,,lecture ,,on ,,artificial ,,flight ,,given ,,by ,,request ,,at ,,the ,,academy ,,of ,,natural ,,sciences ,,at ,san ,francisco1 ,california1 ,august #gth1 #ahgf1 ,,by ,,wm4 ,g4 ,,krueger ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,a ,,model ,,of ,,his ,,own ,,invention4 ,,index4 ,no4 ,page4 #a ,introduction #a #b ,history and ,fable #b #c ,discovery of the ,balloon #g #d ,noted ,air ,voyages #h #e ,absence of ,danger #aa #f ,charm of ,a,erial ,travel #ab #g ,a,erial ,voyages ,health ,promoting #ae #h ,parachutes #af #i ,the ,kite #ag #aj ,balloons ,impracticable #ah #aa ,reasons why the ,problem has remained ,unsolved #ba #ab ,fundamental ,principles in ,flight #bc #ac ,weight #bd #ad ,surface #bf #ae ,power #bh #af ,flying ,creatures1 their ,proportions1 ,movements #ca #ag ,mechanical ,practicability of ,flight #cd #ah ,flying ,machines of the ,present1 their defects #cg #ai ,the ,practical ,air ,ship of the near ,future #dc #bj ,what ,a,erostation will ,accomplish #dh #ba ,closing ,remarks #ej 99 99 99 99 99 ,,errata4 ,page #d1 line #d1 read one from ,koenigsberg1 for ,koenigsberg4 ,page #d1 line #ah1 read afterward1 for ago4 ,,sailing ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,i4--,,introduction4 ,gentlemen of the ,academy3 ,the problem of artificial flight is of such great importance to civilization2 so interesting and fascinating1 not only to the student1 but to every one2 and it allows us to indulge in such a wide field for speculation as to the great changes which will be wrought by the practical solution of it in the social1 political and commercial world1 that ,i must beg of you to consider only my good intentions in appearing before you1 and pardon my shortcomings as a lecturer4 ,it is my first attempt1 and is simply undertaken to bring the subject more understandingly before the public1 that they may assist1 morally1 and pecuniarily1 the several inventors who are wrestling with it more or less successfully--some rather less4 ,if only one inventor in a hundred should meet with flattering results1 the attention bestowed upon all will be repaid a thousand fold by that one's success4 ,the idea of sailing through the air in a flying machine is not new1 nor such an absurd one as is generally supposed2 and it is indeed important to investigate and lay it before the public more directly than has been done heretofore through the medium of great1 musty and long-winded volumes4 ,if found to seem practicable and feasible1 it is for you1 gentlemen1 to see that the future great ,state of ,california shall also be ahead in this--one of the greatest and most important inventions of the age--as she is1 and has been in many other things before4 ,the subject has really been taken hold of in a thorough and scientific manner only the last few years2 but with such earnestness and scientific knowledge and intelligence1 not only by the foremost and principal society for the advancement of the art--the ,aeronautic ,society of ,great ,britain--to whom1 really1 the most credit must fall--but in every civilized country2 and so much has been done already to prove1 not only the possibility but the absolute certainty of an early practical solution of the problem1 that soon we will see the air traversed in all directions1 by aspiring man4 ,many seeming impossibilities of the present1 need only time and effort to become realities in the near future4 ,,ii4--,,history ,,and ,,fable4 ,in turning our thoughts to ,history1 reaching back even into the mazy and wonderful ages of fable1 we find that from time immemorial the great science of aerostation has occupied the minds of philosophers and inventors4 ,there can be little doubt that it was known and made use of in olden times in isolated cases1 but was again lost1 like many other important inventions4 ,we are furnished with many interesting proofs of this4 ,old ,chinese1 ,arabian and ,hindu fables give some beautiful descriptions of aerial chariots1 in which wizards1 princes and fairies sped over the fertile and populous plains of their native country1 disbursing good or evil1 according to their disposition1 to the poor devils crawling in the dust beneath them4 ,the ,jews had their cherubim4 ,the ,assyrians have left us their winged bulls2 the ,greeks1 their ,sphinxes2 while the ,roman writers describe how that mythical personage1 ,daedalus1 a famous ,athenian artificer1 and builder of the ,cretan labyrinth1 constructed wings with which he flew across the ,a,egian ,sea1 to escape the resentment of ,minos4 ,but his son1 ,icarus1 undoubtedly of his strength giving out1 fell into the water and was drowned4 ,their nation has bequeathed to us various bas-reliefs1 illustrative of what appear well-proportioned wings4 ,archytos1 the great geometrician1 made a wooden dove that flew like a natural one1 and the famous ,german astronomer1 ,john ,mueller1 who died suddenly in ,rome1 at the age of forty1 in #adgf1 and whose memory was celebrated last month in ,germany1 constructed an artificial eagle1 which flew out to greet the ,emperor1 ,charles ,v1 when he visited ,nuremberg4 ,this ,mueller was more widely known by the assumed name of ,regiomontanus1--the ,kingshiller--that is1 one from ,koenigsberg1 a small village in the heart of ,germany2 the custom of the times being for learned men to adopt the latin name of their birthplace4 ,he invented the almanac1 and prepared the first astronomical tables1 by the aid of which mariners1 who1 up to that late day could only make coasting voyages1 were enabled to trust themselves to the open sea1 with some degree of assurance2 and ,columbus was among the earliest to use these tables1 twenty years afterwards1 on his first discovery voyage to ,america4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another ,german1 a young watchmaker's apprentice1 constructed a flying machine1 with which he1 when showing the same to his ignorant townspeople1 flew away to escape mobbing4 ,his bones and pieces of the machine were found some years afterward in a wild and isolated part of the ,black ,forest4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century ,giovanni ,battista ,dantes1 of ,perugia1 flew several times over the ,thrasimenian ,sea2 he certainly must have been at a considerable elevation1 for he fell on a church steeple and broke a leg4 ,another account1 particularly noticed in history1 is that of a man who flew high in the air in the ,city of ,rome1 under the reign of ,nero1 but lost his life in the descent4 ,in ,astra ,castra1 we read that soon after ,bacon's time1 projects were instituted to train up children in the exercise of flying with artificial wings1 and considerable progress was made2 by the combined effort of running and flying they were enabled to skim over the surface1 as it were1 with incredible speed4 ,this same ,roger ,bacon1 an eminent philosopher of the thirteenth century1 and possessed of the very highest genius and ability1 whose ideas and knowledge1 like ,franklin's1 were many hundred years ahead of his age1 descants1 in one of his works1 in glowing language1 on the practicability of constructing engines that could navigate the air4 ,he accomplished wonderful things in his day1 and was accused of holding communion with the devil1 who was quite an important personage in those times4 ,his writings were interdicted1 and himself locked up to prevent closer acquaintanceship of his readers with the aforesaid friend4 ,about the ,confessor's time1 a monk1 ,elmirus1 in ,spain1 flew often1 by means of a pair of wings1 many miles from high elevations4 ,cuperus1 in his treatise on ,the ,excellency of ,man1 contends that it is practicable for human beings to attain the faculty of flying4 ,he asserts that ,leonardo da ,vinci1 the great painter of the ,lord's ,supper1 and other highly prized works of art1 practiced it successfully4 ,the reasoning of the great ,john ,wilkins1 ,lord ,bishop of ,chester1 who died in #afgb1 embodies the sentiments and principles of all these on the subject even stronger4 ,in his work on ,mechanical ,motion1 he treats expressly on artificial flight1 and conceives1 in the sixth chapter1 the framing of such volitant automata very easy2 and says that the time will come when men will call for their wings when about to make a journey1 as they do now for their boots and spurs4 ,lastly1 in the ,journal de ,savans1 of the #abth of ,september1 #afgh1 an account is given of one ,besnier1 a locksmith of ,sable1 ,france1 who succeeded in flying4 ,but as his machine was extremely primitive--the wings consisting only of four rectangular surfaces1 one at the end of each of two poles1 which passed over the shoulder of the operator1 and were worked alternately up and down--the inventor could only avail himself of their aid in progressively raising himself from one hight to another1 until an elevated position was reached1 when he could glide through the air a long distance4 ,many more cases could be cited4 ,some ended disastrously2 others1 because of the apathy1 distrust1 ignorance1 and superstition of the people1 were lost sight of again2 while some1 perhaps the most practical ones and of which we find many indications in old writings1 were never