ,ma*9i/'s hamm]s are provid$ ) ?ree types ( heads1 ^! be+ ( v>i\s weights4 ,! =m mo/ commonly us$ is t]m$ ! ball pe9 on acc\nt ( ! %ape ( ! portion us$ = rivet+4 ,! /raight pe9 is j ! same z ! cross pe91 except t 9 ! latt] ! /raight portion is at "r angles to ! hamm] h&le1 :ile 9 ! =m] x is p>allel to t memb]4 ,,=ms ,,( ,,wr5*es ,wr5*es h be5 made 9 inf9ite v>iety & !re are a score or m patt]ns ( diff]5t types ( adju/able socket & (f-set wr5*es4 ,! v>i\s wr5* types t diff] f ! m conv5tional monkey wr5*es or ^? ( ! ,/illson patt]n are %[n at ,fig4 #afd4 ,! p]fect h&le is a drop =g$ op5 end =m provid$ ) a wood5 h&le simil> to t us$ on a monkey wr5* 9 ord] to provide a bett] grip = ! h&4 ,! ,saxon wr5* is a d\ble alligator =m1 s call$ because ! jaws are 9 ! =m ( a ,v-groove hav+ "o side ( ! ,v pla91 :ile ! o!r is s]rat$ 9 ord] to secure a tight grip on r\nd objects4 ,9 ! =m %[n1 two jaws ( v>y+ sizes are provid$1 "o = l>ge "w1 ! o!r to h&le ! small] rods4 ,"o ( ! novel features 9 connection ) ?is wr5* is ! provision ( a triple die block 9 ! c5tre ( ! h&le :i* is provid$ ) ?ree mo/ commonly us$ ( ! /&>d ?reads includ+ #e_/af-;in*-#ah1 #c_/h-;in*-#af1 & #a_/b-;in*-#ac4 ,?is is useful 9 clean+ up burr$ ?reads on bolts be=e !y are replac$1 z burr+ is unavoidable if x has be5 necess>y to drive !m out ) a hamm]4 ,! ,lakeside wr5* has an adju/able pawl engag+ ) "o ( a s]ies ( not*es by :i* ! op5+ may be held 9 any desir$ position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,wr5*es are ,(f]$ 9 ,_m ,=ms4 ,ev] s9ce ! socket wr5* 0 inv5t$ x has be5 a popul> =m because x c be us$ 9 _m places :]e ! ord9>y op5 end or monkey wr5* _c be appli$ ow+ to lack ( room = ! head ( ! wr5*4 ,a typical set :i* has be5 made to fit 9 a v small space is %[n at ,d4 ,x consi/s ( a h&le1 :i* is nickel-plat$ & highly poli%$1 a long ext5sion b>1 a univ]sal jo9t & a numb] ( case h>d5$ cold drawn /eel sockets to fit all commonly us$ /&>d nuts & bolt heads4 ,two screw-driv] bits1 "o small & ! o!r l>ge to fit ! h&le1 & a long socket to fit sp>k-plugs are also includ$ 9 ?is outfit4 ,! univ]sal jo9t p]mits "o to remove nuts 9 a position t w\ld be inaccessible to any o!r =m ( wr5*1 z x enables ! socket to be turn$ ev5 if ! h&le is at "o side ( an int]v5+ ob/ruction4 ,! ,pick-up wr5*1 %[n at ,e1 is us$ = sp>k-plugs & ! upp] end ( ! socket is provid$ ) a s]ies ( grooves into :i* a suitable blade c>ri$ by ! h&le c be dropp$4 ,! h&le is pivot$ to ! top ( ! socket 9 su* a way t ! blades may be pick$ up out ( ! grooves by lift+ on ! end ( ! h&le & dropp$ 9 aga9 :5 ! h&le is swung ar\nd to ! prop] po9t to get ano!r hold on ! socket4 ,! ,mill] wr5* %[n at ,f1 is a comb9ation socket & op5 end type1 made especially = use ) sp>k-plugs4 ,bo? ! op5 end & ! socket are conv5i5t4 ,! ,h&y set %[n at ,g1 consi/s ( a numb] ( ?9 /amp$ wr5*es ( /eel held toge!r 9 a gr\p by a simple clamp fitt+1 :i* enables ei!r end ( any "o ( ! f\r d\ble wr5*es to be br\ght into play accord+ to ! size ( ! nut to be turn$4 ,! ,cronk wr5* %[n at ,h1 is a simple /amp+ hav+ an alligator op5+ at "o end & a /epp$ op5+ capable ( h&l+ f\r diff]5t sizes ( /&>d nuts or bolt heads at ! o!r4 ,su* wr5*es are v *eap & are wor? _m times _! small co/1 especially = fitt+ nuts :]e !re is n suffici5t room to admit ! m conv5tional patt]n4 ,! ,/>rett wr5* set1 :i* is %[n at ,i1 consi/s ( a rat*et h&le toge!r ) an ext5sion b> & univ]sal jo9t1 a sp>k-plug socket1 a drill+ atta*m5t :i* takes /&>d squ>e %ank drills f #a_/h-;in* to #a_/b-;in* 9 diamet]1 a d\ble end$ screw-driv] bit & sev]al adju/m5ts to g ) ! drill+ atta*m5t4 ,tw5ty-eight assort$ cold drawn /eel sockets simil> 9 design to ^? %[n at ,d1 to fit all /&>d sizes ( squ>e & hexagonal head$ nuts are also includ$4 ,! rev]sible rat*et h&le1 :i* may be slipp$ ov] ! ext5sion b> or ! univ]sal jo9t & :i* is also adapt$ to take ! squ>$ end ( any "o ( ! sockets is exceptionally useful 9 p]mitt+1 z x does1 ! in/ant release ( pressure :5 x is desir$ to sw+ ! h&le back to get ano!r hold on ! nut4 ,! socket wr5* sets are usually suppli$ 9 h>d wood cases or 9 lea!r bags s t !y may be kept toge!r & protect$ aga9/ loss or damage4 ,) a prop]ly select$ socket wr5* set1 ei!r ( ! rat*et h&le or ,t-h&le =m1 any nut on ! eng9e may be rea*$ & end wr5*es w n be necess>y4 ,,use ,,& ,,c>e ,,( ,,files ,m5tion has be5 previ\sly made ( ! importance ( provid+ a complete set ( files & suitable h&les4 ,^! %\ld be 9 v>i\s grades or degrees ( f95ess & ?ree ( ea* k9d %\ld be provid$4 ,9 ! flat & half r\nd files ?ree grades are necess>y1 "o ) co>se tee? = r\gh+1 & o!rs ) m$ium & f9e tee? = ! f9i%+ cuts4 ,! r\nd or rat tail file is necess>y 9 fil+ out small holes1 ! half r\nd = f9i%+ ! int]ior ( l>ge ones4 ,half r\nd files are also well adapt$ = f9i%+ surfaces ( peculi> cont\r1 su* z ! inside ( be>+ boxes1 connect+ rod & ma9 be>+ caps1 etc4 ,squ>e files are useful 9 f9i%+ keyways or clean+ out burr$ spl9es1 :ile ! triangul> section or ?ree-corn]$ file is ( value 9 clean+ out burr$ ?reads & %>p corn]s4 ,flat files are us$ on all plane surfaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,illu/rat+ ,use & ,c>e ( ,files4 ,! file bru% %[n at ,fig4 #afe1 ,a1 consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( wire bri/les atta*$ to a sub/antial wood back hav+ a h&le ( conv5i5t =m s t ! bri/les may be drawn ?r\gh ! int]/ices betwe5 ! tee? ( ! file to remove dirt & grease4 ,if ! tee? are fill$ ) pieces ( s(t metal1 su* z sold] or babbitt1 x may be necess>y to remove ?is accumulation ) a piece ( %eet metal z indicat$ at ,fig4 #afe1 ,b4 ,! me?od ( hold+ a file = work+ on pla9 surfaces :5 x is fitt$ ) ! regul> =m ( wood5 h&le is %[n at ,c1 :ile two types ( h&les enabl+ ! me*anic to use ! flat file on pla9 surfaces ( su* size t ! h&le type indicat$ at ,c1 c\ld n be us$ on acc\nt ( int]f]+ ) ! surface f9i%$ are %[n at ,d4 ,! me?od ( us+ a file :5 surfaces are f9i%$ by draw fil+ is %[n at ,e4 ,?is diff]s f ! usual me?od ( fil+ & is only us$ :5 surfaces are to be poli%$ & v little metal remov$4 ,,split ,,p9 ,,removal ,,& ,,ins]tion ,"o ( ! mo/ widely us$ ( ! lock+ means to prev5t nuts or bolts f becom+ loose is ! simple split p91 sometimes call$ a cott] p94 ,^! c be h&l$ v easily if ! special pli]s %[n at ,fig4 #aff1 ,a1 are us$4 ,!y h a curv$ jaw t p]mits ( grasp+ ! p9 firmly & ins]t+ x 9 ! hole ready to receive x4 ,x is n easy to ins]t ^! split p9s by o!r means because ! ends are usually spread out & x is h>d to ent] ! p9 9 ! hole4 ,) ! cott] p9 pli]s ! ends may be br\ght close toge!r & z ! pli] jaws are small ! p9 may be easily pu%$ 9 place4 ,ano!r use ( ?is pli]1 also indicat$1 is to b5d ov] ! ends ( ! split p9 9 ord] to prev5t x f fall+ out4 ,to remove ^! p9s a simple curv$ lev]1 z %[n at ,fig4 #aff1 ,b1 is us$4 ,?is has "o end tap]+ to a po9t & is int5d$ to be ins]t$ 9 ! eye ( ! cott] p91 ! pur*ase (f]$ by ! h&le p]mitt+ ( ready removal ( ! p9 aft] ! ends h be5 clos$ by ! cott] p9 pli]s4 ,,complete ,,*isel ,,set ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,outl9+ ,use ( ,cott] ,p9 ,pli]s1 ,spr+ ,w9d]1 & ,%[+ ,practical ,outfit ( ,*isels4 ,a complete *isel set suitable = repair %op use is also %[n at ,fig4 #aff4 ,! type at ,c is kn[n z a cape *isel & has a n>r[ cutt+ po9t & is int5d$ to *ip keyways1 remove metal out ( corn]s & = all o!r "w :]e ! broad cutt+ edge *isel1 %[n at ,d1 _c be us$4 ,! =m ) ! wide cutt+ edge is us$ 9 *ipp+1 cutt+ %eet metal1 etc4 ,at ,e1 a r\nd nose *isel us$ 9 mak+ oil ways is outl9$1 :ile a simil> tool hav+ a po9t$ cutt+ edge & (t5 us$ = ! same purpose is %[n at ,f4 ,! c5tre pun* depict$ at ,g1 is v useful = m>k+ p>ts ei!r = id5tification or = drill+4 ,9 addition to ! *isels %[n1 a numb] ( solid pun*es or drifts resembl+ v mu* t %[n at ,e1 except t ! po9t is blunt %\ld be provid$ to drive out tap] p9s1 bolts1 rivets1 & o!r fa/5+s ( ?is nature4 ,^! %\ld be provid$ 9 ! common sizes4 ,a complete set ( real value w\ld />t at #a_/h-;in* & increase by increm5ts ( #a_/cb-;in* up to #a_/b-;in*4 ,a simple spr+ w9d] is %[n at ,fig4 #aff1 ,h1 ?is mak+ x possible = ! repairman to w9d coil spr+s1 ei!r on ! la! or 9 ! vise4 ,x w h&le a numb] ( diff]5t sizes ( wire & c be set to space ! coils z desir$4 ,,drill+ ,,ma*9es ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,=ms ( ,h& ,op]at$ ,drill+ ,ma*9es4 ,drill+ ma*9es may be ( two k9ds1 h& or p[] op]at$4 ,= drill+ small holes 9 metal x is necess>y to run ! drill fa/1 !re=e ! drill *uck is usually driv5 by ge>+ 9 ord] to produce high drill spe$ )\t turn+ ! h&le too fa/4 ,a small h& drill is %[n at ,fig4 #afg1 ,a4 ,z w be obs]v$1 ! *uck sp9dle is driv5 by a small bevel p9ion1 :i* 9 turn1 is op]at$ by a l>ge bevel ge> turn$ by a crank4 ,! ge> ratio is su* t "o turn ( ! h&le w turn ! *uck five or six revolutions4 ,a drill ( ?is design is n suit$ = drills any l>g] ?an "o-qu>t] in*4 ,= use ) drills rang+ f "o-eigh? to ?ree-eigh?s1 or ev5 half-in* ! h& drill presses %[n at ,c & ,d are us$4 ,^! h a pad at ! upp] end by :i* pressure may be ex]t$ ) ! *e/ 9 ord] to fe$ ! drill into ! "w1 & = ?is reason !y are t]m$ brea/ drills4 ,! =m at ,c has comp\nd ge>+1 ! drill *uck be+ driv5 by ! usual =m ( bevel p9ion 9 me% ) a l>g] bevel ge> at "o end ( a c\nt]%aft4 ,a small helical spur p9ion at ! o!r end ( ?is c\nt]%aft receives its motion f a l>g] ge> turn$ by ! h& crank4 ,?is arrangem5t ( ge>+ p]mits ( high sp9dle spe$ )\t ! use ( l>ge ge>s1 z w\ld be necess>y if b two 7 us$4 ,! =m at ,d gives two spe$s1 "o = use ) small drills is obta9$ by engag+ ! l[] bevel p9ion ) ! *uck sp9dle & driv+ x by ! l>ge r+ ge>4 ,! sl[ spe$ is obta9$ by %ift+ ! clut* s t ! top bevel p9ion drives ! drill *uck4 ,z ?is me%es ) a ge> b slightly l>g] 9 diamet]1 a sl[ spe$ ( ! drill *uck is possible4 ,brea/ drills are provid$ ) a h&le screw$ into ! side ( ! frame1 ^! are us$ to /eady ! drill press4 ,= drill+ extremely l>ge holes :i* are beyond ! capacity ( ! usual =m ( drill press ! rat*et =m %[n at ,b1 may be us$ or ! bit brace outl9$ at ,e4 ,! drills us$ ) ei!r ( ^! h squ>e %anks1 :]eas ^? us$ 9 ! drill presses h r\nd %anks4 ,! bit brace is also us$ widely 9 wood "w & ! =m %[n is provid$ ) a rat*et by :i* ! bit *uck may be turn$ ?r\gh only a portion ( a revolution 9 ei!r direction if desir$4 ,,drills1 ,,ream]s1 ,,taps ,,& ,,dies ,9 addition to ! l>g] ma*9e tools & ! simple h& tools previ\sly describ$1 an ess5tial item ( equipm5t ( any eng9e or plane repair %op1 ev5 9 cases :]e ! ord9>y ma*9e tools are n provid$1 is a complete outfit ( drills1 ream]s1 & ?read+ tools4 ,drills are ( two g5]al classes1 ! flat & ! twi/ drills4 ,! flat drill has an angle betwe5 cutt+ edges ( ab\t #aaj degrees & is usually made f special /eel comm]cially kn[n z drill rod4 ,a flat drill _c be f$ into ! "w v fa/ because x removes metal by a scrap+1 r ?an a cutt+ process4 ,! twi/ drill 9 its simple/ =m is cyl9drical ?r\gh\t ! entire l5g? & has spiral flutes :i* are gr\nd (f at ! end to =m ! cutt+ lip & :i* also s]ve to c>ry ! metal *ips out ( ! holes4 ,! simple/ =m ( twi/ drill us$ is %[n at ,fig4 #afh1 ,c1 & is kn[n z a *uck drill1 because x mu/ be plac$ 9 a suitable *uck to turn x4 ,a twi/ drill removes metal by cutt+ & x is n necess>y to use a heavy fe$ z ! drill w t5d to fe$ itself into ! "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,=ms ( ,drills ,us$ 9 ,h& & ,p[] ,drill+ ,ma*9es4 ,l>g] drills ?an #c_/d-;in* are usually made ) a tap]$ %ank z %[n at ,fig4 #afh1 ,b4 ,at ! end ( ! tap] a tongue is =m$ :i* engages ) a suitable op5+ 9 ! collet1 z ! piece us$ to support ! drill is call$4 ,! object ( ?is tongue is to relieve ! tap]$ portion ( ! drill f ! /ress ( driv+ by frictional contact alone1 z ?is w\ld n turn ! drill positively & ! result+ slippage w\ld we> ! socket1 ?is depreciation *ang+ ! tap] & mak+ x unfit = o!r drills4 ,! tongue is usually proportion$ s x is adequate to drive ! drill "u any condition4 ,a small keyway is provid$ 9 ! collet into :i* a tap]+ key ( flat /ock may be driv5 aga9/ ! end ( ! tongue to drive ! drill f ! sp9dle4 ,a /&>d tap] = drill %anks g5]ally accept$ by ! ma*9e trade is kn[n z ! ,morse & is a tap] ( five-eigh?s ( an in* to ! foot4 ,! ,br[n & ,%>p =m tap]s six-t5?s ( an in* to ! foot4 ,c>e mu/ be tak51 !re=e1 :5 pur*as+ drills & collets1 to make sure t ! tap]s co9cide1 z no attempt %\ld be made to run a ,morse tap] 9 a ,br[n & ,%>p collet1 or vice v]sa4 ,sometimes cyl9drical drills h /raight flutes1 z outl9$ at ,fig4 #afh1 ,a4 ,su* drills are us$ ) s(t metals & are ( value :5 ! drill is to pass entirely ?r\gh ! "w4 ,! tr\ble ) a drill ) spiral flutes is t x w t5d to draw itself ?r\gh z ! cutt+ lips break ?r\gh4 ,?is cat*+ ( ! drill may break x or move ! "w f its position4 ,) a /raight flute drill ! cutt+ action is practically ! same z ) ! flat drill %[n at ,fig4 #afh1 ,e & ,f4 ,if a drill is employ$ 9 bor+ holes ?r\gh close-gra9$1 t\gh metals1 z wr\ght or malleable iron & /eel1 ! op]ation w be facilitat$ by lubricat+ ! drill ) pl5ty ( l>d oil or a solution ( soda & wat]4 ,ei!r ( ^! mat]ials w effectually remove ! heat caus$ by ! friction ( ! metal remov$ aga9/ ! lips ( ! drill1 & ! dang] ( heat+ ! drill to a temp]ature t w s(t5 x by draw+ ! temp] is m9imiz$4 ,9 drill+ l>ge or deep holes x is good practice to apply ! lubricat+ m$ium directly at ! drill po9t4 ,special drills ( ! =m %[n at ,fig4 #afh1 ,b1 hav+ a spiral oil tube runn+ 9 a suitably =m$ *annel1 provides communication betwe5 ! po9t ( ! drill & a suitable receiv+ hole on a drill$ %ank4 ,! oil is suppli$ by a pump & its pressure n only promotes positive circulation & removal ( heat1 b also assi/s 9 keep+ ! hole free ( *ips4 ,9 drill+ /eel or wr\ght iron1 l>d oil appli$ to ! po9t ( ! drill w facilitate ! drill+1 b ?is mat]ial %\ld nev] be us$ ) ei!r brass or ca/ iron4 ,! sizes to be provid$ dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! "w & ! am\nt ( money t c be inve/$ 9 drills4 ,x is common practice to provide a set ( drills1 su* z %[n at ,fig4 #afi1 :i* are c>ri$ 9 a suitable metal /&1 ^! be+ kn[n z numb] drills on acc\nt ( con=m+ to ! wire gauge /&>ds4 ,numb] drills d n usually run high] ?an #e_/af in* 9 diamet]4 ,beyond ?is po9t drills are usually sold by ! diamet]4 ,a set ( *uck drills1 rang+ f #c_/h to #c_/d in*1 advanc+ by #a_/cb in*1 & a set ( ,morse tap] %ank drills rang+ f #c_/d to #a-a_/d in*es1 by increm5ts ( #a_/af in*1 w be all t is ne$$ = ! mo/ pret5ti\s repair %op1 z x is *eap] to bore holes l>g] ?an #a-a_/d in*es ) a bor+ tool ?an x is to c>ry a numb] ( l>ge drills 9 /ock t w\ld be us$ v seldom1 p]haps n en\gh to ju/ify _! co/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,useful ,set ( ,numb] ,drills1 ,%[+ ,/& = ,keep+ ,^! 9 an ,ord]ly ,mann]4 ,9 gr9d+ drills1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to h ! lips ( ! same l5g?1 s t !y w =m ! same angle ) ! axis4 ,if "o lip is long] ?an ! o!r1 z %[n 9 ! flat drill at ,fig4 #afh1 ,e1 ! hole w be l>g] ?an ! drill size1 & all ! "w ( cutt+ w come ^u ! longe/ lip4 ,! drill ends %\ld be symmetrical1 z %[n at ,fig4 #afh1 ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,illu/rat+ ,/&>d ,=ms ( ,h& & ,ma*9e ,ream]s4 ,x is consid]$ v difficult to drill a hole to an exact diamet]1 b = ! mo/ "w a v>iation ( a few ?\s&?s ( an in* is ( no great mom5t4 ,:]e accuracy is necess>y1 holes mu/ be ream$ out to ! requir$ size4 ,9 ream+1 a hole is drill$ ab\t #a_/cb in* small] ?an is requir$1 & is enl>g$ ) a cutt+ tool kn[n z ! ream]4 ,ream]s are usually ( ! flut$ =m %[n at ,fig4 #agj1 ,a4 ,tools ( ?is nature are n design$ to remove consid]able am\nts ( metal1 b are int5d$ to augm5t ! diamet] ( ! drill hole by only a small fraction ( an in*4 ,ream]s are tap]$ slightly at ! po9t 9 ord] t !y w ent] ! hole easily1 b ! great] portion ( ! flut$ "p is /raight1 all cutt+ edges be+ p>allel4 ,h& ream]s are made 9 ei!r ! /raight or tap] =ms1 t at ,a1 ,fig4 #agj1 be+ /raight1 :ile ,b has tap]+ flutes4 ,!y are int5d$ to be turn$ by a wr5* simil> to t employ$ 9 turn+ a tap1 z %[n at ,fig4 #agb1 ,c4 ,! ream] %[n at ,fig4 #agj1 ,c1 is a h& ream]4 ,! =m at ,d has spiral flutes simil> to a twi/ drill1 & z x is provid$ ) a tap] %ank x is int5d$ to be turn$ by p[] ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a suitable collet4 ,z ! solid ream]s mu/ become r$uc$ 9 size :5 %>p5$1 v>i\s =ms ( ins]t$ blade ream]s h be5 design$4 ,"o ( ^! is %[n at ,e1 & z ! cutt+ surfaces become r$uc$ 9 diamet] x is possible to replace ! worn blades ) o!rs ( prop] size4 ,exp&+ ream]s are ( ! =m %[n at ,f4 ,^! h a bolt pass+ ?r\gh t fits into a tap]+ hole 9 ! int]ior ( ! split ream] portion ( ! tool4 ,if ! hole is to be enl>g$ a few ?\s&?s ( an in*1 x is possible to draw up on ! nut j above ! squ>$ end ( ! %ank1 & by draw+ ! tap]+ w$ge f>!r into ! ream] body1 ! cutt+ portion w be exp&$ & w cut a l>g] hole4 ,ream]s mu/ be v c>efully %>p5$ or !re w be a t5d5cy t[>d *att]+ ) a consequ5t production ( a r\gh surface4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods ( prev5t+ ?is *att]+1 "o be+ to sep>ate ! cutt+ edges by irregul> spaces1 :ile ! mo/ common me?od1 & t to be pref]r$ on ma*9e ream]s1 is to use spiral flutes1 z %[n at ,fig4 #agj1 ,d4 ,special tap] ream]s are made to con=m to ! v>i\s tap] p9 sizes :i* are sometimes us$ 9 hold+ p>ts toge!r 9 an eng9e4 ,a tap] ( #a_/af in* p] foot is int5d$ = holes :]e a p91 once driv5 91 is to rema9 9 place4 ,:5 x is desir$ t ! p9 be driv5 out1 ! tap] is made /eep]1 g5]ally #a_/d in* p] foot1 :i* is ! /&>d tap] us$ on tap] p9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,tools = ,?read ,cutt+4 ,:5 ?reads are to be cut 9 a small hole1 x w be app>5t t x w be difficult to p]=m ?is op]ation economically on a la!1 !re=e :5 int]nal ?read+ is call$ =1 a simple device kn[n z a tap is us$4 ,!re are _m /yles ( taps1 all con=m+ to diff]5t /&>ds4 ,"s are = metric or =eign ?reads1 "s con=m to ! ,am]ican /&>ds1 :ile o!rs are us$ = pipe & tub+4 ,h& taps are ! =m mo/ us$ 9 repair %ops1 ^! be+ outl9$ at ,fig4 #aga1 ,a & ,b4 ,!y are usually sold 9 sets ( ?ree1 kn[n respectively z tap]1 plug1 & bottom+4 ,! tap] tap is ! "o fir/ put into ! hole1 & is !n foll[$ by ! plug tap :i* cuts ! ?reads deep]4 ,if x is imp]ative t ! ?read %\ld be full size cle> to ! bottom ( ! hole1 ! ?ird tap ( ! set1 :i* is /raight-sid$1 is us$4 ,x w\ld be difficult to />t a bottom+ tap into a hole because x w\ld be l>g] 9 diamet] at its po9t ?an ! hole4 ,! tap] tap1 z %[n at ,a1 ,fig4 #aga1 has a portion ( ! cutt+ l&s gr\nd away at ! po9t 9 ord] t x w ent] ! hole4 ,! manipulation ( a tap is n h>d1 z x does n ne$ to be =c$ into ! "w1 z ! ?read w draw x into ! hole z ! tap is turn$4 ,! tap]+ ( a tap is done s t no "o ?read is call$ ^u to remove all ( ! metal1 z = ab\t half way up ! l5g? ( ! tap ea* succe$+ ?read is cut a little l>g] by ! cutt+ edge until ! full ?read ent]s ! hole4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to always ent] a tap /raight 9 ord] to h ! ?read at correct angles to ! surface4 ,9 cutt+ ext]nal ?reads on small rods or on small pieces1 su* z bolts & /uds1 x is n always economical to d ?is "w 9 ! la!1 especially 9 repair "w4 ,dies are us$ to cut ?reads on pieces t are to be plac$ 9 tapp$ holes t h be5 ?read$ by ! correspond+ size ( tap4 ,dies = small "w are (t5 made solid1 z %[n at ,fig4 #aga1 ,c1 b solid dies are usually limit$ to sizes bel[ #a_/b in*4 ,sometimes ! solid die is cyl9drical 9 %ape1 ) a slot ?r\gh "o side :i* enables "o to obta9 a slight degree ( adju/m5t by squeez+ ! slott$ portion toge!r4 ,l>ge dies1 or ! sizes ov] #a_/b in*1 are usually made 9 two pieces 9 ord] t ! halves may be clos$ up or br\ght ne>] toge!r4 ,! advantage ( ?is =m ( die is t ei!r ( ! two pieces may be easily %>p5$1 & z x may be adju/$ v easily ! ?read may be cut by easy /ages4 ,= example1 ! die may be adju/$ to cut l>ge1 :i* w produce a %all[ ?read t w act z an accurate guide :5 ! die is clos$ up & a deep] ?read cut4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,%[+ ,hold] ,designs = ,"o- & ,two-,piece ,?read ,cutt+ ,dies4 ,a common =m ( die hold] = an adju/able die is %[n at ,fig4 #agb1 ,a4 ,z w be app>5t1 x consi/s ( a c5tral body portion hav+ guide memb]s to keep ! die pieces f fall+ out & lev]s at ea* end 9 ord] to p]mit ! op]ator to ex]t suffici5t =ce to remove ! metal4 ,! me?od ( adju/+ ! dep? ( ?read ) a clamp screw :5 a two-piece die is employ$ is also cle>ly outl9$4 ,! die/ock %[n at ,b is us$ = ! small] dies ( ! "o-piece patt]n1 hav+ a slot 9 ord] t !y may be clos$ up slightly by ! clamp screw4 ,! rev]se side ( ! die/ock %[n at ,b is outl9$ bel[ x1 & ! guide pieces1 :i* may be easily mov$ 9 or out1 accord+ to ! size ( ! piece to be ?read$ by means ( ecc5trically dispos$ semi-circul> slots 9 ! adju/m5t plate1 are %[n4 ,^! movable guide memb]s h small p9s let into _! surface :i* engage ! slots1 & !y may be mov$ 9 or out1 z desir$1 accord+ to ! position ( ! adju/+ plate4 ,! use ( ! guide pieces makes = accurate position+ or c5t]+ ( ! rod to be ?read$4 ,dies are usually sold 9 sets1 & are commonly furni%$ z a portion ( a complete outfit su* z outl9$ at ,fig4 #agc4 ,t %[n has two sizes ( die/ock1 a tap wr5*1 eight assort$ dies1 eight assort$ taps1 & a small screw driv] = adju/+ ! die4 ,an automobile repair %op %\ld be provid$ ) ?ree diff]5t sets ( taps & dies1 z ?ree diff]5t /&>ds = ! bolts & nuts are us$ 9 fa/5+ automobile compon5ts4 ,^! are ! ,am]ican1 metric 7us$ on =eign eng9es71 & ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 /&>d ?reads4 ,a set ( pipe dies & taps w also be f\nd useful4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,useful ,outfit ( ,taps & ,dies = ! ,eng9e ,repair ,%op4 ,,measur+ ,,tools ,! tool outfit ( ! ma*9i/ or ! me*anic :o aspires to d ma*9e "w mu/ include a numb] ( measur+ tools :i* are n ne$$ by ! floor man or "o :o m]ely assembles & takes ap>t ! f9i%$ pieces4 ,! ma*9i/ :o mu/ conv]t raw mat]ial into f9i%$ products requires a numb] ( measur+ tools1 "s ( :i* are us$ = tak+ only approximate measurem5ts1 su* z calip]s & scales1 :ile o!rs are int5d$ to take v accurate measurem5ts1 su* z ! ,v]ni] & ! micromet]4 ,a numb] ( common =ms ( calip]s are %[n at ,fig4 #agd4 ,^! are kn[n z inside or outside calip]s1 dep5d+ ^u ! measurem5ts !y are int5d$ to take4 ,t at ,a is an inside calip]1 consi/+ ( two legs1 ,a & ,d1 & a gaug+ piece1 ,b1 :i* c be lock$ to leg ,a1 or releas$ f t memb] by ! screw1 ,c4 ,! object ( ?is con/ruction is to p]mit ( measurem5ts be+ tak5 at ! bottom ( a two diamet] hole1 :]e ! po9t to be measur$ is ( l>g] diamet] ?an ! portion ( ! hole ?r\gh :i* ! calip]s ent]$4 ,x w be app>5t t ! legs ,a & ,d mu/ be br\ght close toge!r to pass ?r\gh ! small] holes4 ,?is may be done )\t los+ ! sett+1 z ! guide b> ,b w rema9 9 "o position z det]m9$ by ! size ( ! hole to be measur$1 :ile ! leg ,a may be swung 9 to cle> ! ob/ruction z ! calip]s are lift$ out4 ,:5 x is desir$ to asc]ta9 ! measurem5ts ! leg ,a is pu%$ back into place into ! slott$ portion ( ! guide ,b1 & lock$ by ! clamp screw ,c4 ,a tool ( ?is =m is kn[n z an int]nal transf] calip]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4--;,common ,=ms ( ,inside & ,outside ,calip]s4 ,! =m ( calip] %[n at ,b is an outside calip]4 ,^? at ,c & ,d are special =ms = inside & outside "w1 ! =m] be+ us$1 if desir$1 z a divid]1 :ile ! latt] may be employ$ = measur+ ! walls ( tub+4 ,! calip]s at ,e are simple =ms1 hav+ a friction jo9t to di/+ui% !m f ! spr+ calip]s %[n at ,b1 ,c & ,d4 ,9 ord] to p]mit ( ready adju/m5t ( a spr+ calip]1 a split nut z %[n at ,g is sometimes us$4 ,a solid nut calip] c only be adju/$ by screw+ ! nut 9 or out on ! screw1 :i* may be a t$i\s process if ! calip] is to be set f "o extreme to ! o!r sev]al times 9 succession4 ,) a slip nut z %[n at ,g x is possible to slip x f "o end ( ! ?read to ! o!r )\t turn+ x1 & ( lock+ x 9 place at any desir$ po9t by simply all[+ ! calip] leg to come 9 contact ) x4 ,! me?od ( adju/+ a spr+ calip] is %[n at ,fig4 #agd1 ,h4 ,among ! mo/ common ( ! ma*9i/'s tools are ^? us$ = l9e> measurem5ts4 ,! usual =ms are %[n 9 gr\p1 ,fig4 #age4 ,! mo/ common tool1 :i* is widely kn[n1 is ! c>p5t]'s fold+ two-foot rule or ! y>d/ick4 ,:ile ^! are v conv5i5t = tak+ measurem5ts :]e great accuracy is n requir$1 ! ma*9i/ mu/ "w mu* m accurately ?an ! c>p5t]1 & ! /&>d /eel scale :i* is %[n at ,d1 is a popul> tool = ! ma*9i/4 ,! /eel scale is 9 reality a graduat$ /raight edge & =ms an important "p ( v>i\s measur+ tools4 ,^! are made ( high grade /eel & v>y f #a to #dh in*es 9 l5g?4 ,!y are c>efully h>d5$ 9 ord] to pres]ve ! graduations1 & all surfaces & edges are accurately gr\nd to insure absolute p>allelism4 ,! graduations on ! high grade scales are produc$ ) a special device kn[n z a divid+ eng9e1 b on *eap] scales1 et*+ suffices to provide a fairly accurate graduation4 ,! /eel scales may be v ?9 & flexible1 or may be ab\t an eigh? ( an in* ?ick on ! twelve-in* size1 :i* is t commonly us$ ) comb9ation squ>es1 protractors & o!r tools ( t nature4 ,! repairman's scale %\ld be graduat$ bo? ) ! ,engli% sy/em1 9 :i* ! in*es are divid$ into eigh?s1 sixte5?s1 ?irty-second?s & sixty-f\r?s1 & also 9 ! metric sy/em1 divid$ into millimet]s & c5timet]s4 ,"s ma*9i/s use scales graduat$ 9 t5?s1 tw5tie?s1 fiftie?s & hundr$?s4 ,?is is n z good a sy/em ( graduation z ! m conv5tional "o fir/ describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4--,measur+ ,appliances = ! ,ma*9i/ & ,floor ,man4 ,"s /eel scales are provid$ ) a slot or groove cut ! entire l5g? on "o side & ab\t ! c5t] ( ! scales4 ,?is p]mits ! atta*m5t ( v>i\s fitt+s su* z ! protractor head1 :i* enables ! ma*9i/ to measure angles1 or 9 addition ! heads conv]t ! scale into a squ>e or a tool p]mitt+ ! accurate bisect+ ( pieces ( circul> section4 ,two scales are sometimes jo9$ toge!r to =m a "r angle1 su* z %[n at ,fig4 #age1 ,c4 ,?is is kn[n z a squ>e & is v valuable 9 asc]ta9+ ! tru? ( v]tical pieces t are suppos$ to =m a "r angle ) a base piece4 ,! ,v]ni] is a device = read+ f9] divisions on a scale ?an ^? into :i* ! scale is divid$4 ,sixty-f\r?s ( an in* are ab\t ! f9e/ division t c be read accurately ) ! nak$ eye4 ,:5 f9e "w is necess>y a ,v]ni] is employ$4 ,?is consi/s ess5tially ( two rules s graduat$ t ! true scale has ea* in* divid$ into t5 equal p>ts1 ! upp] or ,v]ni] portion has t5 divisions occupy+ ! same space z n9e ( ! divisions ( ! true scale4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t "o ( ! divisions ( ! ,v]ni] is equal to n9e-t5?s ( "o ( ^? on ! true scale4 ,if ! ,v]ni] scale is mov$ to ! "r s t ! graduations m>k$ #a %all co9cide1 x w h mov$ "o-t5? ( a division on ! scale or "o-hundr$? ( an in*4 ,:5 ! graduations numb]$ #e co9cide ! ,v]ni] w h mov$ five-hundr$?s ( an in*2 :5 ! l9es m>k$ #j & #aj co9cide1 ! ,v]ni] w h mov$ n9e-hundr$?s ( an in*1 & :5 #aj on ! ,v]ni] comes opposite #aj on ! scales1 ! upp] rule w h mov$ t5-hundr$?s ( an in*1 or ! :ole ( "o division on ! scale4 ,by ?is means ! scale1 ?\gh x may be graduat$ only to t5?s ( an in*1 may be accurately set at po9ts ) positions express$ 9 hundr$?s ( an in*4 ,:5 graduat$ to read 9 ?\s&?s1 ! true scale is divid$ into fifty p>ts & ! ,v]ni] into tw5ty p>ts4 ,ea* division ( ! ,v]ni] is !re=e equal to n9ete5-tw5tie?s ( "o ( ! true scale4 ,if ! ,v]ni] be mov$ s ! l9es ( ! fir/ division co9cide1 x w h mov$ "o-tw5tie? ( "o-fiftie?1 or 4#jja in*4 ,! ,v]ni] pr9ciple c be readily grasp$ by /udy+ ! section ( ! ,v]ni] scale & true scale %[n at ,fig4 #agf1 ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,at ,left1 ,special ,=m ( ,v]ni] ,calip] = ,measur+ ,ge> ,tee?2 at ,"r1 ,micromet] = ,accurate ,int]nal ,measurem5ts4 ,! calip] scale :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #age1 ,a1 p]mits ( tak+ ! ov]-all dim5sion ( any p>ts t w g betwe5 ! jaws4 ,?is scale c be adju/$ v accurately by means ( a f9e ?read screw atta*$ to a movable jaw & ! divisions may be divid$ by eye into two p>ts if "o sixty-f\r? is ! smalle/ ( ! divisions4 ,a l9e is indicat$ on ! movable jaw & co9cides ) ! graduations on ! scale4 ,z w be app>5t1 if ! l9e does n co9cide exactly ) "o ( ! graduations x w be at "s po9t betwe5 ! l9es & ! true measurem5t may be approximat$ )\t tr\ble4 ,a gr\p ( v>i\s o!r measur+ tools ( value to ! ma*9i/ is %[n at ,fig4 #agg4 ,! small scale at ,a is t]m$ a c5t] gauge1 because x c be us$ to te/ ! tru? ( ! tap] ( ei!r a male or female la! c5t]4 ,! two small] nicks1 or v's1 indicate ! %ape ( a /&>d ?read1 & may be us$ z a guide = gr9d+ ! po9t ( a ?read-cutt+ tool4 ,! cross level :i* is %[n at ,b is ( m>k$ utility 9 erect+1 z x w indicate absolutely if ! piece x is us$ to te/ is level4 ,x w indicate if ! piece is level along its wid? z well z its l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg4--,measur+ ,appliances ( ,value 9 ,airplane ,repair ,"w4 ,a v simple atta*m5t = use ) a scale t enables ! ma*9i/ to scribe l9es along ! l5g? ( a cyl9drical piece is %[n at ,fig4 #agg1 ,c4 ,^! are m]ely small w$ge-%ap$ clamps hav+ an angul> face to re/ ^u ! b>s4 ,! ?read pit* gauge :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #agg1 ,d1 is an excell5t pocket tool = ! me*anic1 z x is (t5 necess>y to det]m9e )\t loss ( "t ! pit* ( ! ?read on a bolt or 9 a nut4 ,?is consi/s ( a numb] ( leaves hav+ s]rations on "o edge correspond+ to ! /&>d ?read x is to be us$ 9 measur+4 ,! tool %[n gives all pit*es up to #dh ?reads p] in*4 ,! leaves may be fold$ 9 out ( ! way :5 n 9 use1 & _! %ape admits ( _! be+ us$ 9 any position )\t ! rema9d] ( ! set int]f]+ ) ! "o 9 use4 ,! f9e pit* gauges h slim1 tap]+ leaves ( ! correct %ape to be us$ 9 f9d+ ! pit* ( small nuts4 ,z ! tool is r\nd :5 ! leaves are fold$ back out ( ! way1 x is an excell5t pocket tool1 z !re are no %>p corn]s to we> out ! pocket4 ,practical application ( a ,v]ni] hav+ measur+ heads ( special =m = measur+ ge> tee? is %[n at ,fig4 #agf1 ,a4 ,z ! action ( ?is tool has be5 previ\sly expla9$1 x w n be necess>y to describe x fur!r4 ,,micromet] ,,calip]s ,,& ,,_! ,,use ,:]e great accuracy is necess>y 9 tak+ measurem5ts ! micromet] calip]1 :i* 9 ! simple =m w measure easily 4#jja in* 7"o-?\s&? "p ( an in*7 & :5 fitt$ ) a ,v]ni] t w measure 4#jjja in* 7"o t5-?\s&? "p ( an in*71 is us$4 ,! micromet] may be ( ! calip] =m = measur+ outside diamet]s or x may be ( ! =m %[n at ,fig4 #agf1 ,b1 = measur+ int]nal diamet]s4 ,! op]ation ( bo? =ms is id5tical except t ! int]nal micromet] is plac$ inside ( ! bore to be measur$ :ile ! ext]nal =m is us$ j ! same z a calip]4 ,! =m outl9$ w measure f "o & "o-half to six & a half in*es z ext5sion po9ts are provid$ to increase ! range ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! screw has a movem5t ( "o-half in* & a h>d5$ anvil is plac$ 9 ! end ( ! ?imble 9 ord] to prev5t undue we> at t po9t4 ,! ext5sion po9ts or rods are accurately made 9 /&>d l5g?s & are screw$ into ! body ( ! in/rum5t in/ead ( be+ pu%$ 91 ?is insur+ firmness & accuracy4 ,two =ms ( micromet]s = ext]nal measurem5ts are %[n at ,fig4 #agh4 ,! top "o is graduat$ to read 9 ?\s&?s ( an in*1 :ile ! l[] "o is graduat$ to indicate hundr$?s ( a millimet]4 ,! me*anical pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a micromet] is t ( a screw free to move 9 a fix$ nut4 ,an op5+ to receive ! "w to be measur$ is provid$ by ! backw>d movem5t ( ! ?imble :i* turns ! screw & ! size ( ! op5+ is indicat$ by ! graduations on ! b>rel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agh4--,/&>d ,=ms ( ,micromet] ,calip] = ,ext]nal ,measurem5ts4 ,! article to be measur$ is plac$ betwe5 ! anvil & sp9dle1 ! frame be+ held /ation>y :ile ! ?imble is revolv$ by ! ?umb & f+]4 ,! pit* ( ! screw ?read on ! conceal$ "p ( ! sp9dle is #dj to an in*4 ,"o complete revolution ( ! sp9dle1 !re=e1 moves x longitud9ally "o-=tie?1 or tw5ty-five ?\s&?s ( an in*4 ,z w be evid5t f ! developm5t ( ! scale on ! b>rel ( ! in* micromet]1 ! sleeve is m>k$ ) =ty l9es to ! in*1 ea* ( ^! l9es indicat+ tw5ty-five ?\s&?s4 ,! ?imble has a bevel$ edge :i* is graduat$ into tw5ty-five p>ts4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t is clos$ ! graduation on ! bevel$ edge ( ! ?imble m>k$ #j %\ld correspond to ! #j l9e on ! b>rel4 ,if ! micromet] is rotat$ "o full turn ! op5+ betwe5 ! sp9dle & anvil w be 4#jbe in*4 ,if ! ?imble is turn$ only "o graduation1 or "o tw5ty-fif? ( a revolution1 ! op5+ betwe5 ! sp9dle & anvil w be increas$ only by 4#jja in* 7"o-?\s&? ( an in*74 ,z _m ( ! dim5sions ( ! airplane p>ts1 especially ( ^? ( =eign manufacture or su* p>ts z ball & roll] be>+s1 are bas$ on ! metric sy/em1 ! compet5t repairman %\ld possess bo? in* & metric micromet]s 9 ord] to avoid cont9ual ref]5ce to a table ( metric equival5ts4 ,) a metric micromet] !re are fifty graduations on ! b>rel1 ^! repres5t+ 4#ja ( a millimet]1 or approximately 4#jjd in*4 ,"o full turn ( ! b>rel means an increase ( half a millimet]1 or 4#ej mm4 7fifty "o-hundr$?s74 ,z x takes two turns to augm5t ! space betwe5 ! anvil & ! /em by increm5ts ( "o millimet]1 x w be evid5t t x w\ld n be difficult to divide ! spaces on ! metric micromet] ?imble 9 halves by ! eye1 & ?us ! av]age workman c measure to 4#jjjb in* plus or m9us )\t difficulty4 ,z set 9 ! illu/ration1 ! metric micromet]s %[ a space ( #ac4e mm41 or ab\t "o millimet] m ?an half an in*4 ,! in* micromet] %[n is set to five-t5?s or five hundr$ "o-?\s&?s or "o-half in*4 ,a little /udy ( ! =ego+ matt] w make x easy to und]/& ! action ( ei!r ! in* or metric micromet]4 ,bo? ( ! micromet]s %[n h a small knurl$ knob at ! end ( ! b>rel4 ,?is controls ! rat*et /op1 :i* is a device t p]mits a rat*et to slip by a pawl :5 m ?an a c]ta9 am\nt ( pressure is appli$1 !reby prev5t+ ! measur+ sp9dle f turn+ fur!r & p]haps spr++ ! in/rum5t4 ,a simple rule t c be easily memoriz$ = read+ ! in* micromet] is to multiply ! numb] ( v]tical divisions on ! sleeve by #be & add to t ! numb] ( divisions on ! bevel ( ! ?imble read+ f ! z]o to ! l9e :i* co9cides ) ! horizontal l9e on ! sleeve4 ,= example3 if !re are t5 divisions visible on ! sleeve1 multiply ?is numb] by #be1 !n add ! numb] ( divisions %[n on ! bevel ( ! ?imble1 :i* is #aj4 ,! micromet] is !re=e op5$ #aj x #be equals #bej plus #aj equals #bfj ?\s&?s4 ,micromet]s are made 9 _m sizes1 rang+ f ^? hav+ a maximum op5+ ( "o in* to special l>ge =ms t w measure =ty or m in*es4 ,:ile x is n to be expect$ t ! repairman w h use = ! big sizes1 if a calip] hav+ a maximum op5+ ( six in*es is provid$ ) a numb] ( ext5sion rods enabl+ "o to measure small] objects1 practically all ( ! measur+ ne$$ 9 repair+ eng9e p>ts c be made accurately4 ,two or ?ree small] micromet]s hav+ a maximum range ( two or ?ree in*es w also be f\nd valuable1 z mo/ ( ! measurem5ts w be made ) ^! tools :i* w be mu* easi] to h&le ?an ! l>g] sizes4 ,,typical ,,tool ,,outfits ,! equipm5t ( tools necess>y = repair+ airplane eng9es dep5ds entirely ^u ! type ( ! p[] plant & :ile ! common h& tools c be us$ on all =ms1 ! "w is always facilitat$ by hav+ special tools adapt$ = rea*+ ! nuts & screws t w\ld be h>d to rea* o!rwise4 ,special spann]s & socket wr5*es are v desirable4 ,!n aga91 ! nature ( ! "w to be p]=m$ mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,rebuild+ or ov]haul+ an eng9e calls = consid]ably m tools ?an are furni%$ = mak+ field repairs or m9or adju/m5ts4 ,a complete set ( tools suppli$ to m5 work+ on ,curtiss ,,ox-#b eng9es & ,,jn-#d tra9+ biplanes is %[n at ,fig4 #agi4 ,! tools are plac$ 9 a special box provid$ ) a h+$ cov] & are arrang$ 9 ! sy/ematic mann] outl9$4 ,! v>i\s tools & supplies %[n are3 ,a1 hacksaw blades2 ,b1 special socket wr5*es = eng9e bolts & nuts2 ,c1 ball pe9 hamm]s1 f\r sizes2 ,d1 five assort$ sizes ( screw driv]s rang+ f v long = heavy "w to %ort & small = f9e "w2 ,e1 sev5 pairs ( pli]s includ+ comb9ation 9 ?ree sizes1 two pairs ( cutt+ pli]s & "o r\nd nose2 ,f1 two split p9 extractors & spread]s2 ,g1 wr5* set includ+ ?ree adju/able monkey wr5*es1 "o ,/illson or pipe wr5*1 five sizes adju/able end wr5*es & t5 d\ble end ,s wr5*es2 ,h1 set ( files1 includ+ flat1 ?ree corn]$ & half r\nd2 ,i1 file bru%2 ,j1 *isel & drift p92 ,k1 ?ree small pun*es or drifts2 ,l1 hacksaw frame2 ,m1 sold]+ copp]2 ,n1 special spann]s = propell] reta9+ nuts2 ,o1 special spann]s2 ,p1 socket wr5*es1 long h&le2 ,q1 long h&le1 /iff bri/le bru%es = clean+ motor2 ,r1 gasol9e bl[ tor*2 ,s1 h& drill2 ,t1 spools ( safety wire2 ,u1 fla% lamp2 ,v1 special pull] & ca/le wr5*es2 ,w1 oil c2 ,x1 l>ge adju/able monkey wr5*2 ,y1 wa%] & gasket cutt]2 ,z1 ball ( heavy tw9e4 ,9 addition to ! tools1 v>i\s supplies1 su* z sold]+ acid1 sold]1 %ellac1 valve gr9d+ comp\nd1 bolts & nuts1 split p9s1 wa%]s1 wood screws1 etc41 are provid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,special ,tools = ,ma9ta9+ ,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,motor ,us$ 9 ,curtiss ,,jn-#d ,tra9+ ,biplane4 ,,special ,,hall-,,scott ,,tools ,,no4 ,,tool ,,directions ,,= ,,use #a ,eng9e hoi/+ hook1 #f-;cyl9d] ,hook "u cam-%aft h\s+1 :5 hoi/+ eng9e4 #b ,eng9e hoi/+ hook1 #d-;cyl9d] ,hook "u cam-%aft h\s+1 :5 hoi/+ eng9e4 #c ,wat] plug wr5* ,= use on wat] plugs on top & end ( cyl9d]s4 #d ,v]tical %aft flange pull] ,= pull+ l[] p9ion %aft flange f %aft4 7,us$ on ,a-#e & ,a-#g eng9es only47 #e ,oil gun ,= g5]al lubrication use4 #f ,magneto ge> pull] ,= pull+ magneto ge>s f magneto %aft4 #g ,socket wr5*1 #a_/d ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= use on bolts & nuts on crank cases4 #h ,socket wr5*1 #a_/d ,a4,l4,a4,m ,= use on crank cases & magneto ge> h\s+s4 #i ,socket wr5*1 #a_/d ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= use on magneto ge> h\s+s4 #aj ,socket wr5*1 #c_/h /&>d ,= bolts & nuts :i* fa/5 magnetos to crank-case4 #aa ,socket wr5*1 #a_/d ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= use on magneto ge> h\s+s4 #ab ,v]tical %aft ge> pull] ,= remov+ wat] pump & magneto drive ge>4 #ac ,brace & fac+ cutt] ,= fac+ lugs on cyl9d]s = cyl9d] hold d[n /ud wa%]s4 #ad ,h&le = brace ,use ) brace4 #ae ,valve gr9d+ brace ,= gr9d+ 9 valves4 #af ,socket wr5* base1 #c_/h ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= ?ru/ be>+ cap screws4 #ag ,brace & fac+ cutt]1 #e_/af ,= fac+ lugs on rock] arm ,a4,l4,a4,m4 cov]s4 #ah ,valve gr9d+ screw driv] ,= gr9d+ 9 valves4 #ai ,valve spr+ tool ,= putt+ on & tak+ (f valve spr+s4 #bj ,block-valve spr+ tool ,= use ) valve spr+ tool4 #ba ,socket wr5*1 #e_/h ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= ma9 be>+ nuts4 #bb ,socket wr5*1 #a_/d ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= use on cam-%aft h\s+4 #bc ,socket wr5*1 #e_/af ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= cam-%aft h\s+ hold d[n /ud nuts4 #bd ,socket wr5*1 #a_/b ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= cyl9d] hold d[n /ud nuts4 #be ,socket wr5*1 #e_/af ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= c>buretor & wat] pump bolts & nuts4 #bf ,socket wr5*1 #e_/af ,a4,l4,a4,m4 ,= c>buretor & wat] pump bolts & nuts4 #bg ,socket wr5* ,= use on c>buretor jets4 #bh ,magneto screw driv] ,= g5]al magneto use4 #bi ,brass b>1 #a diamet] x #g long ,= driv+ pi/on p9s f pi/ons4 #cj ,hack saw ,= g5]al use4 #ca ,oil c ,= cam-%aft h\s+ lubrication4 #cb ,gasol9e or di/illate c ,= prim+ or o!r use4 #cc ,oil c ,= magneto ge> lubrication4 #cd ,%ellac c ,= rubb] hose connections & gaskets4 #ce ,magneto clean] ,= use on magnetos4 #cf ,clamps ,= hold+ cyl9d] hold d[n /uds1 :5 fitt+ ma9 be>+s4 #cg ,pi/on gu>ds ,= use 9 pi/ons1 :5 out ( eng9e1 to protect !m4 #ch ,screw driv] ,= g5]al use4 #ci ,v]tical %aft clamps ,= clamp+ v]tical %aft flanges1 :5 tim+ eng9e4 #dj ,?ru/ adju/+ nut wr5* ,= adju/+ propell] ?ru/ be>+4 #da ,/uff+ box spann] wr5* ,= adju/+ /uff+ box nut on v]tical %aft4 #db ,wat] pump spann] wr5* ,= adju/+ wat] pump /uff+ nut4 #dc ,wr5* ,= use on cyl9d] relief cocks & cyl9d] prim+ cocks4 #dd ,hose clamp wr5* ,= use on hose clamps4 #de ,scrap] ,= clean+ pi/on r+ grooves on pi/ons4 #df ,crank-%aft nut wr5* ,= adju/+ crank-%aft nut4 #dg ,sp>k-plug wr5* ,= putt+ 9 & tak+ out sp>k-plugs 9 cyl9d]s4 #dh ,tim+ disc 7s+le disc7 ,= use on crank-%aft to "t eng9e4 ,specify type motor disc %\ld be made =4 ,if d\ble disc is requir$1 specify ! two types ( motors ! disc is to be made =4 ,d\ble disc4 #di ,ma9 be>+ scrap] ,= scrap+ 9 be>+s4 #ej ,cyl9d] c>bon scrap] ,= remov+ c>bon f heads ( cyl9d]s4 #ea ,valve seat+ tool ,= seat+ valves 9 cyl9d] heads4 #eb ,scrap]1 small ,= g5]al be>+ use4 #ec ,scrap]1 l>ge ,= g5]al be>+ use4 #ed ,crank-%aft flange pull] ,= pull+ crank-%aft flange f crank-%aft4 #ee ,pi/on & connect+ rod racks4 #ef ,ma9 be>+ /ud nuts & %im rack4 #eg ,ma9 be>+ bo>d rack4 #eh ,rock] arm & cov] rack4 ,! special tools & fixtures recomm5d$ by ! ,hall-,scott ,company = "w on _! eng9es are cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #ahj4 ,all tools are numb]$ & _! uses may be cle>ly und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! illu/ration & explanatory li/ giv5 on pages #daj & #daa4 ,,ov]haul+ ,,airplane ,,eng9es ,aft] an airplane eng9e has be5 9 use = a p]iod rang+ f #fj to #hj h\rs1 dep5d+ ^u ! type1 x is necess>y to give x a ?or\gh ov]haul+ be=e x is return$ to s]vice4 ,to d ?is prop]ly1 ! eng9e is remov$ f ! fuselage & plac$ on a special support+ /&1 su* z %[n at ,fig4 #aha1 s x c be plac$ 9 any position & completely dismantl$4 ,) a /& ( ?is k9d x is z easy to "w on ! bottom ( ! eng9e z on ! top & e "p c be in/antly rea*$4 ,! crank-case %[n 9 place 9 illu/ration is 9 a v conv5i5t position = scrap+ 9 ! crank-%aft be>+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,special ,tools & ,appliances to ,facilitate ,ov]haul+ ,"w on ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,9 ord] to look ov] ! p>ts ( an eng9e & to re/ore ! worn or defective compon5ts x is necess>y to take ! eng9e entirely ap>t1 z x is only :5 ! p[] plant is ?or\ghly dismantl$ t ! p>ts c be inspect$ or measur$ to det]m9e defects or we>4 ,if "o is n famili> ) ! eng9e to be inspect$1 ev5 ?\gh ! "w is done by a repairman ( exp]i5ce1 x w be f\nd ( value to take c]ta9 precautions :5 dismantl+ ! eng9e 9 ord] to insure t all p>ts w be replac$ 9 ! same position !y occupi$ be=e removal4 ,!re are a numb] ( ways ( id5tify+ ! p>ts1 "o ( ! simple/ & sure/ be+ to m>k !m ) /eel numb]s or lett]s or ) a s]ies ( c5t] pun* m>ks 9 ord] to reta9 ! prop] relation :5 reassembl+4 ,?is is ( special importance 9 connection ) dismantl+ multiple cyl9d] eng9es z x is vital t pi/ons1 pi/on r+s1 connect+ rods1 valves1 & o!r cyl9d] p>ts be always replac$ 9 ! same cyl9d] f :i* !y 7 remov$1 because x is uncommon to f9d equal depreciation 9 all cyl9d]s4 ,"s repairm5 use small %ipp+ tags to id5tify ! pieces4 ,?is c be criticis$ because ! tags may become deta*$ & lo/ & ! id5tity ( ! piece mi/ak54 ,if ! repair+ is be+ done 9 a %op :]e o!r eng9es ( ! same make are be+ work$ on1 ! repairman %\ld be provid$ ) a l>ge *e/ fitt$ ) a lock & key 9 :i* all ( ! small] p>ts1 su* z rods1 bolts & nuts1 valves1 ge>s1 valve spr+s1 cam-%afts1 etc41 may be /or$ to prev5t ! possibility ( confusion ) simil> memb]s ( o!r eng9es4 ,all p>ts %\ld be ?or\ghly clean$ ) gasol9e or 9 ! pota% kettle z remov$1 & wip$ clean & dry4 ,?is is necess>y to %[ we> :i* w be evid5c$ by easily id5tifi$ indications 9 cases :]e ! ma*9e has be5 us$ = a "t1 b 9 o!rs1 ! det]ioration c only be detect$ by delicate measur+ in/rum5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,special ,/& to ,make ,motor ,ov]haul+ ,"w ,easi]4 ,9 tak+ d[n a motor ! small] p>ts & fitt+s su* z sp>k-plugs1 manifolds & wir+ %\ld be remov$ fir/4 ,!n ! m important memb]s su* z cyl9d]s may be remov$ f ! crank-case to give access to ! int]ior & make possible ! exam9ation ( ! pi/ons1 r+s & connect+ rods4 ,aft] ! cyl9d]s are remov$ ! next op]ation is to disconnect ! connect+ rods f ! crank-%aft & to remove !m & ! pi/ons atta*$ z a unit4 ,!n ! crank-case is dismemb]$1 9 mo/ cases by remov+ ! bottom half or oil sump1 ?us expos+ ! ma9 be>+s & crank-%aft4 ,! fir/ op]ation is ! removal ( ! inlet & exhau/ manifolds4 ,9 "s cases ! manifolds are cor$ integral ) ! cyl9d] head ca/+ & x is m]ely necess>y to remove a %ort pipe lead+ f ! c>buretor to "o inlet op5+ & ! exhau/ pipe f ! outlet op5+ common to all cyl9d]s4 ,9 ord] to remove ! c>buretor x is necess>y to %ut (f ! gasol9e supply at ! tank & to remove ! pipe c\pl+ at ! float *amb]4 ,x is also necess>y to disconnect ! ?rottle op]at+ rod4 ,aft] ! cyl9d]s are remov$ & be=e tak+ ! crank-case ap>t x is well to remove ! wat] pump & magneto4 ,! wir+ on mo/ eng9es ( mod]n developm5t is c>ri$ 9 conduits & usually releas+ two or ?ree m9or fa/5+s w p]mit "o to take (f ! plug wir+ z a unit4 ,! wire %\ld be disconnect$ f bo? sp>k-plugs & magneto di/ributor be=e its removal4 ,:5 ! cyl9d]s are remov$1 ! pi/ons1 pi/on r+s1 & connect+ rods are cle>ly expos$ & _! condition may be readily notic$4 ,be=e di/urb+ ! arrangem5t ( ! tim+ ge>s1 x is important t ^! be m>k$ s t !y w be replac$ 9 exactly ! same relation z int5d$ by ! eng9e design]4 ,if ! ge>s are prop]ly m>k$ ! valve tim+ & magneto sett+ w be undi/urb$ :5 ! p>ts are replac$ aft] ov]haul+4 ,) ! cyl9d]s (f1 x is possible to asc]ta9 if !re is any undue we> pres5t 9 ! connect+ rod be>+s at ei!r ! wri/ p9 or crank-p9 ends & also to =m "s idea ( ! am\nt ( c>bon deposits on ! pi/on top & back ( ! pi/on r+s4 ,any we> ( ! tim+ ge>s c also be det]m9$4 ,! removal ( ! bottom plate ( ! eng9e enables ! repairman to see if ! ma9 be>+s are worn unduly4 ,(t5 be>+s may be tak5 up suffici5tly to elim9ate all loos5ess4 ,9 o!r cases !y may be worn en\gh s t c>eful refitt+ w be necess>y4 ,:]e ! crank-case is divid$ horizontally into two portions1 ! upp] "o s]v+ z an eng9e base to :i* ! cyl9d]s & 9 fact all important work+ p>ts are atta*$1 ! l[] portion p]=ms ! functions ( an oil conta9] & cov] = ! int]nal me*anism4 ,?is is ! con/ruction g5]ally foll[$4 ,,defects ,,9 ,,cyl9d]s ,aft] ! cyl9d]s h be5 remov$ & /ripp$ ( all fitt+s1 !y %\ld be ?or\ghly clean$ & !n c>efully exam9$ = defects4 ,! int]ior or bore %\ld be look$ at ) a view ( f9d+ score m>ks1 grooves1 cuts or scrat*es 9 ! int]ior1 because !re are _m faults t may be ascrib$ to depreciation at ?is po9t4 ,! cyl9d] bore may be worn out ( r\nd1 :i* c only be det]m9$ by measur+ ) an int]nal calip] or dial indicator ev5 if ! cyl9d] bore %[s no sign ( we>4 ,! flange at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] by :i* x is held to ! eng9e base may be crack$4 ,! wat] jacket wall may h op5$ up due to freez+ ( ! jacket wat] at "s "t or o!r or x may be fill$ ) scale & s$im5t due to ! use ( impure cool+ wat]4 ,! valve seat may be scor$ or pitt$1 :ile ! ?reads hold+ ! valve *amb] cap may be worn s t ! cap w n be a tight fit4 ,! deta*able head con/ruction makes x possible to remove t memb] & obta9 ready access to ! pi/on tops = scrap+ out c>bon )\t tak+ ! ma9 cyl9d] portion f ! crank-case4 ,:5 ! valves ne$ gr9d+ ! head may be remov$ & c>ri$ to ! b5* :]e ! "w may be p]=m$ ) absolute assurance t none ( ! valve gr9d+ comp\nd w p5etrate into ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] z is sometimes unavoidable ) ! ,i-head cyl9d]4 ,if ! cyl9d] %\ld be scor$1 ! wat] jacket & combu/ion head may be sav$ & a new cyl9d] ca/+ pur*as$ at consid]ably less co/ ?an t ( ! complete unit cyl9d]4 ,! deta*able head con/ruction has only rec5tly be5 appli$ on airplane eng9es1 ?\gh x 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ =ms ( automobile eng9e con/ruction4 ,9 ! e>ly days x 0 difficult to procure gaskets or pack+s t w\ld be bo? gas & wat] tight4 ,! %eet asbe/os commonly us$ 0 too s(t & blew out readily4 ,besides a new gasket _h to be made e "t ! cyl9d] head 0 remov$4 ,wov5 wire & asbe/os pack+s impregnat$ ) rubb]1 r$ lead1 graphite & o!r fill+ mat]ials 7 m satisfactory ?an ! s(t %eet asbe/os1 b 7 prone to burn out if ! wat] supply became l[4 ,mat]ials su* z %eet copp] or brass prov$ to be too h>d to =m a suffici5tly yield+ pack+ m$ium t w\ld all[ = ! inevitable slight inaccuracies 9 ma*9+ ! cyl9d] head & cyl9d]4 ,! inv5tion ( ! copp]-asbe/os gasket1 :i* is compos$ ( two %eets ( v ?91 s(t copp] b\nd toge!r by a ?9 edg+ ( ! same mat]ial & hav+ a piece ( %eet asbe/os int]pos$ solv$ ?is problem4 ,copp]-asbe/os pack+s =m an effective seal aga9/ leakage ( wat] & a positive ret5tion means = keep+ ! explosion pressure 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! great advantage ( ! deta*able head is t x p]mits ( v easy inspection ( ! pi/on tops & combu/ion *amb] & ready removal ( c>bon deposits4 ,,c>bon ,,deposits1 ,,_! ,,cause ,,& ,,prev5tion ,mo/ au?orities agree t c>bon is ! result ( imp]fect combu/ion ( ! fuel & air mixture z well z ! use ( lubricat+ oils ( improp] fla% po9t4 ,lubricat+ oils t "w by ! pi/on r+s may become decompos$ by ! great heat 9 ! combu/ion *amb]1 b at ! same "t "o _c blame ! lubricat+ oil = all ( ! c>bon deposits4 ,!re is little reason to suspect t pure petroleum oil ( prop] body w deposit excessive am\nts ( c>bon1 ?\gh if ! oil is mix$ ) ca/or oil1 :i* is ( vegetable orig91 !re w\ld be mu* c>bon left 9 ! int]ior ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,fuel mixtures t are too ri* 9 gasol9e also produce ^! undesirable accumulations4 ,a v int]e/+ *emical analysis ( a sample ( c>bon scrap$ f ! int]ior ( a motor vehicle eng9e %[s t ord9>ily ! lubricant is n z mu* to blame z is commonly suppos$4 ,! analysis 0 z foll[s3 ,oil #ad4c ,o!r combu/ible matt] #ag4i ,s&1 clay1 etc4 #bd4h ,iron oxide #bd4e ,c>bonate ( lime #h4i ,o!r con/itu5ts #i4f ,x is extremely probable t ! above c\ld be divid$ into two g5]al classes1 ^! be+ approximately #cb4b oil & combu/ible matt] & a mu* l>g] proportion1 or #fg4h ( e>?y matt]4 ,! pres5ce ( su* a l>ge p]c5tage ( e>?y matt] is und\bt$ly due to ! impurities 9 ! air1 su* z road du/ :i* has be5 suck$ 9 ?r\gh ! c>buretor4 ,! fact t ov] #ag ( ! matt] :i* is combu/ible 0 n ( an oily nature l5ds /rong support to ?is view4 ,!re w\ld n be ! am\nt ( e>?y mat]ial pres5t 9 ! c>bon deposits ( an airplane eng9e z above /at$ because ! air is almo/ free f du/ at ! high altitudes planes are usually fl[n4 ,"o c\ld expect to f9d m combu/ible & less e>?y matt] & ! c>bon w\ld be s(t] & m easily remov$4 ,x is v good practice to provide a scre5 on ! air intake to r$uce ! am\nts ( du/ suck$ 9 ) ! air z well z obs]v+ ! prop] precautions relative to supply+ ! prop] quantities ( air to ! mixture & ( n us+ any m oil ?an is ne$$ to insure prop] lubrication ( ! int]nal me*anism4 ,,use ,,( ,,c>bon ,,scrap]s ,x is n unusual = "o to he> an aviator compla9 t ! eng9e he op]ates is n z responsive z x 0 :5 new aft] he has run x b relatively few h\rs4 ,!re does n seem to be any?+ actually wrong ) ! eng9e1 yet x does n respond readily to ! ?rottle & is apt to ov]heat4 ,:ile ^! symptoms d5ote a rund[n condition ( ! me*anism1 ! tr\ble is (t5 due to no?+ m s]i\s ?an accumulations ( c>bon4 ,! rem$y is ! removal ( ?is matt] out ( place4 ,! sure/ way ( clean+ ! inside ( ! motor ?or\ghly is to remove ! cyl9d]s1 if ^! memb]s are ca/ integrally ) ! head or ( remov+ ! head memb] if t is a sep>ate ca/+1 to expose all p>ts4 ,9 c]ta9 =ms ( cyl9d]s1 especially ^? ( ! ,l =m1 x is possible to introduce simple scrap]s d[n ?r\gh ! valve *amb] cap holes & ?r\gh ! sp>k-plug hole if ?is compon5t is plac$ 9 ! cyl9d] 9 "s position t communicates directly to ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] or to ! pi/on top4 ,no claim c be made = orig9ality or novelty ( ?is process z is has be5 us$ = _m ye>s on l>ge /ation>y eng9es4 ,! fir/ /ep is to dismantle ! inlet & exhau/ pip+ & remove ! valve caps & valves1 al?