,,ancient ,,faiths ,,and ,,modern3 ,a ,dissertation upon ,worships1 ,legends and ,divinities ,in ,central ,and ,western ,asia1 ,europe1 ,and ,elsewhere1 ,before ,the ,christian ,era4 ,showing ,their ,relations ,to ,religious ,customs ,as ,they ,now ,exist4 ,by ,thomas ,inman1 ,m4,d4 ,author ,of ,ancient ,faiths ,embodied ,in ,ancient ,names1 ,etc41 ,etc4 ,consulting ,physician ,to ,the ,royal ,infirmary1 ,liverpool2 ,lecturer1 ,successively1 ,on ,botany1 ,medical ,jurisprudence1 ,therapeutics1 ,materia ,medica1 ,and ,the ,principles ,and ,practice ,ok ,medicine1 ,etc41 ,in ,the ,liverpool ,school ,ok ,medicine4 ,etc4 #ahgf ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,thirst ,,after ,,knowledge1 ,,and ,,are ,,not ,,deterred ,,from ,,seeking ,,it ,,by ,,the ,,fear ,,of ,,imaginary ,,dangers1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,inscribed1 ,,with ,,great ,,respect1 ,by ,,the ,,author ,,preface4 ,some thirty years ago1 after a period of laborious study1 ,i became the ,house ,surgeon of a large ,infirmary4 ,in that institution ,i was enabled to see the practice of seven different doctors1 and to compare the results which followed from their various plans of treatment4 ,i soon found that the number of cures was nearly equal amongst them all1 and became certain that recovery was little influenced by the medicine given4 ,the conclusion drawn was that the physician could do harm1 but that his power for good was limited4 ,this induced me to investigate the laws of health and of disease1 with an especial desire to discover some sure ground on which the healing art might safely stand4 ,the inquiry was a long one1 and to myself satisfactory4 ,the conclusions to which ,i came were extremely simple--amounting almost to truisms2 and ,i was surprised that it had required long and sustained labour to find out such very homely truths as those which ,i seemed to have unearthed4 ,yet1 with this discovery came the assurance that1 if ,i could induce my medical brethren to adopt my views1 they would deprive themselves of the means of living4 ,men1 like horses or tigers1 monkeys and codfish1 can do without doctors4 ,here and there1 it is true1 that the art and skill of the physician or surgeon can relieve pain1 avert danger from accidents1 and ward off death for a time2 but1 in the generality of cases1 doctors are powerless4 ,it is the business of such men1 however1 to magnify their office to the utmost4 ,they get their money ostensibly by curing the sick2 but it is clear1 that the shorter the illness the fewer will be the fees1 and the more protracted the attendance the larger must be the honorarium4 ,there is1 then1 good reason why the medical profession should discourage too close an investigation into truth4 ,but1 outside of this fraternity1 there are many men desirous of understanding the principles of the healing art ,many of these have begun by noticing the style of the doctor's education4 ,they find that he is taught in halls1 colleges1 and schools1 for a certain period of time2 and then1 at about the age of two-and-twenty1 he is examined by some experienced men1 and1 if considered competent1 he pays certain fees1 and is then licensed to practise as physician4 ,as all regular doctors go through this course1 it is natural that all should think and act in a common way1 and style their doctrines orthodox4 ,it is equally certain that to such opinion the majority adhere through life4 ,but it has always happened1 that many men and women have aspired to the position of medical professors1 without going through the usual career2 or1 having done so1 they have struck out a novel plan of practice1 which they designate a new method of cure4 ,these have always been opposed by the orthodox1 and the contest is carried on with varying success1 until the general public give their verdict on one side or the other4 ,into the motives which sway the respective combatants we will not enter2 our chief desire being to show that each set is upheld by those who are designated laymen1 whose education has not been medical ,the most intelligent on the heterodox side have been clergymen2 and many have been the complaints of orthodox doctors1 that the parsons should patronize1 so energetically as they do1 medical dissenters4 ,as the clerk takes pleasure in examining the therapeutical doctrines of his physician1 so the medical professor frequently inquires closely into his clergyman's theological views and feels himself at liberty to accept or oppose them1 as the clerk adopts or attacks him and his theory and practice4 ,it would1 indeed1 be disrespectful in the listener not to pay intelligent heed to the discourses which emanate from the pulpit4 ,i have myself listened to the preaching of hundreds of university graduates1 and of men who never took a degree1 and have noticed that the same diversity of style exists amongst them1 as is to be found in medical men4 ,some order a certain plan of treatment for a soul1 which they assert to be grievously affected1 and give no reason for what they say or do4 ,others give their motives for everything which they affirm1 and for the plan which they prescribe for cure4 ,under the ministry of one of the last ,i sat for many years4 ,conspicuous for sound judgment1 and for a peculiarly clear oratory1 his sermons were to me an intellectual treat4 ,from the exordium1 forwards1 ,i followed his words closely1 and lost none of his arguments4 ,but ,i soon became conscious that he never once carried his reasoning to its logical conclusion4 ,still further1 it was manifest that certain things were by him taken for granted2 and it was held to be culpable to inquire into the reality of those assumptions4 ,in fine1 it was evident1 that there was a ,bluebeard's closet in the house of ,god1 into which1 in the preacher's opinion1 it was death to pry6 ,with the idea which was gradually forced upon my mind1 that there was a systematic suppression of the truth in the pulpit1 ,i very carefully searched the ,bible1 with which ,i have been familiar from infancy1 and upon which1 it is asserted1 all our faith is founded4 ,at this time1 too1 a casual inquiry into some ancient cognomens1 which have descended to us from remote antiquity1 induced me to examine into ancient faiths generally4 ,with this became associated an examination of all religions1 and their influence upon mankind4 ,i found that in every nation there have been1 and still are1 good men and bad1 gentle and brutal1 thoughtful and ignorant4 ,that the best men of ,paganism--,buddha1 for example--did not lose1 by comparison1 with the brightest light of ,christianity2 and that such large cities as ,london and ,paris1 have as much vice within them as ancient ,rome or modern ,calcutta4 ,i found1 moreover1 that there is a culpable colouring in the accounts given by ,christian travellers of ,pagan countries4 ,the clerical pen rests invariably and strongly upon the bad points of every heathen cult1 and contrasts them with the best elements of ,christianity4 ,i do not know that it has ever instituted a fair comparison between corresponding characters in each faith4 ,as an illustration of my meaning1 let us regard the stern virtue of the ,roman ,lucretia1 who committed suicide1 her body having been forcibly defiled by the embraces of another than her husband1 even though the ravisher was a prince4 ,she had heard nothing of the ,jewish law or ,christian gospel1 nevertheless she was far better than the wives of the nobles in the courts of ,louis the ,,xiv4 and ,,xv41 who gladly sold themselves and their daughters to the royal lechers4 ,these1 unlike the ,italian woman1 were instructed both in the law and the gospel2 they attended one place or another of ,christian worship daily or weekly4 ,nay1 if report be true1 the eldest son of the ,church1 when he visited the parc aux cerfs1 made each fresh virgin1 victim of his passion1 duly say her prayers before she assisted him to commit adultery1 and herself permitted fornication6 ,we sympathize with ,paul and the early ,christian fathers in their denunciations of the ,romans and ,greeks for obscenities practised in honour of their gods2 but1 at the same time1 we feel sure that1 had those apostles and teachers lived in the middle ages1 they would have denounced1 with greater warmth1 the murders which were constantly being perpetrated in honour of ,jesus4 ,in like manner1 we may greatly regret1 with the writer of ,psalm xiv41 that amongst the children of men1 there is none that doeth good2 no1 not one2 but we must equally bow before the statement of ,ezekiel 7ch4 xxii4 #cj71 that there was no more propriety amongst the so-called chosen people of ,god1 than amongst the ,gentile ,canaanites and ,babylonians4 ,again1 we feel pain when we find the great ones of the earth--aye1 and many small ones too--seeking out for villains1 willing to commit murder for a mede1 and lament that lawgivers should secretly encourage lawlessness2 but we cannot forget that ,jesus of ,nazareth is represented1 in ,john vi4 #gj1 to have selected a devil to bring about certain ends--see also ,john xiii4 #bf1 #bg1 in which the agency is well marked4 ,modern divines tell us that war1 tumult1 hatred1 malice1 quarrels of all kinds1 and murder come from the devil1 and are the direct result of our fallen nature2 nevertheless1 we remember that ,jesus is reported to have said--,i came not to send peace1 but a sword2 ,i am come to set a man at variance against his father1 and the daughter against the mother1 c4 7,matt4 x4 #cd1 #ce74 ,when we institute comparisons like these1 the balance is not uneven4 ,i found1 moreover1 that the sharply defined line1 commonly drawn between ,paganism and ,christianity1 is worthless--the doctrines of the latter being1 in many respects1 identical with1 or deduced from1 the former4 ,it seemed necessary1 therefore1 to ascertain whether1 in religion1 any other line than the one in vogue in ,europe1 could be drawn with certainty4 ,the result of my observations showed a wonderful similarity to exist between the clerical and medical profession2 and ,i feel that1 if my views about the cure of souls and bodies were generally adopted1 there would be no need either for parson or for doctor4 ,instead of discovering1 as ,i had hoped to do1 which of all the rival sects of ,christendom is the best one1 ,i found that all were unnecessary1 that many are degraded in doctrine and bad in practice2 and that1 if any must exist1 the one which effects the least mischief should be the one selected for general adoption4 ,it required much courage to allow myself to believe that doctors have1 taking everything into consideration1 done more harm in the world than good1 and still more to announce my conviction that ,christianity was even more culpable than medicine4 ,the physician1 when professing to cure1 has too often assisted disease to kill2 and he who has had the cure of souls1 has invented plans to make believers in his doctrine miserable4 ,the first fills his coffers proportionally to the extent to which he can protract recovery2 the second becomes rich in proportion to the success with which he multiplies mental terrors1 and then sells repose4 ,the one enfeebles the body1 the other cripples the intellect1 and aggravates envy1 hatred1 and malice4 ,both are equally influential in preventing man from being such as we believe that the ,almighty designed him to be4 ,though we oppose the old plan of medication of body and mind1 we are far from asserting that there is no value in an honest doctor1 either of divinity or medicine4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have a stronger faith in my own profession1 as it has been reformed1 than ever ,i had ere the light of good sense had shone upon it2 and ,i have a far more confident trust in the religion propounded by ,f4 ,w4 ,newman1 in ,theism1 than in that current amongst ,christians in general ,but in such schemes of physic and faith1 very few ministers are necessary1 shams find no place1 and emoluments are small ,a man who communes with his ,god requires no priest1 mediator1 middle-man1 or saint--whether virgin1 martyr1 or both--to intercede for him4 ,holding such opinions as these1 it is not probable that ,i shall find many followers4 ,i do not seek them4 ,my aim has been to set good sterling stuff before the world1 so that any one1 whose self-reliance is great1 may receive strength4 ,there are many who would rather die with a physician close beside them when they are ill1 than live without a doctor2 and there are few who would not rather enjoy the fear of hell with the orthodox1 than be with heretics free from such terrors--,for sure1 the pleasure is as great in being cheated1 as to cheat4 ,to all such our writings are caviare4 ,yet1 even to them1 we would say that we have warrant for our belief in statements1 to which the orthodox cannot reasonably object--viz41 ,if thou doest well1 shalt thou not be accepted8 7,gen4 iv4 #g72 ,in every nation1 he that feareth ,god1 and worketh righteousness1 is accepted with him 7,acts x4 #ce72 ,he that doeth righteousness1 is righteous 7#a ,john iii4 #g74 ,let me contrast my own views with those generally current amongst us4 ,i believe that ,god did not make men1 any more than the beasts1 to damn the largest number of them throughout eternity4 ,i believe that all who aver that they have been selected by the ,creator from all the world besides as the only recipients of salvation are wrong1 and deceivers of the people4 ,in fine1 ,i believe that ,god's tender mercies are over all his works4 ,the common opinion that the ,almighty so revels in cruelty1 that ,he makes creatures to torture them1 is a horrible one to me--fit only to come from impotent ,pagan priests4 ,that ,jehovah selected about one million of bad men1 out of about four hundred other millions equally bad1 solely because their progenitor1 ,abraham1 consented to murder and burn his son1 is to me a frightful blasphemy2 and1 lastly1 that ,god has no tender mercies for nine-tenths of the human race1 is to convert our conception of the ,author of all good into the conventional ,devil4 ,the comparison may be summed up thus3 ,i believe in ,god1 the ,father of all things2 the so-called orthodox believe in the ,god ,satan4 ,i do not know anything in all my studies which excited my attention more painfully than the result of the analysis of ,jehovah's character1 as given in our ,bible4 ,kind to those who are said to please ,him1 ,he is a fearful demon to all who are said to oppose ,him4 ,how can any reasonable man hold the opinion that the ,devil instigated all atrocities of the ,syrians1 ,chaldees1 ,assyrians1 ,romans1 ,turks1 ,tartars1 ,saracens1 ,affghans1 ,mahometans1 and ,hindoos1 and believe that the good ,god drowned the whole world1 and nearly every single thing that had life2 that ,he ordered the extermination1 not only of ,midianites and ,amalekites1 but slaughtered1 in one way or another1 all the people whom he led out of ,egypt--except two--merely because they had a natural fear of war4 ,what was the massacre at ,cawnpore to that in ,jericho and other ,canaanite cities8 ,i say it with sober seriousness--in sorrow1 not in anger--as a thinking man1 and not as an advocate for1 or against1 any religious view1 that it is an awful thing for any nation to permit a book to circulate1 as a sacred one1 in which ,god and the ,devil are painted in the same colours4 ,into this analysis of religion ,i was led to enter from the observation of a friend1 who challenged me to find1 in any non-,hebraic or non-,christian country1 a faith or practice equal to that current amongst the followers of ,moses and ,jesus1 or to discover any spot in the wide world where there is1 or has been1 a civilization equal to that which existed in ,judea1 and the parts inhabited by ,christians4 ,in consequence of this defiance1 it became more than ever necessary for me to study the nature of the current faith and practice of ,christendom1 and to inquire how far the latter was dependent upon the former--that is to say1 whether the practices of civilization are due to our religion1 or have gradually grown up in spite of it4 ,the next point was to pay similar heed to the doctrines and manner of life common amongst those to whom our ,bible has been wholly unknown4 ,many of the conclusions to which ,i came have already appeared in the second volume of ,ancient ,faiths1 under the heads of ,religion1 ,theology1 c42 but others came upon me when that book had been completed1 and the present supplement is designed with the idea of expressing1 still further1 the extent of my views1 and the evidence upon which they are founded--with special reference to the differential value of ,christian and unchristian faith and practice4 ,as was natural1 this involved the question constantly before my mind in the preceding volumes--viz41 ,is there in reality anything in the ,hebrew and the ,christian theology essentially different from that promulgated by the leaders of divinity in other countries8 ,this point has repeatedly been discussed1 and amongst the orthodox there is no difficulty in allowing the existence of a strong similarity in all systems of religion2 but the value of the fact is supposed to be reduced to ridicule by the monstrous assertion1 that ,moses and ,jesus taught all the world4 ,amongst the books which came under my notice1 whilst prosecuting my search1 was a very remarkable one1 called ,the ,modern ,buddhist1 now ,the ,wheel of the ,law1 which is an account of the religious thoughts of a ,siamese monarch1 with a statement of his conversations with ,christian missionaries4 ,in this the ,british churchman and non-conformist can see themselves as others see them2 and the ,asiatic has quite as great1 perhaps even a superior1 right to call the ,european poor and benighted1 as the ,christian has to call the ,buddhist a miserable ,pagan4 ,notwithstanding my endeavours to be perfectly judicial1 and to give what ,i believe to be an impartial account of the subjects which ,i describe1 ,i have been1 by certain critics1 accused of special pleading4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to deny the charge1 for each reader must judge of my fairness1 or otherwise1 for himself4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,i retort most strongly1 by averring that ,i have not met1 in the whole course of my reading1 a religious work by an orthodox divine1 which does not bear false witness against its neighbours4 ,there is in all both a suppressio veri and a suggestio falsi1 which makes the honest inquirer almost entirely reject their books4 ,in addition to this1 there is in them a recklessness of statement and assertion which is unequalled1 except in the fierce controversies of ancient doctors4 ,the perfect contempt which certain puny divines1 who have endeavoured to throw dirt upon the present ,bishop of ,natal1 show for the laws of evidence1 and the systematic way in which they avoid every real point at issue1 are marvellous to those who know that such people have had an university education1 have studied logic1 and profess an unlimited respect for truth4 ,in future years the theological writings1 generally1 of our time will be as much objurgated by enlightened1 earnest1 and thoughtful readers1 as ,protestants of to-day abuse the theology and prurience of ,sanchez1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 and ,peter ,dens4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would wish to add1 that ,i am conscious1 from the amount of correspondence which ,i have had on the subject in hand1 that there is not only a wide1 but a constantly extending dissatisfaction with the current theology taught by the ministers of all denominations--excepting1 as a body1 the ,unitarians1 and such individuals as ,bishop ,colenso1 ,bishop ,hinds1 ,mr ,voysey1 and others4 ,the laity are awaking to the fact that priests are strenuously endeavouring to quench the light of reason in the fogs of faith4 ,unless the ,protestantism1 of which ,great ,britain was once so proud1 decides to drift into ,papism--the only legitimate harbour for those who reject reason for a guide--it must thoroughly reform itself1 and ruthlessly reject1 as necessary to salvation1 every article of belief which is not only nonsensical or absurd1 but which has unquestionably descended from a grovelling ,paganism4 ,to this end we hope that our essays will contribute4 ,,introductory ,,chapter ,i4 ,a recapitulation4 ,destruction of an old edifice precedes the building of another on the same site4 ,chichester ,cathedral4 ,difficulties of reconstruction4 ,innovators are regarded as enemies4 ,the ,old ,testament appraised4 ,the ,jews and their pretensions4 ,hebraic idea of ,jehovah4 ,the sun and moon4 ,god and goddess4 ,importance of sexual perfection in a ,hebrew male4 ,women are prizes given to the faithful ,jews4 ,almost everything ,jewish came from ,pagan sources1 except the ,sabbath4 ,inquiry into the ,new ,testament necessarily follows upon an investigation of the ,old4 ,thoughts upon the history of ,christianity4 ,malignancy of its professors4 ,life of ,jesus1 by various authors4 ,the ground preoccupied4 ,the plan proposed4 ,in commencing another volume of a series1 and one to a great extent independent of the other two1 it is advisable to pause and recapitulate the points advanced1 and the positions attained4 ,this is the more necessary when the present inquiry is a natural result of a preceding one1 and when an attempt is made to collect and arrange the scattered materials into an harmonious and consistent edifice4 ,our volumes on the subject of ,ancient ,faiths in ,ancient ,names were1 to a great extent1 destructive4 ,they struck heavy blows in all directions1 wherever a false idol was to be recognized1 and they destroyed many a cherished delusion1 which was to many as dear as the apple of their eye4 ,but1 throughout the whole process of destruction1 the idea of the necessity for a reconstruction was present to the mind of the author4 ,it may1 indeed1 be propounded as an interesting question1 whether any iconoclast ever destroys the idols which his fellow-beings cherish1 without entertaining the belief that he has something superior to offer in their place4 ,when the fanatic ,spaniards upset1 fractured1 and ground to powder the stone monsters venerated by the ,mexicans1 they offered to the natives the image of a lovely virgin and her gentle son to replace them2 and when the enthusiastic ,scotchmen destroyed the marble saints and gaudy figures of the ,popish churches throughout their own country1 they eagerly set forth the superiority of adoring the invisible creator in spirit and imagination1 which afforded scope for the most entrancing mental delineations1 and was far superior to reverencing an ugly effigy1 which no one with any correct taste could admire4 ,in like manner1 when the ,mahometan ,caliph destroyed the library of ,alexandria1 he offered to the mourners in its place the book of the ,prophet ,mahomet1 which was1 in his eyes1 a pearl of so great price as to be equivalent in value to all the world besides4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that the process of destruction is far more easy than the task of reconstruction4 ,the engineer who is called upon to remove a bridge1 on account of the badness of its foundation1 may admire the extraordinary firmness with which every stone has been dovetailed together1 and1 with the means at his command1 may be unable to construct another having a similar appearance of stability2 yet1 after all1 an arch which is secure and stable is preferable to one which is good only in appearance4 ,a very few years have elapsed since it was found that the tower and spire of the ,cathedral at ,chichester had been so built that there was imminent danger of the whole falling down4 ,this part of the edifice resembled certain faiths which have been raised with great art to a vast height1 with very slender and inadequate material4 ,so long as they were not assailed by any storm1 or tested by the changes which time produces1 they seemed firm and unshakable2 but1 when they were really tried1 they began to undergo a process similar to that which obtained in the ,cathedral named--the admirers of the edifice attempted to prop up the failing tower2 with iron and timber they shored up its bulging sides2 they erected strong scaffolds to ease the mighty strain upon the crumbling walls2 but all in vain--the lovely spire1 built upon a foundation as rotten as the ,mormon faith1 came tumbling down1 and the tall emblem pointing to the sky returned once more to earth4 ,before there could be any reconstruction attempted1 it was necessary to procure all the material necessary2 and when1 with great labour1 this was accumulated1 a fresh erection was made1 which was far stronger than the first1 for every stone was duly examined1 and solid masonry replaced the ancient rubble4 ,so it has been with many a faith4 ,christianity has replaced the crumbling ,judaism which existed at the beginning of our era1 and the ,reformed ,church has since then1 in many countries1 replaced the gigantic sham of ,popery4 ,but the metaphor is one which we cannot wholly adopt1 inasmuch as we believe that no faith of ancient times has ever wholly fallen like the spire and tower of ,chichester1 nor has any new system of belief the solidity of that new edifice which has replaced the old4 ,the difficulties connected with reconstruction are greatly increased by the propensity which is so common in the human mind to make the best of that which is in actual existence and familiar to the vulgar1 rather than to adopt something entirely new4 ,the child who dislikes to go to bed at night equally dislikes to get up in the morning1 and we have known elderly people who have systematically preferred an old lumbering stage-coach to a first-class compartment in a railway carriage4 ,in every walk of life an innovator is regarded as an enemy by the majority1 and especially by those whose practice or whose theories his discoveries supersede4 ,yet1 great as is the contest which any new truth has to sustain1 there is no doubt whatever that the first part of the fight--the preliminaries essential to conquest1 are the investigation of the ground to be occupied2 the real value of the defences2 the superiority of the armour2 and the temper1 strength1 and tenacity of the offensive weapons4 ,the engineer to whom is confided the attack or the defence of a town will abandon or destroy everything which would harbour an enemy or facilitate his operations4 ,the fighting commodore1 ere he carries his ship into action1 sacrifices readily all the gewgaws of luxury2 and in like manner the ecclesiastic ought never to endanger his position by spending his energies in the defence of a useless outwork or a tinsel ornament4 ,entertaining these views ourselves1 our first effort has been to clear the ground1 and to remove every object which we consider to be detrimental to the spread of truth4 ,we have demonstrated1 as far as such a matter is capable of demonstration1 that the ,old ,testament1 which has descended to us from the ,jews1 is not the mine of truth which it has been supposed by so many to be3 that not only it is not a revelation given by ,god to man1 but that it is founded upon ideas of the ,almighty which are contradicted by the whole of animate and inanimate nature4 ,we showed1 that its composition was wholly of human origin1 and that its authors had a very mean and degrading notion of the ,lord of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,we proved1 what indeed ,colenso and a host of ,german critics have demonstrated in another fashion1 that its historical portions are not to be depended upon2 that its stories are of no more real value than so many fairy tales or national legends2 that its myths can now be readily traced to ,grecian1 ,babylonian1 and ,persian sources2 that its miracles are as apocryphal as those told of ,vishnu1 ,siva1 and other deities2 and its prophecies absolutely worthless4 ,we proved1 moreover1 that the remote antiquity of its authorship has been greatly exaggerated2 that the stories of the creation1 of the flood1 of ,abraham1 of ,jacob1 of the descent into1 and the exodus from1 ,egypt1 of the career of ,moses and the ,jews in the desert1 of ,joshua and his soldiers1 of the judges and their clients1 are all apocryphal1 and were fabricated at a late period of ,jewish history1 with the design of inspiriting the ,hebrews at a period when their depression of spirit from foreign conquest was extreme2 that the so-called ,mosaic laws were not known until long after the time of ,david1 and that some of the enactments--that about the ,jubilee1 for example--were never promulgated at all4 ,we showed that the ,jewish conception of the ,almighty1 and of ,his heavenly host1 did not materially differ from the ,greek idea of ,jupiter and his inferior deities2 that the ,hebrews regarded ,jehovah as having human passions and very human failings--as loving1 revengeful1 stern1 merry1 and vacillating--as everything by turns and nothing long--as forming a resolution1 and then contriving how ,he might1 as it were1 overreach ,himself4 ,we pointed out that the ,jews did1 in reality1 paint ,god and the ,devil or ,satan1 as the same individual1 being the former to ,his friends1 and the latter to ,his enemies4 ,indeed1 anyone who compares #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a with #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a will see this most clearly demonstrated4 ,we called attention to the apparently utter ignorance of the ,jews that certain laws of nature existed1 and of their consequent belief that defeat1 disease1 famine1 slaughter1 pestilence1 and the like1 were direct punishments of ceremonial or other guilt2 while victory1 wealth1 virility1 and old age were special and decided proofs of the ,divine favour4 ,we showed that the ,jews were1 in general1 an abject but a very boastful race1 and that their spiritual guides--the so-called prophets--were constantly promising1 but always vainly1 a striking manifestation of the ,almighty's power in favour of the ,hebrews when they were in the depths of misery1 that histories were fabricated to give colour to these statements1 and that these1 like modern miracles of saints1 were narrated as occurring a long time ago1 and in a locality which could not be visited1 e4g41 in ,samaria and ,egypt2 we showed1 moreover1 that the race was imitative1 and readily adopted the religious ideas and practices of those who conquered them4 ,still further1 we proved that the ,jews had no idea whatever of a future state1 and were in utter ignorance of heaven or hell2 that they regarded the ,almighty as punishing crime or rewarding goodness in this world alone1 and1 consequently1 we inferred either--7#a7 that the conversation said to have been held between ,jehovah and certain apocryphal men did not really occur2 or 7#b7 that ,god did not think the existence of a future world a matter of sufficient consequence to communicate to ,his friends2 or 7#c7 that ,elohim had not then created either a habitation for the blessed1 or a future prison-house for the damned2 and we pointed out that the opinions of the ,pharisees about angels1 spirits1 and futurity were not based upon the writings of ,moses and the prophets1 but upon ,persian fantasies4 ,in fine1 we showed1 that the ,hebrews could not sustain the claim they made to be the especial people of ,god1 and that their writings are of no more value1 as records of absolute truth1 or of ,divine revelation1 than the books of the ,greeks1 ,persians1 ,egyptians1 ,hindoos1 ,chinese1 or the more modern ,mahometans4 ,with all this we indicated that there was1 throughout the nations known as ,shemitic1 a general belief in the existence of an ,almighty ,being1 ,creator1 ,director and ,governor of the heaven1 the earth1 and the sea2 that ,he was considered to be ,one1 yet that ,he was1 nevertheless1 represented by a multiplicity of names1 and as having many and opposite attributes4 ,we also showed1 that this sublime conception was very thickly coated with human ideas1 often of a debased and grovelling type1 and darkened by legends1 which were invented by priests with the design of clothing themselves1 and those of their order1 with a portion of the garments which they had assigned to the ,inscrutable4 ,we showed1 how the sun and moon1 the stars and planets1 became interwoven with the idea of a ,celestial ,being1 and how they were described in turn as ,his ministers1 ,his residence1 ,his army1 and sometimes even as ,himself4 ,we showed1 moreover1 that the ,almighty was depicted by some as a male1 having the attributes and passions of men1 by others as a female1 or celestial goddess1 and by others as androgyne--not exactly a bifrons1 like ,janus1 but masculine and feminine1 ,elohim1 ,baalim1 ,ashtaroth2 that in the development of this idea1 everything which has reference to the phenomena of mundane creation was closely studied1 and introduced into one religious system or another4 ,as a result of this1 it followed1 that there were some sects and temples consecrated to the adoration of the ,creator as masculine1 others as feminine1 and others as both combined4 ,we showed still farther1 that each sect adopted certain emblems1 which were intended to represent the distinctive mark of the sex under which it worshipped the ,omnipotent1 and that the emblems became multiplied as different nations came into contact with each other1 learned foreign theology1 and advanced in their knowledge of natural history4 ,to such an extent was this symbolism1 to which we refer1 carried1 that the sexual idea of the ,creator at last pervaded1 to a greater or less degree1 all forms of worship1 and gradually degraded them deeper and deeper1 in consequence of the emblems of the deity being mistaken for the deity itself1 much in the same way as the vulgar1 amongst the ,roman ,catholics1 regard a statuette or picture of the ,virgin1 or an ,ashantee a particular form of idol fetish4 ,as an example of such development1 we pointed out that the ,assyrians represented the ,godhead as four-fold1 consisting of the triple male and the single female element in mundane creation1 and that the idea of the trinity in unity1 which is a doctrine recognized as far back amongst all nations as history will carry us1 was originally founded solely upon the well-known fact that the characteristic of the male is a triad1 of which all the parts are really1 and in no mysterious manner1 co-eternal together and co-equal4 ,we also showed that the feminine idea of the ,creator has1 from time immemorial1 been associated1 in one form or another1 with that of a lovely virgin holding a child in her arms1 which is generally very young1 and mostly receiving food from a maternal bosom1 the reason of which we hinted at4 ,we showed that the myths of ,adam and ,eve1 ,abraham and ,sarai1 ,esau and ,jacob1 were incorporations of the idea that the trinity and the unity1 or1 to use the very words of the ,athanasian creed1 the trinity in unity1 were the founders of the race of living beings1 and1 as such1 worthy of worship and honour throughout all ages4 ,this union was spoken of as the four1 and was symbolized as a square or a cross of four points1 or a cross of eight points4 ,we showed1 still farther1 that the male ,creator was identified with the sun1 and the female with the crescent moon1 and also with the earth2 and that one of the symbols of this celestial union of the sexes was the sun lying within the moon's crescent4 ,we also demonstrated1 that a very large part of ,pagan worship consisted in the performance of rites and ceremonies1 whose end was the glorification of the deity under one or other of the selected symbols1 and that a number of feasts were appointed to be held at certain astronomical periods1 in which the assistants were encouraged to indulge in every form of sensuality 7,deut4 xiv4 #bf74 ,we pointed out1 that the ,jewish people were largely tainted by this vicious form of worship prior to the ,babylonian captivity1 and that a very large portion of their nomenclature was based upon sexual ideas of the ,creator4 ,we also showed1 that the ,jewish writings encouraged certain forms of sensuality in a conspicuous manner2 that the condition of the male organ was represented as being of such importance as to be the ground work of the covenant between ,god and the ,hebrews1 it being declared 7,gen4 xvii4 #ad71 as if by the word of the ,lord1 that no man was to be allowed to live whose organ had not been improved in a definite manner1 i4e41 by circumcision or excision of the prepuce1 and that no man was to be admitted into the congregation of the faithful whose characteristic male organs had in any way been injured or removed4 ,deuteronomy xxiii4 #a is conclusive upon this point1 and there is no ambiguity in the words of the decree4 ,we pointed out1 also1 that not only was abundance of offspring promised to the faithful as a proof of ,god's regard to them1 but that the laws1 said to be delivered by ,jehovah to ,moses1 positively provided 7see ,deut4 xxi4 #aj-ad7 the means by which the harems of the wealthy could be stocked in times of war1 and by which even the poor might also be indulged1 in or about the precincts of the temple1 where slave and foreign women were kept for the purpose 7,numb4 xxxi4 #dj74 ,we pointed out that the natural result of this licensed debauchery was a great increase in the population1 which was so much in excess of the capacity of the land to sustain them1 that it was necessary to check the number of adult mouths by conniving at infanticide1 as was done in ,rajpootana up to a recent period1 and is said to be done in ,china now4 ,it is clear1 from the denunciations by the prophets of the vileness of the ,jews of ,jerusalem1 and the impotent laws which were introduced into the so-called ,mosaic code1 that the ,hebrew family was to the full as bad and vile as were the nations around them4 ,we further showed that there was a marked difference in the thoughts1 the doctrines1 the laws1 the knowledge1 the writings1 and the form of worship amongst the ,jews after they had come into contact with the ,babylonians1 ,persians1 and ,greeks2 and we adverted to the fact that the laws of the ,persians1 and those of him1 whom we would designate the fictitious ,moses1 were remarkably similar2 and we showed that everything in the ,old ,testament1 which is1 by the majority of ,christians1 deemed to be of ,divine origin1 had been derived from or through one or other of the sources which we have named1 and which we call ,pagan4 ,from this we deduced the important corollary1 either that the so-called revelation of the ,old ,testament is a sham1 a priestly fabrication1 and what is known as a pious fraud1 or that it was not made originally to the ,hebrews4 ,in neither case can the ,jews establish a title to be the chosen people of ,god in any sense of the words4 ,if the ,bible is true1 the ,gentiles have spiritual precedence over the ,hebrews1 and the ,pagans have the pas of the ,christians4 ,this deduction enabled us to recognize the importance of an extended inquiry into the faith1 religion1 and practice of other nations1 before we assume ourselves to be in a position to appreciate the claims which one human being1 or any body of men1 might make to be the representatives of the ,almighty1 the sole recipients of ,his commands1 and the only medium by which prayers can be forwarded to ,him4 ,again1 the history of the past1 and a study of the present1 enabled us to see that the foundation of a new religion1 or the modification of an old one1 did not destroy ancient practices1 though it transferred priestly power to a new set of men1 who1 while they introduced new gods and new dogmas1 endeavoured to incorporate the older ideas with new1 so as to seduce or cheat the vulgar1 whom it was not judicious to slaughter1 into adopting the new faith4 ,consequently1 we are able to understand how indecent ideas1 sexual emblems1 and ,pagan festivals1 with many of the licentious practices associated therewith1 have been handed down from a remote idolatry to a modern and comparatively enlightened ,christianity4 ,the symbols of the objectionable still remain1 but the things symbolized have been altered1 and the original ideas suppressed4 ,the male triad is a holy trinity2 the monad is no longer the emblem of womankind1 but of the so-called ,mother of ,god1 or1 as the ,romanists say1 of the ,mater ,creatoris4 ,but with this knowledge comes the very important consideration1 how far ,christian ideas1 which are founded upon ,pagan fancies1 can be regarded as ,divine4 ,this1 again1 involves the question1 how far ,jesus1 who had not penetration enough to discover the true nature of the writings to which he trusted1 can be considered as an incarnation of ,divine knowledge1 or of unbounded wisdom4 ,still further1 it became clear1 after our arguments1 that if the stories of the creation of man1 the fall of ,adam1 the life of ,noah1 of ,abraham1 of ,moses1 the tale of ,sinai1 and the supremacy of ,judah1 are mythical--if the prophetic writings are as worthless as the oracles of ,dodona and of ,delphi--then all theories1 dogmas1 and doctrines founded upon them must be equally valueless4 ,in pursuance of my subject1 ,i pointed out that there was not a nation known to history which had not its god or gods1 a sacred priesthood1 a set of prophets1 either located in one spot1 or appearing as independent vaticinators1 a number of holy festivals1 of hallowed shrines1 of mysterious temples1 and an inner and recondite arcanum into which the profane were not permitted to enter4 ,i showed that other nations besides the ,jews had a sacred ark which was an emblem of a divinity2 that the use of sacrifices was common to every nation of antiquity2 and that such things had existed in ,hindostan from time immemorial4 ,i pointed out1 that there was no single precept or order contained in the ,jewish ,ritual which could not be found amongst all other people1 with the sole exception of the ,sabbath2 and that the respect for this very strange law was due to the ignorance of the ,hebrews1 who regarded ,saturn as the most high amongst the gods--information gained from the ,babylonians4 ,thus1 an investigation into the nature and importance of ,ancient ,faiths becomes a necessary prelude to1 or1 rather1 is unavoidably followed by1 an inquiry into the beliefs1 doctrines1 and practices current in ,christendom generally1 and in ,great ,britain particularly4 ,yet1 though ,i was insensibly driven forwards to complete the task which ,i began1 without having any definite notion of the amount of labour ,i should have to undergo1 ,i passively resisted for a long time the conclusions to which ,i was drawn1 feeling myself unwilling1 almost1 indeed1 unable1 to undertake an examination which might shake my faith in the ,new ,testament as it had been shaken in the ,old4 ,like many others of a thoughtful turn of mind1 ,i could see1 without very strong regret1 the ,jewish writings consigned to their appropriate niche in the library of the world2 but ,i shunned the effort required to take down the books of the ,gospels and ,epistles and weigh them in the impartial balance of critical truth4 ,nevertheless1 as my work on ,ancient ,faiths progressed1 ,i became painfully conscious that ,i must plead guilty to the charge of mental cowardice if ,i shirked the duty of examining the ,new1 as ,i had investigated the ,old1 ,testament4 ,but when the resolution to investigate modern faith was at length formed1 the difficulties surrounding the subject became apparent4 ,the history of modern faith is1 to a great extent1 the history of ,christianity1 and the history of ,christianity must start from a history of ,jesus and his apostles--,paul1 ,peter1 ,james1 ,john1 and ,jude1 as given in the ,epistles and ,gospels included in the canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,to cope with any one of these histories as they deserve to be handled would involve the work of a lifetime1 and for one man to exhaust the whole seemed to me an impossibility4 ,there was1 in addition to this1 another consideration which complicated my difficulty still farther1 viz41 the fact that there were already1 written histories of the nature of those alluded to1 and that it would be useless to multiply them4 ,it is a thankless task to pursue the current of the ,christian religion through the dark scenes which shrouded it1 from the time when it was adopted by a few unlearned and ignorant men1 until it emerged as a power able to shake empires--from the period wherein its professors were burned and otherwise tortured to death1 to the days when their own ,christian successors racked1 roasted1 and tormented their opponents1 with a malignancy and cruelty as great as that which they themselves had execrated when practised upon their predecessors4 ,from the moment that ,christianity became a political power1 its history resembled that of any tyrant or other ruler1 and it is filled with misrepresentation1 lying1 fraud1 the records of fighting and slaughter1 of brutal passions1 frightful laws1 and horrible punishments2 in fact1 the record of political ,christianity is that of a ,devil in sheep's clothing4 ,even ,calvin1 one of our cherished reformers1 burnt another ,protestant almost in the same year as the ,papists burnt ,ridley and ,latimer4 ,the ,english ,episcopalians in ,scotland1 and the ,cromwellian ,puritans in ,ireland1 showed more of the ravening wolf in their actions than of the amiable shepherd1 who gently leads the weak ones of his flock4 ,in fact1 the more loud the proclamation of a pure ,christianity1 the more devilish is the practice of its heralds4 ,when ,i turned to the consideration of the life of ,jesus1 it was clear that the ground was already fully occupied4 ,in #agii a ,mr ,houston published a work entitled ,ecce ,homo2 or1 a ,critical ,inquiry into the ,history of ,jesus ,christ3 being an ,analysis of the ,gospels1 a second edition of which was made public fourteen years afterwards1 and1 as a result1 its publisher 7,d4 ,j4 ,eaton7 was prosecuted1 and such of the impressions as could be collected were publicly burned in ,st4 ,george's ,fields1 ,london1 by the common hangman1 whose business it was to strangle truth as well as murderers4 ,this book1 which is little known to modern readers1 is strictly what it professes to be--a critical inquiry into the history of ,jesus ,christ1 and it may1 to a great extent1 be considered as the progenitor of more modern treatises4 ,it does not materially differ from the ,ecce ,homo of to-day1 or from the other works which we shall name1 except in its style and composition4 ,having been written when all were in the habit of expressing their views in strong language1 and when opponents were abused in terms of coarse invective1 the author has expressed himself in a manner calculated to offend rather than to convince1 and to stir up anger rather than to encourage thought4 ,yet his arguments are unanswerable1 and his deductions unimpeachable1 by those who know the value of evidence and exercise their power of ratiocination4 ,i have been unable to find that any work was written in refutation of the author's views1 and the only opposition to it was from the usual agent of the weak-minded1 but strong-bodied--persecution4 ,in more recent times1 and within a very short period of each other--so short1 indeed1 that we may say that the books were composed simultaneously in ,hindostan1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england--there have appeared ,a ,voice from the ,ganges1 ,strauss' ,new ,life of ,jesus1 ,kenan's ,life of ,jesus1 ,the ,english ,life of ,jesus1 by ,mr ,thomas ,scott1 of ,norwood1 a second ,ecce ,homo1 from a modern ,professor1 and ,the ,prophet of ,nazareth1 by ,owen ,meredith499 ,in these volumes1 the historical value of the ,gospel narratives closely and critically examined1 and a just appreciation of the character1 preaching1 and practice of the ,prophet of ,nazareth are honestly sought after1 and1 in the opinion of impartial readers1 they must be held to have been attained4 ,throughout the series which we have mentioned nothing that is capable of demonstration1 or of approximate proof1 is taken for granted4 ,the scholarship of the critical philosopher everywhere overbears the prejudice of the ,christian bigot4 ,since the appearance of these another author has treated upon the same subject1 but only cursorily1 and as bearing upon other matters1 in a work entitled ,the ,book of ,god2 or1 ,the ,apocalypse of ,adam ,oannes1 which was published anonymously1 #ahfh4 99 ,whilst this sheet was in the printer's hands1 a most remarkable book was published anonymously1 entitled1 ,supernatural ,religion1 in two volumes4 ,in it there is a most scholarly account of the origin of the ,new ,testament writings1 one which every thoughtful person should peruse4 ,between the publication of the first ,ecce ,homo and the second1 viz41 in #ahcf1 there was printed1 for private circulation1 a very remarkable work1 entitled ,anacalypsis2 or1 an ,attempt to draw aside the ,veil of the ,saitic ,isis1 by ,godfrey ,higgins4 ,his two volumes are replete with learning1 and with deductions more startling than any which had appeared prior to his own time2 but the subject matter is so badly arranged1 that it is with very great difficulty that the trains of thought which occupied the author's mind can be dis-4 covered4 ,his main idea is1 that very nearly everything in religion which appears to be mythical or mysterious enfolds certain astronomical facts--such as the precession of equinoxes1 the duration of cycles of time--such as are necessary to reproduce exactly a concordance between certain terrestrial and celestial phenomena4 ,with this theory he interweaves an amazing number of facts which seem to favour the opinion enunciated in the book of ,ecclesiastes--i4e41 that there is nothing new under the sun4 ,he shows that the idea of incarnations1 the birth of a heavenly child from a pure virgin1 and a variety of so-called ,christian dogmas1 have existed in every age of which we have historical accounts4 ,he gives a vivid sketch of the nature of ,christianity and its progress from century to century1 and he expresses himself respecting its modern developments much in the same strain1 though in a far more gentlemanlike style1 as did his contemporary1 the ,rev4 ,r4 ,taylor1 to whom was given1 or who assumed for himself1 the title of the ,devil's chaplain4 ,in the estimation of some of these writers1 ,jesus1 the son of ,mary1 is quite as mythical a being as ,hercules1 the son of ,alcmena4 ,this view has been more recently adopted by some freethinkers of the present day4 ,the main support on which such individuals rely is the fact that there is no mention of ,jesus by any contemporary historian2 and that1 although there are extant ,jewish records of current history1 at the time in which ,christ is said to have lived1 they make no mention of him who is now called the ,saviour and of his wonderful history4 ,it is pointed out that the histories of the ,gospels came out with marvellous rapidity1 from ,alexandria1 about the end of the first century1 at a time when all contemporaries of ,jesus were dead4 ,to this work of ,higgins it is probable that we shall have repeatedly to refer1 for his language is frequently so forcible that it cannot be improved1 and1 moreover1 he very often quotes from books1 copies of which ,i have been unable to obtain4 ,when ,i found that the ground which ,i intended to occupy had already been so well and so ably cultivated1 it occurred to me that it would be advisable to take a wider flight than was originally contemplated1 and1 instead of examining the ,christian faith alone1 to associate with it an account of the faiths of those nations of whom we have some knowledge4 ,by this means it appeared to me1 that we should be enabled to see clearly1 how far the current belief and practice of ,christendom differs from the doctrines and practices of those to whom ,christianity could never1 by any possibility1 have come1 and we can examine1 incidentally1 into the teachings of ,jesus1 and compare them with that of his predecessor1 ,sakya ,muni1 or ,buddha4 ,we may also investigate impartially such doctrines as the immaculate conception1 and the existence of angels4 ,when treating1 however1 a subject like the religions of the ancient and modern world1 it is difficult to frame the history so as to bring out the salient points1 in a manner satisfactory to the reader or to the writer4 ,the latter is tempted to begin1 as he believes1 at the beginning1 and to trace the development of religious thought from its simplest expression up to its highest aspiration4 ,this temptation becomes all the stronger if1 in the course of his study1 he has investigated the animal and vegetable creations4 ,in those vast kingdoms he sees that the philosopher is able to lead his disciples onwards from the minute monad1 or the simplest mass of matter1 to the gigantic mastodon1 without any very conspicuous flaw or break in continuity2 but1 on closely observing his method of proceeding1 the student finds that links which connect genera or species together are found in countries so wide apart1 that no direct communication can be supposed between the one type and the other4 ,thus the gap between mammals and birds is said to be filled by the ornithorhynchus paradoxus1 an animal living in a vast island1 in which scarcely one quadruped mammalian is known to have existed1 and where the aboriginal birds form a class peculiar to ,australia1 and have no resemblance to the creature referred to4 ,yet1 though the temptation is great1 and although we feel justified in reasoning from the known to the unknown1 and in supplying missing links from analogy1 or from our own imagination1 still1 we consider that it will be our best plan to confine ourselves1 as far as possible1 to that which is written1 and to describe first1 the religious ideas and practices of some so-called savages2 secondly1 the ideas and practices of some ancient races1 whose histories1 more or less perfect1 have come down to us1 with a view to ascertain whether there is anything essentially good in modern ,christianity1 either in faith or practice1 which is peculiar to that form of religion1 or whether almost the same style of teaching may not be found to have been common in the remote ,east1 at a period some centuries prior to the birth of ,jesus4 ,as we have investigated the subjects of ,sin1 ,salvation1 ,prayer1 ,inspiration1 c41 it is unnecessary to refer to them again4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,travellers' tales not to be trusted4 ,prejudice perverts facts4 ,the ,esquimaux4 ,cause of reverence for parents4 ,the ,red ,indian in the presence of immigration is a moral murderer4 ,inquiry into ,indian religion4 ,o4 ,,kee4 ,,pa4 ,indian reverence for phenomena of nature4 ,ruins of a past civilization in ,america4 ,cairns and human sacrifices4 ,manufactured goods4 ,bronze in ,yucatan4 ,resemblance between the ancient ,american people and certain ,orientals4 ,abbe ,domenech's travels4 ,sacrifice at obsequies1 idea involved thereby4 ,scythian proceedings4 ,mexico and its theology4 ,two different conceptions of deity4 ,the ,unity subdivided by ,mexicans1 ,jews1 and ,christians4 ,the ,god of war and the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,the ,god of air a deity in ,mexico1 a devil in ,judea or ,ephesus4 ,mexican baptismal regeneration4 ,resemblances between the ,occidental and ,oriental people in many curious doctrines4 ,particulars4 ,mexican ,heaven1 ,hell1 and ,limbo4 ,mexican baptism and prayers4 ,priests and their duties4 ,a parallel4 ,romanists and ,mexicans4 ,confession4 ,expiation4 ,human sacrifice to obtain pardon of sin4 ,a