made known for selfish reasons4 ,such has been the fate of this--one of the most interesting problems--almost up to the present time4 ,we were1 perhaps1 not prepared sufficiently1 to receive the great boon4 ,we had to have the printing press1 steam1 and electricity first1 before we could attempt this next great step towards a higher civilization4 ,,iii4--,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,balloon4 ,although it is well understood now by most scientific men1 that the principles upon which ballooning rests1 will scarcely form any part in the solution of the problem of aerial navigation2 yet1 when1 in #aghb1 the brothers1 ,mongolfier1 in ,france1 made the first successful experiments with small paper balloons1 filled with heated air1 it was thought that the key to that wonderful art had been found2 many applied themselves to its improvement2 and the next year already saw gas balloons on a much larger scale4 ,the first passengers1 who had the honor of being sent up into the realms of space1 were a sheep1 a cock and a duck2 and as their safe descent proved highly satisfactory1 the well-known ,french savan1 ,pilatre de ,rozier1 tried the same experiment shortly afterwards with great success1 reaching a hight of nearly two miles4 ,the glowing description of his experience raised the excitement of all classes to fever heat4 ,numerous day and night ascensions were made by diplomats1 distinguished naturalists1 professors of note1 scientific women and gymnastic aspirants1 and their journeys soon became more daring and extended to wider fields4 ,,iv4--,,noted ,,air ,,voyages4 ,blanchard1 the supposed inventor of the parachute1 with the ,american1 ,dr4 ,jeffries1 were the first to cross the channel from ,england to ,france4 ,m4 ,charles1 the inventor of the gas balloon1 and one of the earliest and most enthusiastic advocates of aerostation1 made extensive voyages4 ,madame ,thible1 of ,lyons1 was the first of her sex who trusted herself to the elastic element4 ,crosbie1 who passed over the sea from ,ireland to ,england1 came near losing his life2 for1 the balloon1 being struck with great force by an adverse current of air1 and most of the gas escaping1 tore over the raging waters at a fearful speed1 until the courageous man was rescued1 near the ,english coast1 by a ship happening in his way4 ,but the view which he had enjoyed1 seeing both countries at once1 was sublime beyond description1 and compensated him for all the danger4 ,he had been at such a hight that1 although the ,july sun melted everything below1 his ink was a lump of ice1 and the quicksilver in the instruments had sunk almost out of sight4 ,the battle of ,fleurus1 in #agid1 was won by the ,french over the ,austrians principally through the aid of balloon reconnoitering2 and similar service was occasionally performed by the balloon in our own war4 ,the favorably known ,italian1 ,count ,zambeccari1 who added many improvements to this art1 and created great interest in the principal countries of ,europe1 made an ascension1 in #ahjc1 with two friends1 at ,bologna4 ,the three alighted in the ,adriatic sea and were picked up by fishermen1 while the balloon1 free from weight1 rose again and was carried by the wind to the ,turkish fort ,vihacz1 where the commander1 believing it a present sent from heaven1 had it cut up in small pieces and divided amongst his friends as amulets4 ,but quite a reverse opinion was generally entertained by most of the ignorant ,christian country people1 when the huge monster happened to fall amongst them for the first time2 and their comparison of it to the evil one is excusable when we consider the peculiar smell of the escaping gas1 after their attack upon it with pitchforks and similar agricultural implements4 ,among other remarkable ascensions is that of ,guy ,lussac1 who reached the prodigious hight of nearly four and a half miles4 ,this was exceeded1 though1 by another scientific aeronaut1 ,james ,glaisher1 in #ahfb1 who1 with a companion1 mounted the great altitude of seven miles--over #cf1jjj feet2 but as he was insensible for some minutes after reaching the elevation of #bi1jjj feet1 the highest ever attained by human beings1 their calculations could only be approximated4 ,the mercury in the hygrometer--a delicate instrument for measuring the moisture in the atmosphere--had fallen below the scale1 while they were rising more than #ajjj feet per minute4 ,there are instances of balloons that have shot upwards at the rate of fifty feet per second1 or much over half a mile per minute2 but1 generally1 even twenty feet per second is a rare occurrence4 ,and here might be mentioned that1 since the late serious loss of several ,french scientists by asphyxia1 or cold on their unfortunate ascension1 the problem of maintaining life in the highest regions of the atmosphere has been solved in ,france4 ,with a certain apparatus1 man could manage to live comfortably nearly ten miles above the level of the sea1 while1 ordinarily1 two miles is the most4 ,as to horizontal speed1 perhaps the fastest time on record was made by ,garnerin and ,snowdon1 from ,london to ,colchester1 some eighty miles1 in one hour1 or about #aaj feet per second1 almost swifter than an eagle flies2 and another balloon went from ,paris across the ,alps1 to the vicinity of ,rome1 in twenty-two hours1 making over fifty miles per hour1 considering its zig-zag travel4 ,the reason for such great speed is1 that the different air currents travel far faster in the upper regions than below1 where the velocity of the wind is seldom over twenty miles per hour2 and yet1 were it not for the continually changing scenery1 the aeronaut would imagine himself stationary4 ,the shortest trip1 perhaps1 in the annals of this art1 both as to hight and distance1 was made1 a few years ago1 by a gymnast1 at ,woodward's ,gardens1 that most beautiful pleasure resort in this city4 ,the little disobliging monster went lazily1 and with great difficulty1 over the fence and capsized promptly on the other side1 leaving the trapeze-man hanging1 by the seat of his unmentionables1 on the top of it in an uncomfortable position1 but no bones were broken4 ,v4--,,absence ,,of ,,danger4 ,it is erroneous to suppose that aerial voyages are fraught with even ordinary danger2 on the contrary1 travel by sea and land is far more so2 for1 although thousands of assensions have been made1 but very few persons have met with accidents1 in fact1 a less number by far comparatively1 than by any other profession or mode of locomotion2 and1 whenever such has happened1 gross carelessness or ignorance was often the cause4 ,during the late ,franco-,german war1 over sixty balloons1 many but indifferently constructed1 left ,paris1 during the siege1 with some one hundred and eighty persons and nearly three millions of letters4 ,all reached a point of safety4 ,professor ,wise1 the most noted ,american aeronaut1 has made1 during the last forty years1 nearly five hundred voyages1 and one in particular1 in #ahei1 of nearly #abjj miles--perhaps the longest on record--with three companions1 from ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 to ,new ,york ,state4 ,this trip was made partly in the midst of a tornado1 while above ,lake ,erie1 during which time some twenty sailing crafts succumbed to the effects of the storm1 yet the intrepid aeronauts alighted in safety4 ,m4 ,green1 who was the first to use coal gas1 instead of pure hydrogen1 and has also made hundreds of successful ascensions1 was carried from ,london to ,weilburg1 in the central part of ,germany1 about seven hundred miles in eight hours1 without the slightest mishap4 ,lastly1 ,arban1 crossed the ,alps from ,marseilles to ,turin1 four hundred miles1 in stormy weather during the night4 ,mont ,blanc to the left1 on a level with the top of which he was1 resembled an immense block of crystal--sparkling with a thousand fires2 while the moon occasionally seemed to have borrowed the light of the sun4 ,,vi4--,,charm ,,of ,,aerial ,,travel4 ,nothing can equal the beauty of an aerial voyage1 that most wonderful1 easy and luxurious mode of locomotion1 with its entire absence of dizziness--this sensation being lost with the separation from earth1 as soon as the last cord1 which unites us with the world below1 is cut4 ,in rising from the ground1 the feelings are absorbed in the novelty and magnificence of the spectacle presented1 while the ears are saluted with the buzz of distant sound until the clouds are reached1 when all is still as death4 ,the scene is sublime4 ,around and beneath1 the clouds roll in magnificent grandeur4 ,they form pyramids1 castles1 reefs1 icebergs1 ships and towers1 and again dissolve into chaos4 ,the half obscured sun shedding his mellow light upon the picture1 gives it a rich and dazzling lustre4 ,reverence for the work of nature1 the solemn stillness1 an admiration indescribable1 all combined1 seem to make a sound of praise4 ,the earth1 which is never lost sight of at any hight1 except clouds interfere or night sets in1 seems to be concave1 like the inside of a flattish hollow globe1 instead of the outside1 as would naturally be supposed4 ,the reason for this optical delusion