\gh if ! deposit is n extremely h>d or pres5t 9 l>ge quantities "o c (t5 manipulate ! scrap]s 9 ! valve cap op5+s )\t remov+ ei!r ! pip+ or ! valves4 ,comm5c+ ) ! fir/ cyl9d]1 ! crank-%aft is turn$ till ! pi/on is at ! top ( its /roke1 !n ! scrap] may be ins]t$1 & ! op]ation ( remov+ ! c>bon />t$ by draw+ ! tool t[>d ! op5+4 ,z ?is is simil> to a small hoe1 ! cutt+ edge w loos5 "s ( ! c>bon & w draw x t[>d ! op5+4 ,a swab is made ( a piece ( clo? or wa/e fa/5$ at ! end ( a wire & well soak$ 9 k]os5e to clean out ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 available1 an electric motor ) a l5g? ( flexible %aft & a small circul> clean+ bru% hav+ wire bri/les c be us$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! eng9e4 ,! electric motor ne$ n be ov] "o-eigh? horse-p[] runn+ #a1bjj to #a1fjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m41 & ! wire bru% mu/1 ( c\rse1 be ( su* size t x c be easily ins]t$ ?r\gh ! valve *amb] cap4 ,! flexible %aft p]mits "o to rea* ne>ly all p>ts ( ! cyl9d] int]ior )\t difficulty & ! spread+ out & flatt5+ ( ! bru% insures t consid]able surface w be cov]$ by t memb]4 ,,burn+ ,,out ,,c>bon ,,) ,,oxyg5 ,a process ( rec5t developm5t t gives v good results 9 remov+ c>bon )\t disassembl+ ! motor dep5ds on ! process ( burn+ out t mat]ial by supply+ oxyg5 to support ! combu/ion & to make x en]getic4 ,a numb] ( conc]ns are already (f]+ app>atus to accompli% ?is "w1 & 9 fact any %op us+ an autog5\s weld+ outfit may use ! oxyg5 tank & r$uc+ valve 9 connection ) a simple special tor* = burn+ ! c>bon4 ,results h demon/rat$ t !re is little dang] ( damag+ ! motor p>ts1 & t ! co/ ( oxyg5 & labor is mu* l[] ?an ! old me?od ( remov+ ! cyl9d]s & scrap+ ! c>bon out1 z well z be+ v mu* quick] ?an ! alt]native process ( us+ c>bon solv5t4 ,! only drawback to ?is sy/em is t !re is no absolute insurance t e p>ticle ( c>bon w be remov$1 z small protrud+ p>ticles may be left at po9ts t ! flame does n rea* & cause pre-ignition & consequ5t p\nd+1 ev5 aft] ! oxyg5 treatm5t4 ,x is g5]ally kn[n t c>bon w burn 9 ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 :i* supports combu/ion ( all mat]ials1 & ?is process takes advantage ( ?is fact & causes ! gas to be inject$ into ! combu/ion *amb] ov] a flame obta9$ by a mat* or wax tap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,%[+ ,:]e ,c>bon ,deposits ,collect 9 ,eng9e ,combu/ion ,*amb]1 & ,h[ to ,burn ,!m ,out ) ! ,aid ( ,oxyg54 ,a--,special ,tor*4 ,b--,tor* ,c\pl$ to ,oxyg5 ,tank4 ,c--,tor* 9 ,use4 ,x is sugge/$ by ^? favor+ ?is process t ! night be=e ! oxyg5 is to be us$ ! eng9e be giv5 a conv5tional k]os5e treatm5t4 ,a half tumbl] full ( ?is liquid or ( d5atur$ alcohol is to be p\r$ into ea* cyl9d] & p]mitt$ to rema9 !re ov] night4 ,z a precaution aga9/ fire1 ! gasol9e is %ut (f f ! c>buretor be=e ! tor* is ins]t$ 9 ! cyl9d] & ! motor />t$ s t ! gasol9e 9 ! pipe & c>buretor float *amb] w be consum$4 ,"w is done on "o cyl9d] at a "t4 ,a note ( caution 0 rec5tly s\nd$ by a prom95t sp>k-plug manufactur] recomm5d+ t ! ignit] memb] be remov$ f ! cyl9d] 9 ord] n to injure x by ! heat develop$4 ,! outfits on ! m>ket consi/ ( a special tor* hav+ a trigg] controll$ valve & a l5g? ( flexible tub+ su* z %[n at ,fig4 #ahb1 ,a1 & a regulat+ valve & oxyg5 tank z %[n at ,b4 ,! gauge %\ld be made to regi/] ab\t twelve p\nds pressure4 ,! me?od ( op]ation is v simple & is outl9$ at ,c4 ,! burn] tube is plac$ 9 ! cyl9d] & ! trigg] valve is op5$ & ! oxyg5 p]mitt$ to circulate 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,a light$ mat* or wax tap] is dropp$ 9 ! *amb] & ! injector tube is mov$ ar\nd z mu* z possible s z to cov] a l>ge area4 ,! c>bon takes fire & burns briskly 9 ! pres5ce ( ! oxyg54 ,! combu/ion ( ! c>bon is accompani$ by sp>ks & sometimes by flame if ! deposit is ( an oily nature4 ,once ! c>bon beg9s to burn ! combu/ion cont9ues )\t int]ruption z long z ! oxyg5 fl[s into ! cyl9d]4 ,full in/ructions accompany ea* outfit & ! am\nt ( pressure = :i* ! regulator %\ld be set dep5ds ^u ! design ( ! tor* & ! am\nt ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! /orage tank4 ,,repair+ ,,scor$ ,,cyl9d]s ,if ! eng9e has be5 run at any "t )\t adequate lubrication1 "o or m ( ! cyl9d]s may be f\nd to h v]tical scrat*es runn+ up & d[n ! cyl9d] walls4 ,! dep? ( ^! w v>y accord+ to ! am\nt ( "t ! cyl9d] 0 )\t lubrication1 & if ! grooves are v deep ! only rem$y is to pur*ase a new memb]4 ,( c\rse1 if suffici5t /ock is available 9 ! cyl9d] walls1 ! cyl9d]s may be rebor$ & new pi/ons :i* are ov]size1 i4e41 l>g] ?an /&>d1 may be fitt$4 ,:]e ! scrat*es are n deep !y may be gr\nd out ) a high spe$ em]y :eel or lapp$ out if t type ( ma*9e is n available4 ,wri/ p9s h be5 kn[n to come loose1 especially :5 ^! are reta9$ by set screws t are n prop]ly lock$1 & z wri/-p9s are usually ( h>d5$ /eel x w be evid5t t ! %>p edge ( t memb] c act z a cutt+ tool & make a pron\nc$ groove 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,cyl9d] gr9d+ is a job t requires skill$ me*anics1 b may be accompli%$ on any la! fitt$ ) an int]nal gr9d+ atta*m5t4 ,:ile automobile eng9e cyl9d]s usually h suffici5t wall ?ickness to /& rebor+1 ^? ( airplane eng9es seldom h suffici5t metal to p]mit ( enl>g+ ! bore v mu* by a bor+ tool4 ,a few ?\s&?s ( an in* may be gr\nd out )\t dang]1 h[ev]4 ,an airplane eng9e cyl9d] ) deep grooves mu/ be scrapp$ z a g5]al rule4 ,:]e ! grooves 9 ! cyl9d] are n deep or :]e x has w>p$ en\gh s ! r+s d n be> equally at all p>ts ( ! cyl9d] bore1 x is possible to obta9 a fairly accurate degree ( f9i% by a lapp+ process 9 :i* an old pi/on is coat$ ) a mixture ( f9e em]y & oil & is reciprocat$ up & d[n 9 ! cyl9d] z well z turn$ at ! same "t4 ,?is may be easily done by us+ a dummy connect+ rod hav+ only a wri/ p9 end boss1 & ( su* size at ! o!r end s t x c be held 9 ! *uck ( a drill press4 ,! cyl9d] ca/+ is firmly clamp$ on ! drill press table by suitable clamp+ blocks1 & a wood5 block is plac$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb] to provide a /op = ! pi/on at its l[] extreme position4 ,! back ge>s are put 9 & ! drill *uck is revolv$ sl[ly4 ,all ! :ile t ! pi/on is turn+ ! drill *uck %\ld be rais$ up & d[n by ! h& fe$ lev]1 z ! be/ results are obta9$ :5 ! lapp+ memb] is giv5 a comb9ation ( rot>y & reciprocat+ motion4 ,,valve ,,removal ,,& ,,inspection ,"o ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! gasol9e eng9e & "o t requires frequ5t inspection & refitt+ to keep 9 condition1 is ! mu%room or poppet valve t controls ! inlet & exhau/ gas fl[4 ,9 ov]haul+ x is ess5tial t ^! valves be remov$ f _! seat+s & exam9$ c>efully = v>i\s defects :i* w be enum]at$ at prop] "t4 ,! problem t conc]ns u n[ is ! be/ me?od ( remov+ ! valve4 ,^! are held aga9/ ! seat+ 9 ! cyl9d] by a coil spr+ :i* ex]ts its pressure on ! cyl9d] ca/+ at ! upp] end & aga9/ a suitable coll> held by a key at ! l[] end ( ! valve /em4 ,9 ord] to remove ! valve x is necess>y to fir/ compress ! spr+ by rais+ ! coll> & pull+ ! reta9+ key out ( ! valve /em4 ,_m =ms ( valve spr+ lift]s h be5 design$ to p]mit ready removal ( ! valves4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] is ( ! valve 9-!-head =m1 ! me?od ( valve removal w dep5d entirely ^u ! sy/em ( cyl9d] con/ruction foll[$4 ,9 ! ,/urtevant cyl9d] design x is possible to remove ! head f ! cyl9d] ca/+s & ! valve spr+s may be easily compress$ by any suitable means :5 ! cyl9d] head is plac$ on ! "w b5* :]e x c be easily work$ on4 ,! usual me?od is to place ! head on a s(t clo? ) ! valves be>+ aga9/ ! b5*4 ,! valve spr+s may !n be easily pu%$ d[n ) a simple =k$ lev] & ! valve /em key remov$ to release ! valve spr+ coll>4 ,9 ! ,curtiss ,,ox-#b 7see ,fig4 #ahb-a_/b7 & ,hall-,scott eng9es x is n possible to remove ! valves )\t tak+ ! cyl9d] (f ! crank-case1 because ! valve seats are ma*9$ directly 9 ! cyl9d] head & ! valve domes are ca/ integrally ) ! cyl9d]4 ,?is means t if ! valves ne$ gr9d+ ! cyl9d] mu/ be remov$ f ! eng9e base to provide access to ! valve heads :i* are inside ( t memb]1 & :i* _c be rea*$ f ! outside z is true ( ! ,l-cyl9d] con/ruction4 ,9 ! ,curtiss ,,vx eng9es1 ! valves are c>ri$ 9 deta*able cages :i* may be remov$ :5 ! valves ne$ att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb-a_/b4--,"p ,sectional ,view1 ,%[+ ,valve ,arrangem5t 9 ,cyl9d] ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,,reseat+ ,,& ,,tru+ ,,valves ,mu* has be5 said relative to valve gr9d+1 & despite ! mass ( in=mation giv5 9 ! trade pr9ts x is r amus+ to wat* ! av]age repairman or ! eng9e us] :o prides himself on ma9ta9+ 8 own motor p]=m+ ?is ess5tial op]ation4 ,! common mi/akes are attempt+ to seat a badly groov$ or pitt$ valve head on an equally bad seat1 :i* is an almo/ hopeless job1 & ( us+ co>se em]y & be>+ d[n ) all "o's weight on ! gr9d+ tool ) ! hope ( quickly we>+ away ! r\gh surfaces4 ,! use ( improp] abrasive mat]ial is a f]tile cause ( failure to obta9 a satisfactory seat+4 ,valve gr9d+ is n a difficult op]ation if c]ta9 precautions are tak5 be=e und]tak+ ! "w4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is to asc]ta9 if ! valve head or seat is badly scor$ or pitt$4 ,if su* is f\nd to be ! case no ord9>y am\nt ( gr9d+ w s]ve to re/ore ! surfaces4 ,9 ?is ev5t ! be/ ?+ to d is to remove ! valve f its seat+ & to smoo? d[n bo? ! valve head & ! seat 9 ! cyl9d] be=e attempt is made to fit !m toge!r by gr9d+4 ,ano!r important precaution is to make sure t ! valve /em is /raight1 & t ! head is n w>p$ out ( %ape4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,tools = ,re/or+ ,valve ,head & ,seats4 ,a numb] ( simple tools is available at ! pres5t "t = reseat+ valves1 ^! be+ outl9$ at ,fig4 #ahc4 ,t %[n at ,a is a simple fixture = fac+ (f ! valve head4 ,! /em is support$ by suitable be>+s c>ri$ by ! body or %ank ( ! tool1 & ! head is turn$ aga9/ an angul>ly dispos$ cutt] :i* is set = ! prop] valve seat angle4 ,! valve head is turn$ by a screw-driv]1 ! am\nt ( /ock remov$ f ! head dep5d+ ^u ! location ( ! adju/+ screw4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 n to remove too mu* metal1 only en\gh be+ tak5 (f to remove ! mo/ ( ! r\ghness4 ,valves are made 9 two /&>d tap]s1 ! angle be+ ei!r #de or #fj degrees4 ,x is imp]ative t ! cutt] blade be set correctly 9 ord] t ! bevel is n *ang$4 ,a set ( valve tru+ & valve-seat ream+ cutt]s is %[n at ,fig4 #ahc1 ,b4 ,?is is adaptable to v>i\s size valve heads1 z ! cutt] blade ,d may be mov$ to correspond to ! size ( ! valve head be+ tru$ up4 ,^! cutt] blades are made ( tool /eel & h a bevel at ea* end1 "o at #de degrees1 ! o!r at #fj degrees4 ,! valve seat ream] %[n at ,g w take any "o ( ! heads %[n at ,f4 ,x w also take any "o ( ! guide b>s %[n at ,h4 ,! function ( ! guide b>s is to fit ! valve /em be>+ 9 ord] to locate ! ream] accurately & to insure t ! valve seat is ma*9$ conc5trically ) its normal c5t]4 ,ano!r =m ( valve seat ream] & a special wr5* us$ to turn x is %[n at ,c4 ,! valve head tru] %[n at ,fig4 #ahc1 ,d1 is int5d$ to be plac$ 9 a vise & is adaptable to a v>iety ( valve head sizes4 ,! small] valves m]ely fit deep] 9 ! conical depression4 ,! cutt] blade is adju/able & ! valve /em is support$ by a simple self-c5t]+ be>+4 ,9 op]ation x is int5d$ t ! valve /em1 :i* protrudes ?r\gh ! l[] portion ( ! guide be>+1 %all be turn$ by a drill press or bit /ock :ile ! valve head is set aga9/ ! cutt] by pressure ( a pad c>ri$ at ! end ( a fe$ screw :i* is support$ by a h+$ bridge memb]4 ,?is c be swung out ( place z indicat$ to p]mit plac+ ! valve head aga9/ ! cutt] or remov+ x4 ,z ! sizes ( valve heads & /ems v>y consid]ably a ,univ]sal valve head tru+ tool mu/ h "s simple means ( c5t]+ ! valve /em 9 ord] to insure conc5tric ma*9+ ( ! valve head4 ,a valve head tru] :i* employs an +5i\s me?od ( guid+ ! valve /em is %[n at ,fig4 #ahc1 ,e4 ,! device consi/s ( a body portion1 ,b1 provid$ ) an ext]nal ?read at ! top on :i* ! cutt] head1 ,a1 is screw$4 ,a numb] ( /eel balls1 ,c1 are c>ri$ 9 ! grooves :i* may be alt]$ 9 size by ! adju/m5t nut1 ,f1 :i* screws 9 ! bottom ( ! body portion1 ,b4 ,z ! nut ,f is screw$ 9 aga9/ ! spac] memb] ,e1 ! ,v-grooves are r$uc$ 9 size & ! /eel balls1 ,c1 are press$ out 9 contact ) ! valve /em4 ,z ! circle or annulus is fill$ ) balls 9 bo? upp] & l[] portions ! /em may be readily turn$ because x is virtually support$ by ball be>+ guides4 ,:5 a l>g] valve /em is to be support$1 ! adju/+ nut ,f1 is screw$ out :i* increases ! size ( ! grooves & p]mits ! balls1 ,c1 to spread out & all[ ! l>g] /em to be ins]t$4 ,,valve ,,gr9d+ ,,processes ,m5tion has be5 previ\sly made ( ! importance ( tru+ bo? valve head & seat be=e attempt is made to refit ! p>ts by gr9d+4 ,aft] smoo?+ ! valve seat ! next /ep is to f9d "s way ( turn+ ! valve4 ,valve heads are usually provid$ ) a screw-driv] slot pass+ ?r\gh ! boss at ! top ( ! valve or ) two drill$ holes to take a =k$ gr9d+ tool4 ,a comb9ation gr9d+ tool has be5 devis$ :i* may be us$ :5 ei!r ! two drill$ holes or ! slott$ head =m ( valve is to be rotat$4 ,?is consi/s ( a special =m ( screw driv] hav+ an enl>g$ boss j above ! blade1 ?is boss s]v+ to support a ,u-%ape piece :i* c be securely held 9 op]ative position by ! clamp screw or :i* c be turn$ out ( ! way if ! screw driv] blade is to be us$4 ,z x is desirable to turn ! valve ?r\gh a portion ( a revolution & back aga9 r ?an turn+ x always 9 ! same direction1 a numb] ( special tools has be5 design$ to make ?is oscillat+ motion possible )\t tr\ble4 ,a simple valve gr9d+ tool is %[n at ,fig4 #ahd1 ,c4 ,?is consi/s ( a screw-driv] blade m\nt$ 9 a h&le 9 su* a way t ! end may turn freely 9 ! h&le4 ,a p9ion is securely fa/5$ to ! screw-driv] blade %ank1 & is adapt$ to fit a race provid$ ) a wood h&le & guid$ by a b5t be>+ memb] securely fa/5$ to ! screw-driv] h&le4 ,z ! rack is pu%$ back & =? ! p9ion mu/ be turn$ fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--,tools & ,processes ,utiliz$ 9 ,valve ,gr9d+4 ,a valve gr9d+ tool patt]n$ l>gely aft] a brea/ drill is %[n at ,fig4 #ahd1 ,d4 ,?is is work$ 9 su* a mann] t a cont9u\s rotation ( ! op]at+ crank w result 9 an oscillat+ movem5t ( ! *uck c>ry+ ! screw-driv] blade4 ,! bevel p9ions :i* are us$ to turn ! *uck are normally free unless clut*$ to ! *uck /em by ! slid+ sleeve :i* mu/ turn ) ! *uck /em & :i* c>ries clut*+ memb]s at ea* end to engage simil> memb]s on ! bevel p9ions & lock ^! to ! *uck /em1 "o at a "t4 ,! bevel ge> c>ries a cam-piece :i* moves ! clut* sleeve back & =? z x revolves4 ,?is means t ! p9ion giv+ =w>d motion ( ! *uck is clut*$ to ! *uck sp9dle = a portion ( a revolution ( ! ge> & clut* sleeve is mov$ back by ! cam & clut*$ to ! p9ion giv+ a rev]se motion ( ! *uck dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! ma9 drive ge> revolution4 ,x sometimes happ5s t ! adju/+ screw on ! valve lift plung] or ! valve lift plung] itself :5 ,l head cyl9d]s are us$ does n p]mit ! valve head to re/ aga9/ ! seat4 ,x w be app>5t t unless a def9ite space exi/s betwe5 ! end ( ! valve /em & ! valve lift plung] t gr9d+ w be ( little avail because ! valve head w n be> prop]ly aga9/ ! abrasive mat]ial sme>$ on ! valve seat4 ,! usual me?ods ( valve gr9d+ are cle>ly outl9$ at ,fig4 #ahd4 ,! view at ! left %[s ! me?od ( turn+ ! valve by an ord9>y screw driv] & also %[s a valve head at ,a1 hav+ bo? ! drill$ holes & ! screw-driv] slot = turn+ ! memb] & two special =ms ( =k-end valve gr9d+ tools4 ,9 ! sectional view %[n at ! "r1 ! use ( ! light spr+ betwe5 ! valve head & ! bottom ( ! valve *amb] to lift ! valve head f ! seat :5ev] pressure on ! gr9d+ tool is releas$ is cle>ly indicat$4 ,x w be not$ also t a ball ( wa/e or clo? is int]pos$ 9 ! passage betwe5 ! valve *amb] & ! cyl9d] int]ior to prev5t ! abrasive mat]ial f pass+ into ! cyl9d] f ! valve *amb]4 ,:5 a bit/ock is us$1 in/ead ( be+ giv5 a true rot>y motion ! *uck is m]ely oscillat$ ?r\gh ! great] "p ( ! circle & back aga94 ,x is necess>y to lift ! valve f its seat frequ5tly z ! gr9d+ op]ation cont9ues2 ?is is to provide an ev5 di/ribution ( ! abrasive mat]ial plac$ betwe5 ! valve head & its seat4 ,only suffici5t pressure is giv5 to ! bit/ock to ov]come ! uplift ( ! spr+ & to insure t ! valve w be held aga9/ ! seat4 ,:]e ! spr+ is n us$ x is possible to raise ! valve f "t to "t ) ! h& :i* is plac$ "u ! valve /em to raise x z ! gr9d+ is c>ri$ on4 ,x is n always possible to lift ! valve 9 ?is mann] :5 ! cyl9d]s are 9 place on ! eng9e base ow+ to ! space betwe5 ! valve lift plung] & ! end ( ! valve /em4 ,9 ?is ev5t ! use ( ! spr+ z %[n 9 sectional view w be desirable4 ,! abrasive g5]ally us$ is a pa/e made ( m$ium or f9e em]y & l>d oil or k]os5e4 ,?is is us$ until ! surfaces are comp>atively smoo?1 aft] :i* ! f9al poli% or f9i% is giv5 ) a pa/e ( fl\r em]y1 gr9d/one du/1 crocus1 or gr\nd glass & oil4 ,an errone\s impression prevails 9 "s qu>t]s t ! valve head surface & ! seat+ mu/ h a mirror-l poli%4 ,:ile ?is is n necess>y x is ess5tial t ! seat 9 ! cyl9d] & ! bevel surface ( ! head be smoo? & free f pits or scrat*es at ! completion ( ! op]ation4 ,all traces ( ! em]y & oil %\ld be ?or\ghly wa%$ out ( ! valve *amb] ) gasol9e be=e ! valve me*anism is assembl$ & 9 fact x is advisable to remove ! old gr9d+ comp\nd at regul> int]vals1 wa% ! seat ?or\ghly & supply fre% mat]ial z ! process is 9 progress4 ,! tru? ( seat+s may be te/$ by tak+ "s ,prussian blue pigm5t & spread+ a ?9 film ( x ov] ! valve seat4 ,! valve is dropp$ 9 place & is giv5 ab\t "o-eigh? turn ) a little pressure on ! tool4 ,if ! seat+ is good bo? valve head & seat w be cov]$ uni=mly ) color4 ,if high spots exi/1 ! heavy deposit ( color w %[ ^! :ile ! l[ spots w be made evid5t because ( ! lack ( pigm5t4 ,! gr9d+ process %\ld be cont9u$ until ! te/ %[s an ev5 be>+ ( ! valve head at all po9ts ( ! cyl9d] seat+4 ,:5 ! valves are held 9 cages x is possible to cat* ! cage 9 a vise & to turn ! valve 9 any ( ! ways indicat$4 ,x is mu* easi] to clean (f ! em]y & oil & !re is absolutely no dang] ( gett+ ! abrasive mat]ial 9 ! cyl9d] if ! con/ruction is su* t ! valve cage or cyl9d] head memb] c>ry+ ! valve c be remov$ f ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 valves are held 9 cages1 ! tightness ( ! seat may be te/$ by p>tially fill+ ! cage ) gasol9e & notic+ h[ mu* liquid oozes out ar\nd ! valve head4 ,! degree ( moi/ure pres5t indicates ! efficacy ( ! gr9d+ process4 ,! valves ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#b cyl9d]s are easily gr\nd 9 by us+ a simple fixture or tool & work+ f ! top ( ! cyl9d] in/ead ( f ! inside4 ,a tube hav+ a bore j l>ge en\gh to g ov] ! valve /em is provid$ ) a wood5 h&le or tap$ at "o end & a hole ( ! same size z t drill$ ?r\gh ! valve /em is put 9 at ! o!r4 ,to use1 ! op5 end ( ! tube is pu%$ ov] ! valve /em & a split p9 pu%$ ?r\gh ! tube & /em4 ,! valve may be easily manipulat$ & gr\nd 9 place by oscillat+ 9 ! cu/om>y mann]4 ,,depreciation ,,9 ,,valve ,,op]at+ ,,sy/ems ,!re are a numb] ( po9ts to be wat*$ 9 ! valve op]at+ sy/em because valve tim+ may be s]i\sly int]f]$ ) if !re is mu* lo/ motion at ! v>i\s be>+ po9ts 9 ! valve lift me*anism4 ,! two conv5tional me?ods ( op5+ valves are %[n at ,fig4 #ahe4 ,t at ,a is ! type employ$ :5 ! valve cages are m\nt$ directly 9 ! head1 :ile ! =m at ,b is ! sy/em us$ :5 ! valves are locat$ 9 a pocket or ext5sion ( ! cyl9d] ca/+ z is ! case if an ,l1 or ,t-head cyl9d] is us$4 ,x w be evid5t t !re are sev]al po9ts :]e depreciation may take place4 ,! simple/ =m is t %[n at ,b1 & ev5 on ?is !re are five po9ts :]e lo/ motion may be not$4 ,! p]iph]y ( ! valve op5+ cam or roll] may be worn1 ?\gh ?is is n likely unless ! roll] or cam has be5 inadv]t5tly left s(t4 ,! p9 :i* acts z a be>+ = ! roll] may become worn1 ?is occurr+ q (t54 ,loos5ess may mat]ialize betwe5 ! be>+ surfaces ( ! valve lift plung] & ! plung] guide ca/+1 & !re may also be excessive cle>ance betwe5 ! top ( ! plung] & ! valve /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,outl9+ ,po9ts 9 ,valve ,op]at+ ,me*anism ,:]e ,depreciation is ,apt to ,exi/4 ,on ! =m %[n at ,a1 !re are sev]al p>ts add$ to ^? indicat$ at ,b4 ,a walk+ beam or rock] lev] is necess>y to trans=m ! upw>d motion ( ! tappet rod to a d[nw>d motion ( ! valve /em4 ,! p9 on :i* ?is memb] fulcrums may we> z w also ! o!r p9 act+ z a h+e or be>+ = ! yoke end ( ! tappet rod4 ,x w be app>5t t if slight play exi/$ at ea* ( ! po9ts m5tion$ x might result 9 a s]i\s dim9ution ( valve op5+4 ,suppose1 = example1 t !re 7 4#jje-;in* lo/ motion at ea* ( ?ree be>+ po9ts1 ! total lo/ motion w\ld be 4#jae-;in* or suffici5t to produce noisy action ( ! valve me*anism4 ,:5 valve plung]s ( ! adju/able =m1 su* z %[n at ,b1 are us$1 ! h>d5$ bolt head 9 contact ) ! end ( ! valve /em may become holl[$ out on acc\nt ( ! hamm]+ action at t po9t4 ,x is imp]ative t ! top ( ?is memb] be gr\nd (f true & ! cle>ance betwe5 ! valve /em & plung] prop]ly adju/$4 ,if ! plung] is a non-adju/able type x w be necess>y to l5g!n ! valve /em by "s means 9 ord] to r$uce ! excessive cle>ance4 ,! only rem$y = we> at ! v>i\s h+es & be>+ p9s is to bore ! holes out slightly l>g] & to fit new h>d5$ /eel p9s ( l>g] diamet]4 ,depreciation betwe5 ! valve plung] guide & ! valve plung] is usually rem$i$ by fitt+ new plung] guides 9 place ( ! worn ones4 ,if !re is suffici5t /ock 9 ! plung] guide ca/+ z is sometimes ! case :5 ^! memb]s are n sep>able f ! cyl9d] ca/+1 ! guide may be bor$ out & bu%$ ) a light bronze bu%+4 ,a common cause ( irregul> eng9e op]ation is due to a /ick+ valve4 ,?is may be ow+ to a b5t valve /em1 a weak or brok5 valve spr+ or an accumulation ( burnt or gumm$ oil betwe5 ! valve /em & ! valve /em guide4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ?is ! valve /em mu/ be smoo!d ) f9e em]y clo? & no burrs or %\ld]s all[$ to rema9 on x1 & ! /em mu/ also be /raight & at "r angles to ! valve head4 ,if ! spr+ is weak x may be /r5g!n$ 9 "s cases by /ret*+ x out aft] anneal+ s t a l>g] space w exi/ betwe5 ! coils & re-h>d5+4 ,obvi\sly if a spr+ is brok5 ! only rem$y is replacem5t ( ! defective memb]4 ,m5tion has be5 made ( we> 9 ! valve /em guide & its influ5ce on eng9e action4 ,:5 ^! memb]s are an integral "p ( ! cyl9d] ! only me?od ( comp5sat+ = ?is we> is to drill ! guide out & fit a bu%+1 :i* may be made ( /eel tube4 ,9 "s eng9es1 especially ^? ( rec5t developm5t1 ! valve /em guide is driv5 or screw$ into ! cyl9d] ca/+ & is a sep>ate memb] :i* may be remov$ :5 worn & replac$ ) a new "o4 ,:5 ! guides become enl>g$ to su* a po9t t consid]able play exi/s betwe5 !m & ! valve /ems1 !y may be easily knock$ out or unscrew$4 ,,pi/on ,,tr\bles ,if an eng9e has be5 entirely dismantl$ x is v easy to exam9e ! pi/ons = det]ioration4 ,:ile x is important t ! pi/on be a good fit 9 ! cyl9d] x is ma9ly ^u ! pi/on r+s t compression dep5ds4 ,! pi/on %\ld fit ! cyl9d] ) b little loos5ess1 ! usual practice be+ to h ! pi/on ab\t 4#jja-;in* small] ?an ! bore = ea* in* ( pi/on diamet] at ! po9t :]e ! lea/ heat is pres5t or at ! bottom ( ! pi/on4 ,x is necess>y to all[ m ?an ?is at ! top ( ! pi/on ow+ to its expansion due to ! direct heat ( ! explosion4 ,! cle>ance is usually graduat$ & a pi/on t w\ld be 4#jje-;in* small] ?an ! cyl9d] bore at ! bottom w\ld be ab\t 4#jjfe-;in* at ! middle & 4#jjge-;in* at ! top4 ,if mu* m play ?an ?is is evid5c$ ! pi/on w slap 9 ! cyl9d] & ! pi/on w be worn at ! ends m ?an 9 ! c5t]4 ,alum9um or alloy pi/ons require m cle>ance ?an ca/ iron ones d1 usually #a4ej times z mu*4 ,pi/ons sometimes w>p out ( %ape & are n truly cyl9drical4 ,?is results 9 ! high spots rubb+ on ! cyl9d] :ile ! l[ spots w be black5$ :]e a c]ta9 am\nt ( gas has leak$ by4 ,m5tion has be5 previ\sly made ( ! necessity ( rebor+ or regr9d+ a cyl9d] t has become scor$ or scrat*$ & :i* all[s ! gas to leak by ! pi/on r+s4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] is gr\nd out1 x is necess>y to use a l>g] pi/on to con=m to ! enl>g$ cyl9d] bore4 ,mo/ manufactur]s are prep>$ to furni% ov]-size pi/ons1 !re be+ f\r /&>d ov]-size dim5sions adopt$ by ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 = rebor$ cyl9d]s4 ,^! are 4#jaj-;in*1 4#jbj-;in*1 4#jcj-;in*1 & 4#jdj-;in* l>g] ?an ! orig9al bore4 ,! pi/on r+s %\ld be tak5 out ( ! pi/on grooves & all c>bon deposits remov$ f ! inside ( ! r+ & ! bottom ( ! groove4 ,x is important to take ?is deposit out because x prev5ts ! r+s f p]=m+ _! prop] functions by r$uc+ ! r+ ela/icity1 & if ! deposit is all[$ to accumulate x may ev5tually result 9 /ick+ & b9d+ ( ! r+1 ?is produc+ excessive friction or loss ( compression4 ,:5 ! r+s are remov$ !y %\ld be te/$ to see if !y reta9 _! ela/icity & x is also well to see t ! small p9s 9 "s pi/ons :i* keep ! r+s f turn+ ar\nd s ! jo9ts w n come 9 l9e are /ill 9 place4 ,if no p9s are f\nd !re is no cause = al>m because ^! d[els are n always us$4 ,:5 fitt$1 !y are utiliz$ ) r+s hav+ a butt jo9t or diagonal cut z ! sup]ior gas reta9+ qualities ( ! lap or /ep jo9t r5d] ! p9s unnecess>y4 ,if gas has be5 bl[+ by ! r+ or if ^! memb]s h n be5 fitt+ ! cyl9d] prop]ly ! po9ts :]e ! gas pass$ w be evid5c$ by burnt1 br[n or r\gh5$ portions ( ! poli%$ surface ( ! pi/ons & r+s4 ,! po9t :]e ?is discoloration w be notic$ m (t5 is at ! ?9 end ( an ecc5tric r+1 ! discoloration be+ pres5t = ab\t #a_/b-;in* or #c_/d-;in* ea* side ( ! slot4 ,x may be possible t ! r+s 7 n true :5 fir/ put 94 ,?is made x possible = ! gas to leak by 9 small am\nts initially :i* increas$ due to cont9u$ pressure until q a l>ge area = gas escape _h be5 creat$4 ,,pi/on ,,r+ ,,manipulation ,remov+ pi/on r+s )\t break+ !m is a difficult op]ation if ! prop] means are n tak51 b is a comp>atively simple "o :5 ! trick is kn[n4 ,! tools requir$ are v simple1 be+ ?ree /rips ( ?9 /eel ab\t "o-qu>t] in* wide & f\r or five in*es long & a pair ( spread+ tongs made up ( "o-qu>t] in* diamet] key/ock ti$ 9 ! c5t] ) a copp] wire to =m a h+e4 ,! con/ruction is su* t :5 ! h& is clos$ & ! h&les br\ght toge!r ! o!r end ( ! exp&] spreads out1 an action j opposite to t ( ! conv5tional pli]s4 ,! me?od ( us+ ! tongs & ! metal /rips is cle>ly indicat$ at ,fig4 #ahf4 ,at ,a ! r+ exp&] is %[n spread+ ! ends ( ! r+s suffici5tly to ins]t ! pieces ( %eet metal betwe5 "o ( ! r+s & ! pi/on4 ,grasp ! r+ z %[n at ,b1 press+ ) ! ?umbs on ! top ( ! pi/on & ! r+ w slide (f easily1 ! ?9 metal /rips act+ z guide memb]s to prev5t ! r+ f cat*+ 9 ! o!r pi/on grooves4 ,usually no difficulty is exp]i5c$ 9 remov+ ! top or bottom r+s1 z ^! memb]s may be easily exp&$ & work$ (f directly )\t ! use ( a metal /rip4 ,:5 remov+ ! int]m$iate r+s1 h[ev]1 ! metal /rips w be f\nd v useful4 ,^! are usually made by ! repairman by gr9d+ ! tee? f old hacksaw blades & r\nd+ ! edges & corn]s 9 ord] to r$uce ! liability ( cutt+ ! f+]s4 ,by ! use ( ! ?ree metal /rips a r+ is remov$ )\t break+ or di/ort+ x & practically no "t is consum$ 9 ! op]ation4 ,,fitt+ ,,pi/on ,,r+s ,be=e in/all+ new r+s1 !y %\ld be c>efully fitt$ to ! grooves to :i* !y are appli$4 ,! tools requir$ are a l>ge piece ( f9e em]y clo?1 a ?91 flat file1 a small vise ) copp] or lead5 jaw clips1 & a smoo? h>d surface su* z t af=d$ by ! top ( a surface plate or a well plan$ piece ( h>d wood4 ,aft] mak+ sure t all deposits ( burnt oil & c>bon h be5 remov$ f ! pi/on grooves1 ?ree r+s are select$1 "o = ea* groove4 ,! r+ is turn$ all ar\nd its circumf]5ce into ! groove x is to fit1 :i* c be done )\t spr++ x ov] ! pi/on z ! outside edge ( ! r+ may be us$ to te/ ! wid? ( ! groove j z well z ! inside edge4 ,! r+ %\ld be a fair fit & :ile free to move circumf]5tially !re %\ld be no appreciable up & d[n motion4 ,if ! r+ is a tight fit x %\ld be laid edge d[n ^u ! piece ( em]y clo? :i* is plac$ on ! surface plate & c>efully rubb$ d[n until x fits ! groove x is to occupy4 ,x is advisable to fit ea* pi/on r+ individually & to m>k !m 9 "s way to insure t !y w be plac$ 9 ! groove to :i* !y are fitt$4 ,! repairman next turns 8 att5tion to fitt+ ! r+ 9 ! cyl9d] itself4 ,! r+ %\ld be pu%$ into ! cyl9d] at lea/ two in*es up f ! bottom & endeavor %\ld be made to h ! l[] edge ( ! r+ p>allel ) ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,if ! r+ is n ( correct diamet]1 b is slightly l>g] ?an ! cyl9d] bore1 ?is condition w be evid5t by ! angul> slots ( ! r+s be+ out ( l9e or by difficulty 9 ins]t+ ! r+ if x is a lap jo9t =m4 ,if su* is ! case ! r+ is remov$ f ! cyl9d] & plac$ 9 ! vise betwe5 s(t metal jaw clips4 ,suffici5t metal is remov$ ) a f9e file f ! edges ( ! r+ at ! slot until ! edges come into l9e & a slight space exi/s betwe5 !m :5 ! r+ is plac$ into ! cyl9d]4 ,x is important t ?is space be left betwe5 ! ends1 = if ?is is n done :5 ! r+ becomes heat$ ! expansion ( metal may cause ! ends to abut & ! r+ to jam 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,me?od ( ,remov+ ,pi/on ,r+s1 & ,simple ,clamp to ,facilitate ,ins]tion ( ,r+s 9 ,cyl9d]4 ,x is necess>y to use m ?an ord9>y caution 9 replac+ ! r+s on ! pi/on because !y are usually made ( ca/ iron1 a metal t is v fragile & liable to break because ( its brittl5ess4 ,special c>e %\ld be tak5 9 replac+ new r+s z ^! memb]s are m apt to break ?an old ones4 ,?is is probably acc\nt$ = by ! heat+ action on us$ r+s :i* t5ds to anneal ! metal z well z mak+ x less spr+y4 ,! bottom r+ %\ld be plac$ 9 position fir/ :i* is easily accompli%$ by spr++ ! r+ op5 en\gh to pass on ! pi/on & !n slid+ x into place 9 ! l[] groove :i* on "s types ( eng9es is bel[ ! wri/ p91 :]eas 9 o!rs all grooves are above t memb]4 ,! o!r memb]s are put 9 by a rev]sal ( ! process outl9$ at ,fig4 #ahf1 ,a & ,b4 ,x is n always necess>y to use ! guid+ /rips ( metal :5 replac+ r+s z x is (t5 possible1 by putt+ ! r+s on ! pi/on a little askew & maneuv]+ !m to pass ! grooves )\t spr++ ! r+ into !m4 ,! top r+ %\ld be ! la/ "o plac$ 9 position4 ,be=e plac+ pi/ons 9 ! cyl9d] "o %\ld make sure t ! slots 9 ! pi/on r+s are spac$ equidi/ant on ! pi/on1 & if p9s are us$ to keep ! r+ f turn+ "o %\ld be c>eful to make sure t ^! p9s fit into _! holes 9 ! r+ & t !y are n "u ! r+ at any po9t4 ,practically all cyl9d]s are *amf]$ at ! l[] end to make ins]tion ( pi/on r+s easi]4 ,! op]ation ( putt+ on a cyl9d] ca/+ ov] a pi/on really requires two pairs ( h&s1 "o to manipulate ! cyl9d]1 ! o!r p]son to close ! r+s z !y ent] ! cyl9d]4 ,?is may be done v easily by a simple clamp memb] made ( %eet brass or iron & us$ to close ! r+ z indicat$ at ,fig4 #ahf1 ,c4 ,x is app>5t t ! clamp mu/ be adju/$ to ea* individual r+ & t ! split portion ( ! clamp mu/ co9cide ) ! split portion ( ! r+4 ,! cyl9d] %\ld be well oil$ be=e any attempt is made to in/all ! pi/ons4 ,! eng9e %\ld be run ) m ?an ! ord9>y am\nt ( lubricant = sev]al h\rs aft] new pi/on r+s h be5 ins]t$4 ,on fir/ />t+ ! eng9e1 "o may be disappo9t$ 9 t ! compression is ev5 less ?an t obta9$ ) ! old r+s4 ,?is condition w soon be rem$i$ z ! r+s become poli%$ & adapt !mselves to ! cont\r ( ! cyl9d]4 ,,wri/ ,,p9 ,,we> ,:ile wri/ p9s are usually made ( v t\gh /eel1 case h>d5$ ) ! object ( we>+ out an easily r5ewable bronze bu%+ 9 ! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod r ?an ! wri/ p9 x sometimes happ5s t ^! memb]s w be worn s t ev5 ! replacem5t ( a new bu%+ 9 ! connect+ rod w n r$uce ! lo/ motion & att5dant noise due to a loose wri/ p94 ,! only rem$y is to fit new wri/ p9s to ! pi/on4 ,:]e ! connect+ rod is clamp$ to ! wri/ p9 & t memb] oscillates 9 ! pi/on bosses ! we> w usually be indicat$ on bronze bu%+s :i* are press$ into ! pi/on bosses4 ,^! are easily r5ew$ & aft] runn+ a ream] ?r\gh !m ( ! prop] size no difficulty %\ld be exp]i5c$ 9 replac+ ei!r ! old or a new wri/ p9 dep5d+ ^u ! condition ( t memb]4 ,if no bu%+s are provid$1 z 9 alloy pi/ons1 ! bosses c sometimes be bor$ out & ?9 bu%+s ins]t$1 ?\gh ?is is n always possible4 ,! alt]native is to ream out ! bosses & upp] end ( rod a trifle l>g] aft] holes are tru$ up & fit ov]size wri/ p9s4 ,,inspection ,,& ,,refitt+ ,,( ,,eng9e ,,be>+s ,:ile ! eng9e is dismantl$ "o has an excell5t opportunity to exam9e ! v>i\s be>+ po9ts 9 ! eng9e crank-case to asc]ta9 if any loos5ess exi/s due to depreciation ( ! be>+ surfaces4 ,z w be evid5t1 bo? ma9 crank-%aft be>+s & ! l[] end ( ! connect+ rods may be easily exam9$ = det]ioration4 ,) ! rods 9 place1 x is n difficult to feel ! am\nt ( lo/ motion by grasp+ ! connect+ rod firmly ) ! h& & mov+ x up & d[n4 ,aft] ! connect+ rods h be5 remov$ & ! propell] hub tak5 (f ! crank-%aft to p]mit ( ready h&l+1 any loos5ess 9 ! ma9 be>+ may be detect$ by lift+ up on ei!r ! front or re> end ( ! crank-%aft & obs]v+ if !re is any lo/ motion betwe5 ! %aft j\rnal & ! ma9 be>+ caps4 ,x is n necess>y to take an eng9e entirely ap>t to exam9e ! ma9 be>+s1 z 9 mo/ =ms ^! may be readily rea*$ by remov+ ! sump4 ,! symptoms ( worn ma9 be>+s are n h>d to id5tify4 ,if an eng9e knocks reg>dless ( spe$ or sp>k-lev] position1 & ! tr\ble is n due to c>bon deposits 9 ! combu/ion *amb]1 "o may reasonably surmise t ! ma9 be>+s h become loose or t lo/ motion may exi/ at ! connect+ rod big ends1 & possibly at ! wri/ p9s4 ,! ma9 j\rnals ( any well resign$ eng9e are usually proportion$ ) ample surface & w n we> unduly unless lubrication has be5 neglect$4 ,! connect+ rod be>+s we> quick] ?an ! ma9 be>+s ow+ to be+ subject$ to a great] unit /ress1 & x may be necess>y to take ^! up4 ,,adju/+ ,,ma9 ,,be>+s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,tools & ,processes ,us$ 9 ,refitt+ ,eng9e ,be>+s4 ,:5 ! be>+s are n worn en\gh to require refitt+ ! lo/ motion c (t5 be elim9at$ by remov+ "o or m ( ! ?9 %ims or l9]s ord9>ily us$ to sep>ate ! be>+ caps f ! seat4 ,^! are %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,a4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t an ev5 numb] ( %ims ( ! same ?ickness are remov$ f ea* side ( ! j\rnal4 ,if !re is consid]able lo/ motion aft] "o or two %ims h be5 remov$1 x w be advisable to take out m %ims & to scrape ! be>+ to a fit be=e ! be>+ cap is tight5$ up4 ,x may be necess>y to clean up ! crank-%aft j\rnals z ^! may be scor$ due to n hav+ receiv$ clean oil or hav+ _h be>+s seize ^u !m4 ,x is n difficult to true up ! crank-p9s or ma9 j\rnals if ! score m>ks are n deep4 ,a f9e file & em]y clo? may be us$1 or a lapp+ tool su* z depict$ at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,b4 ,! latt] is pref]able because ! file & em]y clo? w only t5d to smoo? ! surface :ile ! lap w h ! effect ( re/or+ ! crank to prop] cont\r4 ,a lapp+ tool may be easily made1 z %[n at ,b1 ! blocks be+ ( lead or h>d wood4 ,z ! wid? ( ^! are ab\t half t ( ! crank-p9 ! tool may be work$ f side to side z x is rotat$4 ,an abrasive pa/e compos$ ( f9e em]y p[d] & oil is plac$ betwe5 ! blocks1 & ! blocks are firmly clamp$ to ! crank-p94 ,z ! lead blocks b$ d[n1 ! w+ nut %\ld be tight5$ to insure t ! abrasive w be held ) "s degree ( pressure aga9/ ! %aft4 ,a lib]al supply ( new abrad+ mat]ial is plac$ betwe5 ! lapp+ blocks & crank-%aft f "t to "t & ! old mixture clean$ (f ) gasol9e4 ,x is necess>y to ma9ta9 a side to side movem5t ( ! lapp+ tool 9 ord] to h ! process affect ! :ole wid? ( ! crank-p9 equally4 ,! lapp+ is cont9u$ until a smoo? surface is obta9$4 ,if a crank-p9 is worn out ( true to any ext5t ! only me?od ( re/or+ x is to h x gr\nd d[n to prop] circul> =m by a compet5t me*anic hav+ ! necess>y ma*9e tools to c>ry on ! "w accurately4 ,a crank-p9 tru+ tool t may be work$ by h& is %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,k4 ,aft] ! crank-%aft is tru$ ! next op]ation is to fit x to ! ma9 be>+s or r to scrape ^! memb]s to fit ! %aft j\rnal4 ,9 ord] to br+ ! brasses clos] toge!r1 x may be necess>y to remove a little metal f ! edges ( ! caps to comp5sate = ! lo/ motion4 ,a v simple way ( do+ ?is is %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,d4 ,a piece ( m$ium em]y clo? is re/$ on ! surface plate & ! box or brass is pu%$ back & =? ov] t memb] by h&1 ! am\nt ( pressure & rapidity ( movem5t be+ det]m9$ by ! am\nt ( metal x is necess>y to remove4 ,?is is bett] ?an fil+1 because ! edges w be flat & !re w be no t5d5cy = ! be>+ caps to rock :5 plac$ aga9/ ! be>+ seat4 ,x is important to take en\gh (f ! edges ( ! boxes to insure t !y w grip ! crank tightly4 ,! out] diamet] mu/ be *eck$ ) a pair ( calip]s dur+ ?is op]ation to make sure t ! surfaces rema9 p>allel4 ,o!rwise1 ! be>+ brasses w only grip at "o end & ) su* insuffici5t support !y w quickly "w loose1 bo? 9 ! be>+ seat & be>+ cap4 ,,scrap+ ,,brasses ,,to ,,fit ,to insure t ! be>+ brasses w be a good fit on ! tru$-up crank-p9s or crank-%aft j\rnals1 !y mu/ be scrap$ to fit ! v>i\s crank-%aft j\rnals4 ,! process ( scrap+1 :ile a t$i\s "o1 is n difficult1 requir+ only pati5ce & "s degree ( c>e to d a good job4 ,! surface ( ! crank-p9 is sme>$ ) ,prussian blue pigm5t :i* is spread ev5ly ov] ! entire surface4 ,! be>+s are !n clamp$ toge!r 9 ! usual mann] ) ! prop] bolts1 & ! crank-%aft revolv$ sev]al times to indicate ! high spots on ! be>+ cap4 ,at ! />t ( ! process ( scrap+ 91 ! be>+ may seat only at a few po9ts z %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,g4 ,cont9u$ scrap+ w br+ ! be>+ surface z indicat$ at ,h1 :i* is a consid]able improvem5t1 :ile ! process may be consid]$ complete :5 ! brass indicates a be>+ all ov] z at ,i4 ,! high spots are indicat$ by blue1 z :]e ! %aft does n be> on ! be>+ !re is no color4 ,! high spots are remov$ by means ( a scrap+ tool ( ! =m %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,f1 :i* is easily made f a worn-out file4 ,^! are =g$ to %ape & gr\nd holl[ z indicat$ 9 ! section1 & are kept prop]ly %>p5$ by frequ5t rubb+ on an ord9>y oil /one4 ,to scrape prop]ly1 ! edge ( ! scrap] mu/ be v ke54 ,! /raight & curv$ half-r\nd scrap]s1 %[n at ,m & ,n1 are us$ = be>+s4 ,! ?ree-corn]$ scrap]1 outl9$ at ,o1 is also us$ on curv$ surfaces1 & is ( value 9 r\nd+ (f ! %>p corn]s4 ,! /raight or curv$ half-r\nd type works well on s(t-be>+ metals1 su* z babbitt1 or :ite brass1 b on yell[ brass or bronze x cuts v sl[ly1 & z soon z ! edge becomes dull consid]able pressure is ne$$ to remove any metal1 ?is call+ = frequ5t %>p5+4 ,:5 correct+ errors on flat or curv$ surfaces by h&-scrap+1 x is desirable1 ( c\rse1 to obta9 an ev5ly spott$ be>+ ) z little scrap+ z possible4 ,:5 ! "p to be scrap$ is fir/ appli$ to ! surface-plate1 or to a j\rnal 9 ! case ( a be>+1 ?ree or f\r high spots may be indicat$ by ! m>k+ mat]ial4 ,! "t requir$ to r$uce ^! high spots & obta9 a be>+ t is di/ribut$ ov] ! entire surface dep5ds l>gely ^u ! way ! scrap+ is />t$4 ,if ! fir/ be>+ m>ks indicate a decid$ rise 9 ! surface1 mu* "t c be sav$ by scrap+ l>g] areas ?an are cov]$ by ! be>+ m>ks2 ?is is especially true ( l>ge %aft & eng9e be>+s1 etc4 ,an exp]i5c$ workman w n only remove ! heavy m>ks1 b also r$uce a l>g] area2 !n1 :5 ! be>+ is te/$ aga91 ! m>ks w g5]ally be di/ribut$ some:at4 ,if ! heavy m>ks :i* usually appe> at fir/ are simply remov$ by light scrap+1 ^! po9t be>+s are gradually enl>g$1 b a mu* long] "t w be requir$ to di/ribute !m4 ,! numb] ( times ! be>+ mu/ be appli$ to ! j\rnal = te/+ is important1 especially :5 ! box or be>+ is l>ge & n easily h&l$4 ,! "t requir$ to di/ribute ! be>+ m>ks ev5ly dep5ds l>gely ^u "o's judgm5t 9 read+ ^! m>ks4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! scrap+ op]ation1 ! m>ks %\ld be us$ p>tly z a guide = %[+ ! high areas1 & in/ead ( m]ely scrap+ ! m>k$ spot ! surface surr\nd+ x %\ld also be r$uc$1 unless x is evid5t t ! unev5ness is local4 ,! idea %\ld be to obta9 fir/ a few l>ge b g5]ally di/ribut$ m>ks2 !n an ev5ly & f9ely spott$ surface c be produc$ q easily4 ,9 fitt+ brasses :5 ^! are ( ! removable type1 two me?ods may be us$4 ,! upp] half ( ! eng9e base may be inv]t$ on a suitable b5* or /& & ! boxes fitt$ by plac+ ! crank-%aft 9 position1 clamp+ d[n "o be>+ cap at a "t & fitt+ ea* be>+ 9 succession until !y b$ equally4 ,f t "t on ! be>+s %\ld be fitt$ at ! same "t s ! %aft w be p>allel ) ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,consid]able "t & h&l+ ( ! heavy crank-%aft may be sav$ if a prelim9>y fitt+ ( ! be>+ brasses is made by clamp+ !m toge!r ) a c>p5t]'s wood clamp z %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,j1 & leav+ ! crank-%aft atta*$ to ! b5* z %[n at ,c4 ,! brasses are revolv$ ar\nd ! crank-%aft j\rnal & are scrap$ to fit :]ev] high spots are indicat$ until !y beg9 to seat fairly4 ,:5 ! brasses assume a f9i%$ appe>ance ! f9al scrap+ %\ld be c>ri$ on ) all be>+s 9 place & revolv+ ! crank-%aft to det]m9e ! area ( ! seat+4 ,:5 ! brasses are prop]ly fitt$ !y w n only %[ a full be>+ surface1 b ! %aft w n turn unduly h>d if revolv$ ) a mod]ate am\nt ( lev]age4 ,be>+s ( :ite metal or babbitt c be fitt$ tight] ?an ^? ( bronze1 & c>e mu/ be obs]v$ 9 supply+ lubricant z consid]ably m ?an ! usual am\nt is ne$$ until ! be>+s are run 9 by sev]al h\rs ( te/ block "w4 ,be=e ! scrap+ process is />t$ x is well to *isel an oil groove 9 ! be>+ z %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,l4 ,grooves are v helpful 9 insur+ uni=m di/ribution ( oil ov] ! entire wid? ( be>+ & at ! same "t act z res]voirs to reta9 a supply ( oil4 ,! tool us$ is a r\nd-nos$ *isel1 ! ef=t be+ made to cut ! grooves ( uni=m dep? & hav+ smoo? sides4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to cut ! grooves too deeply1 z ?is w s]i\sly r$uce ! /r5g? ( ! be>+ bu%+4 ,! %ape ( ! groove ord9>ily provid$ is cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,g1 & x w be obs]v$ t ! grooves d n ext5d cle> to ! edge ( ! be>+1 b /op ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* f t po9t4 ,! hole ?r\gh :i* ! oil is suppli$ to ! be>+ is usually drill$ 9 su* a way t x w communicate ) ! groove4 ,! tool %[n at ,fig4 #ahg1 ,k1 is ( rec5t developm5t1 & is kn[n z a crank-%aft equaliz]4 ,?is is a h&-op]at$ turn+ tool1 c>ry+ cutt]s :i* are int5d$ to smoo? d[n scor$ crank-p9s )\t us+ a la!4 ,! fe$ may be adju/$ by suitable screws & ! device may be fitt$ to crank-p9s & %aft-j\rnals ( diff]5t diamet]s by o!r adju/+ screws4 ,?is device is n h>d to op]ate1 be+ m]ely clamp$ ar\nd ! crank-%aft 9 ! same mann] z ! lapp+ tool previ\sly describ$1 & aft] x has be5 prop]ly adju/$ x is turn$ ar\nd by ! lev]s provid$ = ! purpose1 ! cont9u\s rot>y motion remov+ ! metal j z a la! tool w\ld4 ,,fitt+ ,,connect+ ,,rods ,9 ! m>9e type rod1 :i* is ! =m g5]ally us$ 9 airplane eng9es1 "o or two bolts are employ$ at ea* side & ! cap mu/ be remov$ entirely be=e ! be>+ c be tak5 (f ( ! crank-p94 ,! tightness ( ! brasses ar\nd ! crank-p9 c nev] be det]m9$ solely by ! adju/m5t ( ! bolts1 z :ile x is important t ^! %\ld be drawn up z tightly z possible1 ! be>+ %\ld fit ! %aft )\t undue b9d+1 ev5 if ! brasses mu/ be scrap$ to insure a prop] fit4 ,z is true ( ! ma9 be>+s1 ! m>9e =m ( connect+ rod 9 "s eng9es has a numb] ( l9]s or %ims int]pos$ betwe5 ! top & l[] portions ( ! rod end1 & ^! may be r$uc$ 9 numb] :5 necess>y to br+ ! brasses clos] toge!r4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy 9 airplane eng9es is to elim9ate %ims 9 ei!r ! ma9 or connect+ rod be>+s1 & :5 we> is notic$ ! boxes or l9]s are remov$ & new ones suppli$4 ,! brasses are held 9 ! connect+ rod & cap by brass rivets & are g5]ally atta*$ 9 ! ma9 be>+ by small brass ma*9e screws4 ,! =m ( box g5]ally favor$ is a brass s& ca/+ ri* 9 copp] to secure good heat conductivity :i* =ms a back+ = a ?9 lay] ( :ite brass1 babbitt or simil> anti-friction metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,%[+ ,po9ts to ,obs]ve ,:5 ,fitt+ ,connect+ ,rod ,brasses4 ,9 fitt+ new brasses !re are two conditions to be avoid$1 ^! be+ outl9$ at ,fig4 #ahh1 ,b & ,c4 ,9 ! case %[n at ,c ! light edges ( ! bu%+s are 9 contact1 b ! connect+ rod & its cap d n meet4 ,:5 ! reta9+ nuts are tight5$ ! entire /ra9 is tak5 on ! comp>atively small area ( ! edges ( ! bu%+s :i* are n /rong en\gh to )/& ! /ra9s exi/+ & :i* flatt5 out quickly1 p]mitt+ ! be>+ to run loose4 ,9 ! example outl9$ at ,b ! edges ( ! brasses d n t\* :5 ! connect+ rod cap is drawn 9 place4 ,?is is n good practice1 because ! brasses soon become loose 9 _! reta9+ memb]4 ,9 ! case outl9$ x is necess>y to file (f ! faces ( ! rod & cap until ^! meet1 & to insure contact ( ! edges ( ! brasses z well4 ,9 ev5t ( ! brasses com+ toge!r be=e ! cap & rod make contact1 z %[n at ,c1 ! be>+ halves %\ld be r$uc$ at ! edges until bo? ! caps & brasses meet aga9/ ea* o!r or ! surfaces ( ! l9]s z %[n at ,a4 ,,sprung ,,cam-,,%aft ,if ! cam-%aft is sprung or twi/$ x w alt] ! valve tim+ to su* an ext5t t ! smoo?ness ( op]ation ( ! eng9e w be mat]ially affect$4 ,if ?is condition is suspect$ ! cam-%aft may be swung on la! c5t]s & turn$ to see if x runs out & c be /raight5$ 9 any ( ! usual =m ( %aft-/raight5+ ma*9es4 ,! %aft may be twi/$ )\t be+ sprung4 ,?is c only be det]m9$ by support+ "o end ( ! %aft 9 an index head & ! o!r end on a mill+ ma*9e c5t]4 ,! cams are !n *eck$ to see t !y are sep>at$ by ! prop] degree ( angul>ity4 ,?is process is "o t requires a ?or\gh k ( ! valve tim+ ( ! eng9e 9 "q1 & is be/ done at ! factory :]e ! eng9e 0 made4 ,! tim+ ge>s %\ld also be exam9$ to see if ! tee? are worn en\gh s t consid]able back la% or lo/ motion exi/s betwe5 !m4 ,?is is especially important :]e worm or spiral ge>s are us$4 ,a worn tim+ ge> n only produces noise1 b x w cause ! "t ( op5+ & clos+ ( ! eng9e valves to v>y mat]ially4 ,,precautions ,,9 ,,reassembl+ ,,p>ts ,:5 all ( ! ess5tial compon5ts ( a p[] plant h be5 c>efully look$ ov] & clean$ & all defects elim9at$1 ei!r by adju/m5t or replacem5t ( worn portions1 ! motor %\ld be reassembl$1 tak+ c>e to h ! p>ts occupy j ! same relative positions !y did be=e ! motor 0 dismantl$4 ,z ea* "p is add$ to ! assemblage c>e %\ld be tak5 to insure adequate lubrication ( all new po9ts ( be>+ by squirt+ lib]al quantities ( cyl9d] oil ^u !m ) a h& oil c or syr+e provid$ = ! purpose4 ,9 adju/+ ! crank-%aft be>+s1 tight5 !m "o at a "t & revolve ! %afts ea* "t "o ( ! be>+ caps is set up to insure t ! newly adju/$ be>+ does n h undue friction4 ,all reta9+ keys & p9s mu/ be positively plac$ & x is good practice to cov] su* a "p ) lubricant be=e replac+ x because x w n only drive 9 easi]1 b ! "p may be remov$ m easily if necess>y at "s future "t4 ,if n oil$1 ru/ collects ar\nd x4 ,:5 a piece is held by m ?an "o bolt or screw1 especially if x is a ca/+ ( brittle mat]ial su* z ca/ iron or alum9um1 ! fa/5+ bolts %\ld be tight5$ uni=mly4 ,if "o bolt is tight5$ m ?an ! re/ x is liable to spr+ ! ca/+ en\gh to break x4 ,spr+ wa%]s1 *eck nuts1 split p9s or o!r lock+ means %\ld always be provid$1 especially on p>ts :i* are 9 motion or subject$ to heavy loads4 ,be=e plac+ ! cyl9d] ov] ! pi/on x is imp]ative t ! slots 9 ! pi/on r+s are spac$ equidi/ant & t ! pi/on is copi\sly oil$ be=e ! cyl9d] is slipp$ ov] x4 ,:5 reassembl+ ! inlet & exhau/ manifolds x is well to use only p]fect pack+s or gaskets & to avoid ! use ( ^? t seem to h h>d5$ up or flatt5$ out too mu* 9 s]vice4 ,if x is necess>y to use new gaskets x is imp]ative to employ ^! at all jo9ts on a manifold1 because if old & new gaskets are us$ toge!r ! new ones are apt to keep ! manifold f b$d+ prop]ly ^u ! us$ ones4 ,x is well to coat ! ?reads ( all bolts & screws subject$ to heat1 su* z cyl9d] head & exhau/ manifold reta9+ bolts1 ) a mixture ( graphite & oil4 ,^? t ent] ! wat] jacket %\ld be cov]$ ) :ite or r$ lead or pipe ?read comp\nd4 ,gaskets w hold bett] if coat$ ) %ellac be=e ! manifold or o!r p>ts are plac$ ov] !m4 ,! %ellac fills any irregul>ities 9 ! jo9t & assi/s mat]ially 9 prev5t+ leakage aft] ! jo9t is made up & ! coat+ has a *ance to set4 ,be=e assembl+ on ! %aft1 x is necess>y to fit ! be>+s by scrap+1 ! same in/ructions giv5 = re/or+ ! cont\r ( ! ma9 be>+s apply+ j z well 9 ?is case4 ,x is app>5t t if ! crank-p9s are n r\nd no am\nt ( scrap+ w insure a true be>+4 ,a po9t to obs]ve is to make sure t ! heads ( ! bolts are imb$d$ solidly 9 _! prop] position1 & t !y are n rais$ by any burrs or p>ticles ( dirt "u ! head :i* w flatt5 out aft] ! eng9e has be5 run = a "t & all[ ! bolts to slack (f4 ,simil>ly1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t !re is no =eign matt] "u ! brasses & ! box 9 :i* !y seat4 ,to gu>d aga9/ ?is ! bolts %\ld be /ruck ) a hamm] sev]al times aft] !y are tight5$ up1 & ! connect+ rod c be hit %>ply sev]al times "u ! cap ) a wood5 mallet or lead hamm]4 ,x is important to p9 ! brasses 9 place to prev5t movem5t1 z lubrication may be int]f]$ ) if ! bu%+ turns r\nd & breaks ! correct regi/] betwe5 ! oil hole 9 ! cap & brasses4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 9 screw+ on ! reta9+ nuts to insure t !y w rema9 9 place & n slack (f4 ,spr+ wa%]s %\ld n be us$ on ei!r connect+ rod ends or ma9 be>+ nuts1 because ^! sometimes snap 9 two pieces & leave ! nut slack4 ,! be/ me?od ( lock+ is to use well-fitt+ split p9s & ca/ellat$ nuts4 ,,te/+ ,,be>+ ,,p>allelism ,x is n possible to give o!r ?an g5]al directions reg>d+ ! prop] degree ( tight5+ = a connect+ rod be>+1 b z a guide to correct adju/m5t x may be said t if ! connect+ rod cap is tight5$ suffici5tly s ! connect+ rod w j ab\t fall ov] f a v]tical position due to ! pi/on weight :5 ! bolts are fully tight5$ up1 ! adju/m5t w be ne>ly correct4 ,z previ\sly /at$1 babbitt or :ite metal be>+s c be set up m tightly ?an bronze1 z ! metal is s(t] & any high spots w soon be level$ d[n ) ! runn+ ( ! eng9e4 ,x is important t c>e be tak5 to pres]ve p>allelism ( ! wri/-p9s & crank-%afts :ile scrap+ 9 be>+s4 ,?is c be det]m9$ 9 two ways4 ,t %[n at ,fig4 #ahi1 ,a1 is us$ :5 ! p>ts are n 9 ! eng9e assembly & :5 ! connect+ rod be>+ is be+ fitt$ to a m&rel or arbor ! same size z ! crank-p94 ,! arbor1 :i* is f9i%$ v smoo? & ( uni=m diamet]1 is plac$ 9 two ,v blocks1 :i* 9 turn are support$ by a level surface plate4 ,an adju/able height gauge may be tri$1 fir/ at "o side ( ! wri/-p9 :i* is plac$ at ! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod1 !n at ! o!r1 & any v>iation w be easily det]m9$ by ! degree ( tilt+ ( ! rod4 ,?is te/ may be made ) ! wri/-p9 alone1 or if ! pi/on is 9 place1 a /raight edge or _s level may be employ$4 ,! _s level w readily %[ any incl9ation :ile ! /raight edge is us$ 9 connection ) ! height gauge z indicat$4 ,( c\rse1 ! surface plate mu/ be absolutely level :5 te/s are made4 ,:5 ! connect+ rods are be+ fitt$ ) ! crank-%aft 9 place 9 crank-case1 & t memb] secur$ 9 ! frame1 a /eel squ>e may be us$ z x is reasonable to assume t ! wri/-p91 & consequ5tly ! pi/on x c>ries1 %\ld obs]ve a true relation ) ! top ( ! eng9e base4 ,if ! pi/on side is at "r angles ) ! top ( ! eng9e base x is reasonable to assume t ! wri/-p9 & crank-p9 are p>allel4 ,if ! pi/on is cant$ to "o side or ! o!r1 x w indicate t ! brasses h be5 scrap$ tap]+1 :i* w\ld mean consid]able heat+ & undue friction if ! pi/on is in/all$ 9 ! cyl9d] on acc\nt ( ! pressure aga9/ "o portion ( ! cyl9d] wall4 ,if ! degree ( cant+ is n too great1 ! connect+ rods may be sprung v slightly to /raight5 up ! pi/on1 b ?is is a make%ift t is n advis$4 ,! height gauge me?od %[n above may be us$ in/ead ( ! /eel squ>e1 if desir$1 because ! top ( ! crank-case is plan$ or mill$ true & %\ld be p>allel ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! crank-%aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,me?ods ( ,te/+ to ,insure ,p>allelism ( ,be>+s ,aft] ,fitt+4 ,,cam-,,%afts ,,& ,,tim+ ,,ge>s ,knock+ s\nds are also evid5t if ! cam-%aft is loose 9 its be>+s1 & also if ! cams or tim+ ge>s are loose on ! %aft4 ,! cam-%aft is usually support$ by solid be>+s ( ! removable bu%+ type1 hav+ no comp5sation = depreciation4 ,if ^! be>+s we> ! only rem$y is replacem5t ) new ones4 ,9 ! old] makes ( c>s x 0 g5]al practice to ma*9e ! cams sep>ately & to secure ^! to ! cam-%aft by means ( tap] p9s or keys4 ,^! memb]s sometimes loos5$ & caus$ noise4 ,9 ! ev5t ( ! cams be+ loose1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to use new keys or tap] p9s1 z ! case may be4 ,if ! fa/5+ us$ 0 a p91 ! hole ?r\gh ! cam-%aft w inv>iably be slightly oval f we>4 ,9 ord] to insure a tight job1 ! holes 9 cam & %aft mu/ be ream$ ) ! next l>g] size ( /&>d tap] ream] & a l>g] p9 driv5 94 ,ano!r po9t to wat* is ! me?od ( reta9+ ! cam-%aft ge> 9 place4 ,on "s eng9es ! ge> is fa/5$ to a flange on ! cam-%aft by reta9+ screws4 ,^! are n apt to become loose1 b :]e reliance is plac$ on a key ! cam-%aft ge> may (t5 be loose on its support+ memb]4 ,! only rem$y is to enl>ge ! key slot 9 bo? ge> & %aft & to fit a l>g] reta9+ key4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,aviation ,eng9e ,types--,division 9 ,classes--,anzani ,eng9es-- ,canton & ,unne ,eng9e--,con/ruction ( ,gnome ,eng9es-- ,monos\pape ,gnome--,g]man ,gnome ,type--,le ,rhone ,eng9e-- ,r5ault ,air-,cool$ ,eng9e--,simplex ,model ,a ,hispano-,suiza-- ,curtiss ,aviation ,motors--,?omas-,morse ,model #hh ,eng9e-- ,dues5b]g ,eng9e--,a]om>9e ,six-,cyl9d]--,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9es--,hall-,scott ,eng9es--,m]c$es ,motor--,b5z ,motor-- ,au/ro-,daiml]--,sunbeam-,coatal54 ,,aviation ,,eng9e ,,types ,inasmu* z num]\s =ms ( airplane eng9es h be5 devis$1 x w\ld require a volume ( consid]able size to describe ev5 ! mo/ important developm5ts ( rec5t ye>s4 ,z consid]able explanatory matt] has be5 giv5 9 prec$+ *apt]s & ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 int]nal combu/ion eng9e op]ation consid]$ 9 detail1 a relatively brief review ( ! features ( "s ( ! mo/ successful airplane motors %\ld suffice to give ! read] a complete en\gh und]/&+ ( ! art s all types ( eng9es c be readily recogniz$ & ! advantages & disadvantages ( ea* type und]/ood1 z well z def9+ ! con/ructional features en\gh s ! me?ods ( locat+ & repair+ ! common eng9e & auxili>y sy/em tr\bles w be fully grasp$4 ,aviation eng9es c be divid$ into ?ree ma9 classes4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ attempts to devise di/9ctive p[] plant designs = aircraft involv$ ! con/ruction ( eng9es utiliz+ a radial arrangem5t ( ! cyl9d]s or a />-wise disposition4 ,among ! eng9es ( ?is class may be m5tion$ ! ,anzani1 ,r4 ,e4 ,p4 & ! ,salmson or ,canton & ,unne =ms4 ,! two =m] are air-cool$1 ! latt] design is wat]-cool$4 ,eng9es ( ?is type h be5 built 9 cyl9d] numb]s rang+ f ?ree to tw5ty4 ,:ile ! simple =ms 7 popul> 9 ! e>ly days ( aviation eng9e developm5t1 !y h be5 succe$$ by ! m conv5tional arrangem5ts :i* n[ =m ! l>ge/ class4 ,! reason = ! adoption ( a />-wise arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s has be5 previ\sly consid]$4 ,smoo?ness ( runn+ c only be obta9$ by us+ a consid]able numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,! fundam5tal reason = ! adoption ( ! />-wise disposition is t a bett] di/ribution ( /ress is obta9$ by hav+ all ( ! pi/ons act+ on ! same crank-p9 s t ! crank-?r[ & p9 are cont9u\sly "u maximum /ress4 ,"s difficulty has be5 exp]i5c$ 9 lubricat+ ! l[] cyl9d]s 9 "s =ms ( six cyl9d]1 rot>y crank1 radial eng9es b ^! h be5 l>gely ov]come s !y are n z s]i\s 9 practice z a !oretical consid]ation w\ld indicate4 ,ano!r class ( eng9es develop$ to meet aviation requirem5ts is a complete dep>ture f ! prec$+ class1 ?