comparison suggested4 ,mexican education4 ,purity of life in the ,mexican priestesses4 ,father ,acosta's opinion thereon4 ,tartary1 ,rome1 and ,mexico have something common in culture4 ,education of youth4 ,policy of the priesthood4 ,reflections thereupon4 ,teocallis or houses of ,god4 ,worship4 ,festivals4 ,human sacrifice4 ,no sexual deities or rites4 ,question of credibility--,god and the ,devil act alike6 ,aztecs and ,europeans compared4 ,christians have offered human sacrifice from the time of ,peter downwards4 ,transubstantiation is a cannibal doctrine4 ,christian gods in ,mexico as bad as the ,aztec deities4 ,history of ,peru4 ,the policy of its rulers4 ,roads and magazines4 ,nature of its government ,governors were instructed in their duties4 ,civil service examination4 ,inauguration of youths into honourable manhood4 ,travelling compulsory in rulers4 ,postal system--division of the people --local magistrates--law speedy4 ,code of law4 ,punishment without torture4 ,peruvians and inquisitors4 ,reports required of lands and families4 ,register of births1 c4 ,rapidity of communication4 ,plunder not permitted4 ,peace the motive for war4 ,the vanquished incorporated with the victors4 ,a paternal government4 ,peruvian religion4 ,difference between political institutions and priestcraft4 ,peruvian sun god4 ,an invisible ,god recognised4 ,priests4 ,eternal life4 ,heaven and ,hell4 ,temple of the sun magnificent4 ,golden ornaments4 ,huge urns of silver4 ,number of priests4 ,festivals4 ,cannibalism not permitted4 ,fire made from rays of sun and concave mirror1 or by friction4 ,virgins of the sun4 ,concubines of the ,inca4 ,matrimony4 ,reflexions4 ,when the philosopher reads over the histories which adventurous travellers1 or ,christian missionaries1 have given of the religions of the savage1 or uncivilized1 people whom they have visited1 he feels painfully conscious that the accounts are not implicitly to be relied upon4 ,in some he recognizes the fact that communications only take place between the one party and the other by signs1 which not only may be1 but very generally are1 misinterpreted on both sides2 in others he is able to see1 or1 at least1 he comes to the conclusion1 that the untaught barbarians have not a single idea which is not connected with eating and drinking1 war1 revenge1 and love2--that such1 indeed1 resemble brute beasts1 who have no more conception of hell or heaven1 ,god and the soul1 than an elephant has of aerostation1 or a crow of theology4 ,in other narratives the observer notices1 that the individuals who interrogate the savages are themselves enthusiasts of a high order1 who ask leading questions1 and are content to receive1 as a satisfactory answer1 anything which can be considered as a reply4 ,by this means very erroneous ideas have crept in amongst ourselves1 and writers have built arguments upon a foundation as flimsy as a shifting sand4 ,for example1 ,i have repeatedly heard it alleged that every known tribe1 in every part of the world which has yet been visited1 has a tradition respecting an universal deluge1 and the salvation of their progenitors by a floating vessel2 and on this has been founded the hypothesis that all architecture1 and even written characters1 have an ark for their type4 ,this development has been very ingeniously supported by ,j4 ,p4 ,lesley1 in ,man's ,origin and ,destiny 7,trubner1 ,london1 #ahfh71 a work replete with learning1 and bold1 but somewhat unsound1 deductions4 ,this assumed fact has also been used in support of the ,biblical story of ,noah1 his ark1 and the universal deluge--a myth so palpably extravagant1 that everyone who professes to credit it is compelled to object to some detail1 and to lean upon some frail reed1 with the hope that he may thus be pardoned for his credulity4 ,since the above was written1 it has been ascertained that the tale of ,noah and his deluge is adapted from an ,assyrian or ,babylonian legend1 written apparently with a view to make a story fitting to the sign of the ,zodiac called ,aquarius1 one to the full as fabulous as that of the birth of ,bacchus1 and the amours of ,zeus4 ,in some instances1 moreover1 and palpably in those cases where the account of the religion of barbarous nations is given by fanatics1 such as the ,roman ,catholic invaders of ,america1 or by such conquerors as ,caesar and others1 who have themselves very hazy notions of their own faith1 the philosopher feels that the savage is intentionally misrepresented2 consequently1 in these1 as in all other instances1 it behoves the philosopher to examine the evidence at his command with critical acumen1 rather than accept the statements made by more or less careless observers4 ,endeavouring1 therefore1 to avoid these difficulties as far as possible1 let us summarize the result of our reading1 and record the impressions left upon our mind respecting the faith1 ritual1 and practice of certain modern and ancient barbarians4 ,beginning with the vast ,american continent1 we find that the ,esquimaux appear to have no conception whatever of a ,creator1 of a future state1 of a mundane theocracy1 or of any unseen agency but good or bad luck4 ,but they1 nevertheless1 put a certain amount of faith in conjurers--cunning men or women who profess to be able to insure them a good supply of seals or walrus1 and protection from ,arctic dangers4 ,for such a people as this the wants of the day form the chief1 if not the only1 object of thought2 and they resemble lions or eagles1 who are now all but famished in the hunt for food1 and now gorged to repletion with the result of their quest4 ,to such a nation1 ,heaven1 as described in the ,bible1 with its sea of glass1 its harpists and singers1 would afford no temptation1 and1 unless it was furnished with abundance of oily food1 an ,esquimaux would not visit it2 nor would the fires and heat of ,hell have any terrors for one whose torments on earth are connected with miserable cold4 ,in practice1 the ,esquimaux are very much what they are made by their neighbours and visitors3 they are very decently behaved to those who treat them well1 and cruel1 barbarous1 and revengeful to strangers after they have themselves been worried by invaders4 ,alternately gluttons and starving they obey the necessities of their existence--they eat to keep themselves warm1 and they must be anchorets as rigid as any ,theban hermit whilst they are seeking their prey4 ,with a temperature below zero1 and winter huts constructed of ice1 chastity is almost a necessary virtue1 and adultery cannot possibly be frequent4 ,where everything of value is rare1 covetousness is not common2 but if the holder of the coveted prize be always alert1 it is quite natural that murder shall be attempted1 either by the thief or his victim4 ,the reverence of parents here1 as elsewhere1 is a necessary accompaniment of savage life1 and is quite independent of any knowledge of the decalogue4 ,to prevent reiteration of this observation1 let us consider for a moment1 the chief if not the main cause1 of the reverence given to the father1 and1 more rarely1 to the mother in the economy of human life4 ,we see that the ,almighty has implanted an instinct in one or both parents1 throughout the larger part of the animal creation1 to nourish1 guide1 and teach their young4 ,the duck leads her brood to a pond2 the hen keeps her chicks from water1 but teaches them to pick up seeds1 grubs1 and worms2 whilst the cock keeps order amongst the family1 ,the weasel teaches its offspring how to attack its prey most advantageously1 and the eagle instructs her young ones to fly4 ,in like manner1 man is at the head of his own household2 he is the first power to which the young ones bow2 they know the weight of his arm1 and dread his anger1 knowing that they will suffer from it when it is stirred up4 ,we all know1 as a rule1 that a habit contracted in childhood adheres to us throughout life1 consequently1 the dread of the father which exists in the youth becomes1 very generally1 filial reverence in the man4 ,but we also know that almost throughout the animal creation1 the young and sturdy males will1 as they grow up to maturity1 fight for supremacy1 even with their parents4 ,so long as the latter retain the mastery they are respected2 but as soon as age and its accompanying weakness have made them succumb1 all filial respect vanishes4 ,if1 therefore1 a parent1 when old1 is unable to make himself feared by his prowess1 revered for his good sense or knowledge1 or beloved for some faculty which makes him pleasing to his family or the tribe1 he is neglected1 and often sacrificed1 so that the young shall have only themselves to provide food for4 ,even in ,christian ,england1 where filial regard is cultivated as an essential part of our religion1 we too frequently find that parents are wholly neglected by their adult offspring1 as soon as they become1 from sickness1 age1 or other infirmity1 useless members of the family4 ,without having ever heard of a law1 or set of laws1 given in a desert from ,mount ,sinai1 the ,esquimaux are as moral as modern ,christians1 and more so than the ancient ,jews3 they certainly have not more gods than one1 and do not worship any graven image4 ,amongst them blasphemy is unknown4 ,parents are honoured2 chastity is general2 murder is very rare2 theft only exists when strangers come amongst them with valuable matters1 such as cutting weapons4 ,amongst such a primitive people false witness is unknown1 and covetousness only exists in the presence of travellers who have well-stocked ships or sledges4 ,but the ,esquimaux do not keep a ,sabbath of rest every seventh day2 how1 indeed1 could they1 when many of their days have a duration of six weeks--according to the ,hebrew computation1 which measures the day by sunsets4 ,it is clear1 then1 that what many persons designate ,christian virtues do not necessarily depend upon a knowledge of ,jehovah1 of ,jesus1 or of both4 ,the ,north ,american ,indian appears to have been1 when first discovered1 wholly without any distinct religious faith4 ,it is true that some authors have described him as reverencing his manitou1 or great spirit1 and speaking of some happy hunting ground to which his soul will pass after death2 but ,i am unable to find any reliable testimony in support of this poetic notion4 ,to me it seems that the ,red ,indian is nothing more than one of a ferocious tribe of men1 who1 having to subsist by the chase alone1 bestows all his thoughts upon getting meat1 and driving off his neighbours from interfering in his lands4 ,to such an one a teeming population is equivalent to a diminution in the supply of game1 and this1 again1 involves starvation4 ,with him1 therefore1 the murder of his neighbours becomes a matter of necessity1 one which may be regarded by him as an absolute virtue1 a matter of public policy1 and essentially a moral duty2 and as he is little superior to a tiger or a cat1 he does not scruple to add cruelty to homicide4 ,he who has seen a carnivorous beast seize its living prey1 disable1 without killing it1 and then lie by and watch its victim1 rising now and again to give it a shake1 or a pat with its claw1 can well understand how a ,blackfoot ,indian might gloat over a dying ,delaware1 or a ,mandan torture an ,iroquois when he had the chance1 each regarding the other as men consider wasps and hornets4 ,yet1 though without religion1 the ,indian is not without fear4 ,he is terrified by strange noises1 and by weird sights2 there is a being whom he dreads2 and there is in every tribe a medicine man1 who is supposed to have supernatural power1 and to be able to attract good or to banish evil fortune from the chief and his people4 ,practically1 the ,red ,indian is as superstitious about lucky and unlucky days as was the ,hebrew ,david and the ,persian ,haman1 and1 prior to the starting of an expedition1 the diviner is consulted1 who may1 possibly1 answer in the words of the ,lord 787 of ,judah1 let it be when thou hearest the sound of a going in the tops of the mulberry trees1 then thou shalt bestir thyself1 for then shall the ,lord go out before thee to smite the host of the ,philistines 7#b ,sam4 v4 #bd74 ,but though without religion1 in the usual acceptation of the word1 the ,indians were not1 when first the white man knew them1 wholly without ritual1 or what has been designated a sacred ceremony4 ,the celebration to which we refer occurred every year1 was conducted by a definite set of actors1 and was attended to with wonderful reverence4 ,a full account of such ceremony is given by ,g4 ,catlin1 in a work entitled1 ,o ,kee ,pa 7,truebner1 ,london1 #ahfg74 ,in it figures a mystic messenger1 who comes to demand the initiation of the young men of the tribe who have attained a fighting age2 tents are then prepared1 and men and women are duly painted and otherwise disguised to represent buffaloes and bugbears1 the bad spirit1 etc42 the main intention of the whole being to test the courage1 strength1 and endurance of the young men by frightful tortures1 which are too disgusting for description here4 ,at the end of the trial1 however1 each votary sacrifices a joint of the little finger of one hand to the bad spirit4 ,at this feast-some doll-like effigies are used to mark the mystery tent4 ,amongst barbarians like these are1 it will readily be imagined that such virtues as chastity and charity have no existence1--that successful theft ennobles the robber1 and that the slaughter of an enemy1 either by treachery or in fair fight1 is regarded as a proof of courage1 much as it was amongst the ,spartan ,greeks4 ,polygamy is simply a matter of wealth and arrangement1 and women are purchased and treated like slaves4 ,it is the man's business to hunt and fight1 it is the woman's duty to make the best or the most of the spoils of the chase4 ,yet1 with this general absence of all religion1 there appears to be1 here and there1 a reverence for certain strange phenomena of nature--such as hot or bubbling fountains1 sulphur springs1 steaming geysers1 and curious rocks1 like the celebrated pipe-stone rock in the ,sioux territory4 ,from this all pipes ought to be made1 there being as much of orthodoxy in such bowls amongst the ,indians as there is in an ,agnus ,dei amongst ,christian papists4 ,there is1 too1 a reverence for the dead occasionally to be met with1 but it cannot be said to amount to worship4 ,in some instances1 but ,i do not find that the custom is general1 a man is interred with his horse1 weapons1 and medicine bag1 as if it was expected that he would live beyond the tomb1 and require in his other state of existence that which he wanted in this4 ,what we have said of the ,north ,american aborigines applies with equal1 if not with greater1 force to those of the ,south4 ,from what the savage redskins are1 and have been1 during the last two or three centuries1 a transition to what they have been in the past is very natural2 and1 whilst making the step1 the philosopher will be reminded of the observation made by some profound observer1 to the effect---go where you will1 no matter how savage the nation1 you will be sure to find the remains of a previous empire1 nation1 or civilization4 ,vast forests1 scarcely yet fully explored1 cover ancient cities in ,ceylon and ,central ,america alike1 and men1 who toiled to build vast temples1 towers1 palaces1 and fortresses1 are replaced by wild animals4 ,in the ,bashan of ,palestine1 primeval houses of stone still stand1 where scarcely a resident is to be found1 and the present inhabitants are far inferior to the ancient race that built these enduring dwellings4 ,thus the ,abbe ,domenech writes 7,seven ,years ,residence in the ,great ,deserts of ,north ,america1 ,london1 ,longman1 #ahfj71 vol4 ,i41 p4 #cec--;,from ,florida to ,canada1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean1 the ,american soil is strewn with gigantic ruins of temples1 tumuli1 entrenched camps1 fortifications1 towers1 villages1 towers of observation1 gardens1 wells1 artificial meadows1 and high roads of the most remote antiquity4 ,without entering closely into the nature of the antiquities discovered1 we may state that they comprise pyramids1 cones1 obelisks1 hills surrounded by a deep vallum1 like that adjoining ,salisbury1 and earthen constructions analogous to that at ,avebury4 ,there is evidence that the artificial erections1 which were so built as to be visible from an enormous distance1 were designed1 possibly1 as cairns1 or memorials of the dead1 but also as spots for sacrificial offerings1 resembling those called high places in ,ancient ,palestine1 the tumulus over ,patroclus1 and the ,scythian mounds in the ,crimea4 ,the altars which have been discovered are made of baked clay or stone1 and have the shape of large basins1 varying in length from nineteen inches to seventeen yards1 but generally about two yards and a-half4 ,under and around the altars calcined human bones were found1 and sometimes a whole skeleton was met with in the tumulus1 as if a sacrifice of men attended the funeral rites1 as we learn from ,homer that it did1 before ,troy1 when ,achilles directed the obsequies of his friend ,patroclus4 ,cremation1 as well as sepulture1 was adopted1 and with the dead1 ornaments1 arms1 and other objects1 which belonged in life to the departed1 were buried2 amongst these are to be reckoned trinkets of silver and of brass1 as well as of stone and bone4 ,as a proof of the advanced knowledge of the people referred to1 ,i may here quote1 from memory1 a note from ,stevens' ,central ,america1 to the effect that the bronze tools found in ,yucatan1 c41 amongst the quarries whence the stone for the ancient temples was procured1 are nearly as hard as steel1 and that a similar bronze is only known to have existed in some of the ancient tombs and quarries of ,egypt1 an observation which receives additional value from ,domenech's remark1 vol4 ,i41 p4 #cfd--,these works of art 7arms1 idols1 and medals1 found in ,new ,granada tombs7 are acknowledged1 by the archaeologists of ,panama1 to possess the characteristics of both ,chinese and ,egyptian art4 ,here1 again1 ,i would call my readers' attention to the facts1 that in very modern times ,chinese have migrated to ,california1 ,australia1 ,singapore1 and other distant localities1 and that ,fortune found ,egyptian curiosities in virtu1 shops in ,china1 whilst ,egyptologists have discovered ,chinese manufactures in ,egyptian tombs4 ,the subject of the extent of travel in ancient times does not enter into my present plan2 but as ,i am desirous to make the mind of my readers expansive enough to receive everything which bears upon the history of man upon the earth1 ,i may be allowed to sow seed by the way-side1 some of which may blossom as a garden flower grown wild4 ,domenech1 in p4 #djh1 vol4 ,i41 figures a remarkable stone1 by many persons supposed to be a hoax or forgery1 which was found at the base of one of the largest mounds in ,north ,america1 situated in ,western ,virginia4 ,it lay in a sepulchral chamber1 thirty-five feet from the surface1 was elliptic in shape1 two inches and a-half long1 two wide1 and about half an inch thick1 and the material was of a dark colour1 and very hard4 ,the following is a copy from ,domenech's work1 and1 without dwelling upon it1 we may call attention to the similarity of some of the letters with those known to1 or used by the ,phoenicians1 ,ancient ,greco-,italians1 and ,carthaginians4 ,like the ,newton ,stone1 in ,scotland1 and some ,gnostic gems1 it may be said to be learned gibberish1 which the spirits can read but no one else4 ,illustration3 #jef ,there is1 indeed1 much more evidence than is generally supposed to connect the ancient mound-builders in ,america with the inhabitants of the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 particularly in their modes of burial1 the nature of their earthworks1 and the style of such ornaments and figures as have been found4 ,for example1 there is one enclosure described1 in the centre of which is erected a mound and pillar1 precisely resembling the linga yoni of the ,east4 ,in addition to these1 carved stones have been found1 which unite together such ,oriental emblems as the sun and moon1 the ,tau1 ,t and the egg1 ,o which together make the well-known ,egyptian symbol ,a4 ,again1 ,domenech figures some male and female human effigies1 of whom ,american savans write that they represent idols of sexual design1 similar to those exposed in the ,mysteries of ,eleusis1 one of them being a badly finished image of ,priapus4 ,domenech still farther states1 on the authority of ,cortez1 that a form of worship1 recalling the ,egyptian mysteries of ,isis and ,osiris1 was established in ,america4 ,respecting the nature of the religion of the mound builders the ,abbe writes--,the government of these nations appears to have been theocratic or sacerdotal1 like that of the ,jews1 and the religious administrative and military power was1 probably1 vested in one and the same person4 ,this is clearly evinced by the taboo1 or sacred monuments1 being combined with those of a purely military character1 p4 #cff4 ,without straining doubtful points too far1 we may content ourselves with affirming that the researches of ,davis and ,squire1 of ,stephens1 and of ,domenech1 show that the mound builders of ,america raised high places for sacrificial fires2 that they built huge piles of earth over dead warriors2 and1 that during the funeral rites which were observed at the obsequies1 they immolated certain human victims4 ,let us now pause for a moment and consider how much is involved in the practice of making a sacrifice by fire1 or otherwise1 at the burial of any deceased chieftain or honoured man4 ,with what idea could the living wife join her husband on the funeral pyre in ,india1 or the ancient ,tartars have slain the horse1 slaves1 wives1 and chief officers of a defunct king1 burying them all in a vast grave1 unless they entertained the belief that there was a life beyond the grave8 ,the faith may have been of the crudest form1 yet the practice evidenced the belief that those who died1 and were buried together1 would arise and live at the same time and place1 and in the same relative positions which they had during life4 ,if this be granted1 it demonstrates that the early dwellers in ,america had a higher conception of immortality than had the ancient ,jews1 even although the latter assumed1 and pertinaciously persisted in the assertion1 that they1 and they only of all the nations of the world1 were taught of ,god--a boast to which a vast number of thoughtless ,christians give a profound reverence1 and most implicit belief4 ,without speculating upon the probable connexion between the mound-builders and the inhabitants of ancient ,mexico1 we will endeavour1 with the aid of ,prescott1 and other writers1 to ascertain something of the faith professed by ,montezuma and his subjects4 ,derived from two sources1 there were two distinct elements in the ,mexican religion2 one of these was gentle and mild as the teaching of ,christ1 and the other1 ferocious and cruel1 like the practice of such of his followers as the sensual ,crusaders1 the persecuting ,popes of ,italy1 and the brutal1 money-grubbing ,spaniards4 ,the former gradually dried up1 like primitive ,christianity1 and the harmlessness of the dove was replaced by the ferocity of the wolf4 ,it is in strict accordance with human nature1 that virtues are harder to maintain than vices1 hence malignancy swelled itself up and became dominant4 ,the priests of the sanguinary class contrived as burdensome a ceremonial as ever existed in ,judea1 ,greece1 ,spain1 or ,modern ,rome1 and they surrounded their deities with conceptions as grotesque as those which are clustered round the ,hindoo gods of to-day1 the divinities of the ,greeks and ,romans1 and the innumerable virgins1 saints1 and martys of mediaeval and modern papal ,christianity4 ,the power and the inclination to make fetish is certainly not confined to ,african negroes4 ,the ,mexicans recognized a supreme ,creator as the ,god by whom we live1 one who was1 for them1 omnipresent and omniscient--the giver of all good things1 without whom man is as nothing4 ,he was said to be invisible1 incorporeal1 a being of absolute perfection and perfect purity1 under whose wings men may find repose and a sure defence4 ,but this deity1 though single1 was subdivided by the ,mexican theologians1 much in the same way as ,jehovah became separated into an innumerable host of angels1 archangels1 and devils1 and as ,zeus was split up into an equally numerous army of gods1 goddesses1 and demigods4 ,the ,mexicans had thirteen major1 and about two hundred minor1 divinities1 to one or other of whom each day was devoted1 much in the same way as certain modern ,christians believe in one ,creator1 four persons1 three of whom are male and the other female1 seven archangels1 and some hundreds of saints1 virgins1 or martyrs1 to each of whom one day of the year is consecrated4 ,there are more gods and goddesses in the ,papal calendar than in that of ,ancient ,mexico1 ,greece1 or even ,rome4 ,at the head of the celestial army was the god of war1 the patron of the kingdom1 whose temples were more noble in their barbaric majesty than any other1 and to whom human beings were sacrificed in abundance4 ,they were the noblest creatures that could be found1 and in truth1 there were very few other animals to offer in their place4 ,this great ,mexican divinity was essentially the same as the ,jehovah ,tsebaoth of the ,hebrew ,scriptures2 the ,lord of ,hosts of whom we read in ,exod4 xv4 #c1 ,the ,lord 7,jehovah7 is a man of war1 the ,lord 7,jehovah7 is ,his name2 and in ,ps4 xxiv4 #h1 ,who is this ,king of glory8--the ,lord1 strong and mighty2 the ,lord1 mighty in battle2 and again1 the same idea appears in verse #aj of the same ,psalm2 see also #a ,chron4 xvii4 #bd1 ,the ,lord of ,hosts is the ,god of ,israel4 ,indeed1 we should weary the reader if we were to quote all the texts to be found in the ,old ,testament1 which prove that the ,hebrew ,jehovah was as much a god of war as was the chief deity of the ,mexicans4 ,modern civilization may frame the belief that ,god is not the author of confusion1 but of peace 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #cc72 but the ,hebrews in the ,east1 and the ,mexicans in the ,west1 held a different opinion4 ,besides the god of war there was a god of the air1 who once lived on earth1 and taught metallurgy1 agriculture1 and the art of government4 ,he was essentially a human benefactor1 who caused the earth to teem with fruit and flowers1 without the trouble of laborious cultivation--his reign was analogous to the golden age of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,but he was not wholly satisfactory1 and was banished2 yet he is to have a second coming1 like ,elias1 and a modern deity of the ,eastern world4 ,his portrait is identical1 apparently1 with the commonly received likeness of ,jesus4 ,in ,christian mythology 7see ,eph4 ii4 #b71 the prince of the power of the air is regarded as the adversary1 or a devil4 ,no other deities are described in detail by ,prescott1 but he says that every household had its penates1 or household gods4 ,on turning to ,higgins1 who quotes entirely from ,lord ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities1 we find that the ,mexicans baptized their children with what they called water of regeneration4 ,their king also danced before his god1 as ,david did1 to his chaste wife's disgust1 and was consecrated and anointed by the high priest with a holy unction as ,saul and the son of ,jesse were4 ,on one day of the year all the fires in the ,mexican kingdom were extinguished and lighted again from one sacred hearth in the temple1 which again reminds us of the ,vestal ,virgins1 whose business was to keep up a holy fire in ,rome1 and of the lamp which was to burn perpetually in the ,jewish temple 7,exod4 xxvii4 #bj74 ,at the end of ,october the ,mexicans had a feast resembling our ,all ,souls1 or ,saints1 day1 which was called the festival of advocates1 because each human being had an advocate in the heaven above to plead for him1 which again reminds us of ,jesus' dictum1 that children have guardian angels1 who are always in ,god's presence 7,matt1 xviii4 #aj7 ,the same people had a forty-days' fast1 in honour of a god who was tempted forty days upon a mountain1 and thus resembled the ,prophet of ,nazareth4 ,he was called the morning star1 and thus is to be identified with ,lucifer as well as ,jesus 7,isa4 xiv4 #ab1 ,rev4 xxii4 #af71 and carried a reed for an emblem 7see ,eev4 xxi4 #ae74 ,the ,mexicans honoured a cross1 and the god of air was represented sometimes as nailed to one1 and even occasionally between two other individuals499 99 ,as we cannot imagine that the ,mexicans were aware of the manner in which modern ,christians depict ,jesus on the cross1 we most1 ,i think1 seek for some idea which was common to both the ,east and ,west4 ,in ,payne ,knight's work1 so often referred to by us1 there is a picture which represents a cock with a lingam instead of a head and beak2 on its pediment there is in ,greek the words1 soteer kosmou1 the saviour of the world4 ,this is also an epithet of ,siva1 and he is sometimes represented as a phallus4 ,in this he is the ,asher or ,bel of the ,assyrian triad1 erected higher than the other two4 ,in ,christian history the outsiders are said to be thieves1 but it was not so in ,mexico4 ,the three crosses are simply emblems of the trinity4 ,a virgin and child were also adored1 as they were in ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,egypt1 and ,hindostan1 and as they are in a great part of ,europe at the present time4 ,the people believed in vast cycles of years1 at the end of each of which there was to be a general destruction of life1 and a perfect regeneration1 an idea which ,higgins has shown to have existed amongst ,persians1 ,romans1 and ,jews alike4 ,the ,mexicans still further believed in a threefold future state--a heaven for the brave1 and those who were sacrificed1 there being1 so far as ,i can discover1 no abstract idea of what we call virtue2 a hell for the wicked2 and a sort of quiet limbo for those who were in no way distinguished4 ,heaven was located in the sun1 and the blessed were permitted to revel amongst lovely clouds and singing birds1 enjoying1 unharmed1 all the charms of nature3 a conception which is to the full as poetical1 and1 probably1 quite as near the truth1 as that given in ,revelation4 ,when a man died he was burned1 and1 if rich1 his slaves were sacrificed with him1 the ,mexicans1 in this respect1 resembling the ancient ,scythians1 with whom they had much in common4 ,when the ceremony of giving a name to children was gone through1 their lips and bosom were sprinkled with water1 and the ,lord was implored to permit the holy drops to wash away the sin that was given to the child before the foundation of the world1 so that the infant might be born anew1 or1 in modern terms1 regenerated 7,prescott1 ch4 #c74 ,amongst their prayers1 or invocations1 were the formulas1 ,wilt ,thou blot us out1 ,o ,lord1 for ever8 ,is this punishment intended1 not for our reformation1 but for our destruction8 again1 ,impart to us1 out of ,thy great mercy1 ,thy gifts which we are not worthy to receive through our own merits2 ,keep peace with all2 ,bear injuries with humility1 ,god who sees will avenge you2 ,he who looks too curiously on a woman commits adultery with eyes4 ,these ,mexican maxims so closely resemble those to be found in the ,bible1 that it is difficult to believe that the ,spaniards really told the truth respecting them4 ,the sacerdotal order amongst the ,mexicans was a numerous one1 well arranged and powerful4 ,the priests used musical choirs in their worship1 arranged the calendar1 and appointed the time for festivals4 ,they superintended the education of youth1 and wrote up the traditions1 like the recorders of the ,jews1 ,persians1 other ,orientals1 and ,christian monks1 and looked to the conservancy of the hieroglyphic paintings4 ,there were two high priests1 who alone had to undertake the duty of offering human sacrifices1 and these were elected by the king and nobles1 quite irrespective of previous rank1 and1 when elected1 they were inferior only to the sovereign4 ,when reading this1 anyone who is familiar with biblical history will bethink him of ,luke iii4 #c1 ,annas and ,caiaphas being the high priests1 the plural1 not the singular1 number being used1 and of the dictum of ,caiaphas1 ,john xi4 #ej1 ,it is expedient for us that one man should die for the people1 that the whole nation perish not4 ,we may put what construction we please upon these facts1 but1 whatever interpretation we may adopt1 we must acknowledge that the ,hebrews1 at the time when our era commences1 had two high priests who were concerned in human sacrifice4 ,the priests1 in general1 were devoted to the service of some particular deity1 and1 during the time of their attendance1 lived in the temple1 celibate2 but1 when not on duty1 they resided with their wives and families4 ,thrice during the day1 and once at some period of the night1 they were called to prayer1 much like all the varieties of ,christian monks and nuns4 ,they were frequent in their ablutions1 in which habit they may be contrasted with those saintly hermits1 who regarded dirt as a divine ordinance1 and never washed2 and they mortified the flesh by long vigils1 fasting1 and cruel penance1 drawing blood from their bodies by flagellation1 or by piercing them with the thorns of the aloe4 ,the resemblance of the ,mexican sacerdotalism with ,jewish and ,christian customs is thus shown to be wonderful and striking1 so much so1 that the ,spaniards started the idea that they had been taught by some stray apostle of ,jesus4 ,the great cities of ,mexico were divided into districts1 each of which was placed under the charge of a sort of parochial clergy1 who regulated every act of religion within their precincts1 and who administered the rites of confession and absolution4 ,the secrets of the confessional were held inviolable1 and penances were imposed1 of much the same kind as those enjoined by the ,roman ,catholic ,church upon her votaries4 ,it was a tenet of ,mexican faith1 that a sin once atoned for1 was1 if repeated1 inexpiable a second time2 consequently1 confession was only once resorted to1 and that late in life2 a good plan1 upon the whole1 for it enabled a man whose days were numbered to get pardon for good and aye4 ,it was also held that sacerdotal absolution was equivalent to magisterial punishment4 ,the formula of absolution contained this1 amongst other things1 ,o merciful ,lord1 ,thou who knowest the secrets of all hearts1 let ,thy forgiveness and favour descend1 like the pure waters of heaven1 to wash away the stains from the soul4 ,thou knowest that this poor man has sinned1 not from his own free will1 but from the influence of the sign under which he was born4 ,this idea may well be compared with the current doctrine of the phrenologists1 many of whom assert that a man acts according to the configuration of his brain and cranium1 and is1 therefore1 only partially culpable for the commission of certain crimes4 ,after a copious exhortation to the penitent1 in which he was enjoined to undergo a variety of mortifications1 and to perform minute ceremonies1 by way of penance1 he was particularly urged to procure1 with the smallest possible delay1 a slave1 who was to be utilized in sacrifice to the ,deity2 the priest then concluded with inculcating charity to the poor--,clothe the naked1 and feed the hungry1 whatever privations it may cost thee1 for remember their flesh is like thine4 ,the necessity of sacrifice1 as an atonement for sin1 forms an essential1 though bloody1 part of both the ,hebrew and the ,christian faiths1 and history has long taught us that the slaughter of a man1 woman1 or child1 formed1 in the estimation of the ,ancient ,greeks1 and other nations1 one of the most acceptable of the forms of homage paid by a human being to the ,creator4 ,this idea is at the very basis of the ,christian theology4 ,it has been held1 from the time of the apostle ,paul to the present day1 that ,jehovah would not look favourably upon mankind until ,he had been propitiated1 not by the sacrifice of an ordinary individual1 but by the murder1 in the crudest of modes1 of a being whom ,he personally begat1 for the purpose of killing him when arrived at maturity4 ,in ,hebrews x4 #ab1 we find this doctrine very distinctly enunciated1 in the words1 this man1 after he had offered one sacrifice of sins for ever1 sat down on the right hand of ,god1 and subsequently1 v4 #ad1 by one offering he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified4 ,again1 in ,heb4 ix4 #bf1 once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself2 and in ,heb4 x4 #aj1 we are sanctified through the offering of the body of ,jesus ,christ2 and in ix4 #bh1 ,christ was once offered to bear the sins of many4 ,the philosopher may doubt whether the ,god whom the ,christians have made for their own adoration1 is in any way different to that of ,king ,mesha1 who offered up his own son in sacrifice1 or to the ,mexican one1 who was contented with the blood of a slave499 99 ,it is doubtful whether any ,christian has ever paid real attention to the doctrines which are familiar to his ear1 or to the hymns which an most frequently on his tongue4 ,in the usual fashion which is prevalent amongst ministers and hearers1 everything which is told by missionaries of heathen deities is taken as true4 ,thus it has become the general belief that the ,mexican theology1 which required an annual sacrifice of human beings1 whose hearts were cut out1 and offered warm1 palpitating and full of blood1 to a ,god who was supposed to be present in a sacred stone statue1 was beyond measure atrocious4 ,but in what consists the horror1 unless in the fact that the sacrifice was seen by the worshippers8 ,in ,christendom people are never called upon to see a man killed by nailing him to a cross4 ,if they were condemned to this penance1 very little would any of them talk of blood4 ,as it is1 the minds of the majority are lulled to sleep by the substitution of words for facts1 and texts of ,scripture for ideas2 and those who are unable to look upon a cut finger without fainting1 and would not for worlds go to see a man decapitated1 talk in the serenest manner on most sanguinary topics4 ,a reference to a few hymns which are general favourites will illustrate what ,i mean4 ,in ,rock of ,ages1 for example1 we have the lines-- ,let the water and the blood ,from thy riven side that flowed1 ,cleanse from sin and make me pure4 ,another equally popular hymn begins ,from ,calv'ry's cross a fountain flows ,of water and of blood1 ,more healing than ,bethesda's pool1 ,redeeming ,lord1 thy precious blood ,shall never lose its power444 and again-- ,there is a fountain filled with blood1 ,drawn from ,immanuels veins1 ,and sinners plunged beneath that flood ,lose all their guilty stains4 ,no congregation of ,christian1 or any other men1 would tolerate for a moment the introduction into divine worship of a bath of blood1 into which all those should plunge who desired salvation4 ,not one would endeavour to wash his sins away in a sanguine stream1 drawn from any source whatever4 ,the horror which would be produced by the doctrine that such things are necessary to appease our ,god1 would make every thinking being detest it4 ,yet1 when we only play with the idea1 we can talk of such matters with holy complacency4 ,if any ,christian wants to test his faith1 let me advise him to get a basinful of blood and place it in his bed-room1 and say twice a day1 when looking on it1 that's the stuff which propitiates my ,god6 ,it would not be long ere he saw the absurdity of his theological tenets1 and the coarseness of the hierarchy which invented so frightful an idea of the ,omnipotent4 ,for the education of the youth of ,mexico a part of the temples was allotted1 where the boys and girls of the middle and higher classes were placed at an early period--the girls to be taught by the priestesses1 the boys by priests2 and from a note in ,prescott's corrected edition1 #ahff1 p4 #bb1 we learn that the former were even more generally pure in life than1 we have reason to believe1 the ,egyptian priestesses and ,christian nuns proved themselves to be1 ,father ,acosto saying1 ,in truth1 it is very strange to see that this false opinion of religion hath so great force amongst these young men and maidens of ,mexico1 that they will serve the ,devil with so great vigour and austerity1 which many of us do not in the service of the most high ,god1 the which is a great shame and confusion4 ,it is curious to notice how the ,christian priest considers that chastity may be a snare of the ,devil1 as well as an ordinance of ,jehovah4 ,the boys1 in these scholastic parts of the sacred temples1 were taught the routine of monastic discipline--to decorate the shrines of the gods with flowers1 to feed the sacred fires1 and to chant in worship and at festivals4 ,the ,abbe ,hue1 in an account of his travels in ,thibet and ,tartary1 has told us repeatedly of the similarity between the rites1 practices1 and ceremonies of the ,romish ,church and those in use amongst the followers of the ,great ,lama4 ,it is equally marvellous to discover that the ,mexican ritual resembles both4 ,the ,papalist endeavours to explain this1 by the monstrous assumption that both ,tartary and ,mexico were evangelized by two different ,christian ,apostles4 ,but it seems to us more probable that the ,romanists1 who are known to have adopted almost every ancient ceremony1 symbol1 doctrine1 and the like1 have unknowingly copied from travelled ,orientals1 than that the cult of the people of ,thibet has travelled into ,america1 as well as into ,europe4 ,into the identity of the ,tartars with the ,red ,indians it is not my intention to enter4 ,the higher ,mexicans were taught traditionary lore1 the mysteries of hieroglyphics1 the principles of government1 and such astronomical and scientific knowledge as the priests would1 or1 probably1 could1 impart4 ,the girls learned to weave and embroider coverings for the altars of the gods4 ,great attention was paid to morality1 and offences were punished with extreme rigour1 even with death itself4 ,youths were taught to eschew1 vice and cleave to virtue1 to abstain from wrath1 to offer violence or do wrong to no man1 and to do good where possible4 ,when of an age to marry1 the pupils were dismissed from the convent1 and the recommendation of the principal thereof often introduced those whom he regarded as the most competent of the students1 to responsible situations in public life4 ,such was the policy of the ,mexican priests1 who were thus enabled to mould the mind of the young1 and to train it early to the necessity of giving reverence to religion1 and especially to its ministers--a reverence which maintained its hold on the warrior long after every other vestige of education had been effaced4 ,in this matter ,america showed an astuteness equal to that exhibited by ,papal hierarchs in ,rome4 ,to each of the principal temples1 lands were annexed1 for the maintenance of the priests1 and these glebes were augmented by successive princes1 until1 under ,montezuma1 they were of enormous extent1 and covered every district of the99 empire4 ,the priests took the management of their property into their own hands1 and treated their tenants with liberality and indulgence4 ,in addition to this source of income1 they had first fruits1 and other offerings1 dictated by piety or superstition4 ,the surplus was distributed in alms amongst the poor1 a duty strenuously prescribed by their moral code4 ,thus we find1 adds ,prescott1 whom we are closely1 and almost verbatim1 following1 the same religion inculcating lessons of pure philanthropy and of merciless extermination--an inconsistency not incredible to those familiar with the history of the ,roman ,catholic ,church in the early ages of the ,inquisition4 ,in the course of a not very long life1 ,i have heard1 upon many occasions1 the argument that the persistency of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 in spite of its abominable corruptions1 its utter contempt for truth1 its outrageous cruelty1 its glaring superstition1 its intolerable arrogance1 and its rapacious covetousness1 proves that it is1 and must ever be regarded as a divine institution4 ,but this argument loses all its weight when we find that the religion of the ,mexicans1 which the ,spaniards declared to have sprung from the ,devil1 had the virtues1 as well as many vices1 of the ,roman faith4 ,if one came from ,heaven1 the other could not have come from ,hell4 ,the simple truth seems to be1 that crafty and designing men are always able to find dupes1 and that red men and black1 the haughty ,italian and the lively ,frenchman1 the stolid boor and the polished orator1 may all suffer alike from an education which has taught them1 in youth1 to believe in the reality of a revelation given to a class of human beings who1 by its means1 assume to be divine4 ,the ,mexican temples--teocallis1 or houses of ,god --were very numerous1 indeed there were several hundreds in each of the principal cities of the kingdom2 but we need not describe them more minutely than to say that they were truncated pyramids terminating in a level surface1 upon which blazed the sacred fire4 ,all religious services were public1 as in ,roman ,catholic countries4 ,there were long processions of priests1 and numerous festivals of unusual sacredness1 as well as monthly and daily appropriate celebrations of worship1 so that it is difficult to conceive how the ordinary business of life was carried on4 ,the sun was an universal object of reverence4 ,at a period not long prior 7about #bjj years7 to the ,spanish conquest1 human sacrifices were adopted for the first time1 and they speedily became common1 both as regards repetition and the numbers of victims slaughtered4 ,in some instances the oblations terminated with cannibalism4 ,the burnt offering was roasted1 not incinerated1 and1 like the ,paschal lamb1 was devoutly devoured4 ,sexual rites1 symbols1 or worship1 appear to have been very rare1 for ,i can only find one or two doubtful references to them4 ,in this matter the ,mexicans were far superior to all the old ,shemitic and ,egyptian1 as well as the ,hindoo1 races4 ,so far ,prescott4 ,whilst writing the foregoing1 it has required some determination not to comment very extensively upon the facts recorded1 for they do1 indeed1 set the thoughtful mind on fire4 ,amongst the questions which they provoke1 the first is1 how far the accounts given to us are to be depended upon8 ,in answering this query1 we readily recognize that our authorities can only have been ,spaniards1 who were1 to a great extent1 implacable enemies of the ,mexicans1 to a great extent ignorant of their language1 and bitterly hostile to them in matters of religion4 ,but this recognition leads us to trust the accounts which they give1 for1 if the invaders had been able to treat the natives as unmitigated savages1 they would have had the more excuse for pillaging their sacred stores1 temples1 and palaces1 and exterminating the pagan worshippers4 ,again1 if the picture thus painted were a fancy one1 having no real existence save in the mind of the writer1 we should be able readily to recognize its counterpart in the ,spanish history of the ,peruvians1 just as we are able to ascertain the identity of the authorship of certain anonymous works by ,lord ,lytton1 by the existence therein of his marked peculiarity of style4 ,the best testimony1 however1 to the substantial truth of the accounts given of the nature of the ,mexican faith1 is to be found in various minute episodes of their general history1 in the behaviour of the ,aztecs with each other1 and towards their invaders1 and the general customs which are recorded4 ,that the ,spanish writers had a real belief in the account of which ,prescott has given us so admirable a resume1 we may feel assured1 for one of them introduced the naive remark1 that the ,devil had positively taught to the ,mexicans the same things which ,god had taught to ,christendom4 ,when once we have satisfied ourselves of the truth of the ,spanish accounts of the ancient ,mexican institutions1 we find ourselves in the presence of some very striking religious and political facts4 ,we see before us a nation who had attained to as distinct a conception of the ,almighty as we have ourselves2 who had discovered a heaven1 a hell1 and an intermediate place1 without the assistance of ,jew or ,greek1 ,babylonian or ,persian2 who had instituted a sacerdotal class1 and made provision for their subsistence1 without any assistance from ,melchizedek or ,moses2 who had adopted a principle of national education long before such a thing was thought of in ,england1 or in ,europe4 ,in fine1 the ,aztec faith and policy were1 at least1 as praiseworthy1 if not far nearer to perfection1 than the faith and policy which obtained in ,christian ,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain1 during the dark and the middle ages4 ,there is not1 indeed1 any one point in which the contrast is not favourable to the ,aztecs1 except in the single point of human sacrifice4 ,christianity can1 apparently1 make a heavy accusation against the ,aztec religion on this point1 and may fairly seem to reproach it for that frequency of human sacrifice1 and even cannibalism1 which formed1 at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 an essential part of the ,mexican faith4 ,yet1 when we dive below the surface1 and examine this matter with philosophic care1 we readily see that the charge is deprived of much of its weight4 ,who1 for example1 can compare the practice of the people of ,montezuma with that of ,spaniards under the sway of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 without seeing that in ,spain there were human sacrifices1 which were conducted with far more cruelty than those in ,mexico4 ,we find1 in the first place1 that the custom of sacrificing human beings was no more an essential part of the ,aztec1 than it was of the ,christian1 faith2 it was only in existence two hundred years before the ,spanish invasion1 and many centuries1 bloodless of human offerings1 had passed away ere the period of what we may term brutality arrived4 ,just so it was with the religion of ,jesus2 for centuries it was unstained by blood1 and comparatively meek and humble1 yet1 when its priesthood rose to power1 they indulged in human holocausts on a most extended scale4 ,the ,spaniards give accounts of thousands of victims offered up at once to the ,mexican god of war2 but what are these in comparison to the victims of ,paris1 sacrificed by ,papists on the eve and day of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 and those at ,beziers4 ,it may be doubted by the philosopher whether the ,christian religion was not1 from its very commencement1 as intolerant of opposition and as persecuting as it became hereafter4 ,the story of ,jesus cursing a fig tree1 which did not bear fruit out of its season 7,mark xi4 #ac1 #ad1 #ba71 shows that even he1 whom the ,christians take for an example1 was quite capable of that pettiness1 which visits upon the innocent the vexation felt by one's self4 ,but when we read the story in ,acts1 v41 about ,ananias and ,sapphira1 we see1 in all its naked horror1 a fearful ,christian persecution4 ,the victims were done to death for deceiving an apostle4 ,but why should we be surprised at the followers of the ,son doing that which the ,father ordained8 ,is there any human king who ever promulgated a more bloody order than did ,jehovah ,sabaoth1 the ,god which1 amongst the ,hebrews1 corresponded to the ,mexican god of war1 when he commissioned ,samuel to say to ,saul 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #c71 ,now go and smite ,amalek1 and utterly destroy all that they have2 slay both man and woman1 infant and suckling1 ox and sheep1 camel and ass6 ,after such a destruction of the ,midianites as is narrated in ,numb1 xxxi41 the fearful slaughter1 effected by ,crusaders1 of ,jews1 ,turks1 and heretics is scarcely worth mentioning4 ,there was a teacher who remarked1 he who is without sin among you1 let him first cast a stone at the culprit2 and surely1 when our ,bible1 which is treasured by so many as the only rule of faith amongst us1 details such horrible religious slaughters as are to be found in its pages1 and abounds with persecuting precepts1 we had better not talk too much about ,mexican sacrifice4 ,was there any ,aztec minister so brutal in his religious fury as ,samuel was 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #cc71 who hewed ,agag into pieces8 ,the ,mexican was merciful to his victim2 the ,hebrew was like a modern ,chinese executioner1 who kills the criminal by degrees4 ,his cruelty has been emulated in ,christian ,france1 and under the reign of two of her kings1 we have seen a ,ravaillac and ,damiens tortured slowly to death1 by means too horrible to dwell upon4 ,the writers upon ,mexico tell us of a lovely youth1 who was educated for a whole year to become a victim1 and how1 at the end of that time1 he was feted1 adorned1 and even worshipped2 how four of the most charming maidens of ,mexico were selected as his wives1 and how he remained in the enjoyment of the highest honour until the time of his sacrifice arrived1 and we feel due horror at the recital4 ,yet1 what is it compared with the accounts we read of miserable men and women racked1 in hideous dungeons1 by the most horrible tortures which an enlightened ,christian ingenuity could devise1 and who then1 with limbs whose loosened fibres could scarcely sustain their bruised and mangled bodies1 were led1 or driven at the sword's point1 to a stake fixed in the ground1 there to be tied and burned1 whilst devout ,christian multitudes stood around1 rejoicing1 like demons1 over the hellish scene4 ,no one can gloat over the imaginary torments of ,hell without being a persecuting devil at heart4 ,surely the ,christians have too much sin amongst themselves to cast a stone at the inhabitants of ,mexico4 ,we find a strong offset to the horror of ,aztec cruelty in the very ,bible1 which we regard as the mainstay of our religious world4 ,what1 for example1 is the essential difference between a ,mexican monarch sacrificing one or ten thousand men taken in battle1 and ,moses commanding the extermination of the inhabitants of ,canaan1 and only saving1 out of ,midian1 thirty-two thousand virgins1 that they might minister to the lust of his ,hebrew followers8 ,what1 again1 are we to say of ,david's ,god1 who would not turn away his anger from ,judah until seven sons of the preceding king had been offered up as victims8 ,and lastly--thought still more awful6 what must we say of the fundamental doctrines of ,christianity1 that ,jehovah ,himself sacrificed ,his own ,son by a cruel death2 and not only so1 but that ,he had intercourse with an earthly woman1 and had thus a son by her1 for the sole purpose of bringing about his murder8 ,can we object to religious cannibalism in the ,aztec1 when ,jesus of ,nazareth is said to have urged his followers to eat his body and to drink his blood2 and when hundreds of priests have shed the blood of millions of men1 who1 disbelieving the power of any man to convert bread and wine into flesh and blood1 have refused to profane their lips by a cannibal feast8 ,having now examined the nature of the ,aztec faith1 let us1 for a while1 linger upon the fruits which it produced4 ,who can read the mournful story of the fall of ,mexico without contrasting1 in his own mind1 the respective characters