is1 that the horizon appears on a level with the aeronaut1 while the distance downwards remains unaltered1 making the surface below appear like a valley4 ,the earth presents the panoramic view of an immense map1 such as the enchanted ,alladdin must have enjoyed4 ,the coloring1 designating the various products of the soil1 is lively and exquisite4 ,variegated grass-plats1 the golden tinge of waving grain fields1 the more sombre foliage of the trees1 the glossy surface of the water dazzling in the sunbeams1 with occasional white specks for sailing craft2 the innumerable villages1 with tastefully decorated and tinny1 toy-like houses1 the numerous roads tortuously spreading over the surface and looking like chalk lines on a gaudy carpet1 fairy-like carriages seemingly drawn by mice and guided by liliputian little things4 ,such is the beauty of this glorious earth4 ,yet1 when mountains appear like ant hills1 and ,niagara a neat little cascade in a pleasure garden--instead of the raging grandeur1 only a frothy bubble--man must be forcibly reminded that he is but the minutest animalcule1 and not of so much importance as he presumes himself to be4 ,no less impressive is the scene at night4 ,the sublime exhibition in the vast solitude and darkness of night creates the most stupendous effect upon the lonely aeronaut4 ,the earth's surface1 as far as the eye can reach1 absolutely teems with the scattered fires of a watchful population1 and exhibits a starry spectacle below1 that rivals in brilliancy the lustre of the firmament above4 ,a city looming up in the distant horizon gradually appears to blaze like a vast conflagration4 ,on drawing near1 every street is marked out by its particular line of fires2 the forms and positions of the theatres1 squares and markets are indicated by the presence of larger and more irregular accumulations of light1 and the faint murmurs of a busy population still actively engaged in the pursuits of pleasure or the avocation of gain2 all together combined form a picture1 which1 for beauty and effect1 can not be conceived4 ,again1 higher up1 or when clouds intervene1 the sky1 at all times darker when viewed from an elevation1 seems almost black with the intensity of night2 while1 by contrast1 the stars redoubled in their lustre1 shine like sparks of the whitest silver1 scattered upon the jetty dome around4 ,nothing can exceed this density of night4 ,not a single object of terrestrial nature can anywhere be distinguished1 and an unfathomable abyss of darkness visible encompasses one on every side4 ,it seems like cleaving the way through an interminable mass of black marble1 and a light lowered from these dizzy hights appears to absolutely melt its way down into the frozen bosom of the surrounding inkiness4 ,the cold is here intense4 ,,vii4--,,aerial ,,voyages ,,health ,,promoting4 ,but while the charm of floating in the air is so fascinating these delightful ascensions will be even more beneficial in sanitary respects4 ,atmospheric pressure1 exerting nearly #cj1jjj pounds upon a human being of full growth1 has much to do with the mechanical functions of life4 ,at a moderate elevation1 one-tenth of this weight can be relieved1 and at greater hights1 even one-third1 as balloon experiments have sufficiently proven4 ,this pressure1 then1 diminishing upon the muscular system1 allows it to expand4 ,the lungs at once become more voluminous and breathing purer air2 the freedom with which all the circulating fluids of the system are allowed to act in the rare atmosphere1 intensely quicken the animal and mental faculties2 the novelty of the voyage1 and the most sublime grandeur opening to the eye and mind of the invalid2 all assist to promote health1 impart new life1 inspire ideas and invigorate soul and body4 ,,viii4--,,parachutes4 ,this simple contrivance often forms an adjunct to balloons4 ,its appearance is generally that of a huge family umbrella of revolutionary times4 ,it is likewise concave underneath1 because such form1 above all others1 condenses a column of atmosphere more rapidly and retards its velocity in the descent immensely4 ,the ribs are generally of whale-bone or bamboo covered with strong domestic muslin1 and a light wicker basket is fastened some twelve feet underneath for the aeronaut1 who may cut himself loose from the balloon with perfect safety at any hight1 and descend slowly to the ground1 if the parachute is strongly made and perhaps fourteen feet across when open4 ,by giving it a slight inclination1 it can be made to descend1 sliding-like1 a long distance from the vertical point2 and some of the flying machines we read of have likely been only a modified form of the parachute4 ,the nautilus on the ocean moves on the principle of it1 the pollen of plants is carried from one place to another by this mode2 so the flying squirrel moves in parabolic curves from tree to tree and even crosses rivers when the nut crop fails2 as also the flying tree-frog slants down long distances from high trees4 ,this animal has a considerable expansion of skin1 connecting the toes only1 and which looks as if on its four legs were fastened those short1 broad and light snow-shoes1 known as ,webfeet1 used in our northern ,territories in winter4 ,it is1 therefore1 called a webfoot frog1 but from which must not be inferred that it is an ,oregonian1 for it is encountered so far only in ,borneo4 ,,ix4--,,the ,,kite4 ,every one is undoubtedly acquainted with the exceedingly simple mechanism--invented when boys commenced to exist--for the enjoyment of one of the most pleasant pastimes--kite flying4 ,it is indulged in mostly during the fall1 and1 perhaps1 a trifle more so in the rural districts than in the cities1 because of the greater freedom of room which stubble fields and meadows allow4 ,but attention has also been given to the employment of this kind of aerostation as a means of support and conveyance2 and kites have been made as much as thirty feet high1 looking more like buoyant sails than boyish playthings1 and exerting an immense power of waftage4 ,loaded wagons have been drawn over turnpikes2 persons have frequently been carried up in the air by huge kites2 and1 in some parts of ,europe1 experiments have been made to signal and save shipwrecked people on dangerous coasts1 proving sufficiently that the kite can be made1 even in its present primitive state1 to be quite useful4 ,in this connection it may not be amiss to state that the first person known to have ascended--some eighty years ago1 as the ,history of ,kite ,carriage informs us1 was a ,miss--a young lady of some one hundred and twenty-six pounds1 avoirdupois4 ,she was seated in a chair underneath the gigantic structure which weighed nearly thirty pounds1 had a surface of about sixty square feet1 and rose most majestically to a hight of six hundred feet--an incontrovertible instance of the superior courage of the gentler sex over man4 ,the kite is maintained in the air by two opposing forces3 the impelling power of the wind--lifting it by striking against it at an angle1 and the restraining powers of the string--motive-force and gravitation combined2 so that in the kite1 above all1 we possess in a crude form1 the three principles requisite for artificial flight3 the plain1 weight and propelling force4 ,by improving upon the kite1 therefore1 we will arrive at the practical solution of the problem of artificial flight4 ,x4--,,balloons ,,impracticable4 ,it is not creditable to the present age that the problem of aerial navigation has not been solved4 ,but one of the causes has undoubtedly been the discovery of the balloon1 which has retarded this science for nearly a century by misleading men's minds1 and causing them to look for a solution of the problem by the aid of a machine lighter than air1 and which has no analogue in nature4 ,weight is one of three essential factors in flight1 for a light body cannot be propelled through a heavier one4 ,hence all attempts at driving and guiding the balloons have signally failed4 ,this arises from the vast extent of surface which it necessarily presents1 rendering it a fair conquest to every breeze that blows1 and because the power which animates it is a mere lifting power1 which acts in a vertical line4 ,the balloon1 consequently1 rises through the air in opposition to the law of gravity1 by which all flying creatures are governed1 very much as a dead bird falls downward in accordance with it4 ,having no hold upon the air1 this cannot be employed as a fulcrum for regulating its movements1 and hence the cardinal difficulty of ballooning as an art of locomotion and its uncertainty1 because the air-currents cannot be regulated4 ,a balloon starting from ,san ,francisco might be intended for ,new ,york1 but1 against the desire of the passengers1 alight in ,china or the ,canibal ,islands1 which would be rather disagreeable4 ,it is simply astonishing to hear of people trying1 year after year1 to propel elongated or cigar-shaped balloons with a car underneath1 and a screw-propeller1 of course--an experiment which was tried1 unsuccessfully1 forty years ago4 ,but this is generally the first conceived project of an aspirant for fame who commences