\gh :5 ! eng9es are at re/1 x is difficult to diff]5tiate betwe5 !m4 ,?is class includes eng9es hav+ a />-wise disposition ( ! cyl9d]s b ! cyl9d]s !mselves & ! crank-case rotate & ! crank-%aft rema9s /ation>y4 ,! important rot>y eng9es are ! ,gnome1 ! ,le ,rhone & ! ,cl]get4 ,by f> ! mo/ important classification is t includ+ eng9es :i* reta9 ! approv$ design ( ! types ( p[] plants t h be5 s widely utiliz$ 9 automobiles & :i* h b slight modifications to increase reliability & me*anical /r5g? & produce a r$uction 9 weight4 ,?is class includes ! v]tical eng9es su* z ! ,dues5b]g & ,hall-,scott f\r-cyl9d]2 ! ,wiscons91 ,a]om>9e1 ,m]c$es1 ,b5z1 & ,hall-,scott six-cyl9d] v]tical eng9es & ! num]\s eight- & twelve-cyl9d] ,vee designs su* z ! ,curtiss1 ,r5ault1 ,?omas-,morse1 ,/urtevant1 ,sunbeam1 & o!rs4 ,,anzani ,,eng9es ,! att5tion ( ! me*anical _w 0 fir/ direct$ to ! great possibilities ( me*anical flight :5 ,bl]iot cross$ ! ,engli% ,*annel 9 ,july1 #aiji1 9 a monoplane ( 8 own design & con/ruction1 hav+ ! p[] furni%$ by a small ?ree-cyl9d] air-cool$ eng9e rat$ at ab\t #bd horse-p[] & hav+ cyl9d]s #d4ac in*es bore & #e4ab in*es /roke1 /at$ to develop ! p[] at ab\t #afjj ,r4,p4,m4 & weigh+ #ade p\nds4 ,! arrangem5t ( ?is e>ly ,anzani eng9e is %[n at ,fig4 #aij1 & x w be app>5t t 9 ! ma91 ! l9es work$ out 9 motorcycle practice 7 foll[$ to a l>ge ext5t4 ,! crank-case 0 ( ! usual v]tically divid$ patt]n1 ! cyl9d]s & heads be+ ca/ 9 "o piece & held to ! crank-case by /ud bolts pass+ ?r\gh sub/antial flanges at ! cyl9d] base4 ,9 ord] to utilize b a s+le crank-p9 = ! ?ree cyl9d]s x 0 necess>y to use two =k$ rods & "o rod ( ! conv5tional type4 ,! arrangem5t %[n at ,fig4 #aij1 call$ = ! use ( c\nt]-balanc$ fly:eels :i* 7 built up 9 connection ) %afts & a crank-p9 to =m :at corresponds to ! usual crank-%aft assembly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,views ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,?ree-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,aviation ,motor4 ,! inlet valves 7 ( ! automatic type s t a v simple valve me*anism consi/+ only ( ! exhau/ valve pu% rods 0 provid$4 ,"o ( ! difficulties ( ?is arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s 0 t ! impulses are n ev5ly spac$4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! =ms :]e ! cyl9d]s 7 plac$ #fj degrees ap>t ! space betwe5 ! fir+ ( ! fir/ cyl9d] & t next 9 ord] 0 #abj degrees crank-%aft rotation1 aft] :i* !re 0 an int]val ( #cjj degrees be=e ! la/ cyl9d] to fire deliv]$ its p[] /roke4 ,9 ord] to increase ! p[] giv5 by ! simple ?ree-cyl9d] air-cool$ eng9e a six-cyl9d] wat]-cool$ type1 z %[n at ,figs4 #aia & #aib1 0 devis$4 ,?is 0 practically ! same 9 action z ! ?ree-cyl9d] except t a d\ble ?r[ crank-%aft 0 us$ & :ile ! explosions 7 n ev5ly spac$ ! numb] ( explosions obta9$ result$ 9 fairly uni=m application ( p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij;a4--,illu/rations ,depict+ ,wrong & ,"r ,me?ods ( ,sw++ ! ,/ick to ,/>t ,airplane ,eng9e4 ,at ,top1 ,poor ,position to ,get ,full ,?r[ & ,get ,out ( ! ,way4 ,bel[1 ,correct ,position to ,get ,quick ,turn ,ov] ( ,crank-,%aft & ,spr+ ,away f ,propell]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4--,! ,anzani ,six-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4--,sectional ,view ( ,anzani ,six-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,! late/ design ( ?ree-cyl9d] ,anzani eng9e1 :i* is us$ to "s ext5t = s*ool ma*9es1 is %[n at ,fig4 #aic4 ,9 ?is1 ! ?ree-cyl9d]s are symmetrically arrang$ ab\t ! crank-case or #abj degrees ap>t4 ,! balance is greatly improv$ by ?is arrangem5t & ! p[] /rokes occur at equal int]vals ( #bdj degrees ( crank-%aft rotation4 ,?is me?od ( con/ruction is kn[n z ! ,y design4 ,by gr\p+ two ( ^! eng9es toge!r1 z outl9$ at ,fig4 #aid1 :i* gives an int]nal view1 & at ,fig4 #aie1 :i* %[s ! sectional view1 & us+ ! ord9>y =m ( d\ble ?r[ crank-%aft ) crank-p9s sep>at$ by #ahj degrees1 a six-cyl9d] radial eng9e is produc$ :i* runs v quietly & furni%es a /eady output ( p[]4 ,! peculi>ity ( ! con/ruction ( ?is eng9e is 9 ! me?od ( gr\p+ ! connect+ rod ab\t ! common crank-p9 )\t us+ =k$ rods or ! ,"m rod sy/em employ$ 9 ! ,gnome eng9es4 ,9 ! ,anzani ! me?od foll[$ is to provide ea* connect+ rod big end ) a %oe :i* consi/s ( a portion ( a holl[ cyl9d] held aga9/ ! crank-p9 by split clamp+ r+s4 ,! dim5sions ( ^! %oes are s proportion$ t ! two adjac5t connect+ rods ( a gr\p ( ?ree w n come into contact ev5 :5 ! connect+ rods are at ! m9imum relative angle4 ,! ?ree %oes ( ea* gr\p re/ ^u a bronze sleeve :i* is 9 halves & :i* surr\nds ! crank-p9 & rotates relatively to x once 9 ea* crank-%aft revolution4 ,! coll>s1 :i* are ( t\gh bronze1 resi/ ! in]tia =ces :ile ! direct pressure ( ! explosions is transmitt$ directly to ! crank-p9 bu%+ by ! %oes at ! big end ( ! connect+ rod4 ,! same me?od ( con/ruction1 modifi$ to "s ext5t1 is us$ 9 ! ,le ,rhone rot>y cyl9d] eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,?ree-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,air-,cool$ ,y-,=m ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,anzani ,fix$ ,crank-,case ,eng9e ( ! ,six-,cyl9d] ,=m ,utilizes ,air ,cool+ ,successfully4 ,bo? cyl9d]s & pi/ons ( ! ,anzani eng9es are ( ca/ iron1 ! cyl9d]s be+ provid$ ) a lib]al numb] ( cool+ flanges :i* are ca/ integrally4 ,a s]ies ( auxili>y exhau/ ports is drill$ ne> ! base ( ea* cyl9d] s t a portion ( ! exhau/ gases w fl[ out ( ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( its p[] /roke4 ,?is r$uces ! temp]ature ( ! gases pass+ ar\nd ! exhau/ valves & prev5ts w>p+ ( ^! memb]s4 ,ano!r di/9ctive feature ( ?is eng9e design is ! me?od ( atta*+ ! ,z5i? c>buretor to an annul> *amb] surr\nd+ ! re> portion ( ! crank-case f :i* ! intake pipes lead+ to ! intake valves radiate4 ,! magneto is ! usual six-cyl9d] =m hav+ ! armature ge>$ to revolve at "o & "o-half times crank-%aft spe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4--,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,int]nal ,p>ts ( ,six-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,eng9e1 ) ,/>wise ,disposition ( ,cyl9d]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,! ,anzani ,t5-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,eng9e at ! ,left1 & ! ,tw5ty-,cyl9d] ,fix$ ,type at ! ,"r4 ,! ,anzani aviation eng9es are also made 9 t5- & tw5ty-cyl9d] =ms z %[n at ,fig4 #aif4 ,x w be app>5t t 9 ! t5-cyl9d] =m explosions w occur e #gb degrees ( crank-%aft rotation1 :ile 9 ! tw5ty-cyl9d]1 #bjj horse-p[] eng9e at any in/ant five ( ! cyl9d]s are always work+ & explosions are occurr+ e #cf degrees ( crank-%aft rotation4 ,on ! tw5ty-cyl9d] eng9e1 two c>buretors are us$ & two magnetos1 :i* are driv5 at two & "o-half times crank-%aft spe$4 ,! g5]al cyl9d] & valve con/ruction is practically ! same1 z 9 ! simpl] eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4--;,application ( ,r4 ,e4 ,p4 ,five-,cyl9d] ,fan-,%ape ,air-,cool$ ,motor to ,e>ly ,monoplane4 ,,canton ,,& ,,unne ,,eng9e ,?is eng9e1 :i* has be5 devis$ specially = aviation s]vice1 is g5]ally kn[n z ! ,salmson & is manufactur$ 9 bo? ,france & ,great ,brita94 ,x is a n9e-cyl9d] wat]-cool$ radial eng9e1 ! n9e cyl9d]s be+ symmetrically dispos$ ar\nd ! crank-%aft :ile ! n9e connect+ rods all op]ate on a common crank-p9 9 some:at ! same mann] z ! rods 9 ! ,gnome motor4 ,! crank-%aft ( ! ,salmson eng9e is n a fix$ "o & inasmu* z ! cyl9d]s d n rotate ab\t ! crank-%aft x is necess>y = t memb] to revolve z 9 ! conv5tional eng9e4 ,! /\t holl[ /eel crank-%aft is 9 two pieces & has a s+le ?r[4 ,! crank-%aft is built up some:at ! same z t ( ! ,gnome eng9e4 ,ball be>+s are us$ ?r\gh\t ?is eng9e z w be evid5t by inspect+ ! sectional view giv5 at ,fig4 #aii4 ,! n9e /eel connect+ rods are ma*9$ all ov] & are fitt$ at ea* end ) bronze bu%+s1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! be>+ c5t]s be+ ab\t #c4be times crank l5g?4 ,! me?od ( connect+ up ! rods to ! crank-p9 is "o ( ! *>act]i/ic features ( ?is design4 ,no "m rod z suppli$ 9 ! ,gnome eng9e is us$ 9 ?is type inasmu* z ! /eel cage or connect+ rod c>ri] is fitt$ ) symmetrically dispos$ big end reta9+ p9s4 ,inasmu* z ! c>ri] is m\nt$ on ball be>+s "s means mu/ be provid$ ( regulat+ ! motion ( ! c>ri] z if no means 7 provid$ ! result+ motion ( ! pi/ons w\ld be irregul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,! ,canton & ,unne ,n9e-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,radial ,eng9e4 ,! me?od by :i* ! pi/on /rokes are made to occur at precise int]vals involves a some:at l5g?y & detail$ te*nical explanation4 ,x is suffici5t to say t an epicyclic tra9 ( ge>s1 "o ( :i* is rigidly atta*$ to ! crank-case s x _c rotate is us$1 :ile o!r ge>s make a connection betwe5 ! fix$ ge> & ) ano!r ge> :i* is exactly ! same size z ! fix$ ge> atta*$ to ! crank-case & :i* is =m$ integrally ) ! connect+ rod c>ri]4 ,! action ( ! ge>+ is su* t ! cage c>ry+ ! big end reta9+ p9s does n rotate indep5d5tly ( ! crank-%aft1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! crank-%aft or r crank-p9 be>+s mu/ turn inside ( ! big end c>ri] cage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aii4--,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,con/ruction ( ,canton & ,unne ,wat]-,cool$ ,radial ,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,cyl9d]s ( ?is eng9e are ( nickel /eel ma*9$ all ov] & c>ry wat]-jackets ( spun copp] :i* are atta*$ to ! cyl9d]s by braz+4 ,! wat] jackets are corrugat$ to p]mit ! cyl9d] to exp& freely4 ,! ignition is simil> to t ( ! fix$ crank rotat+ cyl9d] eng9e4 ,an ord9>y magneto ( ! two sp>k type driv5 at #a-c_/d times crank-%aft spe$ is suffici5t to ignite ! sev5-cyl9d] =m1 :ile 9 ! n9e-cyl9d] eng9es ! ignition magneto is ( ! %ield type giv+ f\r sp>ks p] revolution4 ,! magneto is driv5 at #a-a_/i times crank-%aft spe$4 ,nickel /eel valves are us$ & are c>ri$ 9 ca/+s or cages :i* screw into bosses 9 ! cyl9d] head4 ,ea* valve is cam op]at$ ?r\gh a tappet1 pu% rod & rock] arm1 sev5 cams be+ us$ on a sev5-cyl9d] eng9e & n9e cams on ! n9e-cyl9d]4 ,"o cam s]ves to op5 bo? valves z 9 its rotation x lifts ! tappets 9 succession & s op]ates ! exhau/ & inlet valves respectively4 ,?is me?od ( op]ation involves ! same p]iod ( intake & exhau/4 ,9 normal eng9e practice ! inlet valve op5s #ab degrees late & closes #bj degrees late4 ,! exhau/ op5s #de degrees e>ly & closes #f degrees late4 ,?is means ab\t #ahh degrees 9 ! case ( inlet valve & #bca degrees crank-%aft travel = exhau/ valves4 ,9 ! ,salmson eng9e1 ! exhau/ closes & ! inlet op5s at ! out] dead c5t] & ! exhau/ op5s & ! inlet closes at ab\t ! inn] dead c5t]4 ,?is eng9e is also made 9 a f\rte5-cyl9d] #bjj ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 design :i* is compos$ ( two gr\ps ( sev5-cyl9d]s1 & x has be5 made 9 an eighte5-cyl9d] design ( #fjj horse-p[]4 ,! n9e-cyl9d] #acj horse-p[] has a cyl9d] bore ( #d4gc in*es & a /roke ( #e4eb in*es4 ,its normal spe$ ( rotation is #abej ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,ow+ to ! radial arrangem5t ( ! cyl9d]s1 ! weight is b #d-a_/d p\nds p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,e>ly ,,gnome ,,motor ,x _c be d5i$ t = a "t "o ( ! mo/ widely us$ ( a]oplane motors 0 ! sev5-cyl9d] revolv+ air-cool$ ,gnome1 made 9 ,france4 ,= a total weight ( #afg p\nds ?is motor develop$ #de to #dg horse-p[] at #a1jjj revolutions1 be+ equal to #c4ce p\nds p] horse-p[]1 & has prov$ its reliability by secur+ _m long-di/ance & endurance records4 ,! same eng9e]s h produc$ a n9e-cyl9d] & by comb9+ two s+le eng9es a f\rte5-cyl9d] revolv+ ,gnome1 hav+ a nom9al rat+ ( #ajj horse-p[]1 ) :i* _w's spe$ records 7 brok54 ,a /ill m p[]ful eng9e has be5 made ) eighte5-cyl9d]s4 ,! n9e-cyl9d] monos\pape deliv]s #ajj horse-p[] at #abjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m41 ! eng9e ( d\ble t numb] ( cyl9d]s is rat$ at ab\t #ahj horse-p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,sectional ,view ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,e>ly ,type ,gnome ,valve-9-,pi/on ,type ,motor4 ,except 9 ! numb] ( cyl9d]s & a few me*anical details ! f\rte5-cyl9d] motor is id5tical ) ! sev5-cyl9d] "o2 fully ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! p>ts us$ by ! assembl]s w\ld d j z well = "o motor z = ! o!r4 ,ow+ to ! great] p[] dem&s ( ! mod]n airplane ! small] sizes ( ,gnome eng9es are n us$ z mu* z !y 7 except = s*ool ma*9es4 ,!re is v little 9 ?is motor t is common to ! /&>d type ( v]tical motorc> eng9e4 ,! cyl9d]s are m\nt$ radially r\nd a circul> crank-case2 ! crank-%aft is fix$1 & ! entire mass ( cyl9d]s & crank-case revolves ar\nd x z outl9$ at ,fig4 #bjj4 ,! explosive mixture & ! lubricat+ oil are admitt$ ?r\gh ! fix$ holl[ crank-%aft1 pass$ into ! explosion *amb] ?r\gh an automatic intake valve 9 ! pi/on head 9 ! e>ly patt]n1 & ! sp5t gases exhau/$ ?r\gh a me*anically op]at$ valve 9 ! cyl9d] head4 ,! c\rse ( ! gases is practically a radial "o4 ,a peculi>ity ( ! con/ruction ( ! motor is t nickel /eel is us$ ?r\gh\t4 ,alum9um is employ$ = ! two oil pump h\s+s2 ! s+le compression r+ kn[n z ! obdurator = ea* pi/on is made ( brass2 !re are ?ree or f\r brass bu%es2 gun metal is employ$ = c]ta9 p9s--! re/ is ma*9$ out ( *rome nickel /eel4 ,! crank-case is practically a /eel hoop1 ! dep? dep5d+ on :e!r x has to receive sev5-or f\rte5-cyl9d]s2 x has sev5 or f\rte5 holes bor$ z illu/rat$ on its circumf]5ce4 ,:5 f\rte5 or eighte5 cyl9d]s are us$ ! holes are bor$ 9 two di/9ct planes1 & (fset 9 relation "o to ! o!r4 ,! cyl9d]s ( ! small eng9e :i* h a bore ( #d-c_/aj in*es & a /roke ( #d-g_/aj in*es1 are ma*9$ out ( ! solid b> ( /eel until ! ?ickness ( ! walls is only #a4e millimet]s--4#jeije in*1 or practically #a_/af in*4 ,ea* "o has tw5ty-two f9s :i* gradually tap] d[n z ! region ( greate/ pressure is dep>t$ f4 ,9 addition to c>ry+ away heat1 ! f9s assi/ 9 /r5g!n+ ! walls ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! b>rel ( ! cyl9d] is slipp$ into ! hole bor$ = x on ! circumf]5ce ( ! crank-case & secur$ by a lock+ memb] 9 ! nature ( a /\t compression r+1 sprung onto a groove on ! base ( ! cyl9d] )9 ! crank *amb]4 ,on ea* lat]al face ( ! crank *amb] are sev5 holes1 drill$ "r ?r\gh ! *amb] p>allel ) ! crank-%aft4 ,ea* "o ( ^! holes receives a /\t lock+-p9 ( su* a diamet] t x presses aga9/ ! split r+s ( two adjac5t cyl9d]s2 9 addition ea* cyl9d] is fitt$ ) a key-way4 ,?is con/ruction is n always foll[$1 "s ( ! e>ly ,gnome eng9es us+ ! same sy/em ( cyl9d] ret5tion z us$ on ! late/ monos\pape patt]n4 ,! exhau/ valve is m\nt$ 9 ! cyl9d] head1 ,fig4 #bja1 its seat+ be+ screw$ 9 by means ( a special box spann]4 ,on ! f\rte5-cyl9d] model ! valve is op]at$ directly by an ov]head rock] arm ) a gun metal rock] at its extremity com+ 9 contact ) ! extremity ( ! valve /em4 ,z 9 /&>d motor c> practice1 ! valve is op5$ "u ! lift ( ! v]tical pu% rod1 actuat$ by ! cam4 ,! di/9ctive feature is ! use ( a f\r-blade leaf spr+ ) a =k$ end encircl+ ! valve /ems & press+ aga9/ a coll> on its extremity4 ,on ! sev5-cyl9d] model ! movem5t is rev]s$1 ! valve be+ op5$ on ! d[nw>d pull ( ! pu% rod1 ?is lift+ ! out] extremity ( ! ma9 rock] arm1 :i* tips a second>y & small] rock] arm 9 direct contact ) ! extremity ( ! valve /em4 ,! spr+s are ! same 9 ea* case4 ,! two types are comp>$ at ,a & ,b1 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja4--,sectional ,view ( ,e>ly ,type ,gnome ,cyl9d] & ,pi/on ,%[+ ,con/ruction & ,application ( ,inlet & ,exhau/ ,valves4 ,! pi/ons1 l ! cyl9d]s1 are ma*9$ out ( ! solid b> ( nickel /eel1 & h a portion ( _! wall cut away1 s t ! two adjac5t ones w n come toge!r at ! extremity ( _! /roke4 ,! head ( ! pi/on is slightly r$uc$ 9 diamet] & is provid$ ) a groove into :i* is fitt$ a v light ,l-section brass split r+2 back ( ?is r+ & c>ri$ )9 ! groove is sprung a light /eel compression r+1 s]v+ to keep ! brass r+ 9 expansion4 ,z already m5tion$1 ! intake valves are automatic1 & are m\nt$ 9 ! head ( ! pi/on z outl9$ at ,fig4 #bjb1 ,c4 ,! valve seat+ is 9 halves1 ! l[] portion be+ made to receive ! wri/-p9 & connect+ rod1 & ! upp] portion1 c>ry+ ! valve1 be+ screw$ into x4 ,! spr+ is compos$ ( f\r flat blades1 ) ! holl[$ /em ( ! automatic valve pass+ ?r\gh _! c5t] & _! two extremities atta*$ to small lev]s calculat$ to give balance aga9/ c5trifugal =ce4 ,! spr+s are naturally )9 ! pi/on1 & are lubricat$ by spla% f ! crank *amb]4 ,!y are ( a delicate con/ruction1 = x is necess>y t !y %all be accurately balanc$ s z to h no t5d5cy to fly op5 "u ! action ( c5trifugal =ce4 ,! intake valve is )drawn by ! use ( special tools ?r\gh ! cyl9d] head1 ! exhau/ valve be+ fir/ dism\nt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,details ( ,old ,/yle ,gnome ,motor ,inlet & ,exhau/ ,valve ,con/ruction & ,op]ation4 ,! f\rte5-cyl9d] motor %[n at ,fig4 #bjc1 has a two-?r[ crank-%aft ) ! ?r[s plac$ at #ahj degrees1 ea* "o receiv+ sev5 connect+ rods4 ,! p>ts are ! same z = ! sev5-cyl9d] motor1 ! l>g] "o consi/+ ( two gr\ps plac$ side by side4 ,= ea* gr\p ( sev5-cyl9d]s !re is "o ma9 connect+ rod1 toge!r ) six auxili>y rods4 ,! ma9 connect+ rod1 :i*1 l ! o!rs1 is ( ,h section1 has ma*9$ ) x two ,l-section r+s bor$ ) six holes--#ea-a_/b degrees ap>t to take ! six o!r connect+ rods4 ,! cage ( ! ma9 connect+ rod c>ries two ball races1 "o on ei!r side1 fitt+ onto ! crank-p9 & receiv+ ! ?ru/ ( ! sev5 connect+ rods4 ,! auxili>y connect+ rods are secur$ 9 position 9 ea* case by a holl[ /eel p9 pass+ ?r\gh ! two r+s4 ,x is evid5t t !re is a slightly great] angul>ity = ! six %ort] rods1 kn[n z auxili>y connect+ rods1 ?an = ! long] ma9 rods2 ?is does n appe> to h any influ5ce on ! runn+ ( ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,! ,gnome ,f\rte5-,cyl9d] #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,com+ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! e>lie/ design exhau/ valves are op]at$ on ! old /yle motor1 ?is at fir/ sight appe>s to be "o ( ! mo/ complicat$ p>ts ( ! motor1 probably because x is "o 9 :i* /&>d practice is mo/ widely dep>t$ f4 ,)9 ! cyl9drical cas+ bolt$ to ! re> face ( ! crank-case are sev51 ?9 flat-fac$ /eel r+s1 =m+ female cams4 ,across a diamet] ( ea* r+ is a pair ( project+ rods fitt+ 9 brass guides & hav+ _! extremities t]m9at+ 9 a knuckle eye receiv+ ! adju/able pu% rods op]at+ ! ov]head rock] arms ( ! exhau/ valve4 ,! guides are n all 9 ! same plane1 ! diff]5ce be+ equal to ! ?ickness ( ! /eel r+s1 ! total ?ickness be+ practically #b in*es4 ,)9 ! female cams is a gr\p ( sev5 male cams ( ! same total ?ickness z ! =m] & rotat+ )9 !m4 ,z ! boss ( ! male cam comes into contact ) ! flatt5$ portion ( ! r+ =m+ ! female cam1 ! arm is pu%$ outw>d & ! exhau/ valve op5$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! pu%-rod & ov]head rock]4 ,?is con/ruction 0 aft]w>ds *ang$ to sev5 male cams & simple valve op]at+ plung] & roll] cam foll[]s z %[n at ,fig4 #bjd4 ,on ! face ( ! crank-case ( ! f\rte5-cyl9d] motor opposite to ! valve me*anism is a bolt$-on end plate1 c>ry+ a p9ion = driv+ ! two magnetos & ! two oil pumps1 & hav+ bolt$ to x ! di/ributor = ! high-t5sion curr5t4 ,ea* gr\p ( sev5-cyl9d]s has its own magneto & lubricat+ pump4 ,! two magnetos & ! two pumps are m\nt$ on ! fix$ plat=m c>ry+ ! /ation>y crank-%aft1 be+ driv5 by ! p9ion on ! revolv+ crank *amb]4 ,! magnetos are ge>$ up 9 ! proportion ( #d to #g4 ,m\nt$ on ! end plate back ( ! driv+ p9ion are ! two high-t5sion di/ributor plates1 ea* "o ) sev5 brass segm5ts let into x & connection made to ! plugs by means ( pla9 brass wire4 ,! wire passes ?r\gh a hole 9 ! plug & is !n wrapp$ r\nd itself1 giv+ a loose connection4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,cam & ,cam-,ge> ,case ( ! ,gnome ,sev5-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,:y ,an ,odd ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s is ,be/ = ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,a good _m p d\btless wond] :y rot>y eng9es are usually provid$ ) an odd numb] ( cyl9d]s 9 pref]5ce to an ev5 numb]4 ,x is a matt] ( ev5 torque1 z c easily be und]/ood f ! accompany+ diagram4 ,fig4 #bje1 ,a1 repres5ts a six-cyl9d] rot>y eng9e1 ! radial l9es indicat+ ! cyl9d]s4 ,x is possible to fire ! *>ges 9 two ways1 fir/ly1 9 rotation1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 ?us hav+ six impulses 9 "o revolution & none 9 ! next2 or alt]nately1 #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #d1 #f1 9 :i* case ! eng9e w h turn$ ?r\gh an equal numb] ( degrees betwe5 impulses #a & #c1 & #c & #e1 b a great] numb] betwe5 #e & #b1 ev5 aga9 betwe5 #b & #d1 #d & #f1 & a less numb] betwe5 #f & #a1 z w be cle>ly se5 on ref]5ce to ! diagram4 ,turn+ to ,fig4 #bje1 ,b1 :i* repres5ts a sev5-cyl9d] eng9e4 ,if ! cyl9d]s fire alt]nately x is obvi\s t ! eng9e turns ?r\gh an equal numb] ( degrees betwe5 ea* impulse1 ?us1 #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #b1 #d1 #f1 #a1 #c1 etc4 ,?us suppos+ ! eng9e to be revolv+1 ! explosion takes place z ea* alt]nate cyl9d] passes1 = in/ance1 ! po9t #a on ! diagram1 & ! ignition is actually op]at$ 9 ?is way by a s+le contact4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,simple ,c>buretor ,us$ ,on ,e>ly ,gnome ,eng9es ,atta*$ to ,fix$ ,crank-,%aft ,end4 ,! crank-%aft ( ! ,gnome1 z already expla9$1 is fix$ & holl[4 ,= ! sev5- & n9e-cyl9d] motors x has a s+le ?r[1 & = ! f\rte5- & eighte5-cyl9d] models has two ?r[s at #ahj degrees4 ,x is ( ! built-up type1 ?is be+ necess>y on acc\nt ( ! di/9ctive m\nt+ ( ! connect+ rods4 ,! c>buretor %[n at ,fig4 #bjf is m\nt$ at "o end ( ! /ation>y crank-%aft1 & ! mixture is drawn 9 ?r\gh a valve 9 ! pi/on z already expla9$4 ,!re is nei!r float *amb] nor jet4 ,9 _m ( ! te/s made at ! factory x is said ! motor w run ) ! extremity ( ! gasol9e pipe pu%$ into ! holl[ crank-%aft1 spe$ be+ regulat$ entirely by increas+ or decreas+ ! fl[ ?r\gh ! %ut-(f valve 9 ! base ( ! tank4 ,ev5 "u ^! conditions ! motor has be5 ?rottl$ d[n to run at #cej revolutions )\t misfir+4 ,its normal spe$ is #a1jjj to #a1bjj revolutions a m9ute4 ,ca/or oil is us$ = lubricat+ ! eng9e1 ! oil be+ inject$ into ! holl[ crank-%aft ?r\gh slight-fe$ fitt+s by a me*anically op]at$ pump :i* is cle>ly %[n 9 sectional diagrams at ,fig4 #bjg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,sectional ,views ( ! ,gnome ,oil ,pump4 ,! ,gnome is a consid]able consum] ( lubricant1 ! mak]s' e/imate be+ #g p9ts an h\r = ! #ajj horse-p[] motor2 b 9 practice ?is is l>gely exce$$4 ,! gasol9e consumption is giv5 z #cjj to #cej grammes p] horse-p[]4 ,! total weight ( ! f\rte5-cyl9d] motor is #bbj p\nds )\t fuel or lubricat+ oil4 ,its full p[] is develop$ at #a1bjj revolutions1 & at ?is spe$ ab\t #i horse-p[] is lo/ 9 ov]com+ air resi/ance to cyl9d] rotation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--,simplifi$ ,diagram ,%[+ ,gnome ,motor ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,:ile ! ,gnome eng9e has _m advantages1 on ! o!r h&1 ! head resi/ance (f]$ by a motor ( ?is type is consid]able2 !re is a l>ge wa/e ( lubricat+ oil due to ! c5trifugal =ce :i* t5ds to ?r[ ! oil away f ! cyl9d]s2 ! gyroscopic effect ( ! rot>y motor is detrim5tal to ! be/ work+ ( ! a]oplane1 & moreov] x requires ab\t sev5 p] c5t4 ( ! total p[] develop$ by ! motor to drive ! revolv+ cyl9d]s ar\nd ! %aft4 ,( necessity1 ! compression ( ?is type ( motor is r l[1 & an additional disadvantage manife/s itself 9 ! fact t !re is z yet no satisfactory way ( muffl+ ! rot>y type ( motor4 ,,gnome ,,monos\pape ,,type ,! late/ type ( ,gnome eng9e is kn[n z ! monos\pape type because b "o valve is us$ 9 ! cyl9d] head1 ! inlet valve 9 ! pi/on be+ disp5s$ ) on acc\nt ( ! tr\ble caus$ by t memb] on e>li] eng9es4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is late/ type foll[s ! l9es e/abli%$ 9 ! e>li] designs to "s ext5t & x diff]s only 9 ! me?od ( *>g+4 ,! v ri* mixture ( gas & air is =c$ into ! crank-case ?r\gh ! jet inside ! crank-%aft1 & ent]s ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on is at its l[e/ position1 ?r\gh ! half-r\nd op5+s 9 ! guid+ flange & ! small holes or ports ma*9$ 9 ! cyl9d] & cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #baj4 ,! return+ pi/on cov]s ! port1 & ! gas is compress$ & fir$ 9 ! usual way4 ,! exhau/ is ?r\gh a l>ge s+le valve 9 ! cyl9d] head1 :i* gives rise to ! "n monos\pape1 or s+le-valve motor1 & ?is valve also rema9s op5 a portion ( ! intake /roke to admit air into ! cyl9d] & dilute ! ri* gas =c$ 9 f ! crank-case int]ior4 ,aviators :o h us$ ! e>ly =m ( ,gnome say t ! inlet valve 9 ! pi/on type 0 prone to cat* on fire if any valve defect mat]ializ$1 b ! monos\pape patt]n is said to be ne>ly free ( ?is dang]4 ,! bore ( ! #ajj horse-p[] n9e-cyl9d] eng9e is #aaj mm41 ! pi/on /roke #aej mm4 ,extremely c>eful ma*9e "w & fitt+ is necess>y4 ,9 _m p>ts1 tol]ances ( less ?an 4#jjjd 7f\r t5 ?\s&?s ( an in*7 are all t are all[$4 ,?is is ab\t "o-six? ! ?ickness ( ! av]age human hair1 & 9 o!r p>ts ! size mu/ be absolutely /&>d1 no appreciable v>iation be+ all[able4 ,! manufacture ( ?is eng9e e/abli%es new me*anical /&>ds ( eng9e production 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,mu* ma*9e "w is ne$$ 9 produc+ ! f9i%$ compon5ts f ! b> & =g+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,! ,g4 ,v4 ,gnome ,monos\pape ,n9e-,cyl9d] ,rot>y ,eng9e ,m\nt$ on ,te/+ ,/&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baj4--,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,con/ruction ( ,g5]al ,vehicle ,co4 ,monos\pape ,gnome ,eng9e4 ,! cyl9d]s1 = example1 are ma*9$ f #f in* solid /eel b>s1 :i* are saw$ into blanks #aa in*es 9 l5g? & weigh+ ab\t #ig p\nds4 ,! fir/ op]ation is to drill a #b-a_/af in* hole ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! block4 ,a heavy-duty drill+ ma*9e p]=ms ?is "w1 !n ! block goes to ! la! = fur!r op]ations4 ,fig4 #baa %[s six /ages ( ! progress ( a cyl9d]1 a few ( ! int]m$iate /eps be+ omitt$4 ,^! give1 h[ev]1 a good idea ( ! "w done4 ,! turn+ ( ! gills1 or cool+ flanges1 is a difficult proposition1 ow+ to ! dep? ( ! cut & ! ?9 metal t =ms ! gills4 ,?is op]ation requires ! utmo/ c>e ( tools & ! use ( a good lubricant to prev5t ! metal f te>+ z ! tools approa* _! full dep?4 ,^! gills are only #j4f mm41 or #j4jbcg 941 ?ick at ! top1 tap]+ to a ?ickness ( #a4d mm4 7#j4jeec 947 at ! base1 & are #af mm4 7#j4fcb 947 deep4 ,:5 ! ma*9e "w is complet$ ! cyl9d] weighs b #e-a_/b p\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4--;,h[ a ,gnome ,cyl9d] is ,r$uc$ f ,solid ,*unk ( ,/eel ,weigh+ #ig ,p\nds to ,f9i%$ ,cyl9d] ,weigh+ #e-a_/b ,p\nds4 ,,gnome ,,fuel ,,sy/em1 ,,ignition ,,& ,,lubrication ,! foll[+ description ( ! fuel supply1 ignition & oil+ ( ! monos\pape1 or s+le valve ,gnome1 is tak5 f ,! ,automobile4 ,gasol9e is f$ to ! eng9e by means ( air pressure at #e p\nds p] sq4 941 :i* is produc$ by ! air pump on ! eng9e cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #baj4 ,a pressure gauge conv5i5t to ! op]ator indicates ?is pressure1 & a valve enables ! op]ator to control x4 ,no c>buretor is us$4 ,! gasol9e fl[s f ! tank ?r\gh a %ut-(f valve ne> ! op]ator & ?r\gh a tube lead+ ?r\gh ! holl[ crank-%aft to a spray nozzle locat$ 9 ! crank-case4 ,!re is no ?rottle valve1 & z ea* cyl9d] always receives ! same am\nt ( air z long z ! atmosph]ic pressure is ! same1 ! output _c be v>i$ by r$uc+ ! fuel supply1 except )9 n>r[ limits4 ,a fuel capacity ( #fe gallons is provid$4 ,! fuel consumption is at ! rate ( #ab ,u4 ,s4 gallons p] h\r4 ,! high-t5sion magnetos1 ) d\ble cam or two break p] revolution int]rupt]1 is locat$ on ! ?ru/ plate 9 an inv]t$ position1 & is driv5 at su* a spe$ z to produce n9e sp>ks = e two revolutions2 t is1 at #b-a_/d times eng9e spe$4 ,a ,splitdorf magneto is fitt$4 ,!re is no di/ributor on ! magneto4 ,! high-t5sion collector bru% ( ! magneto is connect$ to a di/ributor bru% hold] c>ri$ 9 ! be>] plate ( ! eng9e4 ,! bru% 9 ?is bru% hold] is press$ aga9/ a di/ributor r+ ( insulat+ mat]ial mold$ 9 position 9 ! web ( a ge> :eel key$ to ! ?ru/ plate1 :i* ge> s]ves also = />t+ ! eng9e by h&4 ,mold$ 9 ?is r+ ( insulat+ mat]ial are n9e brass contact sectors1 connect+ ) contact screws at ! back side ( ! ge>1 f :i* b>e wires connect to ! sp>k-plugs4 ,! di/ributor revolves at eng9e spe$1 in/ead ( at half eng9e spe$ z on ord9>y eng9es1 & ! di/ributor bru% is br\ght into electrical connection ) ea* sp>k-plug e "t ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] 9 :i* ?is sp>k-plug is locat$ approa*es ! out] dead c5t]4 ,h[ev]1 on ! exhau/ /roke no sp>k is be+ g5]at$ 9 ! magneto1 h5ce none is produc$ at ! sp>k-plug4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4--,! ,gnome ,eng9e ,cam-,ge> ,case1 a ,f9e ,example ( ,accurate ,ma*9e ,"w4 ,ord9>ily ! eng9e is />t$ by turn+ on ! propell]1 b = em]g5cy purposes z 9 seaplanes or = a quick get away if l&+ inadv]t5tly 9 enemy t]ritory1 a h& />t+ crank is provid$4 ,?is is support$ 9 be>+s secur$ to ! press$ /eel c>ri]s ( ! eng9e & is provid$ ) a univ]sal jo9t betwe5 ! two supports s z to prev5t b9d+ ( ! crank 9 ! be>+s due to possible di/ortion ( ! supports4 ,! ge> on ?is />t+ crank & ! "o on ! ?ru/ plate ) :i* x me%es are cut ) helical tee? ( su* h& t ! />t+ p9ion is ?r[n out ( me% z soon z ! eng9e picks up its cycle4 ,a coil$ spr+ surr\nds "p ( ! %aft ( ! />t+ crank & holds x out ( ge> :5 n 9 use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,g4 ,v4 ,gnome ,monos\pape1 ) ,cam-,case ,cov] ,remov$ to ,%[ ,cams & ,valve-,op]at+ ,plung]s ) ,roll] ,cam ,foll[]s4 ,lubricat+ oil is c>ri$ 9 a tank ( #be gallon capacity1 & if ?is tank has to be plac$ 9 a l[ position x is connect$ ) ! air-pressure l9e1 s t ! suction ( ! oil pump is n dep5d$ ^u to get ! oil to ! pump4 ,f ! bottom ( ! oil tank a pipe leads to ! pump inlet4 ,!re are two outlets f ! pump1 ea* ent]+ ! holl[ crank-%aft1 & !re is a bran* f ea* outlet pipe to a circulation indicator conv5i5t to ! op]ator4 ,"o ( ! oil leads fe$s to ! h\s+ 9 ! ?ru/ plate conta9+ ! two re> ball be>+s1 & ! o!r lead fe$s ?r\gh ! crank-p9 to ! cams1 z already expla9$4 ,ow+ to ! effect ( c5trifugal =ce & ! fact t ! oil is n us$ ov] aga91 ! oil consumption ( a revolv+ cyl9d] eng9e is consid]ably high] ?an t ( a /ation>y cyl9d] eng9e4 ,fuel consumption is also some:at high]1 & = ?is reason ! revolv+ cyl9d] eng9e is n s well suit$ = types ( airplanes design$ = long trips1 z ! increas$ weight ( supplies requir$ = su* trips1 z comp>$ ) /ation>y cyl9d] type motors1 m ?an (fsets ! high weight effici5cy ( ! eng9e itself4 ,b = %ort trips1 & especially :]e high spe$ is requir$1 z 9 s+le seat$ sc\t & battle planes or avions de *asse1 z ! ,fr5* say1 ! revolv+ cyl9d] eng9e has ! advantage4 ,! oil consumption ( ! ,gnome eng9e is z high z #b4d gallon p] h\r4 ,ca/or oil is us$ = lubrication because x is n cut by ! gasol9e mi/ pres5t 9 ! eng9e int]ior z an oil ( m9]al d]ivation w\ld be4 ,,g]man ,,gnome ,,type ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,! #ej ,horse-,p[] ,rot>y ,bay]is*5 ,motor5 ,gesells*aft ,eng9e1 a ,g]man ,adaptation ( ! ,e>ly ,gnome ,design4 ,a ,g]man adaptation ( ! ,gnome design is %[n at ,fig4 #bad4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ,bay]is*5 ,motor5 ,gesells*aft eng9e & ! type %[n is an e>ly design rat$ at #ej horse-p[]4 ,! bore is #aaj mm41 ! /roke is #abj mm41 & x is design$ to run at a spe$ ( #a1bjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,x is some:at simil> 9 design to ! e>ly ,gnome valve-9-pi/on design except t two valves are c>ri$ 9 ! pi/on top in/ead ( "o4 ,! valve op]at+ arrangem5t is diff]5t also1 z a s+le f\r po9t cam is us$ to op]ate ! sev5 exhau/ valves4 ,x is driv5 by epicyclic ge>+1 ! cam be+ driv5 by an int]nal ge> ma*9$ integrally ) x1 ! cam be+ turn$ at #g_/h times ! eng9e spe$4 ,ano!r feature is ! me?od ( hold+ ! cyl9d]s on ! crank-case4 ,! cyl9d] is provid$ ) a flange t regi/]s ) a correspond+ memb] ( ! same diamet] on ! crank-case4 ,a ,u section1 split clamp+ r+ is bolt$ 9 place z %[n1 ?is hold+ bo? flanges firmly toge!r & keep+ ! cyl9d] firmly seat$ aga9/ ! crank-case flange4 ,! monos\pape type has also be5 copi$ & has receiv$ "s application 9 ,g]many1 b ! mo/ successful ,g]man airplanes are p[]$ ) six-cyl9d] v]tical eng9es su* z ! ,b5z & ,m]c$es4 ,,! ,,le ,,rhone ,,motor ,! ,le ,rhone motor is a radial revolv+ cyl9d] eng9e t has _m ( ! pr9ciples :i* are incorporat$ 9 ! ,gnome b :i* are consid]$ to be an improvem5t by _m =eign aviators4 ,in/ead ( hav+ b "o valve 9 ! cyl9d] head1 z ! late/ type monos\pape ,gnome has1 ! ,le ,rhone has two valves1 "o = intake & "o = exhau/ 9 ea* cyl9d]4 ,by an +5i\s rock] arm & tappet rod arrangem5t x is possible to op]ate bo? valves ) a s+le pu% rod4 ,inlet pipes communicate ) ! crank-case at "o end & direct ! fre% gas to ! inlet valve cage at ! o!r4 ,ano!r peculi>ity 9 ! design is ! me?od ( hold+ ! cyl9d]s 9 place4 ,in/ead ( hav+ a v]tically divid$ crank-case z ! ,gnome eng9e has & clamp+ bo? halves ( ! case ar\nd ! cyl9d]s1 ! crank-case ( ! ,le ,rhone eng9e is 9 ! =m ( a cyl9d] hav+ n9e bosses provid$ ) ?read$ op5+s into :i* ! cyl9d]s are screw$4 ,a ?read is provid$ at ! base ( ea* cyl9d] & :5 ! cyl9d] has be5 screw$ d[n ! prop] am\nt x is prev5t$ f fur!r rotation ab\t its own axis by a sub/antial lock nut :i* screws d[n aga9/ ! ?read$ boss on ! crank-case4 ,! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! ,le ,rhone type motor is cle>ly %[n at ,fig4 #bae1 :ile ! g5]al features ( con/ruction are cle>ly outl9$ 9 ! sectional views giv5 at ,figs4 #baf & #bag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bae--,n9e-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,le ,rhone ,type ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4--,"p ,sectional ,views ( ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,cyl9d] ,ret5tion1 ,valve ,op]ation & ,novel ,crank ,disc ,assembly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bag4--,side ,sectional ,view ( ,le ,rhone ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bah4--,view ,%[+ ,le ,rhone ,valve ,action & ,connect+ ,rod ,big ,end ,arrangem5t4 ,! two ma9 peculi>ities ( ?is motor are ! me?od ( valve actuation by two l>ge cams & ! di/9ctive crank-%aft & connect+ rod big end con/ruction4 ,! connect+ rods are provid$ ) feet or %oes on ! end :i* fit into grooves l9$ ) be>+ metal :i* are ma*9$ into crank discs revolv+ on ball be>+s & :i* are held toge!r s t ! connect+ rod big ends are s&wi*$ betwe5 !m by clamp+ screws4 ,?is con/ruction is a modification ( t us$ on ! ,anzani six-cyl9d] radial eng9e4 ,!re are ?ree grooves ma*9$ 9 ea* crank disc & ?ree connect+ rod big ends run 9 ea* pair ( grooves4 ,! details ( ?is con/ruction c be readily asc]ta9$ by ref]5ce to explanatory diagrams at ,figs4 #bah & #bai1 ,a4 ,?ree ( ! rods :i* "w 9 ! groove ne>e/ ! crank-p9 are provid$ ) %ort %oes z %[n at ,fig4 #bai1 ,b4 ,! %ort %oes are us$ on ! rods employ$ 9 cyl9d]s numb] #a1 #d1 & #g4 ,! set ( connect+ rods t "w 9 ! c5tral grooves are provid$ ) m$ium-l5g? %oes & actuate ! pi/ons 9 cyl9d]s numb]s #c1 #f1 & #i4 ,! ?ree rods t "w 9 ! outside grooves h /ill long] %oes & are employ$ 9 cyl9d]s numb]s #b1 #e1 & #h4 ,! peculi> pr(ile ( ! inlet & exhau/ cam plates are %[n at ,c1 ,fig4 #bai1 :ile ! con/ruction ( ! wri/-p91 wri/-p9 bu%+ & pi/on are cle>ly outl9$ at ! sectional view at ,e4 ,! me?od ( valve actuation is cle>ly outl9$ at ,fig4 #bbj1 :i* %[s an end section ?r\gh ! cam case & also a p>tial side elevation %[+ "o ( ! valve op]at+ lev]s :i* is fulcrum$ at a c5tral po9t & :i* has a roll] at "o end be>+ on "o cam :ile ! roll] or cam foll[] at ! o!r end be>s on ! o!r cam4 ,! valve rock] arm actuat+ rod is1 ( c\rse1 op]at$ by ?is simple lev] & is atta*$ to x 9 su* a way t x c be pull$ d[n to depress ! inlet valve & pu%$ up to op5 ! exhau/ valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bai4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,important ,compon5ts ( ,le ,rhone ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--;,h[ ! ,cams ( ! ,le ,rhone ,motor ,c ,op]ate ,two ,valves ) a ,s+le ,pu% ,rod4 ,a c>buretor ( peculi> con/ruction is employ$ 9 ! ,le ,rhone eng9e1 ?is be+ a v simple type z outl9$ at ,fig4 #bba4 ,x is atta*$ to ! ?read$ end ( ! holl[ crank-%aft by a "r & left c\pl+4 ,! fuel is pump$ to ! spray nozzle1 ! op5+ 9 :i* is controll$ by a fuel regulat+ ne$le hav+ a long tap] :i* is lift$ out ( ! jet op5+ :5 ! air-regulat+ slide is mov$4 ,! am\nt ( fuel suppli$ ! c>buretor is controll$ by a special ne$le valve fitt+ :i* comb9es a filt] scre5 & :i* is %[n at ,b4 ,9 regulat+ ! spe$ ( ! ,le ,rhone eng9e1 !re are two possible means ( controll+ ! mixture1 "o by alt]+ ! position ( ! air-regulat+ slide1 :i* also works ! met]+ ne$le 9 ! jet1 & ! o!r by controll+ ! am\nt ( fuel suppli$ to ! spray nozzle ?r\gh ! special fitt+ provid$ = t purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4--,! ,le ,rhone ,c>buretor at ,a & ,fuel ,supply ,regulat+ ,device at ,b4 ,9 consid]+ ! action ( ?is eng9e "o c ref] to ,fig4 #bbb4 ,! crank ,o4 ,m4 is fix$1 :ile ! cyl9d]s c turn ab\t ! crank-%aft c5t] ,o & ! pi/on turns ar\nd ! crank-p9 ,m1 because ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! c5t]s ( rotation ! pi/on w reciprocate 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,?is di/ance is at its maximum :5 ! cyl9d] is above ,o & at a m9imum :5 x is above ,m1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two positions is equal to ! /roke1 :i* is twice ! di/ance ( ! crank-?r[ ,o1 ,m4 ,! explosion pressure resolves itself into ! =ce ,f ex]t$ along ! l9e ( ! connect+ rod ,a1 ,m1 & also into a =ce ,n1 :i* t5ds to make ! cyl9d]s rotate ar\nd po9t ,o 9 ! direction ( ! arr[4 ,an odd numb] ( cyl9d]s act+ on "o crank-p9 is desirable to secure equally spac$ explosions1 z ! basic action is ! same z ! ,gnome eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,le ,rhone ,motor ,action & ,fir+ ,ord]4 ,! magneto is driv5 by a ge> hav+ #cf tee? atta*$ to crank-case :i* me%es ) #af-too? p9ion on armature4 ,! magneto turns at #b4be times crank-case spe$4 ,two cams1 "o = inlet1 "o = exhau/1 are m\nt$ on a c>ry+ memb] & act on n9e rock] arms :i* are capable ( giv+ a pu%-&-pull motion to ! valve-actuat+ rock]-op]at+ rods4 ,a ge> driv5 by ! crank-case me%es ) a l>g] memb] hav+ int]nal tee? c>ri$ by ! cam c>ri]4 ,ea* cam has five pr(iles & is m\nt$ 9 /agg]$ relation to ! o!r4 ,^! give ! n9e fulcrum$ lev]s ! prop] motion to op5 ! inlet & exhau/ valves at ! prop] "t4 ,! cams are driv5 at #de_/ej or #i_/aj ( ! motor spe$4 ,! cyl9d] dim5sions & tim+ foll[s2 ! weight c be approximat$ by figur+ #c p\nds p] horse-p[]4 #hj ,h4,p4 #aje ,m_/,m bore #d4bj bore4 #adj ,m_/,m /roke #e4fj /roke4 #aaj ,h4,p4 #aab ,m_/,m bore #d4dh bore4 #agj ,m_/,m /roke #f4hj /roke4 ,tim+--,intake valve op5+1 lag #ah deg4 #ah deg4 ,intake valve clos+1 lag #ce deg4 #ce deg4 ,exhau/ valve op5+1 lead #ee deg4 #aaj ,h4,p4 #de deg4 #hj ,h4,p4 ,exhau/ valve clos+1 lag #e deg4 #e deg4 ,ignition "t advance #bf deg4 #bf deg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,diagram ,%[+ ,positions ( ,pi/on 9 ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,motor4 ,,! ,,r5ault ,,air-,,cool$ ,,vee ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,valve ,tim+ ( ,le ,rhone ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,cyl9d] ,cool+ is ,effect$ 9 ,r5ault ,vee ,eng9es4 ,air-cool$ /ation>y eng9es are r>ely us$ 9 airplanes1 b ! ,r5ault ,fr]es ( ,france h = sev]al ye>s manufactur$ a complete s]ies ( su* eng9es ( ! g5]al design %[n at ,fig4 #bbe1 rang+ f a l[-p[]$ "o develop$ eight or n9e ye>s ago & rat$ at #dj & #ej horse-p[]1 to lat] eight-cyl9d] models rat$ at #gj horse-p[] & a twelve-cyl9d]1 or tw9 six1 rat$ at #ij horse-p[]4 ,! cyl9d]s are ( ca/ iron & are furni%$ ) num]\s cool+ ribs :i* are ca/ integrally4 ,! cyl9d] heads are sep>ate ca/+s & are atta*$ to ! cyl9d] z 9 e>ly motorcycle eng9e practice1 & s]ve to hold ! cyl9d] 9 place on ! alum9um alloy crank-case by a cruci=m yoke & f\r long hold-d[n bolts 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,! pi/ons are ( ca/ /eel & utilize pi/on r+s ( ca/ iron4 ,! valves are situat$ on ! inn] side ( ! cyl9d] head1 ! arrangem5t be+ unconv5tional 9 t ! exhau/ valves are plac$ above ! inlet4 ,! inlet valves seat 9 an ext5sion ( ! combu/ion head & are actuat$ by direct pu% rod & cam 9 ! usual mann] :ile an ov]head ge> 9 :i* rock]s are op]at$ by pu% rods is ne$$ to actuate ! exhau/ valves4 ,! valve action is cle>ly %[n 9 ,figs4 #bbf & #bbg4 ,! air /ream by :i* ! cyl9d]s are cool$ is produc$ by a c5trifugal or bl[] type fan ( relatively l>ge diamet] :i* is m\nt$ on ! end ( a crank-%aft & ! air bla/ is deliv]$ f ?is bl[] into an enclos$ space betwe5 ! cyl9d] f :i* x escapes only aft] pass+ ov] ! cool+ f9s4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t consid]able prejudice exi/s aga9/ air-cool+ fix$ cyl9d] eng9es1 ! ,r5ault has giv5 v good s]vice 9 bo? ,engl& & ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--;,end ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,air-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--,side ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,air-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e ,crank-,case1 ,%[+ ,use ( ,pla9 & ,ball ,be>+s = ,crank-,%aft ,support4 ,z w be se5 by ! sectional view at ,fig4 #bbg1 ! /eel crank-%aft is c>ri$ 9 a comb9ation ( pla9 be>+s inside ! crank-case & by ball be>+s at ! ends4 ,ow+ to air cool+1 special precautions are tak5 ) ! lubrication sy/em1 ?\gh ! lubrication is n =c$ or "u high pressure4 ,an oil pump ( ! ge>-:eel type deliv]s oil f ! sump at ! bottom ( ! crank-case to a *amb] above1 f :i* ! oil fl[s by gravity along suitable *annels to ! v>i\s ma9 be>+s4 ,x fl[s f ! be>+s into holl[ r+s fa/5$ to ! crank-webs1 & ! oil ?r[n f ! :irl+ connect+ rod big ends ba!s ! int]nal p>ts 9 an oil mi/4 ,9 ! eight-cyl9d] designs ignition is effect$ by a magneto giv+ f\r sp>ks p] revolution & is accord+ly driv5 at eng9e spe$4 ,9 ! twelve-cyl9d] ma*9e two magnetos ( ! ord9>y revolv+ armature or two-sp>k type1 ea* supply+ six cyl9d]s1 are fitt$ z outl9$ at ,fig4 #bbh4 ,! c>buretor is a float fe$ =m4 ,w>m air is suppli$ = ,w9t] & damp wea!r by air pipes surr\nd+ ! exhau/ pipes4 ,! normal spe$ ( ! ,r5ault eng9e is #a1hjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m41 b z ! propell] is m\nt$ ^u an ext5sion ( ! cam-%aft ! normal propell] spe$ is b half t ( ! eng9e1 :i* makes x possible to use a propell] ( l>ge diamet] & high effici5cy4 ,ow+ to ! air cool+1 b l[ compression may be us$1 ?is be+ ab\t #fj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 l[]s ! mean effective pressure & makes ! eng9e less effici5t ?an wat]-cool$ =ms :]e x is possible to use compression pressure ( #ajj or m p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! #gj horse-p[] eng9e has cyl9d]s ) a bore ( #c4gh in*es & a /roke ( #e4eb in*es4 ,its weight is giv5 z #cif p\nds1 :5 9 runn+ ord]1 :i* figures #e4g p\nds p] horse-p[]4 ,! same cyl9d] size is us$ on ! twelve-cyl9d] #ajj horse-p[] & ! /roke is ! same4 ,?is eng9e 9 runn+ ord] weighs #fch p\nds1 :i* figures approximately #f4d p\nds p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--;,end ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,crank-,case1 ,%[+ ,magneto ,m\nt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--;,diagram ,outl9+ ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,,simplex ,,model ,a ,,hispano-,,suiza ,! ,model ,a is ( ! wat]-cool$ f\r-cycle ,vee type1 ) eight cyl9d]s1 #d4gbde in* bore by #e4aahb in* /roke1 pi/on displacem5t #gah cubic in*es4 ,at sea-level x develops #aej horse-p[] at #a1dej ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,x c be run successfully at mu* high] spe$s1 dep5d+ on propell] design & ge>+1 develop+ proportionately increas$ p[]4 ,! weight1 includ+ c>buretor1 two magnetos1 propell] hub1 />t+ magneto & crank1 b )\t radiator1 wat] or oil or exhau/ pipes1 is #dde p\nds4 ,av]age fuel consumption is 4#e p\nd p] horse-p[] h\r & ! oil consumption at #a1dej ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 is ?ree qu>ts p] h\r4 ,! ext]nal appe>ance is %[n at ,fig4 #bcj4 ,f\r cyl9d]s are conta9$ 9 ea* block1 :i* is ( built-up con/ruction2 ! wat] jackets & valve ports are ca/ alum9um & ! individual cyl9d]s heat-treat$ /eel =g+s ?read$ into ! bor$ holes ( ! alum9um ca/+s4 ,ea* block aft] assembly is giv5 a numb] ( protective coats ( enamel1 bo? inside & out1 bak$ on4 ,coats on ! inside are appli$ "u pressure4 ,! pi/ons are alum9um ca/+s1 ribb$4 ,connect+ rods are tubul>1 ( ! =k$ type4 ,"o rod be>s directly on ! crank-p92 ! o!r rod has a be>+ on ! outside ( ! "o fir/ m5tion$4 ,! crank-%aft is ( ! five-be>+ type1 v %ort1 /iff 9 design1 bor$ = lightness & = ! oil+ sy/em4 ,! crank-%aft ext5sion is tap]$ = ! ,fr5* /&>d propell] hub1 :i* is key$ & lock$ to ! %aft4 ,?is makes possible in/ant *ange ( propell]s4 ,! case is 9 two halves divid$ on ! c5t] l9e ( ! crank-%aft1 ! be>+s be+ fitt$ betwe5 ! upp] & l[] sections4 ,! l[] half is deep1 provid+ a l>ge oil res]voir & /iff5+ ! eng9e4 ,! upp] half is simple & provides magneto supports on ext5sion l$ges ( ! two ma9 faces4 ,! valves are ( l>ge diamet] ) holl[ /ems1 work+ 9 ca/ iron bu%+s4 ,!y are directly op]at$ by a s+le holl[ cam-%aft locat$ ov] ! valves4 ,! cam-%afts are driv5 f ! crank-%aft by v]tical %afts & bevel ge>s4 ,! cam-%afts1 cams & heads ( ! valve /ems are all enclos$ 9 oil-tight removable h\s+s ( ca/ alum9um4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,! ,simplex ,model ,a ,hispano-,suiza ,aviation ,eng9e1 a ,v ,successful ,=m4 ,oil+ is by a positive pressure sy/em4 ,! oil is tak5 ?r\gh a filt] & /eel tubes ca/ 9 ! case to ma9 be>+s1 ?r\gh crank-%aft to crank-p9s4 ,! f\r? ma9 be>+ is also provid$ ) an oil lead f ! sy/em & ?r\gh tubes runn+ up ! end ( ea* cyl9d] block1 oil is provid$ = ! cam-%afts1 cams & be>+s4 ,! surplus oil escapes ?r\gh ! end ( ! cam-%aft :]e ! driv+ ge>s are m\nt$1 & ) ! oil t has ga!r$ 9 ! top cas+1 desc5ds ?r\gh ! drive %aft & ge>s to ! sump4 ,ignition is by two eight-cyl9d] magnetos fir+ two sp>k-plugs p] cyl9d]4 ,! magnetos are driv5 f ea* ( ! two v]tical %afts by small bevel p9ions me%+ 9 bevel ge>s4 ,! c>buretor is m\nt$ betwe5 ! two cyl9d] blocks & fe$s ! two blocks ?r\gh alum9um manifolds :i* are p>tly wat]-jacket$4 ,! eng9e c be equipp$ ) a ge>$ h& crank-/>t+ device4 ,,/urtevant ,,model #e;,a #adj ,,horse-,,p[] ,,eng9e ,^! motors are ( ! eight-cyl9d] ,v type1 f\r-/roke cycle1 wat]-cool$1 hav+ a bore ( #d in*es & a /roke ( #e-a_/b in*es1 equival5t to #ajb mm4 x #adj mm4 ,! normal op]at+ spe$ ( ! crank-%aft is #b1jjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,! propell] %aft is driv5 ?r\gh r$uc+ ge>s :i* c be furni%$ 9 diff]5t ge> ratios4 ,! /&>d ratio is #e3c1 all[+ a propell] spe$ ( #a1bjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,! con/ruction ( ! motor is su* z to p]mit ( ! application ( a direct drive4 ,! *ange f ! direct drive to ge> drive1 or vice v]sa1 c be accompli%$ 9 approximately "o h\r4 ,! cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 pairs f an alum9um alloy & are provid$ ) /eel sleeves1 c>efully fitt$ into ea* cyl9d]4 ,a p]fect contact is secur$ betwe5 cyl9d] & sleeve2 at ! same "t a sleeve c be replac$ )\t injury to ! cyl9d] prop]4 ,no difficulties due to expansion occur on acc\nt ( ! rapid transmission ( heat & ! fact t ! sleeve is always at high] temp]ature ?an ! cyl9d]4 ,a m\ld$ copp] asbe/os gasket is plac$ betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! head1 p]mitt+ ! cool+ wat] to circulate freely & at ! same "t insur+ a tight jo9t4 ,! cyl9d] heads are ca/ 9 pairs f an alum9um alloy & conta9 ample wat] passages = circulation ( cool+ wat] ov] ! entire head4 ,tr\ble due to hot valves is !reby elim9at$1 a mo/ important consid]ation 9 ! op]ation ( an a]oplane motor4 ,! wat] jacket ( ! head corresponds to ! wat] jacket ( ! cyl9d]s & l>ge op5+s 9 bo? all[ ! unob/ruct$ circulation ( ! cool+ wat]4 ,! cyl9d] heads & cyl9d]s are bo? held to ! base by six long bolts4 ,! valves are locat$ 9 ! cyl9d] heads & are me*anically op]at$4 ,! valves & valve spr+s are especially accessible & ( su* size z to p]mit high volumetric effici5cy4 ,! valves are con/ruct$ ( h>d5$ tung/5 /eel1 ! heads & /ems be+ made f "o piece4 ,! valve rock] arms locat$ on ! top ( ! cyl9d] are provid$ ) adju/+ screws4 ,a *eck nut enables ! adju/+ screw to be securely lock$ 9 position1 once ! correct cle>ance has be5 det]m9$4 ,! rock] arm be>+s are adequately lubricat$ by a compression grease cup4 ,cam-roll]s are int]pos$ betwe5 ! cams & ! pu% rods 9 ord] to r$uce ! side ?ru/ on ! pu% rods4 ,a sy/em ( d\ble spr+s is employ$ :i* greatly r$uces ! /ress on ea* spr+ & insures utmo/ reliability4 ,a spr+ ( extremely l>ge diamet] returns ! valve2 a second spr+ locat$ at ! cyl9d] base h&les ! pu% rod l9kage4 ,^! spr+s1 :i* op]ate "u l[ /ress1 are made f ! be/ ( /eel & are giv5 a special d\ble heat treatm5t4 ,! pi/ons are made f a special alum9um alloy2 are deeply ribb$ 9 ! head = cool+ & /r5g? & provid$ ) two pi/on r+s4 ,^! pi/ons are exce$+ly light weight 9 ord] to m9imize vibration & prev5t we> on ! be>+s4 ,! pi/on p9 is made ( *rome nickel /eel1 bor$ holl[ & h>d5$4 ,x is all[$ to turn1 bo? 9 pi/on & connect+ rod4 ,! pi/on r+s are ( special design1 develop$ aft] ye>s ( exp]im5t+ 9 a]onautical eng9es4 ,! connect+ rods are ( ,h section1 ma*9$ all ov] f =g+s ( a special air-h>d5+ *rome nickel /eel :i*1 aft] be+ heat treat$ has a t5sile /r5g? ( #bhj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,!y are consequ5tly v /rong & yet unusually light1 & be+ ma*9$ all ov] are ( absolutely uni=m section1 :i* gives z ne>ly p]fect balance z c be obta9$4 ,! big ends are l9$ ) :ite metal & ! small ends are bu%$ ) phosphor bronze4 ,! connect+ rods are all alike & take _! be>+s side by side on ! crank-p91 ! cyl9d]s be+ (fset to p]mit ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,! crank-%aft is ma*9$ f ! highe/ grade *rome nickel /eel1 heat treat$ 9 ord] to obta9 ! be/ prop]ties ( ?is mat]ial4 ,x is #b-a_/d in*es 9 diamet] 7#eg mm47 & bor$ holl[ ?r\gh\t1 insur+ maximum /r5g? ) m9imum weight4 ,x is c>ri$ 9 ?ree l>ge1 bronze-back$ :ite metal be>+s4 ,a new me?od ( produc+ ^! be>+s insures a p]fect bond betwe5 ! two metals & elim9ates breakage4 ,! base is ca/ f an alum9um alloy4 ,great /r5g? & rigidity is comb9$ ) light weight4 ,! sides ext5d consid]ably bel[ ! c5t] l9e ( ! crank-%aft1 provid+ an extremely deep section4 ,at all highly /ress$ po9ts1 deep ribs are provid$ to di/ribute ! load ev5ly & elim9ate b5d+4 ,! l[] half ( ! base is ( ca/ alum9um alloy ( extreme lightness4 ,?is collects ! lubricat+ oil & acts z a small res]voir = same4 ,an oil-filt]+ scre5 ( l>ge area cov]s ! entire surface ( ! sump4 ,! propell] %aft is c>ri$ on two l>ge annul> ball be>+s driv5 f ! crank-%aft by h>d5$ *rome nickel /eel spur ge>s4 ,^! ge>s are conta9$ )9 an oil-tight cas+ integral ) ! base on ! opposite end f ! tim+ ge>s4 ,a ball-?ru/ be>+ is provid$ on ! propell] %aft to take ! ?ru/ ( a propell] or tractor1 z ! case may be4 ,9 case ( ! direct drive a /ub %aft is fa/5$ direct to ! crank-%aft & is fitt$ ) a d\ble ?ru/ be>+4 ,! cam-%aft is conta9$ )9 ! upp] half ( ! base betwe5 ! two gr\ps ( cyl9d]s1 & is support$ 9 six bronze be>+s4 ,x is bor$ holl[ ?r\gh\t & ! cams are =m$ integral ) ! %aft & gr\nd to ! prop] %ape & f9i%4 ,an important developm5t 9 ! %ape ( cams has result$ 9 a ma9ta9$ increase ( p[] at high spe$s4 ,! ge>s op]at+ ! cam-%aft1 magneto1 oil & wat] pumps are conta9$ )9 an oil-tight cas+ & op]ate 9 a ba? ( oil4 ,lubrication is ( ! complete =c$ circulat+ sy/em1 ! oil be+ suppli$ to e be>+ "u high pressure by a rot>y pump ( l>ge capacity4 ,?is is op]at$ by ge>s f ! crank-%aft4 ,! oil passages f ! pump to ! ma9 be>+s are ca/ integral ) ! base1 ! holl[ crank-%aft =m+ a passage ?r\gh ! connect+ rod be>+s & ! holl[ cam-%aft di/ribut+ ! oil to ! cam-%aft be>+s4 ,! entire surface ( ! l[] half ( ! base is cov]$ ) a f9e me% scre5 ?r\gh :i* ! oil passes be=e rea*+ ! pump4 ,approximately "o gallon ( oil is conta9$ )9 ! base & ?is is cont9ually circulat$ ?r\gh an ext]nal tank by a second>y pump op]at$ by an ecc5tric on ! cam-%aft4 ,?is also draws fre% oil f ! ext]nal tank :i* c be made ( any desir$ capacity4 ,,specifications--,,model #e;,a ,,type #h ,horse-p[] rat+1 #adj at #b1jjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,bore1 #d in*es #ajb mm4 ,/roke1 #e-a_/b in*es #adj mm4 ,numb] ( cyl9d]s1 #h4 ,arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s1 ,v4 ,cool+1 wat]4 ,circulation by c5trifugal pump4 ,cycle1 f\r /roke4 ,ignition 7d\ble71 #b ,bos* or ,splitdorf magnetos4 ,c>buretor1 ,z5i? duplex4 ,wat] jacket manifold4 ,oil+ sy/em1 complete =c$4 ,circulat+ ge> pump4 ,normal crank-%aft spe$1 #b1jjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,propell] %aft1 #c_/e crank-%aft spe$ at normal1 #a1bjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,/at$ p[] at #cj b>omet]1 #adj ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,/at$ weight ) all accessories b )\t wat]1 gasol9e or oil1 #ead p\nds #bcd kilos4 ,weight p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p41 #c4g p\nds #a4fh kilos4 ,/at$ weight ) all accessories ) wat]1 #eej p\nds #bej kilos4 ,weight p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ) wat]1 #c4ie p\nds #a4gi kilos4 ,,! ,,curtiss ,,aviation ,,motors ,! ,curtiss ,,ox motor has eight cyl9d]s1 #d-;in* bore1 #e-;in* /roke1 deliv]s #ij horse-p[] at #a1djj turns1 & ! weight turns out at #d4ag p\nds p] horse-p[]4 ,?is motor has ca/ iron cyl9d]s ) monel metal jackets1 ov]head incl9$ valves op]at$ by means ( two rock] arms1 pu%-&-pull rods f ! c5tral cam-%aft locat$ 9 ! crank-case4 ,! cam & pu% rod design is extremely +5i\s & ! :ole valve con/ruction turns out v light4 ,?is motor is an evolution f ! e>ly ,curtiss type motor :i* 0 us$ by ,gl5n ,curtiss :5 he won ! ,gordon ,b5nett ,cup at ,rheims4 ,a slightly l>g] edition ( ?is type motor is ! ,,oxx-#e1 z %[n at ,figs4 #bca & #bcb1 :i* has cyl9d]s #d-a_/d in*es by #e in*es1 deliv]s #ajj horse-p[] at #a1djj turns & has ! same fuel & oil consumption z ! ,,ox type motor1 namely1 4#fj p\nd ( fuel p] brake horse-p[] h\r & 4#jc p\nd ( lubricat+ oil p] brake horse-p[] h\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4--,! ,curtiss ,,oxx-#e ,aviation ,eng9e is an ,eight-,cyl9d] ,type ,l>gely ,us$ on ,tra9+ ,ma*9es4 ,! ,curtiss ,company h develop$ 9 ! la/ two ye>s a l>g]-siz$ motor n[ kn[n z ! ,v-#b1 :i* 0 orig9ally rat$ at #afj horse-p[] & :i* has s9ce be5 ref9$ & improv$ s t ! motor gives #bbj horse-p[] at #a1djj turns1 ) a fuel consumption ( #eb_/ajj ( a p\nd p] brake horse-p[] h\r & an oil consumption ( 4#jb ( a p\nd p] brake horse-p[] h\r4 ,?is l>g] motor has a weight ( #c4de p\nds p] horse-p[] & is n[ said to be giv+ v satisfactory s]vice4 ,! ,v-#b motor has drawn /eel cyl9d]s1 ) a bore ( #e in*es & a /roke ( #g in*es1 ) a /eel wat] jacket top & a monel metal cyl9drical jacket1 bo? ( :i* are braz$ on to ! cyl9d] b>rel itself4 ,bo? ^! motors use side by side connect+ rods & fully =c$ lubrication4 ,! cam-%afts act z a gall]y f :i* ! oil is di/ribut$ to ! cam-%aft be>+s1 ! ma9 crank-%aft be>+s1 & ! ge>+4 ,"h aga9 we f9d extremely %ort rods1 :i*1 z be=e m5tion$1 enables ! height & ! consequ5t weight ( con/ruction to be v mu* r$uc$4 ,= ord9>y fly+ at altitudes ( #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet1 ! motors are s5t out ) an alum9um l9]1 bolt$ betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! crank-case 9 ord] to give a compression ratio :i* does n result 9 pre-ignition at a l[ altitude4 ,= high fly+1 h[ev]1 ^! alum9um l9]s are tak5 out & ! compression volume is decreas$ to ab\t #ah4f p] c5t4 ( ! total volume4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,top & ,bottom ,views ( ! ,curtiss ,,oxx-#e #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,! ,curtiss ,a]oplane ,company ann\nces t x has rec5tly built1 & is (f]+1 a twelve-cyl9d] #e x #g motor1 :i* 0 design$ = a]onautical uses prim>ily4 ,?is eng9e is rat$ at #bej horse-p[]1 b x is claim$ to develop #cjj at #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,weights--,motor1 #a1abe p\nds2 radiator1 #abj p\nds2 cool+ wat]1 #ajj p\nds2 propell]1 #ie p\nds4 ,gasol9e ,consumption p] ,horse-p[] ,h\r1 #f_/aj p\nds4 ,oil ,consumption p] ,h\r at ,maximum ,spe$--#b p9ts4 ,in/allation ,dim5sions--,ov]all l5g?1 #hd-e_/h in*es2 ov]all wid?1 #cd-a_/h in*es2 ov]all dep?1 #dj in*es2 wid? at b$1 #cj-a_/b in*es2 height f b$1 #ba-a_/h in*es2 dep? f b$1 #ah-a_/b in*es4 ,,?omas-,,morse ,,model #hh ,,eng9e ,! ,?omas-,morse ,aircraft ,corporation ( ,i?aca1 ,n4 ,y41 has produc$ a new eng9e1 ,model #hh1 be>+ a close resemblance to ! e>li] model4 ,! ma9 features ( t model h be5 reta9$2 9 fact1 _m p>ts are int]*angeable 9 ! two eng9es4 ,support$ by ! great developm5t 9 ! wide use ( alum9um1 ! ,?omas eng9e]s h adopt$ ?is mat]ial = cyl9d] con/ruction1 :i* adoption =ms ! ma9 dep>ture f previ\s accept$ design4 ,! m>k$ t5d5cy to-day t[>d a high] spe$ ( rotation has be5 conclusively ju/ifi$1 9 ! op9ion ( ! ,?omas eng9e]s1 by ! cont9u$ reliable p]=mance ( eng9es ) crank-%afts op]at+ at spe$s ne> #b1jjj revolutions p] m9ute1 driv+ ! propell] ?r\gh suitable ge>+ at ! mo/ effici5t spe$4 ,high spe$ dem&s t ! close/ att5tion be paid to ! design ( reciprocat+ & rotat+ p>ts & _! adjac5t units4 ,/eel ( ! highe/ obta9able t5sile /r5g? mu/ be us$ = connect+ rods & pi/on p9s1 t !y may be light & yet reta9 a suffici5t factor ( safety4 ,pi/on design is likewise subject$ to ! same /rict scrut9y4 ,at ! pres5t day1 alum9um alloy pi/ons op]ate s satisfactorily t !y may be said to h come to /ay4 ,! /atem5t (t5 made 9 ! pa/1 t ! ge>+ d[n ( an eng9e co/s m 9 ! weight ( r$uction ge>s & propell] %aft ?an is w>rant$ by ! increase 9 horse-p[]1 is seldom he>d to-day4 ,! mean effective pressure rema9+ ! same1 ! brake horse-p[] ( any eng9e increases z ! spe$4 ,t is1 an eng9e deliv]+ #ajj brake horse-p[] at #a1ejj revolutions p] m9ute w %[ #acc brake horse-p[] at #b1jjj revolutions p] m9ute1 an increase ( #cc brake horse-p[]4 ,to utilize ?is increase 9 horse-p[]1 a matt] ( "s fifte5 p\nds mu/ be sp5t 9 ge>+ & ano!r fifte5 p]haps on l>g] valves1 be>+s1 etc4 ,two p] c5t4 may be assum$ lo/ 9 ! ge>s4 ,9 o!r words1 ! increase 9 horse-p[] due to increas+ ! spe$ has be5 atta9$ at ! exp5se ( ab\t "o p\nd p] brake horse-p[]4 ,! advantages ( ! eight-cyl9d] eng9e ov] ! six & twelve1 briefly /at$1 are3 l[] weight p] horse-p[]1 %ort] l5g?1 simpl] & /iff] crank-%aft1 cam-%aft & crank-case1 & simpl] & m direct manifold arrangem5t4 ,z to torque1 ! eight is sup]ior to ! six1 & yet 9 practice n en\gh inf]ior to ! twelve to w>rant ! addition ( f\r m cyl9d]s4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be recogniz$ t ! eight is subject to ! action ( inh]5t unbalanc$ in]tia c\ples1 :i* set up horizontal vibrations1 impossible ( total elim9ation4 ,^! vibrations are functions ( ! reciprocat+ weights1 :i*1 z already m5tion$1 are cut d[n to ! m9imum4 ,vibrations due to ! ela/icity ( crank-case1 crank-%aft1 etc41 c be & are r$uc$ 9 ! ,?omas eng9e to m9or quantities by ample webb+ ( ! crank-case & judici\s use ( metal else:]e4 ,all ?