of the conquerors and the conquered8 ,in every so-called ,christian virtue ,montezuma proved himself to be superior to the lying1 unscrupulous1 rapacious and covetous ,cortez4 ,even the greatest fire-eater who ever lived cannot fail to see that the ,spaniard would not have been victorious over the ,mexican1 if the latter had been equally well equipped with arms1 armour1 and horses1 as the former was4 ,we can only tell vaguely what was the condition of ,anahuac prior to the invasion of ,cortez2 but1 from the testimony given by ,prescott1 we believe that there were annual wars between adjoining tribes1 who met solely to obtain from their enemies victims for sacrifice1 the battles always ending with the day1 and never being resumed for conquest1 or for the plunder of maidens to be an indulgence of a victor's lust4 ,what the condition of the same country under ,christian rule has been1 and still is1 every reader of modern and contemporary history knows2 and he sees1 with regret1 that ,jehovah ,sabaoth1 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 with an army of saints1 angels1 virgins1 and martyrs1 as well as ancient gods of the ,eastern ,hemisphere are1 if they are to be judged by the acts of their worshippers1 as cruel1 revengeful1 and malignant1 as were the deities of the ,mexican kingdom4 ,the followers of the cross will appear to be quite as despicable when we contrast them with the ,peruvians1 as they were when compared with the inhabitants of ,anahuac4 ,there is something very fascinating in the history of ,peru1 as recorded by the ,spanish authors1 and rendered into the ,english language by ,prescott4 ,there is no account of ancient or modern people extant which has interested me so much as those of the realm of ,manco ,capac4 ,to hear of a nation1 separated by an ocean1 we may1 indeed1 say two1 and a vast continent1 from the civilized portions of ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,africa1 located in a mountainous tract1 where soil and water were scanty1 and locomotion was rendered difficult from the configuration of the land2 whose country was surrounded by strong natural enemies of all kinds2 whose people were unable to use such agents as steel and gunpowder1 and who were yet enabled to construct vast cities and temples1 to quarry1 remove1 and use in buildings1 fragments of rock thirty-eight feet long1 eighteen feet broad1 and six feet thick1 and to transport these to distances varying from #ab to #de miles1 to form good roads along the mountain tops1 for an extent of nearly two thousand miles1 necessitating the filling up chasms of enormous depth1 and the making of suspension bridges over rivers whose stream was too furious to bridge in the ordinary ,european fashion1 is perfectly astonishing4 ,the far-sighted ,incas1 to make these roads still more useful1 accompanied them by the erection of large residences1 like modern ,european bungalows in ,india1 fit for the reception of a monarch with his army1 and by vast magazines of provisions1 sufficient to supply the wants of a warlike expedition1 or of a population starving from an accidental failure of crops4 ,the ,peruvians1 moreover1 surrounded their chief towns with strong walls1 in comparison with which the ,cyclopean constructions of the old world seem small1 stunted1 and almost contemptible4 ,it appears1 in addition1 that they knew how to form long tunnels1 either for the passage of troops1 for the benefit of travellers1 or for the conveyance of water4 ,all these1 ,i say1 are enough to fire the imagination of the dullest reader of history1 and to shake the belief that civilization cannot be developed in the midst of what we have been accustomed to call savage life1 and can only be brought to a moderate perfection by the influence of the ,hebrew and ,christian writings4 ,our wonder is not1 however1 bounded by the physical results produced by the industrious population of ,peru1 it is still farther exercised by the descriptions which are given of their wonderful domestic and foreign policy4 ,it would be difficult to conceive1 and still more difficult to carry into execution for many generations1 a plan of government so eminently fitted to give the greatest happiness to the greatest number1 as that which the ,incas elaborated4 ,the rulers were specially educated to fulfil their duties in every respect1 and were not permitted1 as modern princes are1 to enter into the ranks of chivalry until they had undergone a public examination1 which was conducted by the oldest and the most illustrious chiefs4 ,the trial included tests of every warlike and manly quality4 ,it lasted thirty days1 during which time every competitor fared alike1 living on the bare ground1 and wearing a mean attire4 ,those who passed the ordeal honourably were admitted formally into the knightly order1 the ceremony including an investiture of the youth with sandals put on by the most venerable noble1 equivalent to the donning of the toga virilis in ,ancient ,rome1 and having the ear pierced with a golden bodkin by the reigning monarch4 ,to take off the shoe was a ceremony exacted from all those who came into the ,inca's presence1 to have it put on by a grandee was great honour4 ,that the rulers might understand the condition of the kingdom1 they systematically travelled1 much in the same way as ,james ,v4 of ,scotland1 and the ,caliph ,haroun ,alraschid1 are said to have done4 ,the ,incas1 in addition to their other plans for good government1 inaugurated a postal system3 divided their peoples into tens1 fifties1 hundreds1 five hundreds1 thousands1 and ten thousands1 much in the same way as the ,saxon ,king ,alfred is said to have done1 whose plan is1 in many respects1 conserved to the present day2 and the head man of each division was in all respects its ruler1 to repress crime1 to announce to his superior officer all unusual occurrences1 and to report1 generally1 the actual state of his division to the chief above him4 ,all legal trials1 or appeals1 were decided in less than five days1 and a code was established1 which all might readily know1 a thing only attained by the ,french under the first ,napoleon1 and long desired by ,england1 but in vain4 ,punishments were never attended with torture1 or unnecessary cruelty4 ,in this respect the ,peruvians differed from every other civilized nation of which ,i have yet read4 ,the ,chinaman methodically inflicts painful punishments which have only been surpassed by the followers of the gentle ,jesus4 ,the ,persians and ,turks have1 certainly1 shown their capacity for giving pain to those who are brought before their ministers of justice1 and the ,red ,indians1 during their day1 reduced the art of tormenting themselves1 but1 still more1 their prisoners1 almost to perfection4 ,the ,babylonians had discovered that a death of agony could be accomplished by means of myriads of ants4 ,it was reserved to ,christians1 eager to uphold the faith promulgated by a ,god of mercy1 to find out the most exquisite of torments4 ,even ,frenchmen1 who have for centuries assumed the position of leaders of civilization1 were1 until the great ,revolution beat down their kings and prelates1 more ruthlessly cruel than the most fierce redskin4 ,the ,inquisition1 which arrogated to itself the power to keep the ,christian religion pure1 was distinguished by the atrocity with which it gave anguish to its victims1 and it held its head high until it was put down1 we may hope for ever1 by fiery republican enthusiasts1 whom priestly demons1 baulked of their prey1 declared to be devils incarnate4 ,more modern hierarchs are obliged to content themselves with making a hell for their enemies--with foretelling a variety of punishments to be inflicted hereafter1 which cannot be enforced here4 ,the ,incas exacted an annual report of the lands possessed by individuals1 with their condition as regards culture2 and also of every family4 ,a register of births1 marriages1 and deaths was regularly kept1 so that the government might always know the real condition of the nation1 soil1 and people4 ,as far as possible1 families remained constant to their business1 thus forming a sort of trade caste1 but not a rigid one4 ,the registers were always submitted to the perusal of the ,inca1 and1 subsequently1 kept in the capital4 ,by the arrangement of posts1 and roads1 an insurrection or invasion was readily discovered1 and it was speedily announced at the capital city4 ,the march of troops to suppress it1 under these circumstances1 was easy and immediate1 for every requisite for war was always at hand4 ,in all circumstances1 plundering by the soldiery1 whether at home or in an enemy's country1 was severely punished1 and war was undertaken solely with a view to peace4 ,if a neighbour was turbulent1 he was conquered1 and absorbed into the old state1 and if a province was rebellious1 its worst inhabitants were carried away to some other locality1 where their power for mischief would be curtailed2 a plan which1 we are told1 was pursued by the ,assyrian ,shalmaneser 7#b ,kings xvii4 #f71 indicated by ,sennacherib 7#b ,kings xviii4 #cb71 and carried out by ,nebuzaradan 7#b ,kings xxv4 #aa474 ,in fine1 we may repeat1 that it would be difficult for a modern philosopher to conceive a better model of a really paternal government than that which1 it is asserted1 was found by the ,spaniards when they invaded the kingdom of the ,incas4 ,of the respective value of ,christian ,spanish government1 and of the so-called ,pagan ,inca rule1 none can doubt1 who reads the present by the light of the past4 ,the ,peruvians kept up their roads1 protected their subjects1 respected life1 and fostered everything which tended to increase the general happiness and prosperity of the kingdom--all these objects1 have been for a long period neglected1 and ,peru1 which was under the ,spanish rule1 one of the blots on the face of civilization and ,christianity1 is only just emerging from a long night1 under the influence of ,republican institutions4 ,our next step will be to ascertain the religion of the people whose political condition contrasts so favourably with that of every other nation of whom travel and history have informed us4 ,but we may1 in the first place1 remark1 that there is no absolute or necessary connection between the happiness1 or otherwise1 of a nation and its dominant religion1 as ,buckle has already shown in his ,history of ,civilization4 ,the writer of to-day can find abundant evidence in recent history to illustrate the proposition here advanced4 ,he can point to ,france1 and its condition under a sacerdotal rule1 prior to the time of the ,revolution1 and contrast it with its state since its rulers have tried to make the people prosperous and happy1 independently of their religious faith4 ,he can point to ,austria and ,spain1 when they were laid at the feet of the ,pope of ,rome1 and everything was made subservient to the demands of a powerful hierarchy1 and to the same states now1 when religion is subordinate to the material welfare of the majority4 ,who1 that has read the story of modern ,italy1 or heard of the atrocities committed under the priest-led ,ferdinand of ,naples--better known in ,england by the sobriquet of ,bomba2 who1 that knew anything of his brigand-rearing towns and cities1 and has visited them since they have been ruled constitutionally1 and with the priestly power curbed by a strong hand1 can doubt which set of directors are the best8 ,christian ,rome was never so happy under her ,popes as she is now1 when the so-called head of the church is subordinate to the chief of the state4 ,but of all priest-ridden countries1 one which would never have borne the popish sway as she has done1 if her chieftains had been sensible and her people thoughtful1 ,ireland deserves our commiseration the most4 ,hibernian hierarchs of the ,roman faith designate their country as a land of saints4 ,so1 perhaps1 it is1 if by the word is meant admirers of laziness and filth1 who consider that attention to religion justifies murder1 and every brutal crime against purse1 person1 and property4 ,as a rule1 admitting of no exceptions1 civil government has preceded sacerdotal rule1 and a nation is generally in a weakly and fallen condition as soon as its affairs are directed by the priestly class4 ,when first the ,aryans invaded ,hindostan1 the hierarchy was second to the warrior caste2 but as the first aggrandized their power1 the second lost their supremacy1 and under ,brahminic rule the foundation was laid for pusillanimous and indolent luxury in the warrior4 ,the power to plan1 and the nerve to enforce laws1 for the benefit of all classes of the community1 is very different to that which is requisite to exalt and enrich the priestly order2 and the well-being of a state depends far more upon the exercise of the first than of the second4 ,whenever1 therefore1 the executive government is entirely independent of the influence of the hierarchy1 or is itself the head of that caste1 it can produce good results for the nation1 no matter what may be the dogmas of the priesthood1 or the nature of the gods which are reverenced4 ,still following ,prescott as our guide1 we find that the sun was the great god of the ,peruvians1 and that the ,incas assumed the title of his true children4 ,to that luminary a vast temple was built in ,cuzco1 more radiant with gold than that of ,solomon at ,jerusalem4 ,to ,cuzco1 as to the capital of ,judea1 the name of ,holy ,city was given1 and to it pilgrims resorted from every part of the empire4 ,blasphemy against the sun was considered as bad as treason against the ,inca1 and both were punished with death4 ,a province1 or city1 rebellious against the sun was laid waste1 and its people exterminated4 ,when conquest over a new tribe subjugated it to ,peru1 the people were compelled to worship the sun1 temples to whose honour were erected in their territory4 ,to these was attached a body of priests1 to instruct the people in the proper form of adoration1 which consisted in a rich and stately ceremonial4 ,the divinities of the conquered people were removed to ,cuzco and established in one of the temples1 where they took order amongst the inferior deities of the ,peruvians4 ,but1 though the sun was unquestionably worshipped1 ,prescott observes1 ch4 iii1 it is a remarkable fact that many1 if not most1 of the rude tribes inhabiting the vast ,american continent had attained to the sublime conception of one ,great ,spirit1 the ,creator of the universe1 who1 immaterial in his own nature1 ought not to be dishonoured by an attempt at a visible representation1 and who1 pervading all space1 was not to be circumscribed within the walls of any building1 however grand or rich4 ,as civilization progressed1 we are told that a separate order of men1 with a liberal provision for their subsistence1 was set apart for religious service1 and a minute and magnificent ceremonial contrived1 which challenged comparison with that of the most polished nations of ,christendom4 ,this was the case with the natives of ,quita1 ,bogota1 and others inhabiting the highlands of ,south ,america1 but especially with the ,peruvians1 who claimed a divine origin for the founders of their empire1 whose laws rested on a divine sanction1 and whose domestic institutions and foreign wars were directed to preserve and to propagate their faiths4 ,religion was the basis of their polity1 the condition of their social existence4 ,the government of the ,incas was essentially a lay theocracy4 ,the ,peruvians believed in the future existence of the soul and the resurrection of the body4 ,they had faith in a ,hell1 located in the earth's centre1 and a ,heaven1 in which the good would revel in a life of luxury1 tranquillity1 and ease4 ,the wicked1 however1 were not to be hopelessly damned and tormented for everlasting1 but were to expiate their crimes by ages of wearisome labour4 ,they believed1 also1 in an evil principle or spirit1 called ,cupay1 to whom1 however1 they paid no more attention than an ordinary ,christian does to the ,devil4 ,the great men were entombed after death1 and were commonly buried with the chief things which they required on earth4 ,sometimes a chieftain was buried1 not only with his treasures1 but with his wives and domestics4 ,frequently1 over the dead1 vast mounds were raised1 which were honeycombed1 subsequently1 with cells for the burial of others4 ,cairns were as common in that part of the ,new ,world as they have been in the ,old1 and the majority of buildings found at the present day in ,peru have been connected with funereal pomp4 ,the supreme ,being in ,peru was named ,pachacamac1 he who gives life to the universe1 and ,viracocha1 of which the only translation given is foam of the sea4 ,to him one temple only was raised1 which is said to have been built prior to the accession of the ,incas1 and largely visited by vast numbers of distant ,indians4 ,the sun1 as we have noticed1 was chiefly venerated1 and to him a temple was erected in every city and large village1 and to him burnt offerings were made in abundance4 ,the moon was also venerated1 being connected with the sun as his wife--and ,venus1 called by the name of ,chasca1 the youth with the long and curling locks--was also regarded reverentially as the page of the sun4 ,temples were dedicated to thunder and to lightning as ,god's ministers1 and the rainbow was regarded as an emanation from the great luminary4 ,in addition to these1 the elements1 the winds1 the earth1 the air1 the great mountains and rivers1 were considered as inferior deities1 to which were added the gods of the conquered races4 ,the chief temple of the sun was extraordinarily gorgeous4 ,it was constructed of stone1 and was so finely executed1 that a ,spaniard declared that only two edifices in ,spain could1 in the stone work1 be at all compared with it like ,italian and other churches1 it contained many small chapels and subordinate buildings1 and the interior was dazzling with gold4 ,on its western wall the deity was emblazoned as a human face surrounded with rays of light1 just as the sun is personified amongst ourselves4 ,the figure was engraved on a massy gold plate1 thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones4 ,this was so situated in front of the great eastern portal1 that the rays of the morning sun1 falling upon it1 lighted up the whole temple with a wondrous sheen2 but every part of the inner walls blazed with gold4 ,the roof was1 however1 thatch alone4 ,adjoining the temple of the sun were fanes of smaller dimensions1 for the worship of the moon1 stars1 thunder1 lightning1 and the rainbow4 ,all the plate1 ornaments1 and utensils of every description appropriated to the uses of religion1 were of gold or silver4 ,twelve immense vases of silver 7said to be as high as a good lance1 and so large that two men could barely encircle them with outstretched arms7 stood on the floor of the great saloon1 filled with ,indian corn4 ,the censers for the perfumes1 the ewers which held the water for sacrifice1 the pipes which conducted it through subterraneous channels into the buildings1 the reservoir that received it1 even the agricultural implements used in the gardens of the temple1 were all of the same rich material4 ,the gardens1 like those belonging to the royal palaces1 sparkled with gold and silver1 and various imitations of the vegetable kingdom4 ,animals1 also1 were to be found there1 amongst which the llama1 with its golden fleece1 was most conspicuous1 executed in the same style1 and with a degree of skill which1 in this instance1 probably did not surpass the excellence of the material ,the reader of ,prescott will find that he has not adopted this account without carefully estimating the value of his authorities1 and ,i believe that he may be fairly trusted4 ,the various reports1 given by ,spanish writers1 of priests of the grand temple1 seem also to have been carefully estimated by the historian1 and the number which they amounted to is put down at four thousand at the least4 ,the high priest was second in dignity only to the ,inca1 and he was generally closely related to this ruler4 ,the monarch appointed this ,peruvian pope1 who held office for life4 ,he had the appointment of inferior priests1 but all must be from the sacred race of ,incas4 ,the high priests of the provinces were always of the blood royal4 ,the hierarchy wore no peculiar badge or dress1 nor was it the sole depositary of learning1 and it had not to superintend education1 or to do parochial work4 ,these duties were performed by others of the ,inca class1 all of whom were holy1 though not1 so to speak1 in holy orders4 ,the priest's business was to minister in the temple2 his science was confined to a knowledge of the fasts and festivals to be observed in connection with religion1 for these were very numerous1 and demanded separate rituals4 ,the four principal festivals were solar1 i4e41 at the equinoxes and solstices1 that of ,midsummer being the grandest1 on which occasion every one who could find time and money enough to do so visited the capital city4 ,the feast was preceded by a three days' fast1 and no fires were to be lighted during that period4 ,when the day arrived a vast array of people1 dressed in their handsomest apparel1 crowded the streets and squares1 waiting for the rising of the sun4 ,when it appeared shouts of joy1 heightened by instrumental music1 were raised in swelling tones1 until the whole orb had ascended above the horizon1 after which a libation was poured of fermented liquor1 and all the nobles and the king repaired to the great temple1 each individual1 except members of the royal family1 removing their sandals as they entered4 ,after prayer came sacrifice1 animals1 grain1 flowers1 and sweet-scented gums being the prescribed offerings2 sometimes a child or lovely maiden was also immolated1 generally to commemorate a coronation1 the birth of a royal heir1 or a great victory4 ,cannibalism never followed the sacrifice2 and it may be added1 parenthetically1 that when the ,incas conquered and annexed man-sacrificing and man-eating tribes1 they always abrogated the custom1 and with far more decision and firmness than ,britain has shown in abolishing self-immolation of ,juggernaut pilgrims in her ,indian ,empire1 and the burning of widows with their dead spouses4 ,some may doubt whether a conqueror ought to interfere with the religious customs of the vanquished1 but few would plead for the continuance of such customs as human sacrifice and cannibalism4 ,the animal usually sacrificed by the ,peruvians was the llama1 and the priest who officiated drew auguries from the appearance of the intestines4 ,to effect the oblation a sacred fire was now kindled by a concave mirror which acted as a burning glass1 precisely as was done by ,numa in the days of ,ancient ,rome4 ,if the sky was clouded1 and no rays could be collected1 fire was produced by friction4 ,when lighted1 the fire was committed to the care of the virgins of the sun1 who were bound to keep it up for the ensuing year4 ,after the single sacrifice was completed1 great numbers of other animals were slaughtered1 and a regular carousal began1 attended with music1 dancing1 and drinking1 that lasted for many days1 during which period all the lower orders kept holiday4 ,in the distribution of bread and wine at this high festival1 the invading ,spaniards saw a striking resemblance to the ,christian communion1 and they recognised a similar likeness in the ,peruvian practices of confession and penance4 ,the virgins of the sun were called the elect1 and were young maidens taken from their homes at an early age1 and introduced into convents1 where they were placed under the care of elderly matrons1 who taught them their religious duties1 and how to spin and weave1 embroider and adorn hangings for the temples1 and to frame garments for the ,incas4 ,their work was such1 that it was found to be superior to any which the ,spaniards had ever seen1 or were themselves able to produce4 ,the virgins were separated wholly1 not simply1 from the world in general1 but also from their own relations and friends--none but the king and queen could enter into their convent4 ,the closest attention was paid to the morals of these maidens1 and visitors were sent every year to inspect the institutions1 and to report on the state of their discipline2 a plan similar to which has been repeatedly proposed in ,christian ,england1 yet never sanctioned by the parliament6 ,if a virgin was discovered in an intrigue she was buried alive1 her lover was strangled1 and the town or village to which he belonged was razed to the ground1 and sowed with stones1 to efface even the memory of its site4 ,these solar attendants were all of royal blood1 and were estimated to number fifteen hundred2 but to provincial convents the inferior nobility were allowed to send their daughters1 and sometimes a peculiarly lovely peasant girl was admitted4 ,the convents were all sumptuously furnished4 ,but1 though virgins of the sun1 they were brides of the ,incas1 and we cannot fail1 when we read of the vast harem of the ,peruvian monarch1 to think of the female establishments of the ,jewish ,solomon1 of the ,persian ,ahasuerus1 and that of ,louis ,,xv4 of ,christian ,france4 ,if at any time the ,inca reduced his harem1 the superfluous concubines were restored to their homes1 swelling with the importance which they had gained by their familiarity with the monarch4 ,polygamy was permitted4 ,matrimony was effected by the ,inca1 or other chief man1 joining the hands of the parties4 ,the king usually espoused his own sister1 but no other person was allowed to do so4 ,no marriage was valid without the consent of parents4 ,as a general rule1 all unions were effected on the same day of the year1 and thus the wedding of couples was followed by general rejoicing4 ,the genius of the ,peruvian government penetrated into the most private recesses of domestic life1 allowing no man to act for himself1 even in those personal matters in which none but himself1 or his family1 could be interested4 ,no ,peruvian was too low for the fostering vigilance of the government2 none was so high that he was not made to feel his dependence upon it in every act of his life4 ,the government of the ,incas was the mildest1 but the most searching and beneficent1 of despotisms4 ,we now1 but with great reluctance1 leave our friendly guide1 the accomplished ,prescott1 and ask ourselves1 once more1 the lessons which we have learned from the departed races of the vast ,american continent4 ,can anyone doubt that one of the most conspicuous results obtained is1 that ,christian rule1 and the ,christian doctrine1 have not proved themselves1 in any respect1 superior to the ,incas' government and their solar religion8 ,who can read of the civilization1 the theology1 and the practice of the ,peruvians1 without believing one of two things--the one1 that ,jewish ritualism1 and the majority of ,christian teaching1 is of human invention2 the other1 that the ,almighty has revealed ,his will in the ,western as well as in the ,eastern ,hemisphere8 ,can any thoughtful man believe that the brutal1 covetous1 lying ,spaniards1 who broke1 with impunity1 every commandment promulgated in those ,gospels1 to whose authority they professed allegiance1 and upon which their faith is founded1 were better men1 or more favoured by the ,lord1 who loveth righteousness and hateth iniquity1 than were the gentle ,peruvians1 who fell before them as lambs and sheep before wolves and tigers8 ,surely the story of the ,incas should make ,christians1 in all ages1 blush for their inferiority to those1 amongst whom neither ,moses1 ,samuel1 and other so-called prophets1 ,jesus1 nor any of his apostles1 preached2 and more strongly should it convince us that the wish to do good on a large scale can come otherwise than by the ,gospel4 ,if grace1 and peace1 and love came by the ,nazarene alone1 how is it--and let us ponder over the question deeply--that all ,christian countries have been1 and that some are still1 conspicuous for the brutality of their political and priestly governments1 for the frequency with which they make war1 for their ferocity in the destruction of religious enemies1 and for the intense hatred evinced against rival sects1 by those who call themselves the representatives of the ,prince of ,peace2 whilst1 on the other hand1 a nation who never heard of the son of ,joseph or of ,mary1 should be conspicuous for the virtues which ought to adorn the soldiers of the cross1 but do not8 ,surely1 if the saying be true1 by their fruit ye shall know them1 the denizens of the old world must be children of the ,devil1 who do the work1 of their father1 whilst certain of the nations of the new world1 as it is called1 were really children of the light1 abounding in love1 charity1 and goodwill towards all men4 ,to me it is astonishing how thoughtful men1 who have read accounts of the ,mexicans and the ,peruvians1 can continue to believe that the ,bible is the book of ,god1 written by holy men1 whose thoughts and diction were essentially those of the third person in the ,trinity4 ,who can assert that ,abraham and ,jacob1 ,moses and ,aaron1 were taught of ,god1 and that to the ,hebrews alone has the ,creator revealed ,his will8 ,who can see1 in the sensual king ,david1 a man after ,god's heart1 and applaud the brutal murder of ,agag1 the destruction of the priests of ,baal1 by the orders of ,elijah1 and the extermination of the ,baalites in ,israel by ,jehu8 ,compared with such wretches as these the ,incas were angels4 ,they had not left to them the bloody legacy which has come to the ,christian world by means of the ,old ,testament3 they had not been taught to believe that the ,almighty revelled in the blood of human beings3 they never had1 amongst their sacred songs1 verses like the following--that thy foot may be dipped in the blood of enemies1 and the tongue of thy dogs in the same 7,ps4 lxviii4 #bc74 ,ah1 it is time for civilized men to cease their admiration for a book which has produced such frightful fruits1 and which has converted millions of human beings into incarnate fiends4 ,the ,vedas and the ,shasters--the writings of the ,buddhists1 and those of the ,parsees and the ,chinese1 contain1 nowhere1 such a justification of wholesale murder1 as do the ,scriptures of the ,jews and of the ,christians499 ,from these have been drawn the power to persecute1 and1 if possible1 to exterminate those who worship ,god in a different fashion to those in power4 ,calvin was as bad as ,torquemada2 and1 even at the present time1 it is only public opinion that prevents fanatics1 like the early ,new ,englanders1 from reducing their ,christian hate to practical torture4 ,everywhere the professed followers of ,jesus assume the power to torment their opponents1 whenever they can do so without breaking the civil law1 and there are few pulpits from which the voice of revilement1 contumely1 and denunciation is not repeatedly heard4 ,the ,romans abuse the ,anglicans2 the ,establishment sneers at ,dissent2 ,nonconformists censure all churches2 and all libel those whom they call ,free ,thinkers and ,atheists4 ,to find toleration in matters of religion1 one must seek amongst the ,deists1 or amongst those who refuse to see in the ,bible the revealed will of ,god to man4 99 ,see ,matthew x4 #cd1 #he2 ,luke xii4 #di1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,can civilization grow out of barbarism8 ,dislike of progress1 especially if mental4 ,rediscovery of ancient knowledge4 ,advance and retrogression4 ,china and ,japan--influence of strangers4 ,decadence of nations--followed by a rise4 ,the ,shemitic and ,negro races4 ,varied religious ideas4 ,the ,negro ,fetish and ,obi4 ,jewish1 ,arab1 and ,christian communication with the dead4 ,australian idea about white men4 ,ideas of a soul and futurity amongst the ,aryans and ,egyptians4 ,their priesthood4 ,the ,aryans ,monotheiste4 ,an ,aryan hymn4 ,max ,mueller and ,talboys ,wheeler4 ,aryan conceptions compared with ,psalm civ4 #a-d4 ,monotheism of the ,egyptians4 ,shemitic religions4 ,at one period of my life ,i entertained the idea that civilization never had grown1 nor ever could grow1 out of barbarism4 ,perhaps ,i have not yet wholly abandoned it4 ,the considerations which the question involves are all but infinite4 ,it is doubtful whether we can reduce them into shape without writing an extensive treatise4 ,we will1 however1 attempt to do so1 and present the subject to our readers to the best of our ability4 ,as far as our own personal and historic experience goes1 we find that man has no natural propensity to learn beyond that which he has received simply as an animal4 ,with him school is a hateful place1 and education is a painful process1 even in the midst of the highest civilization we see individuals who cast from them all the luxuries of life1 and descend voluntarily to a level scarcely superior to that of the brute creation4 ,but those who take kindly to education1 and consent to try and learn everything which the teacher presents to their notice1 are bounded by the amount of knowledge possessed by the instructor1 who cannot impart to others information in matters of which all are ignorant4 ,it is true that ,i once read a question propounded by his schoolmaster to one of my sons1 which ran--,enumerate upon paper all the capes1 bays1 and rivers of ,england that you don't know by name1 and describe the seas which you have never heard of4 ,without dwelling upon the anecdote farther than to say1 that it points out the absurdity of the idea that education of itself advances knowledge1 we may pass on to remark1 that even in nations1 whose intellect is highly cultivated1 the propensity to advance in knowledge is singularly small4 ,throughout the old world an inventor is usually regarded as a visionary1 or a lunatic1 and flouted by all his contemporaries499 ,from the time of ,aristotle and ,hippocrates1 scarcely any advance was made in philosophy1 and1 throughout ,europe1 the fourteenth century was as barbarous1 if not indeed more so1 than the first of our era2 and to such a dark age there is a strong clerical party in ,great ,britain which desires us to return4 99 ,a man who had travelled much once said to me1--,i will tell you the main difference between a ,yankee and an ,englishman4 ,if you inform the latter of some new discovery-- or propose the use of some recent invention for his own benefit--he will tell you either that the thing is old1 or worthless4 ,on the other hand1 if you recount to the former what you have told the latter of1 his rejoinder will be1 ,i can improve upon that4 ,this is true1 and we are now repeatedly adopting from the ,united ,states discoveries of various kinds1 which we rejected when offered to us in the first place4 ,yet1 notwithstanding the propensity of cultivated nations to remain quiescent1 there do appear1 from time to time1 individuals who1 being discontented with things as they are1 endeavour to bring about improvements in the arts1 the sciences1 and the general conditions of life4 ,the recognition of a want1 is an incentive to a thoughtful mind to supply the exigency4 ,whenever an individual endeavours to attain a definite end1 he exercises his mind1 not only in what he has been already taught1 but what he can observe beyond that2 he rakes up1 if possible1 the experience of others1 studies their proceedings1 and experiments with a definite object1 and ponders upon the affinities1 nature1 and the like1 of every substance which he surmises may be of service to him4 ,when1 by these means1 he has obtained his purpose1 he will repeatedly find that he has done no more than rediscover a something which was known thousands of years before his time4 ,without a doubt1 much of the philosophy1 science1 art1 religion1 c41 of the present day1 is due to a close observation and an attainment to the knowledge possessed by our predecessors4 ,is there any thing whereof it may be said1 see this is new8--it hath been already of old time1 which was before us 7,eccles4 i4 #aj74 ,if this be true1 even though it may only be so to a partial extent1 it is clearly more philosophical to believe that some primeval men were created with a considerable amount of knowledge1 rather than that all were savage1 barely1 if at all1 superior to monkeys1 and that one or more of these1 gradually elevated their race1 by degrees so slow1 as to be imperceptible in less time than many thousand years4 ,this side of the argument receives corroboration when we study the history of such semi-civilized countries as ,china1 and such barbarous regions as those of ,africa and ,australia4 ,in none of these parts do we see any general propensity to advance4 ,in the first we see a retrogression2 there is now no effort to repair ancient roads which have been worn away by centuries of traffic1 to restore the old temples1 towers1 and landmarks1 erected when time was younger1 or even to keep up the teachings of ,confucius4 ,a similar apathy existed amongst the ,japanese--yet no sooner do the civilized nations of ,europe show the rulers of ,china and ,japan that it is necessary for them to improve1 if they desire to retain their power1 than they attempt to learn the arts which have enabled their rivals to overcome them4 ,in both cases1 the progress is recognized as due to the interference of a nation1 superior for the time being1 to that whose education has been faulty4 ,advance1 then1 in such countries1 is clearly due to foreign influence1 rather than to an innate propensity to general1 mental1 scientific1 or practical development4 ,but1 on the other side1 it may be alleged that the ,african has been in existence from time immemorial--that he has been in contact with the civilization of ancient and modern ,egypt--with ,christianity--with the ancient ,tyrians and ,carthaginians--with the ,arabs--with the ,spaniards1 ,portuguese1 and ,british1 and yet the ,african tribes remain almost as savage now as when they first were known4 ,similar remarks apply to the inhabitants of the ,andaman ,isles1 of the vast islands of ,borneo1 ,celebez1 ,papua1 ,new ,guinea1 and others4 ,yet in many places1 now considered barbarous1 we see the remains of previous empires--and when we are able to find some comparatively authentic history which tells of the overthrow of a powerful kingdom1 it is clear that the civilized people have usually been destroyed by the barbarian4 ,the wealth of ,rome tempted the hordes from the inhospitable north1 just as the gold of ,mexico and ,peru were the causes of their decadence under the ,spaniards1 whose people were in themselves scarcely superior to the troops led by ,alaric1 ,genseric1 and other so called barbarians4 ,yet we know1 as in the case of ,spain herself1 that decadence from civilization to comparative barbarism may be due to causes inherent in the people and its governors1 wholly independent of foreign conquest4 ,this decadence is due to the bestial propensities of man being allowed to dominate over the intellectual1 and the result is the same1 whether the animal passions be cultivated by a debased and degrading policy of monarch and priest1 or by the indolence of each individual4 ,by developing the train of thought thus indicated1 we imagine that the philosophical reader will conclude that amongst men1 some race1 family1 or tribe1 has been created with intelligence1 as much above the rest of their kind as the elephant is superior to the hippopotamus1 and the dog to the cat1 and that others are generically as low as is the ,australian dingo in the canine race4 ,those once perfect may deteriorate1 yet carry with them the power of rising again--whilst those originally low never rise at all1 no matter what example may be set them1 unless force is used to make them learn4 ,to these we must add a third set1 specially to include the ,american1 for we have no evidence whatever that the civilization of the ,aztec and ,peruvian was anything more than a restoration of the scientific knowledge of a more ancient people1 possibly of an ,aryan stock4 ,who that is acquainted with the ,shemitic race can fail to see in its people the type of an ancient condition which has decayed1 until1 like a fallen gentleman1 it can only show what once it was1 by conserving and exhibiting a few ornaments of no value1 save from their age1 but whose sons may yet become princes in their paternal domains8 ,who that studies the negro in ,africa1 ,america1 and ,st4 ,domingo1 can fail to see that he is1 or1 at any rate has hitherto shown himself1 almost wholly incapable of development as a philosophic man8 ,and who can read the pages of ,prescott without recognizing the fact that some of the ancient inhabitants of ,america inaugurated--unassisted1 as we judge by any example from others--a style of religion and government of which the world has hardly1 if at all1 seen an equal8 ,yet it is remarkable1 that both the ,mexican and ,peruvian traced their laws and institutions to strangers who came amongst them1 as ,oannes did to the ,babylonians1 and who taught them what arts1 religion1 and science they themselves had4 ,the subject of centres of human life into which our considerations have drawn us1 is by far too vast for discussion here4 ,it involves the study of geology1 of anthropology1 of glossology1 of navigation1 of physical geography1 of climate1 of the laws of reproduction1 of the influences of climate over animals1 and of diet upon man4 ,into all these we dare not enter3 we shall confine ourselves rather to considering the religious ideas of the lowest of the known races of mankind2 and then proceed to those which have been held by what we may call the oscillating people1 i4e41 those vibrating repeatedly between a state of empire and one of slavery1 like the people of ,hindostan1 ,babylon1 ,judea1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,egypt4 ,when we endeavour to ascertain the religion of the negro1 by which term we include all the black native tribes of ,africa1 we find ourselves almost in the position of a modern chemist seeking for the philosopher's stone4 ,in no single book1 and ,i have read very many1 can ,i find any trustworthy evidence of the negro having any religion at all4 ,it is true that travellers in ,abyssinia1 and those who are now returned from their successful expedition against ,magdala1 tell us that in ,abyssinia there is a form of religion which is evidently a corrupt form of ,christianity1 but with this exception1 the blacks seem to have no idea of that congeries of fact and fiction1 dogma1 ritual1 and practice1 which passes current for religion in more civilized countries4 ,yet though they have no definite idea of a ,creator1 and the way in which ,he works throughout the universe1 they have a dread of some unseen power1 and1 like a number of frightened children1 dread the effects of fetish1 and the power of the ,obi or ,obeah man4 ,when the mind is predisposed to fear1 and it is so amongst the lower animals as well as in man1 it is astonishing at what contemptible objects one may stand aghast4 ,i can vividly remember being sent1 whilst a very young child1 with a message from an aunt1 at whose home ,i was staying1 to the maid1 who was washing in an outhouse1 but ere ,i reached the door of the latter1 ,i was terrified at a head which seemed to be rising from the ground1 ,such was my horror that ,i ran away1 too proud to scream1 yet almost fainting with horror4 ,to me that ancient battered barber's doll was fetish1 and if my friends had determined to cultivate the timidity which ,i then showed1 it is quite possible that to this day ,i might have a dread not dissimilar to that of the ,african4 ,as it was1 my aunt told me that what had scared me1 was only a piece of carved and painted wood1 and so put me upon my mettle1 that ,i delivered my message and gave the image a kick in the face2 yet my valour was short lived1 and during the rest of my sojourn ,i dared not venture within sight of the bugbear4 ,to all intents and purposes that human head was1 in my estimation1 the guardian of the garden--its presence made all within its influence under taboo--had ,i ventured to tell a lie1 or to have been naughty1 ,i cannot conceive that any punishment would have been greater than being doomed to sit in the presence of the weird image4 ,hence ,i can easily understand the abject terror of the ,african at fetish1 and his dread of the ,obeah man1 who asserts that he can direct upon whom he will the power of the unknown god4 ,so great is the fear of this negro magician1 and so common is that fear to man in general1 that we sometimes find the white man as full of it as the black4 ,i have had1 for example1 under my own care1 an ,englishman of good education1 who1 whilst superintendent of a ,jamaica plantation1 became so cowed by ,obi1 that he was obliged to give up his position and return to ,england1 literally insane upon the subject of fetish and ,obeah1 and wholly unfitted for any work whatever4 ,the objects to which the name of fetish is given are very numerous--a rock1 a stone1 a tree1 a pool1 a dried monkey1 an alligator1 man1 or skull--anything will suit the purpose4 ,one which is said to be very popular amongst chieftains is prepared somewhat in the following manner3--,the head of a father is removed after death1 and so placed1 that as the brain decays and softens1 it may fall into a receptacle already half filled with palm oil or other grease4 ,the material so formed1 consisting to a great extent of the thoughtful organ of the sire1 is then supposed to give his spirit to the son1 whenever the latter smears himself with it1 or takes it as a potent medicinal spell4 ,the head thus placed becomes the royal fetish1 and the king goes to take counsel from it just as ancient priests inquired1 or pretended to inquire1 from the god or lord of some shrine or oracle4 ,i cannot charge my memory with everything that has been at one time or another regarded as an object of wonder1 worship1 or fetish1 but ,i have an indistinct recollection that a musical box has been venerated by ,africans1 as much as the ,ancilia1 the ,palladium1 the ,diana which fell down from ,jupiter1 the ,caaba or black stone of ,mecca1 the ark of the covenant1 the brazen serpent1 the wood of the true cross1 the nails which pierced ,jesus1 and the handkerchief which was used to wipe the face of the suffering ,nazarite1 all of which have been sacred amongst civilized nations1 and are still adored by some4 ,it would be difficult for a philosopher to draw a distinction between an ,african fetish and a ,papal relic4 ,there is no virtue which the ,romanist has attributed to old bones1 old nails1 old shoes1 old coats1 old houses1 old staircases1 old bits of wood1 old links of chains1 old hairs1 old statues1 c41 that has not been equally attributed by negroes to some absurd fetish in ,ashantee1 ,dahomey1 or elsewhere4 ,in some parts of the vast ,african continent1 however1 there seems to be an indistinct idea of a life after death1 and when a great man dies1 or is killed1 his wives1 and many of his slaves1 are sacrificed for his future use1 and vast human sacrifices are made annually in his honour1 that the departed may hear1 from time to time1 of the welfare of those whom he has left behind4 ,feeling indisposed to regard this practice as the offspring of religious faith1 ,i would compare it with the crude conceptions of some of the lowest class in ,europe and ,america1 aye1 of some cultivated intellects as well1 who profess to be able1 by means of media1 to communicate with the dead1 or who send messages to their departed relatives by friends that are dying4 ,the most remarkable development of this idea which ,i have yet met with has recently occurred in ,france1 where a young man attempted to murder a beautiful young woman1 to whom he was a total stranger1 the reason he assigned being1 that he intended to commit suicide immediately after the murder1 so that he might enter the future world with a pleasant companion4 ,we can scarcely regard the persons figuring in the following true story as being very much superior to the ,king of ,dahomey4 ,in a well-cared for ,english village a poor woman was about to die in the full odour of ,protestant sanctity4 ,in youth she had lost one leg1 and now had disease in the other4 ,to her came an old woman and said1--,i hear thou's goin' to dee ,betty1 and that thou's goin' to heaven--at least parson says so--when thou's got there1 willee tell my owd man that ,i've just bought that field as he set his heart on4 ,oh dear1 said the dying woman1 how can ,i go stumping all about heaven with my legs in the state they're in4 ,well1 you can tell him at anyrate if you happen to see him go by6 ,passing from the ,african1 let us now say a word or two about the ,australian4 ,it is1 ,i think1 ,mitchell1 who states1 in an account of his travels in that country1 that the white men were used in a manner so considerate1 in some instances1 indeed1 so kindly1 that he was induced to inquire into the cause4 ,he found that these friendly tribes were in the habit of eating their defunct relatives--being always short of provisions1 they used man meat1 as do other starving creatures when they devour their like--and they cooked the body much in the same way as we do dead pig4 ,by scalding the carcass1 the cuticle and the black layer1 called rete mucosum1 was removed1 and the corpse became white4 ,this gave the people the notion that ,europeans were their own dead relatives returned from the spirit world4 ,sir ,g4 ,gray also1 in his account of an expedition to the north-west coasts of the same vast island1 describes how all the people with whom he came into contact believed in the power of sorcery or witchcraft4 ,without extending our inquiry into the undeveloped religious ideas of other barbarians1 we may affirm1 from the preceding examples1 that there is1 even amongst the lowest human beings1 some idea of a future state1 and of the existence of some unseen power1 which may work mischief upon themselves or their friends4 ,beyond these vague notions the savage who has neither been taught1 nor inherited the power or propensity to learn1 rarely1 if ever1 passes4 ,if1 then1 the surmise to which we gave utterance awhile ago is founded in truth1 we may fairly endeavour to ascertain what is the race1 or the people1 which have been born with a higher religious development1 a greater capacity for learning1 and a higher appreciation of the value of agriculture and civilization than the rest of the world's inhabitants4 ,we now find ourselves on the threshold of a question which has1 for many years past1 divided the scientific world1 viz41 ,was there originally one human couple only1 or were there many intellectual centres8 ,into this matter it would be unprofitable to enter1 for to give an account of the ,chinese1 ,egyptian1 ,aryan1 ,american1 and ,shemitic races1 would require many huge volumes4 ,it will1 probably1 be permitted to me to omit from the inquiry all but ,aryans and ,egyptians4 ,i select these because ,i have1 in the preceding volumes1 descanted largely upon the faith of the ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,tyrians1 and others1 and because ,i believe that these ancients have done very much to modify the faith of ,europe4 ,if time and opportunity permitted1 ,i fancy that anyone might make a most interesting analysis of that which ,europe owes to the ,shemites1 ,egyptians1 and ,aryans respectively2 but it is beyond our powers at present to go into the whole subject4 ,the volumes which have recently been published about the ,ancient ,hindoo religion may be counted by dozens1 and the writings of ,egyptologists are almost equally numerous4 ,we must1 therefore1 content ourselves with a reference to a few main points4 ,it seems to be an undoubted fact1 that both the ,egyptians and ,aryans recognized the existence of a soul in human beings1 and believed that it survived the dissolution of the body in some state1 whose position and physical condition were unknown4 ,they held1 moreover1 that the locality and condition of the spiritual part of man after death depended upon the actions of the individual during life4 ,both people believed in the influence of prayer1 of sacrifices1 of a maceration1 or torturing of the fleshy body1 and they had1 moreover1 each of them1 a priestly race1 who regulated festivals1 ordained ceremonies1 and prescribed everything which those who regarded their spiritual welfare should do4 ,i believe that the ,egyptians were1 in reality1 monotheistic2 but my authority for the idea has escaped me4 ,it is certain that the ancient ,aryans were so1 and ,i cannot do better than refer my readers to the ,history of ,sanscrit ,literature1 by ,max ,mueller1 and the first vol4 of the ,history of ,india1 by ,talboys ,wheeler4 ,yet1 as the first is out of print1 and the second a volume of considerable size1 it will1 perhaps1 be judicious if ,i quote some passages from both4 ,the following hymn1 translated by ,m4 ,m41 p4 #eei sq41 is1 to my own ideas1 far more grand in conception than any other which ,i have read1 and shows a depth or sublimity of thought that could only be attained by a profoundly intelligent intellect4 ,moderns might equal it1 none could surpass it4 ,speaking of the beginning1 the words run1 ,nothing that is1 was then2 even what is not1 did not exist then4 ,the poet then proceeds to deny the existence of the sky1 and of the firmament1 and yet1 unable to bear the idea of an unlimited nothing1 he exclaims1 ,what was it that hid or covered the existing8 what was the refuge of what8 was water the deep abyss1 the chaos which swallowed up everything8 ,then his mind1 turning away from nature1 dwells upon man1 and the problem of human life4 ,there was no death1 therefore there was nothing immortal ,there was no space1 no life1 and lastly1 there was no time--no difference between day and night--no solar torch by which morning might have been told from evening4 ,that ,one breathed breathless by itself1 other than it1 nothing since has been4 ,that ,one breathed and lived2 it enjoyed more than mere existence2 yet its life was not dependent upon anything else1 as our life depends upon the air we breathe4 ,it breathed1 breathless4 ,darkness there was1 and all at first was veiled in gloom1 profound as ocean without life4 ,mueller then rather describes what the poet means than gives his words2 ,i will1 therefore1 adopt now1 for the rest of the hymn1 the metrical version1 which he gives at p4 #efd3-- ,the germ that still lay covered in the husk ,burst forth1 one nature1 from the fervent heat4 ,then first came ,love upon it1 the new spring ,of mind2 yea1 poets in their hearts discerned1 ,pondering this bond between created things ,and uncreated4 ,comes this spark from earth1 ,piercing and all-pervading1 or from heaven8 ,these seeds were sown1 and mighty power arose1 ,nature below1 and ,power and ,will above4 ,who knows the secret8 who proclaimed it here8 ,whence1 whence this manifold creation sprang8 ,the gods themselves came later into being4 ,who knows from whence this great creation sprang8 ,he1 from whom all this great creation came4 ,whether ,his will created or was mute1 ,the ,most ,high seer1 that is in highest heaven1 ,he knows it2 or1 perchance1 e'en ,he knows not ,one more hymn is even more distinct in its monotheism1 p4 #efi4 ,in the beginning there arose the source of golden light4 ,he was the only born ,lord of all that is4 ,he established the earth and this sky4 ,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he who gives life4 ,he who gives strength2 whose blessing all the bright gods desire2 whose shadow is immortality2 whose shadow is death4444 ,he who1 through ,his power1 is the only ,king of the breathing and the awakening world4 ,he who governs all--man and beast4444 ,he whose power these snowy mountains1 