to think on the subject1 and soon fancies himself the happy possessor of the secret2 yet what a very small amount of science is necessary to show its fallacy4 ,in fact1 all kinds of propositions for the propulsion of balloons have been advanced and experimented upon1 but scarcely any improvements have been made since the first five years after its invention2 proving1 perhaps1 more conclusively than anything else1 that the practical propulsion of balloons is an impossibility4 ,the most remarkable idea in this respect1 was undoubtedly that of ,teissol4 ,he flattered himself to be able to train geese or other birds to pull a balloon by being hitched to it1 while the conductor1 in a car underneath1 was to direct their movements by the aid of a long pole4 ,although the training of birds is not so ridiculous as it may seem1 yet he found that geese1 if not too tough1 answer the purpose of a good roast much better4 ,and another genius1 still more unique1 long before balloons were invented1 conceived the idea that air1 like water1 must have a defined limit1 and that it was possible to sail on its surface like ships on the ocean4 ,he did not state how to get up there1 but lost no time in inducing the ,king of ,portugal to forbid everyone1 under penalty of death1 to use said invention4 ,so far1 no one has come in conflict with that law4 ,yet1 although the balloon is impracticable as a means of transportation1 it should by no means be discarded1 for it can be made very useful for scientific and other observations1 to give pleasure to thousands of people by fanciful ascensions1 and not the least1 to serve1 as stated before1 sanitary purposes1 when captive and well secured4 ,but instead of lowering and elevating it continually1 as is being done at present1 and which occasions danger and great loss of time and money1 a contrivance should be made by which persons could safely1 and without interruption1 be carried up and down underneath parachutes4 ,,xi4--,,reasons ,,why ,,the ,,problem ,,has ,,remained ,,unsolved4 ,the slow progress made1 and the unsatisfactory state of the question1 notwithstanding the large and universal share of attention bestowed upon the subject from earliest times1 must be attributed to a variety of causes1 the most prominent of which are-- ,the great difficulty of the problem4 ,the incapacity on the one hand1 or theoretical tendencies on the other1 of those who have devoted themselves to its elucidation4 ,the lack of means of inventors generally1 and the difficulty of obtaining the same to experiment and carry out their ideas even after the completion of their invention4 ,hence so many failures amongst this class1 while men of genius in the literary or most other fields require but little pecuniary outlay to succeed4 ,the stolid indifference of an unthinking community1 which so often proves the deathblow to the mind of the philosophical inquirer1 and whose aim is condemned and pronounced as 'visionary1' absurd and incapable of realization1 instead of receiving that support and encouragement which is so necessary to success4 ,flight has therefore been unusually unfortunate in its votaries4 ,it has been cultivated on the one hand by profound thinkers1 especially mathematicians1 who have worked out innumerable theorems1 but have never submitted them to test of experiment2 and on the other by either uneducated charlatans who1 despising the abstractions of science entirely1 have made the most wild and ridiculous attempts at a practical solution of the problem2 or inventors1 who1 desirous to triumph over some of the acknowledged difficulties of propulsion and navigation1 but for want of organization or pecuniary support1 or being unacquainted with preceding failures in the same direction1 or ignorant of some one condition demanded by the peculiar nature of the experiment1 but which is absolutely necessary to success1 have also failed1 thus causing still greater doubt in the public mind1 and1 consequently1 less support to inventors in the same direction afterwards4 ,a common error prevails1 that models are essential to help the inventor4 ,the province of the model is to explain the invention to others after it has been made1 and not to assist the inventor4 ,except in very restricted limits they have been found to be almost useless1 and most of our valuable discoveries have been made and carried out without their aid4 ,watt's first condensing engine had a cylinder of eighteen inches diameter1 or about the average size now in use4 ,it is so with agricultural and other practical inventions and applies particularly to flying machines4 ,models often signally prove failures on a small scale1 yet would be successful on a larger4 ,the problem is not an unphilosophical phantom1 but a mathematically demonstrated truth1 which needs only actual realization to revolutionize the world for the better4 ,that the air is navigable can no longer be denied4 ,,xii4--,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,flight4 ,in contemplating the boundless atmosphere1 we perceive it to be tenanted by a multitude of creatures of varied form and size1 who move and direct themselves with marvellous ease and skill4 ,these beings1 so different in their nature1 form and construction--from the proud eagle to the blood-thirsty mosquito--resemble one another in the possession of three important fundamental principles which constitute the power of flight4 ,these are--weight or gravity1 surface or resistance of the atmosphere against it1 and force or power of projection4 ,the medium in which the phenomenon of flight is produced--the air--is an invisible1 impalpable1 comparatively imponderable fluid1 and its density is nearly #hjj times less than that of water4 ,hence a movement through it can be made far more rapidly than through its sister medium4 ,nevertheless1 if agitated1 it is capable of exerting great pressure1 as the tempestuous storms1 overturning fences1 unroofing houses1 uprooting trees1 and carrying even large animals into the air1 teach us4 ,hereon then1 that is1 the proper manipulation principally in creating artificial currents of air1 hinges the secret of flight1 because this phenomenon is reproduced in a manner identical1 if a surface is moved against it1 as we see in the wings of flying creatures4 ,,xiii4--,,weight4 ,weight is absolutely indispensible in flight1 it adds momentum and assists the propelling power--with greater force comparatively in heavier bodies4 ,a wooden cannon ball can fly only a fraction of the distance of an iron one2 and an equal weight of musket balls1 propelled by the same charge of powder1 will not reach near so far as the cannon ball1 because of its consolidation in one body2 and a feather or little toy balloon can not only not be propelled1 but will actually recoil if attempted4 ,hence1 all flying animals are many hundred times heavier than air1 and the heaviest are generally the best flyers1 yet require the least amount of surface and force in proportion4 ,the sympathy existing between weight and power is very great4 ,weight acts in flight upon the oblique surfaces of the wings in conjunction with the power expended1 and thereby husbanding the latter immensely4 ,thus only are the denizens of the air enabled to perform long journeys1 while otherwise they could retain their position in the upper region but a very brief time1 as their strength is no greater than that of other animals and would soon give out4 ,weight acts on flying creatures in a similar manner as we see it in the clock1 where weight is the moving power1 and the pendulum merely regulates its movements4 ,of course1 the belief of many1 that birds have large air cells in their interior1 that those cavities contain heated air1 and that this heated air in some mysterious manner contributes to1 if it does not actually produce1 flight1 falls to the ground upon the least reflection4 ,no argument could be more fallacious4 ,the bird is a heavy1 compact1 by no means bulky body1 and that trifle of heated air1 or gas1 if such were the case1 but is not1 which possibly might help elevation1 would be but dust in the scale4 ,a small balloon of two feet diameter--a larger body than any bird--can lift only about a quarter of a pound4 ,but1 besides1 many admirable flyers1 such as bats1 have no air cells2 while many animals1 never intended to fly1 are provided with them4 ,it may1 therefore1 be reasonably concluded that flight is in no way connected with air cells1 and the best proof that can be adduced is to be found in the fact that it can be performed to perfection in their absence4 ,,xiv4--,,surface4 ,the next of the three properties necessary for flight1 is the extension of the locomotive organs in winged beings--the planes4 ,although the wings in the different animals differ much in their form1 texture1 construction1 number1 and the matter which composes them1 yet they resemble one another in the expansion and development of their surfaces1 being stretched on each side of the body1 and playing the part of a parachute4 ,the animal1 therefore1 cannot fall like a stone1 in obedience to the accelerated force of gravity1 but it descends with a slow velocity2 constant regular1 and