+s consid]$1 !re is actually s little diff]5ce to be disc]n$ betwe5 ! balance ( a prop]ly design$ eight-cyl9d] eng9e & t ( a six or twelve z to make a discussion ( ! pros & cons m "o ( !ory ?an ( practice4 ,! ma9 criticisms ( ! ,l head cyl9d] eng9e are t x is less effici5t & heavi]4 ,?is is grant$1 z x relates to cyl9d]s alone4 ,m ?or\gh inve/igation1 h[ev]1 bas$ on ! ma9 desid]atum1 weight-p[] ratio1 leads u to o!r conclusions1 p>ticul>ly ) ref]5ce to high spe$ eng9es4 ,! valve ge> mu/ n be =gott54 ,a cyl9d] _c be tak5 completely away f its compon5t p>ts & judg$1 z to its weight value1 by itself alone4 ,a "p away f ! :ole becomes an item unimportant 9 comp>ison ) ! :ole4 ,! valve ge> ( a high spe$ eng9e is a too (t5 ov]look$ feature4 ,! /amp ( approval has be5 made by high spe$ automobile practice ^u ! ov]head cam-%aft drive1 ) valves 9 ! cyl9d] head op]at$ direct f ! cam-%aft or by means ( valve lift]s or %ort rock]s4 ,! ov]head cam-%aft me*anism appli$ to an eight-cyl9d] eng9e calls = two sep>ate cam-%afts c>ri$ above & support$ by ! cyl9d]s 9 an oil-tight h\s+1 & driv5 by a s]ies ( spur ge>s or bevels f ! crank-%aft4 ,x is pat5t t ?is valve ge>+ is heavy & complicat$ 9 comp>ison ) ! simple mov+ valve units ( ! ,l head eng9e1 :i* are op]at$ f "o s+le cam-%aft1 h\s$ rigidly 9 ! crank-case4 ,! inh]5tly l[] volumetric effici5cy ( ! ,l head eng9e is l>gely ov]come by ! use ( a prop]ly design$ head1 l>ge valves & ample gas passages4 ,aga91 ! cu/om>y use ( a dual ignition sy/em gives to ! ,l head a relatively bett] opportunity = ! advantage\s plac+ ( sp>k-plugs1 9 ord] t bett] flame propagation & complete combu/ion may be secur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--;,end ,view ( ,?omas-,morse #aej ,horse-,p[] ,alum9um ,cyl9d] ,aviation ,motor ,hav+ ,deta*able ,cyl9d] ,heads4 ,! ,?omas ,model #hh eng9e is #d-a_/h in* bore & #e-a_/b in* /roke4 ,! cyl9d]s & cyl9d] heads are ( alum9um1 & z /eel l9]s are us$ 9 ! cyl9d]s ! pi/ons are also made ( alum9um4 ,?is eng9e is actually light] ?an ! e>li] model ( less p[]4 ,x weighs b #ebe p\nds1 ) self-/>t]4 ,! g5]al features ( design c be readily asc]ta9$ by /udy ( ! illu/rations3 ,fig4 #bcc1 :i* %[s an end view2 ,fig4 #bcd1 :i* is a side view1 & ,fig4 #bce1 :i* outl9es ! r$uction ge>-case & ! propell] %aft support+ be>+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,side ,view ( ,?omas-,morse ,high ,spe$ #aej ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor ) ,ge>$ ,d[n ,propell] ,drive4 ,,sixte5-,,valve ,,dues5b]g ,,eng9e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4--,! ,r$uction ,ge>-,case ( ,?omas-,morse #aej ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor1 ,%[+ ,ball ,be>+ & ,propell] ,drive ,%aft ,ge>4 ,?is eng9e is a f\r-cyl9d]1 #d-c_/d x #g1 #abe horse-p[] at #b1ajj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ( ! crank-%aft & #a1baj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ( ! propell]4 ,motors are sold on above rat+2 actual p[] te/s prove ?is motor capable ( develop+ #adj horse-p[] at #b1ajj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ( ! motor4 ,! exact weight ) magneto1 c>buretor1 ge> r$uction & propell] hub1 z illu/rat$1 #eji p\nds2 )\t ge> r$uction1 #dcf p\nds4 ,?is motor has be5 produc$ z a p[] plant weigh+ #c4e p\nds p] horse-p[]1 yet no?+ has be5 sacrific$ 9 rigidity & /r5g?4 ,at its normal spe$ x develops #a horse-p[] = e #c4e cubic in*es pi/on displacem5t4 ,cyl9d]s are semi-/eel1 ) alum9um plates enclos+ wat] jackets4 ,pi/ons specially ribb$ & made ( ,magnalite alum9um comp\nd4 ,pi/on r+s are special ,dues5b]g design1 be+ ?ree-piece r+s4 ,valves are tung/5 /eel1 #a-ae_/af inlets & #b exhau/s1 two ( ea* to ea* cyl9d]4 ,arrang$ horizontally 9 ! head1 all[+ v ?or\gh wat]-jacket+4 ,inlet valves 9 cages4 ,exhau/ valves1 seat+ directly 9 ! cyl9d] head1 are removable ?r\gh ! inlet valve holes4 ,valve /ems lubricat$ by spla% 9 ! valve action cov]s4 ,valve rock] arms =g$ ) cap screw & nut at upp] end to adju/ cle>ance4 ,entirely enclos$ by alum9um h\s+1 z is entire valve me*anism4 ,connect+ rods are tubul>1 *rome nickel /eel1 light & /rong4 ,crank-%aft is "o-piece =g+1 holl[ bor$1 #b-a_/b-;in* diamet] at ma9 be>+s4 ,connect+ rod be>+s1 #b-a_/d-;in* diamet]1 #c in*es long4 ,front ma9 be>+1 #c-a_/b in*es long2 int]m$iate ma9 be>+1 #c-a_/b in*es long2 re> ma9 be>+1 #d in*es long4 ,crank-case ( alum9um1 b>rel type1 oil pan on bottom removable4 ,h& hole plates on bo? sides4 ,/rongly webb$4 ,! oil+ sy/em ( ?is sixte5-valve ,dues5b]g motor is "o ( its vital features4 ,an oil pump locat$ 9 ! base & subm]g$ 9 oil =ces oil ?r\gh cor$ passages to ! ?ree ma9 be>+s1 !n ?r\gh tubes "u ea* connect+ rod into :i* ! rod dips4 ,! oil is ?r[n (f f ^! & lubricates e "p ( ! motor4 ,?is con/itutes ! ma9 oil+ sy/em2 x is supplem5t$ by a spla% sy/em1 !re be+ a tr\gh "u ea* connect+ rod into :i* ! rod slips4 ,! oil is return$ to ! ma9 supply sump by gravity1 :]e x is /ra9$ & re-us$4 ,ei!r sy/em is 9 itself suffici5t to op]ate ! motor4 ,a pressure gauge is m\nt$ = obs]vation on a conv5i5t "p ( ! sy/em4 ,a pressure ( approximately #be p\nds is ma9ta9$ by ! pressure sy/em1 :i* insures effici5t lubrication at all spe$s ( ! motor4 ,! tr\ghs "u ! connect+ rods are s con/ruct$ t no matt] :at ! angle ( flight may be1 oil is reta9$ 9 ea* individual tr\gh s t ea* connect+ rod c dip up its supply ( oil at ea* revolution4 ,,a]om>9e ,,six-,,cyl9d] ,,v]tical ,,motor ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,! ,six-,cyl9d] ,a]om>9e ,eng9e4 ,^! motors are f\r-/roke cycle1 six-cyl9d] v]tical type1 ) cyl9d] #d-e_/af bore by #e-a_/h /roke4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ?is motor is %[n 9 illu/ration at ,fig4 #bcf4 ,?is eng9e is rat$ at #he-ij horse-p[]4 ,all reciprocat+ & revolv+ p>ts ( ?is motor are made ( ! highe/ grades ( /eel obta9able z are ! /uds1 nuts & bolts4 ,! upp] & l[] p>ts ( crank-case are made ( composition alum9um ca/+4 ,l[] crank-case is made ( high grade alum9um composition ca/+ & is bolt$ directly to ! upp] half4 ,! oil res]voir 9 ?is l[] half ca/+ provides suffici5t oil capacity = five h\rs' cont9u\s runn+ at full p[]4 ,increas$ capacity c be provid$ if ne$$ to meet great] endurance requirem5ts4 ,oil is =c$ "u pressure to all be>+s by means ( high-pressur$ duplex-ge>$ pumps4 ,"o side ( ?is pump deliv]s oil "u pressure to all ! be>+s1 :ile ! o!r side draws ! oil f ! spla% case & deliv]s x to ! ma9 sump4 ,! oil res]voir is entirely sep>ate f ! crank-case *amb]4 ,"u no circum/ances w oil flood ! cyl9d]1 & ! oil+ sy/em is n affect$ 9 any way by any angle ( flight or position ( motor4 ,an oil pressure gauge is plac$ on in/rum5t bo>d ( ma*9e1 :i* gives at all times ! pressure 9 oil sy/em1 & a sight glass at l[] half ( case indicates ! am\nt ( oil conta9$4 ,! oil pump is ext]nal on magneto end ( motor1 & is v accessible4 ,an ext]nal oil /ra9] is provid$1 :i* is removable 9 a few m9utes' "t )\t ! loss ( any oil4 ,all oil f res]voir to ! motor passes ?r\gh ?is /ra9]4 ,pressure gauge fe$ is also atta*$ & c be pip$ to any "p ( ma*9e desir$4 ,! cyl9d]s are made ( high-grade ca/+s & are ma*9$ & gr\nd accurately to size4 ,cyl9d]s are bolt$ to crank-case ) *rome nickel /eel /uds & nuts :i* securely lock cyl9d] to upp] half ( crank-case4 ,! ma9 reta9+ cyl9d] /uds g ?r\gh crank-case & support crank-%aft be>+s s t crank-%aft & cyl9d]s are ti$ toge!r z "o unit4 ,wat] jackets are ( copp]1 #a_/af ?ick1 electrically deposit$4 ,?is makes a non-corrosive metal4 ,cool+ is furni%$ by a c5trifugal pump1 :i* deliv]s #be gallons p] m9ute at #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,pi/ons are made ca/ iron1 accurately ma*9$ & gr\nd to exact dim5sions1 :i* are c>efully balanc$4 ,pi/on r+s are semi-/eel r+s ( ,a]om>9e special design4 ,connect+ rods are ( *rome nickel /eel1 ,h-section4 ,crank-%aft is made ( *rome nickel /eel1 ma*9$ all ov]1 & cut f solid billet1 & is accurately balanc$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( balance weights be+ =g$ integral ) crank4 ,x is drill$ = lightness & plugg$ = =ce fe$ lubrication4 ,!re are sev5 ma9 be>+s to crank-%aft4 ,all be>+s are ( high-grade babbitt1 die ca/1 & are int]*angeable & easily replac$4 ,! ma9 be>+s ( ! crank-%aft are provid$ ) a s+le groove to take oil "u pressure f pressure tube :i* is ca/ integral ) case4 ,connect+ rod be>+s are ( ! same type4 ,! gudgeon p9 is h>d5$1 gr\nd & secur$ 9 connect+ rod1 & is all[$ to "w 9 pi/on4 ,cam-%aft is ( /eel1 ) cams =g$ integral1 drill$ = lightness & =c$-fe$ lubrication1 & is case-h>d5$4 ,! be>+s ( cam-%aft are ( bronze4 ,magneto1 two high-t5sion ,bos* ,d4 ,u4 #f4 ,! intake manifold = c>buretors are alum9um ca/+s & are s design$ t ea* c>buretor fe$s ?ree cyl9d]s1 !reby insur+ easy fl[ ( vapor at all spe$s4 ,weight1 #dbj p\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--,! ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e1 at ,top1 z ,view$ f ,c>buretor ,side4 ,bel[1 ! ,exhau/ ,side4 ,,wiscons9 ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,dim5sion$ ,end ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,six ,motor4 ,! new six-cyl9d] ,wiscons9 aviation eng9es1 "o ( :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #bcg1 are ( ! v]tical type1 ) cyl9d]s 9 pairs & valves 9 ! head4 ,dim5sion$ draw+s ( ! six-cyl9d] v]tical type are giv5 at ,figs4 #bch & #bci4 ,! cyl9d]s are made ( alum9um alloy ca/+s1 are bor$ & ma*9$ & !n fitt$ ) h>d5$ /eel sleeves ab\t #a_/af in* 9 ?ickness4 ,aft] ^! sleeves h be5 %runk into ! cyl9d]s1 !y are f9i%$ by gr9d+ 9 place4 ,gray iron valve seats are ca/ into ! cyl9d]s4 ,! valve seats & cyl9d]s1 z well z ! valve ports1 are entirely surr\nd$ by wat] jackets4 ,! valves set 9 ! heads at an angle ( #be deg4 f ! v]tical1 are made ( tung/5 /eel & are provid$ ) d\ble spr+s1 ! out] or ma9 spr+ & ! inn] or auxili>y spr+1 :i* is us$ z a precaution>y measure to prev5t a valve fall+ into ! cyl9d] 9 remote case ( a ma9 spr+ break+4 ,! cam-%aft is made ( "o solid =g+1 case-h>d5$4 ,x is c>ri$ 9 an alum9um h\s+ bolt$ to ! top ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,?is h\s+ is split horizontally1 ! upp] half c>ry+ ! *rome vanadium /eel rock] lev]s4 ,! l[] half has an oil return tr\gh ca/ integral1 into :i* ! excess oil ov]fl[s & !n dra9s back to ! crank-case4 ,small inspection plates are fitt$ ov] ! cams & inn] ends ( ! cam rock] lev]s4 ,! cam-%aft runs 9 bronze be>+s & ! drive is ?r\gh v]tical %aft & bevel ge>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,dim5sion$ ,side ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,six ,motor4 ,! crank-case is made ( alum9um1 ! upp] half c>ry+ ! be>+s = ! crank-%aft4 ,! l[] half c>ries ! oil sump 9 :i* all ( ! oil except t circulat+ ?r\gh ! sy/em at ! "t is c>ri$4 ,! crank-%aft is made ( *rome vanadium /eel ( an ela/ic limit ( #aae1jjj p\nds4 ,! crank-p9s & ends ( ! %aft are drill$ = lightness & ! *eeks are also drill$ = oil circulation4 ,! crank-%aft runs 9 bronze-back$1 ,fahrig metal-l9$ be>+s1 f\r 9 numb]4 ,a d\ble ?ru/ be>+ is also provid$1 s t ! motor may be us$ ei!r 9 a tractor or pu%] type ( ma*9e4 ,outside ( ! ?ru/ be>+ an annul> ball be>+ is us$ to take ! radial load ( ! propell]4 ,! propell] is m\nt$ on a tap]4 ,at ! opposite end ( ! %aft a bevel ge> is fitt$ :i* drives ! cam-%aft1 ?r\gh a v]tical %aft1 & also drives ! wat] & oil pumps & magnetos4 ,all ge>s are made ( *rome vanadium /eel1 heat-treat$4 ,! connect+ rods are tubul> & ma*9$ f *rome vanadium /eel =g+s4 ,oil tubes are fitt$ to ! rods :i* c>ry ! oil up to ! wri/-p9s & pi/ons4 ,! rods complete ) bu%+s weigh #e-a_/b p\nds ea*4 ,! pi/ons are made ( alum9um alloy & are v light & /rong1 weigh+ only #b p\nds #b ounces ea*4 ,two leak-pro( r+s are fitt$ to ea* pi/on4 ,! wri/-p9s are holl[1 ( h>d5$ /eel1 & are free to turn ei!r 9 ! pi/on or ! rod4 ,a bronze bu%+ is fitt$ 9 ! upp] end ( ! rod1 b no bu%+ is fitt$ 9 ! pi/ons1 ! h>d5$ /eel wri/-p9s mak+ an excell5t be>+ 9 ! alum9um alloy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,p[]1 ,torque & ,effici5cy ,curves ( ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,motor4 ,! wat] circulation is by c5trifugal pump1 :i* is m\nt$ at ! l[] end ( ! v]tical %aft4 ,! wat] is pump$ ?r\gh brass pipes to ! l[] end ( ! cyl9d] wat] jackets & leaves ! upp] end ( ! jackets j above ! exhau/ valves4 ,! lubricat+ sy/em is "o ( ! ma9 features ( ! eng9es1 be+ design$ to "w ) ! motor at any angle4 ,! oil is c>ri$ 9 ! sump1 f :]e x is tak5 by ! oil circulat+ pump ?r\gh a /ra9] & =c$ ?r\gh a head]1 ext5d+ ! full l5g? ( ! crank-case1 & di/ribut$ to ! ma9 be>+s4 ,f ! ma9 be>+s x is =c$ ?r\gh ! holl[ crank-%aft to ! connect+ rod big ends & !n ?r\gh tubes on ! rods to wri/-p9s & pi/ons4 ,ano!r lead takes oil f ! ma9 head] to ! cam-%aft be>+s4 ,! oil =c$ out ( ! ends ( ! cam-%aft be>+s fills pockets "u ! cams & 9 ! cam rock] lev]s4 ,! excess fl[s back ?r\gh pipes & ?r\gh ! tra9 ( ge>s to ! crank-case4 ,a /ra9] is fitt$ at ea* end ( ! crank-case1 ?r\gh :i* ! oil is drawn by sep>ate pumps & return$ to ! sump4 ,ei!r "o ( ^! pumps is l>ge en\gh to take c>e ( all ( ! return oil1 s t ! op]ation is p]fect :e!r ! motor is incl9$ up or d[n4 ,no spla% is us$ 9 ! crank-case1 ! sy/em be+ a full =ce fe$4 ,an oil level indicator is provid$1 %[+ ! am\nt ( oil 9 ! sump at all times4 ,! oil pressure 9 ^! motors is c>ri$ at t5 p\nds1 a relief valve be+ fitt$ to hold ! pressure con/ant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4--,tim+ ,diagram1 ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,ignition is by two ,bos* magnetos1 ea* on a sep>ate set ( plugs fir$ simultane\sly on opposite sides ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,%\ld "o magneto fail1 ! o!r w\ld /ill run ! eng9e at only a slight loss 9 p[]4 ,! ,z5i? d\ble c>buretor is us$1 ?ree cyl9d]s be+ suppli$ by ea* c>buretor4 ,?is insures a high] volumetric effici5cy1 :i* means m p[]1 z !re is no ov]lapp+ ( inlet valves :atev] by ?is arrangem5t4 ,all p>ts ( ^! motors are v accessible4 ,! wat] & oil pumps1 c>buretors1 magnetos1 oil /ra9] or o!r p>ts c be remov$ )\t di/urb+ o!r p>ts4 ,! l[] crank-case c be remov$ = inspection or adju/m5t ( be>+s1 z ! crank-%aft & be>+ caps are c>ri$ by ! upp] half4 ,! motor support+ lugs are also "p ( ! upp] crank-case4 ,! six-cyl9d] motor1 )\t c>buretors or magnetos1 weighs #edg p\nds4 ,) c>buretor & magnetos1 ! weight is #fjj p\nds4 ,! weight ( cool+ wat] 9 ! motor is #ch p\nds4 ,! sump w c>ry #d gallons ( oil1 or ab\t #bh p\nds4 ,a radiator c be furni%$ suitable = ! motor1 weigh+ #ej p\nds4 ,?is radiator w hold #c gallons ( wat] or ab\t #be p\nds4 ,! motor w drive a two-blade1 #h feet diamet] by #f4be feet pit* ,p>agon propell] #adjj revolutions p] m9ute1 develop+ #adh horse-p[]4 ,! weight ( ?is propell] is #db p\nds4 ,?is makes a total weight ( motor1 complete ) propell]1 radiator fill$ ) wat]1 b )\t lubricat+ oil1 #gee p\nds1 or ab\t #e4a p\nds p] horse-p[] = complete p[] plant4 ,! fuel consumption is 4#e p\nd p] horse-p[] p] h\r4 ,! lubricat+ oil consumption is 4#jage p\nd p] horse-p[] p] h\r1 or a total ( #b4f p\nds p] h\r at #adjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,?is w\ld make ! weight ( fuel & oil1 p] h\r's run at full p[] at #adjj revolutions p] m9ute1 #gf4f p\nds4 ,,pr9cipal ,,dim5sions ,foll[+ are ! pr9cipal dim5sions ( ! six-cyl9d] motor3 ,bore #e in*es4 ,/roke #f-a_/b in*es4 ,crank-%aft diamet] ?r\gh\t #b in*es4 ,l5g? ( crank-p9 & ma9 be>+s #c-a_/b in*es4 ,diamet] ( valves #c in*es 7#b-c_/d in*es cle>74 ,lift ( valves #a_/b in*4 ,volume ( compression space #bb p] c5t4 ( total4 ,diamet] ( wri/-p9s #a-c_/af in*es4 ,fir+ ord] #a-d-b-f-c-e4 ,! horse-p[] develop$ at #abjj revolutions p] m9ute is #acj1 at #acjj revolutions p] m9ute #adj1 at #adjj revolutions p] m9ute #adh4 #adjj is ! maximum spe$ at :i* x is recomm5d$ to run ^! motors4 ,,twelve-,,cyl9d] ,,eng9e ,a twelve-cyl9d] ,v-type eng9e illu/rat$1 is also be+ built by ?is company1 simil> 9 dim5sions ( cyl9d]s to ! six4 ,! pr9cipal diff]5ces be+ 9 ! drive to cam-%aft1 :i* is ?r\gh spur ge>s in/ead ( bevel4 ,a h+$ type ( connect+ rod is us$ :i* does n increase ! l5g? ( ! motor &1 at ! same "t1 ?is con/ruction provides = ample be>+s4 ,a d\ble c5trifugal wat] pump is provid$ = ?is motor1 s z to di/ribute ! wat] uni=mly to bo? sets ( cyl9d]s4 ,f\r magnetos are us$1 two = ea* set ( six cyl9d]s4 ,! magnetos are v accessibly locat$ on a bracket on ! spur ge> cov]4 ,! c>buretors are locat$ on ! outside ( ! motors1 :]e !y are v accessible1 :ile ! exhau/ is 9 ! c5t] ( ! valley4 ,! crank-%aft on ! twelve is #b-a_/b in*es 9 diamet] & ! %aft is bor$ to r$uce weight4 ,dim5sion$ draw+s ( ! twelve-cyl9d] eng9e are giv5 at ,figs4 #bdb & #bdc & %\ld prove useful = purposes ( comp>ison ) o!r motors4 ,,hall-,,scott ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,! foll[+ specifications ( ! ,hall-,scott ,big ,f\r eng9es apply j z well to ! six-cyl9d] v]tical types :i* are practically ! same 9 con/ruction except = ! /ructural *anges necess>y to accommodate ! two extra cyl9d]s4 ,cyl9d]s are ca/ sep>ately f a special mixture ( semi-/eel1 hav+ cyl9d] head ) valve seats integral4 ,special att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! design ( ! wat] jacket ar\nd ! valves & head1 !re be+ two in*es ( wat] space above same4 ,! cyl9d] is anneal$1 r\gh ma*9$1 !n ! inn] cyl9d] wall & valve seats gr\nd to mirror f9i%4 ,?is adds to ! durability ( ! cyl9d]1 & dim9i%es a great deal ( ! excess friction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,dim5sion$ ,end ,view ( ,wiscons9 ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,motor4 ,great c>e is tak5 9 ! ca/+ & ma*9+ ( ^! cyl9d]s1 to h ! bore & walls conc5tric ) ea* o!r4 ,small ribs are ca/ betwe5 out] & inn] walls to assi/ cool+ z well z to transf] /resses direct f ! explosion to hold-d[n bolts :i* run f /eel ma9 be>+ caps to top ( cyl9d]s4 ,! cyl9d]s are ma*9$ ^u ! sides s t :5 assembl$ on ! crank-case ) groov$ hold-d[n wa%]s tight5$1 !y =m a solid block1 greatly assi/+ ! rigidity ( crank-case4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,dim5sion$ ,side ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,motor4 ,! connect+ rods are v light1 be+ ( ! ,i beam type1 mill$ f a solid ,*rome nickel die =g+4 ,! caps are held on by two #a_/b-bj ?read ,*rome nickel ?r\gh bolts4 ,! rods are fir/ r\gh$ out1 !n anneal$4 ,holes are drill$1 aft] :i* ! rods are h>d5$ & holes gr\nd p>allel ) ea* o!r4 ,! pi/on end is fitt$ ) a gun metal bu%+1 :ile ! crank-p9 end c>ries two bronze s]rat$ %ells1 :i* are t9n$ & babbitt$ hot1 be+ broa*$ to h>d5 ! babbitt4 ,betwe5 ! cap & rod prop] are plac$ lam9at$ %ims = adju/m5t4 ,crank-cases are ca/ ( ! be/ alum9um alloy1 h& scrap$ & s& bla/$ inside & out4 ,! l[] oil case c be remov$ )\t break+ any connections1 s t ! connect+ rods & o!r work+ p>ts c readily be inspect$4 ,an extremely l>ge /ra9] & dirt trap is locat$ 9 ! c5t] & l[e/ po9t ( ! case1 :i* is easily remov$ f ! outside )\t di/urb+ ! oil pump or any work+ p>ts4 ,a ,z5i? c>buretor is provid$4 ,automatic valves & spr+s are abs5t1 mak+ ! adju/m5t simple & effici5t4 ,?is c>buretor is n affect$ by altitude to any appreciable ext5t4 ,a ,hall-,scott device1 cov]$ by ,u4 ,s4 ,pat5t ,no4 #a1jgh1iai1 all[s ! oil to be tak5 direct f ! crank-case & run ar\nd ! c>buretor manifold1 :i* assi/s c>buretion z well z r$uces crank-case heat4 ,two wat]pro( f\r-cyl9d] ,splitdorf ,dixie magnetos are provid$4 ,bo? magneto int]ruptors are connect$ to a rock %aft integral ) ! motor1 mak+ outside connections unnecess>y4 ,x is wor?y ( note t ) ?is indep5d5t d\ble magneto sy/em1 "o complete magneto c become inop]ative1 & /ill ! motor w run & cont9ue to give good p[]4 ,! pi/ons z provid$ 9 ! ,a-#g eng9es are ca/ f a mixture ( /eel & gray iron4 ,^! are extremely light1 yet provid$ ) six deep ribs "u ! ar* head1 greatly aid+ ! cool+ ( ! pi/on z well z /r5g!n+ x4 ,! pi/on p9 bosses are locat$ v l[ 9 ord] to keep ! heat f ! pi/on head away f ! upp] end ( ! connect+ rod1 z well z to arrange !m at ! po9t :]e ! pi/on fits ! cyl9d] be/4 ,?ree #a_/d r+s are c>ri$4 ,! pi/ons z provid$ 9 ! ,a-#g;a eng9es are ca/ f alum9um alloy4 ,f\r #a_/d r+s are c>ri$4 ,9 bo? pi/on types a l>ge diamet]1 heat treat$1 ,*rome nickel /eel wri/-p9 is provid$1 assembl$ 9 su* a way z to assi/ ! circul> rib betwe5 ! wri/-p9 bosses to keep ! pi/on f be+ di/ort$ f ! explosions4 ,! oil+ sy/em is kn[n z ! high pressure type1 oil be+ =c$ to ! "u side ( ! ma9 be>+s ) f #e to #cj po9ts pressure4 ,?is sy/em is n affect$ by extreme angles obta9$ 9 fly+1 or :e!r ! motor is us$ = pu% or pull ma*9es4 ,a l>ge ge> pump is locat$ 9 ! l[e/ po9t ( ! oil sump1 & be+ subm]g$ at all times ) oil1 does away ) tr\blesome /uff+ boxes & *eck valves4 ,! oil is fir/ drawn f ! /ra9] 9 oil sump to ! long jacket ar\nd ! intake manifold1 !n =c$ to ! ma9 di/ributor pipe 9 crank-case1 :i* leads to all ma9 be>+s4 ,a bi-pass1 locat$ at "o end ( ! di/ributor pipe1 c be regulat$ to provide any pressure requir$1 ! surplus oil be+ return$ to ! case4 ,a special feature ( ?is sy/em is ! dirt1 wat] & s$im5t trap1 locat$ at ! bottom ( ! oil sump4 ,?is c be remov$ )\t di/urb+ or dismantl+ ! oil pump or any oil pipes4 ,a small oil pressure gauge is provid$1 :i* c be run to ! aviator's in/rum5t bo>d4 ,?is regi/]s ! oil pressure1 & also det]m9es its circulation4 ,! cool+ ( ?is motor is accompli%$ by ! oil z well z ! wat]1 ?is be+ cov]$ by pat5t ,no4 #a1jgh1iai4 ,?is is accompli%$ by circulat+ ! oil ar\nd a long intake manifold jacket2 ! c>buretion ( gasol9e cools ?is reg>dless ( wea!r conditions4 ,crank-case heat is !re=e kept at a m9imum4 ,! uni=m temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]s is ma9ta9$ by ! use ( +5i\s int]nal outlet pipes1 runn+ ?r\gh ! head ( ea* ( ! six-cyl9d]s1 rubb] hose connections be+ us$ s t any "o ( ! cyl9d]s may be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! o!rs4 ,slots are cut 9 ^! pipes s t cool] wat] is drawn directly ar\nd ! exhau/ valves4 ,extra l>ge wat] jackets are provid$ ^u ! cyl9d]s1 two in*es ( wat] space is left above ! valves & cyl9d] head4 ,! wat] is circulat$ by a l>ge c5trifugal pump insur+ ample circulation at all spe$s4 ,! crank-%aft is ( ! five be>+ type1 be+ ma*9$ f a special heat treat$ drop =g+ ( ! highe/ grade nickel /eel4 ,! =g+ is fir/ drill$1 !n r\gh$ out4 ,aft] ?is ! %aft is /raight5$1 turn$ d[n to a gr9d+ size1 !n gr\nd accurately to size4 ,! be>+ surfaces are ( extremely l>ge size1 ov]-size1 consid]+ g5]al practice 9 ! build+ ( high spe$ eng9es ( simil> bore & /roke4 ,! crank-%aft be>+s are #b 9 diamet] by #a-ae_/af long1 except+ ! re> ma9 be>+1 :i* is #d-c_/h long1 & front ma9 be>+1 :i* is #b-c_/af long4 ,/eel oil scupp]s are p9n$ & sweat$ onto ! webs ( ! %aft1 :i* all[s ( prop]ly oil+ ! connect+ rod be>+s4 ,two ?ru/ be>+s are in/all$ on ! propell] end ( ! %aft1 "o = pull & ! o!r = pu%4 ,! propell] is driv5 by ! crank-%aft flange1 :i* is securely held 9 place ^u ! %aft by six keys4 ,^! drive an outside propell] flange1 ! propell] be+ clamp$ betwe5 !m by six ?r\gh bolts4 ,! flange is fitt$ to a long tap] on crank-%aft4 ,?is enables ! propell] to be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! bolts4 ,tim+ ge>s & />t+ rat*ets are bolt$ to a flange turn$ integral ) %aft4 ,! cam-%aft is ( ! "o piece type1 air pump ecc5tric1 & ge> flange be+ integral4 ,x is made f a l[ c>bon specially heat treat$ nickel =g+1 is fir/ r\gh$ out & drill$ entire l5g?2 ! cams are !n =m$1 aft] :i* x is case h>d5$ & gr\nd to size4 ,! cam-%aft be>+s are extra long1 made f ,p>son's ,:ite ,brass4 ,a small clut* is mill$ 9 ge> end ( %aft to drive revolution indicator4 ,! cam-%aft is enclos$ 9 an alum9um h\s+ bolt$ directly on top ( all six cyl9d]s1 be+ driv5 by a v]tical %aft 9 connection ) bevel ge>s4 ,?is %aft1 9 conjunction ) rock] arms1 roll]s & o!r work+ p>ts1 are oil$ by =c+ ! oil into end ( %aft1 us+ same z a di/ributor1 all[+ ! surplus supply to fl[ back into ! crank-case ?r\gh holl[ v]tical tube4 ,?is supply oils ! magneto & pump ge>s4 ,extremely l>ge ,tung/5 valves1 be+ "o-half ! cyl9d] diamet]1 are seat$ 9 ! cyl9d] heads4 ,l>ge diamet] oil temp]$ spr+s held 9 tool /eel cups1 lock$ ) a key1 are provid$4 ,! ports are v l>ge & %ort1 be+ design$ to all[ ! gases to ent] & exhau/ ) ! lea/ possible resi/ance4 ,^! valves are op]at$ by ov]head "o piece cam-%aft 9 connection ) %ort ,*rome nickel rock] arms4 ,^! arms h h>d5$ tool /eel roll]s on cam end ) h>d5$ tool /eel adju/+ screws opposite4 ,?is con/ruction all[s accurate valve tim+ at all spe$s ) lea/ possible weight4 ,,c5sor$ ,,g]man ,,airplane ,,motors ,9 a pap] on ,aviation ,motors1 pres5t$ by ,e4 ,h4 ,%]bondy be=e ! ,clevel& section ( ! ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 9 ,june1 #aiag1 ! ,m]c$es & ,b5z airplane motor is discuss$ 9 "s detail & portions ( ! description foll[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--,side & ,end ,sectional ,views ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,argus ,eng9e1 a ,g]man #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,design ,hav+ ,bore & ,/roke ( #adj mm41 or #e4fj in*es1 & ,develop+ ,its ,p[] at #a1cfh ,r4,p4,m4 ,weight1 #cej ,p\nds4 ,,m]c$es ,,motor ,! #aej horse-p[] six-cyl9d] ,m]c$es motor is #adj millimet]s bore & #afj millimet]s /roke4 ,! ,m]c$es company />t$ ) small]-siz$ cyl9d]s1 namely #ajj millimet]s bore & #adj millimet]s /roke1 six-cyl9d]s4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! design are =g$ /eel cyl9d]s ) =g$ /eel elb[s = gas passages1 press$ /eel wat] jackets1 :i* :5 weld$ toge!r =ms ! cyl9d] assembly1 ! use ( incl9$ ov]head valves op]at$ by means ( an ov]head cam-%aft ?r\gh rock] arms :i* multiply ) ! motion ( ! cam4 ,by ! use ( /eel cyl9d]s1 n only is ! weight greatly r$uc$1 b c]ta9 fre$om f di/ortion ?r\gh unequal sections1 leaks & cracks are entirely avoid$4 ,! con/ruction is necess>ily v exp5sive4 ,x is c]ta9ly a s\nd job4 ,9 ! details ( ?is con/ruction !re are a numb] ( important ?+s1 su* z f9i%$ gas passages1 wat]-cool$ valve guides & a v small mass ( metal1 :i* is wat]-cool$1 surr\nd+ ! sp>k-plug4 ,( c\rse1 x is necess>y to use v high compression 9 aviation motors 9 ord] to secure high p[] & economy & ow+ to ! fact t aviation motors are work$ at ne>ly _! maximum1 ! heat fl[ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]1 pi/on1 & valves is _m times high] ?an t enc\nt]$ 9 automobile motors4 ,x has be5 f\nd necess>y to develop special types ( pi/ons to c>ry ! heat f ! c5t] ( ! head 9 ord] to prev5t pre-ignition4 ,9 ! ,m]c$es motor ! pi/ons h a drop =g$ /eel head :i* includes ! pi/on boss & ?is head is screw$ into a ca/ iron skirt :i* has be5 ma*9$ inside to secure uni=m wall ?ickness4 ,,c5sor$ ,a ,pi/on ,displacem5t 7,cubic ,in*es7 ,b ,weight ( ,eng9e ) ,c>buretor & ,ignition ,c ,gas ,consumption ,mak]'s ,numb],bore ,/roke ,"n ( 7,9- 7,9- & ,model ,cyl4 *es7 *es7 ,a ,h4,p4,r4,p4,m4 ,b ,c ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,a]om>9e #f #d-a_/b #e-a_/h #ddi #he #adjj #ddj 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,a]om>9e #ab #d-e_/afe-a_/h 444 444 444 #gej 444 ,d-#ab ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,curtiss ,,ox #h #d #e #ejb4f #ij #adjj #cge 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,curtiss #h #d-a_/d #e #efg4e #ajj #adjj #dbc 444 ,,oxx-#b ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,curtiss ,v-#b #h #e #g #aajj #bjj #adjj #fij 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,c5sor$ ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,g5]al ,ve- #i #d4cc #e4i #hdh #ajj #abjj #bgbab gals_/h\r at hicle ,gnome ,mono rat$ ,h4,p4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,gyro ,k #g #d-a_/b #f 444 #ij #abej #baeh gals_/h\r at ,rot>y1 ,le ,rhone ,type rat$ ,h4,p4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,gyro ,l #i #d-a_/b #f #hei #ajj #abjj #bheaj gals_/h\r at ,rot>y1 ,le ,rhone ,type rat$ ,h4,p4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,hall-,scott #d #e #g #eej #ij- #adjj #daj 444 ,a-#g #ajj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,hall-,scott #f #e #g #hbe #abe #acjj #eib 444 ,a-#e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,hispano- #h #d-e_/h #e #fgb #aed #aejj #dee 444 ,suiza ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,knox ,motors #ab #d-c_/d #g #aeee #cjj #ahjjadbeca4e gals_/h\r ,co4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,maximotor #f #d-a_/b #e #dgg #he #afjj #cdj 444 ,a-#f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,maximotor #f #e #f #gjf4h #aae #afjj #che 444 ,b-#f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,maximotor #h #d-a_/b #e #fcf #aae #afjj #dbj 444 ,a-#h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,pack>d #ab #ab #d #f #ijc #bbe #bajj #hjj 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,/urtevant #h #d #e-a_/b #eeb4i #adj #bjjj #ehj 444 #e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,/urtevant #h #d #e-a_/b 444 #adj #bjjj #eadac4ge gals_/h\r #e-;,a ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,?omas #h #h #d #e-a_/b #eeb4i #ace #bjjj #fcj 444 lbs4 ) self-/>t] ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,?omas #hh #h #d-a_/h #e-a_/b #eeb4i #aej #bajj #ebe 444 lbs4 ) self-/>t] ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,wiscons9 #f #e #f-a_/b #gfe4g #adj #achj #fcg 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,wiscons9 #ab #e #f-a_/b #aeca4d #bej #abjj 444 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! c>buretor us$ on ?is #aej horse-p[] ,m]c$es motor is precisely ( ! same type us$ on ! ,tw9 ,six motor4 ,x has two v5turi ?roats1 9 ! c5t] ( :i* is plac$ ! gasol9e spray nozzle ( conv5tional type1 fix$ size orifices1 imm$iately above :i* are plac$ two panel type ?rottles ) side outlets4 ,an idl+ or prim>y nozzle is arrang$ to dis*>ge above ! top ( ! v5turi ?roat4 ,! c>buretor body is ( ca/ alum9um & is wat] jacket$4 ,x is bolt$ directly to air passage pass+ ?r\gh ! top & bottom half ( ! crank-case :i* passes d[n ?r\gh ! oil res]voir4 ,! air be=e rea*+ ! c>buretor prop] to "s ext5t has cool$ ! oil 9 ! crank *amb] & has itself be5 heat$ to assi/ 9 ! vaporization4 ,! inlet pipes !mselves are copp]4 ,all ! passages betwe5 ! v5turi ?roat & ! inlet valve h be5 c>efully f9i%$ & poli%$4 ,! only abnormal ?+ 9 ! design ( ?is motor is ! %ort connect+ rod :i* is consid]ably less ?an twice ! /roke & w\ld be consid]$ v bad practice 9 motor c> eng9es4 ,a %ort connect+ rod1 h[ev]1 possesses two v real virtues 9 t x cuts d[n height ( ! motor & ! pi/on passes ov] ! bottom dead c5t] mu* m sl[ly ?an ) a long rod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,"p ,sectional ,view ( #ij ,horse-,p[] ,m]c$es ,eng9e1 ,:i* is ,typical ( ! ,design ( ,l>g] ,sizes4 ,o!r features ( ! design are a v /iff crank-case1 bo? halves ( :i* are bolt$ toge!r by means ( long ?r\gh bolts1 ! crank-%aft ma9 be>+s are seat$ 9 ! l[] half ( ! case in/ead ( 9 ! usual caps & no provision is made = tak+ up ! ma9 be>+s4 ,! ,m]c$es company uses a plung] type ( pump hav+ me*anically op]at$ pi/on valves & x is driv5 by means ( worm ge>+4 ,! ov]head cam-%aft con/ruction is extremely light4 ,! cam-%aft is m\nt$ 9 a ne>ly cyl9drical ca/ bronze case & is driv5 by means ( bevel ge>s f ! crank-%aft4 ,! v]tical bevel ge> %aft ?r\gh :i* ! drive is tak5 f ! crank-%aft to ! cam-%aft op]ates at "o & "o-half times ! crank-%aft spe$s & ! r$uction to ! half-"t cam-%aft is secur$ ?r\gh a pair ( bevels4 ,on ?is v]tical %aft !re is m\nt$ ! wat] pump & a bevel ge> = driv+ two magnetos4 ,! wat] pump m\nt$ on ?is %aft t5ds to /eady ! drive & avoid vibration 9 ! ge>+4 ,! cyl9d] sizes ( six-cyl9d] aviation motors :i* h be5 built by ,m]c$es are ,bore ,/roke ,horse-p[] #aje mm4 #adj mm4 #ajj #abj mm4 #adj mm4 #ace #adj mm4 #aej mm4 #aej #adj mm4 #afj mm4 #afj ,! l>ge/ ( ^! motors has rec5tly _h its horse-p[] increas$ to #agf at #adej ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,?is g5]al design ( motor has be5 ! f\ndation = a great _m o!r aviation motor designs1 "s ( :i* h prov$ v successful b none ( :i* is equal to ! orig9al4 ,among ! motors :i* foll[ m or less closely ! s*eme ( design & arrangem5t are ! ,hall-,scott1 ! ,wiscons9 motor1 ! ,r5ault wat]-cool$1 ! ,pack>d1 ! ,*ri/(f]son & ! ,rolls-,royce4 ,ea* ( ^! motors %[ consid]able v>iation 9 detail4 ,! ,rolls-,royce & ,r5ault are ! only ones :o h us$ ! /eel cyl9d] ) ! /eel jacket4 ,! ,wiscons9 motor uses an alum9um cyl9d] ) a h>d5$ /eel l9] & ca/-iron valve seats4 ,! ,*ri/(f]son has some:at simil> design to ! ,wiscons9 ) ! exception t ! valve seats are ?read$ into ! alum9um jacket & ! cyl9d] head has a blank end :i* is secur$ to ! alum9um ca/+ by means ( ! valve seat pieces4 ,! ,rolls-,royce motors %[ small diff]5ces 9 details ( design 9 cyl9d] head & cam-%aft h\s+ f ! ,m]c$es on :i* x has tak5 out pat5ts1 n only abroad b 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,,! ,,b5z ,,motor ,9 ! ,kais] prize conte/ = aviation motors a f\r-cyl9d] ,b5z motor ( #acj by #ahj mm4 won fir/ prize1 develop+ #ajc ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 at #abij ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,! fuel consumption 0 #baj grams p] horse-p[] h\r4 ,total weight ( ! motor 0 #aec kilograms4 ,! oil consumption 0 4#jb ( a kilogram p] horse-p[] h\r4 ,?is motor 0 aft]w>d exp&$ into a six-cyl9d] design & ?ree diff]5t sizes 7 built4 ,! accompany+ table gives "s ( ! details ( weight1 horse-p[]1 etc4 ,motor type ,b ,,fd ,,ff ,rat$ horse-p[] #he #ajj #aej ,horse-p[] at #abej r4p4m #hh #ajh #aej ,horse-p[] at #acej r4p4m #ie #aae #afj ,bore 9 millimet]s #ajf #aaf #acj ,/roke 9 millimet]s #aej #afj #ahj ,(fset ( ! cyl9d]s 9 millimet]s #ah #bj #bj ,rate ( gasol9e consumption 9 grams #bdj #bcj #bbe ,oil consumption 9 grams p] b4h4p4 h\r #aj #aj #aj ,oil capacity 9 kilograms #cf #d #d-a_/b ,wat] capacity 9 litres #e-a_/b #g-a_/b #i-a_/b ,! weight ) wat] & oil b ) two magnetos1 fuel fe$] & air pump 9 kilograms #agj #bjj #bde ,! weight ( motors1 includ+ ! wat] pump1 two magnetos1 d\ble ignition1 etc4 #afj #aij #bcj ,! weight ( ! exhau/ pipe1 complete 9 kilograms #d #d4h #e-a_/b ,! weight ( ! propell] hub 9 kilograms4 #c-a_/b #d #d ,! ,b5z cyl9d] is a simple1 /raight=w>d design & a v reliable con/ruction & n p>ticul>ly difficult to manufacture4 ,! cyl9d] is ca/ ( iron )\t a wat] jacket b includ+ #de degrees angle elb[s to ! valve ports4 ,! cyl9d]s are ma*9$ :]ev] possible & at o!r po9ts h be5 h& fil$ & scrap$1 aft] :i* a jacket1 :i* is press$ 9 two halves1 is gas weld$ by means ( %ort pipes weld$ on to ! jacket4 ,! bottom & ! top ( ! cyl9d]s become wat] gall]ies1 & by ?is means sep>ate wat] pipes ) _! att5dant weight & complication are elim9at$4 ,rubb] r+s held 9 alum9um clamps s]ve to connect ! cyl9d]s toge!r4 ,! :ole con/ruction turns out v neat & light4 ,! cyl9d] walls are #d mm4 or #c_/af ?ick & ! combu/ion *amb] is ( cyl9drical pancake =m & is #adj mm4 or #e4fj in* 9 diamet]4 ,! valve seats are #fh mm4 9 diamet] & ! valve port is #fb mm4 9 diamet]4 ,! passage jo9+ ! port is #eg mm4 9 diamet]4 ,9 ord] to ins]t ! valves into ! cyl9d] ! valve /em is made ) two diamet]s & ! valve has to be cock$ to ins]t x 9 ! guide1 :i* has a bronze bu%+ at its upp] end to comp5sate = ! small] valve /em diamet]4 ,! valve /em is #ad mm4 or #i_/af 9 diamet] & is r$uc$ at its upp] portion to #i-a_/b mm4 ,! valves are op]at$ ?r\gh a pu% rod & rock] arm con/ruction1 :i* is #g_/af & exce$+ly light4 ,rock] arm supports are /eel /uds ) enl>g$ heads to take a d\ble r[ ball be>+4 ,a roll] is m\nt$ at "o end ( ! rock] arm to imp+e on ! end ( ! valve /em1 & ! rock] arm has an adju/able globe /ud at ! o!r end4 ,! pu% rods are light /eel tubes ) a wall ?ickness ( #j4ge mm4 & h a h>d5$ /eel cup at _! upp] end to engage ! rock] arm globe /ud & a h>d5$ /eel globe at _! l[] end to socket 9 ! roll] plung]4 ,! ,b5z cam-%aft has a diamet] ( #bf mm4 & is bor$ /raight ?r\gh #ah mm4 & !re is a spiral ge> made integrally ) ! %aft 9 ab\t ! c5t] ( its l5g? = driv+ ! oil pump ge>4 ,! cam faces are #aj mm4 wide4 ,!re is also1 9 addition to ! intake & exhau/ cams1 a set ( half compression cams4 ,! %aft is mov$ longitud9ally 9 its be>+s by means ( an ecc5tric to put ^! cams into action4 ,at ! =e end ( ! %aft is a driv+ ge> flange :i* is v small 9 diamet] & v ?94 ,! flange is #fh mm4 9 diamet] & #d mm4 ?ick & is tapp$ to take #f mm4 bolts4 ,! total l5g? ( cam-%aft is #ajch mm41 & x becomes a regul> gun bor+ job to drill a hole ( ?is l5g?4 ,! cam-%aft ge> is #adj mm4 or #e-a_/b in*es outside diamet]4 ,x has fifty-f\r tee? & ! ge> face is #ae mm4 or #ai_/cb4 ,! flange & web h an av]age ?ickness ( #d mm4 or #e_/cb & ! web is drill$ full ( holes int]pos$ betwe5 ! spur ge> m\nt$ on ! cam-%aft & ! cam-%aft ge>4 ,!re is a ge> :i* s]ves to drive ! magnetos & ta*omet]1 also ! air pump4 ,! %aft is made integrally ) ?is ge> & has an ecc5tric portion aga9/ :i* ! air pump roll plung] imp+es4 ,! sev5-be>+ crank-%aft is f9i%$ all ov] 9 a beautiful mann]1 & ! %aft out ( ! p>ticul> motor we h %[s no signs ( we> :atev]4 ,! crank-p9s are #ee mm4 9 diamet] & #fi mm4 long4 ,?r\gh bo? ! crank-p9 & ma9 be>+s !re is drill$ a #bh mm4 hole1 & ! crank *eeks are plugg$ ) sold]4 ,! crank *eeks are also built to convey ! lubricant to ! crank-p9s4 ,at ! =e end ( ! crank *eek !re is press$ on a spur driv+ ge>4 ,!re is screw$ on to ! front end ( ! %aft a piece :i* =ms a bevel wat] pump driv+ ge> & ! />t+ dog4 ,at ! re> end ( ! %aft v close to ! propell] hub m\nt+ !re is a d\ble ?ru/ be>+ to take ! propell] ?ru/4 ,long1 %\ld]$ /uds are screw$ into ! top half ( ! crank-case portion ( ! case & pass clean ?r\gh ! bottom half ( ! case4 ,! case is v /iff & well ribb$4 ,! ?ree c5t] be>+ diaphragms h d\ble walls4 ,! c5t] "o s]ves z a duct ?r\gh :i* wat] pipe passes1 & ^? on ei!r side ( ! c5t] =m ! c>buretor intake air passages & are enl>g$ 9 section at "o side to take ! c>buretor b>rel ?rottle4 ,! pi/ons are ( ca/ iron & c>ry ?ree conc5tric r+s #a_/d in* wide on _! upp] end1 :i* are p9n$ at ! jo9t4 ,! top ( ! pi/on =ms ! fru/um ( ! cone & ! pi/ons are #aaj mm4 9 l5g?4 ,! l[] portion ( ! skirt is ma*9$ inside & has a wall ?ickness ( #a mm4 ,rivet$ to ! pi/on head is a conical diaphragm :i* contacts ) ! pi/on p9 :5 9 place & s]ves to c>ry ! heat (f ! c5t] ( ! pi/on4 ,! oil pump assembly comprises a pair ( plung] pumps :i* draw oil f a sep>ate outside pump1 & con/ruct$ integrally ) x is a ge> pump :i* deliv]s ! oil "u ab\t #fj p\nd pressure ?r\gh a set ( copp] pipes 9 ! base to ! ma9 be>+s4 ,! plung] oil pump %[s great ref9em5t ( detail4 ,a worm :eel & two ecc5trics are ma*9$ up out ( "o piece & s]ve to op]ate ! plung]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,"p ,sectional ,side ,view & ,sectional ,end ,view ( ,b5z #afj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,"s int]e/+ details ( ! #afj horse-p[] ,b5z motor1 :i* is %[n at ,fig4 #bdf1 are reproduc$ f ! ,a]ial ,age ,weekly1 & %[ h[ c>efully ! design has be5 consid]$4 ,maximum horse-p[]1 #afg4e ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,spe$ at maximum horse-p[]1 #a1ejj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,pi/on spe$ at maximum horse-p[]1 #a1ggj ft4 p] m9ute4 ,normal horse-p[]1 #afj ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,spe$ at normal horse-p[]1 #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,pi/on spe$ at normal horse-p[]1 #a1fef ft4 p] m9ute4 ,brake mean pressure at maximum horse-p[]1 #aja4b p\nd p] squ>e in*4 ,brake mean pressure at normal horse-p[]1 #ajc4d p\nd p] squ>e in*4 ,specific p[] cubic in* swept volume p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p41 #e4df cubic in*2 #afj ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 ,weight ( pi/on1 complete ) gudgeon p91 r+s1 etc41 #e4j p\nd4 ,weight ( connect+ rod1 complete ) be>+s1 #d4ii p\nd2 #a4h p\nd reciprocat+4 ,weight ( reciprocat+ p>ts p] cyl9d]1 #f4h p\nd4 ,weight ( reciprocat+ p>ts p] squ>e in* ( pi/on area1 #j4cc p\nd4 ,outside diamet] ( inlet valve1 #fh mm42 #b4fh in*es4 ,diamet] ( inlet valve port 7d71 #fa4e mm42 #b4db in*es4 ,maximum lift ( inlet valve 7h71 #aa mm42 #j4ddc in*4 ,area ( inlet valve op5+ 7pi d h71 #ba4be squ>e cm42 #c4bi squ>e in*es4 ,inlet valve op5s1 degrees on crank1 top dead c5t]4 ,inlet valve closes1 degrees on crank1 #fj deg4 late2 #ce mm4 late4 ,outside diamet] ( exhau/ valve1 #fh mm42 #b4fh in*es4 ,diamet] ( exhau/ valve port 7d71 #fa4e mm42 #b4db in*es4 ,maximum lift ( exhau/ valve 7h7 #aa mm42 #j4dcc in*4 ,area ( exhau/ valve op5+ 7pi d h71 #ba4be squ>e cm42 #c4bi squ>e in*es4 ,exhau/ valve op5s1 degrees on crank1 #fj deg4 e>ly2 #ce mm4 e>ly4 ,exhau/ valve closes1 degrees on crank1 #af-a_/b deg4 late2 #e mm4 late4 ,l5g? ( connect+ rod betwe5 c5t]s1 #cad mm42 #ab4cf in*es4 ,ratio connect+ rod to crank ?r[1 #c4di3a4 ,diamet] ( crank-%aft1 #ee mm4 outside1 #b4afe in*es2 #bh mm4 inside1 #a4ajb in*es4 ,diamet] ( crank-p91 #ee mm4 outside1 #b4afe in*es2 #bh mm4 inside1 #a4ajb in*es4 ,diamet] ( gudgeon p91 #cj mm4 outside1 #a4aha in*es2 #ai mm4 inside1 #j4gjh in*4 ,diamet] ( cam-%aft1 #bf mm4 outside1 #a4jbc in*es2 #ah mm4 inside1 #j4gjh in*4 ,numb] ( crank-%aft be>+s1 #g4 ,project$ area ( crank-p9 be>+s1 #cf4he squ>e cm42 #e4gb squ>e in*es4 ,project$ area ( gudgeon p9 be>+s1 #bb4bj squ>e cm42 #c4dd squ>e in*es4 ,fir+ sequ5ce1 #a1 #e1 #c1 #f1 #b1 #d4 ,type ( magnetos1 ,,zh#f ,bos*4 ,direction ( rotation ( magneto f driv+ end1 "o clock1 "o anti-clock4 ,magneto tim+1 full advance1 #cj deg4 e>ly 7#af mm4 e>ly74 ,type ( c>buretors 7#b7 ,b5z design4 ,fuel consumption p] h\r1 normal horse-p[]1 #j4eg p9t4 ,normal spe$ ( propell]1 eng9e spe$1 #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,,au/ro-,,daiml] ,,eng9e ,"o ( ! fir/ v successful ,european fly+ eng9es :i* 0 develop$ 9 ,europe is ! ,au/ro-,daiml]1 :i* is %[n 9 end section 9 a prec$+ *apt]4 ,! fir/ ( ^! motors _h f\r-cyl9d]s1 #abj by #adj millimet]s1 bore & /roke1 ) ca/ iron cyl9d]s1 ov]head valves op]at$ by means ( a s+le rock] arm1 controll$ by two cams & ! valves 7 clos$ by a s+le leaf spr+ :i* oscillates ) ! rock] arm4 ,! cyl9d]s are ca/ s+ly & h ei!r copp] or /eel jackets appli$ to !m4 ,! f\r-cyl9d] design 0 aft]w>ds exp&$ to ! six-cyl9d] design & /ill lat] a six-cyl9d] motor ( #acj by #age millimet]s 0 develop$4 ,?is motor uses an (fset crank-%aft1 z does ! ,b5z motor1 & ! effect ( (fset has be5 discuss$ e>li] on 9 ?is treatise4 ,! ,b5z motor also uses an (fset cam-%aft :i* improves ! valve op]ation & *anges ! valve lift diagram4 ,! lubrication also is diff]5t ?an any o!r aviation motor1 s9ce individual high pressure met]+ pumps are us$ to deliv] fre% oil only to ! be>+s & cyl9d]s1 z 0 ! cu/om 9 automobile practice "s t5 ye>s ago4 ,,sunbeam ,,aviation ,,eng9es ,^! v successful eng9es h be5 develop$ by ,l\is ,coatal54 ,at ! op5+ ( ! w> ! l>ge/ siz$ ,coatal5 motor 0 #bbe horse-p[] & 0 ( ! ,l-head type hav+ a s+le cam-%aft = op]at+ valves & 0 an evolution f ! twelve-cyl9d] rac+ c> :i* ! ,sunbeam ,company _h previ\sly built4 ,s9ce #aiad ! ,sunbeam ,company h produc$ eng9es ( six-1 eight-1 twelve- & eighte5-cyl9d]s f #aej to #ejj horse-p[] ) bo? iron & alum9um cyl9d]s4 ,= ! la/ two ye>s all ! motors h _h ov]head cam-%afts ) a sep>ate %aft = op]at+ ! intake & exhau/ valves4 ,cam-%afts are connect$ ?r\gh to ! crank-%aft by means ( a tra9 ( spur ge>s1 all ( :i* are m\nt$ on two d\ble r[ ball be>+s4 ,9 ! tw9 six1 #cej horse-p[] eng9e1 op]at+ at #bajj ,r4 ,p4 ,m41 requires ab\t #d horse-p[] to op]ate ! cam-%afts4 ,?is motor gives #cfb horse-p[] at #bajj revolutions & has a fuel consumption ( #ea_/ajj ( a p9t p] brake horse-p[] h\r4 ,! cyl9d]s are #aaj by #afj millimet]s4 ,! same design has be5 exp&$ into an eighte5-cyl9d] :i* gives #ebe horse-p[] at #bajj turns4 ,!re has also be5 develop$ a v successful eight-cyl9d] motor rat$ at #bbbj horse-p[] :i* has a bore & /roke ( #abj by #acj millimet]s1 weight #dej p\nds4 ,?is motor is an alum9um block con/ruction ) /eel sleeves ins]t$4 ,?ree valves are op]at$1 "o = ! inlet & two = ! exhau/4 ,"o cam-%aft op]ates ! ?ree valves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,at ,top1 ! ,sunbeam ,ov]head ,valve #agj ,horse-,p[] ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,bel[1 ,side ,view ( ,sunbeam #cej ,horse-,p[] ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e4 ,! mod]n ,sunbeam eng9es op]ate ) a mean effective pressure ( #ace p\nds ) a compression ratio ( #f to #a sea level4 ,! connect+ rods are ( ! articulat$ type z 9 ! ,r5ault motor & are v %ort4 ,! weight ( ^! motors turns out at #b4f p\nds p] brake horse-p[]1 & !y are able to g ?r\gh a #ajj h\r te/ )\t any tr\ble ( any k9d4 ,! lubricat+ sy/em comprises a dry base & oil pump = draw+ ! oil (f f ! base1 :5ce x is deliv]$ to ! filt] & cool+ sy/em4 ,x !n is pump$ by a sep>ate high pressure ge> pump ?r\gh ! entire motor4 ,9 ^! l>g] ,european motors1 ca/or-oil is us$ l>gely = lubrication4 ,x is said t )\t ! use ( ca/or-oil x is impossible to hold full p[] = five h\rs4 ,coatal5 favors alum9um cyl9d]s r ?an ca/ iron4 ,! s]ies ( views 9 ,figs4 #bdg to #bej inclusive1 illu/rates ! v]tical1 n>r[ type ( eng9e2 ! ,v-=m2 & ! broad arr[ type :]e9 ?ree r[s1 ea* ( six-cyl9d]s1 are set on a common crank-case4 ,9 ?is wat]-cool$ s]ies ! gasol9e & oil consumption are notably l[1 z is ! weight p] horse-p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--,side ,view ( ,eighte5-,cyl9d] ,sunbeam ,coatal5 ,aircraft ,eng9e ,rat$ at #dge ,b4,h4,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,sunbeam ,eighte5-,cyl9d] ,motor1 ,view$ f ,pump & ,magneto ,end4 ,9 ! eighte5-cyl9d] ov]head valve ,sunbeam-,coatal5 aircraft eng9e ( #dge brake horse-p[]1 !re are no few] ?an half a doz5 magnetos4 ,ea* magneto is inclos$4 ,two sp>ks are furni%$ to ea* cyl9d] f indep5d5t magnetos4 ,on ?is eng9e !re are also no few] ?an six c>buretors4 ,%ortness ( crank-%aft1 & !re=e ( eng9e l5g?1 & abs5ce ( vibration are a*iev$ by ! l9k+ ( ! connect+-rods4 ,^? conc]n$ ) ?ree-cyl9d]s 9 ! broad arr[ =mation "w on "o crank-p91 ! out] rods be+ l9k$ to ! c5tral ma/] "o4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is arrangem5t1 ! pi/on travel 9 ! case ( ! c5tral r[ ( cyl9d]s is #afj mm41 :ile ! /roke ( ! pi/ons ( ! cyl9d]s set on ei!r side is 9 ea* case #afh mm4 ,inasmu* z ea* set ( six-cyl9d]s is completely balanc$ 9 itself1 ?is diff]5ce 9 /roke does n affect ! balance ( ! eng9e z a :ole4 ,! duplicate ignition s*eme also applies to ! twelve-cyl9d] #cej brake horse-p[] ,sunbeam-,coatal5 ov]head valve aircraft eng9e type4 ,x is di/+ui%able1 incid5tally1 by ! passage =m$ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ea* induction pipe = ! sp>k+ plug 9 ! c5t] cyl9d] ( ea* block ( ?ree4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! eighte5-cyl9d] & ! six-cyl9d] types1 !re are two cam-%afts = ea* set ( cyl9d]s4 ,^! cam-%afts are lubricat$ by l[ pressure & are op]at$ ?r\gh a tra9 ( inclos$ spur :eels at ! magneto end ( ! ma*9e4 ,! six-cyl9d]1 #agj brake horse-p[] v]tical type employs ! same g5]al pr9ciples1 includ+ ! detail t ea* c>buretor s]ves gas to a gr\p ( ?ree-cyl9d]s only4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ?is eng9e pres5ts notably little head resi/ance1 be+ suitable = multi-eng9$ aircraft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,propell] ,end ( ,sunbeam ,eighte5-,cyl9d] #dge ,b4,h4,p4 ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,,indicat+ ,,met]s ,,= ,,auxili>y ,,sy/ems ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,view ( ,airplane ,c[l ,bo>d1 ,%[+ ! ,v>i\s ,navigat+ & ,indicat+ ,in/rum5ts to ,aid ! ,aviator 9 ,flight4 ,! prop] function+ ( ! p[] plant & ! v>i\s gr\ps compris+ x may be readily asc]ta9$ at any "t by ! pilot because v>i\s indicat+ met]s & pressure gauges are provid$ :i* are locat$ on a da% or c[l bo>d 9 front ( ! aviator1 z %[n at ,fig4 #bea4 ,! spe$ indicator corresponds to ! spe$omet] ( an automobile & gives an indication ( ! spe$ ! airplane is mak+1 :i* tak5 9 conjunction ) ! clock w make x possible to det]m9e ! di/ance cov]$ at a flight4 ,! altimet]1 :i* is an an]oid b>omet]1 outl9es ) fair accuracy ! height above ! gr\nd at :i* a plane is fly+4 ,^! in/rum5ts are furni%$ to enable ! aviator to navigate ! airplane :5 9 ! air1 & if ! ma*9e is to be us$ = cross-c\ntry fly+1 !y may be supplem5t$ by a compass & a drift set4 ,x w be evid5t t ^! are purely navigat+ in/rum5ts & only indicate ! motor condition 9 an indirect mann]4 ,! be/ way ( keep+ track ( ! motor action is to wat* ! ta*omet] or revolution c\nt] :i* is driv5 f ! eng9e by a flexible %aft4 ,?is indicates directly ! numb] ( revolutions ! eng9e is mak+ p] m9ute &1 ( c\rse1 any sl[+ up ( ! eng9e 9 normal flights indicates t some?