whose power the sea proclaims1 with the distant river4 ,he whose these regions are1 as it were1 ,his two arms4444 ,he through whom the sky is bright1 and the earth firm4 ,he through whom the heaven was 'stablished1 nay1 the highest heaven4 ,he who measured out the light in the air4444 ,he to whom heaven and earth1 standing firm by ,his will1 look up1 trembling inwardly4 ,he over whom the rising sun shines forth4444 ,where-ever the mighty water-clouds went1 where they placed the seed1 and lit the fire1 thence arose ,he who is the only life of the bright gods4444 ,he who1 by ,his might1 looked even over the water-clouds1 the clouds which gave strength1 and lit the sacrifice4 ,he who is ,god above all gods4444 ,may ,he not destroy us4 ,he1 the creator of the earth2 or ,he1 the righteous1 who created the heaven4 ,he who also created the bright and mighty waters4 ,in this hymn ,i have only omitted the repeated question--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,of the high antiquity of these productions no competent scholar entertains a doubt4 ,it is not certain how many years before our era it was composed1 but it is considered that it was prior to ,b4 ,c4 #bjjj1 long before the time when the ideal ,moses is said to have written1 and a fortiori anterior1 by at least a thousand years1 to the authors of the ,book of ,psalms4 ,talboys ,wheeler remarks1 p4 #bg--;,having thus sketched generally the individual character of the leading deities of the ,aryans as they appear in the ,rig ,veda1 it may be advisable to glance at that conception of ,one ,supreme ,being1 as in all and above all1 which finds full expression in the ,vedic hymns4 ,upon this point the following passages will be found very significant3--',who has seen the primeval being at the time of ,his being born8 what is that endowed with substance that the unsubstantial sustains8 from earth are the breath and blood1 but where is the soul--who may repair to the sage to ask this8 ,what is that ,one alone1 who has upheld these six spheres in the form of an unborn8' ,then follows the hymn just quoted from ,m4 ,mueller4 ,i may add that the so-called gods ,indra1 ,agni1 ,surya1 the ,maruts1 c41 are only personifications of the abstract powers of nature1 the sky1 fire1 the sun1 the winds1 c4 ,these are the same conceptions as are referred to in ,ps4 civ4 #a-d--they are not deities1 but ministers4 ,it will probably be said by the orthodox that these descriptions of the creation and the ,creator are mere efforts of the human mind1 and not the products of revelation4 ,we grant it at once1 and answer1 why1 then1 should the comparatively miserable conceptions of one or more ,hebrews1 who knew nothing of a soul or a future life till they had learned it from the ,chaldeans or the ,persians1 be regarded differently8 ,was the ,jewish ignorance the result of ,divine inspiration8 ,did the ,devil give to the heathen the knowledge of ,satan's origin and power8 ,if so1 why did the ,jews1 and why do ,christians1 adopt it8 ,i have already mentioned that the ,aryans believed in the efficacy of prayer to their gods3 they offered to them1 much as we do now1 supplications for rain1 abundant harvests1 prolific cattle1 bodily vigour1 long life1 numerous progeny1 c41 just as did1 very rarely1 the seed of ,abraham4 ,we may now make some quotations from the ,egyptian ,ritual for the ,dead 7,bunsen's ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,v474 ,o soul1 greatest of things created 7p4 #afe72 ,i am the ,great ,god1 creating himself 7p4 #agb72 ,oh ,lord of the great abode1 ,chief of the gods 7p4 #agg74 ,throughout this invocation1 however1 the lord of the universe seems to be spoken of as the sun under various titles4 ,there is frequent reference to the danger of the soul falling into the power of some malignant deity1 and orthodoxy is secured by addressing every good god by his or her proper title4 ,there is no grand conception anywhere1 and the endless repetitions disgust the ordinary reader4 ,i must add that the sun1 ,osiris1 and the male organ1 are spoken of as emblematic of each other4 ,if we next turn to the ,shemitic religions1 we have to contend with the difficulty produced by the paucity of written records1 and the doubts which exist about certain epithets that relate to the gods4 ,as far as ,i can discover1 there was an idea of a ,supreme ,being1 whose name was ,jeho4 ,io4 ,iou41 or the like1 and ,il or ,el4 ,his ministers were the sun1 moon1 planets1 constellations1 and stars4 ,his emblems were the sexual organs1 and worship was1 to a great degree1 licentious4 ,there was no conception of a spiritual life after death1 or of a state of future rewards and punishments4 ,sacrifice was thought much of1 but ,i doubt whether there was anything like what we know as prayer4 ,at any rate1 in all those parts of the ,bible which seem to be the oldest1 there is a singular absence of any formula or command for supplication4 ,solomon's prayer is comparatively of modern date4 ,indeed1 this vacuity is implied in the expression of one of ,jesus' disciples1 ,teach us to pray1 as ,john also taught his disciples 7,luke xi4 #a71 thus showing clearly that the practice of prayer was not a ,judaic1 i4e41 ,mosaic one499 99 ,as a friend1 who has been kind enough to assist me to correct these sheets in their passage through the press1 considers that ,i ought to give some reasons for the assertion made in the text1 the following information is appended3-- ,i4 ,there are1 in all1 about a score of different words in ,hebrew which have been translated1 prayer1 ,i pray1 praying1 c4 ,these are--7#a7 ahnah or ahna1 7#b7 begah1 7#c7 ghalah1 7#d7 ghanan1 7#e7 loo1 7#f7 lahgash1 7#g7 na1 7#h7 gathar1 7#i7 pagag1 7#aj7 pahlal1 7#aa7 tztlah1 7#ab7 seeagh1 7#ac7 shoal1 7#ad7 tephilah4 ,the rest are different forms of the same roots4 ,,ii4 ,these words do not1 except in a few instances1 really bear the signification of prayer or intercession1 which is given to them in the ,authorised ,english ,version of the ,bible2 as any one may convince himself by consulting ,wigram's ,hebrew concordance4 ,thus1 ,no4 #a1 in three instances1 is translated in the ,a4 ,v4 by the interjection or17,,ol7 ,no4 #b1 in the ,a4 ,v4 is once used as praying1 but in other parts as seeking for persons1 desiring or requesting1 and making4 ,no4 #h is translated in various parts of the ,a4 ,v4 ,i am weak ,i fell sick1 was not grieved1 a parturient woman crying1 to put one's self to pain1 is grievous1 hath laid1 is my infirmity1 and these meanings are far more common than the signification of prayer4 ,no4 #d is only used twice1 and is in one place translated by showing mercy1 and in the other by making supplication4 ,no4 #e is translated ,o that1 peradventure1 would ,god that1 if1 if haply1 though1 and only once ,i pray thee4 ,no4 #f is translated enchantment1 orator1 earrings1 charmed1 and once only prayer1 with the marginal reading secret speech4 ,no4 #g is in one place now1 in another ,oh1 go to1 as well as ,i pray1 and this in the same sense as we should use the words to a child ,i wish you would be quiet ,no4 #h is generally used in the sense of intreaty or prayer1 but it once is found as earnest1 and multiplying words1 as in a ,litany4 ,no4 #i is used to signify he came1 reached1 thou shalt meet1 fall upon1 or kill1 he lighted on a certain place1 they met together1 and in the #ec;d chapter of ,isaiah the same word is used in verse #f1 for the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all1 and in verse #ab1 for and made intercession for the transgressors6 ,no4 #aj is used almost exclusively for prayer1 but it is only found six times in the whole ,pentateuch1 in one of which it is read ,i had no thought in the ,a4 ,v4 ,no4 #aa is only found twice1 once in ,ezra and once in ,daniel1 and signifies prayer in both4 ,no4 #ab has many interpretations in the ,a4 ,v41 viz41 meditation1 speaking1 talking1 complaining1 declaring1 in one instance only is it translated pray1 and that in the apparently important text ,ps4 lv4 #ag1 ,evening and morning and at noon will ,i pray4 ,as a substantive the word is rendered as complaint1 talking1 meditation1 babbling1 and only once prayer1 and that in ,ps4 lv4 #b1 ,hear my voice1 ,o ,god1 in my prayer4 ,no4 #ac is generally translated ask1 as we should remark1 well1 if he asks me what must ,i say8 beg1 as he shall beg in harvest2 consulted1 in the text he consulted with images1 salute1 to salute him of peace2 enquired1 ,saul enquired of the ,lord2 wished1 and wished in himself to die2 lent1 ,i have lent him to the ,lord1 so that they lent unto them4 ,no4 #ad is used exclusively for prayer1 but the word is not to be found in the whole of the ,pentateuch4 ,,iii4 ,there is reason to believe that the most important of these words have come from the ,persian1 a language allied to the ,sanscrit2 and if so1 it is clear that the idea of prayer was adopted by the ,jews after they were patronised by the conquerors of ,babylon4 ,some of the other words are ,aramaic1 and probably even more modern than the rest4 ,for example1 ,no4 #aj is compared by ,furst in his ,hebrew and ,chaldee ,lexicon1 to the ,sanscrit phal1 and ,no4 #h may also be derived from the ,persian1 and a ,sanscrit root gad1 which signifies to speak to1 or call upon1 ,anahf ,no4 #a1 is ,aramaic4 ,i think that it was ,mons4 ,weill1 in his remarkable book called ,moise et le ,talmud1 who first drew attention to the influence of the ,talmudists upon the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,he pointed out that in the ,mosaic law there was no idea of prayer1 intercession1 or pardon2 everything was based upon the lex talionis1 an eye was to be paid for with an eye1 murder was to be avenged by murder1 and ecclesiastical1 ceremonial1 and other transgressions were to be atoned1 i4e41 satisfaction was to be given by sacrifice and payments to the priest or tabernacle4 ,but when the ,jews1 after their contact with the ,chaldeans1 ,medea1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 began to study theology1 two sects arose--the ,talmudists1 who explained away the older ,scriptures1 interpolated narratives1 or simply texts therein1 so as to suit their purposes2 and the ,sadducees1 who refused to adopt as matters of faith anything which was not taught by ,moses4 ,the first was the strongest sect1 and composed the majority in the ,sanhedrim4 ,they thus had power over the sacred canon1 and could reject manuscripts or adopt them according as the purposes which were aimed at were served4 ,the ,talmudic interpolations are supposed to b recognised chiefly in the more modern parts of the ,old ,testament1 in ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 the second ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 in the books of ,zechariah and ,malachi1 in the ,chronicles1 ,daniel1 in many ,psalms1 more sparsely in the older histories1 but very largely in the ,pentateuch4 ,from these considerations1 from the absence of any order in the ,mosaic law for the priests to offer any supplication1 and from1 the general absence of prayer from the sacrifices of all nations1 we may conclude that intercession formed no part in the ,jewish religion in the early days of its existence4 ,when working upon this subject ,i endeavoured to examine the curious ,iguvian tables1 on which ,aufrecht1 ,eircher1 and ,newman have bestowed such pains4 ,these are1 ,i believe1 the only tables extant which give directions to the old ,umbrian1 or any other ancient priests1 how to conduct public sacrifices and the ensuing feasts4 ,in them there are directions for invocations1 but no formula for prayers1 unless one can call invocations by that name4 ,i fancy1 that in some parts of the tables there are words which may be rendered speak1 or mutter1 or meditate1 or pray silently4 ,the fact that a ,hebrew historian has composed a prayer1 and put it into the mouth of ,king ,solomon1 rather than into that of a high priest1 shows that supplication for the people was not a strictly sacerdotal duty4 ,even now1 with all our liberality of thought1 we take our prayers from the ,archbishops1 and not from the crown4 ,but what we have said points to another important consideration1 viz41 how far our ,authorized ,version can be trusted as a foundation upon which to build a theory respecting the use of prayer1 when we find that the words given in ,english do not correspond with the words in the original ,hebrew4 ,we have noticed in the text that both ,john and ,jesus taught their disciples to pray2 we may now call attention to the idea which the latter had of prayer4 ,in a parable1 which was evidently intended to represent what was common enough in his day1 he says1 ,two men went up into the temple to pray1 the one a ,pharisee1 and the other a publican2 the ,pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself--,god1 ,i thank ,thee that ,i am not as other men are1 c 7,luke xviii4 #aj-ac74 ,surely one cannot call a boastful enumeration of one's virtues either supplication1 prayer1 or entreaty2 but we understand readily that what we should call meditation was once included under the name prayer4 ,this anecdote unquestionably seems to prove that there was nothing like public prayer in the temple ritual4 ,the idea of the ,ancients was to obtain what they wanted by costly sacrifice2 the idea of the ,moderns is to obtain their desires by the expenditure of words only4 ,we know that ,pagans used long litanies1 and that ,christians do so too4 ,in ,jezebel's time #j ,baal1 hear us resounded on ,mount ,carmel in sonorous monotony4 ,we have replaced that heathen chant by another1 and our cathedrals reverberate constantly with the musical rogation1 ,we beseech ,thee to hear us1 good ,lord1 uttered more than a score of times4 ,our orthodoxy consists in our using ,english instead ,phoenician words1 and in calling ,baal by a word more familiar to us2 and as the highest commendation which we can give to others is to imitate them1 so we praise the ,ancient heathen highly1 who thought that they would be heard from their much speaking4 ,it is ever easier to change our words than our practice4 ,like the ,pharisee1 ,christians boast that they are not as other men are2 but by their proceedings they show that they are like the ,jews1 of whose paternity ,jesus had not an exalted opinion4 7,see ,john viii4 #dd74 ,in further illustration of the absence of a set form of prayer in the temple worship in ,jerusalem1 and of the independence of all devout solicitors of priestly aid1 ,i may point to ,matthew vi4 #e to #h1 wherein we find that hypocrites offered their supplications1 not only in the temple1 but at the corners of the streets4 ,it is just possible that in the former locality there might have been some public worship going on1 in which the saintly could join1 but certainly there was no such ritual at street corners4 ,but if there had really been divine service in the temple1 it follows that those who joined in it would not have been conspicuous1 or deserving the name of hypocrites4 ,the fault of these which is mentioned by ,jesus is ostentatious public prayer1 i4e4#i the doing of that which had not been prescribed by ,moses4 ,as ,i have1 in a preceding volume1 spoken at some length concerning the morals and manners of ancient races1 and shown how1 as a rule1 their conduct has been the same as that of modern ,christians1 and as1 moreover1 the subject has been treated of in an essay by ,lecky 7,history of ,european ,morals71 ,i will not pursue this part of my subject further than to remark1 that we have scarcely two articles of faith--if1 indeed we have more than one--i4e41 respect for one day in seven--which we have not received1 directly or indirectly1 from ,pagans4 ,even our ,christianity is but a modified ,buddhism1 as ,i shall endeavour1 in my next chapter1 to show4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,christianity and ,buddhism4 ,the new and old world4 ,an impartial judge is said to be a partisan4 ,works on the subject4 ,sakya ,muni's birth1 ,b4c4 #fbj 7about71 position in life1 original views4 ,parallels between ,brahmin-ism1 ,buddhism1 ,hebraism1 and ,christianity4 ,history of ,sakya ,muni --that of ,jesus corresponds with it marvellously4 ,sakya receives a commission from an angel--is henceforth a saviour4 ,history of ,jesus follows that of ,sakya4 ,siddartha neither dictated nor wrote4 ,a favourite garden4 ,sakya and the ,brahmins4 ,buddha and ,christ equally persecuted4 ,spread of ,buddhism after ,siddartha's death4 ,asoka a royal convert ,buddhist missionaries1 b4c4 #cjg4 ,their wonderful successes4 ,different development of ,buddhism and ,christianity4 ,persecution a ,christian practice1 ,buddha tempted by the ,devil1 and by women1 like ,st ,anthony4 ,buddha's life reduced to writing1 at least ,b4c4 #ij4 ,hardy on ,buddhist miracles4 ,his remarks criticised4 ,necessity for miracles is doubtful4 ,sakya and a future life4 ,resurrection from the dead4 ,jesus not the first fruits of them that slept4 ,paul's argument worthless4 ,buddhists in advance of ,christians4 ,priestcraft at time of ,buddha and ,jesus4 ,both did away with ceremonial4 ,sakya's doctrine--compared with ,christian teaching4 ,another parallel between ,buddha and ,jesus4 ,commandments of ,tathagata 7,buddha71 or the ,great ,sramana4 ,rules for his saintly friends--for outsiders4 ,definition of terms4 ,the ,sra-mana's opinion of miracles--a comparison4 ,the history of ,jesus told without miracles4 ,buddhistic confession--remarks on in modern times4 ,filial respect4 ,public confession1 murder absolved thereby4 ,asoka1 about ,b4c4 #bfc1 sent out missionaries4 ,objections made against ,buddhism4 ,ideas respecting ,god4 ,salvation4 ,buddha and ,jesus4 ,nirvana4 ,heaven and ,hell--,christian ideas4 ,apocalypse4 ,the heaven of ,john and ,mahomet compared with that of ,buddha4 ,prayer not a ,buddhist institution--nor originally a ,christian one4 ,nature of prayer4 ,the developments of ,buddhism1 particulars-- comparison between the ,eastern ancient and ,western modern practice4 ,abbe ,hue4 ,no sexual element in ,buddhism and ,christianity at first--it has crept into both in later times4 ,inquiry into the probable introduction of ,buddhism into the ,west4 ,asceticism peculiar to ,buddhism and ,christianity4 ,the ,essenes1 their faith and practice-- resemblance to ,buddhism4 ,john and ,jesus probably ,essenes4 ,if ,jesus was inspired1 so was ,siddartha4 ,differences between ,sakya and ,jesus4 ,jesus 'believed in an immediate destruction of the world4 ,idea of preexistence in ,jesus and ,sakya adopted by their followers4 ,the basis of the two faiths is morality--but an unsound one4 ,nature of the unsoundness4 ,morality has a reference to a life on earth only4 ,the decalogue superfluous4 ,ideas of future rewards and punishments4 ,dives and ,lazarus4 ,the world can exist without a knowledge of a future life4 ,god thought so when ,he taught the ,jews4 ,dogma versus morality4 ,see how these ,christians live6 ,there are a few good men amongst ,christians4 ,supplementary remarks4 ,from the ,peruvian and ,aztec religious systems in what we designate the ,new ,world1 a phrase which involves the idea that its existence was for ages wholly unknown to the historians of the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 we turn to another form of faith1 which demands even greater attention4 ,buddhism has1 probably1 done more to influence the minds of men in ,asia than any other religion in any part of the globe1 and its history is so remarkable1 that it deserves the attention of every philosophical student of mankind4 ,to the ,christian it ought to be especially interesting1 inasmuch as there is strong reason to believe that the faith current amongst ourselves is to be traced to the teaching of ,sakya ,muni1 whose original name1 we may notice1 in passing1 was no more ,buddha than ,christ was the cognomen of the son of ,mary4 ,an ingenious author on one occasion wrote a charming essay upon the art of putting things1 and ,i cannot read any treatise upon ,buddhism1 written by a ,christian1 without thinking how completely the advocate is to be seen throughout them all ,ecclesiastical writers1 who are ,protestant preachers1 endeavour laboriously to prove that the teaching of ,sakya ,muni could not have been inspired1 and was certainly false2 whilst other writers1 who have no particular leaning towards ,jesus1 extol the author of ,buddhism beyond that of ,christianity4 ,truly1 in such a matter it is extremely difficult not to appear as a partisan1 however carefully the scales may be held4 ,the very fact of endeavouring to see ourselves as others see us involves the necessity of putting things in a different light to that which is most common or familiar to us4 ,a bumptious ,briton thinks more of his own ,islands than a ,yankee thinks of them1 and one who endeavours to describe the wheel of the law as an astute ,buddhist would do1 and who1 at the same time1 compares it with the teachings of the son of ,mary1 must seem to those who1 without knowing its nature1 despise the former1 and yet implicitly believe in the latter1 to be a partisan4 ,acting upon this belief1 we shall not scruple to appear as an advocate1 for we believe that an opposition is as good in religion as in politics1 and that it behoves us all to examine every important question in all its bearings4 ,in the following essay ,i shall not attempt to go into every detail about the life of ,sakya ,muni1 for to do so would weary the reader4 ,anyone who wishes for such information may be referred to ,le ,bouddha et sa ,religion1 par ,j4 ,barthelemy ,saint ,hilaire1 ,paris1 #ahfj1 a book which may be fairly designated as exhaustive4 ,the ,english reader may also consult ,the ,legends and ,theories of the ,buddhists1 by ,rev4 ,r4 ,spence ,hardy1 ,london1 #ahff1 which1 though very prejudiced1 is extremely suggestive4 ,hardy's ,eastern ,monachism and ,manual of ,buddhists are about the same4 ,the ,mahawanso translated by ,tumour1 is also a very valuable work of reference4 ,there appears to be little doubt that ,sakya ,muni was born about #fbb years before our era1 and that he died when about eighty years of age1 i4e4f ,b4,c4 #edb4 ,he was thus a contemporary of ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and other ,jewish prophets4 ,though of royal birth1 and of the warrior or kingly caste1 he does not appear to have been instructed in general history1 if1 indeed1 any such was in existence in ,hindostan at that or any other period2 and we cannot find a tittle of evidence that he ever heard of any other religion than ,brahminism1 the dominant faith1 apparently1 of the ,aryan invaders of ,india4 ,in that he was taught assiduously1 and some of its tenets he most firmly believed4 ,amongst others1 he held that men lived in a future world1 in which each one was rewarded or punished according to his doings when in a human form4 ,his teaching was founded upon the belief which the ,brahmins inculcated1 that all men endure misery in this world for their conduct in a previous state of existence1 and that they would once again suffer after death1 unless they conducted themselves1 in this life1 in a manner pleasing to the ,almighty4 ,in this creed is clearly involved1 if not distinctly enunciated1 a full acknowledgment of the existence and power of ,god1 of the certainty of a future life1 and a desire to escape from penalties to be inflicted therein by a supreme celestial ,judge1 for immorality or impropriety committed in the present state4 ,for these points of doctrine ,sakya did not contend1 he merely laid down a different system to the ,brahmins as to the method by which salvation was to be attained1 and the penal consequences of a sinful life were to be avoided4 ,we may now1 halting here for a moment1 examine these matters for ourselves1 and inquire in what way such faith differs from our own4 ,the ,brahmin taught that man suffers pain1 misery1 and death for certain crimes committed in a previous state of existence2 the ,christian teaches that each one suffers for a fault committed by ancestors who lived thousands of years ago4 ,neither the one nor the other regard pain1 sorrow1 suffering1 and death as the normal accompaniments of life1 but both attribute them to the wrath of an offended deity1 who can be1 in some way1 cheated1 cajoled1 appeased1 or propitiated4 ,both assert that men are debtors to ,god1 and that miseries are duns used to make men pay their obligations to heaven4 ,the ,brahmin taught that this could be effected by prayer1 sacrifice1 and sundry ceremonies to be performed by some man who had been specially appointed for the purpose4 ,a due attention to morality was also inculcated1 but it was apparently considered as of less importance than ritualistic observances4 ,the ,jew1 whom so many amongst us believe to have been especially taught by ,god1 propounded a belief essentially similar to that of the ,brahmin1 with the single exception that he had no faith in a future existence1 but thought that sacrifice and offerings1 through a priesthood1 were necessary to obtain comfort in this life4 ,the ,christian teaches that the horrors of eternity can only be escaped by believing on the ,lord ,jesus ,christ 7,acts xvi4 #cj1 #ca71 and by being moral in addition4 ,the belief here referred to is somewhat amplified in other parts of the ,bible1 and notably in ,john iii4 #ae-ag1 #cf2 vi4 #ci1 #dj2 ix4 #ce2 xi4 #ae2 and ,acts viii4 #cg2 from which we learn that an item in the faith was a firm hold upon the idea that ,jesus was the son1 the only begotten son1 of ,god4 ,this dogma is still further extended in the ,apostles' ,creed1 wherein the ,christians express1 as articles of faith1 their belief1 that ,jesus ,christ was the only son of ,god1 conceived by the ,holy ,ghost1 and born of the ,virgin ,mary1 c4 ,this tenet is somewhat varied in the ,nicene ,creed1 which expresses the ,christian belief to be1 that the ,lord ,jesus ,christ is the only begotten son of ,god--begotten of his ,father before all worlds--being of one substance with the ,father1 by whom all things were made1 c4 ,the fundamental teaching of ,sakya was1 that man can only escape the tortures of the damned1 by a strict propriety of conduct in this world1 and a persistent endeavour to renounce and think nothing of the gratifications which make life pleasant4 ,the modern ,buddhist adds to this a belief in the absolute divinity of the founder of his faith1 not simply that he was a son of ,god1 but a visible embodiment of a portion of the ,creative ,unity4 ,brahmins and ,buddhists believe in transmigration of souls3 the ,christian does the like1 only1 instead of being converted into a beast1 he imagines that he will become either an angel or a devil4 ,within certain limits1 we may1 therefore1 say that the ,brahminic1 the ,jewish1 the ,buddhist1 and the ,christian religions are essentially alike1 differing only upon minor points1 such as the absolute value of morality1 of ceremonial1 of doctrine1 of asceticism1 the nature of a hypothetical antecedent1 and an equally uncertain future existence1 and the best means of escaping the penalties attached1 in the second state1 to impropriety of conduct in the first4 ,if we deride the ,brahmin and the ,buddhist for the faith which they entertain1 our laugh must necessarily recoil on ourselves1 for we have no more unequivocal grounds for our belief than they have for theirs4 ,we point in vain to what we call ,revelation1 for they can do the same1 and if priority in such matters is good for anything1 the ,brahminic must take precedence of the ,jewish1 and the ,buddhist of the ,christian code4 ,nor can we call miracles to our exclusive aid1 for the religious books of the ,hindoo are as full of them as are those of the ,jew and ,christian1 and the stories told in the one can be readily paralleled in impossibility1 incapacity1 frivolity1 and absurdity by the others4 ,we must remember1 then1 when speaking of the teaching of ,sakya1 that it was constructed upon the supposed fundamental truths of ,brahminism1 just as the doctrines of ,jesus were built upon those of ,judaism4 ,by adopting these1 respectively1 the two preachers have demonstrated their belief in them1 but neither the one nor the other have advanced our knowledge as to the reality of the earliest faith1 nor demonstrated the truth of their subsequent assumptions4 ,if we now endeavour1 for the sake of comparison1 to place the ,eastern and the ,western points of belief in parallel columns1 we shall be better able to see the points of resemblance and of difference than by any other plan4 ,illustration3 #aad ,illustration3 #aae ,these are only a few of the leading points of resemblance and difference1 and might be almost indefinitely multiplied4 ,after this preface1 we may proceed to notice that ,siddartha--another name for ,buddha--was of royal birth1 and born in wedlock3 his mother was called ,maya ,devi1 and was herself the daughter of a king4 ,his father was of the warrior caste1 and1 according to ancient usage1 ,sakya1 like ,jesus some centuries later1 was presented in the temple of the ,god of his parents1 and recognized by a ,brahmin1 whom we may designate as a predecessor1 by some hundreds of years1 of the ,jewish ,simeon 7,luke ii #be1 seq47f as having the marks of a great man upon him4 ,as ,sakya grew up to man's estate he was found to be peculiarly clever1 and soon distanced his masters1 as ,jesus was and did1 when1 at twelve years1 he went into the temple and astonished the doctors4 ,he was always thoughtful1 and frequently remained alone4 ,once he wandered into a forest1 7compare ,matthew iv4 #a-aa71 in which he was found lost in thought4 ,when obliged to exhibit his talents1 ,siddartha was found to have every conceivable excellence1 bodily and mental ,he was1 by parental desire1 married to a paragon of a wife1 who showed her good sense by rejecting the use of a veil4 ,in this ,sakya differs from ,mary's son1 who never married1 being1 most probably1 of the tribe of the ,essenes4 ,in later life ,siddartha discouraged wedlock and every form of love4 ,but1 during all his outward happiness2 ,siddartha's thoughts ran upon the misery which he saw on every side to be common in the world1 and he entertained a hope that he would be able to show man the road to a happy immortality4 ,in these ideas the teacher was encouraged by a god1 who appeared to him by night1 and told him that the appointed time for the deliverer had come4 ,this comforter also recommended him to leave his wife1 his wealth1 his father's house1 and give up all he had1 so as to be able to seek1 unencumbered1 the way of salvation4 ,compare here the passage1 ,mark x4 #bj-cj1 wherein ,jesus gives the same kind of advice as the angel gave to ,sakya ,muni4 ,having become satisfied of his mission from ,god1 he resolutely abandoned everything1 and1 being really a scion of royalty1 he had much to renounce4 ,siddartha thus became a mendicant1 dependent upon others for food and raiment1 and resembled that son of ,mary1 of whom we read that he had not a residence wherein to lay his head 7,matt4 viii4 #bj2 ,luke ix4 #eh74 ,he was about twenty-nine years of age when he thus became poor for the sake of mankind4 ,compare what is said of ,jesus1 ,luke iii4 #bc4 ,though ,siddartha was opposed to the ,brahmins1 he nevertheless studied their doctrines1 as ,mary's son did that of the ,hebrew theologians1 thoroughly1 under one of the wisest of them1 for many years4 ,then1 leaving this teacher1 he went about preaching and doing good4 ,so much were men impressed with his beauty1 his piety1 and his doctrines1 that they flocked in crowds to see him1 and he taught them whilst sitting on the brow of ,mount ,pandava--even kings came to hear him4 ,compare here what is said of the ,nazarene1 ,matt4 iv4 #bc to ,matt4 viii4 #a4 ,sakya was persecuted for a long time by a relative1 who ultimately became one of his most ardent disciples4 ,compare ,matt4 xvi4 #bb and ,john xxi4 #ae1 et seq4 ,siddartha's austerities and mortifications of himself1 in every conceivable way1 were excessive during the next six years1 and these have been represented as a combat with the ,devil1 whose kingdom he destroyed4 ,at the end of this probation1 ,sakya ,muni1 finding fasting and pain not profitable for eternal salvation1 resumed the ordinary human habits of eating1 c4 ,this disgusted many of his disciples1 and they walked no more with him4 ,he was partly supported by a slave woman1 and was content to clothe himself with vestments taken from the dead4 ,finally1 this wonderful son of ,maya heard within him a voice1 which told him that he was divine1 the saviour of the world1 and the incarnation of the wisdom of ,god--,buddha1 the word itself4 ,compare ,john i4 #a1 et seq4 ,this was confirmed by a miracle1 and thus1 at the age of thirty-six1 and at the foot of a fig tree1 ,sakya ,muni received a divine commission1 and the word was made flesh4 ,but1 though thus divinely inspired1 the saviour doubted his power to convert mankind1 and at the first he only preached his new doctrines to a few4 ,even in this respect it is marvellous to see how closely the ,christian story of ,jesus follows that of his predecessor ,siddartha4 ,some opposed ,sakya1 but these were soon converted by his majesty1 and the glory with which he spake the words--,yes1 he said1 ,i have come to see clearly both immortality and the way to attain it2 ,i am ,buddha--,i know all--,i see all--,i have blotted out my faults1 and am above all law4 ,recognizing in ,siddartha the teacher of mankind1 the common people heard him gladly1 and gave him homage1 and he1 in return1 taught them his full doctrine4 ,the ,indian saviour then proceeded to the holy city1 ,benares1 and taught there4 ,but though he spoke much1 he neither dictated nor wrote--like ,jesus1 subsequently1 he made no provision by which his doctrines might be perpetuated4 ,from ,benares he went to other places1 some of which were especially dear to him1 and thus became sacred4 ,in like manner ,bethany was sanctified by ,jesus4 ,amongst others was a garden1 given to him1 with a mansion1 by a wealthy disciple1 which a lively fancy might call a ,hindoo ,gethsemane4 ,in this garden ,buddha made many disciples1 and in it the first council of his followers was held after his death4 ,another favourite retreat was a plantation of mango trees1 and this1 like every other spot that ,siddartha is known to have visited1 has been adorned by the faithful with ornamental architecture in commemoration of him4 ,as may be supposed1 ,sakya1 when he assailed the ,brahmins1 was in turn opposed by them with persevering malevolence2 the former was outspoken and said what he thought of the priests--he called them hypocrites1 cheats1 impostors1 and the like--and they were apparently conscious that they deserved such titles4 ,here1 again1 we notice a singular parallel between the ,hindoo saviour and the ,jewish one1 who followed him after a long interval4 ,not that there is anything wonderful in the founder of a new faith reviling the ministers of one more ancient--nor in the priests of an established church endeavouring to suppress1 by punishments1 the professors who interfere with their repose4 ,we know how the ,christian fathers abused and lampooned the faith of those whose practices they detested--how ,luther and his followers lashed the vices of the ,papists1 and how these in their turn burned the new preachers--when they had a chance2 how the ,nonconformists censured the ,establishment1 and how the ,episcopal ,church has harried ,independents and ,presbyterians4 ,but it is strange to find both ,sakya and ,jesus inaugurating a religion of peace by fierce invectives4 ,we have not particulars respecting the choice of language made use of by the ,indian1 but we can scarcely imagine that it could be more to the purpose than the vituperation employed by the ,hebrew4 ,jesus says1--,ye compass sea and land to make one proselyte1 and when he is made ye make him twofold more the child of hell than yourselves1--,ye are like unto whited sepulchres1 which indeed appear beautiful outward1 but are within full of dead men's bones and all uncleanness 7,matt1 xxiii4 #ae-bg74 ,one cannot wonder that the ,brahmins and the ,pharisees1 who were objurgated as hypocrites1 should retort upon their accusers1 prosecute the one and crucify the other4 ,as ,sakya's influence increased1 the power of the old priesthood diminished1 and there are accounts of many contests between the old dispensers of ,brahma's religion and the new saviour1 which were held before kings and people4 ,in consequence of these disputes ,buddha's life was repeatedly in danger4 ,but though often threatened1 ,siddartha died peacefully when about eighty years old1 beloved by many1 respected by more1 worshipped as a divinity by his immediate disciples and intimate friends1 and venerated by all who had listened to his discourses4 ,there are a great many legends existent1 and of very respectable antiquity too1 which tell of miracles performed by this very remarkable ,indian teacher2 but the judicious historian1 upon whose authority ,i am at present relying 7,st4 ,hilaire71 does not intermingle these with the narrative of ,siddartha's life4 ,in this respect he shows greater judgment than the scribes who first compiled the stories of ,buddha and of ,jesus1 both of whom conceived that human beings could not be converted to a new style of belief without thaumaturgy4 ,the account of ,sakya ,muni and his religion would be incomplete did we not add that he left behind him enthusiastic disciples who were eager and successful in spreading his views4 ,but many years1 how many we do not know with absolute certainty1 elapsed ere any account was written either of his life or of his teaching4 ,nor ought we to wonder at this1 for until time has been given to mankind1 it cannot fairly estimate the value of anything new2 and when men do at length form1 what they believe to be1 a perfect judgment of the importance of the doctrine which has become deeply rooted1 they are more eager to promulgate it in the world than to record it by writing in the closet4 ,the new religion certainly spread extensively all over the vast continent of ,hindustan1 and in the course of about three hundred years1 found an enthusiastic and powerful convert in the person of a king called ,asoka1 who was reigning when the third convocation of ,buddhists was called1 b4c4 #cjg4 ,this ruler was imbued with a missionary spirit1 and under his influence1 preachers full of energy went not only throughout ,india1 but into ,china1 ,japan1 ,ceylon1 and apparently into every country to which ships1 caravans1 and the flow of commerce gave them access1 including ,persia1 ,babylonia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt1 and the very populous and important emporium ,alexandria4 ,we may judge of the fanaticism of these religious envoys by their success1 and we may1 as is often done by ,christian missionaries1 test the real value of their doctrine by its endurance1 and its adaptability to the religious wants of the human animal4 ,if missionary success is a test of truth in religion1 ,buddhism must be superior to ,christianity4 ,buddah--for his name is spelled variously--has more followers1 according to competent authorities1 than ,jesus1 and if the depth and earnestness shown by the converts to the two men could be weighed in impartial scales1 we believe that the preponderance would be in favour of the followers of the ,indian saviour4 ,we readily allow that ,buddhism has not developed in many matters like ,christianity has done4 ,the ,buddhism of to-day does not essentially differ from that in the early ages of the faith2 the followers of ,siddartha have not adopted the doctrines of the nations amongst which they have settled4 ,the ,christianity of to-day1 on the other hand1 is so widely different from that current in the first century of our era1 that it has been remarked1 with great pungency1 that if ,jesus revisited us now1 he would be denounced as a heretic1 and abused as a nonconformist4 ,his followers soon introduced politics into religion1 and adopted the fables and the doctrines of the ,pagans amongst whom they dwelt1 merely changing certain names1 and ascribing virtues and miracles to saints1 which the heathen attributed to ,apollo1 ,mars1 or ,venus4 ,jesus1 though a ,jew1 never sacrificed1 nor did his apostles1 but his followers thought prudent to filch the practice from the heathen2 and1 to smooth their difficulty1 they profess to turn bread and wine into flesh and blood1 and offer it up as an oblation upon their ecclesiastical altar4 ,jesus knew nothing of purgatory2 with him the rich man went direct to hell1 and ,lazarus to ,abraham's bosom4 ,modern ,christians are wiser than their teacher2 for he disdained the learning of ,egypt1 his followers took their purgatory and trinity therefrom4 ,all this shows1 that the faith of ,christians in their teacher has not been equal to the unbounded trust felt by the ,buddhist in his master's wisdom4 ,buddhism1 moreover1 has neither taught nor sanctioned any system of persecution4 ,sakya1 it is true1 encouraged men to make themselves miserable upon earth that they might attain future immunity from woe1 but he never ordered them to use the sword or dragonnades to force other people to do so4 ,the followers of ,jesus1 on the other hand1 have but too often founded their claim to a happy immortality on making other men1 whom they called heretics1 miserable1 as during the period of the crusades against the ,saracens1 the ,albigenses1 the ,lollards1 and the ,waldenses4 ,the ,christians in many ages seemed to argue thus3--,as the painful death of ,mary's son saved the world1 so ,i1 by torturing a heretic1 may save myself4 ,this is an idea of vicarious atonement which1 though prevalent for centuries1 has never been committed to writing by those who hold it4 ,we do not mean to allege that the opinion referred to cannot be found in history1 for it is from such a source that our assertion comes4 ,a belief1 such as we refer to1 was promulgated amongst the ,crusaders1 and was fostered by the founders of the ,inquisition4 ,such an idea1 too1 is embodied in the word--,the time cometh1 that whosoever killeth you will think that he doeth ,god service 7,john xvi4 #b74 ,we may1 however1 trace the idea of persecution in the early ,christian ,scriptures4 ,paul1 for example1 when writing to the ,corinthians 7#a ,epistle v4 #c-e7 gives such encouragement as he can to those who punish an erring brother ,christian1 by delivering him over to ,satan for the destruction of the flesh1 that the spirit may be saved in the day of the ,lord ,jesus1 and in 7#ast ,tim4 i4 #bj71 the same author declares1--,i have delivered ,hymenseus and ,alexander unto ,satan that they may learn not to blaspheme4 ,the idea being1 that by thus acting1 both the ,corinthians and ,paul were improving their own ecclesiastical condition4 ,as ,i may not have another available opportunity for introducing one or two striking parallels between ,sakya ,muni and ,jesus1 ,i may mention here that the former is represented as being tempted by and having conversation with an evil spirit called ,mara1 ,evil one1 ,destroyer1 ,devil1 or ,papiyan4 ,in one of these confabulations ,buddah says1--,i will soon triumph over you--'desires' are your chief soldiers1 then come idleness1 hunger and thirst1 passions1 sleepy indolence1 fears1 doubts1 angers1 hypocrisy1 ambition1 the desire to be respected1 and to have renown1 praise of yourself and blame for others--these are your black allies1 the soldiers of the burning demon4 ,your soldiers subjugate gods and men1 but not me1 ,i shall crush them by wisdom1 then what will you do8 7,hilaire1 p4 #fa74 ,the sage is then1 not unlike the so-called ,st4 ,anthony1 tempted by lovely woman1 thirty-two lovely demons 7,apsaras7 deploying all their charms4 ,then follows a third trial1 and ,mara says to ,siddartha1--,i am the lord of desire1 ,i am the master of the entire world1 the gods1 the crowd of ,davanas 7spirits71 men and beasts have been subjugated by me and are in my power4 ,like them enter my domains1 rise up and speak like them4 ,buddha replied1--,if you are the lord of desire you are not the lord of light4 ,look at me1 ,i am the lord of the law1 you are powerless1 and in your very sight ,i shall obtain supreme intelligence1 7p4 #fd1 op4 cit474 ,the demon makes one more effort1 and is again conquered1 and then retires1 tracing with an arrow these words upon the ground--,my empire has passed away4 ,it may be imagined that the ,french author whom ,i quote is a partisan of the ,indian sage2 far from it1 he records such tales with regret1 for he sees how strong an influence they must have upon the perfect or imperfect authenticity of the ,new ,testament and the story of ,jesus4 ,the similarity of the two histories is heightened by the legend before noticed1 that ,buddha went to ,heaven to convert his mother1 whilst ,jesus is said to have gone down to ,hades to preach to the spirits in prison1 with the implied intention of converting them to the faith which he preached4 ,it will doubtless have occurred to anyone reading the preceding pages1 if he be but familiar with the ,new ,testament1 that either the ,christian histories called ,gospels have been largely influenced by ,buddhist's legends1 or that the story of ,siddartha has been moulded upon that of ,jesus4 ,the subject is one which demands and deserves the greatest attention1 for if our religion be traceable to ,buddhism1 as the later ,jewish faith is to the doctrines of ,babylonians1 ,medes1 and ,persians1 we must modify materially our notions of inspiration and revelation4 ,into this inquiry ,st4 ,hilaire goes as far as documentary evidence allows him1 and ,hardy in ,legends and ,theories of the ,buddhists also enters upon it in an almost impartial manner4 ,from their conclusions there can be no reasonable doubt that the story of the life of ,sakya ,muni1 such as we have described it1 certainly existed in writing ninety years before the birth of ,jesus2 consequently1 if the one life seems to be a copy of the other1 the gospel writers must be regarded as the plagiarists4 ,in the story of ,buddha1 we have eliminated the miraculous part1 and exhibited him simply as a remarkable man4 ,nevertheless1 in the writings of his followers1 miracles in abundance are assigned to him4 ,whether these existed in the original history ,hardy doubts1 and his remarks are so apposite that we reproduce them 7op4 cit4 p4 xxviii74 ,upon the circumstances of this first rehearsal 7of the life and doctrine of ,siddartha71 most important consequences depend4 ,if the miracles ascribed to ,buddha can be proved to have been recorded of him at the time of his death1 this would go far towards proving that the authority to which he laid claim was his rightful prerogative4 ,they were of too public character to have been ascribed to him then if they had not taken place2 so that if it was openly declared by his contemporaries1 by those who had lived with him in the same monastery1 that he had been repeatedly visited by ,sekra and other ,deivas2 and that he had walked through the air and visited the heavenly world in the presence of many thousands1 and those the very persons whom they addressed1 we ought to render to him the homage awarded to him by even his most devoted followers4 ,but the legend of the early rehearsal has nothing to support it beyond the assertion of authors who lived at a period long subsequent4 ,the testimony of contemporaneous history presents no record of any event that quadrates with the wonderful powers attributed to the 'rahals1' which would undoubtedly not have been wanting if these events had really taken place4 ,the reader of this extract will now naturally turn his attention to the ,christian gospels1 and inquire into the time when they were written1 and whether the arguments used by ,hardy1 for disbelieving the miracles of ,buddha1 do not equally disprove the authenticity of the miracles attributed to ,jesus4 ,we can find nowhere1 in contemporary history--and there is an adequate account thereof1 both ,jewish and ,roman--any records of the wonders said to have been done in ,judea by the son of ,mary4 ,though he was noticed by a certain writer in the ,talmud1 under the name of ,ben ,panther1 that book contains no account of the marvellous works recorded in the gospels1 nor any reference to his miraculous power4 ,the ,romans who dwelt in ,jerusalem knew nothing of any real miracle1 though ,herod is reported to have noticed some gossiping accounts of ,john's successor4 ,we do not find a single reference to any of the wonderful events told in the gospels in any epistle written by those who companied with ,jesus--except the assertion that he had risen from the dead1 to be found in #a ,corinthians xv4 and elsewhere--whose value is problematical ,still farther1 we have tolerably good evidence to show that the ,gospels were written at a time when they could not be tested by those people in whose presence the wonders were said to have been wrought4 ,the narrative of ,john1 for example1 is1 by scholars1 supposed to have been written more than a century1 probably one hundred and fifty years1 after the crucifixion1 and the others seem to have been composed for the benefit of those who did not live in1 or know ,jerusalem and ,judea intimately4 ,they resemble1 in almost every respect1 the stories told of such ,roman saints as ,francis of ,assisi1 ,bernard1 ,carlo ,borromeo1 and ,ignatius ,loyola1 which were always composed long after the death1 and out of the presence of every one of those who could deny or controvert them4 ,however much1 or little1 we may credit the biographies of ,buddha and ,jesus1 we cannot for a moment doubt1 that the two individuals were instrumental in founding forms of religion1 which1 by the aid of missionaries1 spread over a vast extent of the habitable globe4 ,unlike that of ,mahomet1 the faiths referred to were promulgated by peaceful persuasion rather than by the sword1 and by the power of eloquence1 example1 and precept1 rather than by the influence of miracles4 ,if1 for the sake of argument1 we grant that every specimen of thaumaturgy which his followers attribute to ,jesus is correctly reported1 we must allow also that his power of making converts by teaching1 preaching1 and wonder working1 was inferior to that of his followers1 who taught1 preached1 and proselytized without performing many1 if any miracles4 ,if we assert that miraculous powers are necessary for the establishment and propagation of a new religion1 then we must1 to be consistent with ourselves1 believe in the thaumaturgy of the ,buddhists1 and the divine mission of ,sakya ,muni4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we deny that ,siddartha was an incarnate god or saviour1 was not divinely inspired1 and performed no real miracle1 then it is clear that the miracles1 which ,jesus is said to have achieved1 were wholly unnecessary1 and not required in any way to upset an old religion1 to found a new1 or to spread it when established4 ,the philosopher may pause here1 with profit to himself1 and inquire whether there is1 or there are1 any new form or forms of religion which has or have sprung up within his own observation1 and if so1 whether it or they has or have been based upon thaumaturgy--and1 if one or more have been so founded1 whether one shows evidence of stability4 ,few can deny that ,mormonism is a form of belief which has a considerable number of adherents1 a body of earnest missionaries1 and a laity whose faith and practice have been sorely tested by hardship4 ,yet there has not been a single miracle performed by its prophets4 ,it is reported that its founder announced that he would perform one in the sight of all ,israel and of the sun1 but when the time came he said1 that if the spectators believed that he could do what was promised1 that was quite enough6 ,spiritualism1 on the other hand1 is a new sort of theosophy1 ostensibly founded and supported wholly by thaumaturgy2 its disciples have induced themselves to believe1 against their original ideas1 that we are not only surrounded by the spirits of the departed1 but that these can be brought into connection with us by means of certain individuals1 called mediators or mediums--that these have such power1 over the invisible beings hovering in the air1 that the souls of the dead may be made to shake the tables of the living1 and lift up their sofas to the ceiling4 ,the miracles are believed in by many1 but ,spiritualism lags far behind the ,mormon theology1 and probably always will do4 ,we may regard this part of our subject in yet another light4 ,let us1 for example1 suppose that the ,buddhists and the ,christians succeed in persuading each other of the incorrectness of the miraculous element in their respective books1 does it therefore follow1 that any essential part of the creed of either one or other must be altered8 ,the doctrines of ,siddartha would not be valueless even if his followers disbelieved in his power to fly as a bird1 or cross a river on the surface of the water--nor would those of ,mary's son be proved to be worthless if it were certain that he never marched over a billowy sea1 and that he was not really killed by crucifixion4 ,the disciples of ,sakya ,muni believed in a resurrection of the dead1 without having had the advantage of a real or imaginary reappearance of their master after his supposed decease4 ,the ,etruscans1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 had all an ,elysium to which the good folk went4 ,the ,red ,indian believes in a future life and happy hunting grounds 7so we are told71 although he has never heard of ,judea4 ,the rude ,northmen and ,danes had also their ,valhalla to go to after death1 long ere they were ,christians4 ,still farther1 it is to be noticed1 by the close observer1 that the ,jews at the time of ,jesus1 and some of the ,greeks about the same period1 were divided in their opinions respecting the existence of men in a future state4 ,the ,sadducees1 holding fast to the books of ,moses and the ,prophets1 denied the existence of a resurrection1 of angels or of spirits4 ,the ,pharisees1 on the other hand1 influenced apparently by ,babylonian and ,persian theology1 had faith in all three4 ,that this belief in a future life was not commonly held by the poor folk in ,judea1 we infer from ,mark ix4 #aj1 wherein we are told that ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john were questioning with one another what the rising from the dead should mean4 ,that the ,athenians were equally careless about what is now called heaven and hell1 we judge from ,acts xvii4 #ah1 wherein we are told that ,paul's preaching about ,jesus and the resurrection was a strange affair1 and from the thirty-second verse of the same chapter1 wherein it is said that the doctrine of the resurrection of ,jesus was received with derision4 ,i am quite aware that it may be objected to these remarks that the doubt about the rising from the dead does not point to a general resurrection1 but simply to the return to life of one particular individual4 ,this1 however1 only removes the difficulty to a short distance1 for ,greek story tells us of the annual return of ,proserpine from the realms of ,pluto to the light of day1 and ,adonis was yearly resuscitated1 in mythical narrative4 ,for the ,hebrew1 the rising from the dead ought not to be a wonderful matter4 ,was it not told in their ,scriptures how1 when certain persons were burying a man1 the bearers in a fright threw the corpse into the sepulchre of ,elijah1 whose bones had such efficacy that they revived the dead man1 who stood on his feet 7#b ,kings xiii4 #ba74 ,we find also1 from ,mark vi4 #af1 ,luke ix4 #i1 that ,herod had a full belief in the power of ,john to rise again from the