considerably abated4 ,this influence1 then1 exercised by the flat surface on the fall of masses1 is seen in a sheet of paper of the same weight as a grain of lead1 it will fall much more slowly4 ,but if we make the paper a compact ball1 and flatten the lead into a broad1 thin sheet1 the reverse result will be produced1 and the paper reach the ground before the lead4 ,therefore1 bodies in the air are light or heavy in proportion to their surfaces1 and the heaviest may become light by an alteration of form4 ,for successful flight1 then1 a just proportion of surface and weight is necessary2 because1 as stated1 the air being elastic1 its resistance is much more effectual with light bodies than heavy ones2 and this proportion is such that the extent of surface is always in an inverse ratio to the weight of the winged animal4 ,the principle in the fall of flat surfaces is strictly applicable to the bird4 ,its weight1 tending downwards1 and being situated below the plain of suspension1 keeps it well balanced1 so that it cannot fall head over heels1 nor rapidly4 ,if the wings are inclined at an angle with the horizon1 the bird will not descend vertically1 but glide along an inclined plane with much greater swiftness1 because the vertical distance remains unaltered in the same space of time4 ,hence their immense horizontal velocity1 without comparatively any effort4 ,this is in obedience to two forces--gravity1 or weight1 and resistance of surface4 ,,xv4--,,power4 ,but for actual flight a third force is required--the propelling power1 the necessary amount of which has greatly been overrated by many mathematicians4 ,borelli estimated the power of a three pound bird to be over one hundred and thirty horses relatively4 ,but1 ,navier1 more reasonably1 calculated a force of five horses sufficient for the flight of a pigeon4 ,coulomb1 again1 offset this great liberality by demonstrating that the surface to support a man must be two miles long and two hundred feet wide1 with the power of a ,corliss engine to propel such a fifty acre ranch4 ,now1 facts prove that man can1 without danger1 descend from an high elevation under a surface of much less than fifteen feet diameter2 and the force to lift himself1 as will be shown hereafter1 is also comparatively small4 ,he can walk up stairs1 and likewise mount upon air1 which1 properly manipulated1 becomes sufficiently solid4 ,it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt1 that the heaviest flying animals require the smallest amount of surface and power in proportion4 ,the surface is less1 because the resistance of the atmosphere is much greater toward one unbroken body than all the parts thereof if detached4 ,hence a stork1 weighing eight times as much as a pigeon1 needs only five square feet of surface1 while the eight pigeons1 with nearly one square foot each1 possess together over seven square feet2 and the common fly1 if magnified to the size of the crane1 would show a surface sixty times as large4 ,the heaviest flyers require the least amount of power1 because weight1 as stated before1 itself is power1 which increases in a certain ratio4 ,hence we find the muscular force of the smaller beings1 who possess little weight1 to be enormous2 this is particularly so with insects1 who are the strongest in creation4 ,a stag-beetle1 of which two hundred weigh only one pound1 can lift fourteen ounces2 crickets leap eighty times their own length1 and the lively flea can jump through space estimated at even two hundred times the length of its body--which accounts for the difficulty of catching it4 ,if a mouse would simply reproduce the gait of a horse1 its progress would be about twenty inches per minute only1 and cats would soon find themselves out of employment4 ,nature has wisely established a compensation to make amends for the diminutiveness of organs by rapidity of movement1 and has1 consequently1 furnished the animal with the necessary power to produce this rapidity4 ,the force necessary for lifting in all winged beings is not near so great as is generally supposed4 ,the fall of a body1 continually accelerating1 is seventeen feet per second1 and a very great force would be necessary indeed to offset this gravitation1 if that second were allowed to expire without a counter-movement2 but when that body is provided with a parachute-like arrangement1 there is no such rapid fall of seventeen feet per second2 and when1 besides1 the force is applied constantly1 thereby counteracting even a fraction of the fall1 the power needed to accomplish this is but a trifle2 it is the principle1 to use a homely phrase1 that a stitch in time saves nine4 ,what extra strength the animal possesses has to be used in pursuit or escape1 from the powerful eagle to the minutest insect2 they must be prepared to exert at a given moment all the strength that nature has given to them in store4 ,their strength is no greater than that of fishes or quadrupeds2 all possess surplus power greatly above the need of their average use1 and the strength exhibited therefore by flying creatures shows only that but a small portion of it is used for lifting and propelling purposes4 ,eagles have been known to carry off small deer1 lambs1 hares1 and even young children4 ,many of the fishing birds1 as pelicans and herons1 can likewise carry considerable loads1 while the smaller birds are capable of transporting comparatively large twigs for building purposes4 ,a swallow can traverse #ajjj miles at a single journey1 and the swift1 the fastest of all1 is known to have made nearly #ahj miles an hour4 ,the albatross1 despising compass and land-mark1 trusts himself boldly for weeks together to the mercy or fury of the mighty ocean2 and the huge condor of the ,andes1 as ,humboldt1 ,darwin1 ,orton1 and others inform us1 lifts himself to a hight where no sound is heard1 and from an unseen point surveys1 in solitary grandeur1 the wide range of plain and mountain below4 ,he has been seen flying over the ,chimborazo1 and attains1 on occasions1 an altitude of six miles4 ,,xvi4--,,flying ,,creatures1 ,,their ,,proportions1 ,,movements4 ,the great common characteristic of the different winged beings are the same throughout all the modifications of detail4 ,these are1 as stated1 weight1 extension of surface1 and the mechanical application of the propelling force2 so that the animal is a gliding plane1 part of which is fixed and the other moveable1 and the whole being maintained in stable equilibrium by the weight of the body1 placed a little below the plane of suspension4 ,by comparing the different species it is found1 by ,m4 de ,lucy and others1 that the extent of surface is in inverse ratio to the weight1 the determination of this ratio being based upon certain considerations4 ,the proof of this is overwhelming4 ,supposing all flying creatures of the same weight1 say one pound1 it is found that the3 ,gnat possesses #ej ,common fly #bb ,bee #e ,beetle #d ,sparrow #c ,pigeon #a-b_/c ,stork nearly #a ,vulture #c_/d ,crane nearly #a_/b ,square feet of surface per pound4 ,thus we find the gnat1 of which #afj1jjj make one pound1 and which weighs four hundred and sixty times less than the beetle1 has thirteen times more surface1 comparatively4 ,the sparrow weighs about ten times less than the pigeon1 and has twice as much surface in proportion4 ,the ,australian crane--one of the heaviest birds1 it weighs over twenty pounds1 or almost three million times as much as the gnat--possesses the least surface--not quite ten square feet1 or one hundred and twenty times less than that insignificant but formidable animal4 ,yet its flight is1 gliding softly on the air1 without effort or fatigue1 with but little exertion1 the longest maintained1 and it can1 with few exceptions1 elevate itself the highest4 ,in regard to the movements of the wings1 there is a similar ratio2 for1 while the mosquito makes over two hundred wing strokes per second1 the sparrow makes only thirteen1 the buzzard three1 and so on1 continually decreasing with heavier bodies4 ,a word about bats and flying fish4 ,although bats present no real resemblance whatever to birds or insects1 but are much more like ourselves1 they must be classed amongst the creatures of the air1 because they are constantly moving in it1 and governed by the same laws4 ,their flight1 being somewhat fluttering1 but otherwise powerful1 true and perfect1 is undoubtedly caused1 particularly in the early part of the night1 when feeding1 by their darting right and left after the almost invisible numerous insects1 which they devour at once4 ,the wing of the bat is1 like that of the bird1 concavo-convex1 and also more or less twisted upon itself1 but it differs in so far that its arm is not covered with feathers1 but a very delicate membrane1 which forms the parachute-like wing4 ,their nocturnal1 and therefore disreputable habits1 with our dislike for the blood-sucking propensity of a large specie1 the vampire1 has kept our interest in these otherwise harmless and clean creatures at rather freezing point4 ,but they can be tamed easily1 and are capable of giving considerable pleasure4 ,the flight of a shoal of flying-fish as they shoot forth from the dark