+ is n function+ z x %\ld4 ,! ta*omet] op]ates on ! same pr9ciple z ! spe$ indicat+ device or spe$omet] us$ 9 automobiles except t ! dial is calibrat$ to %[ revolutions p] m9ute in/ead ( miles p] h\r4 ,at ! extreme "r ( ! da% at ,fig4 #bea ! sp>k advance & ?rottle control lev]s are plac$4 ,^!1 ( c\rse1 regulate ! motor spe$ j z !y d 9 an automobile4 ,next to ! eng9e spe$ regulat+ lev]s is plac$ a pu% button cut-out swit* to cut out ! ignition & /op ! motor4 ,?ree pressure gauges are plac$ 9 a l9e4 ,! "o at ! extreme "r indicates ! pressure ( air on ! fuel :5 a pressure fe$ sy/em is us$4 ,! middle "o %[s oil pressure1 :ile t ne>e/ ! c5t] ( ! da% bo>d is employ$ to %[ ! air pressure available 9 ! air />t+ sy/em4 ,x w be evid5t t ! "* ( ! indicat+ in/rum5ts w v>y ) ! design ( ! airplane4 ,if x 0 provid$ ) an electrical />t] in/ead ( an air sy/em electrical indicat+ in/rum5ts w\ld h to be provid$4 ,,compress$ ,,air-,,/>t+ ,,sy/ems ,two =ms ( air-/>t+ sy/ems are 9 g5]al use1 "o 9 :i* ! crank-%aft is turn$ by means ( an air motor1 ! o!r class :]e compress$ air is admitt$ to ! cyl9d]s prop] & ! motor turn$ ov] because ( ! air pressure act+ on ! eng9e pi/ons4 ,a sy/em kn[n z ! ,nev]-,miss utilizes a small d\ble-cyl9d] air pump is driv5 f ! eng9e by means ( suitable ge>+ & supplies air to a sub/antial conta9] locat$ at "s conv5i5t po9t 9 ! fuselage4 ,! air is pip$ f ! conta9] to a da%-control valve & f ?is memb] to a peculi> =m ( air motor m\nt$ ne> ! crank-%aft4 ,! air motor consi/s ( a pi/on to :i* a rack is fa/5$ :i* engages a ge> m\nt$ on ! crank %aft provid$ ) "s =m ( rat*et clut* to p]mit x to revolve only 9 "o direction1 & !n only :5 ! ge> is turn+ fa/] ?an ! eng9e crank-%aft4 ,! me?od ( op]ation is extremely simple1 ! da%-control valve admitt+ air f ! supply tank to ! top ( ! pump cyl9d]4 ,:5 9 ! position %[n 9 cut ! air pressure w =ce ! pi/on & rack d[n & set ! eng9e 9 motion4 ,a v>iety ( air motors are us$ & 9 "s ! pump & motor may be ! same device1 means be+ provid$ to *ange ! pump to an air motor :5 ! eng9e is to be turn$ ov]4 ,! ,*ri/5s5 air />t+ sy/em is %[n at ,figs4 #beb & #bec4 ,an air pump is driv5 by ! eng9e1 & ?is supplies air to an air res]voir or conta9] atta*$ to ! fuselage4 ,?is conta9] communicates ) ! top ( an air di/ributor :5 a suitable control valve is op54 ,an air pressure gauge is provid$ to enable "o to asc]ta9 ! air pressure available4 ,! top ( ea* cyl9d] is provid$ ) a *eck valve1 ?r\gh :i* air c fl[ only 9 "o direction1 i4e41 f ! tank to ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d]4 ,"u explosive pressure ^! *eck valves close4 ,! function ( ! di/ributor is practically ! same z t ( an ignition tim]1 its purpose be+ to di/ribute ! air to ! cyl9d]s ( ! eng9e only 9 ! prop] fir+ ord]4 ,all ! :ile t ! eng9e is runn+ & ! c> is 9 motion ! air pump is function+1 unless ?r[n out ( action by an easily manipulat$ automatic control4 ,:5 x is desir$ to />t ! eng9e a />t+ valve is op5$ :i* p]mits ! air to fl[ to ! top ( ! di/ributor1 & !n ?r\gh a pipe to ! *eck valve on top ( ! cyl9d] ab\t to explode4 ,z ! air is go+ ?r\gh "u consid]able pressure x w move ! pi/on d[n j z ! explosion w\ld1 & />t ! eng9e rotat+4 ,! inside ( ! di/ributor rotates & directs a *>ge ( air to ! cyl9d] next to fire4 ,9 ?is way ! eng9e is giv5 a numb] ( revolutions1 & f9ally a *>ge ( gas w be ignit$ & ! eng9e />t (f on its cycle ( op]ation4 ,to make />t+ positive & easi] "s gasol9e is inject$ 9 ) ! air s an inflammable mixture is pres5t 9 ! cyl9d]s in/ead ( air only4 ,?is ignites easily & ! eng9e />ts (f soon] ?an w\ld o!rwise be ! case4 ,! air pressure requir$ v>ies f #abe to #bej p\nds p] squ>e in*1 dep5d+ ^u ! size & type ( ! eng9e to be set 9 motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beb4--,p>ts ( ,*ri/5s5 ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em ,%[n at ,a1 & ,application ( ,pip+ & ,*eck ,valves to ,cyl9d]s ( ,?omas-,morse ,a]omotor ,outl9$ at ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4--;,diagrams ,%[+ ,in/allation ( ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em on ,?omas-,morse ,aviation ,motor4 ,,electric ,,/>t+ ,,sy/ems ,/>t]s utiliz+ electric motors to turn ov] ! eng9e h be5 rec5tly develop$1 & :5 prop]ly made & ma9ta9$ 9 an effici5t condition !y answ] all ! requirem5ts ( an ideal />t+ device4 ,! capacity is v high1 z ! motor may draw curr5t f a /orage batt]y & keep ! eng9e turn+ ov] = consid]able "t on a *>ge4 ,! objection aga9/ _! use is t x requires consid]able complicat$ & co/ly app>atus :i* is difficult to und]/& & :i* requires ! s]vices ( an exp]t electrician to repair %\ld x get out ( ord]1 ?\gh if batt]y ignition is us$ ! g5]ator takes ! place ( ! usual ignition magneto4 ,9 ! ,delco sy/em ! electric curr5t is g5]at$ by a comb9$ motor-g5]ator p]man5tly ge>$ to ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! motor is runn+ x turns ! armature & ! motor g5]ator is act+ z a dynamo1 only supply+ curr5t to a /orage batt]y4 ,on acc\nt ( ! v>y+ spe$s ( ! g5]ator1 :i* are due to ! fluctuation 9 eng9e spe$1 "s =m ( automatic swit* :i* w disconnect ! g5]ator f ! batt]y at su* times t ! motor spe$ is n suffici5tly high to g5]ate a curr5t /rong] ?an t deliv]$ by ! batt]y is ne$$4 ,^! automatic swit*es are ! only delicate "p ( ! entire app>atus1 & :ile !y require v delicate adju/m5t !y seem to p]=m v satisfactorily 9 practice4 ,:5 x is desir$ to />t ! eng9e an electrical connection is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! /orage batt]y & ! motor-g5]ator unit1 & ?is acts z a motor & turns ! eng9e ov] by suitable ge>+ :i* engages ! ge> tee? cut into a special ge> or disc atta*$ to ! eng9e crank-%aft4 ,:5 ! motor-g5]ator furni%es curr5t = ignition z well z = />t+ ! motor1 ! fact t ! curr5t c be us$ = ?is "w z well z />t+ ju/ifies to a c]ta9 ext5t ! r complicat$ me*anism :i* =ms a complete />t+ & ignition sy/em1 & :i* may also be us$ = light+ if necess>y 9 night fly+4 ,an electric g5]ator & motor d n complete a self-/>t+ sy/em1 because "s res]voir or conta9] = electric curr5t mu/ be provid$4 ,! curr5t f ! g5]ator is usually /or$ 9 a /orage batt]y f :i* x c be made to return to ! motor or to ! same armature t produc$ x4 ,! fundam5tal units ( a self-/>t+ sy/em1 !re=e1 are a g5]ator to produce ! electricity1 a /orage batt]y to s]ve z a res]voir1 & an electric motor to rotate ! motor crank-%aft4 ,g5]ators are usually driv5 by enclos$ ge>+1 ?\gh sil5t *a9s are us$ :]e ! c5t] di/ance betwe5 ! motor %aft & g5]ator %aft is too great = ! ge>s4 ,an electric />t] may be directly connect$ to ! gasol9e eng9e1 z is ! case :]e ! comb9$ motor-g5]ator replaces ! fly-:eel 9 an automobile eng9e4 ,! motor may also drive ! eng9e by means ( a sil5t *a9 or by direct ge> r$uction4 ,e electric />t] mu/ use a swit* ( "s k9d = />t+ purposes & mo/ sy/ems include an output regulator & a rev]se curr5t cut-out4 ,! output regulator is a simple device t regulates ! /r5g? ( ! g5]ator curr5t t is suppli$ ! /orage batt]y4 ,a rev]se curr5t cut-out is a =m ( *eck valve t prev5ts ! /orage batt]y f dis*>g+ ?r\gh ! g5]ator4 ,brief m5tion is made ( electric />t+ because su* sy/ems w und\bt$ly be incorporat$ 9 "s future airplane designs4 ,batt]y ignition is already be+ exp]im5t$ )4 ,,batt]y ,,ignition ,,sy/em ,,p>ts ,a batt]y ignition sy/em 9 its simple/ =m consi/s ( a curr5t produc]1 usually a set ( dry cells or a /orage batt]y1 an induction coil to trans=m ! l[ t5sion curr5t to "o hav+ suffici5t /r5g? to jump ! air gap at ! sp>k-plug1 an ignit] memb] plac$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb] & a tim] or me*anical swit* op]at$ by ! eng9e s t ! circuit w be clos$ only :5 x is desir$ to h a sp>k take place 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,batt]y ignition sy/ems may be ( two =ms1 ^? 9 :i* ! batt]y curr5t is /epp$ up or int5sifi$ to enable x to jump an air gap betwe5 ! po9ts ( ! sp>k plug1 ^! be+ call$ high t5sion sy/ems & ! l[ t5sion =m 7nev] us$ on airplane motors7 9 :i* ! batt]y curr5t is n int5sifi$ to a great degree & a sp>k produc$ 9 ! cyl9d] by ! action ( a me*anical circuit break] 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! l[ t5sion sy/em is ! simple/ electrically b ! m complex me*anically4 ,! high t5sion sy/em has ! fewe/ mov+ p>ts b num]\s electrical devices4 ,at ! pres5t "t all airplane eng9es use high t5sion ignition sy/ems1 ! magneto be+ ! mo/ popul> at ! pres5t "t4 ,! curr5t di/ribution & tim+ devices us$ ) mod]n batt]y sy/ems are practically ! same z simil> p>ts ( a magneto4 ,,index ,,page ,a ,action ( ,f\r-cycle ,eng9e #ch ,action ( ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,eng9e #ejc ,action ( ,two-cycle ,eng9e #da ,action ( ,vacuum ,fe$ ,sy/em #aai ,actual ,duration ( ,diff]5t ,functions #ic ,actual ,heat ,effici5cy #fb ,adiabatic ,diagram #ea ,adiabatic ,law #ej ,adju/m5t ( ,be>+s #ddi ,adju/m5t ( ,c>buretors #aea ,a]ial ,motors1 ,mu/ be ,light #bj ,a]ial ,motors1 ,op]at+ ,conditions ( #ai ,a]ial ,motors1 ,requirem5ts ( #ai ,a]om>9e ,six-cyl9d] ,eng9e #ebg ,a]onautics1 ,division 9 ,bran*es #ah ,a]o/atics #ah ,air-cool$ ,eng9e ,design #bbi ,air-cool+ ,advantages #bca ,air-cool+1 ,direct ,me?od #bbh ,air-cool+ ,disadvantages #bca ,air-cool+ ,sy/ems #bbc ,aircraft1 ,heavi] ,?an ,air #ag ,aircraft1 ,light] ,?an ,air #ah ,aircraft ,types1 ,brief ,consid]ation ( #ag ,air ,ne$$ to ,burn ,gasol9e #aac ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,p[] ,ne$$ #ba ,airplane ,eng9es1 ,ov]haul+ #dab ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,h[ to ,"t #bfi ,airplane ,eng9e ,lubrication #bji ,airplane1 ,h[ ,support$ #ba ,airplane ,motors1 ,g]man #edc ,airplane ,motor ,types #bj ,airplane ,motors1 ,weight ( #ba ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,in/allation #cbd ,airplane ,types #ah ,airplanes1 ,horse-p[] ,us$ 9 #bf ,air ,pressure ,dim9ution1 ,) ,altitude #add ,altitude1 ,h[ x ,affects ,mixture #aec ,alum9um1 ,use 9 ,pi/ons #big ,am]ican ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,/ati/ics #edf ,anzani ,radial ,eng9e ,in/allation #cdd ,anzani ,six-cyl9d] ,/> ,eng9e #dfe ,anzani ,six-cyl9d] ,wat]-cool$ ,eng9e #dei ,anzani ,t5- & ,tw5ty-cyl9d] ,eng9es #dfh ,anzani ,?ree-cyl9d] ,eng9e #dei ,anzani ,?ree-cyl9d] ,y ,type #dfb ,argus ,eng9e ,con/ruction #ede ,armature ,w9d+s #afh ,atmosph]ic ,conditions1 ,comp5sat+ ,= #adc ,au/ro-,daiml] ,eng9e #eeg ,aviatics #ah ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,a]om>9e #ebg ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,anzani ,six-cyl9d] ,/> #dfe ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,canton & ,unne #dfi ,aviation ,eng9e ,cool+ #bai ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,curtiss #eai ,aviation ,eng9e ,cyl9d]s #bcc ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,e>ly ,gnome #dgb ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,g]man ,gnome ,type #die ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,gnome ,monos\pape #dhf ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,h[ ,to ,dismantle #dae ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,h[ to ,/>t #dfj ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,le ,rhone ,rot>y #die ,aviation ,eng9e ,oil+ #bah ,aviation ,eng9e ,p>ts1 ,functions ( #hb ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,r5ault ,air-cool$ #ejg ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,/& = ,support+ #dad ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,/urtevant #eae ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,?omas-,morse #eba ,aviation ,eng9e ,types #deg ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,wiscons9 #eca ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,anzani ,six-cyl9d] ,wat]-cool$ #dei ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,anzani ,t5- & ,tw5ty-cyl9d] #dfh ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,anzani ,?ree-cyl9d] #dei ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,anzani ,y ,type #dfb ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,argus #ede ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,au/ro-,daiml] #eeg ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,b5z #eea ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,f\r- & ,six-cyl9d] #hh ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,g]man #edc ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,hall-,scott #eci ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,hispano-,suiza #eab ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,m]c$es #edc ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,ov]haul+ #dab ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,pr9cipal ,p>ts ( #hj ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,/>t+ ,sy/ems ,= #efg ,aviation ,eng9es1 ,sunbeam #eeh ,b ,balanc$ ,crank-%afts #cah ,ball-be>+ ,crank-%afts #cai ,batt]y ,ignition ,sy/ems #ega ,bav]ey ,comp\nd ,nozzle #acg ,be>+s1 ,adju/m5t ( #ddi ,be>+ ,alignm5t #dec ,be>+ ,brasses1 ,fitt+ #dej ,be>+ ,p>allelism1 ,te/+ #dec ,be>+ ,scrap]s & ,_! ,use #ddf ,b5z ,aviation ,eng9es #eea ,b5z ,eng9e ,/ati/ics #eea ,b]l+ ,magneto #agd ,b]l+ ,magneto1 ,adju/m5t ( #ahj ,b]l+ ,magneto ,c>e #ahj ,b]l+ ,magneto ,circuits #agf ,b]l+ ,magneto1 ,sett+ #agh ,block ,ca/+s #bcd ,bl[+ ,back #bfi ,bolts1 ,screw+ ,d[n #deb ,bore & ,/roke ,ratio #bdj ,boyle's ,law #di ,brayton ,eng9e #dh ,break] ,box1 ,adju/m5t ( #ahj ,brea/ & ,h& ,drills #chg ,burn+ ,out ,c>bon ,deposits #dba ,bu%+s1 ,cam-%aft1 ,we> 9 #def ,c ,calip]s1 ,inside & ,outside #cih ,cam ,foll[]s1 ,types ( #bfj ,cams = ,valve ,actuation #bei ,cam-%aft ,bu%+s #def ,cam-%aft ,design #cac ,cam-%aft ,drive ,me?ods #bfa ,cam-%aft ,te/+ #dea ,cam-%afts & ,tim+ ,ge>s #def ,canton & ,unne ,eng9e #dfi ,c>bon1 ,burn+ out ) ,oxyg5 #dba ,c>bon ,deposits1 ,cause ( #dah ,c>bon ,removal #dai ,c>bon ,scrap]s1 ,h[ ,us$ #dbj ,c>buretion ,pr9ciples #aab ,c>buretion ,sy/em ,tr\bles #cee ,c>buretor1 ,claudel #abg ,c>buretor1 ,comp\nd ,nozzle ,z5i? #ace ,c>buretor1 ,conc5tric ,float & ,jet ,type #abe ,c>buretor1 ,duplex ,z5i? #ach ,c>buretor1 ,duplex ,z5i?1 ,tr\ble 9 #ceg ,c>buretor ,in/allation1 ,9 ,airplanes #adh ,c>buretor1 ,le ,rhone #eja ,c>buretor1 ,ma/] ,multiple ,jet #acc ,c>buretor1 ,s*ebl] #abe ,c>buretor ,tr\bles1 ,h[ to ,locate #ced ,c>buretor1 ,two ,/age #aca ,c>buretor1 ,:at x ,%\ld ,d #aad ,c>buretors1 ,float ,fe$ #abb ,c>buretors1 ,multiple ,nozzle #acj ,c>buretors1 ,notes on ,adju/m5t #aea ,c>buretors1 ,rev]s+ ,position ( #adi ,c>buretors1 ,spray+ #abj ,c>e ( ,dixie ,magneto #ahh ,ca/or ,oil1 = ,cyl9d] ,lubrication #bje ,ca/or ,oil1 ,:y ,us$ ,9 ,gnome ,eng9es #baa ,c5t] ,gauge #djc ,*isels1 ,=ms ( #chd ,*ri/5s5 ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em #efg ,circuits1 ,magnetic #afa ,classification ( ,eng9es #deh ,claudel ,c>buretor #abg ,clean+ ,di/ributor #ahj ,cle>ances ,betwe5 ,valve ,/em & ,actuators #bfa ,combu/ion ,*amb] ,design #bci ,combu/ion ,*amb]s1 ,sph]ical #gf ,common ,tools1 ,outfit ( #cgh ,comp>+ ,two-cycle & ,f\r-cycle ,types #dd ,comp\nd ,cam ,foll[]s #bfj ,comp\nd ,pi/on ,r+s #cja ,compress$ ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em #efe ,compression1 ,factors ,limit+ #fi ,compression1 9 ,explosive ,motors1 ,value ( #fh ,compression ,pressures1 ,*>t = #gb ,compression ,temp]ature #ga ,computations = ,horse-p[] ,ne$$ #be ,computations = ,temp]ature #eb ,conc5tric ,pi/on ,r+ #bii ,conc5tric ,valves #bee ,connect+ ,rod ,alignm5t1 ,te/+ #ded ,connect+ ,rod1 ,conv5tional #cjh ,connect+ ,rod ,=ms #cje ,connect+ ,rod1 ,gnome ,eng9e #cje ,connect+ ,rods1 ,fitt+ #ddi ,connect+ ,rods = ,vee ,eng9es #caj ,connect+ ,rods1 ,le ,rhone #dih ,connect+ ,rods1 ,ma/] #caj ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em #bae ,con/ruction ( ,dixie ,magneto #ahf ,con/ruction ( ,pi/ons #bhh ,conv]sion ( ,heat to ,p[] #eh ,cool+ by ,air #bbc ,cool+ by ,positive ,wat] ,circulation #bbd ,cool+1 ,heat ,loss 9 #ff ,cool+ ,sy/em ,defects #ceh ,cool+ ,sy/ems ,us$ #bbc ,cool+ ,sy/ems1 ,:y ,ne$$ #bai ,cott] ,p9 ,pli]s #chd ,crank-case1 ,conv5tional #cbj ,crank-case ,=ms #cbj ,crank-case1 ,gnome #cbc ,crank-%aft1 ,built ,up #cae ,crank-%aft ,con/ruction #cae ,crank-%aft ,design #cae ,crank-%aft ,equaliz] #ddi ,crank-%aft ,=m #cae ,crank-%aft1 ,gnome ,eng9e #dhc ,crank-%afts1 ,balanc$ #cah ,crank-%afts1 ,ball ,be>+ #cai ,cross ,level #djc ,crude ,petroleum1 ,di/illates ( #aaa ,curtiss ,aviation ,eng9es #eai ,curtiss ,eng9e ,in/allation #cbh ,curtiss ,eng9e ,repair+ ,tools #djh ,cutt+ ,oil ,grooves #ddh ,cyl9d] ,blocks1 ,advantages ( #bcg ,cyl9d] ,block1 ,dues5b]g #bce ,cyl9d] ,ca/+s1 ,individual #bcd ,cyl9d] ,con/ruction #bcc ,cyl9d] ,faults & ,correction #daf ,cyl9d] ,=m & ,crank-%aft ,design #bch ,cyl9d] ,head ,pack+s #dag ,cyl9d] ,head1 ,removable #bci ,cyl9d]1 ,i ,head ,=m #bdh ,cyl9d]1 ,l ,head ,=m #bdh ,cyl9d] ,oils #bjf ,cyl9d] ,plac+ #bj ,cyl9d] ,plac+ 9 ,v ,motor #ii ,cyl9d] ,ret5tion1 ,gnome #dge ,cyl9d]1 ,t ,head ,=m #bdh ,cyl9d]s1 ,ca/ 9 ,blocks #bce ,cyl9d]s1 ,odd ,numb] 9 ,rot>y ,eng9es #dhb ,cyl9d]s1 ,repair+ ,scor$ #dbc ,cyl9d]s1 ,valve ,location 9 #bde ,d ,defects 9 ,cyl9d]s #dag ,defects 9 ,dry ,batt]y #cgc ,defects 9 ,fuel ,sy/em #ced ,defects 9 ,induction ,coil #cgc ,defects 9 ,magneto #cgb ,defects 9 ,/orage ,batt]y #cgb ,defects 9 ,tim] #cgc ,defects 9 ,wir+ & ,rem$ies #cgc ,die ,hold] #cid ,dies = ,?read ,cutt+ #cie ,diesel ,motor ,c>ds #fg ,diesel ,sy/em #add ,direct ,air ,cool+ #bbh ,dirigible ,balloons #ah ,dismantl+ ,airplane ,eng9e #dae ,di/illates ( ,crude ,petroleum #aaa ,division ( ,circle 9 ,degrees #bfh ,dixie ,ignition ,magneto #ahd ,dixie ,magneto1 ,c>e ( #ahh ,dra9+ ,oil ,f ,crank-case #bad ,drill+ ,ma*9es #chf ,drills1 ,types & ,use #chh ,driv+ ,cam-%aft1 ,me?ods ( #bfb ,dry ,cell ,batt]y1 ,defects 9 #cgc ,dues5b]g ,sixte5 ,valve ,eng9e #ebe ,dues5b]g ,valve ,action #bee ,duplex ,z5i? ,c>buretor #ach ,e ,e>ly ,gnome ,motor1 ,con/ruction ( #dgb ,e>ly ,ignition ,sy/ems #aee ,e>ly ,types ( ,gas ,eng9e #bh ,e>ly ,vaporiz] ,=ms #abj ,ecc5tric ,pi/on ,r+ #bii ,economy1 ,factors ,gov]n+ #fd ,effici5cy1 ,actual ,heat #fb ,effici5cy1 ,maximum ,!oretical #fa ,effici5cy1 ,me*anical #fb ,effici5cy ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e #fj ,effici5cy1 ,v>i\s ,measures ( #fa ,eight-cyl9d] ,eng9e #ie ,eight-cyl9d] ,tim+ ,diagram #bgf ,electricity & ,magnetism1 ,relation ( #afb ,electrical ,ignition ,be/ #aef ,electric ,/>t+ ,sy/ems #efi ,eng9e1 ,advantages ( ,v ,type #ie ,eng9e ,base ,con/ruction #cai ,eng9e ,be>+s1 ,adju/+ #ddc ,eng9e ,be>+s1 ,refitt+ #ddb ,eng9e ,b$ ,timb]s1 ,/&>d #ccj ,eng9e1 ,f\r-cycle1 ,action ( #ch ,eng9e1 ,f\r-cycle1 ,pi/on ,movem5ts 9 #dj ,eng9e ,functions1 ,duration ( #ic ,eng9e ,ignition1 ,locat+ ,tr\bles #cec ,eng9e ,in/allation1 ,gnome #cdd ,eng9e ,in/allation1 ,anzani ,radial #cdd ,eng9e ,in/allation1 ,hall-,scott #ccb ,eng9e ,in/allation1 ,rot>y #cdb ,eng9e ,op]ation1 ,sequ5ce ( #hd ,eng9e ,p>ts & ,functions #hj ,eng9e ,/>ts ,h>d1 ,ignition ,tr\bles ,caus+ #cfi ,eng9e ,/oppage1 ,causes ( #cdg ,eng9e ,temp]atures #bba ,eng9e ,tr\ble ,*>ts #cfi ,eng9e ,tr\bles1 ,cool+ #ceh ,eng9e ,tr\bles1 ,h9ts ,= ,locat+ #cde ,eng9e ,tr\bles1 ,ignition #cec ,eng9e ,tr\bles1 ,noisy ,op]ation #cei ,eng9e ,tr\bles1 ,oil+ #ceg ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,summ>iz$ #cej ,eng9e1 ,two-cycle1 ,action ( #da ,eng9es1 ,classification ( #deh ,eng9es1 ,cyl9d] ,arrangem5t #ca-cb ,eng9es1 ,eight-cyl9d] ,v #ie ,eng9es1 ,f\r-cyl9d] ,=ms #hh ,eng9es1 ,graphic ,comp>ison ( #cc-cd-ce ,eng9es1 ,int]nal ,combu/ion1 ,types ( #cj ,eng9es1 ,multiple ,cyl9d]1 ,p[] ,deliv]y 9 #ia ,eng9es1 ,multiple ,cyl9d]1 ,:y ,be/ #hc ,eng9es1 ,rot>y ,cyl9d] #ajg ,eng9es1 ,six-cyl9d] ,=ms #hh ,eng9es1 ,twelve-cyl9d] #if ,equaliz]1 ,crank-%aft #ddi ,exhau/ ,clos+ #bgj ,exhau/ ,valve ,design1 ,e>ly ,gnome #dge ,exhau/ ,valve ,op5+ #bgj ,explosive ,gases1 ,mixtures ( #ef ,explosive ,motors1 ,ineffici5cy 9 #gd ,explosive ,motors1 ,:y ,be/ #bg ,f ,factors ,gov]n+ ,economy #fd ,factors ,limit+ ,compression #gj ,faults 9 ,ignition #ceb ,figur+ ,horse-p[] ,ne$$ #ba ,files1 ,use & ,c>e ( #chc ,fir/ ,law ( ,gases #di ,fitt+ ,be>+s ,by ,scrap+ #ddg ,fitt+ ,brasses #dej ,fitt+ ,connect+ ,rods #ddi ,fitt+ ,ma9 ,be>+s #ddh ,fitt+ ,pi/on ,r+s #dci ,float ,fe$ ,c>buretor ,developm5t #abd ,float ,fe$ ,c>buretors #abb ,=ce ,fe$ ,oil+ ,sy/em #bah ,=k$ ,connect+ ,rods #caj ,f\r-cycle ,eng9e1 ,action ( #ch ,f\r-cycle ,eng9e1 ,:y ,be/ #de ,f\rte5-cyl9d] ,eng9e #dgd ,f\r ,valves ,p] ,cyl9d] #bhd ,friction1 ,def9ition ( #cjb ,fuel ,fe$ ,by ,gravity #aaf ,fuel ,fe$ by ,vacuum ,tank #aag ,fuel ,/orage & ,supply #aaf ,fuel ,/ra9]s1 ,types ( #ada ,fuel ,/ra9]s1 ,utility ( #adj ,fuel ,sy/em ,faults #ced ,fuel ,sy/em ,in/allation1 ,hall-,scott #ccf ,fuel ,sy/em1 ,gnome #dij ,fuel ,utilization ,*>t #fb ,g ,gas ,eng9e1 ,beau de ,ro*a's ,pr9ciples #ei ,gas ,eng9e ,developm5t #bh ,gas ,eng9e1 ,e>ly ,=ms ( #dh ,gas ,eng9e1 ,inv5tors ( #bi ,gas ,eng9e1 ,!ory ( #dg ,gases1 ,compression ( #di ,gases1 ,fir/ ,law ( #di ,gases1 ,second ,law ( #ej ,gaskets1 ,h[ to ,use #deb ,gasol9e1 ,air ,ne$$ to ,burn #aac ,gas ,eng9es1 ,p>ts ( #hj ,gas ,vacuum ,eng9e1 ,br[n's #bh ,g]man ,airplane ,motors #edc ,g]man ,gnome ,type ,eng9e #die ,gnome ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,e>ly ,=m #dgb ,gnome ,crank-%aft #dhc ,gnome ,cyl9d]1 ,ma*9+ #dhi ,gnome ,cyl9d] ,ret5tion #dge ,gnome ,eng9e1 ,fuel1 ,lubrication & ,ignition #dij ,gnome ,eng9e1 ,g]man ,type #die ,gnome ,eng9e ,in/allation #cdd ,gnome ,fir+ ,ord] #dhb ,gnome ,f\rte5-cyl9d]1 ,eng9e #dgd ,gnome ,f\rte5-cyl9d] ,eng9e ,details #dhj ,gnome ,monos\pape1 ,h[ to ,"t #bgh ,gnome ,monos\pape ,type ,eng9e #dhf ,graphic ,comp>ison ( ,eng9e ,types #cc-cd-ce ,graphic ,comp>ison1 ,two- & ,f\r-cycle #df ,gravity ,fe$ ,sy/em #aaf ,gr9d+ ,valves #dbi ,h ,hall-,scott ,aviation ,eng9es #eci ,hall-,scott ,eng9e ,in/allation #ccb ,hall-,scott ,eng9e1 ,prep>ations ,= ,/>t+ #cda ,hall-,scott ,eng9e ,tools #daj ,hall-,scott ,lubrication ,sy/em #baa ,hall-,scott ,/ati/ic ,%eet #edd ,heat & ,its ,"w #ed ,heat 9 ,gas ,eng9e ,cyl9d] #fi ,heat ,giv5 to ,cool+ ,wat] #gh ,heat ,loss1 ,causes ( #gd ,heat ,loss 9 ,airplane ,eng9e #bba ,heat ,loss 9 ,wall ,cool+ #fe ,high ,altitude1 ,h[ x ,affects ,p[] #add ,high ,t5sion ,magneto #agb ,h9ts ,= ,locat+ ,eng9e ,tr\bles #cde ,h9ts = ,/>t+ ,eng9e #cfa ,hispano-,suiza ,model ,a ,eng9e #eab ,horse-p[] ,ne$$ 9 ,airplane #ba ,horse-p[] ,ne$$1 ,h[ ,figur$ #bb ,h[ ,an ,eng9e is ,tim$ #bgg ,i ,ignition1 ,electric #aef ,ignition1 ,elem5ts ( #aeg ,ignition ( ,gnome ,eng9e #dij ,ignition ,sy/em1 ,batt]y #ega ,ignition ,sy/ems1 ,e>ly #aee ,ignition ,sy/em ,faults #ceb ,ignition1 ,"t ( #bgc ,ignition1 ,two ,sp>k #aif ,i ,head ,cyl9d]s #bdh ,improvem5ts 9 ,gas ,eng9es #bi ,indicat+ ,met]s1 ,eng9e ,spe$ #efc ,indicat+ ,met]s1 ,oil & ,air ,pressure #efc ,indicator ,c>ds1 ,h[ ,to ,read #ff ,indicator ,c>ds1 ,value ( #ff ,individual ,cyl9d] ,ca/+s #bcd ,induction ,coil1 ,defects 9 #cgc ,ineffici5cy1 ,causes ( #gd ,inlet ,valve ,clos+ #bgb ,inlet ,valve ,op5+ #bgj ,in/allation1 ,airplane ,eng9e #cbd ,in/allation1 ,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,eng9e #cbh ,in/allation1 ,hall-,scott ,eng9e #ccb ,in/allation ( ,rot>y ,eng9es #cdb ,intake ,manifold ,con/ruction #adc ,intake ,manifold ,design #adb ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e1 ,effici5cy ( #fj1 #fb ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es1 ,ma9 ,types ( #cj ,inv]t$ ,eng9e ,plac+ #cbe ,iso!rmal ,diagram #ea ,iso!rmal ,law #dh ,k ,keep+ ,oil ,out ( ,combu/ion ,*amb] #cjc ,knight ,sleeve ,valves #bff ,l ,lag & ,lead1 ,explanation ( #bfh ,lapp+ ,crank-p9s #dde ,lead ,giv5 ,exhau/ ,valve #bgj ,leak ,pro( ,pi/on ,r+s #cja ,l5oir ,eng9e ,action #dh ,le ,rhone ,cams & ,valve ,actuation #ejj ,le ,rhone ,c>buretor #eja ,le ,rhone ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly1 ,di/9ctive #dih ,le ,rhone ,eng9e ,action #ejc ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,eng9e #die ,l ,head ,cyl9d]s #bdh ,liquid ,fuels1 ,prop]ties ( #aaj ,locat+ ,c>buretor ,tr\bles #ced ,locat+ ,eng9e ,tr\bles #cej ,locat+ ,ignition ,tr\bles #cec ,locat+ ,oil+ ,tr\bles #ceg ,location ( ,magneto ,tr\ble #aha ,losses 9 ,wall ,cool+ #fe ,lo/ ,p[] & ,ov]heat+1 ,summ>y ( ,tr\bles ,caus+ #cfc ,lubricants1 ,d]ivation ( #bjd ,lubricants1 ,requirem5ts ( #bjd ,lubricat+ ,sy/em ,classification #bjh ,lubricat+ ,sy/ems1 ,selection ( #bjh ,lubrication ,by ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em #bae ,lubrication ,by ,dry ,crank-case ,me?od #bah ,lubrication ,by ,=ce ,fe$ ,be/ #bah ,lubrication ( ,magneto #ahj ,lubrication ,sy/em1 ,gnome #dij ,lubrication ,sy/em1 ,hall-,scott #baa ,lubrication ,sy/em1 ,?omas-,morse #baj ,lubrication1 ,!ory ( #bjb ,lubrication1 ,:y ,necess>y #bja ,m ,magnetic ,circuits #afa ,magnetic ,influ5ce ,def9$ #aeh ,magnetic ,l9es ( ,=ce #afa ,magnetic ,sub/ances #aeh ,magnetism1 ,fl[ ,?r\gh ,armature #aff ,magnetism1 ,fundam5tals ( #aeg ,magnetism1 ,relation to ,electricity #afb ,magneto1 ,action ( ,high ,t5sion #agc ,magneto ,armature ,w9d+s #afh ,magneto1 ,basic ,pr9ciples ( #afc ,magneto1 ,b]l+ #agd ,magneto1 ,defects 9 #cgb ,magneto ,di/ributor1 ,clean+ #ahj ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems #afi ,magneto ,ignition ,wir+ #agi ,magneto ,int]rupt]1 ,adju/m5t ( #ahj ,magneto1 ,l[ ,voltage #afh ,magneto1 ,lubrication ( #ahj ,magneto ,ma9t5ance #ahj ,magneto1 ,me?od ( ,driv+ #age ,magneto ,p>ts & ,functions #afg ,magneto1 ,! ,dixie #ahd ,magneto ,tim+ #agi ,magneto1 ,tim+ ,dixie #ahh ,magneto1 ,trans=m] ,sy/em #aga ,magneto ,tr\ble1 ,location ( #aha ,magneto1 ,true ,high ,t5sion #agb ,magneto1 ,two ,sp>k ,dual #agg ,magnets1 ,=ms ( #afj ,magnets1 ,h[ ,produc$ #afb ,magnets1 ,prop]ties ( #aei ,ma9 ,be>+s1 ,fitt+ #ddh ,manifold1 ,intake #adc ,ma/] ,multiple ,jet ,c>buretor #acc ,ma/] ,rod ,con/ruction #caj ,maximum ,!oretical ,effici5cy #fa ,mean+ ( ,pi/on ,spe$ #bda ,measures ( ,effici5cy #fa ,measur+ ,tools #cig ,me*anical ,effici5cy #fb ,m]c$es ,aviation ,eng9e #edc ,met]+ ,p9 ,c>buretor1 ,/ew>t #abh ,micromet] ,calip]1 ,bead+ #dje ,micromet] ,calip]s1 ,types & ,use #djd ,mixture1 ,effect ( ,altitude on #aec ,mixture1 ,proportions ( #aea ,mixture1 ,/>vation ( #adi ,monos\pape ,gnome ,eng9e #dhf ,"m ,bod1 ,gnome ,eng9e #cje ,motor ,misfires1 ,c>buretor ,faults ,caus+ #cgd ,motor ,misfires1 ,ignition ,tr\bles ,caus+ #cgj ,motor ,races1 ,c>buretor ,faults ,caus+ #cgd ,motor ,/>ts ,h>d1 ,c>buretor ,faults ,caus+ #cgd ,motor ,/ops ,9 ,flight1 ,c>buretor ,faults #cgd ,motor ,/ops ,)\t ,w>n+1 ,ignition ,tr\bles #cgj ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,eng9e1 ,:y ,be/ #hc ,multiple ,nozzle ,vaporiz]s #abi ,multiple ,valve ,advantages #bhf ,n ,noisy ,eng9e ,op]ation1 ,causes ( #cei ,noisy ,op]ation1 ,c>buretor ,faults ,caus+ #cgd ,noisy ,op]ation1 ,summ>y ( ,tr\bles ,caus+ #cfe ,o ,(fset ,cyl9d]s1 ,reason = #bdc ,oil ,bi-pass1 ,function ( #bac ,oil1 ,dra9+ ,f ,crank-case #bad ,oil ,grooves1 ,cutt+ #ddh ,oil ,pressure 9 ,hall-,scott ,sy/em #bad ,oil ,pressure ,relief ,bi-pass #bac ,oil+ ,sy/em ,defects #ceg ,oils = ,cyl9d] ,lubrication #bjf ,oils = ,hall-,scott ,eng9e #bae ,oils = ,lubrication #bjd ,op]at+ ,pr9ciples ( ,eng9es #cg ,oscillat+ ,pi/on ,p9 #bie ,otto ,f\r-cycle ,c>ds #fg ,ov]haul+ ,aviation ,eng9es #dab ,ov]head ,cam-%aft ,location #beb ,ov]heat+1 ,causes ( #cei ,p ,panh>d ,conc5tric ,valves #bee ,petroleum1 ,di/illates ( #aaa ,pi/on1 ,diff]5tial #bia ,pi/on ,p9 ,ret5tion #bic ,pi/on ,r+ ,con/ruction #bih ,pi/on ,r+ ,jo9ts #bii ,pi/on ,r+ ,manipulation #dch ,pi/on ,r+ ,tr\bles #dcg ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,comp\nd #cja ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,conc5tric #bii ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,ecc5tric #bii ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,fitt+ #dci ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,leak ,pro( #cja ,pi/on ,r+s1 ,replac+ #dda ,pi/on ,spe$ 9 ,airplane ,eng9es #bda ,pi/on ,spe$1 ,mean+ ( #bda ,pi/on ,tr\bles & ,rem$ies #dcf ,pi/ons1 ,alum9um #bif ,pi/ons1 ,details ( #bhh ,pi/ons = ,two-cycle ,eng9es #bhi ,positive ,valve ,sy/ems #bhc ,p[]1 ,affect$ by ,high ,altitude #ade ,p[] ,deliv]y 9 ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,eng9es #ia ,p[]1 ,h[ ,obta9$ ,f ,heat #eh ,p[] ,ne$$ 9 ,airplane ,eng9es #ba ,p[] ,us$ 9 ,airplanes #bf ,precautions 9 ,assembl+ ,p>ts #deb ,pressure ,relief ,fitt+ #bac ,pressures & ,temp]atures #fc ,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion #aab ,pr9ciples ( ,magneto ,action #afc ,prop]ties ( ,cyl9d] ,oils #bjg ,prop]ties ( ,liquid ,fuels #aaj ,pump ,circulation ,sy/ems #bbf ,pump ,=ms #bbf ,r ,radial ,cyl9d] ,arrangem5t #ajc ,read+ ,indicator ,c>ds #fg ,ream]s1 ,types & ,use #cib ,reassembl+ ,p>ts1 ,precautions 9 #dea ,removable ,cyl9d] ,head #bci ,r5ault ,air ,cool$ ,eng9e #ejg ,r5ault ,eng9e ,details #ejh ,repair+ ,scor$ ,cyl9d]s #dbc ,requisites = ,be/ ,p[] ,effect #ei ,reseat+ & ,tru+ ,valves #dbf ,resi/ance1 ,influ5ce ( #bb ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,eng9es #ajg ,rot>y ,eng9e1 ,le ,rhone #die ,rot>y ,eng9es1 ,ca/or ,oil = #baa ,rot>y ,eng9es1 ,in/all+ #cdb ,rot>y ,eng9es1 ,:y ,odd ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s #aji ,rot>y ,eng9es1 ,:y ,odd ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s ,is ,us$ #dhb ,s ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,eng9e ,b$ ,dim5sions #ccj ,salmson ,n9e-cyl9d] ,eng9e #dgj ,s*ebl] ,c>buretor #abe ,scissors ,jo9t ,rods #caj ,scor$ ,cyl9d]s1 ,repair+ #dbb ,scrap]s1 ,types ( ,be>+ #ddf ,scrap+ ,be>+s to ,fit #ddg ,second ,law ( ,gases #ej ,sequ5ce ( ,eng9e ,op]ation #hd ,six-cyl9d] ,tim+ ,diagram #bge ,sixte5 ,valve ,dues5b]g ,eng9e #ebe ,skipp+ or ,irregul> ,op]ation1 ,causes ( #cfg ,slid+ ,sleeve ,valves #bff ,sp>k ,plug ,air ,gaps1 ,sett+ #aig ,sp>k ,plug1 ,design ( #aic ,sp>k ,plug1 ,mica #aid ,sp>k ,plug1 ,porcela9 #aic ,sp>k ,plugs1 ,defects 9 #cga ,sp>k ,plugs = ,two ,sp>k ,ignition #aig ,sp>k ,plug1 ,special = ,airplane ,eng9e #aii ,sp>k ,plug1 ,/&>d ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 #aie ,sph]ical ,combu/ion ,*amb]s #gf ,spla% ,lubrication #bae ,split ,p9 ,remov] #chd ,spray+ ,c>buretors #abj ,spr+less ,valves #bhj ,spr+s1 = ,valves #bfc ,spr+ ,w9d] #chd ,sprung ,cam-%aft1 ,te/+ #dea ,/& = ,support+ ,eng9e #dad ,/>t+ ,eng9e1 ,h9ts = #cfa ,/>t+ ,hall-,scott ,eng9e #cda ,/>t+ ,sy/em1 ,*ri/5s5 #efg ,/>t+ ,sy/ems1 ,compress$ ,air #efe ,/>t+ ,sy/ems1 ,electric #efi ,/ati/ics1 ,am]ican ,eng9es #edf1 #edg ,/ati/ic ,%eet1 ,hall-,scott ,eng9es #edd ,/ati/ics ( ,b5z ,eng9e #eea ,/eam ,eng9e1 ,effici5cy ( #ei ,/eam ,eng9e1 ,:y ,n ,us$ #bg ,/eel ,scale1 ,ma*9i/s' #cii ,/ew>t ,met]+ ,p9 ,c>buretor #abh ,/orage ,batt]y1 ,defects 9 #cgb ,/roke & ,bore ,ratio #bdj ,/urtevant ,model #e;,a ,eng9e #eae ,summ>y ( ,eng9e ,types #cj ,sunbeam ,aviation ,eng9es #ehh ,sunbeam ,eighte5-,cyl9d] ,eng9e #efa ,t ,tap & ,die ,sets #cig ,taps = ,?read ,cutt+ #cid ,tee ,head ,cyl9d]s #bdg ,temp]ature ,computations #eb ,temp]atures & ,explosive ,pressures #fd ,temp]atures & ,pressures #fc ,temp]atures1 ,op]at+ #bba ,te/+ ,be>+ ,p>allelism #dec ,te/+ ,connect+ ,rod ,alignm5t #ded ,te/+ ,fit ( ,be>+s #ddf ,te/+ ,sprung ,cam-%aft #dea ,!ory ( ,gas ,eng9e #dg ,!ory ( ,lubrication #bjc ,!rmo-syphon ,cool+ ,sy/em #bbg ,?omas-,morse ,aviation ,eng9e #eba ,?omas-,morse ,lubrication ,sy/em #baj ,?read ,pit* ,gauge #djc ,"t ( ,ignition #bgc ,tim]1 ,defects 9 #cgc ,times ( ,explosion #ef ,tim+ ,dixie ,magneto #ahh ,tim+ ,ge>s1 ,effects ( ,we> #def ,tim+ ,magneto #agi ,tim+ ,valves #bfg ,tool ,outfits1 ,typical #djh ,tools = ,adju/+ & ,erect+ #cgh ,tools = ,be>+ ,"w #dde ,tools = ,curtiss ,eng9es #djh ,tools = ,gr9d+ ,valves #dcj ,tools = ,hall-,scott ,eng9es #daj1 #daa ,tools = ,measur+ #cig ,tools = ,reseat+ ,valves #dbf ,tr\ble 9 ,c>buretion ,sy/em #cee ,tr\ble1 ,location ( ,magneto #aha ,tr\bles1 ,eng9e1 ,h[ to ,locate #cde ,tr\bles1 ,ignition #cec ,tr\bles 9 ,oil+ ,sy/em #ceg ,true ,high ,t5sion ,magneto #agb ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,eng9es #if ,two-& ,f\r-,cycle ,types1 ,comp>ison ( #dd ,two-,cycle ,eng9e ,action #da ,two-,cycle ,?ree-,port ,eng9e #dc ,two-,cycle ,two-,port ,eng9e #db ,two-,sp>k ,ignition #aif ,two-,/age ,c>buretor #aca ,types ( ,aircraft #ag ,types ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es #cj ,v ,vacuum ,fuel ,fe$1 ,/ew>t #aai ,value ( ,compression #fi ,value ( ,indicator ,c>ds #ff ,valve ,actuation1 ,le ,rhone #ejj ,valve ,design & ,con/ruction #bef ,valve-,gr9d+ ,processes #dbi ,valve-,lift+ ,cams #bei ,valve-,lift+ ,plung]s #bfj ,valve ,location ,practice #bde ,valve ,op]at+ ,means #beb ,valve ,op]at+ ,sy/em1 ,depreciation 9 #dcc ,valve ,op]ation #beh ,valve ,removal & ,inspection #dbd ,valve ,seat+1 ,h[ to ,te/ #dcb ,valve ,spr+s #bfc ,valve ,tim+1 ,exhau/ #bgj ,valve ,tim+1 ,gnome ,monos\pape #bgh ,valve ,tim+1 ,intake #bgj ,valve ,tim+1 ,lag & ,lead #bfi ,valve ,tim+ ,proc$ure #bgg ,valve ,tim+ ,practice #bfg ,valves1 ,electric ,weld$ #beh ,valves1 ,flat & ,bevel ,seat #beg ,valves1 ,f\r p] ,cyl9d] #bhd ,valves1 ,h[ ,plac$ 9 ,cyl9d] #bdg ,valves 9 ,cages #bdi ,valves 9 ,removable ,heads #bdi ,valves1 ,mat]ials ,us$ = #beh ,valves1 ,reseat+ #dbf ,vaporiz]1 ,simple ,=ms ( #abj ,v ,eng9es1 ,cyl9d] ,arrangem5t 9 #ajb ,v]ni]1 ,h[ ,us$ #dja ,w ,wall ,cool+1 ,losses 9 #fe ,wat] ,cool+ by ,natural ,circulation #bbg ,wat] ,cool+ ,sy/em #bbd ,weight ( ,airplane ,motors #ba ,wir+1 ,defects 9 #cgc ,wir+ ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/em #agi ,wiscons9 ,eng9es #eca ,wr5*es1 ,=ms ( #chj ,wri/-p9 ,ret5tion #bic ,wri/-p9 ,ret5tion ,locks #bie ,wri/-p9 ,we> & ,rem$y #ddb ,z ,z5i? ,c>buretor1 ,action ( #acg ,z5i? ,duplex ,c>buretor1 ,tr\bles 9 #cef ,z5i? ,c>buretor ,in/allation #aci ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,frontispiece4 ,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,motor1 ,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,p>ts4 ,fig4 #a4 ,diagrams ,illu/rat+ ,computations = ,horse-,p[] ,requir$ = ,airplane ,flight4 ,fig4 #b4 ,plate ,%[+ ,heavy1 ,sl[ ,spe$ ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es ,us$ ,only = ,/ation>y ,p[] 9 ,l>ge ,in/allations ,giv+ ,weight to ,horse-,p[] ,ratio4 ,fig4 #c4 ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es ,%[+ ,decrease 9 ,weight to ,horse-,p[] ,ratio ) ,augm5t+ ,spe$ ( ,rotation4 ,fig4 #d4 ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e ,types ( ,extremely ,f9e ,con/ruction & ,ref9$ ,design1 ,%[+ ,great ,p[] ,outputs = ,v ,small ,weight1 a ,feature ,v ,mu* ,desir$ 9 ,airplane ,p[] ,plants4 ,fig4 #e4 ,outl9+ ,fir/ ,two ,/rokes ( ,pi/on 9 ,f\r-,cycle ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #f4 ,outl9+ ,second ,two ,/rokes ( ,pi/on 9 ,f\r-,cycle ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #g4 ,sectional ,view ( ,l ,head ,gasol9e ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,%[+ ,pi/on ,movem5ts ,dur+ ,f\r-,/roke ,cycle4 ,fig4 #h4 ,%[+ ,two-port1 ,two-cycle ,eng9e ,op]ation4 ,fig4 #i4 ,def9+ ,?ree-port1 ,two-cycle ,eng9e ,action4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,diagrams ,contra/+ ,action ( ,two- & ,f\r-,cycle ,cyl9d]s on ,exhau/ & ,intake ,/roke4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,diagram ,iso!rmal & ,adiabatic ,l9es4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,graphic ,diagram ,%[+ ,approximate ,utilization ( ,fuel ,burn$ 9 ,int]nal-,combu/ion ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,otto ,f\r-,cycle ,c>d4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,diesel ,motor ,c>d4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,diagram ( ,heat 9 ! ,gas ,eng9e ,cyl9d]4 ,fig4 #af4 ,*>t ,%[+ ,relation ,betwe5 ,compression ,volume & ,pressure4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,! ,?ompson ,indicator1 an ,in/rum5t = ,det]m9+ ,compressions & ,explosion ,pressure ,values & ,record+ ,!m on ,*>t4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,sph]ical ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,enl>g$ ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,m]c$es ,aviation ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,section ,%[+ ,approximately ,sph]ical ,combu/ion ,*amb] & ,concave ,pi/on ,top4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,side ,sectional ,view ( ,typical ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,p>ts & ,_! ,relation to ,ea* ,o!r4 ,?is ,eng9e is an ,a]om>9e ,design & ,utilizes a ,di/9ctive ,conc5tric ,valve ,con/ruction4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,diagrams ,illu/rat+ ,sequ5ce ( ,cycles 9 ,"o- & ,two-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,%[+ ,m ,uni=m ,turn+ ,ef=t on ,crank-,%aft ) ,two-,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,diagrams ,demon/rat+ ,cle>ly ,advantages :i* ,obta9 :5 ,multiple-,cyl9d] ,motors are ,us$ z ,p[] ,plants4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,%[+ ,?ree ,possible ,?\gh ,unconv5tional ,arrangem5ts ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #be4 ,diagrams ,outl9+ ,advantages ( ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,motors1 & ,:y ,!y ,deliv] ,p[] ,m ,ev5ly ,?an ,s+le ,cyl9d] ,types4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,duration ( ,ev5ts = a ,f\r-,/roke ,cycle1 ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,actual ,duration ( ,diff]5t ,/rokes 9 ,degrees4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,ano!r ,diagram to ,facilitate ,und]/&+ ,sequ5ce ( ,functions 9 ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,types ( ,eight-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,%[+ ! ,advantage ( ! ,v ,me?od ( ,cyl9d] ,plac+4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,curves ,%[+ ,torque ( ,v>i\s ,eng9e ,types ,demon/rate ,graphically ,m>k$ ,advantage ( ! ,eight-,cyl9d] ,type4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,increas+ ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s ,makes = ,m ,uni=m ,p[] ,application4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,h[ ! ,angle ,betwe5 ! ,cyl9d]s ( an ,eight- & ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,v ,motor ,v>ies4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,! ,hall-,scott ,f\r-,cyl9d] #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,two ,views ( ! ,dues5b]g ,sixte5 ,valve ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,motor4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,! ,hall-,scott ,six-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,! ,curtiss ,eight-,cyl9d]1 #bjj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,! ,/urtevant ,eight-,cyl9d]1 ,high ,spe$ ,aviation ,motor4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,anzani #dj-ej ,horse-,p[] ,five-,cyl9d] ,air ,cool$ ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,unconv5tional ,six-,cyl9d] ,aircraft ,motor ( ,masson ,design4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,! ,gnome ,f\rte5-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,motor4 ,fig4 #da4 ,h[ ,gravity ,fe$ ,fuel ,tank ,may ,be ,m\nt$ ,back ( ,eng9e & ,secure ,%ort ,fuel ,l9e4 ,fig4 #db4 ,! ,/ew>t ,vacuum ,fuel ,fe$ ,tank4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,m>9e-,type ,mix+ ,valve1 by :i* ,gasol9e is ,spray$ into ,air ,/ream ,?r\gh ,small ,op5+ 9 ,air-,valve ,seat4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,trac+ ,evolution ( ,mod]n ,spray ,c>buretor4 ,a--,e>ly ,=m ,evolv$ by ,mayba*4 ,b4--,pho5ix-,daiml] ,modification ( ,mayba*'s ,pr9ciple4 ,c--,mod]n ,conc5tric ,float ,automatic ,comp5sat+ ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #de4 ,new ,model ( ,s*ebl] ,c>buretor ,) ,met]+ ,valve & ,ext5d$ ,v5turi4 ,note ,me*anical ,connection ,betwe5 ,air ,valve & ,fuel ,regulat+ ,ne$le4 ,fig4 #df4 ,! ,claudel ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,! ,/ew>t ,met]+ ,p9 ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,! ,ball & ,ball ,two-,/age ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #di4 ,! ,ma/] ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,sectional ,view ( ,ma/] ,c>buretor ,%[+ ,p>ts4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,sectional ,view ( ,z5i? ,comp\nd ,nozzle ,comp5sat+ ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #eb4 ,diagrams ,expla9+ ,action ( ,bav]ey ,comp\nd ,nozzle ,us$ 9 ,z5i? ,c>buretor4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,! ,z5i? ,duplex ,c>buretor = ,airplane ,motors ( ! ,v ,type4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,re> ,view ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#b #ij ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,motor ,%[+ ,c>buretor ,location & ,hot ,air ,leads4 ,fig4 #ee4 ,types ( ,/ra9]s ,int]pos$ ,betwe5 ,vaporiz] & ,gasol9e ,tank to ,prev5t ,wat] or ,dirt ,pass+ ,into ,c>buret+ ,device4 ,fig4 #ef4 ,*>t ,%[+ ,dim9ution ( ,air ,pressure z ,altitude ,increases4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,"s ,simple ,exp]im5ts to ,demon/rate ,v>i\s ,magnetic ,ph5om5a & ,cle>ly ,outl9e ,effects ( ,magnetism & ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,magnets4 ,fig4 #eh4 ,elem5t>y ,=m ( ,magneto ,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,p>ts ,simplifi$ to ,make ,me?od ( ,curr5t ,g5]ation ,cle>4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,%[+ ,h[ ,/r5g? ( ,magnetic ,influ5ce & ( ! ,curr5ts ,induc$ 9 ! ,w9d+s ( ,armature ,v>y ) ! ,rapidity ( ,*anges ( ,fl[4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,diagrams ,expla9+ ,action ( ,l[ ,t5sion ,trans=m] ,coil & ,true ,high ,t5sion ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,fig4 #fj;,a4 ,side ,sectional ,view ( ,bos* ,high-,t5sion ,magneto ,%[s ,disposition ( ,p>ts4 ,end ,elevation ,depicts ,arrangem5t ( ,int]ruptor & ,di/ributor ,me*anism4 ,fig4 #fa4 ,b]l+ ,two-,sp>k ,dual ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,fig4 #fb4 ,b]l+ ,d\ble-,sp>k ,indep5d5t ,sy/em4 ,fig4 #fc4 ,type ,,dd ,b]l+ ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,wir+ ,diagrams ( ,b]l+ ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! ,b]l+ ,magneto ,break] ,box ,%[+ ,contact ,po9ts ,sep>at$ & ,int]ruptor ,lev] on ,cam4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,! ,dixie ,model #fj = ,six-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,eng9e ,ignition4 ,fig4 #fg4 ,in/allation ,dim5sions ( ,dixie ,model #fj ,magneto4 ,fig4 #fh4 ,! ,rotat+ ,elem5ts ( ! ,dixie ,magneto4 ,fig4 #fi4 ,sugge/ions = ,adju/+ & ,dismantl+ ,dixie ,magneto4 ,a--,screw ,driv] ,adju/s ,contact ,po9ts4 ,b--,di/ributor ,block ,remov$4 ,c--,tak+ (f ,magnets4 ,d--,%[+ ,h[ ,easily ,cond5s] & ,high ,t5sion ,w9d+s are ,remov$4 ,fig4 #fi;,a4 ,sectional ,views ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,dixie ,magneto ) ,comp\nd ,di/ributor = ,eight-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,ignition4 ,fig4 #gj4 ,wir+ ,diagram ( ,dixie ,magneto ,in/allation on ,hall-,scott ,six-,cyl9d] #abe ,horse-,p[] ,a]onautic ,motor4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,h[ ,magneto ,ignition is ,in/all$ on ,?omas-,morse #ace ,horse-,p[] ,motor4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,sp>k-,plug ,types ,%[+ ,con/ruction & ,arrangem5t ( ,p>ts4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,/&>d ,airplane ,eng9e ,plug ,sugge/$ by ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ,/&>ds ,committee4 ,fig4 #gd4 ,special ,mica ,plug = ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #ge4 ,%[+ ,use ( ,magnify+ ,glass to ,demon/rate t ,app>5tly ,smoo? ,metal ,surfaces ,may ,h ,m9ute ,irregul>ities :i* ,produce ,friction4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,pressure ,fe$ ,oil+ ,sy/em ( ,?omas ,aviation ,eng9e ,includes ,oil ,cool+ ,means4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,diagram ( ,oil+ ,sy/em1 ,hall-,scott ,type ,a #abe ,horse-,p[] ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,sectional ,view ( ,typical ,motor ,%[+ ,p>ts ,ne$+ ,lubrication & ,me?od ( ,apply+ ,oil by ,con/ant ,level ,spla% ,sy/em4 ,note also ,wat] ,jacket & ,spaces = ,wat] ,circulation4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,pressure ,fe$ ,oil-,supply ,sy/em ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plants has ,_m ,good ,features4 ,fig4 #hj4 ,:y ,pressure ,fe$ ,sy/em is ,be/ = ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,op]at+ ,temp]atures ( ,automobile ,eng9e ,p>ts ,useful z a ,guide to ,und]/& ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,heat4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,wat] ,cool+ ( ,salmson ,sev5-,cyl9d] ,radial ,airplane ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #hc4 ,h[ ,wat] ,cool+ ,sy/em ( ,?omas ,airplane ,eng9e is ,in/all$ 9 ,fuselage4 ,fig4 #hd4 ,f9n$ ,tube ,radiators at ! ,side ( ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,in/all$ 9 ,/&>d ,fuselage4 ,fig4 #he4 ,anzani ,te/+ ,8 ,five-,cyl9d] ,air ,cool$ ,aviation ,motor ,in/all$ 9 ,bl]iot ,monoplane4 ,note ,exposure ( ,flang$ ,cyl9d]s to ,propell] ,slip ,/ream4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,views ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,dues5b]g ,airplane ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,block4 ,fig4 #hg4 ,tw9-,cyl9d] ,block ( ,/urtevant ,airplane ,eng9e is ,ca/ ( ,alum9um1 & ,has ,removable ,cyl9d] ,head4 ,fig4 #hh4 ,alum9um ,cyl9d] ,pair ,ca/+ ( ,?omas #aej ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e is ( ! ,l ,head ,type4 ,fig4 #ij4 ,cross ,section ( ,au/ro-,daiml] ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,(fset ,cyl9d] ,con/ruction4 ,note ,appli$ ,wat] ,jacket & ,peculi> ,valve ,action4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,diagrams ,demon/rat+ ,advantages ( ,(fset ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction4 ,fig4 #ib4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,=ms ( ,cyl9d] ,dem&$ by ,diff]5t ,valve ,plac+s4 ,a--,t ,head ,type1 ,valves on ,opposite ,sides4 ,b--,l ,head ,cyl9d]1 ,valves ,side by ,side4 ,c--,l ,head ,cyl9d]1 ,"o ,valve 9 ,head1 ,o!r 9 ,pocket4 ,d--,inlet ,valve ,ov] ,exhau/ ,memb]1 ,bo? 9 ,side ,pocket4 ,e--,valve-9-!-,head ,type ) ,v]tical ,valves4 ,f--,incl9$ ,valves ,plac$ to ,op5 ,directly into ,combu/ion ,*amb]4 ,fig4 #ic4 ,sectional ,view ( ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,%[+ ,valve & ,cage ,in/allation4 ,fig4 #id4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,gas ,ent]s ,cyl9d] ,?r\gh ,ov]head ,valves & ,o!r ,types4 ,a--,tee ,head ,cyl9d]4 ,b--,l ,head ,cyl9d]4 ,c--,ov]head ,valve4 ,fig4 #ie4 ,conv5tional ,me?ods ( ,op]at+ ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,motor ,valves4 ,fig4 #if4 ,examples ( ,direct ,valve ,actuation by ,ov]head ,cam-,%aft4 ,a--,m]c$es4 ,b--,hall-,scott4 ,c--,wiscons94 ,fig4 #ig4 ,,c5sor$ ,fig4 #ih4 ,,c5sor$ ,fig4 #ii4 ,sectional ,views ,%[+ ,arrangem5t ( ,novel ,conc5tric ,valve ,arrangem5t ,devis$ by ,panh>d = ,a]ial ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,%[+ ,cle>ance ,all[$ ,betwe5 ,valve ,/em & ,valve ,/em ,guide to ,secure ,free ,action4 ,fig4 #aja4 ,=ms ( ,valve-,lift+ ,cams ,g5]ally ,employ$4 ,a--,cam ,pr(ile = ,long ,dwell & ,quick ,lift4 ,b--,typical ,inlet ,cam ,us$ ) ,mu%room ,type ,foll[]4 ,c--,av]age ,=m ( ,cam4 ,d--,design$ to ,give ,quick ,lift & ,gradual ,clos+4 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,%[+ ,pr9cipal ,types ( ,cam ,foll[]s :i* ,h ,receiv$ ,g5]al ,application4 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,prop] ,cle>ance to ,all[ ,betwe5 ,adju/+ ,screw & ,valve ,/ems 9 ,hall-,scott ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,cam-,%aft ( ,?omas ,airplane ,motor ,has ,cams ,=g$ ,integral4 ,note ,split ,cam-,%aft ,be>+s & ,me?od ( ,ge> ,ret5tion4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,section ,?r\gh ,cyl9d] ( ,knight ,motor1 ,%[+ ,important ,p>ts ( ,valve ,motion4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,knight ,sleeve ,valve ,action4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,cross ,sectional ,view ( ,knight ,type ,eight ,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,diagrams ,expla9+ ,valve & ,ignition ,tim+ ( ,hall-,scott ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,tim+ ,diagram ( ,typical ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,tim+ ,diagram ( ,typical ,eight-,cyl9d] ,v ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,tim+ ,diagram ,%[+ ,peculi> ,valve ,tim+ ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,rot>y ,motor4 ,fig4 #aab4 ,two ,me?ods ( ,op]at+ ,valves by ,positive ,cam ,me*anism ,:i* ,closes z ,well z ,op5s ,!m4 ,fig4 #aac4 ,diagram ,comp>+ ,two ,l>ge ,valves & ,f\r ,small ,ones ( ,practically ! ,same ,area4 ,note ,h[ ,easily ,small ,valves are ,in/all$ to ,op5 ,directly ,into ! ,cyl9d]4 ,fig4 #aad4 ,sectional ,views ( ,sixte5-,valve ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,automobile ,rac+ ,eng9e ,t ,may ,h ,possibilities = ,aviation ,s]vice4 ,fig4 #aae4 ,front ,view ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#c ,aviation ,motor1 ,%[+ ,unconv5tional ,valve ,action by ,conc5tric ,pu% ,rod & ,pull ,tube4 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,=ms ( ,pi/ons ,commonly ,employ$ 9 ,gasol9e ,eng9es4 ,a--,dome ,head ,pi/on & ,?ree ,pack+ ,r+s4 ,b--,flat ,top ,=m ,almo/ ,univ]sally ,us$4 ,c--,concave ,pi/on ,utiliz$ 9 ,knight ,motors & ,"s ,hav+ ,ov]head ,valves4 ,d--,two-,cycle ,eng9e ,memb] ) ,deflector ,plate ,ca/ ,integrally4 ,e--,diff]5tial ( ,two-,diamet] ,pi/on ,us$ 9 ,"s ,eng9es ,op]at+ on ,two-,cycle ,pr9ciple4 ,fig4 #aag4 ,typical ,me?ods ( ,pi/on ,p9 ,ret5tion ,g5]ally ,us$ 9 ,eng9es ( ,am]ican ,design4 ,a--,s+le ,set ,screw & ,lock ,nut4 ,b--,set ,screw & ,*eck ,nut ,fitt+ ,groove 9 ,wri/ ,p94 ,c1 ,d--,two ,lock+ ,screws ,pass+ ,into ,int]ior ( ,holl[ ,wri/ ,p94 ,e--,split ,r+ ,holds ,p9 9 ,place4 ,f--,use ( ,tap] ,exp&+ ,plugs ,outl9$4 ,g--,spr+ ,press$ ,plung] ,type4 ,h--,pi/on ,p9 ,p9n$ to ,connect+ ,rod4 ,i--,wri/ ,p9 ,clamp$ 9 ,connect+ ,rod ,small ,end by ,bolt4 ,fig4 #aah4 ,typical ,pi/on & ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly4 ,fig4 #aai4 ,p>ts ( ,/urtevant ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,a--,cyl9d] ,head ,%[+ ,valves4 ,b--,connect+ ,rod4 ,c--,pi/on & ,r+s4 ,fig4 #abj4 ,alum9um ,pi/on & ,light ,b ,/rong ,/eel ,connect+ ,rod & ,wri/ ,p9 ( ,?omas ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aba4 ,ca/ ,iron ,pi/on ( ,monos\pape ,gnome ,eng9e ,in/all$ ,on ,"o ( ! ,%ort ,connect+ ,rods4 ,fig4 #abb4 ,types ( ,alum9um ,pi/ons ,us$ ,9 ,aviation ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,types ( ,pi/on ,r+s & ,r+ ,jo9ts4 ,a--,conc5tric ,r+4 ,b--,ecc5trically ,ma*9$ ,=m4 ,c--,lap ,jo9t ,r+4 ,d--,butt ,jo9t1 ,seldom ,us$4 ,e--,diagonal ,cut ,memb]1 a ,popul> ,=m4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,advantages ( ,conc5tric ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,fig4 #abe4 ,leak-,pro( & ,o!r ,comp\nd ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,fig4 #abf4 ,sectional ,view ( ,eng9e ,%[+ ,means ( ,prev5t+ ,oil ,leakage ,by ,pi/on ,r+s4 ,fig4 #abg4 ,connect+ ,rod & ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #abh4 ,connect+ ,rod ,types ,summ>iz$4 ,a--,s+le ,connect+ ,rod ,made 9 ,"o ,piece1 ,usually ,fitt$ 9 ,small ,s+le-,cyl9d] ,eng9es ,hav+ ,built-,up ,crank-,%afts4 ,b--,m>9e ,type1 a ,popul> ,=m on ,heavy ,eng9es4 ,c--,conv5tional ,automobile ,type1 a ,modifi$ ,m>9e ,=m4 ,d--,type ,hav+ ,h+$ ,l[] ,cap & ,split ,wri/ ,p9 ,bu%+4 ,e--,connect+ ,rod ,hav+ ,diagonally ,divid$ ,big ,end4 ,f--,ball-,be>+ ,rod4 ,g--,sections ,%[+ ,/ructural ,%apes ,commonly ,employ$ 9 ,connect+ ,rod ,con/ruction4 ,fig4 #abi4 ,d\ble ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly ,= ,use ,on ,s+le ,crank-,p9 ( ,vee ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #acj4 ,ano!r ,type ( ,d\ble ,connect+ ,rod = ,vee ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #aca4 ,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,f\r-,be>+ ,crank-,%aft1 ,ov]head ,cam-,%aft1 & ,me?od ( ,comb9+ ,cyl9d]s 9 ,pairs4 ,fig4 #acb4 ,"p ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,connect+ ,rod ,con/ruction & ,o!r ,important ,int]nal ,p>ts4 ,fig4 #acc4 ,typical ,cam-,%aft1 ) ,valve ,lift+ ,cams & ,ge>s to ,op]ate ,auxili>y ,devices ,=g$ ,integrally4 ,fig4 #acd4 ,important ,p>ts ( ,dues5b]g ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,a--,?ree ,ma9 ,be>+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,b--,cam-,%aft ) ,integral ,cams4 ,c--,pi/on & ,connect+ ,rod ,assembly4 ,d--,valve ,rock] ,gr\p4 ,e--,pi/on4 ,f--,ma9 ,be>+ ,brasses4 ,fig4 #ace4 ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,mak+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,a--,! ,r\gh ,/eel ,=g+ ,be=e ,ma*9+4 ,b--,! ,f9i%$ ,six-,?r[1 ,sev5-,be>+ ,crank-,%aft4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,%[+ ,=m ( ,crank-,%aft = ,tw9-,cyl9d] ,oppos$ ,p[] ,plant4 ,fig4 #acg4 ,crank-,%aft ( ,?omas-,morse ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #ach4 ,crank-,case & ,crank-,%aft ,con/ruction = ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,a--,dues5b]g4 ,b--,curtiss4 ,fig4 #aci4 ,c\nt]balanc$ ,crank-,%afts ,r$uce ,eng9e ,vibration & ,p]mit ( ,high] ,rotative ,spe$s4 ,fig4 #adj4 ,view ( ,?omas #ace ,horse-,p[] ,a]omotor1 ,model #h1 ,%[+ ,conv5tional ,me?od ( ,crank-,case ,con/ruction4 ,fig4 #ada4 ,views ( ,upp] ,half ( ,?omas ,a]omotor ,crank-,case4 ,fig4 #adb4 ,me?od ( ,con/ruct+ ,eight-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e1 ,possible if ,alum9um ,cyl9d] & ,crank-,case ,ca/+s are ,us$4 ,fig4 #adc4 ,simple & ,compact ,crank-,case1 ,possible ,:5 ,radial ,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,design is ,foll[$4 ,fig4 #add4 ,unconv5tional ,m\nt+ ( ,g]man ,inv]t$ ,cyl9d] ,motor4 ,fig4 #ade4 ,h[ ,curtiss ,model ,,ox-#b ,motor is ,in/all$ 9 ,fuselage ( ,curtiss ,tractor ,biplane4 ,note ,simil>ity ( ,m\nt+ to ,automobile ,p[] ,plant4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,late/ ,model ( ,curtiss ,,jn-#d ,tra9+ ,ma*9e1 ,%[+ ,?or\gh ,enclosure ( ,p[] ,plant & ,me?od ( ,dispos+ ( ! ,exhau/ ,gases4 ,fig4 #adg4 ,front ,view ( ,l4 ,w4 ,f4 ,tractor ,biplane ,fuselage1 ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,in/all+ ,?omas ,a]omotor & ,me?od ( ,dispos+ ( ,exhau/ ,gases4 ,fig4 #adh4 ,end ,elevation ( ,hall-,scott ,a-#g ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,motor1 ) ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,fig4 #adi4 ,plan & ,side ,elevation ( ,hall-,scott ,a-#g ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ) ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,fig4 #aej4 ,,c5sor$ ,fig4 #aea4 ,,c5sor$ ,fig4 #aeb4 ,,c5sor$ ,fig4 #aec4 ,plan ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,in/allation ,dim5sions4 ,fig4 #aed4 ,?ree-,qu>t] ,view ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e1 ) ,"o ( ! ,side ,radiators ,remov$ to ,%[ ,in/allation 9 ,/&>d ,fuselage4 ,fig4 #aee4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,prop] ,in/allation ( ,hall-,scott ,type ,a-#e #abe ,horse-,p[] ,eng9e ) ,pressure ,fe$ ,fuel ,supply ,sy/em4 ,fig4 #aef4 ,diagram ,def9+ ,in/allation ( ,gnome ,monos\pape ,motor 9 ,tractor ,biplane4 ,note ,necess>y ,pip+ = ,fuel1 ,oil1 & ,air ,l9es4 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,%[+ ,two ,me?ods ( ,plac+ ,propell] on ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor4 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,h[ ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor ,may ,be ,atta*$ to ,airplane ,fuselage ,memb]s4 ,fig4 #aei4 ,h[ ,anzani ,t5-,cyl9d] ,radial ,eng9e is ,in/all$ to ,plate ,securely ,atta*$ to ,front ,end ( ,tractor ,airplane ,fuselage4 ,fig4 #afj4 ,side ,elevation ( ,?omas #ace ,horse-,p[] ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,giv+ ,important ,dim5sions4 ,fig4 #afa4 ,front ,elevation ( ,?omas-,morse #ace ,horse-,p[] ,a]omotor1 ,%[+ ,ma9 ,dim5sions4 ,fig4 #afb4 ,front & ,side ,elevations ( ,/urtevant ,airplane ,eng9e1 ,giv+ ,pr9cipal ,dim5sions to ,facilitate ,in/allation4 ,fig4 #afc4 ,practical ,h& ,tools ,useful 9 ,dismantl+ & ,repair+ ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #afd4 ,wr5*es are ,(f]$ 9 ,_m ,=ms4 ,fig4 #afe4 ,illu/rat+ ,use & ,c>e ( ,files4 ,fig4 #aff4 ,outl9+ ,use ( ,cott] ,p9 ,pli]s1 ,spr+ ,w9d]1 & ,%[+ ,practical ,outfit ( ,*isels4 ,fig4 #afg4 ,=ms ( ,h& ,op]at$ ,drill+ ,ma*9es4 ,fig4 #afh4 ,=ms ( ,drills ,us$ 9 ,h& & ,p[] ,drill+ ,ma*9es4 ,fig4 #afi4 ,useful ,set ( ,numb] ,drills1 ,%[+ ,/& = ,keep+ ,^! 