death to which that monarch had consigned him4 ,the sceptic may doubt the ability of the two evangelists to read what was passing through the royal mind when ,jesus and his works were brought before its notice1 but he cannot doubt that the writer was aware that in ,herod's time there was a belief in the resurrection of individuals4 ,indeed1 we find in the verse following that which tells of the ,apostle's bewilderment1 ,mark ix4 #aa1 a question1 why say the scribes that ,elias must first come8 ,to which the reply is that the prophet has come4 ,we are constrained1 therefore1 to believe that ,jesus was not the first who rose from the dead2 nay1 even he himself commissioned his disciples to cleanse the lepers1 and raise the dead 7,matth4 x4 #h74 ,what1 then1 is the value of the arguments that ,paul builds upon the assertion that ,christ is the first fruits of them that slept4 ,this being so1 we may fairly ask1 whence did ,mary's son derive the ideas which he promulgated of a resurrection1 and of salvation1 and why had a sophistical writer like ,paul to adopt the clumsy contrivance of asserting that ,jesus not only had risen1 but that he was the first individual who had done so1 to demonstrate that the dead really did return again to life8 ,paul's argument1 indeed1 shows how little he knew or had thought upon the subject1 for he distinctly preaches a resurrection of the body1 not of the soul1 a belief adopted into the ,apostles' creed4 ,yet1 at the very period when the minds of ,christians were thus unformed1 the disciples of ,buddha1 to a man1 believed in a future ,nirvana1 in which there should be no more sorrow nor crying1 neither should there be any more pain1 and where all earthly things should have passed away 7see ,rev4 xxi4 #d74 ,we are not yet in the position to prove that ,mary's son and certain of his followers received their inspiration from disciples of ,siddartha1 but there is certainly a strong presumption in favour of the possibility1 much evidence of its probability1 and nothing whatever to disprove it4 ,to this1 however1 we will return by and by4 ,ere we proceed to examine into the nature of the doctrines of ,sakya ,muni and of ,jesus1 we may cast a glance over the condition of the men whom they converted4 ,in both instances1 it is not too much to say that they all were priest-ridden in the fullest meaning of the term4 ,the residents in ,modern ,india and ,papal ,rome1 until a short time ago1 well understood what the term signifies2 day by day1 and almost hour by hour1 there is1 or was in these places1 some ceremony to be attended1 some prayer to be uttered1 some confession to be made1 some contribution to be given to monastery1 church1 or priest4 ,penances are1 and were inflicted of the most painful1 sometimes of the most disgusting kind4 ,the last ,i heard of was in ,wales1 where a man was ordered to lie down at the church door as a mat1 upon which the faithful were to wipe their feet4 ,both in ,india and ,italy1 men1 women1 and children alike are1 or were1 taught to regard themselves as the servants1 and even slaves of the hierarchy1 and their money is1 or was1 alienated from wives and children to swell the coffers of spiritual tyrants4 ,perpetual terrors of hell are sounded1 until those hearers1 whose hearts are impressionable1 are habitually haunted by imaginary horrors1 each one of which has to be bought off by a sort of hush-money paid to the priest1 who has invented1 adopted1 or described them4 ,such was the condition of ,england and ,france prior to the ,reformation and the ,revolution4 ,so long as men are debased by their guides1 and allow themselves1 with the docility of a well-trained dog1 to be ruled1 and so long as tyrannical flamens can wring an ever increasing tax from the people1 there is probably nothing more in the breast of each than a vague feeling of dislike1 or regret1 at the existence of such things1 which rarely receives utterance for fear of punishment4 ,but as soon as a man1 more bold than his neighbours1 raises a standard of revolt1 whose success appears to be secure1 the bulk of the oppressed first sympathize with1 yet fear to join him1 then1 after watching eagerly the course of events1 and admiring the boldness of men more resolute than themselves1 they timidly make common cause with the reformer1 and1 if circumstances favour them1 they become enthusiastic4 ,as the news of the mental revolt swells1 the people1 tired of oppression1 rise in their might and sweep away the hierarchy1 or compel it to abandon its pretensions4 ,buddha and ,christ were such leaders as we here describe1 and such was the course gone through by their followers4 ,the timid ,peter denying ,jesus1 and yet afterwards boldly preaching him up1 is an example almost too well known to be quoted4 ,we are now in a position to inquire into the nature of ,siddartha's teaching4 ,premising that his doctrines were collected at least #bjj years ,b4 ,c41 the first which we notice is one that he not only inculcated by language but enforced by his abiding example4 ,he taught that the comforts and pleasures of this life act as fetters1 to chain man's spirit to earth2 that day by day they necessitate the cultivation of propensities and passions more or less bestial in their nature2 and that as these strengthen1 so the individual who possessed them would be born again1 after his death1 to some form of misery and woe in which he would have to atone for the human infirmities which he had not conquered4 ,to escape from the possibility of such an event1 ,sakya counselled his disciples to wean themselves1 as far as possible1 from every sensual passion2 to mortify the body by fasting1 so as to make it more readily separable from the inner man2 to renounce all comfort except that of doing good2 and believing in a state of perfect future salvation4 ,a man1 he taught1 must abandon everything as valueless compared with the attainment of salvation or nirvana2 he must be wholly dependent upon others for food and raiment2 he must take no thought for the morrow1 and live like a bird or lily1 laying up no store2 for certainly a disciple of ,sakya ought not to undertake any trade or other means of gaining a livelihood1 lest it should ensnare his spirit and tie it down to the grovelling things of earth4 ,this was the rule for the very faithful1 the infirm believers had a more lenient code4 ,if we now turn to the doctrine said to have been taught by ,jesus and his disciples1 we shall find a close parallel between it and that of the ,indian teacher4 ,for example1 ,john says 7#a ,epis4 ii4 #ae1af7 ,love not the world1 neither the things that are in the world4 ,if any man love the world1 the love of the ,father is not in him4 ,for all that is in the world1 the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eye1 and the pride of life1 is not of the ,father but is of the world4 ,paul says 7,rom4 xii4 #b7 ,be not conformed to this world1 but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind1 that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of ,god4 ,james also says 7ch4 iv4 #d7 ,know ye not that the friendship of the world is enmity with ,god2 whosoever1 therefore1 will be a friend of the world1 is the enemy of ,god4 ,again1 we find in ,matthew xix41 ,mark x41 and ,luke xii41 the story of a young man who was possessed of wealth1 probably scarcely less than that of ,sakya ,muni1 and whose life had been conscientiously conducted1 according to the commandments which he knew1 and who having heard of ,jesus1 came to ask him if there were a more certain way of salvation than the one he was in4 ,to him the reply is1--,if thou wilt be perfect1 go and sell that thou hast1 and give to the poor1 and thou shalt have treasure in heaven1 and come and follow me4 ,in the verses1 moreover1 which follow1 there is a remark from the same teacher to the effect1 that every one that hath forsaken houses1 or brethren1 or sisters1 or father1 or mother1 or wife1 or children1 or lands1 for my name's sake1 shall receive an hundred fold1 and shall inherit everlasting life4 ,once again1 we find an exact counterpart of ,buddha's teaching in the sermon on the ,mount1 which is recorded in ,matth4 vi4 #be-cd--;,i say unto you1 take no thought for your life1 what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink1 nor yet for your body1 what ye shall put on4 ,is not the life more than meat1 and the body than raiment8 ,behold the fowls of the air1 for they sow not1 neither do they reap1 nor gather into barns1 yet your heavenly ,father feedeth them4 ,are ye not much better than they8444 ,why take ye thought for raiment1 consider the lilies of the field444 if ,god so clothe the grass444 shall he not much more clothe you8 ,therefore take no thought1 saying1 what shall we eat1 or what shall we drink1 or wherewithal shall we be clothed8444 ,take therefore no thought for the morrow444 sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof4 ,other similar passages might readily be given1 but the above suffice to demonstrate the ,buddhistic teaching of the prophet of ,nazareth4 ,both start from the idea that death1 disease1 pain1 and misery is the result of sin--and both imagine that sin consists in living and acting upon the natural wants1 necessities1 and propensities of human kind4 ,both imagine that to be natural is to be vile1 and that salvation is to be attained by resisting every impulse which is common to mankind ,man desires to eat when hungry--this is a weakness to be combated2 a mother loves her babe--this must not be tolerated2 a youth covets a damsel in marriage--this is a snare to draw both down to hell2 celibacy must be enforced4 ,the argument runs thus1--,if any one enjoys life he is sure to fear death1 and will certainly pay for his pleasures2 but if any one has the resolution to pass his years on earth in misery like that of hell1 he will be glad to die1 and fearless of any place of torment2 use has bred a habit in him and no torture can come amiss4 ,some ,christian author has ventured to assert religion never was designed to make our pleasures less1 but he was a conspicuous heretic4 ,buddha's doctrine was founded upon the assertion that life is always short1 and that it is not worth a man's while to buy a few years of enjoyment with myriads of years of agony4 ,jesus preached that the ,jews' time was short1 for they1 and most probably all the world besides1 were to be burned up any day within the duration of the generation--what then was the use of laying up stores of grain1 of buying fine clothes1 and keeping wine to get mellow8 ,both preachers were equally short sighted and absurd in their teaching1 for if their disciples were to live upon alms1 and all repented and adopted the doctrine1 it is clear that all would starve together1 and self immolation by hunger was repugnant to both prophets4 ,if no one made clothes all must go naked1 and indecency was forbidden4 ,if no one was to lay up money1 there would be no one to pay for work1 yet toil was considered to be a duty4 ,if every one was to live from hand to mouth1 who would keep a calf until it became a heifer1 or a lamb to become a sheep8 ,it is difficult to conceive that two individuals could have worked out such a scheme of salvation independently1 and the minuteness of the resemblances induces me to believe that ,jesus1 possibly without knowing it1 first adopted and then promulgated in ,judea the doctrines of the ,indian sage4 ,following1 again1 the lead of ,st4 ,hilaire 7,le ,bouddha1 c1 #ahfj1 pp4 #ha1 et seq471 we find that ,siddartha taught #fjj years ,b4 ,c41 that death and all the miseries of mankind were due to the passions1 desires1 and sins of man2 that all this misery would cease in ,nirvana 7of which we shall speak by and by71 and that the means to attain to this salvation is to keep the true faith2 to have a correct judgment2 to be truthful in all things1 and to hold every false thing in abhorrence2 always to act and to think with a pure and honest mind2 to adopt a religious life1 i4e41 one that is in no respect worldly1 not owing even subsistence to anything which might be tainted with sin2 to practise a careful and earnest study of the law2 to cultivate a good memory1 so that all mistakes in conduct may be remembered if they have occurred1 and be avoided in the future2 and frequent meditation1 i4e41 an abstraction of the mind from self consciousness1 a thinking of nothing1 so as to approximate the soul to ,nirvana4 ,these were ,buddha's fundamental verities4 ,it is put more shortly thus1--,practising no evil1 advancing in the exercise of every virtue1 purifying one's self in mind and will1 this is indeed the doctrine of all the ,buddhas4 ,journal of ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 xix4 p4 #dgc4 ,we may once more stop to compare the teaching of ,siddartha with that familiar to ,christians4 ,paul says1 for example 7,rom4 v4 #ab7 ,as by one man sin entered into the world1 and death by sin2 so death passed upon all men1 for that all have sinned2 again1 in chap1 vi4 #bc1 the wages of sin is death2 again1 in chap4 vii4 #e1 when we were in the flesh the motions of sins444 did work in our members to bring forth fruit unto death2 and again1 chap4 viii4 #f1 to be carnally minded is death2 but to be spiritually minded is life and peace4 ,we may next refer to what some call the fundamental teaching of ,jesus1 as enunciated in answer to the question of the young man ,what shall ,i do that ,i may inherit eternal life8 ,matthew xix41 ,mark x41 ,if thou wilt enter into life1 keep the commandments4 ,thou shalt do no murder1 thou shalt not commit adultery1 thou shalt not steal1 thou shalt not bear false witness1 honour thy father and thy mother1 and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4 ,and when the young man asserted that he had done so1 all that he was told to do in addition1 was to sell his property1 give the proceeds to the poor1 and become a follower of ,jesus1 who had not where to lay his head1 and to live upon the charity of other people4 ,i must1 however1 notice in passing1 that the teaching of ,jesus is not by any means so uniform as that of ,sakya1 for we find the former here instructing a young man to do no murder1 but at a subsequent period1 that of the last supper1 ,jesus exhorts his disciples1 and through them1 possibly1 the very man to whom he rehearsed the commandments1 thus ,he that hath no sword1 let him sell his garment and buy one1 7,luke xxii #cf74 ,certainly a direct encouragement to homicide4 ,for the benefit of the ,buddhists a short formula of faith has been framed1 which is to this effect--,tathagata 7another name of ,sakya ,muni71 in the proper condition1 has explained that our present state is produced by antecedent causes1 and the great ,sramana1 or ,ascetic 7another cognomen of ,siddartha71 has told us how to avoid the effects of sin4 ,the effects are pain and actual existence1 having for their cause past sins2 the cause is the production of suffering3 the cessation of these effects is ,nirvana1 the teaching of ,tathagata1 or of the great ,sramana1 is the way which leads to ,nirvana4 ,the ,christian formula runs1 ,as in ,adam all die1 even so in ,christ shall all be made alive4 ,to this we may compare a ,nepaulese saying1 ,arise1 leave your possession1 take up the law of ,buddha1 and break asunder the power of death4 ,in addition to the fundamental maxim given on the preceding page1 ,sakya ,muni added many others1 amongst them1 ,thou shalt not kill1 thou shalt not steal1 thou shalt not commit adultery1 thou shalt not lie1 thou shalt not get drunk2 others are of lighter consequence--thou shalt not eat out of due season1 thou shalt not watch dances or theatrical representations1 or listen to songs or music1 thou shalt abstain from all ornamentation of dress1 c41 and from perfume2 thou shalt not have a large bed1 nor ever take gold or silver2 thou shalt remain inflexibly chaste4 ,to those who desired to become disciples and personal friends of ,buddha1 it was ordained that 7a7 ,they should only be clothed with rags taken from the cemeteries1 or from heaps of refuse1 or found on the high road4 7b7 ,that there should only be three of these vestments1 and that each should be stitched by the wearer1 and that they should be covered with a cloak of yellow wool 7c7 ,that the food should be as simple as possible--a rule adopted by ,christian saints1 but not by ,bishops4 7d7 ,that all should live upon alms and offerings1 which should be begged for1 in perfect silence1 from house to house1 and placed in a vessel made of wood--a plan adopted by certain ,christian mendicant friars4 7e7 ,that only one meal should be taken during the day--a rule to be found in some ,christian monasteries4 7f7 ,that no aliments1 even the most simple1 should be taken after noon1 the rest of the day after this period should be devoted to teaching and meditation4 7g7 ,the faithful should live in the wilderness or forest1 and not in towns or villages4 ,hence ,christian hermits lived in the deserts of the ,thebaid4 7h7 ,they should only shelter themselves under the boughs and leaves of trees4 7i7 ,they should sit with the back supported only by the trunk chosen for refuge4 7j7 ,they should sleep sitting1 and not lying down4 7k7 ,they should never change their sitting mat from the place where it was put first4 7l7 ,the disciples should unite together1 at least upon one night in the month1 to meditate amongst the tombs upon the instability of human things4 ,mendicity1 chastity1 and asceticism were essential parts of ,sakya ,muni's practice1 and ,st4 ,hilaire 7op4 cit41 p4 #hg7 naively remarks that these certainly are not the means for making good citizens1 though they may produce good saints4 ,we may notice1 in passing1 that the pious followers of ,sramana 7the one who mastered his passions7 were very much more proper1 in our eyes1 than some of the ,brahmins1 from whom they seceded1 inasmuch as the former wore sufficient garments to cover themselves decently1 whilst the latter1 whom the ,greeks called ,gymnosophists1 went without any more clothing than the horse or ass4 ,it is also to be noticed that ,siddartha provided a sort of code of laws to be observed by those who wished to adopt his method of salvation1 without becoming altogether religious4 ,these consisted in the enforcement of chastity1 purity1 patience1 courage1 contemplation1 and knowledge--these were1 it was asserted1 the transcendent virtues which would pass man across the river of death4 ,they would not land him there in life1 but whilst these were adopted as the rule of life1 the aspirant was in the right way to attain ,nirvana4 ,the charity which ,sakya ,muni ordained was universal1 extending even to what we call the lower animals1 and one example is given in which a disciple cast himself into the sea to save a boat's crew in danger of death from a storm1 whilst another tells of ,buddha giving himself as food to a tigress1 who had not sufficient milk for her young ones4 ,again1 the precept against lying included false witness1 and all that we call bad language1 as well as trifling chat1 called badinage1 wit1 and the like4 ,persons were not only to avoid wrong1 but they were to cultivate every good habit1 or what we designate each ,christian grace4 ,it was inculcated1 that beauty of language1 or eloquence1 pleasantness of voice1 and a due respect to cadence should be studied1 so as to make their teaching popular1 a precept not much regarded amongst ordinary ,christian divines4 ,beyond other things1 humility was inculcated1 not that which exists on the lips only1 and is apparently compatible with the determined endeavour to exercise unlimited power1 which has been conspicuous in the ,papacy for a millennium at least1 but that which conceals greatness and demonstrates littleness4 ,thus there is a legend of ,buddha refusing1 at the request of a king1 to exhibit any miracle to convince his opponents1 his answer being1 ,great king1 ,i do not teach the law to my hearers by saying to them1 ',go1 oh you religious men6 and before ,brahmins and house-holders perform1 by means of a supernatural power1 miraculous things1 which no other men can effect1' but ,i say to them1 in teaching them the law1 ',live1 oh ye pious ones1 so as to conceal your good works1 and to let your sins be seen4' ,at this point we pause once more to draw a parallel between ,siddartha and ,jesus1 though1 in the delineation of the doctrine of the latter1 we shall see a discrepancy which appears to indicate two distinct authorships in the recorded story4 ,we refer1 in the first place1 to ,luke vi1 wherein we find1 v4 #bg1 et seq41 ,love your enemies1 do good to them which hate you1 bless them that curse you1 and pray for them which despitefully use you1 and to him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other 7compare ,matt4 v4 #ci1 #dj74 ,again1 ,matt4 vi4 #c1 ,when thou doest alms1 let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth1 and in v4 #f1 ,when thou prayest1 enter into thy closet1 c42 v4 #af1 ,when ye fast1 be not1 as the hypocrites1 of a sad countenance4 ,side by side with this we may place the directions given in ,matt1 x41 where we find that ,jesus called his disciples unto him1 and gave them power against unclean spirits to cast them out1 and to heal all manner of sickness and all manner of disease --they were1 moreover1 to cleanse the lepers and raise the dead1 i4e4t the disciples were to perform miracles2 but if they1 in their wanderings and teachings1 should be rejected1 despised1 or affronted1 the apostles were to shake off the dust of their feet against the persecutors1 being certain that condign punishment would fall upon the offenders4 ,it is curious that in the histories of the ,indian and the ,jew1 there should be analogous discrepancies between records of their sayings and doings4 ,siddartha and ,jesus are represented1 each of them1 as declining to perform miracles when asked or expected to do so4 ,nevertheless1 in the same histories we find marvellous accounts of the wonders which they performed4 ,we have seen the clashing reports of ,buddha1 the following reports of the son of ,mary are equally discordant4 ,to make the dissonance more striking1 we place the passages in parallel columns4 ,illustration3 #ada ,at what time after the death of ,jesus the miracles recorded of him were fabricated we can scarcely tell4 ,if1 with most critical scholars1 we believe that ,john's ,gospel was written by some ,neoplatonic ,greek1 at least a century and a-half after the period alluded to1 we must also believe1 either that all the legends about the casting out of devils by the son of ,mary were invented after the time when ,john lived1 or else1 which is probable1 that the last evangelist gave no credit to them1 if they did already exist2 and if the good sense and superior knowledge of ,john led him to discredit the tale about the legion of devils1 which left one man99 to enter into about two thousand pigs1 ,i do not see that other ,christians are obliged to believe the legend4 ,from considerations which we advanced in the articles ,prophets1 ,prophecy1 c41 in ,ancient ,faiths 7,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eae71 and especially in the history of ,barcochab1 who was supposed to be the ,messiah by some ,jews in ,a4,d4 #aca-e1 we argued that new matter was certainly introduced into the story of ,jesus told by ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,john1 as late as the era of that enthusiastic ,hebrew leader4 ,we noticed the doubts that existed in the minds of many early ,christians as to whether this redoubtable warrior was not the man of whom the prophets spake4 ,we may now still further notice that he professed to perform miracles1 which appear to be thoroughly contemptible when weighed against those of the gospels4 ,to our mind it is inconceivable that the followers of ,mary's son could have been acquainted with the marvellous works attributed to ,jesus in the gospels1 and1 yet be shaken by such a man as ,barcochab4 ,we notice1 also1 that not one ,epistle writer refers to them--consequently1 we believe that all the wondrous tales told of the prophet of ,nazareth1 must have been introduced after the time of ,hadrian 7in whose reign ,barcochab was destroyed71 and were fabricated by pious ,christians1 to prove that the ,messiah1 in whom they believed1 was infinitely superior to that warrior whom others had for a time trusted4 ,both1 to be sure1 had been killed by the ,romans1 and thus both might seem upon a par1 but if history could be cooked--and there is probably no single history existing which is strictly true--to show that the first performed a hundred times the wonderful works of the second1 he would thus become greatly exalted4 ,see especially ,matt4 xxiv4 #bd1 in confirmation of this view4 ,be this as it may1 there is1 ,i understand1 solid foundation for the assertion that the ,new ,testament1 such as we have it now1 might have been composed1 altered1 curtailed1 added to1 remodelled1 or otherwise fashioned1 at any period between the years a4d4 #ej and #cjj1 after which change was difficult1 though we cannot say impossible4 ,a corresponding statement is true of the books which record the life and doctrines of ,buddha4 99 ,in ,matthew viii4 #cj-cb1 we are told that there were two men who were possessed with the devils which subsequently entered the herd of swine2--in ,mark v4 #aa-ac1 the spirits are represented as being concentrated in one person1 and in ,luke viii4 #cb-cc1 the tale appears in the same guise as in ,mark--only the man is made to call himself ,legion1 on account of the multitude of devils living inside him4 ,in cases of this kind one need not be rigidly particular1 for it signifies little whether the spirits were one thousand in one man or two thousand in two--the wonder is that spirits could talk--fly away from man to pig1 or commit suicide in the bodies of the swine when they might have done the same thing in one or two men4 ,it is clear from the miracle that certain devils change their habits when they take up their habitation in porcine instead of human beings4 ,at this period of our parallel we may profitably examine the ,new ,testament1 and ascertain whether we cannot extract from it a tolerably fair account of the life and teaching of ,jesus1 without including therein a single act of thaumaturgy4 ,we fearlessly assert1 not only that we can1 but that the miracles are not an essential part of his doctrine4 ,for example1 we learn that ,jesus was the son of a woman betrothed to a carpenter1 who became pregnant ere yet the ceremony of marriage was gone through4 ,her affianced husband did not make her frailty an excuse for annulling the contract1 possibly for a good1 and to him a sufficient reason4 ,he married the already fruitful ,mary1 and her child passed amongst the neighbours as being the son of ,joseph4 ,this we learn from ,matt4 xiii4 #ee1 where we find the people saying1 ,is not this the carpenter's son8 is not his mother called ,mary8 and his brethren ,james1 and ,joses1 and ,simon1 and ,judas1 and his sisters1 are they not all with us8 a statement repeated in similar terms1 ,mark vi4 #c4 ,this short account is important1 since it completely destroys the papal doctrine that ,mary was ever virgin1 for she bore at least four other sons than her first born1 and two daughters4 ,at no period was ,jesus regarded either by the family or by the neighbours as illegitimate1 nor is there any reason to believe that ,joseph looked upon him otherwise than as his own son4 ,indeed1 in ,luke ii4 #db-dh1 the carpenter distinctly appears to act as if he recognized ,jesus as his own offspring--in verse #dh1 ,mary says1 ,son1 why hast thou thus dealt with us8 behold thy father and ,i have sought thee sorrowing1 asserting as plainly as words could speak1 that ,joseph had begotten ,jesus4 ,it is true that the youth replied1 ,wist ye not that ,i must be about my father's business8 but the story adds the important information1 that the couple did not understand the saying4 ,it is clear to us1 that if the legend of the impregnation of ,mary by the ,holy ,ghost1 after that event had been previously announced to her1 and if1 as we are told in ,matt4 i4 #bj1 ,joseph had been informed by the angel of the ,lord that the foetus in ,mary's womb was begotten by the ,holy ,ghost1 it would not have been possible for ,joseph and his wife to have misunderstood the words of ,jesus4 ,the very wonder which they expressed demonstrates the belief of the parents that there was nothing unusual in the conception4 ,the father ,joseph knew that he had borne his share in the event1 and ,mary knew that she had not conversed with any other man2 consequently1 for her son to indicate another father than ,joseph1 naturally mystified her4 ,we therefore cannot allow the assertion to pass1 that the conception and birth of ,jesus was in itself a miracle4 ,but as we shall revert to the subject in a separate chapter1 we will say no more about it here4 ,after living and working with his parents for some years1 ,jesus was attracted by the preaching of his cousin ,john1 whose doctrines were essentially ,buddhistic and ,essenian4 ,like the ,hindoos1 he used water as an emblem of purification1 and urged his hearers to repentance and good conduct4 ,what motives urged ,john to become the voice of one crying in the wilderness1 we have no means of judging1 but the gospel narratives tell us that he1 like ,jesus1 believed in the almost immediate destruction of the world4 ,his text was1 ,repent1 for the kingdom of heaven is at hand4 ,jesus adopted the view1 and promulgated it more extensively4 ,his text was the same as that of his cousin1 but more expanded4 ,the kingdom of heaven means glory to the righteous1 and everlasting life2 misery and everlasting destruction to the wicked4 ,the time is near1 hasten to escape from the coming vengeance4 ,the earnestness of ,jesus1 his acquaintance with the prophets1 his self-denial and his constant kindness1 endeared him to the common people4 ,the same virtues had a like effect in the case of ,buddha4 ,amongst villagers and poverty-stricken fishermen he soon won his way1 and every one had some story to tell of him1 which increased in wonder as it passed from mouth to ears1 and from these to the tongue of the listeners4 ,those who know how an ordinary circumstance may gradually become described as miraculous1 even in ,england1 can well imagine how the miracles of ,jesus and ,siddartha were produced4 ,in time ,jesus endeavoured to induce the magnates of ,jerusalem to adopt his doctrine1 and to trust in repentance for salvation rather than in sacrifice1 but the enthusiast could not overcome the ritualists1 and they at once began to weigh their power against the influence of ,jesus upon the multitude4 ,after a time the priests were convinced that supremacy rested with them1 and the man who preached a religion of the heart1 was sacrificed by the adherents of ceremonial4 ,such a fight is common1 as we see around us4 ,the ,evangelicals and the ,ritualists of to-day1 resemble the followers of ,jesus and of ,moses4 ,when the latter appeared in the guise of powerful ,romanist rulers1 they put down the former1 but now when the former are the strongest1 they endeavour to depress the latter4 ,after the death1 or the withdrawal of ,jesus from public life--for we have no belief in the legends of his resurrection--considering that his apparent decease was a prolonged fainting fit1 for had he been dead blood would not have followed a spear wound as it did--the disciples of ,jesus spread his fame largely4 ,whilst ,jesus was with them they clung to him2 when he was no more1 each man became a preacher1 and then ,christianity spread until it met with ,buddhism in ,egypt1 and thus became developed in a peculiar direction4 ,then came the gospels1 which made ,jesus a second ,sakya4 ,although we can readily conceive that ,jesus1 like his paltry successor1 ,joe ,smith1 the ,mormon1 captivated the minds of hundreds without performing any supernatural deed1 and that his elders vastly increased the number of those who believed in him1 yet it is clear1 that ancient and modern theologians were and are anxious to establish the reality of the thaumaturgy attributed to ,jesus1 that they may appeal to it to demonstrate that he was the son of ,god1 an incarnation of a portion of the creative mind--the word1 or logos1 having the same relationship to ,jehovah1 the ,i ,am1 the ,self-,existent ,one1 as ,buddha1 the understanding had to ,brahma1 ,the ,supreme ,one4 ,accepting this issue for the sake of argument1 we affirm once again that1 as the miracles of ,sakya and of the son of ,mary are equally unreliable1 or equally true1 ,buddha was as much a true son of ,god as ,christ was1 or that ,jesus was no more an incarnation of ,jehovah1 than ,siddartha was of ,brahma4 ,jehovah and ,brahma being merely different names for the same great ,being4 ,that miracles are not necessary to the spread of a new faith1 the history of modern ,presbyterianism and ,mormonism distinctly proves4 ,for further remarks1 we refer the reader to the article ,miracle in the preceding volume4 ,we will postpone to a subsequent page what we have to say respecting the asceticism of the ,buddhists1 and that which was prevalent in the early ,christian church4 ,for the present1 we resume our account of ,sakya ,muni's teaching as described by ,st4 ,hilaire4 ,founded upon his doctrine of absolute humility1 he established the custom of confession amongst his apostles or disciples1 and amongst those who venerated his teaching1 though they did not' become his immediate followers4 ,this confession was not that simply auricular one enforced by ,ritualists1 but it was made twice a month1 at the new and the full moon1 before the great ,sramana and the congregation1 in a clear voice4 ,powerful kings are reported to have followed this practice4 ,it will not require more than a minute's reflection to see that the ,buddhistic system of confession was far superior--as regards the end in view--than that which has been adopted by ,romanists and ,ritualists4 ,sakya and ,james 7ch4 v4 #af7 advised the practice in question1 that the sinner might be humiliated in his own eyes1 and deterred from the necessity of having again to acknowledge a fall from virtue before a congregation of the faithful4 ,popes and ,protestant ,ritualists1 on the contrary1 use confession for the purpose of inquiring into the character of every penitent1 and the practice is adopted by the sinner1 not with the view of repentance1 but to wipe out periodically a sin which is habitually renewed4 ,if confessions were made before a congregation1 instead of to a priest in a closet1 or some other secret spot1 there would not then be current so many scandalous stories as there are--too true1 alas1 in many instances--respecting women who have been debauched under the guise of religion1 and priests who have prostituted the ordinances of their church1 until they have made them pander to vice1 and act as seeds to produce immorality4 ,though personally ,tathagata preached celibacy1 he had not1 like some of the so-called saints of ,christianity1 any feeling of disrespect towards family ties4 ,he always spoke affectionately of his mother1 though he never knew her1 and the legends say that he endeavoured to convert her in heaven4 ,his command that all his followers should honour their father and mother was repeatedly enforced1 that being only second to the duty of learning1 venerating1 and keeping the law4 ,it even went so high as to include endeavours to teach the parents if they were ignorant4 ,one of the main duties of every teacher appointed by ,siddartha1 was to go about preaching the law1 and exhorting his hearers to learn and to obey it4 ,but no one1 on any account1 was to introduce the persecuting element4 ,no respect whatever was to be paid to caste1 all being alike human before ,god4 ,buddha himself is described as a very striking preacher1 charming his hearers by his clear and eloquent diction1 astonishing them by his supernatural power1 sometimes instructing the common folk with ingenious parables1 and inciting them to emulation by telling what others had done4 ,he referred to the sins which had been committed in former days by an ancient people1 and how severely punished those who had committed them had been1 or still were1 and he even recorded his own faults1 that others might learn to avoid them4 ,he urged all his hearers to cultivate truth and reason1 which is certainly not a ,christian practice1 and not blindly to obey their spiritual guides1 as the modern faithful are taught to do4 ,by making the practice of every virtue the sole means for attaining eternal salvation1 he practically discouraged vice1 but it does not appear that he endeavoured actively to denounce immorality1 sin1 or sinners4 ,he did not1 like many modern persons1 compound for sins they are inclined to1 by damning those they have no mind to4 ,it is distinctly declared that it was not necessary for ordinary followers of ,buddha to become what is called religious1 or to enter into religion1 as friars1 monks1 c4 ,to those who preferred an ordinary mode of life1 instructions were given1 that they should cultivate charity1 purity1 patience1 courage1 contemplation1 and knowledge4 ,indeed1 we may assert that the precepts of ,jesus1 as recorded in ,matthew v41 vi1 and viii1 and in ,luke iii4 #g to #ad1 are not essentially different from those propounded by ,sakya ,muni ,neither the one nor the other ordered or even recommended all men to be celibate1 all men to become poor1 all soldiers to leave their profession--but both urged upon every one who wished for salvation1 to be kind1 pure1 patient1 courageous1 thoughtful and eager after all knowledge4 ,it would be well if those calling themselves ,christians would endeavour more fully to understand that cultivating science is the same as advancing in the knowledge of ,god4 ,some of the remarkable parables found in ,buddhist books are very probably the original ones of ,sakya2 they are certainly ingeniously framed to illustrate his doctrine4 ,nor is there wanting1 indeed1 one in which there is an episode resembling the story of the thief upon the cross4 ,it is of a lovely courtesan who falls deeply in love with a jeweller1 young1 and a devoted follower of ,buddha1 and solicits his company4 ,to every message she sends him1 he returns the answer it is not time for you to see me4 ,at length she commits a crime1 and is sentenced to have ears1 nose1 hands1 and feet cut off1 and to be carried to the graveyard to die1 leaving the cut off members at her ankles4 ,at this period the young man visits her1 to see the true nature of those joys which drown men in perdition2 then he consoles the poor creature by teaching her the law2 his discourse brings calm into her breast1 and she dies in professing ,buddhism with a certainty that she will rise again amongst the good4 ,we may mention1 in passing1 that there were female ,buddhists as well as males1 both being on the same footing4 ,the law1 as announced by ,sakya1 equally concerned and affected the two sexes4 ,another and very interesting parable tells of a king who came before a ,buddhist priest and his assembled hearers1 to the number of #cej1 to confess his crimes1 amongst others murder1 and his resolution to avoid all faults in future1 and ,bhagavat 7the teacher's name7 at once remits1 in conformity with the law1 the faults of the king1 which have thus been expiated before a numerous assembly of the faithful1 a remarkable instance of remorse1 repentance1 confession1 and remission of sin--some centuries before ,jesus was born4 ,at length a powerful king1 ,asoka1 was converted to the new faith1 or came to the throne already a ,buddhist1 in the year b4c4 #bfc1 and reigned thirty-seven years1 during which time he devoted himself to spreading the religion of his choice4 ,he sent out a cloud of earnest missionaries who spread themselves over ,hindostan1 ,ceylon1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,thibet4 ,indeed1 they seem to have gone wherever there was means of locomotion1 or a knowledge of the existence of a people4 ,as the ,greeks were then certainly trading with ,india1 both by land and sea1 it would be surprising if the ,buddhist missionaries had not accompanied the merchant ships1 or the overland convoys to ,alexandria4 ,but this subject1 it is convenient for the present to postpone4 ,there are two points connected with the teaching of ,sakya ,muni to which many ,christian writers have especially addressed their remarks1 apparently with the view of rendering ,buddha more or less contemptible1 or at least of degrading him far below ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,it is asserted that ,siddartha did not believe in a god1 and that his ,nirvana was nothing more than absolute annihilation4 ,to these ,i am disposed to add1 that the ,buddhists were not taught to pray1 nor did their founder practise the custom4 ,to my own mind1 the assertion that ,sakya did not believe in ,god is wholly unsupported4 ,nay1 his whole scheme is built upon the belief that there are powers above which are capable of punishing mankind for their sins4 ,it is true that these gods were not called ,elohim1 nor ,jah1 nor ,jahveh1 nor ,jehovah1 nor ,adonai1 nor ,eliieh 7,i am71 nor ,baalim1 nor ,ashtoreth--yet1 for the son of ,suddhodana 7another name for ,sakya ,muni1 for he has almost as many1 if not more than the western god71 there was a supreme being called ,brahma1 or some other name representing the same idea as we entertain of the ,omnipotent4 ,still further1 in the life of ,buddha1 quoted by ,st4 ,hilaire 7p4 #i7 we find the following as part of the thoughts of the young ,siddartha--,the three worlds1 the world of the gods1 the world of the assours 7the benighted ones1 or1 as we should call them1 'the devils 71 and that of men1 are all plagued by the occurrence of old age and disease4 ,we do not1 for we dare not assert that this opinion is identical with ours2 but we are equally indisposed to say that the opinions current amongst ourselves are absolutely true4 ,men living in future days1 and whose minds are educated1 will probably declare1 that the ,christians of ,europe and elsewhere1 for nearly two thousand years1 had no god but the devil ,they said he was good1 but they painted him as one who rejoiced in pain1 lamentation1 mourning1 and woe4 ,buddha preached that man suffered from the effects of his sins1 and that unless he attained salvation1 he would be punished everlastingly4 ,the son of ,mary1 and all his followers1 taught1 and ,christians still entertain the belief1 that man suffers from the sin of a progenitor 7assumed to be the parent of all mankind71 and that each person will be tortured throughout eternity unless he is able to mollify his maker1 who is also his judge4 ,both teachers had necessarily an idea of a power able to make laws for the conduct of human life1 to ordain rewards for good behaviour1 and to apportion punishment for offences1 and yet who was sufficiently forgiving to cease from requital1 for a consideration1 the bribe being invariably a bloody one4 ,jesus called this power my ,father1 ,siddartha called him ,brahma1 the ,supreme one4 ,jesus and his followers have asserted that the power of the son with the ,father is so great1 that the latter will conform to the former1 nay1 he even asserts his identity with the ,supreme in the words ,i and my father are one1 7,john x4 #cj74 ,see also ,acts iv4 #ab1 and #a ,thess4 v4 #i1 in which it is distinctly affirmed that ,jesus is the sole means by which man can attain salvation1 or1 in other words1 turn away the wrath of ,god and change it into love4 ,but ,jesus could only rise to the position of equal or prime favourite by a very sanguinary process1 as we find from ,heb4 ix4 #bb1 that there could be no remission of sin without shedding of blood4 ,from the following verses1 and from ,heb4 x4 #ai1 we learn that it is by the sacrifice of himself that ,jesus entered into his heavenly powers4 ,can any one who depicts the gods of savages1 of ,grecians and others to whom human beings were immolated in hundreds1 call such deities devils1 and then assert that the ,jehovah1 whom he extols as above all gods1 is not painted by men in the same colours4 ,siddartha's god was not a sanguinary one1 nor did ,buddha always talk of shedding blood1 or profess to give his disciples his own flesh to eat1 and his blood to them1 that they might all drink of it4 ,the way in which this ,supreme ,one1 ,brahma1 was painted at his time was accepted by ,sakya as he found it4 ,he no more questioned the accepted truths of ,hindooism1 than ,jesus doubted about the absolute truth of the ,hebrew scriptures4 ,but1 in his own mind1 after he had contemplated deeply on the subject1 he believed that the discovery which he had made of the way to ,nirvana1 universal knowledge1 or whatever else ,nirvana was1 had raised him above ,sakra ,brahma1 ,mahesvara1 and all the gods of the pantheon4 ,instead of breaking into expressions respecting the insanity or the blasphemy of such an idea1 let us school ourselves into calmness1 and turn to our own ,new ,testament and read over ,philippians1 chap1 ii4 vv4 #e-aa1 ,let this mind be in you which was also in ,christ ,jesus1 who being in the form of ,god1 thought it not robbery to be equal with ,god1 but made himself of no reputation1 and took upon him the form of a servant1 and was made in the likeness of men1 and being found in fashion as a man1 he humbled himself1 and became obedient unto death1 even the death of the cross3 wherefore ,god hath highly exalted him1 and given him a name which is above every name1 that at the name of ,jesus every knee should bow1 of things in heaven1 and things in earth and things under the earth1 and that every tongue should confess that ,jesus ,christ is ,lord to the glory of ,god the ,father4 ,still further1 ,i have repeatedly heard ,protestant ,christian divines assert that ,jesus was really ,lord of the world above1 and ,i cannot see any greater insanity or blasphemy in the son of ,suddodana believing that he was at least equal with ,god1 than in the son of ,mary asserting ,i and my ,father are one 7,john x4 #cj71 and when reproached for making himself thus equal with ,god1 he is reported to have remonstrated with his auditors who accused him of blasphemy because he asserted himself to be the son of ,god4 ,the creeds of the ,anglican and ,roman churches repeatedly declare the identity of ,jesus with ,jehovah1 e4g41 equal to the ,father as touching his godhead4 ,the natural rejoinder to this representation is the assertion by the ,christian that he knows that ,jesus of ,nazareth really was what he represented himself1 and he is sure that ,sakya ,muni was not2 but1 on the other hand1 the ,buddhist may say just the reverse with equal pertinacity4 ,this argument1 if such a name it really deserves1 is so common amongst all careless religionists1 that it deserves a few words in reply4 ,it is based upon the very natural notion1 what ,i believe1 must be true1 and to an objector1 the only answer is the question1 you don't fancy that ,i can be wrong1 do you8 ,when two such persons as a ,christian and a ,mahometan met in days gone by1 these were the only arguments used by each1 and they were first of all enforced by such revilings as come naturally to the faithful--hound of a ,moslem--dog of a ,christian1 you are a serpent--you are a viper1 and the like2 from words they came to blows1 and the strongest arm was supposed to demonstrate the correctness of the victor's faith4 ,if1 instead of taking physical strength as a test of truth1 we assume that a numerical preponderance on one side or another proves the correctness of the belief held by the greatest number1 we come to the absurd conclusion that what is right to-day may be wrong to-morrow4 ,babylonians were once far more numerous than ,jews1 and ,jews than ,christians1 to-day the last exceed vastly both the others4 ,now1 there are more ,buddhists in existence than true followers of ,jesus1 in the next century the proportion may be reversed4 ,truth does not so fluctuate1 and a philosopher who uses his reason will take up a different stand entirely1 and affirm that a man cannot become ,god by meditation1 fancy or assertion1 nor yet by the consent or vote of millions of his fellow-men1 and that the assumption that any individual must be1 and is the begotten son of ,god1 is on a par with the folly of the potentates who call themselves brothers of the sun and moon4 ,such absurdity and blasphemy are very common1 nevertheless1 and men believe that ,jesus is ,god1 because they have elected him to that elevated position by a general vote--or ,european plebiscite4 ,we now address ourselves to another important statement made by some writers upon the religion of ,sakya ,muni1 to the effect that he taught annihilation to be the end most desirable for good men who have learned and practised the law4 ,this view is held by ,st4 ,hilaire1 who1 in almost every other respect1 has shown himself an historian rather favourable to ,siddartha than otherwise1 and who speaks with some regret of the conclusion which he feels obliged to draw4 ,but he is opposed upon this point by a very great ,english or ,german authority1 viz41 ,max ,mueller1 who1 in a lecture delivered before the general ,meeting of the ,association of ,german ,philologists at ,kiel1 and which is to be found translated in ,trubner's ,american and ,oriental ,literary ,record1 ,oct4 #af1 #ahfi1 distinctly declares his belief that the nihilism attributed to ,buddha's teaching forms no part of his doctrine1 and that it is wholly wrong to suppose that ,nirvana signified annihilation4 ,when two such earnest inquirers differ1 it is instructive to notice the reason why4 ,this is to be found in the fact that the etymological signification of the word does signify nothingness1 or extinction1 but not1 as ,mueller contends1 annihilation of the individual1 but a complete cessation of all pain and misery4 ,the last quoted author shows that ,siddartha used ,nirvana as synonymous with ,moksha1 ,nirvritti1 and other words1 all designating the highest state of spiritual liberty and bliss1 but not annihilation4 ,it seems to be perfectly clear that what was meant by ,sakya is1 that to the good who have embraced the means of salvation preached by him1 the future world would be a haven of rest1 in which all sorrow1 suffering1 and sin should be annihilated4 ,but the teacher does not go beyond this1 and descant upon the opposite conditions1 and promise joys ineffable and full of glory4 ,his followers believe that they will attain to immortality1 and that they will be free from all such horrors as life brings with it4 ,but the pleasures which they expect are negative4 ,before we either pity or despise ,siddartha for not giving his followers any idea of what we call ,heaven1 it would be well to endeavour to discover the true teaching of ,jesus of ,nazareth upon this point1 and the ideas of his followers4 ,we must also say a few words about his ideas of ,hell4 ,he clearly believed that there was a place in which those whose lives had been wicked would be punished after death by the devil and his angels--the place was one of outer darkness1 where shall be weeping and wailing1 and gnashing of teeth 7,matt4 viii4 #ab74 ,in ,matt4 xiii4 #db this place of outer darkness is described as a furnace of fire1 and in ,mark ix4 #dc-dd this fire is described as one that never shall be quenched1 and in which there lives a worm4 ,in ,luke xvi4 #bc-bd there is an expression of the belief that the body lives after death in its usual form1 and has eyes1 a tongue1 the power of speech1 c42 yet in ,matt4 x4 #bh the doctrine is inculcated that both body and soul are destroyed in ,hell4 ,in ,jude #g and #ac ,hell is again described as a place of unquenchable fire1 and yet one occupied by the blackness of darkness2 whilst in ,revelation xix4 #bj and xx4 #aj we are told that the fire is a lake of burning brimstone4 ,of the absolute locality of this horrible spot not a word is said4 ,on the other hand1 ,heaven is described 7,matt xiii4 #dc7 as a place where the righteous shall shine forth as the sun in the kingdom of ,god4 ,in ,luke xvi4 #bb the pleasure of ,heaven is made to consist of a simple repose in the bosom of ,abraham2 but though we are there led to believe that the blessed can see the torments of the damned1 it does not appear that either the father of the faithful1 or the poor beggar ,lazarus1 take any pleasure in contemplating them1 as some few divines of the church of ,england believe that they will do1 when they have arrived at the abode of bliss1 and see their enemies in the burning lake4 ,paul1 when writing to the ,corinthians1 7#a ,ep4 xv47 gives his idea of the resurrection of the just as one in which each man will be a spiritual edition of his former terrestrial self1 but beyond the statement in #a ,thess4 iv4 #ag1 that the redeemed will1 when in heaven1 dwell for ever with the ,lord1 he expresses no opinion of the occupation of the glorified ones4 ,in ,john's gospel 7xiv4 #b7 ,jesus is reported as saying1--,in my ,father's house are many mansions or houses--,i go to prepare a place for you1 but there is nothing like any account of what is to be done in those abodes4 ,again1 we find1 ,ps4 xvi4 #aa1 in a verse which has been largely adapted to ,christianity1 an idea of ,heaven given thus--in thy presence is fulness of joy1 at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore4 ,what ,david's pleasures were we may judge from his life1 and we may fairly imagine that the writer of the passage had an idea something like that of ,mahomet--that there were houris in ,heaven for the delectation of the faithful4 ,but in ,isaiah lxiv4 #d1 and ,i ,cor4 ii4 #i everything about ,heaven is declared to be vague--a something which the eye has not seen1 the ear heard1 or the heart conceived4 ,in the book called ,the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john the ,divine1 we have a far more detailed account of what was believed by some about heaven1 than in any other1 and there is no doubt that to it a large number of ,christians appeal1 for it is1 indeed1 almost the only foundation on which they can build4 ,yet the ,apocalypse was for a long time an uncanonical book1 and its truth and value were1 and still are1 doubted by many of the faithful4 ,in the part referred to1 heaven is described as a place incalculably rich in gold and precious stones1 in music and pleasant odours1 and its joys are pour-trayed as consisting in constant contact with the evidences of wealth1 and in eternally singing a certain refrain1 an hour of which would be a great trial to human ears4 ,to this is added the absence of pain1 sorrow1 and suffering4 ,the ,new ,jerusalem1 described in chapter xxi4 is nothing more than a palace similar to that of ,aladdin1 which is described in ,the ,arabian ,nights8 fabulously adorned with gems1 lighted by other means than a burning sun or a cold moon1 cooled or refreshed with a river of clear water1 and furnished with trees bearing different kinds of fruit1 but all delicious--thus involving the certainty that the singing referred to1 must have been suspended whilst the palate was regaled--and having leaves said to be for the healing of the nations4 ,the words thus italicised seem to show the indefiniteness of the idea1 we dare not say of the knowledge of ,john1 for the existence of this new ,jerusalem involves the absence of any disease which required healing2 and every person who was not already assigned to the brimstone lake1 was a resident on the margin of the crystal river4 ,such discrepancies are common in visionary writings1 and ought to make us distrust them2 but instead of that1 wild theories are founded upon these absurdities1 and the builders