green wave in a glittering throng1 gleaming brightly in the sunshine1 is a charming sight4 ,but these fish can scarcely be classed with the creatures of the air1 because true flight1 that is the manipulation of the wings1 is lacking4 ,they are mentioned because they represent1 like the kite1 the first step toward that true flight which all other creatures in the air possess4 ,they are capable of moving through the air from #ejj to #fjj feet1 and as much as #bj feet above the water4 ,the fish first acquires initial velocity by a preliminary rush through the water1 when it throws itself suddenly into the air1 and1 at the same moment1 spreads out1 kite-like1 at a slight inclination upwards1 its extraordinarily large pectoral fins4 ,it keeps up the great speed until its momentum is exhausted1 when the same performance is repeated4 ,the fact in favor of mechanical flight is certainly incontrovertible that less surface and less power is required and flight maintained the longest1 in proportion to heavier bodies4 ,it must be convincing1 therefore1 that it is possible for man to apply the laws of flight to industrial purposes in the same manner as he has been able1 in these days1 to apply all the other grand physical laws that he has taken the trouble to study and fathom4 ,the law of surface and force reigns in the most absolute and exact manner over all flying animals4 ,it does not stop here4 ,nature1 whose laws are general and universal1 has not created this one only for the restricted compass of the winged animate beings4 ,the law which sustains on the water the leaf and the straw is the same for the gigantic ,great ,eastern2 and the mechanical law of the forces which drives the wheelbarrow also conducts on its iron line the locomotive and its endless train4 ,,xvii4--,,mechanical ,,practicability ,,of ,,artificial ,,flight4 ,living beings have been1 in every age1 compared to machines1 but it is only in the present day that the bearing and justice of this comparison are fully comprehensible4 ,modern engineers have created machines which execute more difficult and various operations than animate beings are capable of2 yet it is always from nature first that man has to draw his inspirations4 ,of the different functions of animal mechanism1 that of locomotion is certainly one of the most important and interesting2 and as we have brought this art on land and water1 by successfully imitating the natural movements of walking and swimming1 to quite a high state of perfection1 the next great problem1 equally possible1 because flight is a natural movement1 remains to be solved4 ,of course1 as different as the wheel of the locomotive is from the limb of the quadruped1 and the screw of a steamship from the fin of a fish1 so will the coming flying machine differ from the construction of bird1 bat or insect4 ,walking1 swimming and flying are modifications of1 and merging into1 each other by insensible gradations2 and the modifications1 resulting therefrom1 are necessitated by the amount of support afforded on1 and in the different mediums--earth1 water1 air4 ,although flight is1 indisputably1 the finest of the different animal movements1 yet it does not essentially differ from the other two1 as the material and forces employed are literally the same as those in walking and swimming4 ,flight is1 therefore1 a purely mechanical problem1 and in compliance with the law of decrease1 as stated before1 the surface requisite to transport bodies in the air1 is found to be about one-half1 proportionately1 to twelve times the weight4 ,applying this observation to an apparatus of1 say #bjj lbs41 we find that the surface of a bird of #ah lbs4--about one-twelfth of said #bjj lbs4--to be #aj square feet2 multiplying this by twelve1 its weight1 we have #abj square feet of surface1 and of which one-half accordingly1 #fj square feet1 is enough for the support of #bjj pounds4 ,such a machine1 although possessing much less surface than parachutes generally do1 is in the form of inclined planes of proper construction1 fully sufficient for man to slide down safely through the air1 without exertion1 from an elevation at least ten times the vertical distance1 that is1 from the top of the ,palace ,hotel to the foot of ,baldwin's4 ,as to the force required1 although impossible to give datas1 the law of decrease with greater weight reigns absolute here also4 ,man's muscular power for tolerably swift horizontal flight is far greater than necessary2 and1 with properly constructed contrivances1 he will be able to travel1 at an incline upwards of one in thirty1 at least twenty miles an hour1 by manual power alone4 ,a carrier pigeon flies1 for a short time1 at the rate of one hundred miles an hour1 and some birds much faster4 ,but in employing any of the many excellent motive powers at command now1 and with larger machines1 we will be able to surpass the swiftest birds4 ,as for the objection1 that the fury of the wind will hinder artificial flight1 it is refuted by observing that even a hurricane1 which1 traveling over eighty miles an hour1 occurs but rarely1 does hardly prevent the flight of fast birds1 and still less would that of a compact and solid flying machine1 because of its greater weight and momentum4 ,and even if an occasional storm should be dangerous1 the machine1 by its greater swiftness1 could be turned above1 below or sideways1 out of the path of destruction1 or it need not travel at such rare times4 ,besides1 the effect of the storm upon a body within its own medium is insignificant to what it is when that body offers resistance by being attached to another medium1 as ships on the water1 or houses and fences on land4 ,,xviii4--,,flying ,,machines ,,of ,,the ,,present1 ,,their ,,defects4 ,when it was found that no marked improvements could be made in balloons1 the more advanced thinkers1 turning their attention in an opposite direction1 commenced to justly regard the winged being as the true model for flying machines2 and experiments are now being made1 in different parts of the world1 of which all go to prove that flight is far more a question of mechanical adaptation1 construction and manipulation1 than of enormous power1 which1 of course1 in any experiment1 must prove unavailable1 if improperly applied4 ,some of the motive engines1 lately exhibited in ,england1 produced such remarkable power as certainly no bird possesses4 ,one of four-horse power weighed #dj pounds1 and occupied but a few cubic feet2 another of #ac pounds exerted over one-horse power2 and1 at some experiments in ,france last year1 a steam engine of two and a half horse power weighed #hj lbs42 and1 being applied to a machine with two vertical screw propellers of #ab ft4 diameter each1 it raised #abj lbs4 of the whole weight of #afj lbs4 ,but1 as far as known1 these different motive powers have been employed so far only to elevate and propel machines by vertical fan-like contrivances--helicopterics or by aeroplanes1 pushed forward and upward by screw propellers2 either quite as irrational as ballooning1 because the rigid plane1 wedged forward and upward at a given angle1 in a straight line1 or in a circle1 does not embody the principles carried out in nature4 ,hence1 the several advocates of the aeroplane and helicopteric have met with but indifferent success4 ,perhaps the best representative model of a flying machine on the principles of inclined planes1 was that of ,mr4 ,stringfellow1 exhibited in ,london1 in #ahfh1 and which occasionally could rise4 ,it had three aeroplanes1 superimposed as advocated by ,wenham1 the frames of which were made of light wood1 with cloth drawn over it tightly1 like rigid kites1 fixed parallel one above the other1 with a tail attached to the middle one4 ,it had a small box underneath for the motive power1 and a light screw propeller behind for pushing it forward4 ,by giving the machine an upward angle1 the planes strike continually upon new layers of air1 and so cause a rise1 like a kite pushed from behind4 ,the whole structure had about thirty-six square feet of surface1 and weighed1 including the steam engine1 which exerted nearly one-half horse power1 under #ab pounds4 ,it proved conclusively that1 while the inclined plane1 in a practical and different form1 is necessary for aerostation1 the secret of solving the problem lays far more in the mechanical application of certain laws governing the art of flight1 than in enormous power4 ,these kite-form machines did not succeed1 in spite of their great motive power and lightness1 because the supporting planes were not active and flexible1 but presented passive or dead surfaces1 without power to accommodate themselves to altered circumstances4 ,these planes were made to strike the air at a given angle1 instead of continually changing to suit the elastic medium1 and in which respect the ordinary kite is a better flying machine4 ,if not driven with great velocity1 such a machine can not support itself in the atmosphere2 besides1 on account of its great surface exposed1 a strong wind can easily capsize it2 while natural wings1 on the contrary1 present small flying surfaces1 and their great speed converts the space through which they are