9 an ,ord]ly ,mann]4 ,fig4 #agj4 ,illu/rat+ ,/&>d ,=ms ( ,h& & ,ma*9e ,ream]s4 ,fig4 #aga4 ,tools = ,?read ,cutt+4 ,fig4 #agb4 ,%[+ ,hold] ,designs = ,"o- & ,two-,piece ,?read ,cutt+ ,dies4 ,fig4 #agc4 ,useful ,outfit ( ,taps & ,dies = ! ,eng9e ,repair ,%op4 ,fig4 #agd4 ,common ,=ms ( ,inside & ,outside ,calip]s4 ,fig4 #age4 ,measur+ ,appliances = ! ,ma*9i/ & ,floor ,man4 ,fig4 #agf4 ,at ,left1 ,special ,=m ( ,v]ni] ,calip] = ,measur+ ,ge> ,tee?2 at ,"r1 ,micromet] = ,accurate ,int]nal ,measurem5ts4 ,fig4 #agg4 ,measur+ ,appliances ( ,value 9 ,airplane ,repair ,"w4 ,fig4 #agh4 ,/&>d ,=ms ( ,micromet] ,calip] = ,ext]nal ,measurem5ts4 ,fig4 #agi4 ,special ,tools = ,ma9ta9+ ,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,motor ,us$ 9 ,curtiss ,,jn-#d ,tra9+ ,biplane4 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,special ,tools & ,appliances to ,facilitate ,ov]haul+ ,"w on ,hall-,scott ,airplane ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #aha4 ,special ,/& to ,make ,motor ,ov]haul+ ,"w ,easi]4 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,%[+ ,:]e ,c>bon ,deposits ,collect 9 ,eng9e ,combu/ion ,*amb]1 & ,h[ to ,burn ,!m ,out ) ! ,aid ( ,oxyg54 ,a--,special ,tor*4 ,b--,tor* ,c\pl$ to ,oxyg5 ,tank4 ,c--,tor* 9 ,use4 ,fig4 #ahba_/b4 ,"p ,sectional ,view1 ,%[+ ,valve ,arrangem5t 9 ,cyl9d] ( ,curtiss ,,ox-#b ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,tools = ,re/or+ ,valve ,head & ,seats4 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,tools & ,processes ,utiliz$ 9 ,valve ,gr9d+4 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,outl9+ ,po9ts 9 ,valve ,op]at+ ,me*anism ,:]e ,depreciation is ,apt to ,exi/4 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,me?od ( ,remov+ ,pi/on ,r+s1 & ,simple ,clamp to ,facilitate ,ins]tion ( ,r+s 9 ,cyl9d]4 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,tools & ,processes ,us$ 9 ,refitt+ ,eng9e ,be>+s4 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,%[+ ,po9ts to ,obs]ve ,:5 ,fitt+ ,connect+ ,rod ,brasses4 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,me?ods ( ,te/+ to ,insure ,p>allelism ( ,be>+s ,aft] ,fitt+4 ,fig4 #aij4 ,views ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,?ree-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,aviation ,motor4 ,fig4 #aij;a4 ,illu/rations ,depict+ ,wrong & ,"r ,me?ods ( ,sw++ ! ,/ick to ,/>t ,airplane ,eng9e4 ,at ,top1 ,poor ,position to ,get ,full ,?r[ & ,get ,out ( ! ,way4 ,bel[1 ,correct ,position to ,get ,quick ,turn ,ov] ( ,crank-,%aft & ,spr+ ,away f ,propell]4 ,fig4 #aia4 ,! ,anzani ,six-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aib4 ,sectional ,view ( ,anzani ,six-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aic4 ,?ree-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,air-,cool$ ,y-,=m ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aid4 ,anzani ,fix$ ,crank-,case ,eng9e ( ! ,six-,cyl9d] ,=m ,utilizes ,air ,cool+ ,successfully4 ,fig4 #aie4 ,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,int]nal ,p>ts ( ,six-,cyl9d] ,anzani ,eng9e1 ) ,/>wise ,disposition ( ,cyl9d]s4 ,fig4 #aif4 ,! ,anzani ,t5-,cyl9d] ,aviation ,eng9e at ! ,left1 & ! ,tw5ty-,cyl9d] ,fix$ ,type at ! ,"r4 ,fig4 #aig4 ,application ( ,r4 ,e4 ,p4 ,five-,cyl9d] ,fan-,%ape ,air-,cool$ ,motor to ,e>ly ,monoplane4 ,fig4 #aih4 ,! ,canton & ,unne ,n9e-,cyl9d] ,wat]-,cool$ ,radial ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aii4 ,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,con/ruction ( ,canton & ,unne ,wat]-,cool$ ,radial ,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,sectional ,view ,outl9+ ,con/ruction ( ,e>ly ,type ,gnome ,valve-9-,pi/on ,type ,motor4 ,fig4 #bja4 ,sectional ,view ( ,e>ly ,type ,gnome ,cyl9d] & ,pi/on ,%[+ ,con/ruction & ,application ( ,inlet & ,exhau/ ,valves4 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,details ( ,old ,/yle ,gnome ,motor ,inlet & ,exhau/ ,valve ,con/ruction & ,op]ation4 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,! ,gnome ,f\rte5-,cyl9d] #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,cam & ,cam-,ge> ,case ( ! ,gnome ,sev5-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bje4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,:y ,an ,odd ,numb] ( ,cyl9d]s is ,be/ = ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,motors4 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,simple ,c>buretor ,us$ ,on ,e>ly ,gnome ,eng9es ,atta*$ to ,fix$ ,crank-,%aft ,end4 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,sectional ,views ( ! ,gnome ,oil ,pump4 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,simplifi$ ,diagram ,%[+ ,gnome ,motor ,magneto ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,fig4 #bji4 ,! ,g4 ,v4 ,gnome ,monos\pape ,n9e-,cyl9d] ,rot>y ,eng9e ,m\nt$ on ,te/+ ,/&4 ,fig4 #baj4 ,sectional ,view ,%[+ ,con/ruction ( ,g5]al ,vehicle ,co4 ,monos\pape ,gnome ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #baa4 ,h[ a ,gnome ,cyl9d] is ,r$uc$ f ,solid ,*unk ( ,/eel ,weigh+ #ig ,p\nds to ,f9i%$ ,cyl9d] ,weigh+ #ea_/b ,p\nds4 ,fig4 #bab4 ,! ,gnome ,eng9e ,cam-,ge> ,case1 a ,f9e ,example ( ,accurate ,ma*9e ,"w4 ,fig4 #bac4 ,g4 ,v4 ,gnome ,monos\pape1 ) ,cam-,case ,cov] ,remov$ to ,%[ ,cams & ,valve-,op]at+ ,plung]s ) ,roll] ,cam ,foll[]s4 ,fig4 #bad4 ,! #ej ,horse-,p[] ,rot>y ,bay]is*5 ,motor5 ,gesells*aft ,eng9e1 a ,g]man ,adaptation ( ! ,e>ly ,gnome ,design4 ,fig4 #bae4 ,n9e-,cyl9d] ,revolv+ ,le ,rhone ,type ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #baf4 ,"p ,sectional ,views ( ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,cyl9d] ,ret5tion1 ,valve ,op]ation & ,novel ,crank ,disc ,assembly4 ,fig4 #bag4 ,side ,sectional ,view ( ,le ,rhone ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bah4 ,view ,%[+ ,le ,rhone ,valve ,action & ,connect+ ,rod ,big ,end ,arrangem5t4 ,fig4 #bai4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,important ,compon5ts ( ,le ,rhone ,motor4 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,h[ ! ,cams ( ! ,le ,rhone ,motor ,c ,op]ate ,two ,valves ) a ,s+le ,pu% ,rod4 ,fig4 #bba4 ,! ,le ,rhone ,c>buretor at ,a & ,fuel ,supply ,regulat+ ,device at ,b4 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,le ,rhone ,motor ,action & ,fir+ ,ord]4 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,positions ( ,pi/on 9 ,le ,rhone ,rot>y ,cyl9d] ,motor4 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,valve ,tim+ ( ,le ,rhone ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,h[ ,cyl9d] ,cool+ is ,effect$ 9 ,r5ault ,vee ,eng9es4 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,end ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,air-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,side ,sectional ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,air-,cool$ ,aviation ,eng9e ,crank-,case1 ,%[+ ,use ( ,pla9 & ,ball ,be>+s = ,crank-,%aft ,support4 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,end ,view ( ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,crank-,case1 ,%[+ ,magneto ,m\nt+4 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,diagram ,outl9+ ,r5ault ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,eng9e ,ignition ,sy/em4 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,! ,simplex ,model ,a ,hispano-,suiza ,aviation ,eng9e1 a ,v ,successful ,=m4 ,fig4 #bca4 ,! ,curtiss ,,oxx-#e ,aviation ,eng9e is an ,eight-,cyl9d] ,type ,l>gely ,us$ on ,tra9+ ,ma*9es4 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,top & ,bottom ,views ( ! ,curtiss ,,oxx-#e #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,end ,view ( ,?omas-,morse #aej ,horse-,p[] ,alum9um ,cyl9d] ,aviation ,motor ,hav+ ,deta*able ,cyl9d] ,heads4 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,side ,view ( ,?omas-,morse ,high ,spe$ #aej ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor ) ,ge>$ ,d[n ,propell] ,drive4 ,fig4 #bce4 ,! ,r$uction ,ge>-,case ( ,?omas-,morse #aej ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,motor1 ,%[+ ,ball ,be>+ & ,propell] ,drive ,%aft ,ge>4 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,! ,six-,cyl9d] ,a]om>9e ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,! ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e1 at ,top1 z ,view$ f ,c>buretor ,side4 ,bel[1 ! ,exhau/ ,side4 ,fig4 #bch4 ,dim5sion$ ,end ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,six ,motor4 ,fig4 #bci4 ,dim5sion$ ,side ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,six ,motor4 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,p[]1 ,torque & ,effici5cy ,curves ( ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,motor4 ,fig4 #bda4 ,tim+ ,diagram1 ,wiscons9 ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,dim5sion$ ,end ,view ( ,wiscons9 ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,motor4 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,dim5sion$ ,side ,elevation ( ,wiscons9 ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,airplane ,motor4 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,side & ,end ,sectional ,views ( ,f\r-,cyl9d] ,argus ,eng9e1 a ,g]man #ajj ,horse-,p[] ,design ,hav+ ,bore & ,/roke ( #adj mm41 or #e4fj in*es1 & ,develop+ ,its ,p[] at #a1cfh ,r4,p4,m4 ,weight1 #cej ,p\nds4 ,fig4 #bde4 ,"p ,sectional ,view ( #ij ,horse-,p[] ,m]c$es ,eng9e1 ,:i* is ,typical ( ! ,design ( ,l>g] ,sizes4 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,"p ,sectional ,side ,view & ,sectional ,end ,view ( ,b5z #afj ,horse-,p[] ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,at ,top1 ! ,sunbeam ,ov]head ,valve #agj ,horse-,p[] ,six-,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,bel[1 ,side ,view ( ,sunbeam #cej ,horse-,p[] ,twelve-,cyl9d] ,vee ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,side ,view ( ,eighte5-,cyl9d] ,sunbeam ,coatal5 ,aircraft ,eng9e ,rat$ at #dge ,b4,h4,p4 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,sunbeam ,eighte5-,cyl9d] ,motor1 ,view$ f ,pump & ,magneto ,end4 ,fig4 #bej4 ,propell] ,end ( ,sunbeam ,eighte5-,cyl9d] #dge ,b4,h4,p4 ,aviation ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #bea4 ,view ( ,airplane ,c[l ,bo>d1 ,%[+ ! ,v>i\s ,navigat+ & ,indicat+ ,in/rum5ts to ,aid ! ,aviator 9 ,flight4 ,fig4 #beb4 ,p>ts ( ,*ri/5s5 ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em ,%[n at ,a1 & ,application ( ,pip+ & ,*eck ,valves to ,cyl9d]s ( ,?omas-,morse ,a]omotor ,outl9$ at ,b4 ,fig4 #bec4 ,diagrams ,%[+ ,in/allation ( ,air ,/>t+ ,sy/em on ,?omas-,morse ,aviation ,motor4 ,,catalogue ,( ! ,,late/ & ,,be/ ,,practical & ,,me*anical ,,books ,includ+ ,automobile & ,aviation ,books ,illu/ration ,any ( ^! books w be s5t prepaid to any "p ( ! _w1 on receipt ( price4 ,remit by ,draft1 ,po/al ,ord]1 ,express ,ord] or ,regi/]$ ,lett] ,publi%$ & ,= ,sale ,by ,! ,norman ,w4 ,h5ley ,publi%+ ,co41 #b ,we/ #de? ,/reet1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,index ,,pages ,air ,brakes #ba1 #bd ,ari?metic #ad1 #be1 #ca ,automobile ,books #c1 #d1 #e1 #f ,automobile ,*>ts #f1 #g ,automobile ,ignition ,sy/ems #e ,automobile ,light+ #e ,automobile ,que/ions & ,answ]s #d ,automobile ,repair+ #d ,automobile ,/>t+ ,sy/ems #e ,automobile ,tr\ble ,*>ts #e1 #f ,automobile ,weld+ #e ,aviation #g ,aviation ,*>t #g ,batt]ies1 ,/orage #e ,bevel ,ge> #ai ,boil]-,room ,*>t #i ,braz+ #g ,cams #ai ,c>buretion ,tr\ble ,*>t #f ,*ange ,ge> #ai ,*>ts #f1 #g1 #h ,coal #bb ,coke #i ,combu/ion #bb ,compress$ ,air #aj ,concrete #aj1 #aa1 #ab ,concrete = ,f>m ,use #aa ,concrete = ,%op ,use #aa ,cosmetics #bg ,cyclec>s #e ,diction>y #ab ,dies #ab1 #ac ,draw+ #ac1 #ad ,draw+ = ,plumb]s #bh ,drop ,=g+ #ac ,dynamo ,build+ #ad ,electric ,bells #ad ,electric ,swit*bo>ds #ad1 #af ,electric ,toy ,mak+ #ae ,electric ,wir+ #ad1 #ae1 #af ,electricity #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag ,encyclop$ia #bd ,e-,t ,air ,brake #bd ,e-day ,eng9e]+ #cd ,factory ,managem5t #ag ,=d ,automobile #c ,=d ,tr\ble ,*>t #f ,=mulas & ,recipes #bi ,fuel #ag ,gas ,con/ruction #ah ,gas ,eng9es #ah1 #ai ,gas ,tractor #cc ,ge>+ & ,cams #ai ,gloss>y ( ,aviation ,t]ms #g1 #ab ,heat+ #ca1 #cb ,horse-,p[] ,*>t #i ,hot-,wat] ,heat+ #ca1 #cb ,h\se ,wir+ #ae1 #ag ,h[ to ,run an ,automobile #c ,hydraulics #e ,ice & ,refrig]ation #bj ,ignition ,sy/ems #e ,ignition-,tr\ble ,*>t #f ,india ,rubb] #cj ,int]*angeable ,manufactur+ #bd ,inv5tions #bj ,knots #bj ,la! ,"w #bj ,l9k ,motions #bb ,liquid ,air #ba ,locomotive ,boil]s #bb ,locomotive ,breakd[ns #bb ,locomotive ,eng9e]+ #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd ,ma*9i/ ,book #bd1 #be1 #bf ,magaz9e1 ,me*anical #cd ,manual ,tra9+ #bf ,m>9e ,eng9e]+ #bf ,m>9e ,gasol9e ,eng9es #ai ,me*anical ,draw+ #ac1 #ad ,me*anical ,magaz9e #cd ,me*anical ,movem5ts #be ,metal ,"w #ab1 #ac ,motorcycles #e1 #f ,pat5ts #bj ,patt]n ,mak+ #bg ,p]fum]y #bg ,p]spective #ac ,plumb+ #bh1 #bi ,produc] ,gas #ai ,pun*es #ac ,que/ions & ,answ]s on ,automobile #d ,que/ions on ,heat+ #cb ,railroad ,accid5ts #bc ,railroad ,*>ts #i ,recipe ,book #bi ,refrig]ation #bj ,repair+ ,automobiles #d ,rope ,"w #bj ,rubb] #cj ,rubb] ,/amps #cj ,saw ,fil+ #cj ,saws1 ,managem5t ( #cj ,%eet-,metal ,works #ab1 #ac ,%op ,con/ruction #be ,%op ,managem5t #be ,%op ,practice #be ,%op ,tools #be ,sket*+ ,pap] #ad ,sold]+ #g ,splices & ,rope ,"w #bj ,/eam ,eng9e]+ #cj1 #ca ,/eam ,heat+ #ca1 #cb ,/eel #cb ,/orage ,batt]ies #e ,subm>9e ,*>t #i ,swit*bo>ds #ad1 #af ,tap]s #ba ,telegraphy1 ,wireless #ag ,telephone #af ,?read ,cutt+ #bf ,tool ,mak+ #bd ,toy ,mak+ #ae ,tra9 ,rules #bc ,tractive ,p[] ,*>t #i ,tractor1 ,gas #cc ,turb9es #cc ,vacuum ,heat+ #cb ,valve ,sett+ #bb ,v5tilation #ca ,wat* ,mak+ #cc ,wat]pro(+ #ab ,weld+ ) ,oxy-acetyl5e ,flame #e1 #cc ,wireless ,telegraphy #ag ,wir+ #ad1 #ae ,wir+ ,diagrams #ad ,any ( ^! books promptly s5t prepaid to any address 9 ! _w on receipt ( price4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,remit--,by ,po/al ,money ,ord]1 ,express ,money ,ord]1 ,bank ,draft or ,regi/]$ ,lett]4 ,,automobiles ,,& ,,motorcycles ,! ,mod]n ,gasol9e ,automobile--,its ,design1 ,con/ruction1 & ,op]ation1 #aiah ,edition4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is is ! mo/ complete1 practical & up-to-date treatise on gasol9e automobiles & _! compon5t p>ts ev] publi%$4 ,9 ! new revis$ & enl>g$ #aiah edition1 all phases ( automobile con/ruction1 op]ation & ma9t5ance are fully & completely describ$1 & 9 language anyone c und]/&4 ,e "p ( all types ( automobiles1 f light cycle-c>s to heavy motor trucks & tractors1 are describ$ 9 a ?or\gh mann]1 n only ! automobile1 b e item ( x2 equipm5t1 accessories1 tools ne$$1 supplies & sp>e p>ts necess>y = its upkeep1 are fully discuss$4 ,x is cle>ly & concisely writt5 by an exp]t famili> ) e bran* ( ! automobile indu/ry & ! orig9ator ( ! practical sy/em ( self-education on te*nical subjects4 ,x is a lib]al education 9 ! automobile art1 useful to all :o motor = ei!r bus9ess or pleasure4 ,anyone read+ ! incomp>able treatise is 9 t\* ) all improvem5ts t h be5 made 9 motor-c> con/ruction4 ,all late/ developm5ts1 su* z high spe$ alum9um motors & multiple valve & sleeve-valve eng9es1 are consid]$ 9 detail4 ,! late/ ignition1 c>buretor & lubrication practice is outl9$4 ,new =ms ( *ange spe$ ge>s1 & f9al p[] transmission sy/ems1 & all late/ *assis improvem5ts are %[n & describ$4 ,?is book is us$ 9 all lead+ automobile s*ools & is conc$$ to be ! ,,/&>d ,,treatise4 ,! *apt] on ,/>t+ & ,light+ ,sy/ems has be5 greatly enl>g$1 & _m automobile eng9e]+ features t h long puzzl$ laym5 are expla9$ s cle>ly t ! und]ly+ pr9ciples c be und]/ood by anyone4 ,?is book 0 fir/ publi%$ six ye>s ago & s mu* new matt] has be5 add$ t x is ne>ly twice1 its orig9al size4 ,! only treatise cov]+ v>i\s =ms ( w> automobiles & rec5t developm5ts 9 motor-truck design z well z pleasure c>s4 ,?is book is n too te*nical = ! layman nor too elem5t>y = ! m exp]t4 ,x is an incomp>able "w ( ref]5ce1 = home or s*ool4 #a1jjj #fx#i pages1 ne>ly #a1jjj illu/rations1 #ab fold+ plates4 ,clo? b\nd4 ,price #c4jj ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,x is ! be/ book on ! ,automobile se5 up to date4--,j4 ,h4 ,pile1 ,associate ,editor ,automobile ,trade ,j\rnal4 ,e ,automobile ,own] has use = a book ( ?is "*4--,! ,tradesman4 ,?is book is sup]ior to any treatise h]et(ore publi%$ on ! subject4--,! ,inv5tive ,age4 ,we "k ( no o!r volume t is s complete 9 all its dep>tm5ts1 & 9 :i* ! wide field ( automobile con/ruction ) its me*anical intricacies is s pla9ly h&l$1 bo? 9 ! text & 9 ! matt] ( illu/rations4--,! ,motori/4 ,! book is v ?or\gh1 a c>eful exam9ation fail+ to disclose any po9t 9 connection ) ! automobile1 its c>e & repair1 to h be5 ov]look$4--,iron ,age4 ,mr4 ,page has done a great "w1 & b5efit to ! ,automobile ,field4--,w4 ,c4 ,has=d1 ,mgr4 ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 ,automobile ,s*ool1 ,bo/on1 ,mass4 ,x is j ! k9d ( a book a motori/ ne$s if he wants to und]/& 8 c>4--,am]ican ,?re%]man4 ,! ,model ,t ,=d ,c>1 ,its ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation & ,repair4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is is a complete in/ruction book4 ,all p>ts ( ! ,=d ,model ,t ,c> are describ$ & illu/rat$2 ! con/ruction is fully describ$ & op]at+ pr9ciples made cle> to ev]yone4 ,e ,=d own] ne$s ?is practical book4 ,y don't h to guess ab\t ! con/ruction or :]e ! tr\ble is1 z x %[s h[ to take all p>ts ap>t & h[ to locate & fix all faults4 ,! writ]1 ,mr4 ,page1 has op]at$ a ,=d c> = _m ye>s & writes f actual k4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 #a4 ,! ,=d ,c>3 ,its ,p>ts & ,_! ,functions4 #b4 ,! ,eng9e & ,auxili>y ,gr\ps4 ,h[ ! ,eng9e ,works--,! ,fuel ,supply ,sy/em--,! ,c>buretor--,mak+ ! ,ignition ,sp>k--,cool+ & ,lubrication4 #c4 ,details ( ,*assis4 ,*ange ,spe$ ,ge>--,p[] ,transmission--,diff]5tial ,ge> ,action--,/e]+ ,ge>--,front ,axle--,frame & ,spr+s--,brakes4 #d4 ,h[ to ,drive & ,c>e = ! ,=d4 ,! ,control ,sy/em ,expla9$--,/>t+ ! ,motor--,driv+ ! ,c>--,locat+ ,roadside ,tr\bles--,tire ,repairs--,oil+ ! ,*assis--,w9t] ,c>e ( ,c>4 #e4 ,sy/ematic ,location ( ,tr\bles & ,rem$ies4 ,faults 9 ,eng9e--,faults 9 ,c>buretor--,ignition ,tr\bles--,cool+ & ,lubrication ,sy/em ,defects--,adju/m5t ( ,transmission ,ge>--,g5]al ,*assis ,repairs4 #ie illu/rations1 #cjj pages1 #b l>ge fold+ plates4 ,price #a4jj ,h[ to ,run an ,automobile4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is treatise gives concise in/ructions = />t+ & runn+ all makes ( gasol9e automobiles1 h[ to c>e = !m1 & gives di/9ctive features ( control4 ,describes e /ep = %ift+ ge>s1 controll+ eng9es1 etc4 ,among ! *apt]s conta9$ are3 ,i4--,automobile ,p>ts & ,_! ,functions4 ,,ii4--,g5]al ,/>t+ & ,driv+ ,in/ructions4 ,,iii4--,typical #aiag ,control ,sy/ems4 ,,iv4--,c>e ( ,automobiles4 #agh pages4 #gb specially made illu/rations4 ,price #a4jj ,automobile ,repair+ ,made ,easy4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,a compreh5sive1 practical exposition ( e phase ( mod]n automobile repair+ practice4 ,outl9es e process incid5tal to motor c> re/oration4 ,gives plans = work%op con/ruction1 sugge/ions = equipm5t1 p[] ne$$1 ma*9]y & tools necess>y to c>ry on bus9ess successfully4 ,tells h[ to ov]haul & repair all p>ts ( all automobiles4 ,ev]y?+ is expla9$ s simply t motori/s & /ud5ts c acquire a full work+ k ( automobile repair+4 ,?is "w />ts ) ! eng9e1 !n consid]s c>buretion1 ignition1 cool+ & lubrication sy/ems4 ,! clut*1 *ange spe$ ge>+ & transmission sy/em are consid]$ 9 detail4 ,conta9s in/ructions = repair+ all types ( axles1 /e]+ ge>s & o!r *assis p>ts4 ,_m tables1 %ort cuts 9 figur+ & rules ( practice are giv5 = ! me*anic4 ,expla9s fully valve & magneto tim+1 tun+ eng9es1 sy/ematic location ( tr\ble1 repair ( ball & roll] be>+s1 %op k9ks1 fir/ aid to injur$ & a multitude ( subjects ( int]e/ to all 9 ! g>age & repair bus9ess4 ,?is book conta9s special in/ructions on electric />t+1 light+ & ignition sy/ems1 tire repair+ & rebuild+1 autog5\s weld+1 braz+ & sold]+1 heat treatm5t ( /eel1 late/ tim+ practice1 eight & twelve-cyl9d] motors1 etc4 #e-c_/dx#h4 ,clo?4 #a1jef pages1 #a1jjj illu/rations1 #aa fold+ plates4 ,price #c4jj ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ',automobile ,repair+ ,made ,easy' is ! be/ book on ! subject ,i h ev] se5 & ! only book ,i ev] saw t is ( any value 9 a g>age4--,fr$ ,jeffrey1 ,m>t9sburg1 ,neb4 ,i wi% to ?ank y = s5d+ me a copy ( ',automobile ,repair+ ,made ,easy4' ,i d n ?9k x c\ld be excell$4--,s4 ,w4 ,gisriel1 ,director ( ,in/ruction1 ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,que/ions & ,answ]s ,relat+ to ,mod]n ,automobile ,con/ruction1 ,driv+ & ,repair4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,a practical self-in/ructor = /ud5ts1 me*anics & motori/s1 consi/+ ( ?irty-sev5 lessons 9 ! =m ( que/ions & answ]s1 writt5 ) special ref]5ce to ! requirem5ts ( ! non-te*nical read] desir+ easily und]/ood1 explanatory matt] relat+ to all bran*es ( automobil+4 ,! subject-matt] is absolutely correct & expla9$ 9 simple language4 ,if y c't answ] all ( ! foll[+ que/ions1 y ne$ ?is "w4 ,! answ]s to ^! & ov] #b1jjj m are to be f\nd 9 its pages4 ,give ! "n ( all important p>ts ( an automobile & describe _! functions4 ,describe action ( late/ types ( k]os5e c>buretors4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a d\ble ignition sy/em & a dual ignition sy/em8 ,"n p>ts ( an induction coil4 ,h[ are valves tim$8 ,:at is an electric motor />t] & h[ does x "w8 ,:at are advantages ( worm drive ge>+8 ,"n all important types ( ball & roll] be>+s4 ,:at is a ?ree-qu>t] float+ axle8 ,:at is a two-spe$ axle8 ,:at is ! ,vulcan electric ge> %ift8 ,"n ! causes ( lo/ p[] 9 automobiles4 ,describe all noises due to d]ang$ me*anism & give causes8 ,h[ c y adju/ a c>buretor by ! color ( ! exhau/ gases8 ,:at causes popp+ 9 ! c>buretor8 ,:at tools & supplies are ne$$ to equip a c>8 ,h[ d y drive v>i\s makes ( c>s8 ,:at is a diff]5tial lock & :]e is x us$8 ,"n diff]5t sy/ems ( wire :eel con/ruction1 etc41 etc4 ,a popul> "w at a popul> price4 #e-a_/dx#g-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #fej pages1 #cej illu/rations1 #c fold+ plates4 ,price #a4ej ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,if y own a c>--get ?is book4--,! ,glasswork]4 ,mr4 ,page has ! faculty ( mak+ difficult subjects pla9 & und]/&able4--,bri/ol ,press4 ,we c "n no writ] bett] qualifi$ to prep>e a book ( in/ruction on automobiles ?an ,mr4 ,victor ,w4 ,page4--,sci5tific ,am]ican4 ,! be/ automobile cate*ism t has appe>$4--,automobile ,topics4 ,!re are few m51 ev5 ) long exp]i5ce1 :o w n f9d ?is book useful4 ,great pa9s h be5 tak5 to make x accurate4 ,special recomm5dation mu/ be giv5 to ! illu/rations1 :i* h be5 made specially = ! "w4 ,su* excell5t books z ?is greatly assi/ 9 fully und]/&+ y\r automobile4--,eng9e]+ ,news4 ,! ,automobili/'s ,pocket ,companion & ,exp5se ,record4 ,arrang$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is book is n only valuable z a conv5i5t co/ record b conta9s mu* in=mation ( value to motori/s4 ,includes a cond5s$ dige/ ( auto laws ( all ,/ates1 a lubrication s*$ule1 h9ts = c>e ( /orage batt]y & c>e ( tires1 location ( road tr\bles1 anti-freez+ solutions1 horse-p[] table1 driv+ h9ts & _m useful tables & recipes ( int]e/ to all motori/s4 ,n a te*nical book 9 any s5se ( ! ^w1 j a collection ( practical facts 9 simple language = ! ev]yday motori/4 ,price #a4jj ,mod]n ,/>t+1 ,light+ & ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,e4 ,?is practical volume has be5 writt5 ) special ref]5ce to ! requirem5ts ( ! non-te*nical read] desir+ easily und]/ood1 explanatory matt]1 relat+ to all types ( automobile ignition1 />t+ & light+ sy/ems4 ,x c be und]/ood by anyone1 ev5 )\t electrical k1 because elem5t>y electrical pr9ciples are consid]$ be=e any attempt is made to discuss features ( ! v>i\s sy/ems4 ,^! basic pr9ciples are cle>ly /at$ & illu/rat$ ) simple diagrams4 ,all ! lead+ sy/ems ( />t+1 light+ & ignition h be5 describ$ & illu/rat$ ) ! co-op]ation ( ! exp]ts employ$ by ! manufactur]s4 ,wir+ diagrams are %[n 9 bo? te*nical & non-te*nical =ms4 ,all symbols are fully expla9$4 ,x is a compreh5sive review ( mod]n />t+ & ignition sy/em practice1 & includes a complete exposition ( /orage batt]y con/ruction1 c>e & repair4 ,all types ( />t+ motors1 g5]ators1 magnetos1 & all ignition or light+ sy/em-units are fully expla9$4 ,e p]son 9 ! automobile bus9ess ne$s ?is volume4 ,among "s ( ! subjects treat$ are3 ,i4--,elem5t>y ,electricity2 ,curr5t ,production2 ,fl[2 ,circuits2 ,measurem5ts2 ,def9itions2 ,magnetism2 ,batt]y ,action2 ,g5]ator ,action4 ,,ii4--,batt]y ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,,iii4--,magneto ,ignition ,sy/ems4 ,,iv4--,elem5t>y ,exposition ( ,/>t+ ,sy/em ,pr9ciples4 ,v4--,typical ,/>t+ & ,light+ ,sy/ems2 ,practical ,application2 ,wir+ ,diagrams2 ,auto-lite1 ,bijur1 ,delco1 ,dyneto-,entz1 ,gray & ,davis1 ,remy1 ,u4 ,s4 ,l41 ,we/+h\se1 ,bos*-,ru%more1 ,g5emotor1 ,nor?-,ea/1 etc4 ,,vi4--,locat+ & ,repair+ ,tr\bles 9 ,/>t+ & ,light+ ,sy/ems4 ,,vii4--,auxili>y4 ,electric ,sy/ems2 ,ge>-%ift+ by ,electricity2 ,w>n+ ,signals2 ,electric ,brake2 ,entz-,transmission1 ,wagn]-,saxon ,circuits1 ,wagn]-,/udebak] ,circuits4 #e-a_/dx#g-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #ecj pages1 #big illu/rations1 #c fold+ plates4 ,price #a4ej ,automobile ,weld+ ,) ! ,oxy-,acetyl5e ,flame4 ,by ,m4 ,,kei? ,,dunham4 ,?is is ! only complete book on ! :y & h[ ( ,weld+ ) ! ,oxy-,acetyl5e ,flame1 & f its pages "o c ga9 in=mation s t he c weld any?+ t comes along4 ,no "o c af=d to be )\t ?is concise book1 z x fir/ expla9s ! app>atus to be us$1 & !n cov]s 9 detail ! actual weld+ ( all automobile p>ts4 ,! weld+ ( alum9um1 ca/ iron1 /eel1 copp]1 brass & malleable iron is cle>ly expla9$1 z well z ! prop] way to burn ! c>bon out ( ! combu/ion head ( ! motor4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 ,*apt] ,i4--,app>atus ,k4 ,*apt] ,,ii4--,%op ,equipm5t & ,initial ,proc$ure4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,ca/ ,iron4 ,*apt] ,,iv4--,alum9um4 ,*apt] ,v4--,/eel4 ,*apt] ,,vi4--,malleable ,iron1 ,copp]1 ,brass1 ,bronze4 ,*apt] ,,vii4--,c>bon ,burn+ & o!r ,uses ( ,oxyg5 & ,acetyl5e4 ,*apt] ,,viii4--,h[ to ,figure ,co/ ( ,weld+4 #afg pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,/orage ,batt]ies ,simplifi$4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,a compreh5sive treatise devot$ entirely to second>y batt]ies & _! ma9t5ance1 repair & use4 ,?is is ! mo/ up-to-date book on ?is subject4 ,describes fully ! ,exide1 ,edison1 ,g\ld1 ,will>d1 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 & o!r /orage batt]y =ms 9 ! types be/ suit$ = automobile1 /ation>y & m>9e "w4 ,no?+ ( importance has be5 omitt$ t ! read] %\ld "k ab\t ! practical op]ation & c>e ( /orage batt]ies4 ,no details h be5 slight$4 ,! in/ructions = *>g+ & c>e h be5 made z simple z possible4 ,brief ,synopsis ( ,*apt]s3 ,*apt] ,i4--,/orage ,batt]y ,developm5t2 ,types ( ,/orage ,batt]ies2 ,lead ,plate ,types2 ,! ,edison ,cell4 ,*apt] ,,ii4--,/orage ,batt]y ,con/ruction2 ,plates & ,girds2 ,plante ,plates2 ,faure ,plates2 ,non-,lead ,plates2 ,comm]cial ,batt]y ,designs4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,*>g+ ,me?ods2 ,rectifi]s2 ,conv]t]s2 ,rheo/ats2 ,rules = ,*>g+4 ,*apt] ,,iv4--,batt]y ,repairs & ,ma9t5ance4 ,*apt] ,v4--,indu/rial ,application ( ,/orage ,batt]ies2 ,gloss>y ( ,/orage ,batt]y ,t]ms4 #bjh ,pages4 ,v ,fully ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4ej net4 ,motorcycles1 ,side ,c>s & ,cyclec>s2 _! ,con/ruction1 ,managem5t & ,repair4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,! only complete "w publi%$ = ! motorcycli/ & cyclec>i/4 ,describes fully all lead+ types ( ma*9es1 _! design1 con/ruction1 ma9t5ance1 op]ation & repair4 ,?is treatise outl9es fully ! op]ation ( two- & f\r-cycle p[] plants & all ignition1 c>buretion & lubrication sy/ems 9 detail4 ,describes all repres5tative types ( free eng9e clut*es1 v>iable spe$ ge>s & p[] transmission sy/ems4 ,gives complete in/ructions = op]at+ & repair+ all types4 ,consid]s fully electric self-/>t+ & light+ sy/ems1 all types ( spr+ frames & spr+ =ks & %[s lead+ control me?ods4 ,= ^? desir+ te*nical in=mation a complete s]ies ( tables & _m =mulae to assi/ 9 design+ are includ$4 ,! "w tells h[ to figure p[] ne$$ to climb grades1 ov]come air resi/ance & atta9 high spe$s4 ,x %[s h[ to select ge> ratios = v>i\s weights & p[]s1 h[ to figure brak+ effici5cy requir$1 gives sizes ( belts & *a9s to transmit p[] safely1 & %[s h[ to design sprockets1 belt pulleys1 etc4 ,?is "w also includes complete =mulae = figur+ horse-p[]1 %[s h[ dynamomet] te/s are made1 def9es relative effici5cy ( air & wat]-cool$ eng9es1 pla9 & anti-friction be>+s & _m o!r data ( a practical1 helpful1 eng9e]+ nature4 ,rememb] t y get ?is in=mation 9 addition to ! practical description & in/ructions :i* alone are wor? sev]al times ! price ( ! book4 #eej pages4 #cej specially made illu/rations1 #e fold+ plates4 ,clo?4 ,price #a4ej ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,"h is a book t %\ld be 9 ! cycle repair]'s kit4--,am]ican ,blacksmi?4 ,! be/ way = any rid] to ?or\ghly und]/& 8 ma*9e1 is to get a copy ( ?is book2 x is wor? _m times its price4--,pacific ,motorcycli/4 ,,automobile ,,& ,,motorcycle ,,*>ts ,*>t4 ,location ( ,gasol9e ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy--,a ,*>t ,%[+ ,sectional ,view ( ,gasol9e ,eng9e4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,x %[s cle>ly all p>ts ( a typical f\r-cyl9d] gasol9e eng9e ( ! f\r-cycle type4 ,x outl9es di/9ctly all p>ts liable to give tr\ble & also details ! d]angem5ts apt to int]f]e ) smoo? eng9e op]ation4 ,valuable to /ud5ts1 motori/s1 me*anics1 repairm51 g>agem51 automobile salesm51 *auffeurs1 motorboat own]s1 motor-truck & tractor driv]s1 aviators1 motor-cycli/s1 & all o!rs :o h to d ) gasol9e p[] plants4 ,x simplifies location ( all eng9e tr\bles1 & :ile x w prove invaluable to ! novice1 x c be us$ to advantage by ! m exp]t4 ,x %\ld be on ! walls ( e public & private g>age1 automobile repair %op1 club h\se or s*ool4 ,x c be c>ri$ 9 ! automobile or pocket ) ease1 & w insure aga9/ loss ( "t :5 eng9e tr\ble manife/s itself4 ,?is sectional view ( eng9e is a complete review ( all motor tr\bles4 ,x is prep>$ by a practical motori/ = all :o motor4 ,m in=mation = ! money ?an ev] be=e (f]$4 ,no details omitt$4 ,size #bex#ch in*es4 ,securely mail$ on receipt ( #be ,c5ts ,*>t4 ,location ( ,=d ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is %[s cle> sectional views depict+ all portions ( ! ,=d p[] plant & auxili>y gr\ps4 ,x outl9es cle>ly all p>ts ( ! eng9e1 fuel supply sy/em1 ignition gr\p & cool+ sy/em1 t are apt to give tr\ble1 detail+ all d]angem5ts t are liable to make an eng9e lose p[]1 />t h>d or "w irregul>ly4 ,?is *>t is valuable to /ud5ts1 own]s1 & driv]s1 z x simplifies location ( all eng9e faults4 ,( great advantage z an in/ructor = ! novice1 x c be us$ equally well by ! m exp]t z a "w ( ref]5ce & review4 ,x c be c>ri$ 9 ! tool-box or pocket ) ease & w save its co/ 9 labor elim9at$ ! fir/ "t eng9e tr\ble manife/s itself4 ,prep>$ ) special ref]5ce to ! av]age man's ne$s & is a practical review ( all motor tr\bles because x is bas$ on ! actual exp]i5ce ( an automobile eng9e]-me*anic ) ! me*anism ! *>t describes4 ,x enables ! non-te*nical own] or op]ator ( a ,=d c> to locate eng9e d]angem5ts by sy/ematic se>*1 guid$ by easily recogniz$ symptoms in/ead ( by guesswork4 ,x makes ! av]age own] indep5d5t ( ! roadside repair %op :5 t\r+4 ,mu/ be se5 to be appreciat$4 ,size #bex#ch in*es4 ,pr9t$ on heavy bond pap]4 ,price #be c5ts ,*>t4 ,lubrication ( ! ,motor ,c> ,*assis4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is *>t pres5ts ! plan view ( a typical six-cyl9d] *assis ( /&>d design & all p>ts are cle>ly indicat$ t dem& oil1 also ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y mu/ be lubricat$ & ! k9d ( oil to use4 ,a practical *>t = all int]e/$ 9 motor-c> ma9t5ance4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,*>t4 ,location ( ,c>buretion ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is *>t %[s all p>ts ( a typical pressure fe$ fuel supply sy/em & gives causes ( tr\ble1 h[ to locate defects & means ( rem$y+ !m4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,*>t4 ,location ( ,ignition ,sy/em ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,9 ?is diagram all p>ts ( a typical d\ble ignition sy/em us+ batt]y & magneto curr5t are %[n1 & sugge/ions are giv5 = readily f9d+ ignition tr\bles & elim9at+ !m :5 f\nd4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,*>t4 ,location ( ,cool+ & ,lubrication ,sy/em ,faults4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is composite diagram %[s a typical automobile p[] plant us+ pump circulat$ wat]-cool+ sy/em & ! mo/ popul> lubrication me?od4 ,gives sugge/ions = cur+ all ov]heat+ & loss ( p[] faults due to faulty action ( ! oil+ or cool+ gr\p4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,*>t4 ,motorcycle ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,a *>t %[+ sectional view ( a s+le-cyl9d] gasol9e eng9e4 ,?is *>t simplifies location ( all p[]-plant tr\bles4 ,a s+le-cyl9d] motor is %[n = simplicity4 ,x outl9es di/9ctly all p>ts liable to give tr\ble & also details ! d]angem5ts apt to int]f]e ) smoo? eng9e op]ation4 ,?is *>t w prove ( value to all :o h to d ) ! op]ation1 repair or sale ( motorcycles4 ,no details omitt$4 ,size #cjx#bj in*es ,price #be c5ts ,,aviation ,aviation ,eng9es1 _! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation & ,repair4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,aviation ,section1 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,a practical "w conta9+ valuable in/ructions = aviation /ud5ts1 me*anicians1 squadron eng9e]+ (fic]s & all int]e/$ 9 ! con/ruction & upkeep ( airplane p[] plants4 ,! rapidly increas+ int]e/ 9 ! /udy ( aviation1 & especially ( ! highly develop$ int]nal combu/ion eng9es t make me*anical flight possible1 has creat$ a dem& = a text-book suitable = s*ools & home /udy t w cle>ly & concisely expla9 ! work+s ( ! v>i\s aircraft eng9es ( =eign & dome/ic manufacture4 ,?is treatise1 writt5 by a recogniz$ au?ority on all ( ! practical aspects ( int]nal combu/ion eng9e con/ruction1 ma9t5ance & repair fills ! ne$ z no o!r book does4 ,! matt] is logically arrang$2 all descriptive matt] is simply express$ & copi\sly illu/rat$ s t anyone c und]/& airplane eng9e op]ation & repair ev5 if )\t previ\s me*anical tra9+4 ,?is "w is invaluable = anyone desir+ to become an aviator or aviation me*anician4 ,! late/ rot>y types1 su* z ! ,gnome1 ,monos\pape1 & ,le ,rhone1 are fully expla9$1 z well z ! rec5tly develop$ ,vee & radial types4 ,! subjects ( c>buretion1 ignition1 cool+ & lubrication also are cov]$ 9 a ?or\gh mann]4 ,! *apt]s on repair & ma9t5ance are di/9ctive & f\nd 9 no o!r book on ?is subject4 ,invaluable to ! /ud5t1 me*anic & soldi] wi%+ to ent] ! aviation s]vice4 ,n a te*nical book1 b a practical1 easily und]/ood "w ( ref]5ce = all int]e/$ 9 a]onautical sci5ce4 #egf octavo pages4 #bec specially made engrav+s4 ,price #c4jj net ,,gloss>y ,,( ,,aviation ,,t]ms ,t]mes ,d',aviation1 ,engli%-,fr5*1 ,fr5*-,engli%4 ,compil$ by ,lieuts4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r41 & ,,paul ,,mont>iol ( ! ,fr5* ,fly+ ,corps1 on duty on ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,a complete1 well illu/rat$ volume int5d$ to facilitate conv]sation betwe5 ,engli%-speak+ & ,fr5* aviators4 ,a v valuable book = all :o are ab\t to leave = duty ov]seas4 ,approv$ = publication by ,major ,w4 ,g4 ,kiln]1 ,s4,c41 ,u4,s4,c4,o4 ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool4 ,hazelhur/ ,field1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,?is book %\ld be 9 e ,aviator's & ,me*anic's ,kit = ready ref]5ce4 #abh pages4 ,fully illu/rat$ ) detail$ engrav+s4 ,price #a4jj ,aviation ,*>t4 ,location ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,a l>ge *>t outl9+ all p>ts ( a typical airplane p[] plant1 %[+ ! po9ts :]e tr\ble is apt to occur & sugge/+ rem$ies = ! common defects4 ,int5d$ especially = ,aviators & ,aviation ,me*anics on ,s*ool & ,field ,duty4 ,price #ej c5ts ,,braz+ ,,& ,,sold]+ ,braz+ & ,sold]+4 ,by ,,james ,f4 ,,hob>t4 ,! only book t %[s y j h[ to h&le any job ( braz+ or sold]+ t comes along2 x tells y :at mixture to use1 h[ to make a furnace if y ne$ "o4 ,full ( valuable k9ks4 ,! fif? edition ( ?is book has j be5 publi%$1 & to x mu* new matt] & a l>ge numb] ( te/$ =mulae = all k9ds ( sold]s & fluxes h be5 add$4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #be c5ts ,,*>ts ,aviation ,*>t4 ,location ( ,airplane ,p[] ,plant ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,a l>ge *>t outl9+ all p>ts ( a typical airplane p[] plant1 %[+ ! po9ts :]e tr\ble is apt to occur & sugge/+ rem$ies = ! common defects4 ,int5d$ especially = ,aviators & ,aviation ,me*anics on ,s*ool & ,field ,duty4 ,price #ej c5ts ,gasol9e ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy--,a ,*>t ,%[+ ,sectional ,view ( ,gasol9e ,eng9e4 ,compil$ by ,lieut4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r4 ,x %[s cle>ly all p>ts ( a typical f\r-cyl9d] gasol9e eng9e ( ! f\r-cycle type4 ,x outl9es di/9ctly all p>ts liable to give tr\ble & also details ! d]angem5ts apt to int]f]e ) smoo? eng9e op]ation4 ,valuable to /ud5ts1 motori/s1 me*anics1 repairm51 g>agem51 automobile salesm51 *auffeurs1 motor-boat own]s1 motor-truck & tractor driv]s1 aviators1 motor-cycli/s1 & all o!rs :o h to d ) gasol9e p[] plants4 ,x simplifies location ( all eng9e tr\bles1 & :ile x w prove invaluable to ! novice1 x c be us$ to advantage by ! m exp]t4 ,x %\ld be on ! walls ( e public & private g>age1 automobile repair %op1 club h\se or s*ool4 ,x c be c>ri$ 9 ! automobile or pocket ) ease & w insure aga9/ loss ( "t :5 eng9e tr\ble manife/s itself4 ,?is sectional view ( eng9e is a complete review ( all motor tr\bles4 ,x is prep>$ by a practical motori/ = all :o motor4 ,no details omitt$4 ,size #bex#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,lubrication ( ! ,motor ,c> ,*assis4 ,?is *>t pres5ts ! plan view ( a typical six-cyl9d] *assis ( /&>d design & all p>ts are cle>ly indicat$ t dem& oil1 also ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y mu/ be lubricat$ & ! k9d ( oil to use4 ,a practical *>t = all int]e/$ 9 motor-c> ma9t5ance4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,location ( ,c>buretion ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,?is *>t %[s all p>ts ( a typical pressure fe$ fuel supply sy/em & gives causes ( tr\ble1 h[ to locate defects & means ( rem$y+ !m4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,location ( ,ignition ,sy/em ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,9 ?is *>t all p>ts ( a typical d\ble ignition sy/em us+ batt]y & magneto curr5t are %[n & sugge/ions are giv5 = readily f9d+ ignition tr\bles & elim9at+ !m :5 f\nd4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,location ( ,cool+ & ,lubrication ,sy/em ,faults4 ,?is composite *>t %[s a typical automobile p[] plant us+ pump circulat$ wat]-cool+ sy/em & ! mo/ popul> lubrication me?od4 ,gives sugge/ions = cur+ all ov]heat+ & loss ( p[] faults due to faulty action ( ! oil+ or cool+ gr\p4 ,size #bdx#ch in*es4 ,price #be ,c5ts ,motorcycle ,tr\bles ,made ,easy--,a ,*>t ,%[+ ,sectional ,view ( ,s+le-,cyl9d] ,gasol9e ,eng9e4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is *>t simplifies location ( all p[]-plant tr\bles1 & w prove invaluable to all :o h to d ) ! op]ation1 repair or sale ( motorcycles4 ,no details omitt$4 ,size #bex#ch in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,location ( ,=d ,eng9e ,tr\bles ,made ,easy4 ,compil$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,s4,a4,e4 ,?is %[s cle> sectional views depict+ all portions ( ! ,=d p[] plant & auxili>y gr\ps4 ,x outl9es cle>ly all p>ts ( ! eng9e1 fuel supply sy/em1 ignition gr\p & cool+ sy/em1 t are apt to give tr\ble1 detail+ all d]angem5ts t are liable to make an eng9e lose p[]1 />t h>d or "w irregul>ly4 ,?is *>t is valuable to /ud5ts1 own]s1 & driv]s1 z x simplifies location ( all eng9e faults4 ,( great advantage z an in/ructor = ! novice1 x c be us$ equally well by ! m exp]t z a "w ( ref]5ce & review4 ,x c be c>ri$ 9 ! toolbox or pocket ) ease & w save its co/ 9 labor elim9at$ ! fir/ "t eng9e tr\ble manife/s itself4 ,prep>$ ) special ref]5ce to ! av]age man's ne$s & is a practical review ( all motor tr\bles because x is bas$ on ! actual exp]i5ce ( an automobile eng9e]-me*anic ) ! me*anism ! *>t describes4 ,x enables ! non-te*nical own] or op]ator ( a ,=d c> to locate eng9e d]angem5ts by sy/ematic se>*1 guid$ by easily recogniz$ symptoms in/ead ( by guesswork4 ,x makes ! av]age own] indep5d5t ( ! roadside repair %op :5 t\r+4 ,mu/ be se5 to be appreciat$4 ,size #bex#ch in*es4 ,pr9t$ on heavy bond pap]4 ,price #be c5ts ,mod]n ,subm>9e ,*>t--) ,two ,hundr$ ,p>ts ,numb]$ & ,nam$4 ,a cross-section view1 %[+ cle>ly & di/9ctly all ! int]ior ( a ,subm>9e ( ! late/ type4 ,y get m in=mation f ?is *>t1 ab\t ! con/ruction & op]ation ( a ,subm>9e1 ?an 9 any o!r way4 ,no details omitt$--ev]y?+ is accurate & to scale4 ,x is absolutely correct 9 e detail1 hav+ be5 approv$ by ,naval ,eng9e]s4 ,all ! ma*9]y & devices fitt$ 9 a mod]n ,subm>9e ,boat are %[n1 & to make ! engrav+ m readily und]/ood all ! features are %[n 9 op]ative =m1 ) ,(fic]s & ,m5 9 ! act ( p]=m+ ! duties assign$ to !m 9 s]vice conditions4 ,?is ,,*>t ,,is ,,really ,,an ,,encyclop$ia ,,( ,a ,,subm>9e4 ,x is educational & wor? _m times its co/4 ,mail$ 9 a ,tube = #be ,c5ts ,box ,c> ,*>t4 ,a *>t %[+ ! anatomy ( a box c>1 hav+ e "p ( ! c> numb]$ & its prop] "n giv5 9 a ref]5ce li/4 ,price #be ,c5ts ,gondola ,c> ,*>t4 ,a *>t %[+ ! anatomy ( a gondola c>1 hav+ e "p ( ! c> numb]$ & its prop] ref]5ce "n giv5 9 a ref]5ce li/4 ,price #be ,c5ts ,pass5g]-,c> ,*>t4 ,a *>t %[+ ! anatomy ( a pass5g]-c>1 hav+ e "p ( ! c> numb]$ & its prop] "n giv5 9 a ref]5ce li/ #be ,c5ts ,/eel ,hopp] ,bottom ,coal ,c>4 ,a *>t %[+ ! anatomy ( a /eel ,hopp] ,bottom ,coal ,c>1 hav+ e "p ( ! c> numb]$ & its prop] "n giv5 9 a ref]5ce li/4 ,price #be ,c5ts ,tractive ,p[] ,*>t4 ,a *>t :]eby y c f9d ! tractive p[] or drawb> pull ( any locomotive )\t mak+ a figure4 ,%[s :at cyl9d]s are equal1 h[ driv+ :eels & /eam pressure affect ! p[]4 ,:at siz$ eng9e y ne$ to ex]t a giv5 drawb> pull or any?+ y desire 9 ?is l9e4 ,price #ej ,c5ts ,horse-,p[] ,*>t4 ,%[s ! horse-p[] ( any /ation>y eng9e )\t calculation4 ,no matt] :at ! cyl9d] diamet] ( /roke1 ! /eam pressure ( cut-(f1 ! revolutions1 or :e!r cond5s+ or non-cond5s+1 x's all !re4 ,easy to use1 accurate1 & saves "t & calculations4 ,especially useful to eng9e]s & design]s4 ,price #ej ,c5ts ,boil] ,room ,*>t4 ,by ,,geo4 ,l4 ,,f[l]4 ,a *>t--size #adx#bh in*es--%[+ 9 isometric p]spective ! me*anisms belong+ 9 a mod]n boil] room4 ,! v>i\s p>ts are %[n brok5 or remov$1 s t ! int]nal con/ruction is fully illu/rat$4 ,ea* "p is giv5 a ref]5ce numb]1 & ^!1 ) ! correspond+ "n1 are giv5 9 a gloss>y pr9t$ at ! sides4 ,?is *>t is really a diction>y ( ! boil] room--! names ( m ?an #bjj p>ts be+ giv54 ,price #be ,c5ts ,,coke ,mod]n ,cok+ ,practice1 ,includ+ ,analysis ( ,mat]ials & ,products4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,*ri/oph] & ,t4 ,h4 ,,byrom4 ,?is1 ! /&>d "w on ! subject1 has j be5 revis$4 ,x is a practical "w = ^? engag$ 9 ,coke manufacture & ! recov]y ( ,by-products4 ,fully illu/rat$ ) fold+ plates4 ,x has be5 ! aim ( ! au?ors1 9 prep>+ ?is book1 to produce "o :i* %all be ( use & b5efit to ^? :o are associat$ )1 or int]e/$ 91 ! mod]n developm5ts ( ! indu/ry4 ,among ! ,*apt]s conta9$ 9 ,volume ,i are3 ,introduction2 ,classification ( ,fuels2 ,impurities ( ,coals2 ,coal ,wa%+2 ,sampl+ & ,valuation ( ,coals1 etc42 ,p[] ( ,fuels2 ,hi/ory ( ,coke ,manufacture2 ,developm5ts 9 ! ,coke ,ov5 ,design2 ,rec5t ,types ( ,coke ,ov5s2 ,me*anical ,appliances at ,coke ,ov5s2 ,*emical & ,physical ,exam9ation ( ,coke4 ,volume ,,ii cov]s fully ! subject ( ,by-,products4 ,price1 p] volume #c4jj net ,,compress$ ,,air ,compress$ ,air 9 ,all ,its ,applications4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,?is is ! mo/ complete book on ! subject ( ,air t has ev] be5 issu$1 & its ?irty-five *apt]s include ab\t e phase ( ! subject "o c ?9k (4 ,x may be call$ an encyclop$ia ( compress$ air4 ,x is writt5 by an exp]t1 :o1 9 its #ffe pages1 has dealt ) ! subject 9 a compreh5sive mann]1 no phase ( x be+ omitt$4 ,includes ! physical prop]ties ( air f a vacuum to its highe/ pressure1 its !rmodynamics1 compression1 transmission & uses z a motive p[]1 9 ! ,op]ation ( ,/ation>y & ,portable ,ma*9]y1 9 ,m9+1 ,air ,tools1 ,air ,lifts1 ,pump+ ( ,wat]1 ,acids1 & ,oils2 ! ,air ,bla/ = ,clean+ & ,pa9t+ ! ,s& ,bla/ & its ,"w1 & ! ,num]\s ,appliances 9 :i* ,compress$ ,air is a ,mo/ ,conv5i5t & ,economical ,transmitt] ( ,p[] = ,me*anical ,"w1 ,railway ,propulsion1 ,refrig]ation1 & ! ,v>i\s ,uses to :i* ,compress$ ,air has be5 appli$4 ,includes =ty-f\r tables ( ! physical prop]ties ( air1 its compression1 expansion1 & volumes requir$ = v>i\s k9ds ( "w1 & a li/ ( pat5ts on compress$ air f #ahge to date4 ,ov] #ejj illu/rations1 #e? ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 ,clo? b\nd4 ,price #e4jj ,half ,morocco4 ,price #f4ej ,,concrete ,concrete ,work]s' ,ref]5ce ,books4 ,a ,s]ies ( ,popul> ,h&books = ,concrete ,us]s4 ,prep>$ by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton #ej c5ts ,! au?or1 9 prep>+ ?is ,s]ies1 has n only treat$ on ! usual types ( con/ruction1 b expla9s & illu/rates molds & sy/ems t are n pat5t$1 b :i* are equal 9 value & (t5 sup]ior to ^? re/rict$ by pat5ts4 ,^! molds are v easily & *eaply con/ruct$ & embody simplicity1 rapidity ( op]ation1 & ! mo/ successful results 9 ! mold$ concrete4 ,ea* ( ^! books is fully illu/rat$1 & ! subjects are exhau/ively treat$ 9 pla9 ,engli%4 ,concrete ,wall ,=ms4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,a new automatic wall clamp is illu/rat$ ) work+ draw+s4 ,o!r types ( wall =ms1 clamps1 sep>ators1 etc41 are also illu/rat$ & expla9$4 7,no4 #a ( ,s]ies7 ,price #ej c5ts ,concrete ,floors & ,sidewalks4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! molds = mold+ squ>es1 hexagonal & _m o!r /yles ( mosaic floor & sidewalk blocks are fully illu/rat$ & expla9$4 7,no4 #b ( ,s]ies7 ,price #ej c5ts ,practical ,concrete ,silo ,con/ruction4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,complete work+ draw+s & specifications are giv5 = sev]al /yles ( concrete silos1 ) illu/rations ( molds = monoli?ic & block silos4 ,! tables1 data1 & in=mation pres5t$ 9 ?is book are ( ! utmo/ value 9 plann+ & con/ruct+ all =ms ( concrete silos4 7,no4 #c ( ,s]ies7 ,price #ej c5ts ,mold+ ,concrete ,*imneys1 ,slate & ,ho( ,tiles4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! manufacture ( all types ( concrete slate & ro( tile is fully treat$4 ,valuable data on all =ms ( re9=c$ concrete ro(s are conta9$ )9 its pages4 ,! con/ruction ( concrete *imneys by block & monoli?ic sy/ems is fully illu/rat$ & describ$4 ,a numb] ( ornam5tal designs ( *imney con/ruction ) molds are %[n 9 ?is valuable treatise4 7,no4 #d ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,mold+ & ,cur+ ,ornam5tal ,concrete4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! prop] proportions ( cem5t & aggregates = v>i\s f9i%es1 also ! me?od ( ?or\ghly mix+ & plac+ 9 ! molds1 are fully treat$4 ,an exhau/ive treatise on ?is subject t e concrete work] w f9d ( daily use & value4 7,no4 #e ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,concrete ,monum5ts1 ,mausoleums & ,burial ,vaults4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! mold+ ( concrete monum5ts to imitate ! mo/ exp5sive cut /one is expla9$ 9 ?is treatise ) work+ draw+s ( easily built molds4 ,cutt+ inscriptions & designs are also fully treat$4 7,no4 #f ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,mold+ ,concrete ,ba?tubs1 ,aqu>iums & ,natatoriums4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,simple molds & in/ruction are giv5 = mold+ _m /yles ( concrete ba?tubs1 swimm+-pools1 etc4 ,^! molds are easily built & p]mit rapid & successful "w4 7,no4 #g ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,concrete ,bridges1 ,culv]ts & ,sew]s4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,a numb] ( ornam5tal concrete bridges ) illu/rations ( molds are giv54 ,a collapsible c5t] or core = bridges1 culv]ts & sew]s is fully illu/rat$ ) detail$ in/ructions = build+4 7,no4 #h ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,con/ruct+ ,concrete ,por*es4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,a numb] ( designs ) work+ draw+s ( molds are fully expla9$ s any "o c easily con/ruct diff]5t /yles ( ornam5tal concrete por*es )\t ! pur*ase ( exp5sive molds4 7,no4 #i ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,mold+ ,concrete ,fl[]-,pots1 ,boxes1 ,j>d9i]es1 ,etc4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! molds = produc+ _m orig9al designs ( fl[]-pots1 urns1 fl[]-boxes1 j>d9i]es1 etc41 are fully illu/rat$ & expla9$1 s ! work] c easily con/ruct & op]ate same4 7,no4 #aj ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,mold+ ,concrete ,f\nta9s & ,lawn ,ornam5ts4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! mold+ ( a numb] ( designs ( lawn seats1 curb+1 hit*+ po/s1 p]golas1 sun dials & o!r =ms ( ornam5tal concrete = ! ornam5tation ( lawns & g>d5s1 is fully illu/rat$ & describ$4 7,no4 #aa ( ,s]ies47 ,price #ej c5ts ,concrete f ,s& ,molds4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,a ,practical ,"w treat+ on a process :i* has h]et(ore be5 held z a trade secret by ! few :o possess$ x1 & :i* w successfully mold e & any class ( ornam5tal concrete "w4 ,! process ( mold+ concrete ) s& molds is ( ! utmo/ practical value1 possess+ ! manifold advantages ( a l[ co/ ( molds1 ! ease & rapidity ( op]ation1 p]fect details to all ornam5tal designs1 d5sity & increas$ /r5g? ( ! concrete1 p]fect cur+ ( ! "w )\t att5tion & ! easy removal ( ! molds reg>dless ( any und]cutt+ ! design may h4 #aib pages4 ,fully illu/rat$ ,price #b4jj ,ornam5tal ,concrete )\t ,molds4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,h\ghton4 ,! process = mak+ ornam5tal concrete )\t molds has long be5 held z a secret1 & n[1 = ! fir/ "t1 ?is process is giv5 to ! public4 ,! book reveals ! secret & is ! only book publi%$ :i* expla9s a simple1 practical me?od :]eby ! concrete work] is enabl$1 by employ+ wood & metal templates ( diff]5t designs1 to mold or model 9 concrete any ,cornice1 ,ar*ivolt1 ,column1 ,p$e/al1 ,base ,cap1 ,urn or ,pi] 9 a monoli?ic =m--"r ^u ! job4 ,^! may be mold$ 9 units or blocks & !n built up to suit ! specifications dem&$4 ,?is "w is fully illu/rat$1 ) detail$ engrav+s4 ,price #b4jj ,concrete = ! ,f>m & 9 ! ,%op4 ,by ,h4 ,,col9 ,,campbell1 ,c4,e41 ,e4,m4 ,concrete = ! ,f>m & 9 ! ,%op is a new book f cov] to cov]1 illu/rat+ & describ+ 9 pla91 simple language _m ( ! num]\s applications ( concrete )9 ! range ( ! home work]4 ,among ! subjects treat$ are3 ,pr9ciples ( ,re9=c+2 ,me?ods ( ,protect+ ,concrete s z to ,insure ,prop] ,h>d5+2 ,home-made ,mix]s2 ,mix+ by ,h& & ,ma*9e2 ,=m ,con/ruction1 ,describ$ & ,illu/rat$ by ,draw+s & ,photographs2 ,con/ruction ( ,concrete ,walls & ,f5ces2 ,concrete ,f5ce ,po/s2 ,concrete ,gate ,po/s2 ,corn] ,po/s2 ,clo!s ,l9e ,po/s2 ,grape ,arbor ,po/s2 ,tanks2 ,tr\ghs2 ,ci/]ns2 ,hog ,wall[s2 ,fe$+ ,floors & ,b>ny>d ,pavem5ts2 ,f\ndations2 ,well ,curbs & ,plat=ms2 ,indoor ,floors2 ,sidewalks2 ,/eps2 ,concrete ,hotb$s & ,cold ,frames2 ,concrete ,slab ,ro(s2 ,walls = ,build+s2 ,repair+ ,leaks 9 ,tanks & ,ci/]ns2 & all topics associat$ ) ^! subjects z be>+ ^u secur+ ! be/ results f concrete are dwelt ^u at suffici5t l5g? 9 pla9 e-day ,engli% s t ! inexp]i5c$ p]son desir+ to und]take a piece ( concrete con/ruction c1 by foll[+ ! directions set =? 9 ?is book1 secure #ajj p] c5t4 success e "t4 ,a numb] ( conv5i5t & practical tables = e/imat+ quantities1 & "s practical examples1 are also giv54 7#ex#g47 #adi pages4 #ea illu/rations4 ,price #ge c5ts ,popul> ,h&book = ,cem5t & ,concrete ,us]s4 ,by ,,myron ,h4 ,,lewis4 ,?is is a concise treatise ( ! pr9ciples & me?ods employ$ 9 ! manufacture & use ( cem5t 9 all classes ( mod]n works4 ,! au?or has br\ght toge!r 9 ?is "w all ! sali5t matt] ( int]e/ to ! us] ( concrete & its _m div]sifi$ products4 ,! matt] is pres5t$ 9 logical & sy/ematic ord]1 cle>ly writt51 fully illu/rat$ & free f involv$ ma!matics4 ,ev]y?