thence attempt to prove their own superior knowledge4 ,well1 in this new ,jerusalem1 every man is to be a ruler1 for we are told1 that in it the servants of the ,lamb 7chap4 xxii4 #c sq47 shall serve him1 and see his face1 that his name shall be written upon their foreheads1 and they shall reign for ever and ever4 ,the word italicised1 very naturally recalls to us an earlier passage in the same book 7chap1 i4 #f7 wherein the writer expresses the belief that ,jesus ,christ has made his followers kings and priests4 ,it is then clear that ,john had the notion that in heaven every denizen would be a king4 ,but king over whom8 or over what8 if every one in new ,jerusalem is a ruler1 what is he a ruler of8 ,it is1 to the critic1 moderately certain1 that all which the words are intended to convey is1 that every inhabitant of the ,new ,jerusalem or ,heaven will be as rich and happy as a mundane sovereign4 ,this1 again1 involves the belief that the author of the ,apocalypse had an essentially sensual idea of ,heaven1 and that he pourtrayed it as a man would do1 who1 pining in misery1 suffering from disease1 pinched with want1 obliged to serve as the slave of wealth1 and to contribute much1 out of his little1 to the king's taxes1 saw daily1 and envied deeply1 the high position and great wealth of a tyrant1 with whom1 his faith induced him to believe1 that he would change places hereafter4 ,that the descriptions of ,heaven in ,revelation can be considered as reliable1 by any thoughtful ,christian1 ,i marvel1 for they are bound up with an assurance which the lapse of time has fully demonstrated to be false4 ,in chap1 xxii41 v4 #ab and #bj1 the one who is described as the ,lord of the ,new ,jerusalem1 the ,christian ,heaven1 asserts that he is coming quickly1 and that his reward is with him4 ,yet in no sense of the words is this true1 nor has it ever been so4 ,tested1 then1 by every available means1 we assert that the ,heaven described by ,jesus of ,nazareth and his immediate followers is quite as vague1 indistinct1 and unreliable as the ,buddhist ,nirvana2 or1 if the affirmative be preferred1 we say that the ,christian ,heaven is quite as uncertain or indefinite a prize for ,jesus' disciples as the ,nirvana of ,sakya4 ,both teachers seem to have been equally confident of the existence of a ,hell1 and equally cautious in expressing their ideas about a ,heaven4 ,and we1 who have had the advantage of many centuries of civilization and thought1 dare no more frame or promulgate a scheme of ,elysium than the ,romans did--we really know nothing whatever about a future state4 ,there is this1 however1 to be said in favour of ,siddartha--he did not1 like ,mahomet and ,john1 preach a ,paradise1 in which all the pleasures are worldly1 sensuous1 or sensual--,john promising music and fruit1 ,mahomet feasting and women4 ,all the ,indian's teaching pointed to a future world1 in which human passions1 frailties1 and propensities would find no place1 for the purified being would cast off1 with his earthly body1 every carnal appetite4 ,in fact1 there is reason to believe that ,buddha's idea was1 that after death each essence would become reincorporated with the ,great ,spirit1 of whom his soul had originally formed a part4 ,it is doubtful whether any of us could tell him a more perfect way to the truth about the matter4 ,yet1 although neither ,sakya nor ,jesus gave any distinct account of ,heaven1 it is certain that some of their followers have done so1 and it is remarkable to see how they have developed their ideas in the same way4 ,compare1 for example1 the account given by ,john1 ,apocalypse chaps1 xxi41 xxii41 with the following account1 which ,i copy from the ,kusa ,iatakya1 a ,buddhistic legend of ,ceylon1 by ,t4 ,steele1 p4 #aie4 ,swarga1 or the heaven occupied by ,indra1 is described as the most splendid the human mind can conceive 7,percival's ,land of the ,vedas1 p4 #afj74 ,its palaces are composed of pure gold1 resplendent diamonds1 jasper1 sapphire1 emerald1 and other precious stones1 whose brilliance exceeds that of a thousand suns6 ,its streets are of crystal1 fringed with gold4 ,the most beautiful and fragrant flowers adorn its forests1 whose trees diffuse the sweetest odours4 ,refreshing breezes1 canopies of fleecy clouds1 thrones of the most dazzling brightness1 birds of the sweetest melodies1 and songs of the most delightful harmony1 are heard in the enchanting pleasaunces1 which are ever fragrant1 ever robed in summer green4 ,the author whom ,i am quoting follows these remarks with lines from ,bernard de ,morley's hymn1 ,jerusalem the ,golden1 clearly showing how greatly he has been struck with the parallelism between the ,buddhist and ,christian idea4 ,so far as ,i can find1 there appears to be a certainty that ,sakya ,muni did not teach to his followers the necessity for prayer4 ,that ,jesus did so teach his disciples is the common belief of ,christians4 ,yet1 in the parallel which we are thus drawing1 we are perfectly justified in the assertion that the son of ,mary did not teach it from his own spontaneous judgment1 as ,john the ,evangelist had done before him4 ,jesus certainly did not originate prayer2 indeed1 it appears that the subject was forced upon him1 and that unless he had been urged to it1 he would neither have taught to others the necessity for prayer1 nor have dictated the supplication which still passes by his name4 ,the following passage in ,luke xi4 #a seems to be decisive upon this point3--,and it came to pass1 as he was praying in a certain place1 one of his disciples said unto him1 ,lord1 teach us to pray1 as ,john also taught his disciples4 ,we see1 then1 in the first place1 that ,jesus did not hold1 as a fundamental doctrine1 that prayer was part of the duty of man1 but that he took it up as a necessary part of his ,jewish education1 and adopted it amongst the subjects of his discourses1 following the example of ,john4 ,when we try to penetrate into the mind of ,jesus1 as shown in the ,lord's ,prayer1 and ascertain what he regarded as the fittest objects for orison1 we find that they are almost exclusively worldly4 ,there is1 in the first place1 an ascription of praise1 or of reverence1 then an expression of a desire that the world should become good2 that each man should have a daily meal2 that all offences should be condoned1 and none others committed2 and that no harm should happen to any who used the entreaty4 ,compared with the composition attributed to ,solomon1 and said to have been uttered by him at the dedication of the temple1 that which is said to have been given by ,jesus is meagre in the extreme4 ,it does not contain a single supplication for spiritual blessing1 or for salvation4 ,in the mind of a philosopher there is a doubt whether the general heathen notion about prayer1 or the apparent ,buddhist prayerlessness1 is to be the most commended4 ,yet1 ere we discuss the point1 ,i must remark that although ,buddha does not appear to have taught the duty of prayer to his disciples1 they practise it nevertheless1 and have long litanies1 chantings1 and mechanical contrivances quite as efficacious1 and not more absurd1 than the senseless repetitions which pass current amongst us for supplications to the ,most ,high4 ,now1 if we require from ourselves a distinct answer to the question1 what is prayer8 we can frame no other than this--it is the expression of a desire on our part that the ,creator will modify the laws of nature in our favour1 in favour of others1 or in ,his own favour6 ,the idea that ,he will do this is plainly builded upon the supposition that the ,creator is like a man1 and can be induced to change ,his mind--that a creature thinks ,he is harsh or wrong1 and must be set right4 ,when put thus clearly1 the most obtuse can see that prayer must necessarily be inefficacious1 and must always proceed from a selfishness so intense as to cloak the blasphemy from view4 ,if1 instead of the above definition1 we designate prayer as the uttering of a fervent hope or desire for the benefit of an individual1 we can understand that it is quite as useful as any other ejaculation4 ,nothing is more common than for an angry man to curse with all the energy of exasperation2 nothing more common than for a punished hound to yelp1 and for a child1 when pained1 to cry or roar4 ,still further ,i will say1 from personal experience1 that the utterance of cries or groans enables an individual to bear pain with less effect upon his nervous system than would be felt if they were suppressed4 ,vociferations are as natural1 and1 to some1 as necessary as indulging the appetite for hunger4 ,in like manner1 when the mind of man1 especially of one only partially educated1 is dominated by intense fear1 or by any form of anxiety or present suffering1 there is an instinctive propensity to seek aid from any source1 certain or uncertain1 and the enunciation of hopes with an audible voice is as much necessary to some as roaring is to a lion1 or bleating to a sheep4 ,in this sense prayer is a comfort--it helps to soothe feelings which1 if pent up1 would become1 probably1 too great for endurance2 and1 knowing this1 ,i would no more deride prayer than ,i would laugh at a baby who cried for his absent mother4 ,i do not doubt1 in the smallest possible degree1 that prayer is a comfort under certain circumstances4 ,for example1 my child may be seriously ill1 and ,i may do everything which my medical knowledge enables me to do2 but day by day drags wearily along1 the fever seems to intensify1 and it is clear that there is a struggle between the living force1 and the agent which interferes with it4 ,as hour after hour passes1 and anxiety deepens into fear1 ,i am like a hardy fellow under the lash3 at first the stripes are borne with firmness1 but as another and another falls1 not only does-the pain seem keener1 but the mental power which gives courage to bear the cutting agony diminishes1 and the pent-up feelings are vented in a roar of anguish1 or a groan of despair4 ,just so in the depth of my misery ,i may utter a prayer--a wish that in one way or another my torn and lacerated feelings as a father might be healed1 and ,i may expect to receive solace thereby1 no matter whether ,i address ,jehovah1 ,brahma1 ,ishtar1 or the ,virgin ,mary4 ,to hear the sound of one's own voice1 even the task of having to compose an intelligible sentence1 relieves1 for a time1 the poignancy of grief1 and thus helps one to bear it more patiently4 ,that supplication thus brings relief ,i do not for a moment doubt1 but that it has any influence in the result ,i deny4 ,entertaining this view1 ,i cannot regard prayer as a duty4 ,it seems to me to be a deliberate insult to the ,almighty to be constantly urging ,him to alter the course of nature--or as we may otherwise put it to change ,his mind4 ,to trust that prayer will obviate the necessity for action seems to me the height of folly4 ,if a man uttered the words ,give me this day my daily bread a hundred times over1 and yet never sought to obtain it1 we should regard him as a lunatic4 ,equally silly should we be if1 when praying ,defend us in all assaults of our enemies1 we did not prepare for battle--or if1 after ejaculating defend us from all perils and dangers of this night1 we were to go to bed without seeing that our premises were as secure as forethought could make them4 ,however much the theologian may believe in prayer1 he cannot deny that it is less efficacious than action4 ,now ,buddha preached action whilst ,christ preached inaction1 e4g41 take no thought for the morrow1 c4 7,matt4 vi4 #be-cd71 consequently we are more disposed to give the palm for correct judgment to the ,indian than to the ,jew4 ,we must1 in the next place1 notice that many followers of the son of ,suddodana and the son of ,mary have both acted1 and do still act1 upon the belief1 not only that prayer is a duty1 but that every supplication has positive power in the world above--consequently the more extended the utterances the greater their influence4 ,in point of fact1 prayers are spoken of as if they were equivalent to sacrifice1 alms-giving1 or any other supposed virtue4 ,for this there seems to be some foundation in ,acts x4 #d1 where ,cornelius is told that his prayers and his alms have come up before ,god2 in ,james v4 vv4 #ae1 #af1 we are told that the prayer of faith shall save the sick2 and that the effectual1 fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much4 ,in ,revelation v4 #h1 we are told that the prayers of the saints are kept in golden vials in heaven1 and used as odours4 ,in chapter viii4 #c1 we find they are offered with incense upon the celestial altar1 and that the two conjointly come before the presence of ,god4 ,this being so1 there is a desire to accumulate prayers on the creditor side of the heavenly books1 just as in the days when sacrifices were trusted in1 there was an attempt to increase their influence by augmenting the number of the creatures slaughtered4 ,this propensity to multiply orisons was distinctly rebuked by ,jesus1 who ordered his followers not to make vain repetitions1 for that the custom was heathenish and to be avoided2 a prohibition which had been made by ,siddartha to his followers some centuries before4 ,to me1 ,i confess1 that a life of perpetual prayer without action indicates a belief that ,god can be pestered into doing something that ,he did not intend2 and that it is infinitely worse than a life of action such as ,sakya ,muni inculcated4 ,i can see no sense in praying for something that ,i do not want1 or that ,i cannot have without personal exertion4 ,it seems to me sheer nonsense for anyone to pray that he may not grow older1 and equally foolish to supplicate that he may live to be a king4 ,in like manner it would be silly in me to petition for power to read ,assyrian writing1 and yet never study its characters4 ,if1 then1 by diligent and steady plodding a man can attain his desire1 it appears wholly useless in him to pray for it4 ,we may say the same of one who wishes to curb his passions--he can do so to a great extent by assiduous self-control2 but he cannot do so any more completely by a lifetime passed in prayer4 ,from this point of view1 therefore1 we must again side with ,siddartha rather than with ,jesus4 ,it now remains to us to make some observations upon the developments of ,buddhism after the death of ,sakya ,muni1 but we need not linger over them long4 ,his doctrine of self-denial1 of patient suffering1 of celibacy1 of fasting1 of preaching and of meditation1 gradually produced a system in which asceticism1 solitude1 and penance were the prevalent duties4 ,men and women desirous of being saintly and of attaining to eternal happiness1 selected some den1 cave1 or tree in which they could live a life devoted to contemplation1 or else they banded themselves into companies where they could practise the ,buddhistic virtues in each other's presence1 and one could encourage or correct another4 ,buddhist monkeries and nunneries are almost as common1 and certainly more ancient than ,roman ,catholic monasteries1 and they had very nearly the same numerous accessories in worship1 which we are familiar with in papal countries4 ,it is almost impossible to read the accounts given by the ,abbe ,hue1 and other ,eastern travellers1 of ,buddhism in ,china1 ,thibet1 and ,japan1 without seeing the close resemblance of the ,roman ,church to that founded by ,siddartha4 ,indeed1 the ,abbe was sorely tried by what he saw2 and it is rumoured that he was punished by some ecclesiastical authority1 and his book suppressed4 ,pure ,buddhism1 moreover1 was1 like pure ,christianity1 a very painful religion in practice1 consequently both the one and the other have degenerated1 and have gradually become altered much in the same way--both having amalgamated themselves with other systems1 and having gradually eliminated those proceedings which are most repulsive to human nature4 ,in both there is now1 apparently1 the idea that the ascetic life may be lived1 as it were1 by deputy4 ,in ,buddhism1 certain men obtain their living by fasting1 meditating1 macerating their flesh1 and praying instead of other people1 being1 of course1 adequately paid for their endurance of privation4 ,in a branch of the ,church founded by ,jesus the same notion has obtained1 and men who have wallowed in filth1 starved themselves1 and spent their days in a miserable round of penance and prayer1 are dignified by the name of ,saints1 and are supposed to be able to hand over--for a consideration in money--the benefit of their sufferings to people who wish to live comfortably as well as piously4 ,without burdening this chapter with a dissertation upon the ,romish doctrine of works of supererogation1 ,i will quote a few extracts from the ,roman ,missal1 in use in ,england1 to show that works done by another can be made available for the use of any particular individual4 ,on ,january #af1 the day of ,saint ,marcellus1 the people are told to pray that we may be aided by the merits of blessed ,marcellus1 ,thy martyr and bishop1 in whose sufferings we rejoice4 ,on ,january #bi1 the day of ,saint ,francis of ,sales1 we find in the prayer to be used by the people1 mercifully grant that we may by the aid of his merits1 attain unto the joys of life everlasting4 ,again1 on ,february #h1 the day of ,saint ,john of ,matha1 we find in the prescribed prayer1 mercifully grant that by his merits pleading for us1 we may be1 c4--and1 lastly1 we notice on ,march #ai1 on ,saint ,joseph's day1 vouchsafe1 ,o ,lord1 that we may be helped by the merits of ,thy most holy mother's spouse1 c4 ,the practice of the ,buddhists is then essentially followed by the ,roman ,christians4 ,pure ,buddhism was wholly free from the sexual element so common in other religions of antiquity1 and so was the religion of ,jesus4 ,yet in ,thibet the first became intermingled therewith and ,vajrasatta or ,dorjesempa the ,thibetan ,god above all1 is represented in ,schlayintweit's ,atlas of ,plates as a male conjoined with a female2 but so ingenious is the contrivance that the many might see the drawings without noticing anything particular1 for the trinity and the unity are both hidden from view2 and in ,europe the latter has introduced ,st4 ,foutin and ,st4 ,cosmo into her calendar1 and has founded her worship of a trinity and a virgin upon the pagan reverence given to the creative organs in both sexes4 ,veneration for a triune ,god and his female consort is no more a portion of the teaching of the son of ,mary than it was the doctrine of the child of ,maya ,devi1 ,buddha's mother4 ,it will probably be quite as difficult for the reader of the preceding pages1 as it has been for the writer of them1 to avoid putting the question to himself1 ,was ,jesus of ,nazareth a ,buddhist disciple8 ,in answer to this question ,i reply that we have no direct proof either on one side or the other1 but there is much circumstantial evidence to show that he was4 ,we may marshal it thus3-- #a4 ,there is very strong reason for belief that the intercourse between the inhabitants of ,india and the successors of ,alexander was considerable4 ,for example1 we find before the time of the ,maccabees1 b4c4 #bhj1 or perhaps somewhat later1 that ,antiochus1 the king of ,syria1 had #abj elephants--things which had never before been seen in ,syria1 ,palestine1 or ,egypt1 and which took their local name from the ,phoenician aleph1 a bull--the ,jews supposing that they were a new kind of cattle4 ,from the accounts given us we infer that these were ,indian1 and were trained either by ,hindoo mahouts or by ,greeks taught in ,hindustan4 ,animals of this size may have come by land or by water4 ,in either case we have evidence of traffic4 ,we have already seen that the great missionary effort of ,buddhism took place in the time of ,asoka about ,b4,c4 #cjg1 and it is not likely that the ,west would be neglected when the ,eastern countries received such attention as they did4 ,the ,greeks had by this time found their way by sea to ,india1 and thus it is certain that the route was known4 ,there is then presumptive evidence that ,buddhism was taught amongst the people frequenting the kingdom of ,antiochus the ,second1 ,b4,c4 #bfa4 ,at this period and subsequently1 this king and his subjects came much into contact with the ,jews1 so that it is equally easy to believe that the ,hebrews were found out by the ,hindoo missionaries as that the ,alexandrian ,greeks were4 #b4 ,i have been unable to find in the ,jewish law1 in ,grecian story1 in the accounts of old ,babylonians1 ,carthaginians1 ,romans1 ,egyptians1 or in any other history except that of ,india1 testimony which shows that asceticism was an essential part of religion4 ,it is true that we do find fasting to be occasionally mentioned in the ,old ,testament as a sign of grief or of abasement199 but never as a means of gaining salvation in a future life--whose very existence was unknown to ,moses and the ,jews4 ,the observation of a period of hunger formed no part of the ,mosaic law4 ,on the contrary1 ancient ,european religions1 and those of ,egypt and ,western ,asia were associated with feasting and jollification 7see ,deut4 xiv4 #bf47 ,the ,jews were encouraged to indulge in a plurality of wives2 but they were nowhere directed or recommended to live on alms4 ,again1 we find nowhere any orders to the priests or ,levites to go about the country expounding or teaching the law4 ,consequently1 when we notice the rise of asceticism1 preaching1 and celibacy1 between the time of ,antiochus and that of ,jesus1 we are justified in the belief that they were introduced from without1 and by those of the only religion which inculcated them as articles of faith and practice4 99 ,in ,lev4 xvi4 #cj2 xxiii4 #bg1 #bh2 and ,numb4 xxix4 #g1 there are directions given to the ,jews1 that on a certain day they are to afflict their souls1 and a threat is added1 that whatsoever soul it be that shall not be afflicted in that self same day1 he shall be cut off from amongst his people4 ,there is no specific direction as to the method of afflicting the soul2 but it is to be associated with absolute laziness1 for whatever soul doeth any work on that day shall be destroyed 7,lev4 xxiii4 #bh-ca74 ,the law is evidently a very modern one1 as we do not find it referred to in the ,ancient ,jewish records1 and the idea of atonement was introduced by the ,talmudic ,pharisees4 #c4 ,the ,hebrews always showed during the ,old ,testament times a great aptitude to adopt the faith of outsiders--and as the ,jewish people were in great abasement and misery at the period when it is probable that the ,buddhist missionaries came into ,syria1 they would be prepared for the doctrine that they were suffering for bygone sins4 ,the idea that men in the present were sometimes punished for sins done in the past was a ,hebrew as well as a ,hindoo idea1 else ,saul's sons would not have been hanged for their father's misdeeds1 or the ,amalekites have been slaughtered by ,samuel1 because their forefathers had some centuries before fought with ,israel and been conquered by ,moses and ,joshua4 #d4 ,that after the ,persian reign it is certain1 that three ,jewish sects existed1--the ,pharisees1 the ,essenes1 and the ,sadducees--the last alone being purely ,mosaic1 and the two first being very like the ,buddhists4 ,to strengthen the links of evidence1 we may now say a few words about the remarkable sect of the ,essenes1 premising our belief that it was founded by missionaries of the faith of ,sakya ,muni1 whose doctrines and practice became1 subsequently1 modified by ,mosaism1 just as ,christianity was considerably remoulded by ,talmudism1 or1 to use an example nearer our own times1 as the ,christianity preached by ,european missionaries to the ,new ,zealanders has been altered by the natives1 in accordance with their ancient ideas4 ,to them the ,old ,testament is the ,bible1 the ,new ,testament is of no value4 ,the ,essenes are described by the ,rev4 ,dr ,ginsburg1 whose authority ,i follow 7,the ,essenes4 ,longmans1 ,london1 #ahfd71 as a ,jewish sect of singular piety4 ,they did not sacrifice animals1 but endeavoured to make their own minds holy--fit for an acceptable offering to ,jehovah4 ,they provided themselves with just enough for the necessities of life1 and held such goods as they possessed1 e4g41 clothes and cloaks1 in common4 ,they only allowed themselves to converse on such parts of philosophy as concern ,god and man4 ,they abhorred slavery1 but each served his neighbour4 ,they respected the ,sabbath4 ,their fundamental laws were1 to love ,god1 to love virtue1 and to love mankind4 ,they affected to despise money1 fame1 pleasures1 professed the most strict chastity1 or1 rather1 continence1 and they practised endurance as a duty4 ,they also cultivated simplicity1 cheerfulness1 modesty1 and order4 ,they lived together in the same houses and villages1 and sustained the poor1 the sick1 and the aged4 ,when they earned wages the money was paid to a common stock4 ,they did not marry1 or have children2 but if any of their body chose to wed1 there was nothing in the regulations to prevent their doing so1 only they then had to enter another class of the brotherhood4 ,when possible1 they worked all day4 ,they were highly respected by those who knew them1 and were frequently receiving additions to their number4 ,they seem to have resembled1 in their habits and customs1 a fraternity of monks of a working1 rather than a mendicant1 order4 ,pleasure they regarded as an evil1 having a tendency to enchain man to earthly enjoyments1 a peculiarly ,buddhist tenet4 ,still further1 they considered the use of ointment as defiling1 which was certainly not a ,hebraic doctrine2 but they dressed decently4 ,they prayed devoutly before sunrise2 but until the orb had risen they never spoke of worldly matters4 ,they gave thanks1 and prayed before and after eating2 and ere they entered the refectory bathed in pure water4 ,the food provided was just sufficient to keep them alive4 ,when a person wished to enter the community1 he underwent a period of trial1 and1 if approved1 he proceeded to take an oath--to fear ,god2 to be just towards all men2 never to wrong anyone2 to detest the wicked1 and love the righteous2 to keep faith with all men2 not to be proud2 not to try and outshine his neighbours in any matter2 to love truth1 and to try and reclaim all liars2 never to steal or to cajole2 never to conceal anything from the brotherhood1 and to be reticent with outsiders4 ,the ,essenes reverenced ,moses1 and so great was their respect for the ,sabbath1 that they would not ease nature on that day4 ,they bore all tortures with perfect equanimity1 and fully believed in a future state of existence1 in which the soul1 liberated from the body1 rejoices1 and mounts upwards to a paradise1 where there are no storms1 no cold1 and no intense heat1 and where all are constantly refreshed by gentle ocean breezes4 ,josephus compares this sect with the ,pythagoreans2 and ,i think this fact is worth noticing1 for there was1 in old times1 a strong opinion that the founder of that sect brought his peculiar opinions from ,hindostan4 ,pliny1 in writing of the ,essenes1 remarks that their usages differ from those of all other nations--which we may take as a demonstration that they did not copy their constitution from ,greeks1 ,romans1 or ,jews4 ,respecting the origin of this sect nothing certain is known1 beyond that they were in existence at the time of the ,maccabees4 ,critics decline to see in them any direct relations to the ,pythagoreans1 and some imagine that the order sprung naturally out of a spiritual reading of the ,mosaic law1 modified1 probably1 by ,persian or ,chaldee notions4 ,it seems to me1 however1 that the tenets and practice of the ,essenes indicate rather a ,buddhist than a ,mosaic origin1 for celibacy is everywhere in the ,old ,testament spoken of as a misfortune1 and abundance of wives as a proof of ,god's favour2 and ,i imagine that some devout ,indian missionary persuaded many pious ,jews to listen to his doctrine1 but that he was unable to convert them sufficiently to induce them to give up the law of ,moses for that of ,siddartha4 ,i conceive still further1 that ,john the ,evangelist1 and1 subsequently1 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 were perfectly cognizant of the doctrines of the ,essenes1 if they were not members of the sect1 and that there is nothing incredible in the idea that both these preachers were instructed by some ,buddhist missionary1 although neither was ever induced to give up his belief in the absolute truth of those ,jewish writings1 which both had been accustomed to regard as absolutely true and sacred4 ,we readily allow that our theory may be called a wild one1 but we assert that1 in reality1 it is far otherwise4 ,of course a critic may say that ,john1 and his follower1 ,jesus1 were just as likely to have struck out a new theory of salvation as ,sakya ,muni was2 or1 if exceedingly orthodox1 he may assume that the preaching of ,jesus was the pure result of inspiration1 not such as was given to the prophets by ,jehovah1 but emanating from himself as a source of absolute truth4 ,but we demur to both assertions4 ,the profound reverence that ,mary's son showed1 in the early part of his career1 for the law and for the prophets1 would have prevented his doing anything to upset the former in so marked a manner as he did1 in respect to the ,sabbath day and other matters 7see ,matthew v4 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #dd71 unless there had been some strong influence1 from without1 brought to bear upon his mind1 and to cast it in a different mould to that of ,pharisee or ,sadducee4 ,nor can we believe ,jesus to have been inspired1 unless we extend the same belief to ,buddha's teaching1 and believe that he also was a fountain of light and righteousness1 which we certainly are not disposed to do4 ,our hypothesis respecting a connection between the teaching of the ,indian and the ,hebrew1 appears to be strengthened when we contemplate the distinction between the doctrines of the ,jewish and the ,hindoo sage4 ,we have seen how they agree as regards the morality which they inculcate1 the celibacy and poverty that they enjoin1 the firm belief in preexistent1 or original1 sin1 and in a future state of rewards or punishments4 ,they differ in the veneration paid to antecedent authority4 ,sakya ,muni believed in his own inspiration1 and rejected the writings which were reverenced by his parents and ,mends4 ,jesus seems to have believed that he was himself supplemental to ,moses and the prophets4 ,he did not want to destroy or to supersede them absolutely1 as we learn from ,matthew v4 #ag1 and xxiii4 #bc4 ,he had1 apparently1 an unbounded confidence in their truth1 and1 with an assurance in their sanctity1 he spoke of their writings as the very words of ,god1 and we shall see that the main1 if not the only1 points in which ,jesus diverges from the ,hindoo prophet were the products of the ,hebrew's full belief in the sacred truth of the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,the son of ,mary taught1 as the most important part of his doctrine1 that the world would shortly come to an end1 and that he was sent to show mankind1 or1 rather1 the ,jews1 how to escape from the terrible catastrophe4 ,i do not think it possible for anyone to read the words attributed to ,jesus1 and not recognize that this was the turning point upon which everything in his preaching hinged4 ,sakya ,muni spoke of the future misery of all those who did not adopt his method of salvation2 ,jesus treated of the impending destruction of the whole world1 of an immediate judgment of mankind1 and of the certain punishment of the majority4 ,that we are not uttering vague assertions we may show by reference to ,matt4 xxiv4 #c1 wherein we find certain disciples asking1 ,what shall be the sign of thy coming1 and of the end of the world8 ,after a long preamble1 telling of troubles and misery1 we have the reply of ,jesus in vv4 #bi et seq43--,immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened1 and the moon shall not give her light1 and the stars shall fall from heaven1 and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken3 and then shall appear the sign of the ,son of man in heaven3 and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn1 and they shall see the ,son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory4 ,and he shall send his angels with a great sound of a trumpet1 and they shall gather together his elect from the four winds1 from one end of heaven to another4444 ,verily ,i say unto you1 ,this generation shall not pass1 till all these things be fulfilled4 ,this is substantially1 and almost literally1 repeated in ,mark xiii4 #bf-cj1 and in ,luke xxi4 #cb499 99 ,i have heard the words of this preceding quotation handled by a great variety of divines1 asserting themselves to be orthodox1 and who hold the position of ,christian ministers4 ,all1 without exception1 profess to regard the expressions about the sun being darkened and the stars falling1 as figurative or metaphorical1 and each1 according to his prevalent ideas1 or to the pet theory of the day1 explain the imagery as having a reference to some emperor1 king1 queen1 general of armies1 and ,i know not what besides4 ,but1 to anyone who examines the phraseology closely1 it will be seen that the words are to be taken in their most literal sense4 ,jesus had1 as we have shown1 a firm belief in the immediate destruction of the world1 and upon that theme he descants and dilates4 ,taking the ,mosaic account of creation as strictly true to the letter1 ,jesus regarded the sun1 moon1 and stars as apanages of our earth1 and very naturally drew the inference1 that when the world was burned up1 there would be no necessity for the celestial luminaries--the sun would cease to shine1 the moon would be dark1 and the stars fall from the sky under the influence of the same power that produced the mundane destruction4 ,these defunct bodies would be replaced by a vast apparition1 whose glory would exceed that of the ancient rulers of the day and night1 and he who now stood on earth as a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief would be seen and recognized as the arbiter of the destinies of every man4 ,the passages referred to in the text bear no other meaning than the one here assigned to them2 nor would anyone1 however wild a divine he might be1 ever see1 or endeavour to discover1 in the words referred to1 a hidden meaning1 unless the solemn assertion of ,jesus of his immediate advent in the clouds of heaven had been such a signal failure as time has proved it to be4 ,we have always protested against those theologians who pronounce passages in the ,bible to be metaphorical or literal as it suits the event1 and we do so now4 ,why such men should insist upon it that everything in the ,koran and ,buddhistic books must be taken au pied de la lettre and that everything in the ,bible may be allegorised1 is a matter beyond my comprehension4 ,they surely forget the dictum--with what measure ye mete it shall be measured to you again 7,matt1 vii4 #b74 ,in ,matthew x4 we find ,jesus sending out his disciples as missionaries1 saying to them 7v4 #g71 as ye go1 preach1 saying1 the kingdom of heaven is at hand1 a doctrine previously proclaimed by ,john 7,matt iii4 #b71 and based upon some words of ,isaiah and the more precise presages in ,daniel ,see also ,matt iv4 #ad-ag2 ,luke ix4 #b1 and x4 #i4 ,we find a yet more important reference in ,matt4 xi4 #ad1 in which ,jesus is reported to have said1 when speaking of ,john1 ,if ye will receive it1 this is ,elias1 which was for to come4 ,the observation here made plainly refers to an utterance of the ,jewish ,malachi1 who1 in his last two chapters1 foreshadows the advent of a messenger1 who should immediately precede the coming of the ,lord to judge the world4 ,there is yet another passage1 of almost equal force1 in ,matt4 xvi4 #bg1 #bh--;,for the ,son of man shall come in the glory of the ,father with his angels1 and then shall he reward every man according to his works4 ,verily ,i say unto you1 there be some standing here which shall not taste of death till they see the ,son of man coming in his kingdom4 ,in ,matt4 xix4 #bh we read1 ,jesus said unto them1 ,verily ,i say unto you1 that ye which have followed me1 in the regeneration1 when the ,son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory1 ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones1 judging the twelve tribes of ,israel1 c4 ,again1 we see in ,matt1 xxv41 after a parable intended to show the possibility of a sudden occurrence1 the words1 ,watch1 therefore1 for ye know neither the day nor the hour wherein the ,son of man cometh4 ,that this belief was due to the ,jewish writings we judge from the frequent references made to them2 and we may especially notice one which is attributed to ,jesus after his resurrection1 viz41 all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the ,psalms1 concerning me4 ,so firmly was the belief of an immediate judgment impressed upon the minds of ,christians1 that we find ,paul affirming respecting it 7#a ,cor4 xv471 ,we shall not all sleep1 but we shall all be changed444 at the last trump 7vv4 #ca1 #eb74 ,this is more decidedly enunciated in #a ,thess4 iv4 #ae-ag--;,for this we say unto you by the word of the ,lord1 that we which are alive1 and remain unto the coming of the ,lord1 shall not prevent them that are asleep4 ,for the ,lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout1 with the voice of the archangel1 and with the trump of ,god1 and the dead in ,christ shall rise first4 ,then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the ,lord in the air1 and so shall we ever be with the ,lord4 ,compare with this #b ,peter iii4 #a-d1 in which there is a repetition of the same leading idea1 and with ,acts i4 #aa1 and ii4 #af-cf4 ,from these passages1 it is unquestionable that ,jesus preached that a destruction of the whole creation was imminent1 and we1 who have the light of history to guide us1 can readily understand the powerful influence of the doctrine4 ,we have read of panics1 even in ,london1 where some enthusiast has propounded the statement1 that the world was to be destroyed upon a certain day1 and can well believe1 how a similar assertion would frighten ignorant1 and1 probably1 learned ,hebrew men4 ,but1 as time advanced1 and generation after generation passed away1 the original doctrine required to be modified4 ,yet it has never been quite given up1 and to this day1 a part of the system of ,christianity is1 to put faith in a second coming of ,jesus1 to judge the world4 ,the second coming here referred to1 frequently passes by the name of the ,millennium1 and earnest pietists believe that the son of ,mary will come in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory1 to punish all who do not believe in him2 and to elevate the existing1 and all other past saints1 to be kings and priests in a new ,jerusalem1 wherein all will enjoy perfect happiness for a thousand years4 ,there is another point in connection between ,buddha and ,jesus1 to which the biblical student should not fail to pay attention4 ,the followers of the former had a perfect belief that each of them had lived in a previous state of existence4 ,upon this point not a doubt disturbed them4 ,the disciples of the latter1 however1 had no such ideas1 nor when propounded to them1 did they apparently understand it4 ,as far as we can judge from the first three ,gospels1 ,jesus did not assert that he had ever existed prior to the time of his birth at ,bethlehem4 ,but in the fourth ,gospel1 written as almost every scholar believes1 about ,a4,d4 #aej1 a claim is repeatedly made by ,jesus1 of having lived for an untold period1 in the spirit world in company with the ,father4 ,we will not enter here upon the grossness of thought1 which is mingled with the better ideas of the writer of ,john's ,gospel--a notion that involves the necessity for a celestial spouse of ,god2 for if the son existed--begotten by the father before all worlds1 it could only be by some union--for the word son implies the necessity of a father and a mother--more especially when it is declared1 that he was begotten4 ,our chief business1 however1 is not with this point1 but with the preexistence of ,jesus4 ,the assertions by which the claim to a preexistence is recognized1 may be found in the well known words in the beginning of ,john1 also in the #ajth verse--,the world was made by him4 ,in these parts1 the evangelist declares that ,jesus was coeval with his father1 which no son can be4 ,in chap4 iii4 #ac1 we find1 no man hath ascended up to heaven1 but he that came down from heaven1 even the ,son of man which is in heaven1--a strange text indeed1 which totally ignores the ascension of ,enoch and ,elijah--or which demonstrates that they lived in heaven before they were born on earth1 and which still further makes ,jesus say1 that he was in heaven at the time when he was talking to ,nicodemus6 ,in chap1 vi4 #fb1 there is a similar idea1 and if ye shall see the ,son of man ascend up where he was before4 ,in chap4 viii4 #ad to #bc1 #ch1 and #ef1 a similar idea is propounded2 and in v4 #eh1 ,jesus is made to assert positively1 before ,abraham was1 ,i am4 ,in chap1 xvi4 #bh1 again1 we read1 ,i came forth from the ,father1 and in chap4 xvii4 #e1 we see1 and now1 ,o ,father1 glorify thou me with thine own self with the glory which ,i had with thee before the world was4 ,we do not believe that the son of ,mary made these assertions himself1 nor did the son of ,maya4 ,but ,sakya ,muni had not long been dead1 before his disciples promulgated the doctrine that he was1 in reality1 a part of the ,supreme1 who had existed for everlasting1 and had been manifested in the flesh to become a teacher2 what his followers did for ,buddha1 it was natural that others should do for ,christ4 ,it may be that the latter were stimulated to do so by noticing the former1 but it is quite as probable that the idea of glorification came spontaneously to both sets of men4 ,whichever view of the case we may take1 one thing is certain1 viz41 that both ,buddhists and ,christians1 have1 from the death of their respective masters1 done everything in their power1 century by century1 to augment the claims of each1 until indeed1 individuals are found1 who regard ,sakya ,muni as the ,supreme1 and ,jesus the ,all in ,all4 ,the learned historian may trace in the ,east1 the rise of ,buddha's influence in some spots1 and its decadence in others2 and1 when he looks nearer home1 he may see the gradual fall of ,jesus1 and the rise of ,mary amongst the ,papists1 whilst amongst the ,protestants1 the son has been raised even above the ,father4 ,not many months have passed1 since a clever preacher and thoughtful man1 told me that he was determined to see nothing in the world but ,christ--for whatever was done1 he felt a certain confidence that it was done by him1 and for his glory4 ,we see then1 that both ,buddhism and ,christianity have been founded on the assertion that mankind suffers pain1 misery1 and death1 in consequence of antecedent criminality before ,the ,great ,master--that men will be punished after death for certain sins committed in this life2 and that they can attain to salvation by adopting the precepts and practice laid down by ,buddha and by ,christ4 ,those who preach these doctrines are sure of the facts that misery exists1 and that man desires to escape it4 ,according1 then1 to the painting of the one1 and the earnest promise of the other1 all teachers of the two sects have a strong hold upon the imagination of their followers4 ,i assert1 without fear of contradiction from any thoughtful man1 that the main inducements held out by our divines to persuade their hearers to embrace ,christianity1 are an awful painting of the horrors of hell1 and an assurance not only of escaping it1 but of gaining a place quite different to the ,devil's kingdom1 provided only that the plan adopted by the theologian is followed to the letter4 ,neither ,buddhists nor ,christians seem ever to have studied the laws of nature1 or the works of the ,supreme1 with any largeness of mind or understanding4 ,had they done so1 they would alter their views respecting sin entirely1 and they would attribute the miseries of life to their proper cause4 ,it will be interesting to the reader1 if we now endeavour to remove from the two religious systems1 of which we treat1 all those parts1 which are to my mind1 clearly imaginary2 and examine what is left behind4 ,there is nothing beyond a skeleton of morality1 pure and simple4 ,but even the morality is not based upon common sense4 ,it is tainted by what every thinker must regard as absurdities4 ,for example1 when ,siddartha instructed his disciples to become ascetics1 and live upon alms1 he did recognize the fact1 that1 if all men adopted his law1 they must starve2 for not one would have anything to give4 ,in like manner1 when ,jesus of ,nazareth sent off his disciples without any provision for their subsistence2 and when he preached1 take no thought for the morrow1 he did not appear to take in the idea1 that if all the world became converted to his doctrine1 all would suffer1 and die of hunger4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite as necessary for a modern philosopher1 to correct some of the better parts of the doctrines of the sons of ,maya ,devi1 and ,mary1 as it is to emendate their worst features4 ,if such an one were to pretend--or to believe1 that he was inspired to rectify the dispensation of ,siddartha and ,jesus1 as the latter thought himself commissioned to improve upon1 or to fulfil the law of ,moses--it is probable that he would be regarded as a prophet2 but if he should only try to coax men to think1 rather than drive them to believe1 he would be unheeded by the majority4 ,nor after all1 does it much signify4 ,sheep are tolerably comfortable whoever the shepherd may be1 and if there should be a fight between rivals for the ownership of a flock1 the quadrupeds do not care1 so long as they are not trained to fight1 to fast1 or to live on an animal diet4 ,when any one speaks of the morality1 pure and simple1 inculcated by ,sakya ,muni and ,jesus1 it is a fair question to ask whether asceticism is included therein4 ,in other words1 is there anything of the nature of absolute goodness in the attempt to make oneself miserable8 ,or1 to vary the question still further--granting1 for the sake of argument1 that it is intrinsically right in the sight of ,god to abstain from such of our propensities as induce us to marry1 to eat1 drink1 and sleep heartily1 to fight a duel with a rival1 to steal1 to lie1 to covet1 and the like1--granting1 too1 that every such abstinence is entered as an asset on the creditor side of the books of ,heaven--is it an equally available item to abstain from brotherly love and comfort generally8 ,the logician sees clearly that there is no distinction in kind between controlling one set of animal passions and another1 and is forced to allow that if it be a commendable thing to avoid indulging in one carnal appetite1 it is still more commendable to endeavour to counteract them all ,consequently1 by granting the premisses1 we find ourselves landed in a difficulty4 ,if universal asceticism were to prevail1 it is clear that man would be opposing himself to the manifest designs of the ,creator1 as shown in the world at large2 and we cannot conceive1 that direct disobedience to instincts1 implanted in us by our ,maker1 can be anything but an item on the debtor side in the books1 which ,jewish writers have said that ,he keeps4 ,thus we are driven to investigate the very assertions which in the commencement of our inquiry we took for granted1 and to ask ourselves1 is there really any intrinsic value in morality in the sight of ,god8 ,can a most virtuous life command for the individual who has practised it an eternity of bliss8 ,jesus answers this tolerably distinctly in the words reported in ,luke xvii4 #aj1 ,when ye shall have done all those things which are commanded you1 say1 ,we are unprofitable servants3 we have done that which it was our duty to do4 ,but we doubt whether this dictum enunciates sufficiently clearly the abstract value of morality4 ,to ascertain this we must endeavour to read the book of nature on other pages than those which treat of man4 ,there can be no doubt in the mind of a thoughtful observer that man and the lower animals have much in common--that2 all have been framed with a purpose1 and are ruled by natural laws4 ,some creatures excel in cunning1 some in reason1 some in activity1 some in sloth--all have certain proclivities4 ,in some1 instinct leads them to eat grass1 boughs1 leaves1 and fruits2 in others1 it teaches them to seek insects or other creatures for their food4 ,all have1 more or less1 periodically a propensity to propagate2--which is attended in some by a pairing off of male and female1 who consort for the purpose of having offspring and assisting each other in rearing them4 ,in others1 either where there is naturally an equality of the sexes or a preponderance of males1 the latter instinctively fight with each other for a single mate1 or for a number of females4 ,again1 in the case of animals actuated by hunger1 or by other motives1 there are frequent battles1 and the conquered is not only killed1 but eaten4 ,or where two or more sets of animals are living1 the one on land1 the other in the air1 we may find that one will rob the other4 ,nothing1 for example1 is much more common than for rats and crows to steal eggs1 or for tigers to commit murder4 ,nature1 then1 being such as we find it1 we cannot assert--reasonably--that a young stag when he covets a neighbour's wife and fights her present consort1 for property in her1 commits a crime against the ,almighty1--nor can we say that a fox which steals a goose will be sent to hell4 ,on the other hand1 we should never think of commending a hungry lion for abstaining from killing a harmless lamb1 nor of declaring that he has done a good action in the sight of heaven4 ,in like manner1 a writer in proverbs tells us that men do not despise a thief if he steal to satisfy his soul when he is hungry1--and the general consent of mankind refuses to see the crime of murder in the slaughter of one1 out of a miserable boat's crew1 who is killed and eaten that the survivors may escape death from hunger4 ,society1 too1 is somewhat lenient when two men fight for the love of such a woman as ,helen4 ,but we readily recognise the fact that a community1 or even a family1 would be weakened and disorganized if theft was encouraged1 and every pretty female was the cause of close fighting between man and man4 ,hence we see that1 in reality1 that which is called the moral law1 is a code which is intended to influence social life in this world1 and not the position of human beings in the next4 ,however much we might desire to think the contrary1 we are driven to the belief that the moral precepts inculcated on the ,jews1 the ,buddhists1 and the ,christians1 had a human1 and1 we may add1 a political origin4 ,taking the ,bible even as being what many believe it to be--the inspired word of ,god--we must nevertheless allow that such a code as that book contains in ,exodus and elsewhere1 existed in ,egypt long before the departure of the ,jews from that country4 ,had not murder been prohibited on the ,nile bank1 ,moses would not have run away to escape the penalty for homicide4 ,because the ,mizraim punished killing1 were they taught of ,god8 ,the natural answer to this query when it is addressed to a bibliolater is that the ,egyptians were taught by ,god to punish murder with death through the intervention of their forefather1 ,ham1 who heard the command given by ,god to ,noah1 ,whoso sheddeth man's blood1 by man shall his blood be shed1 ,gen4 ix4 #f4 ,but if the ,egyptians thus knew the law1 so the descendants of ,shem must have learned it also2 and if so1 what need was there to repeat it amongst the thunders of ,sinai4 ,it is plain from the romantic legend of ,joseph and ,potiphar's wife3 first1 that the ,hebrew slave feared to commit adultery1 as it was a great wickedness and a sin against ,god1 ,gen4 xxxix4 #i2 and1 secondly1 that the ,egyptian considered it a crime in anyone to violate the wife of another4 ,but neither ,joseph nor ,potiphar could by any possibility have heard of the laws enunciated on ,sinai4 ,so1 if we could inquire farther1 we should most assuredly learn that the ,mizraim venerated their parents1 punished theft1 and took means to prevent and to punish perjury4 ,if1 then1 the ,egyptians had1 long before they ever heard of a ,jew1 the same commandments amongst them which were subsequently enunciated in the wilderness1 we can only come to the conclusion that the ,hebrew writer who told the story of ,sinai1 gave the god whom he described1 a great deal of unnecessary work4 ,can we for a moment suppose that the ,jews when in ,egypt had their wives in common8--and if each man had his mate1 and each woman her husband1 it is almost self-evident that adultery would not be tolerated amongst them4 ,as there were therefore distinct moral laws long before the ,exodus1 the decalogue was entirely superfluous4 ,the morality inculcated by teachers is nothing more than instructions for mankind how to attain the greatest harmony amongst their fellows4 ,it is very natural for a thoughtless man to assert that one who wilfully disturbs the general comfort of the human family during his life-time1 shall be tormented eternally after his death2 and1 on the other hand1 to proclaim that he who does everything in his power to increase the happiness of his fellow-men shall be rewarded in a heaven above1 with everlasting music1 or other delights2 yet we may fairly doubt the averments1 for both are founded entirely upon human ideas of right and wrong1 justice and injustice4 ,the prevalent idea is1 that everything which to some man seems to be wrong on earth1 will be righted in another sphere--,even ,jesus appears to have adopted this view1 for he talks 7,luke xvi7 of a ,dives and ,lazarus--the one1 a rich man who fared sumptuously every day1 and the other a beggar1 full of sores1 who longed for the crumbs from wealth's table4 ,after the deaths of these two people1 we are told that the rich man went to ,hell1 and the poor one to ,heaven1 not--apparently--because one was bad and the other good2 but simply because misery in the present is sure to be changed into luxury for the future1 and vice versa4 ,we see this doctrine distinctly enunciated by the imaginary ,abraham1 in whose bosom ,lazarus lay1 for he remarks 7,luke xvi4 #be71 ,son1 remember that thou in thy lifetime receivedst thy good things1 and likewise ,lazarus evil things2 but now he is comforted and thou art tormented4 ,we nowhere find that his position was a reward to the beggar for virtue or morality4 ,there is also a current doctrine that he whom we call a vile man--one who indulges his brutal desires1 shall in another world become more brutalized--meeting with1 and being beaten by1 powers whose mischievous propensities are superior to his own2 whilst1 on the other hand1 he whom we call a saint1 one who endeavours to subdue the affections of the flesh in this world1 shall be able to indulge in any desire that he may have1 in the next1 unlimitedly4 ,in short1 each individual makes a ,heaven for himself1 and a ,hell for his neighbours4 ,i have heard1 in days gone by1 a ,southern ,states lady say she would not go to heaven1 willingly1 if she knew that she should meet negroes there on terms of equality4 ,in rejoinder to these considerations1 the question is put1 ,could the world be habitable by men1 without