driven1 into a solid basis for support4 ,this arrangement enables wings to seize and utilize the air1 and renders them superior to the adverse currents1 not of their forming4 ,in this respect they entirely differ from balloons1 and all forms of fixed aeroplanes4 ,the different small helicopteric models1 relying entirely on the aid of the screw1 made from time to time1 were also lacking1 as stated before1 in some of the true principles of flight2 although some of these models could not only rise1 but also carry a certain amount of freight1 as was shown by the delicately constructed clockwork models of ,m4 ,nadar1 a prominent ,french scientist1 and others4 ,one remarkable model1 exhibited some years ago1 was that of ,m4 ,phillips4 ,it was made entirely of metal1 weighed two pounds1 had four two-bladed fans inclined to the horizon at an angle of twenty degrees1 and made to revolve in opposite directions with immense energy4 ,the motive power employed was obtained from the combustion of charcoal1 nitre and gypsum1 the products of combustion mixing with water in the boiler and forming gas-charged steam1 which was delivered at a high pressure from the extremities of the arms of the fans1 on the principle discovered by ,hero1 of ,alexandria4 ,the production of flight by artificial wings is the most ancient method proposed1 and will1 undoubtedly1 in a greatly modified form1 and in combination with other contrivances1 solve the problem2 but to exactly imitate natural wings will be found as impossible as the production by the other different methods proposed so far4 ,of the more recent attempts at the solution of the problem by means of artificial wings1 worked by steam power1 the perhaps most determined was that of ,mr4 ,kauffman1 of ,glasgow4 ,the machine had superimposed aeroplanes1 similar to those used by ,stringfellow4 ,the two wings were of great length1 narrow1 pointed towards the end1 and were made to flap up and down somewhat like the wings of a bird4 ,the model exhibited weighed1 complete1 #db lbs41 but the dimensions for a large machine were to be3 length1 about #cj ft42 hight1 #e ft42 width1 #f ft42 length of each wing1 #fj ft42 surface of each1 #djj ft42 total weight of machine1 #hjjj lbs42 nominal power1 #abj horses2 intended speed1 #fj miles per hour2 with water supply for five hours and oil as fuel for ten hours4 ,besides1 a pendule1 weighing #he lbs41 and #dj ft4 in length1 was attached1 which could1 telescope-like1 be drawn up when necessary4 ,the model was made exactly1 to show the inventor's theory1 and to ascertain if the connection to the wings could be made strong enough to withstand the violent twisting and bending strains to which they were exposed4 ,when steam at a pressure of over #aej lbs4 was turned on1 the wings made a short series of furious flaps and broke4 ,the experiment failed1 because1 to exactly imitate the movements of the long and delicate wings of fast-flying birds on a large scale1 is impossible2 the leverage to flap up and down #fj ft4 long wings being simply enormous beyond computation1 and no material can be found strong enough to withstand it4 ,another machine1 the propulsion of which was also to be effected by means of artificial wings1 was exhibited some years ago in ,england4 ,it differed entirely from the other in this respect1 that it was very light1 weighing scarcely #cj lbs41 and was intended for a man to fly by his own muscular power4 ,it had about #gj square feet of surface1 two short wings1 and the ribs were made of paragon wire1 such as is used in umbrellas1 and covered with silk4 ,by a preliminary quick run1 the inventor could take short1 jump-like flights of more than #ajj feet2 but this machine was also in a very crude state of perfection4 ,these different practical experiments1 although more or less unsuccessful1 and others similar1 but of which many models were far more ingenious than practical1 have at least established the certain prospect and certainty of an early solution of the problem4 ,and were it not that but very few1 comparatively1 of the great number of theories1 which have been proposed from time to time for the accomplishment of this great object1 have been submitted to anything resembling even the remotest approach to practical tests1 and that the lack of means is generally the insurmountable barrier in experimenting1 aerial navigation would to-day be an established fact4 ,,xix4--,,the ,,practical ,,flying ,,ship ,,of ,,the ,,near ,,future4 ,possessing then1 all the datas possible on the subject1 it is1 perhaps1 not so very difficult as is generally supposed1 to arrive at a satisfactory result2 and1 like other great inventions before1 the coming air ship will also be a rather simple affair4 ,while it will not likely possess such prodigious weight as #hjjj to #aj1jjj pounds1 with a hundred and twenty horse-power steam engine--sufficient almost for a man of war1 it will neither be as light as a feather1 comparatively1 but hold the golden middle4 ,the inclined planes1 in a greatly modified form1 will by no means be discarded1 as in fact no flying machine could be built otherwise4 ,but1 as stated before1 this is only one principle long recognized1 the ,a ,b ,c1 so to speak1 towards the solution of the problem4 ,these planes1 in wedging forward1 for certain reasons1 should be elastic1 in some manner1 and which has not been attempted by any inventor yet4 ,the frames and covering of all models1 built so far1 have been rigid and immoveable1 and yet1 even with these great defects1 partial success has been obtained already4 ,the fan or screw never will be used as the only means in propelling1 but will be very effective in doing service as a part of the whole1 with other contrivances in driving and guiding4 ,but their form and style must be considerably different from anything known at present4 ,a modified and peculiar form and style of wings1 as mentioned here before1 must also be employed in combination with the planes and fans1 to serve the double purpose of driving and lifting4 ,by the manipulation of these wings the accumulating and compressed air is thrown underneath the machine1 thereby urging the same in a forward and upward direction1 and by which the planes in front are made to continually rise upon new layers of the elastic medium1 like a kite when the boy runs forward4 ,the planes must be fixed in such a manner that they can be set at different angles with the horizon1 in order that the machine may rise sooner when the angle is greatest1 because of the greater resistance of the air against a larger surface exposed2 and to glide through the atmosphere swifter1 after elevation has been attained1 when the angle of the planes is most acute1 thereby offering the least amount of surface to the horizontally opposing air4 ,no flying creature rises in the air vertically1 but ascends at an incline4 ,a swallow1 one of the very best flyers1 lifts itself with difficulty from the ground4 ,an eagle1 particularly after eating1 has to run some distance flapping its wings vigorously before it can rise4 ,an insect1 possessing considerable spring-power in its limbs1 always takes a good jump at the moment its wings are spread out for elevation1 at an upward angle forward4 ,with similar contrivances for the purpose must a practical flying machine be provided4 ,it should1 in combination with a certain amount of spring power1 to enable it to rise with greater ease at the final moment1 and also to reduce the shock in alighting to a minimum1 have wheels to run over the ground1 until sufficient force and momentum has been attained to launch it into the boundless realms of space4 ,to be thoroughly practical1 the machine must be under perfect control1 and be made to descend upon any spot desired with absolute safety and ease4 ,this can be accomplished by the combined effort of the propellors and wings4 ,by exerting the power of these contrivances in opposite directions the disturbed atmosphere is thrown in volumes underneath the machine1 which1 on account of its similarity to a parachute1 although of a greatly different form1 can be made to descend vertically and very slow4 ,the doubt expressed by many1 that the guidance of an air ship is possible1 is easily refuted4 ,all bodies1 possessing the propelling force within them1 can guide themselves in an elastic medium4 ,of this we have millions of examples before us in all flying creatures4 ,finally1 a practical shape and proper size and weight will form one of the most essential elements in a successful flying machine1 and which has been disregarded more or less so far4 ,of course1 it is impossible to calculate already1 before an actual machine has been built and datas can be fixed1 the limits of these factors in the average aerial structure4 ,my impressions are1 that the weight of a single carriage will be from #djj to #ejj lbs41 inclusive2 a motive force of #c to #e horse power4 ,it will have a total length of from forty to fifty feet1 by about the same in width1 from tip to tip2 and a surface of from #ejj to #fjj square feet will be more than sufficient to sustain a total weight of #ajjj lbs42 for such a machine will be capable to carry from three to four persons1 