+ ( value to ! concrete us] is giv51 includ+ k9ds ( cem5t employ$ 9 con/ruction1 concrete ar*itecture1 inspection & te/+1 wat]pro(+1 color+ & pa9t+1 rules1 tables1 work+ & co/ data4 ,! book comprises ?irty-?ree *apt]s1 z foll[3 ,introductory4 ,k9ds ( ,cem5t & ,h[ ,!y are ,made4 ,prop]ties4 ,te/+ & ,requirem5ts ( ,hydraulic ,cem5t4 ,concrete & ,its ,prop]ties4 ,s&1 ,brok5 ,/one & ,gravel = ,concrete4 ,h[ to ,proportion ! ,mat]ials4 ,h[ to ,mix & ,place ,concrete4 ,=ms ( ,concrete ,con/ruction4 ,! ,ar*itectural & ,arti/ic ,possibilities ( ,concrete4 ,concrete ,resid5ces4 ,mort>s1 ,pla/]s & ,/ucco1 & ,h[ to ,use ,!m4 ,! ,arti/ic ,treatm5t ( ,concrete ,surfaces4 ,concrete ,build+ ,blocks4 ,! ,mak+ ( ,ornam5tal ,concrete4 ,concrete ,pipes1 ,f5ces1 ,po/s1 etc4 ,ess5tial ,features & ,advantages ( ,re5=c$ ,concrete4 ,h[ to ,design ,re5=c$ ,concrete ,beams1 ,slabs & ,columns4 ,explanations ( ! ,me?ods & ,pr9ciples 9 ,design+ ,re5=c$ ,concrete1 ,beams & ,slabs4 ,sy/ems ( ,re5=cem5t ,employ$4 ,re5=c$ ,concrete 9 ,factory & ,g5]al ,build+ ,con/ruction4 ,concrete 9 ,f\ndation ,"w4 ,concrete ,reta9+ ,walls1 ,abutm5ts & ,bulkheads4 ,concrete ,ar*es & ,ar* ,bridges4 ,concrete ,beam & ,gird] ,bridges4 ,concrete 9 ,sew]age & ,dra9+ ,works4 ,concrete ,tanks1 ,dams & ,res]voirs4 ,concrete ,sidewalks1 ,curbs & ,pavem5ts4 ,concrete 9 ,railroad ,con/ruction4 ,! ,utility ( ,concrete on ! ,f>m4 ,! ,wat]pro(+ ( ,concrete ,/ructures4 ,gr\t ( ,liquid ,concrete & ,its ,use4 ,inspection ( ,concrete ,"w4 ,co/ ( ,concrete ,"w4 ,"s ( ! special features ( ! book are3 #a4--,! ,att5tion ,paid to ! ,arti/ic & ,ar*itectural ,side ( ,concrete ,"w4 #b4--,! ,au?oritative ,treatm5t ( ! ,problem ( ,wat]pro(+ ,concrete4 #c4--;,an ,excell5t ,summ>y ( ! ,rules to be ,foll[$ 9 ,concrete ,con/ruction4 #d4--,! ,valuable ,co/ ,data & ,useful ,tables giv54 ,a valuable ,addition to ! ,libr>y ( ,e ,cem5t & ,concrete ,us]4 ,price #b4ej ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,! field ( ,concrete ,con/ruction is well cov]$ & ! matt] conta9$ is well )9 ! und]/&+ ( any p]son4--,eng9e]+-,contract+4 ,%\ld be on ! book%elves ( e contractor1 eng9e]1 & ar*itect 9 ! l&4--,national ,build]4 ,wat]pro(+ ,concrete4 ,by ,,myron ,h4 ,,lewis4 ,mod]n ,me?ods ( ,wat]pro(+ ,concrete & ,o!r ,/ructures4 ,a cond5s$ /atem5t ( ! ,pr9ciples1 ,rules1 & ,precautions to be ,obs]v$ 9 ,wat]pro(+ & ,damppro(+ ,/ructures & ,/ructural ,mat]ials4 ,pap] b9d+4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #ej c5ts ,,diction>ies ,aviation ,t]ms1 ,t]mes ,d',aviation1 ,engli%-,fr5*1 ,fr5*-,engli%4 ,compil$ by ,lieuts4 ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,a4,s41 ,s4,c4,u4,s4,r41 & ,,paul ,,mont>iol1 ( ! ,fr5* ,fly+ ,corps1 on duty on ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,! li/s conta9$ are conf9$ to ess5tials1 & special fold+ plates are includ$ to %[ all important airplane p>ts4 ,! li/s are divid$ 9 f\r sections z foll[s3 #a4--;,fly+ ,field ,t]ms4 #b4--,! ,airplane4 #c4--,! ,eng9e4 #d4--,tools & ,%op ,t]ms4 ,a complete1 well illu/rat$ volume int5d$ to facilitate conv]sation betwe5 ,engli%-speak+ & ,fr5* aviators4 ,a v valuable book = all :o are ab\t to leave = duty ov]seas4 ,approv$ = publication by ,major ,w4 ,g4 ,kiln]1 ,s4,c41 ,u4,s4,c4,o4 ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,s*ool1 ,hazelhur/ ,field1 ,m9eola1 ,l4 ,i4 ,?is book %\ld be 9 e ,aviator's & ,me*anic's ,kit = ready ref]5ce4 #abh pages1 fully illu/rat$1 ) detail$ engrav+s4 ,price #a4jj ,/&>d ,electrical ,diction>y4 ,by ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,an indisp5sable "w to all int]e/$ 9 electrical sci5ce4 ,suitable alike = ! /ud5t & pr(essional4 ,a practical h&book ( ref]5ce conta9+ def9itions ( ab\t #e1jjj di/9ct words1 t]ms & phrases4 ,! def9itions are t]se & concise2 & include e t]m us$ 9 electrical sci5ce4 ,rec5tly issu$4 ,an entirely new edition4 ,%\ld be 9 ! possession ( all :o desire to keep abrea/ ) ! progress ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,complete1 concise & conv5i5t4 #fhb pages1 #cic illu/rations4 ,price #c4jj ,,dies--,,metal ,,"w ,dies3 ,_! ,con/ruction & ,use = ! ,mod]n ,work+ ( ,%eet ,metals4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,,woodwor?4 ,a mo/ useful book1 & "o :i* %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( all engag$ 9 ! press work+ ( metals2 treat+ on ! ,design+1 ,con/ruct+1 & ,use ( ,tools1 ,fixtures & ,devices1 toge!r ) ! mann] 9 :i* !y %\ld be us$ 9 ! ,p[] ,press1 = ! *eap & rapid production ( ! great v>iety ( %eet-metal articles n[ 9 use4 ,x is design$ z a guide to ! production ( %eet-metal p>ts at ! m9imum ( co/ ) ! maximum ( output4 ,! h>d5+ & temp]+ ( ,press tools & ! classes ( "w :i* may be produc$ to ! be/ advantage by ! use ( dies 9 ! p[] press are fully treat$4 ,its #eae illu/rations %[ dies1 press fixtures & %eet-metal work+ devices1 ! descriptions ( :i* are s cle> & practical t all metal-work+ me*anics w be able to und]/& h[ to design1 con/ruct & use !m4 ,_m ( ! dies & press fixtures treat$ 7 ei!r con/ruct$ by ! au?or or "u 8 sup]vision4 ,o!rs 7 built by skilful me*anics & are 9 use 9 l>ge %eet-metal e/abli%m5ts & ma*9e %ops4 #f? ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 ,price #c4jj ,pun*es1 ,dies & ,tools = ,manufactur+ 9 ,presses4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,,woodwor?4 ,?is "w is a companion volume to ! au?or's elem5t>y "w entitl$ ,dies3 ,_! ,con/ruction & ,use4 ,x does n g into ! details ( die-mak+ to ! ext5t ( ! au?or's previ\s book1 b gives a compreh5sive review ( ! field ( op]ations c>ri$ on by presses4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! in=mation giv5 has be5 drawn f ! au?or's p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,x might well be t]m$ an ,encyclop$ia ( ,die-,mak+1 ,pun*-,mak+1 ,die-,s9k+1 ,%eet-,metal ,work+1 & ,mak+ ( ,special ,tools1 ,sub-presses1 ,devices & ,me*anical ,comb9ations = ,pun*+1 ,cutt+1 ,b5d+1 ,=m+1 ,pi]c+1 ,draw+1 ,compress+ & ,assembl+ ,%eet-,metal ,p>ts1 & also ,articles ( o!r ,mat]ials 9 ,ma*9e ,tools4 #b;d ,edition4 ,price #d4jj ,drop ,=g+1 ,die-,s9k+ & ,ma*9e-,=m+ ( ,/eel4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,,woodwor?4 ,?is is a practical treatise on ,mod]n ,%op ,practice1 ,processes1 ,me?ods1 ,ma*9e ,tools1 & ,details treat+ on ! ,hot & ,cold ,ma*9e-,=m+ ( ,/eel & ,iron into ,f9i%$ ,%apes3 toge!r ) ,tools1 ,dies1 & ,ma*9]y involv$ 9 ! manufacture ( ,duplicate ,=g+s & ,int]*angeable ,hot & ,cold ,press$ ,p>ts f ,b> & ,%eet ,metal4 ,?is book fills a dem& ( long /&+ = in=mation reg>d+ drop-=g+s1 die-s9k+ & ma*9e-=m+ ( /eel & ! %op practice involv$1 z x actually exi/s 9 ! mod]n drop-=g+ %op4 ,! processes ( die-s9k+ & =ce-mak+1 :i* are ?or\ghly describ$ & illu/rat$ 9 ?is admirable "w1 are r>ely to be f\nd expla9$ 9 su* a cle> & concise mann] z is "h set =?4 ,! process ( die-s9k+ relates to ! engrav+ or s9k+ ( ! female or l[] dies1 su* z are us$ = drop-=g+s1 hot & cold ma*9e-=g+1 sw$g+1 & ! press work+ ( metals4 ,! process ( =ce-mak+ relates to ! engrav+ or rais+ ( ! male or upp] dies us$ 9 produc+ ! l[] dies = ! press-=m+ & ma*9e-=g+ ( duplicate p>ts ( metal4 ,9 addition to ! arts above m5tion$ ! book conta9s explicit in=mation reg>d+ ! drop-=g+ & h>d5+ plants1 designs1 conditions1 equipm5t1 drop hamm]s1 =g+ ma*9es1 etc41 ma*9e =g+1 hydraulic =g+1 autog5\s weld+ & %op practice4 ,! book conta9s elev5 *apt]s1 & ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ^! *apt]s is j :at w prove mo/ valuable to ! =g$-metal work]4 ,all op]ations describ$ 9 ! "w are ?or\ghly illu/rat$ by means ( p]spective half-tones & outl9e sket*es ( ! ma*9]y employ$4 #cjj detail$ illu/rations4 ,price #b4ej ,,draw+--,,sket*+ ,,pap] ,practical ,p]spective4 ,by ,,ri*>ds & ,,colv94 ,%[s j h[ to make all k9ds ( me*anical draw+s 9 ! only practical p]spective isometric4 ,makes ev]y?+ pla91 s t any me*anic c und]/& a sket* or draw+ 9 ?is way4 ,saves "t 9 ! draw+ room1 & mi/akes 9 ! %ops4 ,conta9s practical examples ( v>i\s classes ( "w4 #d? ,edition4 ,price #ej c5ts ,l9e> ,p]spective ,self-,taught4 ,by ,,h]man ,t4 ,c4 ,,kraus4 ,?is "w gives ! !ory & practice ( l9e> p]spective1 z us$ 9 ar*itectural1 eng9e]+ & me*anical draw+s4 ,p]sons tak+ up ! /udy ( ! subject by !mselves w be able1 by ! use ( ! in/ruction giv51 to readily grasp ! subject1 & by reasonable practice become good p]spective draftsm54 ,! arrangem5t ( ! book is good2 ! plate is on ! left-h&1 :ile ! descriptive text foll[s on ! opposite page1 s z to be readily ref]r$ to4 ,! draw+s are on suffici5tly l>ge scale to %[ ! "w cle>ly & are pla9ly figur$4 ,!re is includ$ a self-explanatory *>t :i* gives all in=mation necess>y = ! ?or\gh und]/&+ ( p]spective4 ,?is *>t alone is wor? _m times ov] ! price ( ! book4 #b;d ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 ,price #b4ej ,self-,taught ,me*anical ,draw+ & ,elem5t>y ,ma*9e ,design4 ,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,sylve/]1 ,m4,e41 ,draftsman1 ) additions by ,,erik ,,ob]g1 associate editor ( ,ma*9]y4 ,?is is a practical treatise on ,me*anical ,draw+ & ,ma*9e ,design1 compris+ ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometric & me*anical draw+1 work%op ma!matics1 me*anics1 /r5g? ( mat]ials & ! calculations & design ( ma*9e details4 ,! au?or's aim has be5 to adapt ?is treatise to ! requirem5ts ( ! practical me*anic & "y draftsman & to pres5t ! matt] 9 z cle> & concise a mann] z possible4 ,to meet ! dem&s ( ?is class ( /ud5ts1 practically all ! important elem5ts ( ma*9e design h be5 dealt )1 & 9 addition algebraic =mulas h be5 expla9$1 & ! elem5ts ( trigonometry treat$ 9 ! mann] be/ suit$ to ! ne$s ( ! practical man4 ,! book is divid$ into #bj *apt]s1 & 9 arrang+ ! mat]ial1 me*anical draw+1 pure & simple1 has be5 tak5 up fir/1 z a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! pr9ciples ( repres5t+ objects facilitates ! fur!r /udy ( me*anical subjects4 ,?is is foll[$ by ! ma!matics necess>y = ! solution ( ! problems 9 ma*9e design :i* are pres5t$ lat]1 & a practical introduction to !oretical me*anics & ! /r5g? ( mat]ials4 ,! v>i\s elem5ts ent]+ into ma*9e design1 su* z cams1 ge>s1 sprocket-:eels1 cone pulleys1 bolts1 screws1 c\pl+s1 clut*es1 %aft+ & fly-:eels1 h be5 treat$ 9 su* a way z to make possible ! use ( ! "w z a text-book = a cont9u\s c\rse ( /udy4 ,x is easily compreh5d$ & assimilat$ ev5 by /ud5ts ( limit$ previ\s tra9+4 #ccj pages1 #bae engrav+s4 ,price #b4jj ,a ,new ,sket*+ ,pap]4 ,a new specially rul$ pap] to enable y to make sket*es or draw+s 9 isometric p]spective )\t any figur+ or fuss+4 ,x is be+ us$ = %op details z well z = assembly draw+s1 z x makes "o sket* d ! "w ( ?ree1 & no workman c help see+ j :at is want$4 ,pads ( #dj %eets1 #fx#i in*es4 ,price #be c5ts ,pads ( #dj %eets1 #ix#ab in*es4 ,price #ej c5ts #dj %eets1 #abx#ah in*es4 ,price #a4jj ,,electricity ,ari?metic ( ,electricity4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,a practical treatise on electrical calculations ( all k9ds r$uc$ to a s]ies ( rules1 all ( ! simple/ =ms1 & involv+ only ord9>y ari?metic2 ea* rule illu/rat$ by "o or m practical problems1 ) detail$ solution ( ea* "o4 ,?is book is class$ among ! mo/ useful works publi%$ on ! sci5ce ( electricity1 cov]+ z x does ! ma!matics ( electricity 9 a mann] t w attract ! att5tion ( ^? :o are n famili> ) algebraical =mulas4 #bj? ,edition4 #afj pages4 ,price #a4jj ,commutator ,con/ruction4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,baxt]1 ,,jr4 ,! bus9ess end ( any dynamo or motor ( ! direct curr5t type is ! commutator4 ,?is book goes into ! design+1 build+1 & ma9t5ance ( commutators1 %[s h[ to locate tr\bles & h[ to rem$y !m2 ev]yone :o fusses ) dynamos ne$s ?is4 #d? ,edition4 ,price #be c5ts ,dynamo ,build+ = ,amateurs1 or ,h[ to ,con/ruct a ,fifty-,watt ,dynamo4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,j4 ,,we$1 ,memb] ( ,n4 ,y4 ,electrical ,society4 ,a practical treatise %[+ 9 detail ! con/ruction ( a small dynamo or motor1 ! entire ma*9e "w ( :i* c be done on a small foot la!4 ,dim5sion$ work+ draw+s are giv5 = ea* piece ( ma*9e "w1 & ea* op]ation is cle>ly describ$4 ,?is ma*9e1 :5 us$ z a dynamo1 has an output ( fifty watts2 :5 us$ z a motor x w drive a small drill press or la!4 ,x c be us$ to drive a sew+ ma*9e on any & all ord9>y "w4 ,! book is illu/rat$ ) m ?an sixty orig9al engrav+s1 %[+ ! actual con/ruction ( ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,among ! cont5ts are *apt]s on3 #a4 ,fifty-,watt ,dynamo4 #b4 ,side ,be>+ ,rods4 #c4 ,field ,pun*+4 #d4 ,be>+s4 #e4 ,commutator4 #f4 ,pulley4 #g4 ,bru% ,hold]s4 #h4 ,connection ,bo>d4 #i4 ,armature ,%aft4 #aj4 ,armature4 #aa4 ,armature ,w9d+4 #ab4 ,field ,w9d+4 #ac4 ,connect+ & />t+4 ,pap]4 ,price #ej ,c5ts ,clo?4 ,price #a4jj ,electric ,bells4 ,by ,m4 ,b4 ,,sleep]4 ,a complete treatise = ! practical work] 9 ,in/all+1 ,op]at+ & ,te/+ ,bell ,circuits1 ,burgl> ,al>ms1 ,!rmo/ats1 & o!r app>atus us$ ) ,electric ,bells4 ,bo? ! electrician & ! exp]im5t] w f9d 9 ?is book new mat]ial :i* is ess5tial 9 _! "w4 ,tools1 bells1 batt]ies1 unusual circuits1 burgl> al>ms1 annunciator sy/ems1 !rmo/ats1 circuit break]s1 "t al>ms1 & o!r app>atus us$ 9 bell circuits are describ$ f ! /&po9ts ( _! application1 con/ruction & repair4 ,! detail$ in/ruction = build+ ! app>atus w appeal to ! exp]im5t] p>ticul>ly4 ,! practical work] w f9d ! *apt] on ,wir+1 ,calculation ( ,wire ,sizes & ,magnet ,w9d+1 ,upkeep ( ,sy/ems1 & ! ,location ( ,faults1 ( ! greate/ value 9 _! "w4 ,among ! *apt]s are3 ,tools & ,mat]ials = ,bell ,"w2 ,h[ & ,:y ,bell ,"w2 ,batt]ies = ,small ,in/allations2 ,mak+ ,bells & ,pu% ,buttons2 ,wir+ ,bell ,sy/ems2 ,con/ruction ( ,annunciators & ,signals2 ,burgl>y ,al>ms & ,auxili>y ,app>atus2 ,m ,elaborate ,bell ,sy/ems2 ,f9d+ ,faults & ,rem$y+ ,!m4 #abd pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #ej c5ts ,electric ,light+ & ,heat+ ,pocket ,book4 ,by ,,sydney ,f4 ,,walk]4 ,?is book puts 9 conv5i5t =m useful in=mation reg>d+ ! app>atus :i* is likely to be atta*$ to ! ma9s ( an electrical company4 ,tables ( units & equival5ts are includ$ & useful electrical laws & =mulas are /at$4 #dch pages1 #cjj engrav+s4 ,b\nd 9 lea!r4 ,pocket book =m4 ,price #c4jj ,electric ,wir+1 ,diagrams & ,swit*bo>ds4 ,by ,,newton ,,h>rison1 ) additions by ,,?omas ,,poppe4 ,a ?or\ghly practical treatise cov]+ ! subject ( ,electric ,wir+ 9 all its bran*es1 delud+ explanations & diagrams :i* are ?or\ghly explicit & greatly simplify ! subject4 ,practical e-day problems 9 wir+ are pres5t$ & ! me?od ( obta9+ intellig5t results cle>ly %[n4 ,only ari?metic is us$4 ,ohm's law is giv5 a simple explanation ) ref]5ce to wir+ = direct & alt]nat+ curr5ts4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( drop ( pot5tial 9 circuits is %[n ) its v>i\s applications4 ,! simple circuit is develop$ ) ! position ( ma9s1 fe$]s & bran*es2 _! treatm5t z a "p ( a wir+ plan & _! employm5t 9 h\se wir+ cle>ly illu/rat$4 ,"s simple facts ab\t te/+ are includ$ 9 connection ) ! wir+4 ,mold+ & conduit "w are giv5 c>eful consid]ation2 & swit*bo>ds are sy/ematically treat$1 built up & illu/rat$1 %[+ ! purpose !y s]ve1 = connection ) ! circuits1 & to %unt & comp\nd w\nd ma*9es4 ,! simple pr9ciples ( swit*bo>d con/ruction1 ! developm5t ( ! swit*bo>d1 ! connections ( ! v>i\s in/rum5ts1 includ+ ! lightn+ arre/]1 are also pla9ly set =?4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t wir+ is treat$1 ) explanations ( ! p[] factor1 conditions call+ = v>i\s sizes ( wire1 & a simple way ( obta9+ ! sizes = s+le-phase1 two-phase & ?ree-phase circuits4 ,?is is ! only complete "w issu$ %[+ & tell+ y :at y %\ld "k ab\t direct & alt]nat+ curr5t wir+4 ,x is a ready ref]5ce4 ,! "w is free f advanc$ te*nicalities & ma!matics1 ari?metic be+ us$ ?r\gh\t4 ,x is 9 e respect a h&y1 well-writt51 in/ructive1 compreh5sive volume on wir+ = ! wireman1 =eman1 contractor1 or electrician4 #bnd ,revis$ ,edition4 #cjc pages1 #acj illu/rations4 ,price #a4ej ,electric ,furnaces & _! ,indu/rial ,applications4 ,by ,j4 ,,wright4 ,?is is a book :i* w prove ( int]e/ to _m classes ( p3 ! manufactur] :o desires to "k :at product c be manufactur$ successfully 9 ! electric furnace1 ! *emi/ :o wi%es to po/ himself on ! electro-*emi/ry1 & ! /ud5t ( sci5ce :o m]ely looks into ! subject f curiosity4 ,new1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 #cbj pages4 ,fully illu/rat$1 clo?4 ,price #c4jj ,electric ,toy ,mak+1 ,dynamo ,build+1 & ,electric ,motor ,con/ruction4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,?is "w treats ( ! mak+ at home ( electrical toys1 electrical app>atus1 motors1 dynamos1 & in/rum5ts 9 g5]al1 & is design$ to br+ )9 ! rea* ( "y & old ! manufacture ( g5u9e & useful electrical appliances4 ,! "w is especially design$ = amateurs & "y folks4 ,?\s&s ( our "y p are daily exp]im5t+1 & busily engag$ 9 mak+ electrical toys & app>atus ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,! pres5t "w is j :at is want$ to give ! mu* ne$$ in=mation 9 a pla91 practical mann]1 ) illu/rations to make easy ! c>ry+ out ( ! "w4 #bj? ,edition4 ,price #a4jj ,practical ,electricity4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,?is "w ( #gfh pages 0 previ\sly kn[n z ,sloane's ,electricians' ,h& ,book1 & is int5d$ = ! practical electrician :o has to make ?+s g4 ,! entire field ( electricity is cov]$ )9 its pages4 ,among "s ( ! subjects treat$ are3 ,! ,!ory ( ! ,electric ,curr5t & ,circuit1 ,electro-,*emi/ry1 ,prim>y ,batt]ies1 ,/orage ,batt]ies1 ,g5]ation & ,utilization ( ,electric ,p[]s1 ,alt]nat+ ,curr5t1 ,armature ,w9d+1 ,dynamos & ,motors1 ,motor ,g5]ators1 ,op]ation ( ! ,c5tral ,/ation ,swit*bo>ds1 ,safety ,appliances1 ,di/ribution ( ,electric ,light & ,p[]1 ,/reet ,ma9s1 ,trans=m]s1 ,arc & ,inc&esc5t ,light+1 ,electric ,measurem5ts1 ,photometry1 ,electric ,railways1 ,telephony1 ,bell-,wir+1 ,electric-,plat+1 ,electric ,heat+1 ,wireless ,telegraphy1 etc4 ,x conta9s no useless !ory2 ev]y?+ is to ! po9t4 ,x tea*es y j :at y want to "k ab\t electricity4 ,x is ! /&>d "w publi%$ on ! subject4 ,=ty-"o *apt]s1 #eef engrav+s4 ,price #b4ej ,electricity ,simplifi$4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,! object ( ,electricity ,simplifi$ is to make ! subject z pla9 z possible & to %[ :at ! mod]n conception ( electricity is2 to %[ h[ two plates ( diff]5t metal1 imm]s$ 9 acid1 c s5d a message ar\nd ! globe2 to expla9 h[ a bundle ( copp] wire rotat$ by a /eam eng9e c be ! ag5t 9 light+ our /reets2 to tell :at ! volt1 ohm & amp]e are1 & :at high & l[ t5sion mean2 & to answ] ! que/ions t p]petually arise 9 ! m9d 9 ?is age ( electricity4 #ac? ,edition4 #agb pages4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,h\se ,wir+4 ,by ,,?omas ,w4 ,,poppe4 ,?is "w describes & illu/rates ! actual in/allation ( ,electric ,light ,wir+1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! "w %\ld be done1 & ! me?od ( do+ x4 ,! book c be conv5i5tly c>ri$ 9 ! pocket4 ,x is int5d$ = ! ,electrician1 ,help] & ,appr5tice4 ,x solves all ,wir+ ,problems & conta9s no?+ t conflicts ) ! rul+s ( ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s4 ,x gives j ! in=mation ess5tial to ! ,successful ,wir+ ( a ,build+4 ,among ! subjects treat$ are3 ,locat+ ! ,met]4 ,panel-,bo>ds4 ,swit*es4 ,plug ,receptacles4 ,brackets4 ,ceil+ ,fixtures4 ,! ,met] ,connections4 ,! ,fe$ ,wires4 ,! ,/eel ,armor$ ,cable ,sy/em4 ,! ,flexible ,/eel ,conduit ,sy/em4 ,! ,ridig ,conduit ,sy/em4 ,a dige/ ( ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s' rules relat+ to metallic wir+ sy/ems4 ,v>i\s swit*+ arrangem5ts expla9$ & diagramm$4 ,! easie/ me?od ( te/+ ! ,?ree- & ,f\r-way circuits expla9$4 ,! gr\nd+ ( all metallic wir+ sy/ems & ! reason = do+ s %[n & expla9$4 ,! insulation ( ! metal p>ts ( lamp fixtures & ! reason = ! same describ$ & illu/rat$4 #abe pages4 #bnd ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,flexible clo?4 ,price #ej c5ts ,h[ to ,become a ,successful ,electrician4 ,by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,e "y man :o wi%es to become a successful electrician %\ld read ?is book4 ,x tells 9 simple language ! sure/ & easie/ way to become a successful electrician4 ,! /udies to be foll[$1 me?ods ( "w1 field ( op]ation & ! requirem5ts ( ! successful electrician are po9t$ out & fully expla9$4 ,e "y eng9e] w f9d ?is an excell5t /epp+ /one to m advanc$ works on electricity :i* he mu/ ma/] be=e success c be atta9$4 ,_m "y m5 become disc\rag$ at ! v out/>t by attempt+ to read & /udy books t are f> beyond _! compreh5sion4 ,?is book s]ves z ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! rudim5ts taught 9 ! public s*ools & ! real /udy ( electricity4 ,x is int]e/+ f cov] to cov]4 #ah? ,revis$ ,edition1 j issu$4 #bje pages4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,managem5t ( ,dynamos4 ,by ,,lummis-,,pat]son4 ,a h&book ( !ory & practice4 ,?is "w is arrang$ 9 ?ree p>ts4 ,! fir/ "p cov]s ! elem5t>y !ory ( ! dynamo4 ,! second "p1 ! con/ruction & action ( ! diff]5t classes ( dynamos 9 common use are describ$2 :ile ! ?ird "p relates to su* matt]s z affect ! practical managem5t & work+ ( dynamos & motors4 #d? ,edition4 #bib pages1 #aag illu/rations4 ,price #a4ej ,/&>d ,electrical ,diction>y4 ,by ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,an indisp5sable "w to all int]e/$ 9 electrical sci5ce4 ,suitable alike = ! /ud5t & pr(essional4 ,a practical h&book ( ref]5ce conta9+ def9itions ( ab\t #e1jjj di/9ct words1 t]ms & phrases4 ,! def9itions are t]se & concise & include e t]m us$ 9 electrical sci5ce4 ,rec5tly issu$4 ,an entirely new edition4 ,%\ld be 9 ! possession ( all :o desire to keep abrea/ ) ! progress ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,9 its arrangem5t & typography ! book is v conv5i5t4 ,! ^w or t]m def9$ is pr9t$ 9 black-fac$ type1 :i* readily cat*es ! eye1 :ile ! body ( ! page is 9 small] b di/9ct type4 ,! def9itions are well word$1 & s z to be und]/ood by ! non-te*nical read]4 ,! g5]al plan seems to be to give an exact1 concise def9ition1 & !n amplify & expla9 9 a m popul> way4 ,synonyms are also giv51 & ref]5ces to o!r words & phrases are made4 ,a v complete & accurate index ( fifty pages is at ! end ( ! volume2 & z ?is index conta9s all synonyms1 & z all phrases are index$ 9 e reasonable comb9ation ( words1 ref]5ce to ! prop] place 9 ! body ( ! book is readily made4 ,x is difficult to decide h[ f> a book ( ?is "* is to keep ! diction>y =m1 & to :at ext5t x may assume ! encyclop$ia =m4 ,= "s purposes1 concise1 exactly word$ def9itions are ne$$2 = o!r purposes1 m ext5d$ descriptions are requir$4 ,?is book seeks to satisfy bo? dem&s1 & does x ) consid]able success4 #fhb pages1 #cic illu/rations4 #ab? ,edition4 ,price #c4jj ,/orage ,batt]ies ,simplifi$4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,e4 ,a complete treatise on /orage batt]y op]at+ pr9ciples1 repairs & applications4 ,! greatly increas+ application ( /orage batt]ies 9 mod]n eng9e]+ & me*anical "w has creat$ a dem& = a book t w consid] ?is subject completely & exclusively4 ,?is is ! mo/ ?or\gh & au?oritative treatise ev] publi%$ on ?is subject4 ,x is writt5 9 easily und]/&able1 non-te*nical language s t any "o may grasp ! basic pr9ciples ( /orage batt]y action z well z _! practical indu/rial applications4 ,all electric & gasol9e automobiles use /orage batt]ies4 ,e automobile repairman1 deal] or salesman %\ld h a good k ( ma9t5ance & repair ( ^! important elem5ts ( ! motor c> me*anism4 ,?is book n only tells h[ to *>ge1 c>e = & rebuild /orage batt]ies b also outl9es all ! indu/rial uses4 ,le>n h[ !y run /reet c>s1 locomotives & factory trucks4 ,get an und]/&+ ( ! important functions !y p]=m 9 subm>9e boats1 isolat$ light+ plants1 railway swit* & signal sy/ems1 m>9e applications1 etc4 ,?is book tells h[ !y are us$ 9 c5tral /ation /&by s]vice1 = />t+ automobile motors & 9 ignition sy/ems4 ,e practical use ( ! mod]n /orage batt]y is outl9$ 9 ?is treatise4 #cbj pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4ej ,swit*bo>ds4 ,by ,,william ,,baxt]1 ,,jr4 ,?is book appeals to e eng9e] & electrician :o wants to "k ! practical side ( ?+s4 ,x takes up all sorts & conditions ( dynamos1 connections & circuits1 & %[s by diagram & illu/ration j h[ ! swit*bo>d %\ld be connect$4 ,includes direct & alt]nat+ curr5t bo>ds1 also ^? = arc light+1 inc&esc5t & p[] circuits4 ,special treatm5t on high voltage bo>ds = p[] transmission4 #bnd ,edition4 #aij pages1 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4ej ,telephone ,con/ruction1 ,in/allation1 ,wir+1 ,op]ation & ,ma9t5ance4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,radcliffe & ,h4 ,c4 ,,cu%+4 ,?is book is int5d$ = ! amateur1 ! wireman1 or ! eng9e] :o desires to e/abli% a means ( telephonic communication betwe5 ! rooms ( 8 home1 (fice1 or %op4 ,x deals only ) su* ?+s z may be ( use to him r ?an ) !ories4 ,gives ! pr9ciples ( con/ruction & op]ation ( bo? ! ,bell & ,indep5d5t in/rum5ts2 approv$ me?ods ( in/all+ & wir+ !m2 ! means ( protect+ !m f lightn+ & abnormal curr5ts2 _! connection toge!r = op]ation z s]ies or bridg+ /ations2 & rules = _! inspection & ma9t5ance4 ,l9e wir+ & ! wir+ & op]ation ( special telephone sy/ems are also treat$4 ,intricate ma!matics are avoid$1 & all app>atus1 circuits & sy/ems are ?or\ghly describ$4 ,! app5dix conta9s def9itions ( units & t]ms us$ 9 ! text4 ,select$ wir+ tables1 :i* are v helpful1 are also includ$4 ,among ! subjects treat$ are ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation1 & ,in/allation ( ,telephone ,in/rum5ts2 ,inspection & ,ma9t5ance ( ,telephone ,in/rum5ts2 ,telephone ,l9e ,wir+2 ,te/+ ,telephone ,l9e ,wires & ,cables2 ,wir+ & ,op]ation ( ,special ,telephone ,sy/ems1 etc4 #bnd ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 #bbc pages1 #aed illu/rations4 ,price #a4jj ,wireless ,telegraphy & ,telephony ,simply ,expla9$4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,p4 ,,morgan4 ,?is is und\bt$ly "o ( ! mo/ complete & compreh5sible treatises on ! subject ev] publi%$1 & a close /udy ( its pages w enable "o to ma/] all ! details ( ! wireless transmission ( messages4 ,! au?or has fill$ a long-felt want & has succe$$ 9 furni%+ a lucid1 compreh5sible explanation 9 simple language ( ! !ory & practice ( wireless telegraphy & telephony4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 ,introductory2 ,wireless ,transmission & ,reception--,! ,a]ial ,sy/em1 ,e>? ,connections--,! ,transmitt+ ,app>atus1 ,sp>k ,coils & ,trans=m]s1 ,cond5s]s1 ,helixes1 ,sp>k ,gaps1 ,an*or ,gaps1 ,a]ial ,swit*es--,! ,receiv+ ,app>atus1 ,detectors1 etc4--,tun+ & ,c\pl+1 ,tun+ ,coils1 ,loose ,c\pl]s1 ,v>iable ,cond5s]s1 ,directive ,wave ,sy/ems--,miscellane\s ,app>atus1 ,telephone ,receiv]s1 ,range ( ,/ations1 ,/atic ,int]f]5ce--,wireless ,telephones1 ,s\nd & ,s\nd ,waves1 ,! ,vocal ,cords & ,e>--,wireless ,telephone1 ,h[ ,s\nds ,are ,*ang$ into ,electric ,waves--,wireless ,telephones1 ,! ,app>atus--,summ>y4 #aed pages1 #aef engrav+s4 ,price #a4jj ,wir+ a ,h\se4 ,by ,,h]b]t ,,pratt4 ,%[s a h\se already built2 tells j h[ to />t ab\t wir+ x2 :]e to beg92 :at wire to use2 h[ to run x accord+ to ,insurance ,rules2 9 fact1 j ! in=mation y ne$4 ,directions apply equally to a %op4 #d? ,edition4 ,price #be c5ts ,,factory ,,managem5t1 ,,etc4 ,mod]n ,ma*9e ,%op ,con/ruction1 ,equipm5t & ,managem5t4 ,by ,o4 ,e4 ,,p]rigo1 ,m4,e4 ,! only "w publi%$ t describes ! mod]n ma*9e %op or manufactur+ plant f ! "t ! grass is gr[+ on ! site int5d$ = x until ! f9i%$ product is %ipp$4 ,by a c>eful /udy ( its ?irty-two *apt]s ! practical man may economically build1 effici5tly equip1 & successfully manage ! mod]n ma*9e %op or manufactur+ e/abli%m5t4 ,j ! book ne$$ by ^? contemplat+ ! erection ( mod]n %op build+s1 ! rebuild+ & reorganization ( old ones1 or ! introduction ( mod]n %op me?ods1 "t & co/ sy/ems4 ,x is a book writt5 & illu/rat$ by a practical %op man = practical %op m5 :o are too busy to read !ories & want facts4 ,x is ! mo/ complete all-ar\nd book ( its k9d ev] publi%$4 ,x is a practical book = practical m51 f ! appr5tice 9 ! %op to ! presid5t 9 ! (fice4 ,x m9utely describes & illu/rates ! mo/ simple & yet ! mo/ effici5t "t & co/ sy/em yet devis$4 #bnd ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition1 j issu$4 #chd pages1 #bai illu/rations4 ,price #e4jj ,,fuel ,combu/ion ( ,coal & ! ,prev5tion ( ,smoke4 ,by ,,wm4 ,m4 ,,b>r4 ,?is book has be5 prep>$ ) special ref]5ce to ! g5]ation ( heat by ! combu/ion ( ! common fuels f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & deals p>ticul>ly ) ! conditions necess>y to ! economic & smokeless combu/ion ( bitum9\s coals 9 ,/ation>y & ,locomotive ,/eam ,boil]s4 ,! pres5tation ( ?is important subject is sy/ematic & progressive4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! book is 9 a s]ies ( practical que/ions to :i* are app5d$ accurate answ]s1 :i* describe 9 language1 free f te*nicalities1 ! sev]al processes involv$ 9 ! furnace combu/ion ( ,am]ican fuels2 x cle>ly /ates ! ess5tial requisites = p]fect combu/ion1 & po9ts out ! be/ me?ods = furnace con/ruction = obta9+ ! greate/ quantity ( heat f any giv5 quality ( coal4 ,ne>ly #cej pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,smoke ,prev5tion & ,fuel ,economy4 ,by ,,boo? & ,,k]%aw4 ,a complete treatise = all int]e/$ 9 smoke prev5tion & combu/ion1 be+ bas$ on ! ,g]man "w ( ,ern/ ,s*matolla1 b x is m ?an a m]e translation ( ! ,g]man treatise1 mu* be+ add$4 ,! au?ors %[ z briefly z possible ! pr9ciples ( fuel combu/ion1 ! me?ods :i* h be5 & are at pres5t 9 use1 z well z ! prop] sci5tific me?ods = obta9+ all ! en]gy 9 ! coal & burn+ x )\t smoke4 ,consid]able space is also giv5 to ! exam9ation ( ! wa/e gases1 & sev]al ( ! repres5tative ,engli% & ,am]ican me*anical /ok] & simil> appliances are describ$4 ,! losses c>ri$ away 9 ! wa/e gases are ?or\ghly analyz$ & discuss$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 & ab/racts are also "h giv5 ( v>i\s pat5ts on combu/ion app>atus4 ,! book is complete & conta9s mu* ( value to all :o h *>ge ( l>ge plants4 #aid pages4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #b4ej ,,gas ,,eng9es ,,& ,,gas ,gas1 ,gasol9e & ,oil ,eng9es4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,revis$ by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,e4 ,j issu$ ,new #aiah ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,e us] ( a gas eng9e ne$s ?is book4 ,simple1 in/ructive & "r up-to-date4 ,! only complete "w on ! subject4 ,tells all ab\t int]nal combu/ion eng9e]+1 treat+ exhau/ively on ! design1 con/ruction & practical application ( all =ms ( gas1 gasol9e1 k]os5e & crude petroleum-oil eng9es4 ,describes m9utely all auxili>y sy/ems1 su* z lubrication1 c>buretion & ignition4 ,consid]s ! !ory & managem5t ( all =ms ( explosive motors = /ation>y & m>9e "w1 automobiles1 a]oplanes & motor-cycles4 ,includes also ,produc] ,gas & ,its ,production4 ,invaluable in/ructions = all /ud5ts1 gas-eng9e own]s1 gas-eng9e]s1 pat5t exp]ts1 design]s1 me*anics1 draftsm5 & all hav+ to d ) ! mod]n p[]4 ,illu/rat$ by ov] #djj engrav+s1 _m specially made f eng9e]+ draw+s1 all 9 correct proportion4 #fej pages1 #dce engrav+s4 ,price #b4ej net ,! ,gasol9e ,eng9e on ! ,f>m3 ,its ,op]ation1 ,repair & ,uses4 ,by ,,x5o ,w4 ,,putnam4 ,?is is a practical treatise on ! ,gasol9e & ,k]os5e ,eng9e int5d$ = ! man :o wants to "k j h[ to manage 8 eng9e & h[ to apply x to all k9ds ( f>m "w to ! be/ advantage4 ,?is book ab\nds ) h9ts & helps = ! f>m & sugge/ions = ! home & h\se-wife4 ,!re is s mu* ( value 9 ?is book t x is impossible to adequately describe x 9 su* small space4 ,suffice to say t x is ! k9d ( a book e f>m] w appreciate & e f>m home ought to h4 ,includes select+ ! mo/ suitable eng9e = f>m "w1 its mo/ conv5i5t & effici5t in/allation1 ) *apt]s on tr\bles1 _! rem$ies1 & h[ to avoid !m4 ,! c>e & managem5t ( ! f>m tractor 9 pl[+1 h>r[+1 h>ve/+ & road grad+ are fully cov]$2 also pla9 directions are giv5 = h&l+ ! tractor on ! road4 ,special att5tion is giv5 to reliev+ f>m life ( its drudg]y by apply+ p[] to ! disagreeable small tasks :i* mu/ o!rwise be done by h&4 ,_m home made contrivances = cutt+ wood1 supply+ kit*51 g>d51 & b>n ) wat]1 load+1 haul+ & unload+ hay1 deliv]+ gra9 to ! b9s or ! fe$ tr\gh are includ$2 also full directions = mak+ ! eng9e milk ! c[s1 *urn1 wa%1 sweep ! h\se & clean ! w9d[s1 etc4 ,v fully illu/rat$ ) draw+s ( work+ p>ts & cuts %[+ ,/ation>y1 ,portable & ,tractor ,eng9es do+ all k9ds ( f>m "w4 ,all money-mak+ f>ms utilize p[]4 ,le>n h[ to utilize p[] by read+ ! pages ( ?is book4 ,x is an aid to ! result gett]1 invaluable to ! up-to-date f>m]1 /ud5t1 blacksmi?1 implem5t deal] &1 9 fact1 all :o c apply practical k ( /ation>y gasol9e eng9es or gas tractors to advantage4 #ecj pages4 ,ne>ly #ahj engrav+s4 ,price #b4jj ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,am mu* pleas$ ) ! book & f9d x to be v complete & up-to-date4 ,i w he>tily recomm5d x to /ud5ts & f>m]s :om ,i ?9k w\ld /& 9 ne$ ( su* a "w1 z ,i ?9k x is an exceptionally good "o4--,n4 ,s4 ,g>d9]1 ,pr(4 9 ,*>ge1 ,clemson ,agr4 ,college ( ,s4 ,c42 ,dept4 ( ,agri4 & ,agri4 ,exp4 ,/ation1 ,clemson ,college1 ,s4 ,c4 ,i feel t ,mr4 ,putnam's book cov]s ! ma9 po9ts :i* a f>m] %\ld "k4--,r4 ,t4 ,burdick1 ,in/ructor 9 ,agronomy1 ,univ]sity ( ,v]mont1 ,burl+ton1 ,vt4 ,gasol9e ,eng9es3 ,_! ,op]ation1 ,use & ,c>e4 ,by ,a4 ,,hyatt ,,v]rill4 ,! simple/1 late/ & mo/ compreh5sive popul> "w publi%$ on ,gasol9e ,eng9es1 describ+ :at ! ,gasol9e ,eng9e is2 its con/ruction & op]ation2 h[ to in/all x2 h[ to select x2 h[ to use x & h[ to rem$y tr\bles enc\nt]$4 ,int5d$ = ,own]s1 ,op]ators & ,us]s ( ,gasol9e ,motors ( all k9ds4 ,?is "w fully describes & illu/rates ! v>i\s types ( ,gasol9e ,eng9es us$ 9 ,motor ,boats1 ,motor ,vehicles & ,/ation>y ,"w4 ,! p>ts1 accessories & appliances are describ$ ) *apt]s on ignition1 fuel1 lubrication1 op]ation & eng9e tr\bles4 ,special att5tion is giv5 to ! c>e1 op]ation & repair ( motors1 ) useful h9ts & sugge/ions on em]g5cy repairs & make%ifts4 ,a complete gloss>y ( te*nical t]ms & an alphabetically arrang$ table ( tr\bles & _! symptoms =m mo/ valuable & unique features ( ?is manual4 ,ne>ly e illu/ration 9 ! book is orig9al1 hav+ be5 made by ! au?or4 ,e page is full ( int]e/ & value4 ,a book :i* y _c af=d to be )\t4 #bge pages1 #aeb specially made engrav+s4 ,price #a4ej ,gas ,eng9e ,con/ruction1 or ,h[ to ,build a ,half-horsep[] ,gas ,eng9e4 ,by ,,p>sell & ,,we$4 ,a practical treatise ( #cjj pages describ+ ! !ory & pr9ciples ( ! action ( ,gas ,eng9es ( v>i\s types & ! design & con/ruction ( a half-horsep[] ,gas ,eng9e1 ) illu/rations ( ! "w 9 actual progress1 toge!r ) ! dim5sion$ work+ draw+s1 giv+ cle>ly ! sizes ( ! v>i\s details2 = ! /ud5t1 ! sci5tific inve/igator1 & ! amateur me*anic4 ,?is book treats ( ! subject m f ! /&po9t ( practice ?an t ( !ory4 ,! pr9ciples ( op]ation ( ,gas ,eng9es are cle>ly & simply describ$1 & !n ! actual con/ruction ( a half-horsep[] eng9e is tak5 up1 /ep by /ep1 %[+ 9 detail ! mak+ ( ! ,gas ,eng9e4 #crd ,edition4 #cjj pages4 ,price #b4ej ,h[ to ,run & ,in/all ,two- & ,f\r-,cycle ,m>9e ,gasol9e ,eng9es4 ,by ,c4 ,,von ,,cul94 ,revis$ & enl>g$ edition j issu$4 ,! object ( ?is little book is to furni% a pocket in/ructor = ! beg9n]1 ! busy man :o uses an eng9e = pleasure or pr(it1 b :o does n h ! "t or incl9ation = a te*nical book1 b simply to ?or\ghly und]/& h[ to prop]ly op]ate1 in/all & c>e = 8 own eng9e4 ,! index ref]s to ea* tr\ble1 rem$y1 & subject alphabetically4 ,be+ a quick ref]5ce to f9d ! cause1 rem$y & prev5tion = tr\bles1 & to become an exp]t ) 8 own eng9e4 ,pocket size4 ,pap] b9d+4 ,price #be c5ts ,mod]n ,gas ,eng9es & ,produc] ,gas ,plants4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,ma?ot4 ,a guide = ! gas eng9e design]1 us]1 & eng9e] 9 ! con/ruction1 selection1 pur*ase1 in/allation1 op]ation1 & ma9t5ance ( gas eng9es4 ,m ?an "o book on gas eng9es has be5 writt51 b n "o has ?us f> ev5 encroa*$ on ! field cov]$ by ?is book4 ,above all1 ,mr4 ,ma?ot's "w is a practical guide4 ,recogniz+ ! ne$ ( a volume t w\ld assi/ ! gas eng9e us] 9 und]/&+ ?or\ghly ! motor ^u :i* he dep5ds = p[]1 ! au?or has discuss$ 8 subject )\t ! help ( any ma!matics & )\t elaborate !oretical explanations4 ,e "p ( ! gas eng9e is describ$ 9 detail1 t]sely1 cle>ly1 ) a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! requirem5ts ( ! me*anic4 ,helpful sugge/ions z to ! pur*ase ( an eng9e1 its in/allation1 c>e1 & op]ation1 =m a mo/ valuable feature ( ! "w4 #cbj pages1 #age detail$ illu/rations4 ,price #b4ej ,! ,mod]n ,gas ,tractor4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4 ,e4 ,a complete treatise describ+ all types & sizes ( gasol9e1 k]os5e & oil tractors4 ,consid]s design & con/ruction exhau/ively1 gives complete in/ructions = c>e1 op]ation & repair1 outl9es all practical applications on ! road & 9 ! field4 ,! be/ & late/ "w on f>m tractors & tractor p[] plants4 ,a "w ne$$ by f>m]s1 /ud5ts1 blacksmi?s1 me*anics1 salesm51 implem5t deal]s1 design]s & eng9e]s4 #bnd ,edition1 ,revis$4 #ejd pages1 #bbh illu/rations1 #c fold+ plates4 ,price #b4jj ,,ge>+ ,,& ,,cams ,bevel ,ge> ,tables4 ,by ,d4 ,,ag4 ,,eng/rom4 ,a book t w at once comm5d itself to me*anics & draftsm54 ,does away ) all ! trigonometry & fancy figur+ on bevel ge>s1 & makes x easy = anyone to lay !m out or make !m j "r4 ,!re are #cf full-page tables t %[ e necess>y dim5sion = all sizes or comb9ations y're apt to ne$4 ,no puzzl+1 figur+ or guess+4 ,gives plac+ di/ance1 all ! angles 7includ+ cutt+ angles71 & ! correct cutt] to use4 ,a copy ( ?is prep>es y = any?+ 9 ! bevel-ge> l9e4 #crd ,edition4 #ff pages4 ,price #a4jj ,*ange ,ge> ,devices4 ,by ,,osc> ,e4 ,,p]rigo4 ,a practical book = e design]1 draftsman1 & me*anic int]e/$ 9 ! inv5tion & developm5t ( ! devices = fe$ *anges on ! diff]5t ma*9es requir+ su* me*anism4 ,all ! necess>y in=mation on ?is subject is tak5 up1 analyz$1 classifi$1 sift$1 & conc5trat$ = ! use ( busy m5 :o h n ! "t to g ?r\gh ! masses ( irrelevant matt] ) :i* su* a subject is usually encumb]$ & select su* in=mation z w be useful to !m4 ,x %[s j :at has be5 done1 h[ x has be5 done1 :5 x 0 done1 & :o did x4 ,x saves "t 9 hunt+ up pat5t records & re-inv5t+ old ideas4 #hh pages4 #crd ,edition4 ,price #a4jj ,draft+ ( ,cams4 ,by ,,l\is ,,r\illion4 ,! lay+ out ( cams is a s]i\s problem unless y "k h[ to g at x "r4 ,?is puts y on ! "r road = practically any k9d ( cam y are likely to run up aga9/4 #crd ,edition4 ,price #be ,c5ts ,,hydraulics ,hydraulic ,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,a treatise on ! prop]ties1 p[]1 & res\rces ( wat] = all purposes4 ,includ+ ! measurem5t ( /reams1 ! fl[ ( wat] 9 pipes or conduits2 ! horsep[] ( fall+ wat]1 turb9e & impact wat]-:eels1 wave motors1 c5trifugal1 reciprocat+ & air-lift pumps4 ,) #cjj figures & diagrams & #cf practical tables4 ,all :o are int]e/$ 9 wat]-works developm5t w f9d ?is book a useful "o1 because x is an entirely practical treatise ^u a subject ( pres5t importance & _c fail 9 hav+ a f>-rea*+ influ5ce1 & = ?is reason %\ld h a place 9 ! work+ libr>y ( e eng9e]4 ,among ! subjects treat$ are3 ,hi/orical ,hydraulics2 ,prop]ties ( ,wat]2 ,measurem5t ( ! ,fl[ ( ,/reams2 ,fl[ f ,sub-surface ,orifices & ,nozzles2 ,fl[ ( ,wat] 9 ,pipes2 ,siphons ( ,v>i\s ,k9ds2 ,dams & ,great ,/orage ,res]voirs2 ,city & ,t[n ,wat] ,supply2 ,wells & ,_! ,re9=cem5t2 ,air-lift ,me?ods ( ,rais+ ,wat]2 ,artesian ,wells2 ,irrigation ( ,arid ,di/ricts2 ,wat] ,p[]2 ,wat] ,:eels2 ,pumps & ,pump+ ,ma*9]y2 ,reciprocat+ ,pumps2 ,hydraulic ,p[] ,transmission2 ,hydraulic ,m9+2 ,canals2 ,dit*es2 ,conduits & ,pipe ,l9es2 ,m>9e ,hydraulics2 ,tidal & ,sea ,wave ,p[]1 etc4 #cbj pages4 ,price #d4jj ,,ice ,,& ,,refrig]ation ,pocketbook ( ,refrig]ation & ,ice ,mak+4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,,wallis-,,taylor4 ,?is is "o ( ! late/ & mo/ compreh5sive ref]5ce books publi%$ on ! subject ( refrig]ation & cold /orage4 ,x expla9s ! prop]ties & refrig]at+ effect ( ! diff]5t fluids 9 use1 ! managem5t ( refrig]at+ ma*9]y & ! con/ruction & insulation ( cold rooms ) _! requir$ pipe surface = diff]5t degrees ( cold2 freez+ mixtures & non-freez+ br9es1 temp]atures ( cold rooms = all k9ds ( provisions1 cold /orage *>ges = all classes ( goods1 ice mak+ & /orage ( ice1 data & memor&a = con/ant ref]5ce by refrig]at+ eng9e]s1 ) ne>ly "o hundr$ tables conta9+ valuable ref]5ces to e fact & condition requir$ 9 ! in/allm5t & op]ation ( a refrig]at+ plant4 ,new edition j publi%$4 ,price #a4ej ,,inv5tions--,,pat5ts ,inv5tors' ,manual3 ,h[ to ,make a ,pat5t ,pay4 ,?is is a book design$ z a guide to inv5tors 9 p]fect+ _! inv5tions1 tak+ out _! pat5ts & dispos+ ( !m4 ,x is n 9 any s5se a ,pat5t ,solicitor's ,circul> nor a ,pat5t ,brok]'s ,adv]tisem5t4 ,no adv]tisem5ts ( any description appe> 9 ! "w4 ,x is a book conta9+ a qu>t] ( a c5tury's exp]i5ce ( a successful inv5tor1 toge!r ) notes bas$ ^u ! exp]i5ce ( _m o!r inv5tors4 ,among ! subjects treat$ 9 ?is "w are3 ,h[ to ,inv5t4 ,h[ to ,secure a ,good ,pat5t4 ,value ( ,good ,inv5tion4 ,h[ to ,exhibit an ,inv5tion4 ,h[ to ,int]e/ ,capital4 ,h[ to ,e/imate ! ,value ( a ,pat5t4 ,value ( ,design ,pat5ts4 ,value ( ,=eign ,pat5ts4 ,value ( ,small ,inv5tions4 ,advice on ,sell+ ,pat5ts4 ,advice on ! ,=mation ( ,/ock ,companies4 ,advice on ! ,=mation ( ,limit$ ,liability ,companies4 ,advice on ,dispos+ ( ,old ,pat5ts4 ,advice z to ,pat5t ,attorneys4 ,advice z to ,sell+ ,ag5ts4 ,=ms ( ,assignm5ts4 ,lic5se & ,contracts4 ,/ate ,laws ,conc]n+ ,pat5t ,rights4 #aijj ,c5sus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,c\nts ( ,ov] #aj1jjj ,population4 ,revis$ ,edition4 #abj pages4 ,price #a4jj ,,knots ,knots1 ,splices & ,rope ,"w4 ,by ,a4 ,,hyatt ,,v]rill4 ,?is is a practical book giv+ complete & simple directions = mak+ all ! mo/ useful & ornam5tal knots 9 common use1 ) *apt]s on ,splic+1 ,po9t+1 ,seiz+1 ,s]v+1 etc4 ,?is book is fully illu/rat$ ) #aed orig9al engrav+s1 :i* %[ h[ ea* knot1 tie or splice is =m$1 & its appe>ance :5 f9i%$4 ,! book w be f\nd ( ! greate/ value to ,camp]s1 ,ya*tsm51 ,travel]s1 ,boy ,sc\ts1 9 fact1 to anyone hav+ occasion to use or h&le rope or knots = any purpose4 ,! book is ?or\ghly reliable & practical1 & is n only a guide1 b a tea*]4 ,x is ! /&>d "w on ! subject4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 #a4 ,cordage1 ,k9ds ( ,rope4 ,con/ruction ( ,rope1 ,p>ts ( ,rope ,cable & ,bolt ,rope4 ,/r5g? ( ,rope1 ,weight ( ,rope4 #b4 ,simple ,knots & ,b5ds4 ,t]ms ,us$ 9 ,h&l+ ,rope4 ,seiz+ ,rope4 #c4 ,ties & ,hit*es4 #d4 ,noose1 ,loops & ,moor+ ,knots4 #e4 ,%ort5+s1 ,grommets & ,salvages4 #f4 ,la%+s1 ,seiz+s & ,splices4 #g4 ,fancy ,knots & ,rope ,"w4 #abh pages1 #aej orig9al engrav+s4 #bnd ,revis$ ,edition4 ,price #ge c5ts ,,la! ,,"w ,la! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 & ,op]ation1 ) ,practical ,examples ( ,la! ,"w4 ,by ,,osc> ,e4 ,,p]rigo4 ,a new1 revis$ edition1 & ! only complete ,am]ican "w on ! subject1 writt5 by a man :o kn[s n only h[ "w ought to be done1 b :o also kn[s h[ to d x1 & h[ to convey ?is k to o!rs4 ,x is /rictly up-to-date 9 its descriptions & illu/rations4 ,la! hi/ory & ! relations ( ! la! to manufactur+ are giv52 also a description ( ! v>i\s devices = fe$s & ?read-cutt+ me*anisms f e>ly ef=ts 9 ?is direction to ! pres5t "t4 ,la! design is ?or\ghly discuss$1 includ+ back ge>+1 driv+ cones1 ?read-cutt+ ge>s1 & all ! ess5tial elem5ts ( ! mod]n la!4 ,! classification ( la!s is tak5 up1 giv+ ! ess5tial diff]5ces ( ! sev]al types ( la!s includ+1 z is usually und]/ood1 eng9e la!s1 b5* la!s1 spe$ la!s1 =ge la!s1 gap la!s1 pulley la!s1 =m+ la!s1 multiple-sp9dle la!s1 rapid-r$uction la!s1 precision la!s1 turret la!s1 special la!s1 electrically driv5 la!s1 etc4 ,9 addition to ! complete exposition on con/ruction & design1 mu* practical matt] on la! in/allation1 c>e & op]ation has be5 incorporat$ 9 ! enl>g$ new edition4 ,all k9ds ( la! atta*m5ts = drill+1 mill+1 etc41 are describ$ & complete in/ructions are giv5 to enable ! novice ma*9i/ to grasp ! art ( la! op]ation z well z ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 design4 ,a numb] ( difficult ma*9+ op]ations are describ$ at l5g? & illu/rat$4 ,! new edition has ne>ly #ejj pages & #cej illu/rations4 ,price #b4ej ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,?is is a la! book f beg9n+ to end1 & is j ! k9d ( a book :i* "o delights to consult--a ma/]ly treatm5t ( ! subject 9 h&4--,eng9e]+ ,news4 ,?is "w w be ( exceptional int]e/ to any "o :o is int]e/$ 9 la! practice1 z "o v seldom sees su* a complete treatise on a subject z ?is is on ! la!4--,canadian ,ma*9]y4 ,practical ,metal ,turn+4 ,by ,,joseph ,g4 ,,horn]4 ,a "w ( #djd pages1 fully illu/rat$1 cov]+ 9 a compreh5sive mann] ! mod]n practice ( ma*9+ metal p>ts 9 ! la!1 includ+ ! regul> eng9e la!1 its ess5tial design1 its uses1 its tools1 its atta*m5ts1 & ! mann] ( hold+ ! "w & p]=m+ ! op]ations4 ,! mod]niz$ eng9e la!1 its me?ods1 tools & great range ( accurate "w4 ,! turret la!1 its tools1 accessories & me?ods ( p]=m+ its functions4 ,*apt]s on special "w1 gr9d+1 tool hold]s1 spe$s1 fe$s1 mod]n tool /eels1 etc4 ,second edition #c4ej ,turn+ & ,bor+ ,tap]s4 ,by ,,fr$ ,h4 ,,colv94 ,!re are two ways to turn tap]s2 ! "r way & "o o!r4 ,?is treatise has to d ) ! "r way2 x tells y h[ to />t ! "w prop]ly1 h[ to set ! la!1 :at tools to use & h[ to use !m1 & =ty & "o o!r little ?+s t y %\ld "k4 ,f\r? edition #be c5ts ,,liquid ,,air ,liquid ,air & ! ,liquefaction ( ,gases4 ,by ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,?is book gives ! hi/ory ( ! !ory1 discov]y & manufacture ( ,liquid ,air1 & conta9s an illu/rat$ description ( all ! exp]im5ts t h excit$ ! wond] ( audi5ces all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,x %[s h[ liquid air1 l wat]1 is c>ri$ hundr$s ( miles & is h&l$ 9 op5 buckets4 ,x tells :at may be expect$ f x 9 ! ne> future4 ,a book t r5d]s simple "o ( ! mo/ p]plex+ *emical problems ( ! c5tury4 ,/>tl+ developm5ts illu/rat$ by actual exp]im5ts4 ,x is n only a "w ( sci5tific int]e/ & au?ority1 b is int5d$ = ! g5]al read]1 be+ writt5 9 a popul> /yle--easily und]/ood by e "o4 ,second edition4 #cfe pages4 ,price #b4jj ,,locomotive ,,eng9e]+ ,air-,brake ,cate*ism4 ,by ,,rob]t ,h4 ,,blackall4 ,?is book is a /&>d text-book4 ,x cov]s ! ,we/+h\se ,air-,brake ,equipm5t1 includ+ ! ,no4 #e & ! ,no4 #f ,e4-,t4 ,locomotive ,brake ,equipm5t2 ! ,k 7,quick ,s]vice7 ,triple ,valve = ,freight ,s]vice2 & ! ,cross-,comp\nd ,pump4 ,! op]ation ( all p>ts ( ! app>atus is expla9$ 9 detail1 & a practical way ( f9d+ _! peculi>ities & defects1 ) a prop] rem$y1 is giv54 ,x conta9s #b1jjj que/ions ) _! answ]s1 :i* w enable any railroad man to pass any exam9ation on ! subject ( ,air ,brakes4 ,endors$ & us$ by air-brake in/ructors & exam9]s on ne>ly e railroad 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,tw5ty-six? edition4 #daa pages1 fully illu/rat$ ) color$ plates & diagrams4 ,price #b4jj ,am]ican ,comp\nd ,locomotives4 ,by ,,fr$ ,h4 ,,colv94 ,! only book on comp\nds = ! eng9eman or %opman t %[s 9 a pla91 practical way ! v>i\s features ( comp\nd locomotives 9 use4 ,%[s h[ !y are made1 :at to d :5 !y break d[n or balk4 ,conta9s sections z foll[s3 ,a ,bit ( ,hi/ory4 ,!ory ( ,comp\nd+ ,/eam ,cyl9d]s4 ,baldw9 ,two-,cyl9d] ,comp\nd4 ,pittsburg ,two-,cyl9d] ,comp\nd4 ,rhode ,isl& ,comp\nd4 ,ri*mond ,comp\nd4 ,rog]s ,comp\nd4 ,s*5ectady ,two-,cyl9d] ,comp\nd4 ,vaucla9 ,comp\nd4 ,t&em ,comp\nds4 ,baldw9 ,t&em4 ,! ,colv9-,wightman ,t&em4 ,s*5ectady ,t&em4 ,balanc$ ,locomotives4 ,baldw9 ,balanc$ ,comp\nd4 ,plans = ,balanc+4 ,locat+ ,bl[s4 ,breakd[ns4 ,r$uc+ ,valves4 ,drift+4 ,valve ,motion4 ,disconnect+4 ,p[] ( ,comp\nd ,locomotives4 ,practical ,notes4 ,fully illu/rat$ & conta9+ t5 special ,duotone ins]ts on heavy ,plate ,pap]1 %[+ diff]5t types ( ,comp\nds4 #adb pages4 ,price #a4jj ,application ( ,highly ,sup]heat$ ,/eam to ,locomotives4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,g>be4 ,a practical book :i* _c be recomm5d$ too highly to ^? motive-p[] m5 :o are anxi\s to ma9ta9 ! highe/ effici5cy 9 _! locomotives4 ,conta9s special *apt]s on ,g5]ation ( ,highly ,sup]heat$ ,/eam2 ,sup]heat$ ,/eam & ! ,two-,cyl9d] ,simple ,eng9e2 ,comp\nd+ & ,sup]heat+2 ,designs ( ,locomotive ,sup]heat]s2 ,con/ructive ,details ( ,locomotives ,us+ ,highly ,sup]heat$ ,/eam4 ,exp]im5tal & ,work+ ,results4 ,illu/rat$ ) fold+ plates & tables4 ,clo?4 ,price #b4ej ,combu/ion ( ,coal & ! ,prev5tion ( ,smoke4 ,by ,,wm4 ,m4 ,,b>r4 ,?is book has be5 prep>$ ) special ref]5ce to ! g5]ation ( heat by ! combu/ion ( ! common fuels f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & deals p>ticul>ly ) ! conditions necess>y to ! economic & smokeless combu/ion ( bitum9\s coal 9 ,/ation>y & ,locomotive ,/eam ,boil]s4 ,pres5tation ( ?is important subject is sy/ematic & progressive4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! book is 9 a s]ies ( practical que/ions to :i* are app5d$ accurate answ]s1 :i* describe 9 language free f te*nicalities ! sev]al processes involv$ 9 ! furnace combu/ion ( ,am]ican fuels2 x cle>ly /ates ! ess5tial requisites = p]fect combu/ion1 & po9ts out ! be/ me?ods ( furnace con/ruction = obta9+ ! greate/ quantity ( heat f any giv5 quality ( coal4 ,ne>ly #cej pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,di>y ( a ,r\nd-,h\se ,=eman4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,,reilly4 ,?is is ! greate/ book ( railroad exp]i5ces ev] publi%$4 ,conta9+ a fund ( in=mation & sugge/ions along ! l9e ( h&l+ m51 organiz+1 etc41 t "o _c af=d to miss4 #agf pages4 ,price #a4jj ,l9k ,motions1 ,valves & ,valve ,sett+4 ,by ,,fr$ ,h4 ,,colv91 ,associate ,editor ( ,am]ican ,ma*9i/4 ,a h&y book = ! eng9e] or ma*9i/ t cle>s up ! my/]ies ( valve sett+4 ,%[s ! diff]5t valve ge>s 9 use1 h[ !y "w1 & :y4 ,pi/on & slide valves ( diff]5t types are illu/rat$ & expla9$4 ,a book t e railroad man 9 ! motive-p[] dep>tm5t ought to h4 ,conta9s *apt]s on ,locomotive ,l9k ,motion1 ,valve ,movem5ts1 ,sett+ ,slide ,valves1 ,analysis by ,diagrams1 ,mod]n ,practice1 ,slip ( ,block1 ,slice ,valves1 ,pi/on ,valves1 ,sett+ ,pi/on ,valves1 ,joy-,all5 ,valve ,ge>1 ,wals*a]t ,valve ,ge>1 ,goo* ,valve ,ge>1 ,alfree-,hubbell ,valve ,ge>1 etc41 etc4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,price #ej c5ts ,locomotive ,boil] ,con/ruction4 ,by ,,frank ,a4 ,,kle9hans4 ,! con/ruction ( boil]s 9 g5]al is treat$ &1 foll[+ ?is1 ! locomotive boil] is tak5 up 9 ! ord] 9 :i* its v>i\s p>ts g ?r\gh ! %op4 ,%[s all types ( boil]s us$2 gives details ( con/ruction2 practical facts1 su* z life ( rivet+1 pun*es & dies2 "w done p] day1 all[ance = b5d+ & flang+ %eets & o!r data4 ,includ+ ! rec5t ,locomotive ,boil] ,inspection ,laws & ,exam9ation ,que/ions ) _! answ]s = ,gov]nm5t ,inspectors4 ,conta9s *apt]s on ,lay+-,out ,"w2 ,flang+ & ,=g+2 ,pun*+2 ,%e>+2 ,plate ,plan+2 ,g5]al ,tables2 ,f9i%+ ,p>ts2 ,b5d+2 ,ma*9]y ,p>ts2 ,rivet+2 ,boil] ,details2 ,smoke-,box ,details2 ,assembl+ & ,calk+2 ,boil]-,%op ,ma*9]y1 etc41 etc4 ,!re isn't a man :o has any?+ to d ) boil] "w1 ei!r new or repair "w1 :o doesn't ne$ ?is book4 ,! manufactur]1 sup]9t5d5t1 =eman & boil] work]--all ne$ x4 ,no matt] :at ! type ( boil]1 y'll f9d a m9t ( in=mation t y w\ldn't be )\t4 ,ov] #djj pages1 five l>ge fold+ plates4 ,price #c4jj ,locomotive ,breakd[ns & _! ,rem$ies4 ,by ,,geo4 ,l4 ,,f[l]4 ,revis$ by ,,wm4 ,w4 ,,wood1 ,air-,brake ,in/ructor4 ,j issu$4 ,revis$ pocket edition4 ,x is out ( ! "q to try & tell y ab\t e subject t is cov]$ 9 ?is pocket edition ( ,locomotive ,breakd[ns4 ,j imag9e all ! common tr\bles t an eng9e] may expect to happ5 "s "t1 & !n add all ( ! unexpect$ ones1 tr\bles t c\ld occur1 b t y h nev] ?\ght ab\t1 & y w f9d t !y are all treat$ ) ! v be/ me?ods ( repair4 ,wals*a]t ,locomotive ,valve ,ge> ,tr\bles1 ,electric ,headlight ,tr\bles1 z well z ,que/ions & ,answ]s on ! ,air ,brake are all includ$4 #cab pages4 #h? ,revis$ ,edition4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,locomotive ,cate*ism4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,grim%aw4 ,! revis$ edition ( ,locomotive ,cate*ism1 by ,rob]t ,grim%aw1 is a ,new ,book f ,cov] to ,cov]4 ,x conta9s twice z _m pages & d\ble ! numb] ( illu/rations ( previ\s editions4 ,includes ! greate/ am\nt ( practical in=mation ev] publi%$ on ! con/ruction & managem5t ( mod]n locomotives4 ,specially ,prep>$ ,*apt]s on ! ,wals*a]t ,locomotive ,valve ,ge>1 ! ,air-,brake ,equipm5t & ! ,electric ,headlight are giv54 ,x comm5ds itself at once to e ,eng9e] & ,fireman1 & to all :o are go+ 9 = exam9ation or promotion4 ,9 pla9 language1 ) full1 complete answ]s1 n only all ! que/ions ask$ by ! exam9+ eng9e] are giv51 b ^? :i* ! "y & less exp]i5c$ w\ld ask ! vet]an1 & :i* old h&s ask z /ick]s4 ,x is a v]itable ,encyclop$ia ( ! ,locomotive1 is entirely free f ma!matics1 easily und]/ood & ?or\ghly up to date4 ,conta9s ov] #d1jjj ,exam9ation ,que/ions ) _! ,answ]s4 #hbe pages1 #dcg illu/rations1 & #c fold+ plates4 #bh? ,revis$ ,edition4 ,price #b4ej ,practical ,in/ructor & ,ref]5ce ,book = ,locomotive ,firem5 & ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,,*as4 ,f4 ,,lockh>t4 ,an entirely new book on ! ,locomotive4 ,x appeals to e railroad man1 z x tells him h[ ?