the existence amongst them of a belief in a future state1 in which rewards and punishments shall be meted out for supposed misdeeds committed in the present8 ,it is well for us to look the matter in the face boldly1 and ask ourselves whether fierce tigers1 angry bulls1 combative stags1 kindred devouring rats1 offspring eating alligators1 infanticidal birds and pigs have succeeded in extirpating their race8 ,there are herds1 without number1 of graminivorous animals in ,africa1 and thousands of carnivorous creatures who could not exist without murdering some of the former2 yet the slaughter committed by scores of lions does not annihilate antelopes4 ,in like manner there are many folks who have lived in sundry islands of the ,pacific without an idea1 so far as we can learn1 of an eternity1 who sometimes spend their leisure time in fighting with and eating each other1 and occasionally unite to kill a shark3 each individual lives and dies like any other animal1 but the race remains4 ,even the systematic hellishness of persecution indulged in by the followers of ,jesus in the middle ages did not extirpate the ,jews2 and if organized murders1 such as were1 in days gone by1 sanctioned by individuals wielding the sceptre of powerful governments1 could not cut off from existence a comparatively feeble race1 surely we may conclude that a nation can continue populous even if any individual1 in a fit of passion1 should rise against his fellow and smite him to the dust4 ,but we need not go to ,new ,zealand1 ,china1 and ,japan to prove that men can live in a community without an idea of eternity1 for we have only to refer to the ,jews1 the so-called people of ,god4 ,to them no knowledge of eternal life was given1 consequently we infer that ,jehovah knew that they would get along in the world very well without it4 ,what ,elohim thought was unnecessary1 it is not for man to propound as important4 ,when the modern ,christian philosopher--and there really are a few who deserve the term--finds that the morality of ,jesus did not materially differ from that of ,sakya ,muni1 he endeavours to show that the doctrine of faith in the son of ,god is of more value than simple propriety1 and that even the most virtuous life will not enable a man to attain to paradise unless he holds the ,catholic faith4 ,when the ,catholic faith1 as it is termed1 is placed in such a position1 we are bound to examine its pretensions1 and inquire in what way doctrines or dogmas are better than morality1 and whether they are in any way superior to what the orthodox call irreligion4 ,to my mind the best method of solving the question is an appeal to history4 ,if1 as it is contended by the orthodox1 the teaching of ,christianity is far above that of any other religion1 then it must follow that all those who believe in it1 or even profess it1 must be paragons amongst men as citizens and rulers4 ,to what extent many theologians believe in this axiom may be judged by the frequency with which we hear1 from the pulpit1 an old anecdote to the effect1 that the expression1 see how these ,christians love one another1 was1 in olden time1 nearly equal to the most powerful sermon in favour of the religion of ,jesus4 ,without pointing a sneer1 by requesting my readers to substitute the word ,buddhists for ,christians1 let me lay the very heavy charge against the leaders of the faith1 that the words in question are the heaviest condemnation possible against the supposed value of the doctrines of the son of ,mary1 as formerly and at present expounded4 ,see how these ,christians love6 ,aye1 see how they love--read their own histories of the past1 and their newspapers in the present2 attend their meetings2 listen to their speeches2 and even follow them into private life4 ,in every position see how these ,christians love one another is the damning sentence which tells of the real value of the doctrine attributed to the son of ,mary4 ,whilst ,i write 7,jan4 #g1 #ahgj71 a council1 called ,o,ecumenical1 consisting of ,roman ,catholic ,christian bishops1 summoned to the capital of ancient ,italy from all parts of the world1 is sitting1 and one of the subjects of its deliberation is1 whether a certain individual1 elected by men to assume the direction of a community of men holding a particular faith in common1 shall be regarded1 by those who join such branch of the church1 as absolutely infallible in every statement of opinion which he makes as a high priest4 ,men positively have met to clothe1 and now have invested1 a man with an attribute of ,god1 and millions of ,christians will1 by those men1 be compelled to consider themselves bound by the decision6 ,see how these ,christians love6 they are persecuted by the world at first1 then they persecute their oppressors1 and massacre each other2 educated by ,jesus1 they gradually encourage ignorance until they reach a superstition as crass as the darkness of a dense fog in a moonless night4 ,they oppose the advancement of knowledge and science1 then1 by degrees1 endeavour to exalt each other1 until1 by common consent1 they deify the chieftain of the order4 ,there is not a known crime of which the leaders of the ,christian church1 as it is called1 have not been guilty1 both as men and ecclesiastical rulers4 ,see how these ,christians love6 ,yet these very men endeavour to deride1 and affect to despise1 those whom they call the godless4 ,the latter1 taking their stand upon morality and common sense1 aver that all affairs between man and his maker ought to be referred to the arbitrement of ,heaven4 ,the ,christian hierarchs1 on the contrary1 declare that they are the earthly agents of heaven1 and that they1 and the secular arm--a very mundane court--can act just as well1 perhaps better1 than the ,supreme ,judge4 ,we will not say whether it was a pleasant pastime for the ,spanish1 and other ,inquisitors1 to torture individuals who were thought to be inimical to the true faith1 inasmuch as we do not know their inmost mind2 but we asseverate that all ,europe1 except those who had the power of persecution1 and used it1 rejoiced greatly when the enthusiastic armies1 of what was designated atheistic ,france1 annihilated the so-called ,holy ,inquisition4 ,i speak with sober earnestness when ,i say1 that after forty years' experience amongst those who profess ,christianity1 and those who proclaim1 more or less quietly1 their disagreement with it1 ,i have noticed more sterling virtue and morality amongst the last than the first4 ,though ,i thus express myself1 ,i must also acknowledge my belief in the dictum1 that many men are better than their creeds would make them1 and1 consequently1 that all men are not to be taken as characteristic of their system of belief4 ,i know1 personally1 many pious1 sterling1 good ,christian people1 whom ,i honour1 admire1 and1 perhaps1 would be glad to emulate or to equal2 but they deserve the eulogy thus passed on them in consequence of their good sense having ignored the doctrine of faith to a great degree1 and having cultivated the practice of good works4 ,they have picked out the best bits of the ,bible1 and rejected the worst4 ,in my judgment the most praiseworthy ,christians whom ,i know are modified ,buddhists1 though1 probably1 not one of them ever heard of ,siddartha4 ,i would gladly trace their character1 but ,i forbear1 as ,i think they would be horrified at the thought of my comparing them with those whom they have been taught to regard as followers of a false prophet1 or something worse4 ,let it suffice to say that ,i honour consistent reasonable ,christians everywhere1 and that whatever remarks ,i make which seem to be opposed to this1 are directed against those whose doctrines1 morality1 and conduct1 ostensibly built upon the ,bible1 are irrational and bad4 ,since the preceding remarks were written1 there have appeared three very remarkable works upon ,buddhism in addition to those which ,i have already noticed--and they have the advantage for general readers1 of being clothed in an ,english dress4 ,the first which ,i will notice1 is ,travels of ,fah-,hian and ,sung-,yun3 ,buddhist ,pilgrims from ,china to ,india 7#djh ,a4,d41 and #eah a4d42 ,london1 ,truebner1 #ahfi1 small #hvo4 pp4 #bjh47 ,this work is remarkable as illustrating the fact1 that there has been the idea1 even in ,china1 of sending men1 or of devout persons spontaneously going1 to distant places1 to endeavour to seek for more perfect religious knowledge1 than they believe themselves and their teachers to possess where they are4 ,with such an example before us1 we can give more easy credence to the stories told of ,pythagoras1 of ,solon1 and ,herodotus2 how they visited distant countries to learn the way of ,god and man more perfectly4 ,nor must we pass by the proof1 which the journey of the ,chinese travellers affords1 that1 what may be called missionary zeal is not an apanage of ,christianity alone4 ,an account of their travels will be found in the next chapter4 ,the second publication to which we refer1 is ,buddhaghosa's ,parables1 translated from the ,burmese1 by ,capt4 ,t4 ,rogers2 with an introduction containing ,buddha's ,dhammapada1 or ,path of ,virtue1 translated from the ,pali1 by ,max ,mueller2 ,london1 ,trubner ,co41 #ahgj1 #hvo4 pp4 #cgd4 ,this work is of such importance to all students of the ,science of ,religion1 that we shall notice it in a separate essay4 ,the third contribution1 is ,the ,modern ,buddhist1 being the views of a ,siamese ,minister of ,state1 on his own and other religions1 translated1 with remarks1 by ,henry ,alabaster1 interpreter of ,h4 ,b4 ,m41 consulate-general in ,siam2 ,london1 ,triibner ,co41 #ahgj1 small #hvo4 pp4 #ia4 ,this has now arrived at a second edition1 and is called ,the ,wheel of the ,law4 ,this last book is1 perhaps1 the most interesting of the three1 inasmuch as it enables us to compare the modern development of the religion of ,buddha1 and that of ,christ4 ,it enables us1 moreover1 to see ourselves and modern ,christian doctrines as others see them1 and to discover the essential points at issue1 between the followers of the son of ,maya ,devi1 and of ,mary4 ,the first point to which we would call attention1 is the statement that the ,siamese are nowhere excelled in the sincerity of their belief1 and the liberality with which they support their religion4 ,in ,bangkok alone1 there are more than a hundred monasteries1 and ten thousand monks and novices4 ,more than this1 every male ,siamese1 sometime during his life1 and generally in the prime of it1 takes orders as a monk1 and retires for some months or years1 to practise abstinence and meditation in a monastery4 ,against this1 or side by side with it1 what can ,great ,britain1 or any other ,christian country show8 ,we have1 it is true1 plenty of monasteries in ,christendom1 and in the majority of western kingdoms1 there are colleges and universities for the education of youth1 and there is1 in some such institutions1 a pretence of meditation and of abstinence4 ,yet the finger of scandal points1 and has pointed1 for many hundred years1 to the disreputable conduct pursued in almost the whole of such ,christian institutions2 whereas1 not even its enemies can find evidence to convict ,buddhist ascetics of indulging in sensual gratifications of any kind whatever4 ,we learn1 from ,mr ,alabaster's preface1 that the late king of ,siam1 though eminent amongst monks for his knowledge of the ,buddhist scriptures1 boldly preached against the canonicity of those of them1 whose relations were opposed to his reason1 and his knowledge of modern science4 ,his powers as a linguist were considerable1 and enabled him to use an ,english library with facility4 ,they are his views--which royal etiquette prevented him from writing1 that inspired his prime minister4 ,what have we here8 ,surely it is an example that ,british rulers1 and especially divines1 should follow4 ,yet with all our boasted skill1 science1 and powers of thought1 our theologians prefer to preach1 and to uphold1 doctrines which they know to be repugnant1 both to reason and to science1 rather than abandon that which was propounded when reason and knowledge were almost in their infancy4 ,certainly1 in this respect1 the believers in ,sakya ,muni show themselves more sensible than those in ,jesus4 ,again1 let us quote the following paragraph--pointing out the analogy we wish to draw1 by using a literary contrivance--and calling attention to the fact1 that no ,roman ,catholic authority in ,christian ,europe1 has yet dared to say1 what a ,buddhist ruler does4 ,our ,siamese ,papal literature is not only scanty1 but nonsensical1 full of stories of genii saints stealing women relics and men saints fighting with genii devils and extraordinary persons ,elijah and ,philip who could fly through the air1 and bring dead people to life4 ,and1 even those works1 which profess to teach anything1 generally teach it wrong2 so that there is not the least profit1 though one studies them from morning to night 7p4 #g74 ,the following observation is equally powerful--,chaya4 ,phya4 ,praklang--the name of the ,siamese author1 might1 as a ,buddhist1 believe in the existence of a ,god1 sublimed above all human qualities and attributes--a perfect ,god1 above love1 and hatred1 and jealousy1 calmly resting in a quiet happiness that nothing could disturb2 and of such a ,god he would speak no disparagement1 not from a desire to please ,him1 or fear to offend ,him1 but from natural veneration4 ,but he cannot understand a ,god with the attributes and qualities of men1 a ,god who loves and hates1 and shows anger1 a ,deity1 who1 whether described to him by ,christian ,missionaries1 or by ,mahometans1 ,brahmins1 or ,jews1 falls below his standard of even an ordinary good man 7p4 #be74 ,after the passages which we have quoted1 the translator gives many pages of accounts of conversation between missionaries and the ,siamese minister1 which well repay a perusal4 ,they are too long for quotation entire1 but there are three paragraphs that deserve commemoration1 as they show us the reasoning powers of the ,buddhist in favourable contrast to the bigotry of his would-be instructor4 ,i said1 'then you consider that even a stone in the bladder is created by ,god8' ,he replied1 ',yes1 everything1 ,god creates everything4' ',then1' answered ,i1 if that is so1 ,god creates in man that which will cause his death1 and you medical missionaries remove it1 and restore his health6 ,are you not opposing ,god by so doing8 ,are you not offending ,him in curing those whom ,he would kill8' ,when ,i had said this the missionary became angry1 and saying ',i was hard to teach1' left me 7p4 #bi74 ,again1 when he and ,dr ,gutzlaff were discussing the story of the creation and the fall1 as taught in the ,christian and ,jewish ,bible1 and the ,buddhist has clearly the best of the argument1 the missionary told him1 that if any spoke as the minister had been doing in ,european countries1 he would be put in prison--and ,chaya ,phya adds1 ,i invite particular attention to this statement 7p4 #cd74 ,thus1 not only in other parts of his work1 but here also1 he points out how that which ,christian emissaries say is a religion of peace on earth and good will to men is1 in reality1 one of intolerance and persecution1 even on the showing of its own ministers4 ,in the third example to which ,i refer1 ,gutzlaff is again talking with ,chaya upon the curse of man1 and the ,siamese speaks thus--,besides1 the ,bible says1 by belief in ,christ1 man shall escape the consequences of ,eve's sin2 yet ,i cannot see that men do so escape in any degree1 but suffer just as others do4 ,the missionary answered1 ,it is waste of time to converse with evil men1 who will not be taught1 and so he left me 7p4 #ce74 ,when men like ,gutzlaff1 who is really eminent in his way1 can be so readily silenced and put to flight by a native of ,siam1 whose mind is not familiar with the science and logical training of ,european thinkers1 it is by no means surprising that cultivated ,englishmen should refuse to believe in the childish stories and foolish doctrines that are promulgated by ,christians at home1 as being an inspired and infallible revelation from the ,almighty4 ,alas1 for our country and her people6 they have much to unlearn as well as to learn before they can lay a fair claim to the position which they assume to hold4 ,we may next quote the following1 as being useful to missionary societies here4 ,after having described the religion of ,papists1 ,protestants1 and ,mormons1 ,chaya says1 ,all these three sects worship the same ,god and ,christ1 why1 then1 should they blame each other1 and charge each other with believing wrongfully1 and say to each other1 ',you are wrong1 and will go to ,hell2 we are right1 and shall go to ,heaven8' ,you make us think that it is one religion which ,christians hold1 yet how can we join it when each party threatens us with ,hell if we agree with another sect1 and there is none to decide between them8 ,i beg comparison of this with the teaching of the ,lord ,buddha1 that whoever endeavours to keep the commandments1 and is charitable1 and walks virtuously1 must attain to ,heaven 7p4 #dc74 ,the commandments referred to are-- #ast4 ,thou shalt not destroy nor cause the destruction of any living thing4 #b;d4 ,thou shalt not1 either by fraud or violence1 obtain or keep that which belongs to another4 #c;d4 ,thou shall not lie carnally with any but proper objects for thy lust4 #dth4 ,thou shalt not attempt1 either by word or action1 to lead others to believe that which is not true4 #eth4 ,thou shalt not become intoxicated4 ,we much fear1 that if the commandments which nominal ,christians observe are contrasted with those kept by the ,buddhists1 that the former must be regarded as much lower in the scale of religious civilization than the latter4 ,the ,siamese author next discusses the question1 how shall a man select that religion which he can trust to for his future happiness8 ,his answer is1 ,he must reflect1 and apply his mind to ascertain which comes nearest to truth4 ,then follow a few very true remarks about the difficulty of shaking off any faith once adopted--about the causes which determine men to change their belief1 and1 in illustration of the difficulties1 the author quotes a sermon by ,buddha to those who were in doubt1 and desired to select a right religion4 ,and the ,lord ,buddha answered1 ,you are right to doubt1 for it was a doubtful matter4 ,i say unto all of you1 do not believe in what ye have heard1 that is1 when you have heard anyone say this is especially good or extremely bad2 do not reason with yourselves1 that if it had not been true it would not have been asserted1 and so believe in its truth4 ,neither have faith in traditions1 because they have been handed down for many generations1 and in many places4 ,do not believe in anything because it is rumoured and spoken of by many2 do not think that is a proof of its truth4 ,do not believe merely because the written statement of some old sage is produced2 do not be sure that the writing has ever been revised by the said sage1 or can be relied on4 ,do not believe in what you have fancied1 thinking that1 because an idea is extraordinary1 it must have been implanted by a ,deva1 or some wonderful being4 ,do not believe in guesses1 that is1 assuming something at haphazard1 as a starting point1 and then drawing conclusions from it--reckoning your two and your three and your four before you have fixed your number one4 ,do not believe because you think there is an analogy1 that is1 a suitability in things and occurrences--such as believing that there must be walls of the world because you see water in a basin1 or that ,mount ,meru must exist because you have seen the reflection of trees1 or that there must be a creating god because houses and towers have builders4 ,do not believe in the truth of that to which you have become attached by habit1 as every nation believes in the superiority of its own dress1 and ornaments1 and language4 ,do not believe because your informant appears to be a credible person1 as1 for instance1 when you see anyone having a very sharp appearance1 conclude that he must be clever and trustworthy3 or1 when you see anyone who has powers and abilities beyond what men generally possess1 believe in what he tells2 or think that a great nobleman is to be believed1 as he would not be raised by the king to high station unless he were a good man4 ,do not believe merely on the authority of your teachers and masters1 or believe and practise merely because they believe and practise4 ,i tell you all1 you must of yourselves know1 that 'this is evil1 this is punishable1 this is censured by wise men1 belief in this will bring no advantage to anyone1 but will cause sorrow2' and when you know this1 then eschew it 7pp4 #de-dg74 ,then follows a long account of the examples which ,buddha gave to his disciples1 examining them by questions1 whose answer is obvious2 but these1 though wonderfully to the point1 are too long for quotation1 and we must refer our readers to the book itself4 ,nor do we act thus1 reluctantly1 for we believe that every honest inquirer will thank us for the introduction4 ,we should rejoice if some of our divines became acquainted with it4 ,they might draw as many valuable texts from the discourses attributed to ,buddha1 herein described1 as they do now from ,jesus' sermon on the mount4 ,we may add1 in passing1 that1 in the conversation of ,sakya ,muni1 he says1 it is better to believe in a future life1 in which happiness or misery can be felt1 for if the heart believes therein1 it will abandon sin and act virtuously2 and even if there is no resurrection1 such a life will bring a good name and the regard of men4 ,but those who believe in extinction at death1 will not fail to commit any sin that they may choose1 because of their disbelief in a future2 and if there should happen to be a future after all1 they will be at a disadvantage--they will be like travellers without provisions 7p4 #ed74 ,the following exposition of modern ,buddhist belief well deserves attention4 ,buddhists believe that every act1 word1 or thought1 has its consequence1 which will appear sooner or later in the present1 or in some future state4 ,evil acts will produce evil consequences1 i4e41 may cause a man misfortune in this world1 or an evil birth in hell1 or as an animal in some future existence4 ,good acts1 etc41 will produce good consequences2 prosperity in this world1 or birth in heaven1 or in a high position in the world in some future state 7p4 #eg74 ,we will only add1 that if the value of ,buddhism1 like ,christianity1 is to be known by its fruits1 it is clear1 that the former1 as practised generally in ,siam1 is decidedly superior to the latter as practised in ,great ,britain1 ,america1 and ,christendom1 generally4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,priority of ,buddhism to ,christianity4 ,strange assumptions4 ,when was ,india first known to ,christians8 ,thomas the ,apostle1 ,when ,asceticism was introduced into ,christianity4 ,results of inquiry into the introduction of ,christianity into ,india4 ,tarshish and ,ceylon4 ,peacocks known as the ,persian birds to the ,greeks1 temp4 ,aristophanes4 ,indian elephants in army of ,darius4 ,roman traffic with ,india1 b4c4 #cj4 ,buddhist missionaries4 ,the gift of tongues4 ,rise of ,asceticism in ,western ,asia4 ,essenes again4 ,collection of ,buddhist writings1 #dej b4c4 ,degeneracy of original ,faith4 ,missionaries from ,china to ,hindostan in search of ,buddhist works and knowledge4 ,travels of ,fah ,hian1 their experience and remarks4 ,quotations from their writings4 ,footprints of ,buddha and ,peter4 ,immaculate conception of ,sakya4 ,old ,simeon--a repetition4 ,wise men from the ,east4 ,st4 ,ursula4 ,three ,buddhist councils to compile scriptures4 ,buddhism lapsed into image-worship and processions4 ,progress of the pilgrims4 ,return by sea4 ,deductions4 ,developments of ,christianity and ,asceticism4 ,observations about travelling4 ,conclusions4 ,with the usual pertinacity of ,englishmen1 there are many devout individuals who1 on finding that ,buddhism and ,christianity very closely resemble each other1 asseverate1 with all the vehemence of an assumed orthodoxy1 that the first has proceeded from the second4 ,nor can the absurdity of attempting to prove that the future must precede the past deter them from declaring that ,buddhism was promulgated originally by ,christian missionaries from ,judea1 and then became deteriorated by ,brahminical and other fancies6 ,it is really difficult1 sometimes1 to discover what are the real tenets of the obstinate orthodox to whom we refer2 but1 so far as we can learn from the character of their opposition1 it would appear that they do not deny the existence of such a man as ,sakya ,muni1 to whom his followers gave the name of ,buddha4 ,just in the same way1 we may add1 as his followers gave the name of ,jesus ,christ to ,ben ,panther4 ,whilst allowing that ,siddartha founded a new religion1 the orthodox assert that all its bad parts are human1 whilst all its good parts consist of doctrines tacked on to the original1 after ,christianity had been introduced into ,india1 by one or more of ,jesus' apostles or disciples4 ,if1 for the sake of argument1 we accord to such cavillers the position of reasonable beings1 and ask them to give us some proof of the assertion1 that early ,christian people went to ,hindostan and preached the gospel there2 or even to point out1 in history1 valid proofs that ,india was known to a single apostle1 we find that they have nothing to say beyond the vaguest gossip4 ,what the testimony is we may find by turning to the article ,thomas1 in ,kitto's ,cyclopoedia of ,biblical ,literature1 which was written by a learned professor of ,gottingen4 ,therein we see1 and the statement is amply vouched by quotation from authorities1 that the ,apostle in question is said to have preached the gospel in ,parthia and in ,persia1 and to have been buried in ,edessa2 and that1 according to a later tradition1 ,thomas went to ,india1 and suffered martyrdom there4 ,then follows a statement that this account has been assailed1 c4 ,similar traditions are mentioned by ,dean ,stanley in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible with the addition that it is now believed that the ,thomas of ,malabar ,christian fame was a ,nestorian missionary4 ,eusebius writes1 book v41 ch4 #aj1 speaking of ,pantaenus1 about a4d4 #aij--;,he is said to have displayed such ardour444 that he was constituted a herald of the gospel of ,christ to the nations of the ,east1 and advanced even as far as ,india2 and the report is1 that he there found his own arrival anticipated by some who were acquainted with the gospel of ,matthew1 to whom ,bartholomew1 one of the ,apostles1 had preached1 and had left them the gospel of ,matthew in the ,hebrew1 which was also preserved unto this time4 ,pantaenus became finally the head of the ,alexandrian school4 ,such a piece of gossip no historian can trust for a moment4 ,socrates1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 about a4d4 #dbj1 writes1 ,we must now mention by what means the profession of ,christianity was extended in ,constantine's reign1 for it was in his time that the nations1 both of the ,indians in the interior1 and the ,iberians1 first embraced the ,christian faith4 ,but it may be needful briefly to explain why the expression in the interior is appended4 ,when the apostles went forth by lot amongst the nations1 ,thomas received the apostleship of the ,parthians4 ,matthew was allotted ,ethiopia1 and ,bartholomew the part of ,india contiguous to that country2 but the interior of ,india1 which was inhabited by many barbarous nations1 using different languages1 was not enlightened by ,christian doctrine before the time of ,constantine1 about #cbj ,a4,d4 ,then follows a story of a ,tynan philosopher1 who1 with two youths1 took ship1 and arrived somewhere in ,india1 just after the violation of a treaty between that country and the ,romans4 ,everyone in the ship was killed but the two lads1 who1 being young1 were sent as a present to the ,indian king4 ,one became a cupbearer1 the other the royal recorder4 ,the king died1 freeing the youths1 and the queen1 left with a young son1 made the strangers his tutors1 or regents4 ,one1 who was the highest1 then began to inquire whether1 amongst the ,roman merchants trafficking with that country1 there were any ,christians to be found4 ,having discovered some1 he induced them to select a place for worship1 and he subsequently built a church1 into which he admitted some ,indians1 after previous instruction4 ,the other youth comes back to ,tyre1 and then the regent comes to ,alexandria1 talks to ,athanasius1 and begs him to send a bishop and clergy to the place he has left1 to which no name is given4 ,to the latter youth ,frumentius1 ordination is given1 and he returns to ,india to preach1 to perform miracles1 and build oratories1 --,greek--4 ,the historian1 adds ,rufinus1 assures us that he heard these facts from the former king's cupbearer1 ,edesius1 who was afterwards inducted into the sacred office at ,tyre4 ,we may next quote the ,epitome of the ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,philostorgius 7who wrote about ,a4,d4 #dbe71 compiled by ,photius1 ,patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,therein we may observe how completely the first contradicts ,socrates as before quoted1 and may also infer the reason why4 ,in book ii41 ch4 #f1 the words run1 ,the impious ,philostorgius relates1 that the ,christians in ,central ,india1 who were converted to the faith of ,christ by the preaching of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 believe that the son is not of the same substance with the father4 ,he adds that ,theophilus1 the ,indian who had embraced this opinion1 came to them and delivered it to them as a doctrine2 and also that these ,indians are now called ,homeritae1 instead of their old name1 ,sabaeans1 which they received from the city of ,saba1 the chief city of the whole nation4 ,this leads me to doubt very strongly whether the ecclesiastical writers in early days did not group1 under the name of ,india1 the southern parts of ,arabia1 ,persia1 and ,beloochistan4 ,sozomen1 writing about the period of #cbe ,a4,d41 says1 book ii1 ch4 #bd1 ,we have heard that about this period some of the most distant of the nations that we call ,indian1 to whom the preaching of ,bartholomew was unknown1 were converted to ,christianity by ,frumentius1 a priest4 ,then follows an enlarged edition of the legend told by ,socrates1 and the words1 it is said that ,frumentius discharged his priestly functions so admirably that he became an object of universal admiration4 ,theodoret1 writing about #dbj ,a4,d41 places the conversion of the ,indians about #cbh ,a4,d41 and gives substantially the same account as the preceding writers whom we have quoted4 ,we will not1 however1 content ourselves with this short notice1 but will first inquire whether1 if the accounts of the earlier reporters1 ,eusebius1 ,socrates1 ,clement1 and ,rufinus1 who wrote about a4d4 #cbj1 #cij1 #aij1 and #cgj1 are not to be trusted1 we can believe the stories of ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,ambrose1 ,jerome1 ,nicephorus1 and ,abdias1 who wrote about a4d4 #chj1 #chj1 #djj1 #hae1 and #iaj respectively4 ,if we believe one set of ,christian fathers1 that ,thomas the apostle died in ,syria1 we cannot credit a set of ,christian sons1 who affirm that he was martyred in ,india4 ,but--and the point is an important one--we can see reason why the children should invent an account of which the parents saw not the necessity4 ,about the period of ,gregory ,nazianzen arose that asceticism which sent ,simeon ,stylites upon the top of his pillar in a4d4 #cid1 and kept him there for the rest of his life1 and that peopled the ,thebaid with hermits of the most approved ,buddhist order--celibates shunning luxury1 and cultivating filthiness of the outer to cleanse the inner man4 ,the way in which the original faith1 preached by ,jesus and modified by ,paul1 was distorted during the first few centuries in ,egypt can only be rationally accounted for by a spread of ,buddhist doctrines by ,indian missionaries1 or promulgated by ,christian merchants1 who had travelled to the ,indies1 and modified their original faith by what they saw and heard from the followers of the great ,sramana2 and it was natural for the ,alexandrian ,christians to adopt the modifications referred to1 and to stamp the innovations with the assertion that they were apostolic reflections--rays of divine light falling from the sun of righteousness upon the mind of the blessed ,saint ,somebody1 ,thomas1 for this purpose1 being a name which answered as well as any other4 ,there is positively no evidence whatever--except some apocryphal ,jesuit stories about certain disciples of ,jesus1 found by ,papal missionaries at ,malabar--that any disciple of ,mary's son ever proceeded to ,hindostan to preach the gospel during the first centuries of our era4 ,those who know the history of the ,decretals1 and of ,prester ,john1 can readily estimate the value of tales told by ,jesuits in ,india1 where there was not at the time anyone to test their veracity4 ,being myself desirous of ascertaining what evidence really exists--or existed in the times of ancient authors1 whose works have come down to us--of the knowledge of ,india by ,europeans in days gone by1 ,i instituted an inquiry1 with the determination to be impartial4 ,the results obtained were the following3-- ,the only reason for believing that ,hindostan and ,ceylon were known to the ,phoenicians is a short passage in the ,biblical ,history of ,solomon1 in which we are told that after a three years' absence1 ,hiram's ,tyrian sailors returned from ,tarshish1 bringing what our translators call ivory1 apes1 and peacocks4 ,the words in the ,hebrew original are said by ,tennant to be all but identical with those in use in ,ceylon at the present date4 ,for a full account of the probable identity of the ,tarshish in the passage alluded to and ,galle1 see ,emerson ,tennant's ,history of ,ceylon4 ,yet1 if we grant that the ,tyrian shipmen traded to ,india1 we are bound to confess that the knowledge which they acquired died with them2 nor did their successors1 the ,greeks1 know anything distinctly about ,hindostan prior to the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,in the ,biblical story of ,esther we are told1 i4 #a1 viii4 #i1 that a ,persian king reigned from ,india to ,ethiopia1 the ,hebrew word for the former being ,hodoo1 supposed to be a form of handoo1 or hindoo2 ,pehlevi1 hendo2 ,zend1 heando2 ,sanscrit1 ,sindhu 7,fuerst1 s4v471 equivalent to the ,greek ,indikee1 or the country of the ,indus4 ,we find reason to believe that the ,india of ,artaxerxes was a portion of ,hindostan--first1 because the ,persian monarch had ,indian soldiers in his army1 and elephants1 when he fought with ,alexander2 and secondly1 because the peacock1 a bird of ,ceylon1 was known to the ,greeks1 in the time of ,aristophanes1 as the ,persian bird4 ,that the ,persians traded with ,northern ,india we infer1 from the account which ,appian gives us of the advance eastward of ,alexander1 after his victory at ,arbela4 ,but the whole story of the ,grecian warrior's advance into the ,punjaub and down the ,indus1 contains1 in itself1 tolerably clear proof that ,hindostan was very little known to the ,greeks4 ,of a subsequent invasion of ,india by ,alexander's successor1 ,seleucus ,nicator2 of the mission of ,megasthenes to ,sandracottus1 the grandfather of ,asoka1 the ,buddhist ,constantine2 of the navigation of the ,grecian ship down the ,indus1 and the subsequent traffic by land and sea between the ,greeks and the ,hindoos1 we need not say more than that ,augustus1 b4c4 #cj1 regulated the trade to ,hindostan1 via ,alexandria1 and that1 at the time of ,pliny the elder1 about ,a4,d4 #fj1 voyages were being made to ,india every year1 companies of archers being carried on board the vessels to protect them from pirates4 ,we learn also that a twelvemonth did not elapse without a drain upon the ,roman ,empire of about one million and a-half sterling for ,india1 in exchange for ,hindoo wares 7book vi41 ch4 #bf74 ,at the period ,pliny refers to1 and for a long time previously1 there can be no pretence that any of ,jesus' apostles accompanied traders to ,hindostan1 for every one of them were employed nearer home4 ,on the other hand1 we may inquire into the possibility and the reasonableness of ,buddhist missionaries travelling westward in the course of ,alexandrian traffic1 or of the caravans which1 we have grounds for believing1 came through ,persia to the ,roman ,empire4 ,on turning to ,oriental literature1 we find that the often-mentioned ,king ,asoka adopted ,buddhism as the religion of his empire about b4c4 #bej1 and that1 in his time1 missionaries carried that faith successfully to the uttermost parts of ,hindostan--to ,burmah1 to ,ceylon1 to ,japan1 to ,thibet1 and to ,china4 ,the envoys carried with them1 in some instances1 written books1 in others1 their guide was oral tradition4 ,wherever they went they bore a biography of ,sakya--or ,buddha--accounts of miracles that he had performed1 and a summary1 more or less extended1 of his preaching or doctrines4 ,this dispersion of ,hindoo envoys was about fifty years later than the mission of the ,greek ,megasthenes to the court of ,asoka's grandfather1 and it is quite as probable that ,buddhist preachers went to enlighten what they imagined to be the benighted1 and what they knew to be the then defeated ,grecians1 as that they went over frightful mountains and stormy seas to ,thibet1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,we may profitably pause for a moment here1 to contemplate that which ,i at one time believed to be the most wonderful of all the miracles recorded in the ,new ,testament1 viz41 the gift of tongues4 ,the references to this which we meet with in the epistles of the apostle ,paul might lead to the supposition1 that some who had this gift spoke mere gibberish--something which was not1 either in intention or in reality1 an utterance in a foreign language2 but the story of the original imparting of power to speak in a previously unknown tongue involves the idea1 that the disciples had1 on the occasion referred to1 a faculty given to them1 by which they knew the languages used by various nationalities1 without the trouble of learning them4 ,many divines have held that such ability was absolutely necessary to those who had to go forth to teach all nations the doctrines of the gospel ,i am quite aware that1 however earnest ,i might be to propagate truth1 ,i could not go1 with advantage1 to preach in ,russia1 because ,i know nothing of its language4 ,doubt in the reality of the miracle recorded in ,acts ii4 was not born until ,i found that ,buddhist missionaries went out into distant lands1 where their own tongue was unknown1 and yet made converts4 ,when once ,i felt dubious as regards the veracity of the historian1 ,i began to notice what the apostles generally did when they went to a new country or town4 ,their practice seems to have been to have visited synagogues of the ,jews living on the spot--and able1 if they chose1 to be interpreters--or1 where there were such establishments1 the schools were visited1 where the students and the masters understood ,greek4 ,in the time of ,paul the language of the ,hellenes was spoken by ,romans of high position1 much as ,french was spoken at the court of ,frederic the ,great of ,prussia1 and as ,german is at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the ,apostle seems to have spoken ,greek readily1 and when he could use that tongue or the ,hebrew he was fluent4 ,i have sought in vain for evidence that either ,paul or any of the ,apostles ever addressed a foreign mob1 whose language was neither ,greek nor ,hebrew4 ,a study of the nineteenth chapter of the ,acts will show this--especially1 we must notice the end of the tenth verse1 where we are told that all who dwelt in ,asia heard the word of the ,lord1 both ,jews and ,greeks4 ,when disturbance occurred in the theatre1 ,paul was not the orator put forward to appease the people--he probably could not speak their patois4 ,yet he tells us1 #a ,cor4 xiv4 #ah1 that he spoke with tongues more than his fellows499 99 ,there is much difference amongst ecclesiastical writers respecting what is called the gift of tongues4 ,the difficulty arises mainly from the desire to reconcile the true with the absurd4 ,starting from the point that all scripture is written by inspiration of ,god1 the orthodox are obliged to receive the account narrated in ,acts ii4 as being literally correct4 ,in plain language1 the story runs thus3--,the ,apostles1 twelve in number1 were sitting in a room4 ,whilst there1 a noise was heard1 and something like fiery tongues1 more or less split1 appeared1 and one settled upon each of the company4 ,these all1 at once1 began to speak in languages which were strange to all4 ,from the noise made1 neighbours had their attention called1 and from one mouth to another the tidings of the ranting ran1 until it reached the ears of devout men1 who1 from every nation under heaven1 were then assembled in ,jerusalem4 ,whether these foreigners were ,hebrews1 or whether they1 being strangers1 had the gift of understanding the reports couched in ,aramaic1 we do not know4 ,but it is narrated that1 in the course of a few minutes--possibly an hour or two--the devout strangers came to listen to the ,apostles1 either speaking singly or at once4 ,as these foreigners noticed what was said1 they recognized words in their own respective dialects1 and then the ,parthian said to the ,mede--the ,elamite to the ,mesopotamian--the ,phrygian to the ,pamphyliaji1 c41 ,what does all this mean8 ,so to interchange a question involves that the interlocutors1 like the ,apostles1 had suddenly received the gift of speaking1 and understanding1 other tongues than their own4 ,when the listeners had convinced themselves about the marvel1 each began to talk in his own language1 and the ,jews understood them to say1 ,what meaneth this8 the ,hebrews1 like the rest1 having also the gift of knowing what was said in a strange language4 ,some1 however1 had not this power of interpretation1 and remarked1 the fellows are drunk6 ,for a moment we pause to inquire how many people there were in one room of one house4 ,the ,apostles were twelve2 then there were1 at least three1 ,parthians1 ,medes1 c41 in all about forty-five more1 and in addition1 there were the mockers4 ,to all these ,peter preached1 and the wonders of the day were crowned by the conversion of three thousand people6 ,it seems1 therefore1 to be clear1 from the account of this extraordinary miracle1 that the ,apostles then gathered together acquired the power of expressing their thoughts in languages which they had never learned1 the judges of the feat being those whose dialects were spoken4 ,if we now proceed in biblical order to examine into the ideas connected with this strange faculty1 we find1 in ,acts x4 #dd-df1 that the circumcised ,jews alone were satisfied1 in the plenitude of their own ignorance1 that ,cornelius and his company could speak with tongues4 ,again1 in ,acts xix4 #f1 we learn that certain ,ephesians1 after baptism1 and imposition of hands1 spake with tongues --no judge of the fact being quoted4 ,in #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj1 we discover that amongst the gifts of the ,holy ,spirit are kinds of tongues1 and the interpretation thereof which will1 probably1 remind the lover of ,shakespeare of ,act iv4 ,scenes #a and #c1 in ,all's well that ends well1 wherein there is a nonsensical jargon spoken by one person which another interprets to the satisfaction of the silly ,parolles4 ,in vv #bh1 #cj1 we see strong indications that the gift of tongues and interpretation may be compared to some things now heard of in spiritualistic or other conjuring seances4 ,this notion of speaking with other tongues reaches its climax1 apparently1 in #a ,cor4 xiii4 #a1 wherein ,paul indicates1 but does not positively assert1 that he can speak with the tongues of men and angels1 a boast which #b ,cor4 xii4 #d leads us to take literally4 ,but how any one on earth could test the reality of assertion it is difficult to conceive4 ,in #a ,cor4 xiv4 we see indications that speaking with tongues is little more or less than a sort of hysterical utterance of gibberish1 which we may compare to the once celebrated chorus of ,lilli-bullero-lero-lero-,lillibullero bullen a la4 ,one may now ask1 ,why did people think that it was part of the ,christian's privileges or powers to speak with tongues8 ,the only answer which ,i can discover is indicated in ,acts ii4 #ah1 wherein we find it given as the opinion of ,peter1 that a certain vaticination in ,joel applied to the followers of ,jesus4 ,the philosopher may wonder at the ignorance--possibly at the knowledge--which confounded prophesying with the utterance of unintelligible rubbish2 but the philologist should be led to investigate more strictly the real signification of words1 and to inquire into the theories which are traceable to false interpretations4 ,considerations such as these1 which might be multiplied indefinitely1 ,i have come to the belief that the ,apostles of ,jesus were no better1 as regards their knowledge of foreign tongues1 than their predecessors1 the missionaries sent by ,asoka1 or than the modern envoys sent out by a ,london ,society4 ,what renders it probable that ,buddhist ascetics found their way1 probably amongst the camp followers of ,antiochus the ,great1 and endeavoured to promulgate their doctrines in western ,asia1 is the fact that a sect sprang up amongst the ,jews after the ,grecian conquest of ,palestine--called ,the ,essenes1 to which we have before referred1 amongst whose tenets ,buddhism and ,judaism were closely mingled ,the asceticism practised by this sect was1 so far as we know1 different to anything known at that time in ,greece or ,western ,asia1 and as it came into fashion at the same time in ,palestine as ,indian elephants and ,hindoo ,mahouts1 there is some reason for the belief that it was brought by disciples of ,siddartha4 ,without dwelling upon this again1 we return to the well ascertained fact that ,buddhism was promulgated most widely in ,eastern and ,northern ,asia about #bej b4c41 that a collection of religious books was made about two hundred years prior to that date1 and that these were revised again during ,asoka's reign4 ,but1 however earnest were the teachers and the taught1 the scriptures which they respected were so voluminous and the facilities for multiplying them were so small1 that it happened1 as it did amongst early ,christians1 that many a church had no written book of the law4 ,as a consequence of this1 one part or another of ,sakya's doctrines became exalted unduly in one locality1 whilst in another a portion was left out of sight4 ,stories1 also1 of miracles became varied1 just as we find that they have been by the writers in the ,new ,testament1 the tendency being1 as in the history of the blind man near ,jericho1 to exaggerate the wonder--for example1 ,mark and ,luke1 chap4 x4 and xviii1 give an account of one man being cured of blindness1 whilst ,matthew1 chap1 xx41 tells us that there were two4 ,the narrators under such circumstances act as if they thought that it is as easy for a divinity to heal two or two thousand as to cure one1 and we who tolerate the practice in a ,christian evangelist must not ridicule it in ,buddhist disciples4 ,when we contemplate the confusion that existed in the ,christian church--the gradual deterioration of the faith taught by ,jesus1 and more especially by ,paul1 and the steady absorption of ,pagan rites into the worship inaugurated by ,peter and the other apostles1 we can readily understand that in the course of six or seven hundred years there would be reason in countries distant from the home of ,siddartha to deplore the gradual decadence of ,buddhism1 and a desire amongst the devout for tuition at the fountain-head4 ,in modern times we have read of hierarchs coming from the uttermost parts of the earth to consult the ,roman ,pontiff upon points of discipline affecting the church1 and we therefore see without surprise that1 about ,a4,d4 #djj1 six hundred years after it had been planted1 the congregation of ,buddhists in ,china had within it men who determined to go to ,india1 and bring back to their fellow-worshippers what they hoped would be a purer doctrine than that which they were accustomed to1 and1 if possible1 to secure authentic books4 ,pilgrimage1 with this object1 cannot be regarded as being so absurd as that which has in modern days taken numbers of ,christians to ,lourdes1 in the ,pyrenees1 or to ,st4 ,paray-le-,monial4 ,ere we describe this ,chinese search after truth1 let us imagine a ,christian from ,central ,russia determining to seek for enlightenment at ,antioch about a4d4 #fdj1 and subsequently at the seven churches named in the ,apocalypse--and afterwards writing his experience4 ,we should be certain to find him bewailing the fall of ,christianity and the rise of ,islam4 ,we may indeed affirm that if such a history was now to be discovered undated1 we should regard it as having been written before or after the date named1 according as the churches were described as being the seat of ,mahommedism or of ,christianity4 ,still further1 if in every place which this traveller visited1 he found a general belief in the stories told of ,jesus and in the efficacy of his doctrine1 we should consider this as proof that the people remained faithful to their early teaching4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the wanderer found himself proscribed in any locality as a benighted heathen1 without knowledge of the way of salvation--he would naturally think that a teacher had given to its inhabitants instruction different from that which was familiar to him4 ,i do not exaggerate when ,i say that a genuine account of the travels in search of sound ,christian doctrine through every part of ,europe in the fifth century of our era1 would be invaluable as an indication of the tenure of certain doctrines1 not only in various localities1 but as to the existence or the reverse of dogmas now regarded as of supreme importance4 ,such a manuscript1 which1 however1 relates to ,buddhism and not to ,christianity1 exists in ,china1 and it has lately been translated into ,english ,travels of ,fah-,hian and ,sung-,yun1 ,buddhist ,pilgrims from ,china to ,india1 #djj a4d4 and #eah a4d41 translated from the ,chinese by ,samuel ,bea4 7,truebner ,co41 ,london1 #ahfi47 ,it tells us1 in a singularly terse style1 how a large portion of ,china was traversed by these pilgrims2--of the terrible journey over the mountains to the north of ,hindustan2 of a visit to the birth-place of ,siddartha2 to ,benares1 to ,calcutta1 and to ,ceylon2--with an account of the return voyage in a good-sized ship back again to ,china4 ,everywhere1 with one single exception1 they find the law of ,buddha prevailing4 ,the place referred to as exceptional is ,yopoti1 ,java1 of which it is said3 ,in this country1 heretics and ,brahmins flourish2 but the law of ,buddha is not much known 7p4 #afh74 ,in every other spot which they visit the ,chinese wanderers speak applaudingly of the hold which the religion of ,siddartha has upon the people1 and the exemplary conduct of the faithful4 ,from the beginning of the journey to the end1 the enquirers appear always to have found the same form of faith which had been preached in their own country six hundred years before4 ,the most careful investigator fails to find a shadow of those doctrines in which the teaching of ,jesus differs from that of ,sakya4 ,there is not any allusion made to an impending dissolution of the world1 to baptism1 or to any sacrament2 every remark relates to the essentials of ,buddhism as known in each place where ,europeans have been able to peruse the authorized ,buddhist scriptures4 ,we may now quote some passages bearing on important points4 ,about the sources of the ,indus3 ,all the priests asked ,fah-,hian what he knew as to the time when the law of ,buddha began to spread eastward from their country4 ,hian replied1 ,on enquiry1 men of those lands agreed in saying that1 according to an ancient tradition1 ,shamans from ,india began to carry the sacred books of ,buddha beyond the river1 from the time when the image of ,maitreya ,bodhisatwa was set up4 ,this image was set up three hundred years or so after the ,nirvana of ,buddha 7about ,b4,c4 #bdc--or1 according to some estimates1 ,b4,c4 #agg71 which corresponds with the time of ,pingwang of the ,chan family 7b4c4 #ggj--the ,chinese date of ,buddha's ,nirvana being different from that which is usually received in ,india47 ,hence it may be said that the diffusion of the great doctrine can be attributed to the influence of this image4 ,for1 apart from the power of the divine teacher ,mait-reya1 who followed in the footsteps of ,sakya1 who would have been sufficient to cause the knowledge of the three precious ones to be spread so far1 that even men on the outskirts of the world acquired that knowledge8 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 with certainty1 that the origin of this diffusion of the law of ,buddha was no human work1 but sprung from the same cause as the dream of ,ming ,ti 7pp4 #bc-be74 ,the three precious ones above referred to1 are the ,buddhist trinity1 everywhere acknowledged1 ,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,sangha--or1 as some say1 ,buddha--the law and the church4 ,the dream of ,ming ,ti resembles that which we know as the ,annunciation of the ,virgin ,mary1 and foretells the coming of the ,saviour1 one of the names given to ,siddartha4 ,the vision of a divine being1 #gj feet high1 with a body like gold1 and his head glorious as the sun--one who is fanciful may here discern a likeness to the individual described in ,rev4 i4 #ac1 seq4--induced the king to send to ,india to seek after the law of ,fo1 or ,buddha4 ,some one speaking of two great towers adorned with all the precious substances1 which had been erected at a certain town--the ,taxila of the ,greeks--to commemorate episodes in the life of ,buddha1 makes the remark ,the kings1 ministers1 and people of all the surrounding countries vie with each other in making religious offerings at these places1 in scattering flowers and burning incense continually 7p4 #cc74 ,in the city of ,hilo is the ,vitiara containing the relic of the skull-bone of ,buddha4 ,this ,vitiara is entirely covered with plates of gold1 and decorated with the seven precious substances 7gold1 silver1 lapis lazuli1 crystal1 cornelian1 coral1 and ruby47 ,the king of the country reverences in a high degree this sacred relic4 ,as this example shows well the ,buddhist veneration for memorials of the dead1 ,i will not quote more4 ,it is clear that old bones were regarded with religious awe in ,hindostan before they were enshrined in ,christendom4 ,in the case above recorded1 extraordinary pains are taken to preserve the relic from theft or substitution1 and the king offers flowers and incense in front of it daily1 then bends his head to the ground before it in adoration1 and departs4 ,in another place ,buddha's robe is kept1 although we may fairly doubt whether he ever possessed one1 but doubtless it is quite as authentic as the holy coat of ,treves1 or the ,virgin ,mary's milk4 ,there is another relic of ,sakya not yet copied by ,christian pagans1 viz41 the shadow of the great teacher--which lives in a cave1 and can only be