or its equivalent weight of express matter1 letters1 newspapers1 and other light freight4 ,of course1 free mail facilities for our wise solons will1 perhaps1 unfortunately have to be barred out4 ,when the novelty and excitement of this style of travel will have subsided1 we may take the next step in aerostation by carrying a much greater number of passengers and heavier freight2 not in a single machine1 but by making two or more to support inclined planes of certain construction between them4 ,these planes1 in swift horizontal flight1 could be made to carry1 in suitable cars underneath1 much more than their own weight1 because the power of support which the air affords to inclined planes at a great speed is simply enormous1 amounting to #ej lbs4 per square ft4 in a pressure of #ajj miles per hour4 ,for this purpose1 the manner of placing these aeroplanes one above the other1 as proposed by ,mr4 ,wenham many years ago1 would be practical to some extent4 ,the great swiftness with which these machines are expected to travel1 seems at first to rouse fear in us to trust our more or less valuable lives into such a wonderful structure2 and it possibly staggers our belief that such great speed can be performed with any degree of safety to brittle bone and breathing valve4 ,but all these objections are easily refuted4 ,the aerial traveler sits securely inside the strong machine1 in no danger of catching a cold from the strong air-current rushing by1 very much like the passenger in a railroad car2 and if of an inquisitive turn of mind for the beauty of the surrounding panorama1 he has suitable windows for observation4 ,if the air passenger suffers from gout1 rheumatism1 or is susceptible to sea-sickness1 he will experience no inconvenience1 because there is no jogging1 no rumbling over cobble-stones or broken rails1 or riding on a heavy sea2 he will feel no motion at whatever hight he may be1 but will glide voluptuously--without perception almost--like a summer cloud through the vast ocean of the aerial fluid4 ,the machine being under perfect control1 can be made to travel very slow when towards the point of destination1 and may be stopped at any hight to remain stationary or leisurely descend4 ,and lastly1 speed appears greatly diminished when the object is viewed from a distance1 as we can observe on a railroad train4 ,a telegraph pole standing near the track will flit by like a flash of lightning1 so to speak2 but if any considerable distance off1 it disappears very slow4 ,but when an object is followed by the eye from a considerable elevation1 this fact is still more striking4 ,the eye can command at a glance almost hundreds of miles of country1 and a city can be seen at a distance of at least fifty miles in advance1 giving the aeronaut ample time for preparing a descent1 if so desired4 ,of course1 he must be well acquainted with landmarks1 to know what part of country he is in2 but this knowledge will be acquired much easier than water navigation4 ,such about will be the coming flying-machine of the near future4 ,the natural elements1 so far from presenting barriers and obstacles1 as they do to a great extent on land and ocean navigation1 seem to be peculiarly inviting to aerostation4 ,previous to nearly every great discovery1 difficulties have been thought to exist which its completion dissolved4 ,in the days of stage-coaching1 the expectations held out by those interested in steam transport were considered1 even by most competent and intelligent men1 as wholly chimerical2 yet the locomotive far surpasses the race-horse in speed and endurance4 ,when practice proved and datas could be fixed1 that smooth tires met all the requirements on railroads--in place of cogwheels to gear into racks--how easy all calculations on adhesive force and friction then became4 ,so with flight4 ,,xx4--,,what ,,the ,,changes ,,for ,,the ,,better ,,will ,,be4 ,it is impossible to overestimate the benefits which will accrue to mankind from such a creation4 ,flying will become a studied art1 an amusement1 an accomplishment1 and inconvenience from sultry heat1 or freezing cold1 or deadly epidemics will no longer be suffered4 ,flying will become a business1 a trade1 and the advantages derived from it for industrial purposes will be wonderfully great4 ,new channels of employment will be opened to thousands1 yes1 millions of starving fellow-beings4 ,a new era will be inaugurated in history2 and great as has been the destiny of our race1 it will be quite outlustred by the grandeur and magnitude of coming events4 ,traveling at a speed of over one hundred miles an hour1 distance will become comparatively annihilated4 ,cutting through the air from ,san ,francisco to ,new ,york1 for instance1 in twenty-four hours1 at one-sixth in cost and time2 far safer1 because of no irregulations nor obstructions of road1 no snow-blockades or unnecessary delays2 far cheaper1 because of no great expense for outfit or maintenance1 the aerial carriage will soon become the great means of travel throughout the world4 ,the vast uninhabited but productive regions of this globe will be populated from overcrowded and impoverished communities1 because of the extraordinary cheap1 safe1 and rapid travel by flying machines4 ,new life will again be imparted to enterprise1 speculation and labor2 and lands will be cultivated and great cities be built in regions where the foot of human being has not trod for ages4 ,the ,andes and ,rocky ,mountains will become as familiar to us as the hills of our own city2 and mining and other discoveries will follow each other with wonderful rapidity4 ,the vexing and expensive explorations in the interiors of ,africa and ,australia1 and towards the ,north ,pole1 will soon be brought to a speedy and satisfactory conclusion2 and some of the wildest dreams of men be realized4 ,,xxi4--,,concluding ,,remarks4 ,the accomplishment of aerial navigation1 then1 is within reach2 its practicability can no longer be denied4 ,it will be one of the most glorious and fruitful conquests1 and of the highest value and importance to civilized nations4 ,but all inventions1 and particularly an undertaking of such gigantic nature1 require pecuniary assistance4 ,this should not1 in our age of progress1 be lacking for a single moment2 because1 if for no other reason1 the first promoters of it will reap such great financial benefits therefrom as must be beyond their calculation4 ,singer1 ,howe1 ,colt1 ,mc,cormick1 and hundreds of others1 all1 with thousands of friends so immensely wealthy1 bear out this assertion4 ,let not this enlightened age look upon a great invention as was done in ,robert ,fulton's time1 when he proposed the steamship to ,napoleon in #ahja4 ,the plan was laid before a scientific commission1 and these learned men reported it as visionary and impracticable4 ,such was the reception which steam navigation1 that has achieved such immense results1 first received at the hands of philosophy and capital2 but ,france lost thereby1 indirectly1 the control of ,europe1 and ,napoleon his crown2 while another nation--,america--more wise1 ten years later commenced to reap the benefits emanating from ,fulton's genius4 ,means1 then1 being necessary for the accomplishment of this great object1 let them be forthcoming at once1 that ,california may enjoy the honor and the first fruits of this great invention4 ,in conclusion1 let me thank you for the kind attention you have bestowed upon a weak exponent of a great subject4 ,transcriber ,notes ,passages in italics were indicated by underscores4 ,small caps were replaced with ,,all ,,caps4 ,throughout the document1 the oe ligature was replaced with oe4 ,errors in punctuations and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected unless otherwise noted below3 ,on page #d1 ,koenigsberg was replaced with one from ,koenigsberg1 and some days ago was replaced with some days afterward1 both per the ,errata page4 ,on page #g1 gass was replaced with gas4 ,on page #aj1 nade was replaced with made4 ,on page #ab1 the comma after ,m was replaced with a period4 ,on page #ac1 indiscribable was replaced with indescribable4 ,on page #ac aeronaut was replaced with aeronaut4 ,on page #ad1 the semicolon after eye can reach was replaced with a comma4 ,on page #ad1 posititons was replaced with positions ,on page #ae1 intensily was replaced with intensely4 ,on page #af aeronaut was replaced with aeronaut4 ,on page #bb1 charletans was replaced with charlatans4 ,on page #be1 strenght was replaced with strength4 ,on page #bh1 ,,xi in the chapter title was replaced with ,,xv4 ,on page #ca1 ,,xvi4-- was added in the chapter title4 ,on page #ca1 by was replaced with fly4 ,on page #cd1 opperations was replaced with operations4 ,on page #ce1 meahanism was replaced with mechanism4 ,on page #cf1 the lb bar symbol 7called the pound sign7 was replaced with lb4 ,sometimes1 through the book1 the author used the lb bar symbol and other times the author used lbs4 ,on page #ci1 aeorastation was replaced with aerostation4 ,on page #dd1 horrizontally was replaced with horizontally4 ,on page #de1 air-ship was replaced with air ship4 ,on page #di1 anihilated was replaced with annihilated4