+s are done & ! "r way to d !m4 ,writt5 by a man :o has _h ye>s ( practical exp]i5ce 9 locomotive %ops & on ! road fir+ & runn+4 ,! in=mation giv5 9 ?is book _c be f\nd 9 any o!r simil> treatise4 ,eight hundr$ & fifty-"o que/ions ) _! answ]s are includ$1 :i* w prove specially helpful to ^? prep>+ = exam9ation4 ,practical in=mation on3 ,! ,con/ruction & ,op]ation ( ,locomotives1 ,breakd[ns & _! ,rem$ies1 ,air ,brakes & ,valve ,ge>s4 ,rules & ,signals are h&l$ 9 a ?or\gh mann]4 ,z a book ( ref]5ce x _c be excell$4 ,! book is divid$ into six p>ts1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! ,fireman's ,duties4 #b4 ,g5]al ,description ( ! ,locomotive4 #c4 ,breakd[ns & _! ,rem$ies4 #d4 ,air ,brakes4 #e4 ,extracts f ,/&>d ,rules4 #f4 ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,! #hea que/ions h be5 c>efully select$ & arrang$4 ,^! cov] ! exam9ations requir$ by ! diff]5t railroads4 #cfh pages1 #hh illu/rations4 ,price #a4ej ,prev5tion ( ,railroad ,accid5ts1 or ,safety 9 ,railroad+4 ,by ,,george ,,brad%aw4 ,?is book is a he>t-to-he>t talk ) ,railroad ,employees1 deal+ ) facts1 n !ories1 & %[+ ! m5 9 ! ranks1 f e-day exp]i5ce1 h[ accid5ts occur & h[ !y may be avoid$4 ,! book is illu/rat$ ) sev5ty orig9al photographs & draw+s %[+ ! safe & unsafe me?ods ( "w4 ,no vision>y s*emes1 no ideal pictures4 ,j ,pla9 ,facts & ,practical ,sugge/ions are giv54 ,e railroad employee :o reads ! book is a bett] & saf] man to h 9 railroad s]vice4 ,x gives j ! in=mation :i* w be ! means ( prev5t+ _m injuries & dea?s4 ,all railroad employees %\ld procure a copy1 read x1 & d _! "p 9 prev5t+ accid5ts4 #afi pages4 ,pocket size4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,price #ej c5ts ,tra9 ,rule ,exam9ations ,made ,easy4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,,coll+wood4 ,?is is ! only practical "w on tra9 rules 9 pr9t4 ,e detail is cov]$1 & puzzl+ po9ts are expla9$ 9 simple1 compreh5sive language1 mak+ x a practical treatise = ! ,tra9 ,dispat*]1 ,eng9eman1 ,tra9man1 & all o!rs :o h to d ) ! movem5ts ( tra9s4 ,conta9s complete & reliable in=mation ( ! ,/&>d ,code ( ,tra9 ,rules = s+le track4 ,%[s ,signals 9 ,colors1 z us$ on ! diff]5t roads4 ,expla9s fully ! practical application ( tra9 ord]s1 giv+ a cle> & def9ite und]/&+ ( all ord]s :i* may be us$4 ,! mean+ & necessity = c]ta9 rules are expla9$ 9 su* a mann] t ! /ud5t may "k beyond a d\bt ! rights conf]r$ "u any ord]s he may receive or ! action requir$ by c]ta9 rules4 ,z ne>ly all roads require tra9m5 to pass regul> exam9ations1 a complete set ( exam9ation que/ions1 ) _! answ]s1 are includ$4 ,^! w enable ! /ud5t to pass ! requir$ exam9ations ) cr$it to himself & ! road = :i* he works4 #bnd ,edition1 ,revis$4 #bef pages1 fully illu/rat$1 ) ,tra9 ,signals 9 ,colors4 ,price #a4be ,! ,wals*a]t & ,o!r ,mod]n ,radial ,valve ,ge>s = ,locomotives4 ,by ,,wm4 ,w4 ,,wood4 ,if y w\ld ?or\ghly und]/& ! ,wals*a]t ,valve ,ge> y %\ld possess a copy ( ?is book1 z ! au?or takes ! pla9e/ =m ( a /eam eng9e--a /ation>y eng9e 9 ! r\gh1 t w only turn its crank 9 "o direction--& f x builds up1 ) ! read]'s help1 a mod]n locomotive equipp$ ) ! ,wals*a]t ,valve ,ge>1 complete4 ,! po9ts discuss$ are cle>ly illu/rat$3 ,two l>ge fold+ plates t %[ ! positions ( ! valves ( bo? inside or outside admission type1 z well z ! l9ks & o!r p>ts ( ! ge> :5 ! crank is at n9e diff]5t po9ts 9 its revolution1 are especially valuable 9 mak+ ! movem5t cle>4 ,^! employ slid+ c>dbo>d models :i* are conta9$ 9 a pocket 9 ! cov]4 ,! book is divid$ into five g5]al divisions1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,analysis ( ! ge>4 #b4 ,design+ & erect+ ! ge>4 #c4 ,advantages ( ! ge>4 #d4 ,que/ions & answ]s relat+ to ! ,wals*a]t ,valve ,ge>4 #e4 ,sett+ valves ) ! ,wals*a]t ,valve ,ge>2 ! ?ree prim>y types ( locomotive valve motion2 mod]n radial valve ge>s o!r ?an ! ,wals*a]t2 ! ,hob>t ,all-free ,valve & ,valve ,ge>1 ) que/ions & answ]s on breakd[ns2 ! ,bak]-,pilliod ,valve ,ge>2 ! ,improv$ ,bak]-,pilliod ,valve ,ge>1 ) que/ions & answ]s on breakd[ns4 ,! que/ions ) full answ]s giv5 w be especially valuable to firem5 & eng9e]s 9 prep>+ = an exam9ation = promotion4 #bde pages4 #crd ,revis$ ,edition4 ,price #a4ej ,we/+h\se ,e-,t ,air-,brake ,in/ruction ,pocket ,book4 ,by ,,wm4 ,w4 ,,wood1 ,air-,brake ,in/ructor4 ,"h is a book = ! railroad man1 & ! man :o aims to be "o4 ,x is )\t d\bt ! only complete "w publi%$ on ! ,we/+h\se ,e-,t ,locomotive ,brake ,equipm5t4 ,writt5 by an ,air-,brake ,in/ructor :o kn[s j :at is ne$$4 ,x cov]s ! subject ?or\ghly4 ,ev]y?+ ab\t ! ,new ,we/+h\se ,eng9e & ,t5d] ,brake ,equipm5t1 includ+ ! /&>d ,no4 #e & ! ,p]fect$ ,no4 #f /yle ( brake1 is treat$ 9 detail4 ,writt5 9 pla9 ,engli% & pr(usely illu/rat$ ) ,color$ ,plates1 :i* enable "o to trace ! fl[ ( pressures ?r\gh\t ! entire equipm5t4 ,! be/ book ev] publi%$ on ! ,air ,brake4 ,equally good = ! beg9n] & ! advanc$ eng9e]4 ,w pass any "o ?r\gh any exam9ation4 ,x in=ms & enlight5s y on e po9t4 ,indisp5sable to e eng9eman & tra9man4 ,conta9s exam9ation que/ions & answ]s on ! ,e-,t equipm5t4 ,cov]+ :at ! ,e-,t ,brake is4 ,h[ x %\ld be op]at$4 ,:at to d :5 defective4 ,n a "q c be ask$ ( ! eng9eman up = promotion1 on ei!r ! ,no4 #e or ! ,no4 #f ,e-,t equipm5t1 t is n ask$ & answ]$ 9 ! book4 ,if y want to ?or\ghly und]/& ! ,e-,t equipm5t get a copy ( ?is book4 ,x cov]s e detail4 ,makes ,air-,brake tr\bles & exam9ations easy4 ,price #a4ej ,,ma*9e-,,%op ,,practice ,am]ican ,tool ,mak+ & ,int]*angeable ,manufactur+4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,,woodwor?4 ,a %oppy book1 conta9+ no !oriz+1 no problematical or exp]im5tal devices4 ,!re are no badly proportion$ & impossible diagrams1 no catalogue cuts1 b a valuable collection ( draw+s & descriptions ( devices1 ! ri* fruits ( ! au?or's own exp]i5ce4 ,9 its #ejj-odd pages ! "o subject only1 ,tool ,mak+1 & :atev] relates !reto1 is dealt )4 ,! "w /&s )\t a rival4 ,x is a complete1 practical treatise1 on ! art ( ,am]ican ,tool ,mak+ & sy/em ( int]*angeable manufactur+ z c>ri$ on to-day 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 x are describ$ & illu/rat$ all ( ! diff]5t types & classes ( small tools1 fixtures1 devices1 & special appliances :i* are 9 g5]al use 9 all ma*9e-manufactur+ & metal-work+ e/abli%m5ts :]e economy1 capacity1 & int]*angeability 9 ! production ( ma*9$ metal p>ts are imp]ative4 ,! sci5ce ( jig mak+ is exhau/ively discuss$1 & p>ticul> att5tion is paid to drill jigs1 bor+1 pr(il+ & mill+ fixtures & o!r devices 9 :i* ! p>ts to be ma*9$ are locat$ & fa/5$ )9 ! contrivances4 ,all ( ! tools1 fixtures1 & devices illu/rat$ & describ$ h be5 or are us$ = ! actual production ( "w1 su* z p>ts ( drill presses1 la!s1 pat5t$ ma*9]y1 typewrit]s1 electrical app>atus1 me*anical appliances1 brass goods1 composition p>ts1 m\ld products1 %eet-metal articles1 drop-=g+s1 jewelry1 wat*es1 m$als1 co9s1 etc4 #eca pages4 ,price #d4jj ,,h5ley',s ,,encyclop$ia ,,( ,,practical ,,eng9e]+ ,,& ,,alli$ ,,trades4 ,,edit$ by ,,joseph ,g4 ,,horn]1 ,a4,m4,i41 ,m4,e4 ,?is set ( five volumes conta9s ab\t #b1ejj pages ) ?\s&s ( illu/rations1 includ+ diagrammatic & sectional draw+s ) full explanatory details4 ,?is "w cov]s ! entire practice ( ,civil & ,me*anical ,eng9e]+4 ,! be/ kn[n exp]ts 9 all bran*es ( eng9e]+ h contribut$ to ^! volumes4 ,! ,cyclop$ia is admirably well adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ! beg9n] & ! self-taught practical man1 z well z ! me*anical eng9e]1 design]1 draftsman1 %op sup]9t5d5t1 =eman1 & ma*9i/4 ,! "w w be f\nd a means ( advancem5t to any progressive man4 ,x is encyclop$ic 9 scope1 ?or\gh & practical 9 its treatm5t on te*nical subjects1 simple & cle> 9 its descriptive matt]1 & )\t unnecess>y te*nicalities or =mulae4 ,! articles are z brief z may be & yet give a reasonably cle> & explicit /atem5t ( ! subject1 & are writt5 by m5 :o h _h ample practical exp]i5ce 9 ! matt]s ( :i* !y write4 ,x tells y all y want to "k ab\t eng9e]+ & tells x s simply1 s cle>ly1 s concisely1 t "o _c help b und]/&4 ,z a "w ( ref]5ce x is )\t a pe]4 ,complete set ( five volumes1 price #be4jj ,! ,mod]n ,ma*9i/4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,u%]4 ,?is is a book1 %[+ by pla9 description & by pr(use engrav+s made expressly = ! "w1 all t is be/1 mo/ advanc$1 & ( ! highe/ effici5cy 9 mod]n ma*9e-%op practice1 tools & implem5ts1 %[+ ! way by :i* & ?r\gh :i*1 z ,mr4 ,maxim says ,am]ican ma*9i/s h become & are ! f9e/ me*anics 9 ! _w4 ,indicat+ z x does1 9 e l9e1 ! famili>ity ( ! au?or ) e detail ( daily exp]i5ce 9 ! %op1 x _c fail to be ( s]vice to any man practically connect$ ) ! %ap+ or f9i%+ ( metals4 ,!re is no?+ exp]im5tal or vision>y ab\t ! book1 all devices be+ 9 actual use & giv+ good results4 ,x might be call$ a comp5dium ( %op me?ods1 %[+ a v>iety ( special tools & appliances :i* w give new ideas to _m me*anics1 f ! sup]9t5d5t d[n to ! man at ! b5*4 ,x w be f\nd a valuable addition to any ma*9i/'s libr>y1 & %\ld be consult$ :5ev] a new or difficult job is to be done1 :e!r x is bor+1 mill+1 turn+1 or plan+1 z !y are all treat$ m a practical mann]4 ,fif? edition4 #cbj pages4 #bej illu/rations4 ,price #b4ej ,,! ,,:ole ,,field ,,( ,,me*anical ,,movem5ts ,,cov]$ ,,by ,,mr4 ,,hiscox',s ,,two ,,books ,we publi% two books by ,g>dn] ,d4 ,hiscox t w keep y f inv5t+ ?+s t h be5 done be=e1 & sugge/ ways ( do+ ?+s t y h n ?\ght ( be=e4 ,_m a man sp5ds "t & money pond]+ ov] "s me*anical problem1 only to le>n1 aft] he has solv$ ! problem1 t ! same ?+ has be5 accompli%$ & put 9 practice by o!rs long be=e4 ,"t & money sp5t 9 an ef=t to accompli% :at has already be5 accompli%$ are "t & money ,,lo/4 ,! :ole field ( me*anics1 e kn[n me*anical movem5t1 & practically e device are cov]$ by ^! two books4 ,if ! ?+ y want has be5 inv5t$1 x is illu/rat$ 9 !m4 ,if x hasn't be5 inv5t$1 !n y'll f9d 9 !m ! ne>e/ ?+s to :at y want1 "s movem5ts or devices t w apply 9 y\r case1 p]haps2 or :i* w give y a key f :i* to "w4 ,no book or set ( books ev] publi%$ is ( m real value to ! ,inv5tor1 ,draftsman1 or practical ,me*anic ?an ! two volumes describ$ bel[4 ,me*anical ,movem5ts1 ,p[]s1 & ,devices4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,?is is a collection ( #a1hij engrav+s ( diff]5t me*anical motions & appliances1 accompani$ by appropriate text1 mak+ x a book ( great value to ! inv5tor1 ! draftsman1 & to all read]s ) me*anical ta/es4 ,! book is divid$ into eighte5 sections or *apt]s1 9 :i* ! subject-matt] is classifi$ "u ! foll[+ heads3 ,me*anical ,p[]s2 ,transmission ( ,p[]2 ,measurem5t ( ,p[]2 ,/eam ,p[]2 ,air ,p[] ,appliances2 ,electric ,p[] & ,con/ruction2 ,navigation & ,roads2 ,ge>+2 ,motion & ,devices2 ,controll+ ,motion2 ,horological2 ,m9+2 ,mill & ,factory ,appliances2 ,con/ruction & ,devices2 ,draft+ ,devices2 ,miscellane\s ,devices1 etc4 #ae? ,edition4 #djj octavo pages4 ,price #c4jj ,me*anical ,appliances1 ,me*anical ,movem5ts & ,novelties ( ,con/ruction4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,?is is a supplem5t>y volume to ! "o ^u me*anical movem5ts4 ,unlike ! fir/ volume1 :i* is m elem5t>y 9 "*1 ?is volume conta9s illu/rations & descriptions ( _m comb9ations ( motions & ( me*anical devices & appliances f\nd 9 diff]5t l9es ( ma*9]y1 ea* device be+ %[n by a l9e draw+ ) a description %[+ its work+ p>ts & ! me?od ( op]ation4 ,f ! multitude ( devices describ$ & illu/rat$ might be m5tion$1 9 pass+1 su* items z conveyors & elevators1 ,pony brakes1 !rmomet]s1 v>i\s types ( boil]s1 sol> eng9es1 oil-fuel burn]s1 cond5s]s1 evaporators1 ,corliss & o!r valve ge>s1 gov]nors1 gas eng9es1 wat] motors ( v>i\s descriptions1 air %ips1 motors & dynamos1 automobile & motor bicycles1 railway lock signals1 c> c\pl]s1 l9k & ge> motions1 ball be>+s1 bree*-block me*anism = heavy guns1 & a l>ge accumulation ( o!rs ( equal importance4 ,"o ?\s& specially made engrav+s4 #cif octavo pages4 ,f\r? edition4 ,price #c4jj ,ma*9e-,%op ,tools & ,%op ,practice4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,v&]voort4 ,a "w ( #eee pages & #fgc illu/rations1 describ+ 9 e detail ! con/ruction1 op]ation & manipulation ( bo? h& & ma*9e tools4 ,includes *apt]s on fil+1 fitt+ & scrap+ surfaces2 on drills1 ream]s1 taps & dies2 ! la! & its tools3 plan]s1 %ap]s1 & _! tools2 mill+ ma*9es & cutt]s2 ge> cutt]s & ge> cutt+2 drill+ ma*9es & drill "w2 gr9d+ ma*9es & _! "w2 h>d5+ & temp]+2 ge>+1 belt+ & transmission ma*9]y2 useful data & tables4 ,six? edition4 ,price #c4jj ,ma*9e-,%op ,ari?metic4 ,by ,,colv9-,,*5ey4 ,?is is an ari?metic ( ! ?+s y h to d ) daily4 ,x tells y pla9ly ab\t3 h[ to f9d areas 9 figures2 h[ to f9d surface or volume ( balls or sph]es2 h&y ways = calculat+2 ab\t comp\nd ge>+2 cutt+ screw ?reads on any la!2 drill+ = taps2 spe$s ( drills2 taps1 em]y :eels1 gr9d/ones1 mill+ cutt]s1 etc42 all ab\t ! ,metric sy/em ) conv]sion tables2 prop]ties ( metals2 /r5g? ( bolts & nuts2 decimal equival5t ( an in*4 ,all sorts ( ma*9e-%op figur+ & #a1jja o!r ?+s1 any "o ( :i* ought to be wor? m ?an ! price ( ?is book to y1 z x saves y ! tr\ble ( bo!r+ ! boss4 #f? ,edition4 #aca pages4 ,price #ej c5ts ,mod]n ,ma*9e-,%op ,con/ruction1 ,equipm5t & ,managem5t4 ,by ,,osc> ,e4 ,,p]rigo4 ,! only "w publi%$ t describes ! ,mod]n ,%op or ,manufactur+ ,plant f ! "t ! grass is gr[+ on ! site int5d$ = x until ! f9i%$ product is %ipp$4 ,j ! book ne$$ by ^? contemplat+ ! erection ( mod]n %op build+s1 ! rebuild+ & reorganization ( old ones1 or ! introduction ( ,mod]n ,%op ,me?ods1 "t & co/ sy/ems4 ,x is a book writt5 & illu/rat$ by a practical %op man = practical %op m5 :o are too busy to read !ories & want facts4 ,x is ! mo/ complete all-r\nd book ( its k9d ev] publi%$4 ,second ,edition1 ,revis$4 #chd l>ge qu>to pages4 #bai orig9al & specially made illu/rations4 #bnd ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 ,price #e4jj ,mod]n ,mill+ ,ma*9es3 ,_! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 & ,op]ation4 ,by ,,joseph ,g4 ,,horn]4 ,?is book describes & illu/rates ! ,mill+ ,ma*9e & its "w 9 su* a pla91 cle> & =ceful mann]1 & illu/rates ! subject s cle>ly & completely1 t ! up-to-date ma*9i/1 /ud5t or me*anical eng9e] _c af=d to d )\t ! valuable in=mation :i* x conta9s4 ,x describes n only ! e>ly ma*9es ( ?is class1 b notes _! gradual developm5t into ! spl5did ma*9es ( ! pres5t day1 giv+ ! design & con/ruction ( ! v>i\s types1 =ms1 & special features produc$ by prom95t manufactur]s1 ,am]ican & =eign4 #cjd pages1 #cjj illu/rations4 ,clo?4 ,price #d4jj ,%op ,k9ks4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,grim%aw4 ,a book ( #djj pages & #bbb illu/rations1 be+ entirely diff]5t f any o!r book on ma*9e-%op practice4 ,dep>t+ f conv5tional /yle1 ! au?or avoids univ]sal or common %op usage & limits 8 "w to %[+ special ways ( do+ ?+s bett]1 m *eaply & m rapidly ?an usual4 ,z a result ! advanc$ me?ods ( repres5tative e/abli%m5ts ( ! _w are plac$ at ! disposal ( ! read]4 ,?is book %[s ! proprietor :]e l>ge sav+s are possible1 & h[ products may be improv$4 ,to ! employee x holds out sugge/ions t1 prop]ly appli$1 w ha/5 8 advancem5t4 ,no %op c af=d to be )\t x4 ,x bri/les ) valuable wr9kles & helpful sugge/ions4 ,x w b5efit all1 f appr5tice to proprietor4 ,e ma*9i/1 at any age1 %\ld /udy its pages4 ,fif? edition4 ,price #b4ej ,?reads & ,?read ,cutt+4 ,by ,,colv9 & ,,/abel4 ,?is cle>s up _m ( ! my/]ies ( ?read-cutt+1 su* z d\ble & triple ?reads1 int]nal ?reads1 cat*+ ?reads1 use ( hobs1 etc4 ,conta9s a lot ( useful h9ts & sev]al tables4 ,?ird edition4 ,price #be c5ts ,,manual ,,tra9+ ,economics ( ,manual ,tra9+4 ,by ,,l\is ,,r\illion4 ,! only book publi%$ t gives j ! in=mation ne$$ by all int]e/$ 9 ,manual ,tra9+1 reg>d+ ,build+s1 ,equipm5t1 & ,supplies4 ,%[s exactly :at is ne$$ = all grades ( ! "w f ! ,k9d]g>t5 to ! ,high & ,normal ,s*ool4 ,gives itemiz$ li/s ( ev]y?+ us$ 9 ,manual ,tra9+ ,"w & tells j :at x ought to co/4 ,also %[s :]e to buy supplies1 etc4 ,conta9s #agd pages1 & is fully illu/rat$4 ,second edition4 ,price #a4ej ,,m>9e ,,eng9e]+ ,! ,naval ,ar*itect's & ,%ipbuild]'s ,pocket ,book ( ,=mulae1 ,rules1 & ,tables & ,m>9e ,eng9e]'s & ,surveyor's ,h&y ,book ( ,ref]5ce4 ,by ,,clem5t ,,mackr[ & ,,lloyd ,,wooll>d4 ,! elev5? ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition ( ?is mo/ compreh5sive "w has j be5 issu$4 ,x is absolutely indisp5sable to all engag$ 9 ! ,%ipbuild+ ,indu/ry1 z x cond5ses into a compact =m all data & =mulae t are ord9>ily requir$4 ,! book is completely up to date1 includ+ among o!r subjects a section on ,a]onautics4 #gej pages1 limp lea!r b9d+4 ,price #e4jj net ,m>9e ,eng9es & ,boil]s3 ,_! ,design & ,con/ruction4 ,by ,,dr4 ,g4 ,,bau]1 ,,leslie ,s4 ,,rob]tson & ,s4 ,,bryan ,,donk94 ,9 ! words ( ,dr4 ,bau]1 ! pres5t "w owes its orig9 to an (t felt want ( a cond5s$ treatise embody+ ! !oretical & practical rules us$ 9 design+ m>9e eng9es & boil]s4 ,! ne$ ( su* a "w has be5 felt by mo/ eng9e]s engag$ 9 ! con/ruction & work+ ( m>9e eng9es1 n only by ! y\ng] m51 b also by ^? ( great] exp]i5ce4 ,! fact t ! orig9al ,g]man "w 0 writt5 by ! *ief eng9e] ( ! fam\s ,vulcan ,works1 ,/ett91 is 9 itself a gu>antee t ?is book is 9 all respects ?or\ghly up-to-date1 & t x embodies all ! in=mation :i* is necess>y = ! design & con/ruction ( ! highe/ types ( m>9e eng9es & boil]s4 ,x may be said t ! motive p[] :i* ,dr4 ,bau] has plac$ 9 ! fa/ ,g]man l9]s t h be5 turn$ out ( late ye>s f ! ,/ett9 ,works repres5t ! v be/ practice 9 m>9e eng9e]+ ( ! pres5t day4 ,! "w is cle>ly writt51 ?or\ghly sy/ematic1 !oretically s\nd2 :ile ! "* ( ! plans1 draw+s1 tables1 & /ati/ics is )\t reproa*4 ,! illu/rations are c>eful reproductions f actual work+ draw+s1 ) "s well-execut$ photographic views ( complet$ eng9es & boil]s4 #gdd pages1 #eej illu/rations & num]\s tables4 ,clo?4 ,price #i4jj net ,,m9+ ,ore ,deposits1 ) a ,*apt] on ,h9ts to ,prospectors4 ,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,johnson4 ,?is book gives a cond5s$ acc\nt ( ! ore deposits at pres5t kn[n 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,x is also int5d$ z a guide to ! prospector4 ,only an elem5t>y k ( geology & "s m9+ exp]i5ce are necess>y 9 ord] to und]/& ?is "w4 ,) ^! qualifications1 x w mat]ially assi/ "o 9 8 se>* = metallif]\s m9]al occurr5ces &1 s f> z simple ores are conc]n$1 %\ld enable "o to =m "s idea ( ! possibilities ( any he may f9d4 ,illu/rat$4 ,clo?4 ,price #b4jj ,practical ,coal ,m9+4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,,cock94 ,an important "w1 conta9+ #dbh pages & #bac illu/rations1 complete ) practical details1 :i* w intuitively imp>t to ! read] n only a g5]al k ( ! pr9ciples ( coal m9+1 b also consid]able insight into alli$ subjects4 ,! treatise is positively up-to-date 9 e in/ance1 & %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( e colli]y eng9e]1 geologi/1 m9e op]ator1 sup]9t5d5t1 =eman1 & all o!rs :o are int]e/$ 9 or connect$ ) ! indu/ry4 #c;d ,edition4 ,clo?4 ,price #b4ej ,physics & ,*emi/ry ( ,m9+4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,,byrom4 ,a practical "w = ! use ( all prep>+ = exam9ations 9 m9+ or qualify+ = colli]y manag]s' c]tificates4 ,! aim ( ! au?or 9 ?is excell5t book is to place cle>ly be=e ! read] useful & au?oritative data :i* w r5d] him valuable assi/ance 9 8 /udies4 ,! only "w ( its k9d publi%$4 ,! in=mation incorporat$ 9 x w prove ( ! greate/ practical utility to /ud5ts1 m9+ eng9e]s1 colli]y manag]s1 & all o!rs :o are specially int]e/$ 9 ! pres5t-day treatm5t ( m9+ problems4 #afj pages1 illu/rat$4 ,price #b4jj ,,patt]n ,,mak+ ,practical ,patt]n ,mak+4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,b>r[s4 ,?is book1 n[ 9 its second edition1 is a compreh5sive & entirely practical treatise on ! subject ( patt]n mak+1 illu/rat+ patt]n "w 9 bo? wood & metal1 & ) def9ite in/ructions on ! use ( pla/] ( p>is 9 ! trade4 ,x gives specific & detail$ descriptions ( ! mat]ials us$ by patt]n mak]s1 & describes ! tools1 bo? ^? = ! b5* & ! m int]e/+ ma*9e tools1 hav+ complete *apt]s on ! ,la!1 ! ,circul> ,saw1 & ! ,b& ,saw4 ,x gives _m examples ( patt]n "w1 ea* "o fully illu/rat$ & expla9$ ) mu* detail4 ,^! examples1 9 _! great v>iety1 (f] mu* t w be f\nd ( int]e/ to all patt]n mak]s1 & especially to ! y\ng] ones1 :o are seek+ in=mation on ! m advanc$ bran*es ( _! trade4 ,9 ?is second edition ( ! "w w be f\nd mu* t is new1 ev5 to ^? :o h long practis$ ?is exact+ trade4 ,9 ! description ( patt]ns z adapt$ to ! ,m\ld+ ,ma*9e _m difficulties :i* h long prev5t$ ! rapid & economical production ( ca/+s are ov]come2 & ?is great1 new bran* ( ! trade is giv5 mu* space4 ,/ripp+ plate & /ool plate "w & ! less exp5sive vibrator1 or rapp+ plate "w1 are all expla9$ 9 detail4 ,pla91 e-day rules = less5+ ! co/ ( patt]ns1 ) a complete sy/em ( co/ keep+1 a detail$ me?od ( m>k+1 applicable to all bran*es ( ! trade1 ) complete in=mation %[+ :at ! patt]n is1 its specific title1 its co/1 date ( production1 mat]ial ( :i* x is made1 ! numb] ( pieces & core-boxes1 & its location 9 ! patt]n safe1 all cond5s$ into a mo/ complete c>d record1 ) cross index4 ,! book closes ) an orig9al & practical me?od = ! inv5tory & valuation ( patt]ns4 ,conta9+ ne>ly #cej pages & #agj illu/rations4 ,price #b4jj ,,p]fum]y ,p]fumes & ,cosmetics3 ,_! ,prep>ation & ,manufacture4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,ask9son1 ,p]fum]4 ,a compreh5sive treatise1 9 :i* !re has be5 no?+ omitt$ t c\ld be ( value to ! p]fum] or manufactur] ( toilet prep>ations4 ,complete directions = mak+ h&k]*ief p]fumes1 smell+-salts1 sa*ets1 fumigat+ pa/illes2 prep>ations = ! c>e ( ! sk91 ! m\?1 ! hair1 cosmetics1 hair dyes & o!r toilet articles are giv51 also a detail$ description ( aromatic sub/ances2 _! nature1 te/s ( purity1 & :olesome manufacture1 includ+ a *apt] on syn!tic products1 ) =mulas = _! use4 ,a book ( g5]al z well z pr(essional int]e/1 meet+ ! wants n only ( ! druggi/ & p]fume manufactur]1 b also ( ! g5]al public4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 #a4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,p]fum]y4 #b4 ,ab\t ,aromatic ,sub/ances 9 ,g5]al4 #c4 ,odors f ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 #d4 ,! ,aromatic ,vegetable ,sub/ances ,employ$ 9 ,p]fum]y4 #e4 ,! ,animal ,sub/ances ,us$ 9 ,p]fum]y4 #f4 ,! ,*emical ,products ,us$ 9 ,p]fum]y4 #g4 ,! ,extraction ( ,odors4 #h4 ,! ,special ,*>act]i/ics ( ,aromatic ,sub/ances4 #i ,! ,adult]ation ( ,ess5tial ,oils & ,_! ,recognition4 #aj4 ,syn!tic ,products4 #aa4 ,table ( ,physical ,prop]ties ( ,aromatic ,*emicals4 #ab4 ,! ,ess5ces or ,extracts ,employ$ 9 ,p]fum]y4 #ac4 ,directions = ,mak+ ! ,mo/ ,important ,ess5ces & ,extracts4 #ad4 ,! ,division ( ,p]fum]y4 #ae4 ,! ,manufacture ( ,h&k]*ief ,p]fumes4 #af4 ,=mulas = ,h&k]*ief ,p]fumes4 #ag4 ,ammoniacal & ,acid ,p]fumes4 #ah4 ,dry ,p]fumes4 #ai4 ,=mulas = ,dry ,p]fumes4 #bj4 ,! ,p]fumes ,us$ = ,fumigation4 #ba4 ,antiseptic & ,!rapeutic ,value ( ,p]fumes4 #bb4 ,classification ( ,odors4 #bc4 ,"s ,special ,p]fum]y ,products4 #bd4 ,hygi5e & ,cosmetic ,p]fum]y4 #be4 ,prep>ations = ! ,c>e ( ! ,sk94 #bf4 ,manufacture ( ,case94 #bg4 ,=mulas = ,emulsions4 #bh4 ,=mulas = ,cream4 #bi4 ,=mulas = ,meals1 ,pa/es & ,vegetable ,milk4 #cj4 ,prep>ations ,us$ = ! ,hair4 #ca4 ,=mulas = ,hair ,tonics & ,re/or]s4 #cb4 ,pomades & ,hair ,oils #cc4 ,=mulas = ! ,manufacture ( ,pomades & ,hair ,oils4 #cd4 ,hair ,dyes & ,depilatories4 #ce4 ,wax ,pomades1 ,b&ol9es & ,brilliant9es4 #cf4 ,sk9 ,cosmetics & ,face ,lotions4 #cg4 ,prep>ations = ! ,nails4 #ch4 ,wat] ,s(t5]s & ,ba? ,salts4 #ci4 ,prep>ations = ! ,c>e ( ! ,m\?4 #dj4 ,! ,colors ,us$ 9 ,p]fum]y4 #da4 ,! ,ut5sils ,us$ 9 ! ,toilet4 ,f\r? edition1 mu* enl>g$ & br\ght up to date4 ,ne>ly #djj pages1 illu/rat$4 ,price #e4jj ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,! mo/ satisfactory "w on ! subject ( ,p]fum]y t we h ev] se54 ,we feel safe 9 say+ t "h is a book on ,p]fum]y t w n disappo9t y1 = x has practical & excell5t =mulae t are )9 y\r ability to prep>e readily4 ,we recomm5d ! volume z wor?y ( confid5ce1 & say t no pur*as] w be disappo9t$ 9 secur+ f its pages good value = its co/1 & a l>ge divid5d on ! same1 ev5 if he %\ld use b "o p] c5t4 ( its work+ =mulae4 ,!re is money 9 x = e us] ( its in=mation4--,ph>maceutical ,record4 ,,plumb+ ,me*anical ,draw+ = ,plumb]s4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,,/>buck4 ,a concise1 compreh5sive & practical treatise on ! subject ( me*anical draw+ 9 its v>i\s mod]n applications to ! "w ( all :o are 9 any way connect$ ) ! plumb+ trade4 ,no?+ w s help ! plumb] 9 e/imat+ & 9 expla9+ "w to cu/om]s & workm5 z a k ( draw+1 & to ! workman x is ( ine/imable value if he is to rise above 8 position to positions ( great] responsibility4 ,among ! *apt]s conta9$ are3 #a4 ,value to plumb] ( k ( draw+2 tools requir$ & _! use2 common views ne$$ 9 me*anical draw+4 #b4 ,p]spective v]sus me*anical draw+ 9 %[+ plumb+ con/ruction4 #c4 ,correct & incorrect me?ods 9 plumb+ draw+2 plan & elevation expla9$4 #d4 ,floor & cell> plans & elevation2 scale draw+s2 use ( triangles4 #e4 ,use ( triangles2 draw+ ( fitt+s1 traps1 etc4 #f4 ,draw+ plumb+ elevations & fitt+s4 #g4 ,in/ructions 9 draw+ plumb+ elevations4 #h4 ,! draw+ ( plumb+ fixtures2 scale draw+s4 #i4 ,draw+s ( fixtures & fitt+s4 #aj4 ,ink+ ( draw+s4 #aa4 ,%ad+ ( draw+s4 #ab4 ,%ad+ ( draw+s4 #ac4 ,sectional draw+s2 draw+ ( ?reads4 #ad4 ,plumb+ elevations f ar*itect's plan4 #ae4 ,elevations ( sep>ate p>ts ( ! plumb+ sy/em4 #af4 ,elevations f ! ar*itect's plans4 #ag4 ,draw+s ( detail plumb+ connections4 #ah4 ,ar*itect's plans & plumb+ elevations ( resid5ce4 #ai4 ,plumb+ elevations ( resid5ce 7cont9u$72 plumb+ plans = cottage4 #bj4 ,plumb+ elevations2 ro( connections4 #ba4 ,plans & plumb+ elevations = six-flat build+4 #bb4 ,draw+ ( v>i\s p>ts ( ! plumb+ sy/em2 use ( scales4 #bc4 ,use ( ar*itect's scales4 #bd4 ,special features 9 ! illu/rations ( c\ntry plumb+4 #be4 ,draw+ ( wr\ght-iron pip+1 valves1 radiators1 coils1 etc4 #bf4 ,draw+ ( pip+ to illu/rate heat+ sy/ems4 #aej illu/rations4 ,price #a4ej ,mod]n ,plumb+ ,illu/rat$4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,,/>buck4 ,?is book repres5ts ! highe/ /&>d ( plumb+ "w4 ,x has be5 adopt$ & us$ z a ref]5ce book by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t 9 its sanit>y "w 9 ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico & ! ,philipp9es1 & by ! pr9cipal ,bo>ds ( ,heal? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,x gives connections1 sizes & work+ data = all fixtures & gr\ps ( fixtures4 ,x is helpful to ! ma/] plumb] 9 demon/rat+ to 8 cu/om]s & 9 figur+ "w4 ,x gives ! me*anic & /ud5t quick & easy access to ! be/ mod]n plumb+ practice4 ,sugge/ions = e/imat+ plumb+ con/ruction are conta9$ 9 its pages4 ,?is book repres5ts1 9 a ^w1 ! late/ & be/ up-to-date practice & %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( e ar*itect1 sanit>y eng9e] & plumb] :o wi%es to keep himself up to ! m9ute on ?is important feature ( con/ruction4 ,conta9s foll[+ *apt]s1 ea* illu/rat$ ) a full-page plate3 ,kit*5 s9k1 laundry tubs1 vegetable wa% s9k2 lavatories1 pantry s9ks1 cont5ts ( m>ble slabs2 ba? tub1 foot & sitz ba?1 %[] ba?2 wat] closets1 v5t+ ( wat] closets2 l[-d[n wat] closets1 wat] closets op]at$ by flu% valves1 wat] closet range2 slop s9k1 ur9als1 ! bidet2 hotel & re/aurant s9k1 grease trap2 refrig]ators1 safe wa/es1 laundry wa/e1 l9es ( refrig]ators1 b> s9ks1 soda f\nta9 s9ks2 horse /all1 fro/-pro( wat] closets2 connections = ,s traps1 v5t+2 connections = drum traps2 soil-pipe connections2 support+ ( soil pipe2 ma9 trap & fre%-air inlet3 floor dra9s & cell> dra9s1 subsoil dra9age2 wat] closets & floor connections2 local v5t+2 connections = ba? rooms2 connections = ba? rooms1 cont9u$2 examples ( poor practice2 r\gh+ "w ready = te/2 te/+ ( plumb+ sy/ems2 me?od ( cont9u\s v5t+2 cont9u\s v5t+ = two-floor "w2 cont9u\s v5t+ = two l9es ( fixtures on ?ree or m floors2 cont9u\s v5t+ ( wat] closets2 plumb+ = cottage h\se2 con/ruction = cell> pip+2 plumb+ = resid5ce1 use ( special fitt+s2 plumb+ = two-flat h\se3 plumb+ = ap>tm5t build+1 plumb+ = d\ble ap>tm5t build+2 plumb+ = (fice build+2 plumb+ = public toilet rooms2 plumb+ = public toilet rooms1 cont9u$2 plumb+ = ba? e/abli%m5t2 plumb+ = eng9e h\se1 factory plumb+1 automatic flu%+ = s*ools1 factories1 etc42 use ( flu%+ valves2 ur9als = public toilet rooms2 ! ,durham sy/em1 ! de/ruction ( pipes by electrolysis2 con/ruction ( "w )\t use ( lead2 automatic sewage lift2 automatic sump tank2 c\ntry plumb+2 con/ruction ( cesspools2 septic tank & automatic sewage siphon2 wat] supply = c\ntry h\se2 ?aw+ ( wat] ma9s & s]vice by electricity2 d\ble boil]s2 hot wat] supply ( l>ge build+s2 automatic control ( hot-wat] tank2 sugge/ions = e/imat+ plumb+ con/ruction4 #djg octavo pages1 fully illu/rat$ by #eg full-page engrav+s4 ,?ird1 revis$ & enl>g$ edition1 j issu$4 ,price #d4jj ,/&>d ,practical ,plumb+4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,,/>buck4 ,a complete practical treatise ( #dej pages1 cov]+ ! subject ( ,mod]n ,plumb+ 9 all its bran*es1 a l>ge am\nt ( space be+ devot$ to a v complete & practical treatm5t ( ! subject ( ,hot ,wat] ,supply & ,circulation & ,range ,boil] ,"w4 ,its ?irty *apt]s include ab\t e phase ( ! subject "o c ?9k (1 mak+ x an indisp5sable "w to ! ma/] plumb]1 ! j\rneyman plumb]1 & ! appr5tice plumb]1 conta9+ *apt]s on3 ! plumb]'s tools2 wip+ sold]2 composition & use2 jo9t wip+2 lead "w2 traps2 siphonage ( traps2 v5t+2 cont9u\s v5t+2 h\se sew] & sew] connections2 h\se dra92 soil pip+1 r\gh+2 ma9 trap & fre% air inlet2 floor1 y>d1 cell> dra9s1 ra9 lead]s1 etc42 fixture wa/es2 wat] closets2 v5tilation2 improv$ plumb+ connections2 resid5ce plumb+2 plumb+ = hotels1 s*ools1 factories1 /ables1 etc42 mod]n c\ntry plumb+2 filtration ( sewage & wat] supply2 hot & cold supply2 range boil]s2 circulation2 circulat+ pipes2 range boil] problems2 hot wat] = l>ge build+s2 wat] lift & its use2 multiple connections = hot wat] boil]s2 heat+ ( radiation by supply sy/em2 !ory = ! plumb]2 draw+ = ! plumb]4 ,fully illu/rat$ by #cdg engrav+s4 ,price #c4jj ,,recipe ,,book ,h5ley's ,tw5tie? ,c5tury ,book ( ,recipes1 ,=mulas & ,processes4 ,edit$ by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,! mo/ valuable ,te*no-*emical ,=mula ,book publi%$1 includ+ ov] #aj1jjj select$ sci5tific1 *emical1 te*nological1 & practical recipes & processes4 ,?is is ! mo/ complete ,book ( ,=mulas ev] publi%$1 giv+ ?\s&s ( recipes = ! manufacture ( valuable articles = ev]yday use4 ,h9ts1 ,helps1 ,practical ,ideas1 & ,secret ,processes are reveal$ )9 its pages4 ,x cov]s e bran* ( ! useful arts & tells ?\s&s ( ways ( mak+ money1 & is j ! book ev]yone %\ld h at 8 comm&4 ,mod]n 9 its treatm5t ( e subject t prop]ly falls )9 its scope1 ! book may tru?fully be said to pres5t ! v late/ =mulas to be f\nd 9 ! arts & indu/ries1 & to reta9 ^? processes :i* long exp]i5ce has prov5 wor?y ( a p]man5t record4 ,to pres5t "h ev5 a limit$ numb] ( ! subjects :i* f9d a place 9 ?is valuable "w w\ld be difficult4 ,suffice to say t 9 its pages w be f\nd matt] ( int5se int]e/ & immeasurably practical value to ! sci5tific amateur & to him :o wi%es to obta9 a k ( ! _m processes us$ 9 ! arts1 trades & manufacture1 a k :i* w r5d] 8 pursuits m in/ructive & remun]ative4 ,s]v+ z a ref]5ce book to ! small & l>ge manufactur] & supply+ intellig5t seek]s ) ! in=mation necess>y to conduct a process1 ! "w w be f\nd ( ine/imable wor? to ! ,metallurgi/1 ! ,photograph]1 ! ,p]fum]1 ! ,pa9t]1 ! ,manufactur] ( ,glues1 ,pa/es1 ,cem5ts1 & ,mucilages1 ! ,comp\nd] ( ,alloys1 ! ,cook1 ! ,physician1 ! ,druggi/1 ! ,electrician1 ! ,brew]1 ! ,eng9e]1 ! ,f\ndryman1 ! ,ma*9i/1 ! ,pott]1 ! ,tann]1 ! ,confection]1 ! ,*iropodi/1 ! ,manicuri/1 ! ,manufactur] ( ,*emical ,novelties & ,toilet ,prep>ations1 ! ,dy]1 ! ,electroplat]1 ! ,enamel]1 ! ,hat ,mak]1 ! ,ink ,manufactur]1 ! ,optician1 ! ,f>m]1 ! ,dairyman1 ! ,pap] ,mak]1 ! ,wood & ,metal ,work]1 ! ,*&l] & ,soap ,mak]1 ! ,vet]9>y ,surgeon1 & ! ,te*nologi/ 9 g5]al4 ,a m9e ( in=mation1 & up-to-date 9 e respect4 ,a book :i* w prove ( value to ,,ev]yone1 z x cov]s e bran* ( ! ,useful ,arts4 ,e home ne$s ?is book2 e (fice1 e factory1 e /ore1 e public & private ent]prise--,,ev]y:]e--%\ld h a copy4 #hjj pages4 ,price #c4jj ,,:at ,,is ,,said ,,( ,,?is ,,book3 ,y\r ,tw5tie? ,c5tury ,book ( ,recipes1 ,=mulas1 & ,processes duly receiv$4 ,i am glad to h a copy ( x1 & if ,i c\ld n replace x1 money c\ldn't buy x4 ,x is ! be/ ?+ ( ! sort ,i ev] saw4 7,sign$7 ,m4 ,e4 ,,trux1 ,sp>ta1 ,wis4 ,!re are few p]sons :o w\ld n be able to f9d 9 ! book "s s+le =mula t w\ld repay sev]al times ! co/ ( ! book4--,m]*ants' ,record & ,%[ ,w9d[4 ,i pur*as$ y\r book1 ',h5ley's ,tw5tie? ,c5tury ,book ( ,recipes1 ,=mulas & ,processes1' ab\t a ye> ago & x is wor? its weight 9 gold4--,,wm4 ,h4 ,,murray1 ,b5n+ton1 ,vt4 ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,_w',s ,,mo/ ,,useful ,,books ,"s "t ago ,i got "o ( y\r ',tw5tie? ,c5tury ,books ( ,=mulas1' & h made my liv+ f x ev] s9ce4 ,i am alone s9ce my husb&'s dea? ) two small *ildr5 to c>e = & am try+ s h>d to support !m4 ,i h cu/om]s :o take f me ,toilet ,articles ,i put up1 foll[+ directions giv5 9 ! book1 & ,i h f\nd ev]yone ( !m to be f9e4--,,mrs4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,mcmak51 ,we/ ,tol$o1 ,ohio4 ,,rubb] ,rubb] ,h& ,/amps & ! ,manipulation ( ,india ,rubb]4 ,,by ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane4 ,?is book gives full details on all po9ts1 treat+ 9 a concise & simple mann] ! elem5ts ( ne>ly ev]y?+ x is necess>y to und]/& = a comm5cem5t 9 any bran* ( ! ,india ,rubb] ,manufacture4 ,! mak+ ( all k9ds ( ,rubb] ,h& ,/amps1 ,small ,articles ( ,india ,rubb]1 ,u4 ,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,composition1 ,dat+ ,h& ,/amps1 ! ,manipulation ( ,%eet ,rubb]1 ,toy ,balloons1 ,india ,rubb] ,solutions1 ,cem5ts1 ,black+s1 ,r5ovat+1 ,v>ni%1 & ,treatm5t = ,india ,rubb] ,%oes1 etc42 ! ,hektograph ,/amp ,inks1 & ,miscellane\s ,notes1 ) a ,%ort ,acc\nt ( ! ,discov]y1 ,collection & ,manufacture ( ,india ,rubb]1 are set =? 9 a mann] design$ to be readily und]/ood1 ! explanations be+ pla9 & simple4 ,includ+ a *apt] on ,rubb] ,tire ,mak+ & ,vulcaniz+2 also a *apt] on ! uses ( rubb] 9 ,surg]y & ,d5ti/ry4 #crd ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 #age pages4 ,illu/rat$ #a4jj ,,saws ,saw ,fil+ & ,managem5t ( ,saws4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,grim%aw4 ,a practical h&-book on fil+1 gumm+1 swag+1 hamm]+1 & ! braz+ ( b& saws1 ! spe$1 "w1 & p[] to run circul> saws1 etc4 ,a h&y book = ^? :o h *>ge ( saws1 or = ^? me*anics :o d _! own fil+1 z x deals ) ! prop] %ape & pit*es ( saw tee? ( all k9ds & gives _m useful h9ts & rules = gumm+1 sett+1 & fil+1 & is a practical aid to ^? :o use saws = any purpose4 ,complete tables ( prop] %ape1 pit*1 & saw tee? z well z sizes & numb] ( tee? ( v>i\s saws are includ$4 #crd ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,,/eam ,,eng9e]+ ,am]ican ,/ation>y ,eng9e]+4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,,crane4 ,?is book beg9s at ! boil] room & takes 9 ! :ole p[] plant4 ,a pla9 talk on e-day "w ab\t eng9es1 boil]s1 & _! accessories4 ,x is n int5d$ to be sci5tific or ma!matical4 ,all =mulas are 9 simple =m s t any "o und]/&+ pla9 ari?metic c readily und]/& any ( !m4 ,! au?or has made ?is ! mo/ practical book 9 pr9t2 has giv5 ! results ( 8 ye>s ( exp]i5ce1 & has includ$ ab\t all t has to d ) an eng9e room or a p[] plant4 ,y are n left to guess at a s+le po9t4 ,y are %[n cle>ly :at to expect "u ! v>i\s conditions2 h[ to secure ! be/ results2 ways ( prev5t+ %ut d[ns & repairs2 9 %ort1 all t goes to make up ! requirem5ts ( a good eng9e]1 capable ( tak+ *>ge ( a plant4 ,x's pla9 en\gh = practical m5 & yet ( value to ^? high 9 ! pr(ession4 ,a p>tial li/ ( cont5ts is3 ,! boil] room1 clean+ boil]s1 fir+1 fe$+2 pumps1 inspection & repair2 *imneys1 sizes & co/2 pip+2 mason "w2 f\ndations2 te/+ cem5t2 pile driv+2 eng9es1 sl[ & high spe$2 valves2 valve sett+2 ,corliss eng9es1 sett+ valves1 s+le & d\ble ecc5tric2 air pumps & cond5s]s2 diff]5t types ( cond5s]s2 wat] ne$$2 l9+ up2 p\nds2 p9s n squ>e 9 cros%ead or crank2 eng9e]s' tools2 pi/ons & pi/on r+s2 be>+ metal2 h>d5$ copp]2 drip pipes f cyl9d] jacket2 belts1 h[ made1 c>e (2 oils2 greases2 te/+ lubricants2 rules & tables1 includ+ /eam tables2 areas ( segm5ts2 squ>es & squ>e roots2 cubes & cube root2 areas & circumf]5ces ( circles4 ,notes on3 ,brick "w2 explosions2 pumps2 pump valves2 heat]s1 economiz]s2 safety valves2 lap1 lead1 & cle>ance4 ,has a complete exam9ation = a lic5se1 etc41 etc4 #crd ,edition4 #cde pages1 illu/rat$4 ,price #b4jj ,eng9e ,runn]'s ,cate*ism4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,grim%aw4 ,a practical treatise = ! /ation>y eng9e]1 tell+ h[ to erect1 adju/1 & run ! pr9cipal /eam eng9es 9 use 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,describ+ ! pr9cipal features ( v>i\s special & well-kn[n makes ( eng9es3 ,temp] ,cut-(f1 ,%ipp+ & ,receiv+ ,f\ndations1 ,erect+ & ,/>t+1 ,valve ,sett+1 ,c>e & ,use1 ,em]g5cies1 ,erect+ & ,adju/+ ,special ,eng9es4 ,! que/ions ask$ ?r\gh\t ! cate*ism are pla9 & to ! po9t1 & ! answ]s are giv5 9 su* simple language z to be readily und]/ood by anyone4 ,all ! in/ructions giv5 are complete & up-to-date2 & !y are writt5 9 a popul> /yle1 )\t any te*nicalities or ma!matical =mulae4 ,! "w is ( a h&y size = ! pocket1 cle>ly & well pr9t$1 nicely b\nd1 & pr(usely illu/rat$4 ,to "y eng9e]s ?is cate*ism w be ( great value1 especially to ^? :o may be prep>+ to g =w>d to be exam9$ = c]tificates ( compet5cy2 & to eng9e]s g5]ally x w be ( no little s]vice1 z !y w f9d 9 ?is volume m really practical & useful in=mation ?an is to be f\nd any:]e else )9 a l compass4 #chg pages4 #g? ,edition4 ,price #b4jj ,mod]n ,/eam ,eng9e]+ 9 ,!ory & ,practice4 ,by ,,g>dn] ,d4 ,,hiscox4 ,?is is a complete & practical "w issu$ = ,/ation>y ,eng9e]s & ,firem51 deal+ ) ! c>e & managem5t ( boil]s1 eng9es1 pumps1 sup]heat$ /eam1 refrig]at+ ma*9]y1 dynamos1 motors1 elevators1 air compressors1 & all o!r bran*es ) :i* ! mod]n eng9e] mu/ be famili>4 ,ne>ly #bjj que/ions ) _! answ]s on /eam & electrical eng9e]+1 likely to be ask$ by ! ,exam9+ ,bo>d1 are includ$4 ,among ! *apt]s are3 ,hi/orical3 /eam & its prop]ties2 appliances = ! g5]ation ( /eam2 types ( boil]s2 *imney & its "w2 heat economy ( ! fe$ wat]2 /eam pumps & _! "w2 incru/ation & its "w2 /eam above atmosph]ic pressure2 fl[ ( /eam f nozzles2 sup]heat$ /eam & its "w2 adiabatic expansion ( /eam2 indicator & its "w2 /eam eng9e proportions2 slide valve eng9es & valve motion2 ,corliss eng9e & its valve ge>2 comp\nd eng9e & its !ory2 triple & multiple expansion eng9e2 /eam turb9e2 refrig]ation2 elevators & _! managem5t2 co/ ( p[]2 /eam eng9e tr\bles2 electric p[] & electric plants4 #dhg pages1 #dje engrav+s4 #crd ,edition4 ,price #c4jj ,/eam ,eng9e ,cate*ism4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,grim%aw4 ,?is unique volume ( #dac pages is n only a cate*ism on ! "q & answ] pr9ciple b x conta9s =mulas & work$-out answ]s = all ! ,/eam problems t app]ta9 to op]ation & managem5t ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e4 ,illu/rations ( v>i\s valves & valve ge> ) _! pr9ciples ( op]ation are giv54 ,?irty-f\r ,tables t are indisp5sable to e eng9e] & fireman t wi%es to be progressive & is ambiti\s to become ma/] ( 8 call+ are )9 its pages4 ,x is a mo/ valuable in/ructor 9 ! s]vice ( ,/eam ,eng9e]+4 ,lead+ eng9e]s h recomm5d$ x z a valuable educator = ! beg9n] z well z a ref]5ce book = ! eng9e]4 ,x is ?or\ghly index$ = e detail4 ,e ess5tial "q on ! ,/eam ,eng9e ) its answ] is conta9$ 9 ?is valuable "w4 #af? ,edition4 ,price #b4jj ,/eam ,eng9e]'s ,ari?metic4 ,by ,,colv9-,,*5ey4 ,a practical pocket-book = ! /eam eng9e]4 ,%[s h[ to "w ! problems ( ! eng9e room & %[s :y4 ,tells h[ to figure horsep[] ( eng9es & boil]s2 area ( boil]s2 has tables ( areas & circumf]5ces2 /eam tables2 has a diction>y ( eng9e]+ t]ms4 ,puts y on to all ( ! little k9ks 9 figur+ :atev] !re is to figure ar\nd a p[] plant4 ,tells y ab\t ! heat unit2 absolute z]o2 adiabatic expansion2 duty ( eng9es2 factor ( safety2 & a ?\s& & "o o!r ?+s2 & ev]y?+ is pla9 & simple--n ! h>de/ way to figure1 b ! easie/4 #bnd ,edition4 ,price #ej ,c5ts ,eng9e ,te/s & ,boil] ,effici5cies4 ,by ,j4 ,,bu*etti4 ,?is "w fully describes & illu/rates ! me?od ( te/+ ! p[] ( /eam eng9es1 turb9es & explosive motors4 ,! prop]ties ( /eam & ! evaporative p[] ( fuels4 ,combu/ion ( fuel & *imney draft2 ) =mulas expla9$ or practically comput$4 #bee pages1 #agi illu/rations4 ,price #c4jj ,horsep[] ,*>t4 ,%[s ! horsep[] ( any /ation>y eng9e )\t calculation4 ,no matt] :at ! cyl9d] diamet] ( /roke1 ! /eam pressure ( cut-(f1 ! revolutions1 or :e!r cond5s+ or non-cond5s+1 x's all !re4 ,easy to use4 accurate1 & saves "t & calculations4 ,especially useful to eng9e]s & design]s4 ,price #ej ,c5ts ,,/eam ,,heat+ ,,& ,,v5tilation ,practical ,/eam1 ,hot-,wat] ,heat+ & ,v5tilation4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,,k+4 ,?is book is ! /&>d & late/ "w publi%$ on ! subject & has be5 prep>$ = ! use ( all engag$ 9 ! bus9ess ( /eam1 hot-wat] heat+1 & v5tilation4 ,x is an orig9al & exhau/ive "w4 ,tells h[ to get heat+ contracts1 h[ to in/all heat+ & v5tilat+ app>atus1 ! be/ bus9ess me?ods to be us$1 ) ,tricks ( ! ,trade = %op use4 ,rules & data = e/imat+ radiation & co/ & su* tables & in=mation z make x an indisp5sable "w = ev]yone int]e/$ 9 /eam1 hot-wat] heat+1 & v5tilation4 ,x describes all ! pr9cipal sy/ems ( /eam1 hot-wat]1 vacuum1 vapor1 & vacuum-vapor heat+1 toge!r ) ! new accel]at$ sy/ems ( hot-wat] circulation1 includ+ *apt]s on up-to-date me?ods ( v5tilation & ! fan or bl[] sy/em ( heat+ & v5tilation4 ,conta9+ *apt]s on3 ,i4 ,introduction4 ,,ii4 ,heat4 ,,iii4 ,evolution ( artificial heat+ app>atus4 ,,iv4 ,boil] surface & sett+s4 ,v4 ,! *imney flue4 ,,vi4 ,pipe & fitt+s4 ,,vii4 ,valves1 v>i\s k9ds4 ,,viii4 ,=ms ( radiat+ surfaces4 ,,ix4 ,locat+ ( radiat+ surfaces4 ,x4 ,e/imat+ radiation4 ,,xi4 ,/eam-heat+ app>atus ,,xii4 ,exhau/-/eam heat+4 ,,xiii4 ,hot-wat] heat+4 ,,xiv4 ,pressure sy/ems ( hot-wat] "w4 ,,xv4 ,hot-wat] appliances4 ,,xvi4 ,gre5h\se heat+4 ,,xvii4 ,vacuum vapor & vacuum exhau/ heat+4 ,,xviii4 ,miscellane\s heat+4 ,,xix4 ,radiator & pipe connections4 ,,xx4 ,v5tilation4 ,,xxi4 ,me*anical v5tilation & hot-bla/ heat+4 ,,xxii4 ,/eam appliances4 ,,xxiii4 ,di/rict heat+4 ,,xxiv4 ,pipe & boil] cov]+4 ,,xxv4 ,temp]ature regulation & heat control4 ,,xxvi4 ,bus9ess me?ods4 ,,xxvii4 ,miscellane\s4 ,,xxviii4 ,rules1 tables1 & useful in=mation4 #cfg pages1 #cjj detail$ engrav+s4 #bnd ,edition--,revis$4 ,price #c4jj ,five ,hundr$ ,pla9 ,answ]s to ,direct ,que/ions on ,/eam1 ,hot-,wat]1 ,vapor & ,vacuum ,heat+ ,practice4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,g4 ,,k+4 ,?is "w1 j (f ! press1 is arrang$ 9 "q & answ] =m2 x is int5d$ z a guide & text-book = ! y\ng]1 inexp]i5c$ fitt] & z a ref]5ce book = all fitt]s4 ,?is book tells h[ & also tells :y4 ,no "w ( its k9d has ev] be5 publi%$4 ,x answ]s all ! que/ions reg>d+ ea* me?od or sy/em t w\ld be ask$ by ! /eam fitt] or heat+ contractor1 & may be us$ z a text or ref]5ce book1 & = exam9ation que/ions by ,trade ,s*ools or ,/eam ,fitt]s' ,associations4 ,rules1 data1 tables & descriptive me?ods are giv51 toge!r ) mu* o!r detail$ in=mation ( daily practical use to ^? engag$ 9 or int]e/$ 9 ! v>i\s me?ods ( heat+4 ,valuable to ^? prep>+ = exam9ations4 ,answ]s e "q ask$ relat+ to mod]n ,/eam1 ,hot-,wat]1 ,vapor & ,vacuum ,heat+4 ,among ! cont5ts are3 ,! ,!ory & ,laws ( ,heat4 ,me?ods ( ,heat+4 ,*imneys & ,flues4 ,boil]s = ,heat+4 ,boil] ,trimm+s & ,sett+s4 ,radiation4 ,/eam ,heat+4 ,boil]1 ,radiator & ,pipe ,connections = ,/eam ,heat+4 ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,! ,two-,pipe ,gravity ,sy/em ( ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,! ,circuit ,sy/em ( ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,! ,ov]head ,sy/em ( ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,boil]1 ,radiator & ,pipe ,connections = ,gravity ,sy/ems ( ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,accel]at$ ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,expansion ,tank ,connections4 ,dome/ic ,hot ,wat] ,heat+4 ,valves & ,air ,valves4 ,vacuum ,vapor & ,vacuo-,vapor ,heat+4 ,me*anical ,sy/ems ( ,vacuum ,heat+4 ,non-,me*anical ,vacuum ,sy/ems4 ,vapor ,sy/ems4 ,atmosph]ic & ,modulat+ ,sy/ems4 ,heat+ ,gre5h\ses4 ,in=mation1 ,rules & ,tables4 #bjj pages1 #abg illu/rations4 ,octavo4 ,clo?4 ,price #a4ej ,,/eel ,/eel3 ,its ,selection1 ,anneal+1 ,h>d5+1 & ,temp]+4 ,by ,e4 ,r4 ,,m>kham4 ,?is "w 0 =m]ly kn[n z ,! ,am]ican ,/eel ,work]1 b on ! publication ( ! new1 revis$ edition1 ! publi%]s deem$ x advisable to *ange its title to a m suitable "o4 ,x is ! /&>d "w on ,h>d5+1 ,temp]+1 & ,anneal+ ,/eel ( all k9ds4 ,?is book tells h[ to select1 & h[ to "w1 temp]1 h>d51 & anneal /eel = ev]y?+ on e>?4 ,x doesn't tell h[ to temp] "o class ( tools & !n leave ! treatm5t ( ano!r k9d ( tool to y\r imag9ation & judgm5t1 b x gives c>eful in/ructions = e detail ( e tool1 :e!r x be a tap1 a ream] or j a screw-driv]4 ,x tells ab\t ! temp]+ ( small wat* spr+s1 ! h>d5+ ( cutl]y1 & ! anneal+ ( dies4 ,9 fact1 !re isn't a ?+ t a /eel work] w\ld want to "k t isn't includ$4 ,x is ! /&>d book on select+1 h>d5+ & temp]+ all grades ( /eel4 ,among ! *apt] head+s might be m5tion$ ! foll[+ subjects3 ,introduction2 ! workman2 /eel2 me?ods ( heat+2 heat+ tool /eel2 =g+2 anneal+2 h>d5+ ba?s2 ba?s = h>d5+2 h>d5+ /eel2 draw+ ! temp] aft] h>d5+2 examples ( h>d5+2 pack h>d5+2 case h>d5+2 spr+ temp]+2 mak+ tools ( ma*9e /eel2 special /eels2 /eel = v>i\s tools2 causes ( tr\ble2 high-spe$ /eels1 etc4 #djj pages4 ,v fully illu/rat$4 ,f\r? edition4 ,price #b4ej ,h>d5+1 ,temp]+1 ,anneal+1 & ,=g+ ( ,/eel4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,,woodwor?4 ,a new "w treat+ 9 a cle>1 concise mann] all mod]n processes = ! heat+1 anneal+1 =g+1 weld+1 h>d5+ & temp]+ ( /eel1 mak+ x a book ( great practical value to ! metal-work+ me*anic 9 g5]al1 ) special directions = ! successful h>d5+ & temp]+ ( all /eel tools us$ 9 ! arts1 includ+ mill+ cutt]s1 taps1 ?read dies1 ream]s1 bo? solid & %ell1 holl[ mills1 pun*es & dies1 & all k9ds ( %eet-metal work+ tools1 %e> blades1 saws1 f9e cutl]y1 & metal-cutt+ tools ( all description1 z well z = all implem5ts ( /eel bo? l>ge & small4 ,9 ?is "w ! simple/ & mo/ satisfactory h>d5+ & temp]+ processes are giv54 ,! uses to :i* ! lead+ br&s ( /eel may be adapt$ are concisely pres5t$1 & _! treatm5t = work+ "u diff]5t conditions expla9$1 also ! special me?ods = ! h>d5+ & temp]+ ( special br&s4 ,a *apt] devot$ to ! diff]5t processes = case-h>d5+ is also includ$1 & special ref]5ce made to ! adaptation ( ma*9]y /eel = tools ( v>i\s k9ds1 ,f\r? edition4 #bhh pages4 #bja illu/rations4 ,price #b4ej ,,tractors ,! ,mod]n ,gas ,tractor4 ,by ,,victor ,w4 ,,page1 ,m4,e4 ,a complete treatise describ+ all types & sizes ( gasol9e1 k]os5e & oil tractors4 ,consid]s design & con/ruction exhau/ively1 gives complete in/ructions = c>e1 op]ation & repair1 outl9es all practical applications on ! road & 9 ! field4 ,! be/ & late/ "w on f>m tractors & tractor p[] plants4 ,a "w ne$$ by f>m]s1 /ud5ts1 blacksmi?s1 me*anics1 salesm51 implem5t deal]s1 design]s1 & eng9e]s4 ,second edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 #ejd pages4 ,ne>ly #cjj illu/rations & fold+ plates4 ,price #b4jj ,,turb9es ,m>9e ,/eam ,turb9es4 ,by ,,dr4 ,g4 ,,bau] & ,o4 ,,las*e4 ,assi/$ by ,e4 ,,ludwig & ,h4 ,,vogel4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man & edit$ by ,m4 ,g4 ,s4 ,swall[4 ,! book is ess5tially practical & discusses turb9es 9 :i* ! full expansion ( /eam passes ?r\gh a numb] ( sep>ate turb9es arrang$ = driv+ two or m %afts1 z 9 ! ,p>sons sy/em1 & turb9es 9 :i* ! complete expansion ( /eam f inlet to exhau/ pressure occurs 9 a turb9e on "o %aft1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,curtis ma*9es4 ,x w enable a design] to c>ry out all ! ord9>y calculation necess>y = ! con/ruction ( /eam turb9es1 h5ce x fills a want :i* is h>dly met by l>g] & m !oretical works4 ,num]\s tables1 curves & diagrams w be f\nd1 :i* expla9 ) rem>kable lucidity ! reason :y turb9e blades are design$ z !y are1 ! c\rse :i* /eam takes ?r\gh turb9es ( v>i\s types1 ! !rmodynamics ( /eam turb9e calculation1 ! influ5ce ( vacuum on /eam consumption ( /eam turb9es1 etc4 ,9 a ^w1 ! v in=mation :i* a design] & build] ( /eam turb9es mo/ requires4 ,l>ge octavo1 #bad pages4 ,fully illu/rat$ & conta9+ eighte5 tables1 includ+ an entropy *>t4 ,price1 net #c4ej ,,wat* ,,mak+ ,wat*mak]'s ,h&book4 ,by ,,claudius ,,sauni]4 ,no "w issu$ c comp>e ) ?is book = cle>ness & complet5ess4 ,x conta9s #dih pages & is int5d$ z a work%op companion = ^? engag$ 9 wat*-mak+ & alli$ me*anical arts4 ,ne>ly #bej engrav+s & f\rte5 plates are includ$4 ,?is is ! /&>d "w on wat*-mak+4 ,price #c4jj ,,weld+ ,automobile ,weld+ ) ! ,oxy-,acetyl5e ,flame4 ,by ,m4 ,,kei? ,,dunham4 ,expla9s 9 a simple mann] app>atus to be us$1 its c>e1 & h[ to con/ruct necess>y %op equipm5t4 ,proce$s !n to ! actual weld+ ( all automobile p>ts1 9 a mann] und]/&able by e "o4 ,gives pr9ciples nev] to be =gott54 ,alum9um1 ca/ iron1 /eel1 copp]1 brass1 bronze1 & malleable iron are fully treat$1 z well z a cle> explanation ( ! prop] mann] to burn ! c>bon out ( ! combu/ion head4 ,?is book is ( utmo/ value1 s9ce ! p]plex+ problems aris+ :5 metal is heat$ to a melt+ po9t are fully expla9$ & ! prop] me?ods to ov]come !m %[n4 #afg pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,price #a4jj ,e ,practical ,man ,ne$s ,a ,magaz9e ,:i* ,w ,tell ,him ,h[ ,to ,make ,& ,d ,?+s ,h u ent] y\r subscription to ! be/ me*anical magaz9e on ! m>ket4 ,only "o doll> a ye> = twelve numb]s4 ,subscribe today to ,ev]yday ,eng9e]+ ,a mon?ly magaz9e devot$ to practical me*anics = ev]yday m54 ,its aim is to popul>ize eng9e]+ z a sci5ce1 tea*+ ! elem5ts ( appli$ me*anics & electricity 9 a /raight=w>d & und]/&able mann]4 ,! magaz9e ma9ta9s its own exp]im5tal laboratory :]e ! devices describ$ 9 articles submitt$ to ! ,editor are fir/ tri$ out & te/$ be=e !y are publi%$4 ,?is important innovation places ! /&>d ( ! publi%$ mat]ial v high1 & x insures accuracy & dep5dability4 ,! magaz9e is ! only "o 9 ?is c\ntry t specializes 9 practical model build+4 ,articles 9 pa/ issues h giv5 compreh5sive designs = _m model boats1 includ+ subm>9es & *as]s1 model /eam & gasol9e eng9es1 electric motors & g5]ators1 etc41 etc4 ,?is feature is a p]man5t "o 9 ?is magaz9e4 ,ano!r popul> dep>tm5t is t devot$ to automobiles & airplanes4 ,c>e1 ma9t5ance1 & op]ation receive full & au?oritative treatm5t4 ,e article is writt5 f ! practical1 ev]yday man1 /&po9t r ?an f t ( ! pr(essional4 ,! magaz9e ent]ta9s :ile x in/ructs4 ,x is a j\rnal ( practical1 dep5dable in=mation giv5 9 su* a /yle t x may be readily assimilat$ & appli$ by ! man ) little or no te*nical tra9+4 ,! aim is to place be=e ! man :o leans t[>d practical me*anics1 a s]ies ( concise1 crisp1 readable talks on :at is go+ on & h[ x is done4 ,^! articles are pr(usely illu/rat$ ) cle>1 snappy photographs1 specially pos$ to illu/rate ! subject 9 ! magaz9e's own /udio by its own /aff ( te*nically-tra9$ illu/rators & editors4 ,! subscription price ( ! magaz9e is "o doll> p] ye> ( twelve numb]s4 ,sample copy s5t on receipt ( t5 c5ts4 ,ent] y\r subscription to ?is practical magaz9e ) y\r booksell]4 ,! ,norman ,w4 ,h5ley ,publi%+ ,co41 #b ,we/ #de? ,/reet1 ,new ,york ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes ,g5]al rem>ks3 ,!re are "s diff]5ces 9 word+ betwe5 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts1 ! li/s ( sections p] *apt]1 & ! actual section titles4 ,_! mean+ is cle>1 & !y h be5 left z !y 7 9 ! orig9al "w4 ,page #ef1 table3 ,fig4 #h 9 ! fir/ column does n ref] to ,fig4 #h 9 ?is "w4 ,! orig9al "w does n h a ,figure #hi4 ,page #cjc1 table3 x is unc]ta9 :at free ) k]os5e means1 !re may be a ^w omitt$4 ,page #edd1 entirely c5sor$4 ,x is n cle> :at ?is page orig9ally conta9$ 7possibly a table71 s9ce text & numb]+ ( illu/rations are un9t]rupt$4 ,! text ,,c5sor$ has be5 mov$ to aft] ! fir/ p>agraph ( ! section on ,m]c$es ,eng9es4 ,! ,li/ ( ,illu/rations does n occur 9 ! orig9al "w4 ,*anges made3 ,! text ( ! orig9al "w 7includ+ inconsi/5cies 9 acc5ts1 spell+1 hyph5ation & lay-out1 & diff]5ces betwe5 ! ma9 text1 illu/rations & adv]tisem5ts7 has be5 foll[$1 except :5 li/$ bel[4 ,only "s m9or obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,:]e ! au?or us$ x = multiplication1 ?is has be5 replac$ by x 9 ! body ( ! text 7n 9 ! adv]tisem5ts or illu/rations74 ,! illu/rations h be5 mov$ s z n to disrupt ! fl[ ( ! text4 ,eng9e & aircraft types are n always nam$ consi/5tly 9 ! orig9al2 ,curtiss eng9e ,o ,x #b1 ,,ox-#b & #j,x#b h all be5 *ang$ to ,,ox-#b1 ,curtiss aircraft ,,jn#d & ,,jn-#d to ,,jn-#d4 ,multi-page tables3 repeat$ head+s h be5 remov$1 & ! tables treat$ z "o consecutive table4 ,page #bb3 ,! product ( has be5 mov$ into ! fir/ =mula4 ,page #be3 ,:5 ,b x r ,m *ang$ to ,:5 ,p x r ,m4 ,page #gd3 4#bbe _/ #gge 4#bije *ang$ to 4#bbe _/ 4#gge 4#bije4 ,page #acg 7caption73 ,bav>y *ang$ to ,bav]ey z else:]e4 ,page #agb3 evid5tly *ang$ to evid5t4 ,page #bad3 drop to ,o *ang$ to drop to #j4 ,page #bdh3 actual f a common *ang$ to actuat$ f a common4 ,page #bef3 values *ang$ to valves4 ,page #bhj3 ,fig4 #f *ang$ to ,fig4 #aab4 ,page #cjf3 ,fig4 #abg1 ,b *ang$ to ,fig4 #abg1 ,c 7#bnd ref]5ce74 ,page #cbd3 ,rhone *ang$ to ,le ,rhone z else:]e4 ,page #ccd3 ,*eck values *ang$ to ,*eck valves4 ,page #cfd3 ,le,rhone *ang$ to ,le ,rhone z else:]e4 ,page #cij3 ,fig4 #fb1 ,d *ang$ to ,fig4 #afh1 ,b4 ,page #djh3 ,/ilson *ang$ to ,/illson z else:]e4 ,page #dij3 bo? valves *ang$ to bo? halves4 ,page #ead3 /&>d ratio is #e4c *ang$ to /&>d ratio is #e3c4 ,page #ebi3 gallons p] m9ute #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 *ang$ to gallons p] m9ute at #a1djj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,page #edf3 ,hispano ,suiza *ang$ to ,hispano-,suiza z else:]e4 ,page #eef3 ,diamet] ( crank-%aft1 #ef mm4 *ang$ to ,diamet] ( crank-%aft1 #ee mm4 ,page #g 7adv]tisem5ts73 ,hazlehur/ ,field *ang$ to ,hazelhur/ ,field4 ,page #ba 7adv]tisem5ts73 ,rhose ,isl& ,comp\nd *ang$ to ,rhode ,isl& ,comp\nd4 ,index3 ,%ebl] *ang$ to ,s*ebl]1 cam%aft to cam-%aft1 wri/p9 to wri/-p91 etc4 7all z 9 text74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------