seen by the faithful 7p4 #de1 #df74 ,we commend this to thaumaturgical ,gallican divines1 such as those who describe how certain it is that ,mary of ,judea came to show herself at ,lourdes1 and to talk ,french4 ,on arriving at the ,punjaub the record states1 ,the law of ,buddha is prosperous and flourishing here444 ,on seeing disciples from ,china coming among them they were much affected1 and spoke thus3 ,how wonderful to think that men from the ends of the earth should know the character of this religion1 and should come thus far to seek the law of ,buddha4 ,we received from them all that we required1 and were treated according to the provisions of the law 7p4 #ea1eb74 ,all the kingdoms beyond the sandy deserts are spoken of as belonging to ,western ,india4 ,the kings of all these countries firmly believe in the law of ,buddha 7pp4 #ec1 #ed74 ,in the following1 we may see the prototype of monasteries1 ,from the time of ,buddha's ,nirvana1 the kings and nobles of all these countries began to erect viharas for the priesthood1 and to endow them with lands1 gardens1 houses1 and also men and oxen to cultivate them4 ,the records of these endowments being engraved on sheets of copper1 have been handed down from one king to another1 so that no one has dared to deprive them of possession1 and they continue to this day to enjoy their proper revenues4 ,all the resident priests have chambers1 beds1 coverlets1 food1 drink1 and clothes provided for them without stint or reserve4 ,thus it is in all places4 ,the priests1 on the other hand1 continually employ themselves in reciting their scriptures1 in works of benevolence1 or in profound meditation 7pp4 #ee1 #ef74 ,it is very important that we should notice1 although it is unnecessary to dwell upon the fact1 that the pilgrims visited the spot whence ,buddha went up to heaven to preach his law to his mother ,maya1 who died when her child was seven days old1 and1 consequently1 long before he became the ,saviour4 ,the son remained with his parent three months 7p4 #fb47 ,jesus1 it will be remembered1 only preached to the spirits in prison during a day and a-half--which1 by common consent1 passes amongst ,christians for three days4 ,i may also notice that there is mentioned 7p4 #ff71 an idea that three ,buddhas existed before the advent of ,sakya ,muni1 and that the following are their precepts1 translated from the ,chinese copy of a ,buddhist book3--#a4 ,the heart carefully avoiding idle dissipation1 diligently applying itself to religion1 forsaking all lust and consequent disappointment1 fixed and immovable1 attains ,nirvana 7rest47 #b4 ,practising no vice1 advancing in the exercise of virtue1 and purifying the mind from evil2 this is the doctrine of all the ,buddhas4 #c4 ,to keep one's tongue1 to cleanse one's mind1 to do no ill--this is the way to purify oneself throughout1 and to attain this state of discipline is the doctrine of all the great sages 7p4 #ff74 ,the ,buddhists also preserve impressions of ,siddartha's feet and show them to pilgrims1 just as certain papal priests show the impressions of ,st4 ,peter's feet at a church a little outside ,rome1 on the ,appian way4 ,the pilgrims visit ,kapilavastu1 now a desert1 but once the royal residence of ,suddhodana4 ,there are here a congregation of priests and ten families of lay people4 ,in the ruined palace there is a picture of the ,prince ,apparent and his mother 7supposed to be7 taken at the time of his miraculous conception4 ,the prince is represented as descending towards his mother riding on a white elephant4 ,this elephant came from the ,tusita heaven surrounded by light like the sun1 and entered the left side of the mother4 ,as the elephant is the strongest of known terrestrial animals1 it certainly represented ,the power of the ,highest 7see ,luke i4 #ce71 and we may draw one of two inferences--either that the sons of ,maya and ,mary were conceived equally miraculously1 or that the story of one is just as true or as incredible as that of the other4 ,certainly the doctrine of the ,immaculate ,conception was known in ,india long before it was enunciated by a ,christian ,pope in ,rome4 ,perhaps1 had ,pio ,nono known that he was copying a ,buddhistic story1 he would have wavered long before he assimilated his religion to that of ,siddartha4 ,at the same locality a tower is raised to mark the spot where the ,rishi 7,saint or ,prophet7 ,asita calculated the horoscope of ,sakya1 and declared that he would become a supreme ,buddha--a legend which is very similar to that told of old ,simeon and the infant ,jesus 7,luke ii4 #be1 seq474 ,the pilgrims were also shown the garden--not a stable--in which ,maya brought forth her son1 and wherein immediately afterwards the infant walked4 ,two dragon kings--perhaps wise men from the ,east--washed the infant's body1 and this spot afterwards became a sacred well 7p4 #hh74 ,we must pass by an account of a miracle1 to the full as wonderful and quite as incredible as that of ,saint ,ursula and the eleven thousand virgins1 who left their bones at ,cologne because it has no distinct reference to ,buddha4 7,p4 #ig7--;,but ,i may mention that the ,chinese writer states after the end of the story1 that a certain violation of the law occurred one hundred years after ,sakya's death1 and upon this record ,mr ,beal has the following important note--,this refers to the second great council of the ,buddhist church4 ,according to ,singhalese authorities 7,mahawanso7 there were three great convocations or councils--#ast1 immediately after ,buddha's death to compile the authorised scriptures2 #b;d1 to refute certain errors that had crept into the church2 #c;d1 under the great ,asoka1 7p4 #ii74 ,we may doubt the value of the ,mahawanso1 but at the same time we may express a wish that early ,christians had even a tradition of a council to compile authorised scriptures about the son of ,mary ere time sufficient had elapsed to allow the marvellous to develop itself into the incredible4 ,in like manner ,i must omit the description of a procession of images1 amongst which that of ,buddha is conspicuous2 the fete is held at ,patna1 supposed to be the ancient ,palimbothra where ,asoka reigned4 ,it resembles in almost all its details the grand processions of the ,papists on certain occasions1--lamps1 lights1 games1 riot1 and religious offerings are mingled together for the healthy and for the sick1 and wonderful cures are provided as far as possible4 ,to this account is to be appended a very significant1 perhaps ,i might say satirical1 note by the translator of the pilgrims' manuscript4 ,from the whole of this account 7of the procession of images71 it would seem that the ,buddhist worship had already begun to degenerate from its primitive simplicity and severity4 ,plays and music and concerts1 are strictly forbidden by the rules of the order2 we can begin to see how ,buddhism lapsed into ,sivite worship1 and sank finally into the horrors of ,jaganath 7p4 #ajg74 ,to the thoughtful reader of our christian history1 this note upon ,buddhist processions of images is painfully pregnant4 ,it reminds us that the followers of ,maya's son and ,mary's alike lapsed into paganism1 and almost by the same stages4 ,we cannot accuse the ,hindoos of copying the orgies of the ,christian saturnalia or carnival1 nor do we think that the ,europeans cared to imitate the ,hindoos2 but what we do believe is that both parties have fallen lower and lower from their pristine purity in consequence of the gradually increasing feeling that the generality of human beings can only be brought under priestly power by an appeal to their animal propensities4 ,some affirm1 with great show of argumentation1 that it is man's bestial propensities which lead his race to hell4 ,it may be so1 but then1 on the other hand1 it is certain that ecclesiastics endeavour to chain us to their chariots by pandering to1 managing1 exciting1 or otherwise playing upon those propensities1 which man has in common with the sheep1 the ox1 the tiger1 the serpent1 and the elephant4 ,every form of religion1 yet promulgated1 that appeals to sound sense1 thought1 and reason1 has failed from the want of followers capable of dominating their passions4 ,than a pure religion based upon thoughts such as ,sakya ,muni and the son of ,mary gave utterance to1 nothing seems grander1 but such is its nature that it can only be fully embraced by a few4 ,if all are poor1 none can live upon alms--if all sell their worldly goods to purchase ,heaven1 no buyers will be found in the market4 ,the ,buddhist and the ,christian anchorite may1 for a time1 live on charity1 yet each succeeding generation of ascetics will more and more dislike the plan of winning food by misery4 ,we have seen how kings made grand provision for the comfort of the priestly followers of the son of ,maya2 and in later times1 we have seen how the followers of the son of ,mary have1 by artfulness1 provided many similar homes for themselves4 ,yet1 with all this1 there are both ,buddhists and ,christians who have protested1 by their actions1 against religious luxury of every kind4 ,each of my readers may judge of what spirit he is1 by asking himself whether he regards such individuals as wise or foolish4 ,the pilgrims pass on to the place where five hundred saints assembled after ,sakya's death to arrange the collection of sacred books 7p4 #aah7--thence to the spot where ,siddartha bathed1 and the ,deva or ,angel held out the branch of a tree to assist him in coming out of the water 7p4 #aba7--thence to the spot where ,buddha was tempted by three daughters of ,maka as courtesans1 a more severe temptation than befel the ,christian ,anthony--and by ,mara himself with a vast army2 but all uselessly1 for ,sakya was as impregnable as ,jesus4 ,and we find that in the same spot he subsequently underwent mortification1 not for forty days only1 but for six years4 ,all of these localities are marked by towers1 which must1 according to ecclesiastical reasoning1 demonstrate the truth of the legends4 ,after a very long search--for the purpose of ,fah ,hian was to seek for copies of the ,vinaya ,pitaka--he found his exertions to find a copy of the sacred work were useless1 because1 throughout the whole of ,northern ,india1 the various masters trusted to tradition only for their knowledge of the precepts1 and had no written codes4 ,the pilgrims1 however1 when they arrived in ,middle ,india1 found a copy1 which was that used by the first great assembly of priests convened during ,buddha's lifetime 7p4 #adb72 this appears to have been generally regarded as the most correct and complete 7p4 #add74 ,fah ,hian also obtained one copy of ,precepts1 in manuscript1 comprising about #gjjj gathas 7verses or stanzas74 ,this was the same as that generally used in ,china4 ,in this place also an imperfect copy of the ,abhidharma was obtained1 containing #fjjj gathas2 also1 an abreviated form of ,sutras1 or ,precepts1 containing #bejj verses in an abreviated form2 also1 another expanded ,sutra1 with #ejjj verses1 and a second copy of the ,abhidharma1 according to the school of the ,maha ,sanghihas 7the greater vehicle74 ,on this account ,fah ,hian abode in the place 7,patma1 the ancient ,palibothra7 for the space of three years1 engaged in learning to read the ,sanscrit books1 to converse in that language1 and to copy the ,precepts4 ,here his companion1 ,to ,ching1 remained2 but ,fah ,hian1 desiring with his whole heart to spread the knowledge of the ,precepts throughout ,china1 returned alone 7p4 #adf74 ,this pilgrim then goes to the kingdom of ,champa1 where he stopped two years1 to copy out sacred ,sutras1 and to take impressions of the figures used in worship4 ,here the law of ,buddha was generally respected4 ,he then sailed in a great merchant vessel for ,ceylon 7p4 #adh74 ,from this expression we presume that he entered a seaport1 and1 as such1 one likely to have been reached by some ,christian missionary1 if any had ever visited ,india1 as ,paul attained ,asia ,minor1 ,italy1 c4 ,all that we learn about it1 however1 is in a translator's note1 which tells us that the place was mentioned by another ,china man1 ,hiouen ,thsang1 who spoke of the number of heretical sects who were mixed together here--,buddhism being here corrupted at an early period by local superstitions4 ,in ,ceylon ,fah ,hian remained two years1 and1 continuing his search for the sacred books1 obtained a copy of the ,vinaya ,pitaka1 of the great ,agama1 and the miscellaneous ,agama 7books of elementary doctrine71 also a volume of miscellaneous collections from the ,pitakas1 all of which were hitherto entirely unknown in ,china4 ,having obtained these works in the original language 7,pali71 he forthwith shipped himself on board a great merchant vessel1 which carried about #bjj men1 and started for his native land 7p4 #aff74 ,after ,fah ,hian left home1 he was five years in arriving at ,mid ,india4 ,he resided there during six years1 and was three more ere he arrived again in ,china4 ,he had successively passed through thirty different countries4 ,in all the countries of ,india1 after passing the sandy desert 7of ,gobi71 the dignified carriage of the priesthood1 and the surprising influence of religion 7amongst the people71 cannot be adequately described444 ,having been preserved by ,divine power 7by the influences of the ,three honourable ,ones71 and brought through all dangers safely1 he was induced to commit to writing the record of his travels1 desirous that the virtuous of all ages may be informed of them as well as himself 7p4 #agc74 ,after reading this account1 we think that no thoughtful man can reasonably assert that ,christianity was taught in ,india at an early period1 was widely adopted1 and became the parent of ,buddhism4 ,if1 in rejoinder1 we are told that no writers have asserted that there were ,christians in ,india in olden times1 except in ,malabar1 the answer is1 that these were described by those who first met with their successors as totally distinct from the ,hindoos1 and1 consequently1 neither ,buddhists nor ,brahmins4 ,moreover1 we are told that they were regarded by the ,holy ,inquisition of ,europe as heretics1 and were1 consequently1 persecuted by the ,christians 7see ,gibbon's ,roman ,empire1 vol4 viii1 #cee74 ,rosse1 in his book of dates 7,london1 #aheh71 speaks of an ,indian embassy to ,constantine the ,great1 a4d4 #ccd1 and another sent to ,constantius the ,second1 but received by ,julian1 ,a4,d4 #cfb4 ,i cannot1 however1 as yet1 find his authority4 ,but ,socrates1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 book i1 ch4 #ai1 about ,a4,d4 #cca1 speaks of a treaty which had been in existence a short time before1 between the ,romans and the ,indians1 but which had been recently violated4 ,he also1 in the same chapter1 states that there were ,christians amongst the ,roman merchants in ,india--no town or locality being given1 however1 so that we cannot test his assertion--but that they did not then unite to worship4 ,we find also1 from the same chapter1 that up to that period there were no ,christian ,indians known4 ,coupling the foregoing fragments of history together1 we may safely assert that ,india1 generally1 was ,buddhist in ,a4,d4 #djj1 and that1 according to ,pliny1 the ,romans1 or1 rather1 the ,alexandrians1 had been in yearly communication with the country1 for at least three centuries1 at the time of ,constantine4 ,as it appears that there were ,roman merchants in ,india1 so we presume that there were ,hindoo traders resident in ,egypt4 ,the presumption is1 that these were ,buddhists1 and that they were attended1 or followed1 by missionary ,buddhist priests4 ,absolute proof of this there is none4 ,we now turn to ,gibbon's history1 and inquire into the period when monastic asceticism first began to prevail in ,egypt1 the necessary residence of our presumed ,hindoo traffickers4 ,we find 7see ,decline and ,fall1 chapter #cg7 that ,anthony1 an ,egyptian1 and unable to write in ,greek1 living in the lower parts of ,thebais1 distributed his patrimony1 deserted his family and native home1 lived amongst tombs1 or in a ruined tower1 then in the desert1 and then in some lonely spot1 near the ,red ,sea1 where he found shade and water4 ,it certainly seems clear that he took the son of ,maya1 rather than the child of ,mary1 as his exemplar4 ,at and after this time1 the rage for asceticism spread amongst the inhabitants of ,eastern ,africa as conspicuously as it had done in ,oriental ,asia at the time of ,asoka4 ,it is difficult to read the chapter of ,gibbon's history to which we refer1 and a history of ,buddhism1 without regarding ,egypt1 and her miserable ascetics1 in the same light as we look upon the folks of ,hindustan and ,thibet4 ,if ,jesus of ,nazareth had dictated such a life1 surely his early followers would have been more conspicuous in their habitual mortifications than their later disciples were4 ,the son of man--the child of ,mary--came eating and drinking1 and was called a gluttonous man and a wine bibber1 a friend of publicans and sinners 7,luke vii4 #cd2 ,matt1 xi4 #ai74 ,not so the son of ,maya4 ,the ,apostles of ,jesus had power to lead about a wife or a sister1 and they did so4 ,neither ,paul nor ,peter shunned woman's society1 nor did they practise poverty2 nay1 they worked with their own hands1 lest they should have to live on alms 7#b ,thess4 iii4 #h71 and they collected money for poor saints from the wealthier brethren4 ,there was no asceticism here1 nor can we find1 in any part of the ,new ,testament1 a text upon which a system of austerity can be founded4 ,we might1 perhaps1 think comparatively little of the parallel which we have drawn between ,buddhism1 and ,christianity1 did we not recognize the fact1 that almost everyone of the later developments of the latter had1 for centuries before1 found a place in the former1 even including1 as we have mentioned1 the dogma of the immaculate conception4 ,to the preceding considerations we may add another1 which1 as ,ivanhoe said of himself1 is of lesser renown and lower rank1 and assumed into the honourable company less to aid their enterprise than to make up their number4 ,standing alone it may have small power1 but as a link in a chain it is important4 ,we refer to the abundant testimony which we possess of the strength of ,grecian influence upon the tenets of ,christianity4 ,without laying any stress upon the fact that the whole of the ,new ,testament extant is written in ,greek1 we may advert to the current belief amongst thoughtful scholars1 that the so-called ,gospel of ,st4 ,john was written by some ,alexandrian ,greek about #aej ,a4,d41 or by one who was imbued with the philosophy of ,plato4 ,sharpe has distinctly shown that the doctrine of the trinity was held in ,ancient ,egypt1 and first adopted1 then promulgated1 by the ,egyptian or ,alexandrian divines4 ,the influence of ,greek ideas upon ,philo ,judaeus is very conspicuous4 ,we may now turn our attention to one statement about the ,athenians1 viz41 that they and the strangers which were there spent their time in nothing else than to tell and to hear some new thing1 and that they were so particular--in this respect resembling the ,ancient ,peruvians--in adopting foreign gods1 that they had an altar to the ,unknown ,deity 7,acts xvii74 ,to this we must add what ,sozomen says of them 7,ecclesiastical ,history1 book ii4 chap4 #bd7--that the most celebrated philosophers amongst the ,greeks took pleasure in exploring unknown cities and regions4 ,plato1 the friend of ,socrates1 dwelt for a time amongst the ,egyptians1 in order to acquaint himself with their manners and customs4 ,he likewise sailed to ,sicily1 to examine its craters4444 ,these craters were likewise explored by ,empedocles4 ,democritus of ,coos relates that he visited many cities1 and countries1 and nations1 and that eighty years of his life were spent in travelling in foreign lands4 ,besides these philosophers1 thousands of wise men amongst the ,greeks1 ancient and modern1 habituated themselves to travel4 ,solon1 it is well known1 travelled to the court of ,croesus1 and it is affirmed that ,pythagoras visited ,india4 ,sozomen makes the above statement to explain how it was that ,merope of ,tyre1 with two young relatives1 visited ,india1 the two latter becoming its first two bishops4 ,nothing is more probable than that ,greeks1 who had resided for a time in ,india1 on their return1 believing that as they had recognized in ,hindostan an earnest form of ,christianity1 differing from the ,alexandrian standard only in a few minor points1 thought it right to introduce into western religion ,buddhist practices--first into ,egypt1 via ,alexandria1 and thence into ,europe4 ,we certainly cannot prove that they did it1 but there is a very good reason for believing so4 ,the doctrines of ,jesus emanated1 we believe1 from some early ,asoka's missionaries2 whilst the doctrines of the ,alexandrians and the ,ascetics1 came from subsequent ,buddhists1 who placed their stamp on ,christianity once more4 ,thus we have been led1 by a strict inquiry into every extant testimony known1 to believe that the faith taught by ,siddartha1 was held for at least #bej--;and most probably1 #ejj years1 before our era4 ,still further1 we have been led to believe1 from the extraordinary energy and success of ,buddhist missionaries in the three centuries before ,christ--a success before which all ,christian missionary enterprise pales--that emissaries from ,asoka's colleges of priests1 penetrated westward with the ,greeks as far as the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean1 and forced some devout ,jews to modify their belief4 ,but1 though it is probable that the ,hindoo teachers introduced the morality inculcated by ,sakya ,muni1 it seems certain that they could not induce their ,hebrew disciples to abandon their implicit trust in those writings which they had been induced to think were absolutely inspired or written by direct command of the ,almighty--consequently1 ,christianity must be regarded not as pure ,buddhism1 but a form of it modified by ,jewish traditions4 ,but when those who embraced the religion of ,jesus1 had learned to distrust the literal truth of the ,old ,testament1 and had the certainty that the prophesies about the immediate destruction of the world were false1 they came again into contact with ,buddhist teaching1 and were content to forego ,judaism4 ,they did not1 however1 give up ,jesus as the ,saviour4 ,instead of believing with ,sakya1 that man suffered for his own sin1 they clung to the legend of ,adam and ,eve1 and affirmed that suffering was introduced into the whole world by this very original couple4 ,instead of ,nirvana1 their heaven was ,ouranos--the sky above them4 ,instead of an abode where all the senses were at rest1 they adopted the idea of a golden city1 with a river of crystal running through it2 brilliant with jewels1 and guarded by gates and walls in which all the good should spend their time in singing and music4 ,the ,christians adopted all the ,asceticism1 dirt1 and love of vermin1 that the disciples of ,sakya1 and even ,siddartha himself1 delighted in--but they nevertheless clung to the idea that the world was sure to be destroyed1 and that ,jesus would come again4 ,it is indeed1 difficult to reconcile the belief1 that he who washed his disciples' feet1 and praised a woman for cleaning and anointing his own1 sanctioned an idea which1 throughout centuries1 urged religionists to be filthy2 yet we must do so if we are orthodox4 ,we have1 indeed1 similar anomalies now4 ,devout ,christians tell us that this world ought to be made a preparation for another2 and that the main joy of heaven will be an indefinite increase of knowledge4 ,yet these same people affirm1 sometimes in distinct terms1 that an extension of scientific attainments1 and a constant inquiry into the will of ,god1 as expressed in the works of ,his hands1 are snares of the ,devil1 and so to be avoided by all good people4 ,the ,orthodox as a rule believe--though few venture to affirm it1 that ,jehovah loves the fools the best1 and that ignorance is godliness4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,estimation of the ,bible4 ,the ,dhammapada and ,hebrew 7sacred7 books4 ,certain important dates4 ,jews were never missionaries4 ,precepts of ,buddha4 ,contrasts4 ,how to overcome undesirable thoughts4 ,knowledge beats prayer4 ,sunday proverbs4 ,new birth4 ,divines preach brotherly love in the pulpit1 and provoke hate when out of it4 ,buddhist precept is do as ,i do1 not do as ,i say4 ,the narrow way of the ,gospel finds an origin in ,buddhism4 ,one law broken all law broken--a ,buddhist maxim4 ,sakya taught about a future world4 ,parallel passages4 ,effect of ,buddhist and ,christian teaching4 ,parallel passages about truth and almsgiving4 ,ignorance a ,buddhist vice and a ,christian virtue4 ,suppressio veri1 suggestio falsi in the pulpit ,classes in the religious world4 ,why ignorance is cherished4 ,ignorance often more profitable than knowledge4 ,examples4 ,charlatans live by the fools4 ,honest doctors and parsons must be poor4 ,poverty an essential part of ,buddhism4 ,hierarchs are quite unnecessary to the enlightened man4 ,parallel passages again4 ,unphilosophical dicta in ,buddhism and ,bible4 ,prosperity not a proof of propriety1 and misery not always a reward of badness4 ,lions and lambs4 ,design in creation4 ,right and wrong--do they exist before the ,creator4 ,false analogies4 ,persecution a ,christian but not a ,buddhist practice4 ,popgun thunders from the ,vatican4 ,age not equivalent to wisdom4 ,siddartha did not prophesy1 and so made no mistake about that which was to follow4 ,more negatives and positives4 ,another contrast ,no obscene stories in ,buddhist as in ,jewish scriptures--no legend of ,lot and his daughters1 ,david and ,bathsheba1 of ,onan1 ,judah and ,tamar1 ,zimri1 ,cozbi1 and ,phinehas1 and a host of others4 ,a good deal of nonsense in all ancient writings4 ,the foolish stories and prophecies of the ,bible--if abstracted1 little remains4 ,the little might be improved by extracts from ,plato1 ,epictetus1 and ,buddhist scriptures1 and even from those of ,confucius4 ,from the earliest times which ,i can remember1 ,i have heard the ,english ,bible spoken of with the utmost reverence1 as the undoubted word of ,god1 as a revelation of the will1 ways1 and even the thoughts of the ,supreme ,being4 ,everything which it contains has been regarded as infallibly true1 and the wisdom1 goodness1 mercy1 and justice of its doctrines and laws have been judged to be unimpeachable4 ,from the pulpit of many earnest divines ,i have heard innumerable sermons whose burden has been praise of1 and admiration for1 the morality of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 the sublimity of the language therein used1 and the loftiness of the thoughts embodied4 ,from those same teachers1 and from a still greater number of laymen1 ,i have heard the assertion repeatedly made that the ,bible must be divinely inspired1 because no other set of men1 except those who composed its books1 could write so powerfully2 and depict so graphically1 the wants1 the woes1 the pleasures1 the passions1 the aspirations1 and the doubts of the human mind4 ,by a great majority1 if not by the whole of our imperfectly educated ministers and people1 the assertion to which we here refer is raised to the position of an argument2 and any opponent who ventures to question the truth of the assumption1 is challenged to show a book of divinity equal or superior to the ,bible4 ,the worthlessness of the argument might be readily shown to any one accustomed to use his reason1 by pointing out that the religious books of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,medea1 ,persians1 and ,etruscans1 are lost to us4 ,we may compare the assertion with that which ,englishmen might have made1 to the effect that the ,british breed of horses was superior to any other1 for no one could show them a better2 yet as soon as our ,crusaders became acquainted with the ,arabian steed1 the value of the assumption was destroyed4 ,yet such a remark would be wholly inoperative on the mind of every bigot whose judgment of evidence is always bribed by his prejudice4 ,consequently1 to make any serious impression upon the mind of the ,bibliolater1 it is desirable1 if possible1 to make copies of the holy images worshipped by other nations1 under the name of sacred books1 and to place these side by side with that grotesque production1 which1 for our purposes1 may be compared to ,diana of the ,ephesians--the thing which fell down from ,jupiter4 ,yet even when we do bring from distant countries1 to which in our complacency we give the name of heathen1 copies of their deified books1 and show their equality with1 or superiority to that which we are told was arranged by the disposition of angels 7,acts vii4 #ec7--the scriptures that ,paul 7#b ,tim4 iii4 #af7 affirms were entirely given by inspiration of ,god --,greek--1 see also #a ,pet4 i4 #aa1 #ab1--we are met by the assertion1 if the equality is allowed1 that the ,pagan writings have been copied from1 or are traceable to1 the writers in the ,old or in the ,new ,testament4 ,whenever a thoughtless theologian asserts that such a thing must be so1 he is not by any means particular as to the facts upon which he bases his belief4 ,this weakness of his is so conspicuous to the logical observer1 that he sometimes feels pity at having to wound a mind so earnest as to be unable to use its reason4 ,he almost regards himself as a man fighting a child or a weak woman4 ,yet men will1 in their power and knowledge1 deprive a baby of a bon-bon1 which it is sucking eagerly1 if they know that it is poisonous1 and will lay violent hands upon a tender girl who1 in a whirlwind of passion1 is about to throw herself before a railway train4 ,after the event both the individuals may learn to thank the roughness which saved them2 and ,i feel sure that many an earnest religionist1 who now thinks that the philosophers are treating him cruelly1 by trying to deprive him of a cherished faith1 will ultimately be grateful for having been induced to cease grovelling in the dust of a coarse antiquity4 ,if we endeavour to ascertain the basis of the belief that everything which is good must have come from the ,bible1 we find that it exists in the assertion that the ,jews were the chosen people of ,god1 selected by ,him to receive a record of ,his past doings and ,his future desires4 ,hence it is argued1 that all who have not been taught by the ,jews1 or through their influence1 are without ,god in the world--poor1 benighted pagans4 ,to support assumptions so monstrous as this1 there is not a tittle of evidence beyond the existence of certain stories in some books1 said to contain a truthful record of facts4 ,but although the theologian heaps up protestation upon asseveration until the mass attains an imposing size1 the whole is not of more substantial value than a huge bubble blown by an energetic school boy4 ,if millions could be brought to believe that such a hollow sphere was a solid1 painted with the most resplendent colours obtained from the celestial mansions1 it would not make it other than a film of soap and water filled with air4 ,yet though the unanimous consent of myriads cannot convert foam into a solid substance1 a mass of froth may be treated as if it were something better1 so long as all agree not to test its qualities2 and any book may in like manner be regarded as of divine origin1 so long as everybody determines not to test the reality of the opinion4 ,we can easily imagine that those who have been educated to believe in the absolute density of a bubble1 must be greatly distressed when it bursts4 ,indeed in every mercantile community we see frequent illustrations of this4 ,designing men weave a plausible story1 and by inflated words induce a number of thoughtless people to believe their statements1 adopt their promises1 and act upon their recommendation4 ,whilst all seems to be prosperous1 every dupe repels with indignation the statement that the whole of his confraternity are deceived4 ,if faith in the stability of a banking house could have upheld it1 ,overend ,gurnets would never have broken4 ,if then faith1 the most complete and child-like trust in the truth of anything1--say particularly in a certain book--will not make it valuable if it be in reality worthless1 then all those who wish to feel beneath them the everlasting arms of truth1 should inquire into current beliefs rather than take everything for granted4 ,at the time when the wealth1 power1 and stability of the ,bank above referred to were implicitly believed in by the many1 and especially trusted by its shareholders1 there were1 outside of its pale1 many individuals who felt sure that the establishment was very shaky1 and a few who were aware that it was toppling to its fall4 ,if then1 at that time1 any customer or proprietor1 feeling a doubt about its safety1 should have endeavoured to investigate the rumours which were adverse to it2 and should have acted as reason dictated1 after he had weighed the alleged facts on both sides1 he might have came to a safe decision and saved his money4 ,what is true in this case may be applied to the ,bible--the ,bank upon which so many draw large drafts1 and in whose stability they have unbounded confidence4 ,the thoughtless may1 and doubtless will1 continue to trust it implicitly--the thoughtful will probably consult1 not only the ,bibliolaters1 but those who put no faith whatever in the volume1 and judge for themselves4 ,the fear which many men have of biblical inquiry1 has for a long period struck me as being inexplicable1 inasmuch as it is at variance with the assertion of these very same people1 that an examination of the book must prove it to be infallibly true4 ,but investigation into a supposed truth can only end by confirming it fully1 and thus making the truth more useful2 or by demonstrating that the belief entertained is untenable4 ,it has been the dread--nay the certainty1 of the latter result1 which has deterred many great minds from investigating the matter4 ,amongst these the late ,professor ,faraday was conspicuous1 for we learn from a letter in the ,athenaeum of ,jan4 #g1 #ahgj1 written by one of his own personal friends1 that he--perhaps the most accomplished seeker after physical truth in his time1 declined firmly to search into the value of the commonly received notions respecting the scriptures1 as he felt sure that his faith in them would thereby be shaken4 ,yet he was illogical enough to use them as a basis for his theological teaching4 ,he preached to others from texts in which he had no confidence2 and supported his doctrines by quotations from a book which1 in his secret heart1 he felt was valueless as an exponent of historical truth1 or orthodox teaching4 ,before we proceed to the comparison between the ,dhammapada and the ,bible1 it will be judicious to place fairly before the reader the points which we hope to elucidate4 ,we wish to show1 by a collation of dates and doctrines1 that the two are wholly independent of each other1 and as we have elsewhere remarked1 that if there has been any relationship between ,buddhist and ,christian writings1 the first have had more than two centuries' precedence over the last4 ,we wish to compare the morality taught by ,buddha1 with that promulgated in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,we desire impartially to examine into the question1 whether the claim for inspiration can be allowed in either one case or the other1 or in both together--whether1 indeed1 it is possible to believe the ,hebrew scriptures to be dictated by ,god1 without giving a similar confidence to the teachings of ,sakya ,muni--or1 assuming that there is to be found a code of pure morality or ethics which we may suppose to be of universal application1 we shall endeavour to ascertain whether the ,hebrews and the followers of ,mary1 or the disciples of the son of ,maya ,deva1 have made the nearest approach to its discovery and establishment4 ,collaterally we shall examine whether ,jesus has a greater claim than ,buddha to be the ,son of ,god4 ,the ,dhammapada which has recently 7,truebner ,co41 ,london1 #ahgj997 been translated by ,max ,muelller from the ,pali1 is one of the many books which profess to give1 as our ,gospels and ,epistles do of ,christ1 the teachings or precepts of ,buddha4 ,these were for some two or three centuries traditional only2 but about the period1 ,b4,c4 #cjj1 many1 if not most of them1 were committed to writing4 ,as far as can be ascertained1 the year b4c4 #bdf was the period of the first ,buddhist council under ,asok1 and shortly after this1 ,mahuida1 a priestly son of ,asoka1 went as a missionary to ,ceylon2 other emissaries went to ,burmah1 ,china1 ,japan1 and it is believed elsewhere4 ,the oral promulgation of the ,dhammapada would probably begin about b4c4 #efj--twenty years or thereabouts before the death of ,siddartha4 ,if we turn to contemporary history in the west of ,asia1 we find that at this period ,jerusalem was in ruins1 and the ,jews were captives in ,babylonia--no copies of any ,hebrew sacred book were known to be in existence 7#b ,esdras xiv4 #ba2 #b ,maccabees ii4 #a-ac--see also #a ,maccabees i4 #ba-bc71 and1 so far as we could learn1 ,india was a country wholly unknown to the ,shemitic race4 ,the acquaintanceship between ,hindustan and ,europe seems to have been made in the time when the ,greek monarch1 ,alexander1 overthrew ,darius of ,persia4 ,alexander invaded ,india about b4c4 #cbg1 consequently we infer that there was no possibility of ,buddha being influenced by western notions in b4c4 #efj4 99 ,buddhaghosa's ,parables1 translated from ,burmese1 by ,capt ,t4 ,rogers2 with an introduction1 containing ,buddha's ,dhammapada1 or ,path of ,virtue1 by ,max ,mueller4 ,truebner ,co41 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,to these considerations we must add the fact that the ,jews have never been1 from the earliest to the latest times1 a missionary nation1--indeed1 their laws and precepts forced them to be so peculiarly reserved1 that even if they had known about ,india they would not have sent their emissaries there1 inasmuch as the ,mosaic law obliged them to present themselves at the ,temple at ,jerusalem thrice a-year1 which was wholly incompatible with distant travel4 ,moreover1 there are many extant histories to show that intelligent westerns went to ,india for knowledge and religion1 and never seemed to think of carrying their own faith thither4 ,the whole course of history points to religion and civilization coming westerly from ,india or ,central ,asia4 ,the dates above given will clearly show that ,sakya ,muni could not have derived his ideas from the teaching of ,jesus1 or of the ,talmudists1 neither of whom were in existence when he flourished4 ,whatever similarity1 therefore1 we find in the doctrines1 c41 of the two1 cannot be accounted for by supposing that ,christian missionaries carried the ,new ,testament to ,india4 ,the reverse is far more probable1 as we have demonstrated in a preceding chapter4 ,some inquirers into the history of the sons of ,maya ,deva and of ,mary are so convinced of the priority of the first1 and of the close resemblance of the incidents in the lives and in the teaching of the two1 that they have found themselves forced1 reluctantly1 to consider the question--whether ,christianity is not ,buddhism altered in some respects by ,judaism4 ,this point having been elsewhere spoken of1 we will not pursue it4 ,but a far more important1 and1 for many ,christians1 a more momentous inquiry1 is1 whether we can speak of the ,son of ,mary as the offspring of ,jehovah1 and yet affirm that the child of ,maya ,deva was nothing but a common man4 ,so deeply have some been moved by this consideration1 that ,i have positively heard the opinion broached1 that the ,indian sage was the very same as he who subsequently was put to death in ,jerusalem4 ,wild though the allegation is1 there is quite as great an amount of probability in it as in the assertion that ,jesus went and preached unto those spirits which were sometime disobedient1 i4e41 in the time of ,noah 7#a ,pet4 iii4 #ai1 #bj71 and were1 consequently1 then in prison1 or that ,buddha went to his dead mother1 and converted her to his own faith4 ,about supernatural births we shall treat in a succeeding part4 ,without incumbering our pages with all the precepts of the ,dhammapada1 we will copy a few in detail to show the reader their style1 and then we will only quote those which are most appropriate to our subject4 ,the opening paragraphs singularly resemble those in ,bacon's ,novum ,organon1 and run thus--,all that we are1 is the result of what we have thought3 it is founded on our thoughts4 ,if a man speaks or acts with an evil thought1 pain follows him1 as the wheel follows the foot of him who draws the carriage 7lv474 #b4 ,all that we are is the result of what we have thought3 it is founded on our thoughts1 it is made up of our thoughts4 ,if a man speaks or acts with a pure thought1 happiness follows him1 like a shadow that never leaves him 7lvi4 et4 seq474 #c4 ,he abused me1 he beat me1 he defeated me1 he robbed me--hatred in those who harbour such thoughts will never cease49999 #d4 ,he abused me1 he beat me1 he defeated me1 he robbed me--hatred in those who do not harbour such thoughts will cease4 #e4 ,for hatred does not cease by hatred at any time2 hatred ceases by love--this is an old rule4 99 ,the figures refer to the separate precepts1 which are given in numerical order4 9999 ,with this and the following saying we may compare the words of the ,psalms--,do not ,i hate those1 ,o ,lord1 that hate thee8 and am ,i not grieved with those that rise up against thee8 ,i hate them with a perfect hatred2 ,i count them mine enemies 7,ps4 cxxxix4 #ba1 #bb74 ,the words of ,david1 said to be a man after ,god's own heart1 are equally opposed to the law of love1 viz41 ,thou hast given me the necks of my enemies1 that ,i might destroy them that hate me 7#b ,sam4 xxii4 #da2 ,ps4 xviii4 #dj72 ,i shall see my desire on them that hate me 7,ps4 cxviii4 #g74 ,in ,deuteronomy we find1 moreover1 that indulgence in hatred is attributed to the ,almighty1 who repayeth them that hate ,him to their face to destroy them3 ,he 7,god7 will not be slack to him that hateth ,him1 he will repay him to his face 7chap4 vii4 #aj74 ,hatred of their enemies is1 indeed1 everywhere encouraged in the ,jewish ,scriptures1 called sacred1 and the ,hebrew ,jehovah is described as one with whom the power to hate and revenge ,himself is a favourite luxury4 #f4 ,and some do not know that we must come to an end here2 but others know it1 and hence their quarrels cease4 #g4 ,he who lives looking for pleasures only1 his senses uncontrolled1 immoderate in his enjoyments1 idle and weak1 ,mara 7the ,tempter1 the ,adversary1 or ,satan7 will certainly overcome him1 as the wind throws down a weak tree4 #h4 ,he who lives without looking for pleasures1 his senses well controlled1 in his enjoyments moderate1 faithful and strong1 ,mara will certainly not overcome him1 any more than the wind throws down a rocky mountain4 #aa4 ,they who imagine truth in untruth1 and see untruth in truth1 never arrive at truth1 but follow vain desires4 #ae4 ,the evildoer mourns in this world1 and he mourns in the next1 he mourns in both44444 #af4 ,the virtuous man delights in this world1 and he delights in the next2 he delights in both4 ,we may pause here1 and ask ourselves whether1 throughout the whole of the ,old ,testament1 we can find a single passage which so distinctly points to a future state as does this ,buddhistic teaching4 ,yet bibliolaters assert that the effusions of ,jewish writers were inspired by ,god6 ,mortal men cannot tell what takes place after their bodies have become dissipated into various chemical compounds2 consequently1 they cannot decide1 with certainty1 which deserves the greater credit for accuracy--the ,dhammapada1 or the ,hebrew ,scriptures2 but all those who believe in the teaching of ,jesus are bound to acknowledge that the ,indian sage was inspired by a power superior to that which is said to have dictated to the ,israelite4 ,how profitably1 again1 might the following observations be enunciated from our pulpits1 instead of the vapid and superficial divinity1 which disgraces both the utterer and the listener3-- #ba4 ,reflection is the path of immortality1 thoughtlessness the path of death4 ,those who reflect do not die2 those who are thoughtless are as if dead already4 #be4 ,by rousing himself1 by reflection1 by restraint and control1 the wise man may make for himself an island1 which no flood can overwhelm4 #bg4 ,follow not after vanity1 nor after the enjoyment of love and lust4 ,he who reflects and meditates obtains ample joy ,we dare not affirm that the writer of the first epistle of ,john was familiar with the ,dhammapada1 but his words 7chap4 ii1 v4 #ae71 ,love not the world1 neither the things that are in the world1 c41 are as purely ,buddhistic as if he had known the doctrine of the ,indian sage4 ,we doubt whether1 in the whole ,bible1 a parallel passage to the following can be found3-- #cf4 ,let the wise man guard his thoughts1 for they are difficult to perceive1 very artful1 and they rush wherever they list3 thoughts well guarded bring happiness4 ,it is true that in the ,psalms1 and elsewhere1 there is a full recognition of the power of ,god to know1 and even to punish man for1 bad thoughts1 but there is no precept recommending man to cultivate his mental powers for the pleasure which the task will bring4 ,the following observation is equally to be commended3-- #dj4 ,knowing that this body is 7fragile7 like a jar1 and making this thought firm like a fortress1 one should attack ,mara 7the tempter1 or ,satan1 the adversary7 with the weapon of knowledge1 one should watch him when conquered1 and never cease from the fight4 ,a few moments' consideration here1 will show the reader that there is a fundamental distinction between the theology of the ,east and ,west in reference to the management of the thoughts of the heart4 ,jew and ,christian teachers alike encourage their disciples to combat evil thoughts by prayer and by fasting1 but they never once allude to the value of knowledge as a weapon4 ,yet1 of its power1 relatively to supplication1 none can have a doubt4 ,it it probable that no man or woman can attain to adult age without being aware of the intrusion1 into their minds1 of thoughts1 whose presence greatly distresses the individual1 and the worst of these is1 that they take so complete a possession1 as not to be driven away by any simple wrestling with them4 ,in this emergency the devout ,christian has recourse to prayer1 which serves to nail the intruder even more closely to his seat4 ,the philosopher1 on the other hand1 turns his mind to think actively upon some other subject than that which has intruded upon him1 and as soon as he has fixed his attention upon the second1 the first immediately withdraws4 ,smarting1 for example1 under a sense of ridicule from some accident which has happened to himself in a ball-room1 or other assembly1 a man may retire to his pillow1 yet find thereupon no rest4 ,he sees1 every minute1 the merry faces which laughed when he put the sprig of lavender1 that his lovely partner gave him for a keepsake1 behind his ear1 as if it were a pen1 and grinds his teeth with rage or shame4 ,yet1 if he now betakes himself to go through the preparations which ought to be made to enable observers to notice accurately the transit of ,venus1 and then the means by which they can approximately ascertain the mean distance of the sun from the earth1 he will find at once a pleasant refuge from his trouble1 and fall asleep whilst extracting a square root4 ,those young men1 and others1 who1 like the old saints are said to have done1 often suffer much from what may be called presumptuous desires of the flesh1 will find the acquisition of knowledge is a powerful agent in subduing the cravings of lust1 and hard thinking curbs our passions far more effectually than the scourge of the ascetic1 or the prayers of the hermit4 ,mental activity1 although it does not entirely remove it1 does much to repress inordinate desire1 and we consequently prefer the teaching of the son of ,maya to that of any son of ,abraham4 ,of the estimate of a well-regulated mind we have the following3-- #db4 ,whatever a hater may do to a hater1 or an enemy to an enemy1 a wrongly-directed mind will do us greater mischief4 #dc4 ,not a mother1 not a father1 nor any other relative1 will do so much that a well-directed mind will not do us greater service4 ,to this we can find no parallel in the ,hebrew scriptures4 ,some of the following are equal to any of those proverbs attributed to ,solomon3-- #gf4 ,if you see an intelligent man who tells you where true treasures are to be found1 who shows you what is to be avoided1 and who administers reproofs1 follow that wise man3 it will be better1 not worse1 for those who follow him4 #gh4 ,do not have evildoers for friends1 do not have low people2 have virtuous people for friends1 have for friends the best of men4 #hj4 ,well-makers lead the water wherever they like1 fletchers bend the arrow1 carpenters bend a log of wood1 wise people fashion themselves4 #ha4 ,as a solid rock is not shaken by the wind1 wise people falter not amidst blame and praise4 #id4 ,the gods even envy him whose senses have been subdued1 like horses well broken in by the driver1 who is free from pride and free from frailty4 #ig4 ,the man who is free from credulity1 but knows the uncreated1 who has cut all ties1 removed all temptations renounced all desires1 he is the greatest of men4 ,a saying which is almost identical with ,he that is slow to anger is better than the mighty1 and he that ruleth his spirit better than he that taketh a city 7,prov4 xvi4 #cb74 ,those ,christians who believe in works of supererogation1 and trust to stores of merit laid up by certain saints1 who have lashed their bodies and otherwise injured themselves1 may read the following opinion with profit3-- #ajh4 ,whatever a man sacrifices in this world as an offering or as an oblation for a whole year in order to gain merit1 the whole of it is not worth a quarter2 reverence shown to the righteous is better4 ,respecting evil1 we find the following3-- #aaf4 ,if a man would hasten towards the good1 he should keep his thought away from evil2 if a man does what is good slothfully1 his mind delights in evil4 #aag4 ,if a man commits a sin1 let him not do it again1 let him not delight in sin2 pain is the outcome of evil4 #aah4 ,if a man does what is good let him do it again1 let him delight in it2 happiness is the outcome of good4 #abf4 ,some people are born again2 evil-doers go to ,hell1 righteous people go to ,heaven2 those who are free from all worldly desires enter ,nirvana4 ,it is therefore clear that ,jesus of ,nazareth did not inaugurate the idea of a new birth4 ,in precept #acc we have another sentiment parallel with a passage in ,proverbs3 ,do not speak harshly to anybody2 those who are spoken to will answer thee in the same way4 ,angry speech is painful blows1 for blows will touch thee2 or1 as our ,bible has it1 ,a soft answer turneth away wrath1 but grievous words stir up anger 7,prov4 xv4 #a74 ,the following is a reproach to a vast number of individuals who are called ,christian preachers1 and teach doctrines of brotherly love1 but act as if religious hatred of dissenters of every class were a duty3-- #aei4 ,let each man make himself as he teaches others to be2 he who is well subdued may subdue others2 one's own self is difficult to subdue4 #aff4 ,let no one neglect his own duty for the sake of another's1 however great3 let a man1 after he has discerned his own duty1 be always attentive to his duty4 ,the following might have served as the original of the epistles of ,john3-- #afg4 ,do not follow the evil law6 ,do not live on in thoughtlessness6 ,do not follow false doctrine6 ,be not a friend of the world4 #afh4 #i4 ,rouse thyself6 do not be idle1 follow the law of virtue--do not follow that of sin4 ,the virtuous lives happily in this world and in the next4 #agj1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,look upon the world as a bubble2 the foolish are immersed in it1 but the wise do not cling to it4 ,he who formerly was reckless1 and afterwards became sober1 and he whose evil deeds are covered by good deeds1 brighten up this world like the moon when freed from clouds4 #agd4 ,this world is dark--few only can be here2 a few only go to heaven like birds escaped from the net4 ,a statement repeated by ,jesus in different words1--,strait is the gate1 and narrow is the way1 which leadeth unto life1 and few there be that find it 7,matt4 vii4 #ad74 ,there may likewise be a comparison instituted between the following3-- #agf4 ,if a man has transgressed one law1 and speaks lies and scoffs at another world1 there is no evil he will not do4 ,whosoever shall keep the whole law1 and yet offend in one point1 he is guilty of all 7,jas4 ii4 #aj74 ,i quote this and the next saying to corroborate the assertion that ,buddha taught the existence of a future world3-- #agg4 ,the uncharitable do not go to the world of the gods2 fools only do not praise liberality2 a wise man rejoices in liberality1 and through it becomes blessed in the other world4 ,compare #a ,tim4 vi4 #ag1 #ah1ai1 ,charge them that are rich in this world4444 that they be--ready to distribute1 willing to communicate1 laying up in store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come1 that they may lay hold on eternal life4 ,see again 7#cjf71 ,he who says what is not1 goes to hell2 he also who1 having done a thing1 says ,i have not done it4 ,after death both are equal1 they are men with evil deeds in the next world4 #cji4 ,four things does a reckless man gain who covets his neighbour's wife--a bad reputation1 an uncomfortable bed--thirdly1 punishment1 and1 lastly1 hell4 #caj4 ,there is bad reputation1 and the evil way 7to hell74 #caa4 ,as a grass blade if badly grasped cuts the arm1 badly practised asceticism leads to hell4 #agh4 ,better than sovereignty over the earth1 better than going to heaven1 better than lordship over all worlds1 is the reward of the first step in holiness4 ,what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul8 or1 ,what shall a man give in exchange for his soul8 7,matt1 xvi4 #bf74 ,it would be difficult to find any doctrine enunciated in the ,bible more simple than the following3-- #ahc4 ,not to commit any sin1 to do good1 and to purify one's mind1 that is the teaching of the ,awakened4 #ahd4 ,the ,awakened call patience the highest penance1 long-suffering the highest ,nirvana1 for he is not an anchorite who strikes others1 he is not an ascetic who insults others4 #ahe4 ,not to blame1 not to strike1 to live restrained under the law1 to be moderate in eating1 to sleep and eat alone1 and to dwell on the highest thoughts1 this is the teaching of the ,awakened4 ,equally difficult would it be to find in the ,old ,testament such precepts as-- #aig4 ,let us live happily1 then1 not hating those who hate us2 let us dwell free from hatred among men who hate4 ,let us live free from greed among men who are greedy4 #bjj4 ,let us live happily though we can call nothing our own4 #bjd4 ,health is the greatest of gifts1 contentedness the best riches2 trust is the best of relatives1 ,nirvana the highest happiness4 ,the following quotations deserve the close attention of the ,christian inquirer1 for they not only contain sentiments almost identically the same as those found in the ,new ,testament1 but they are couched in the same language1 as closely as the circumstances of the case allow4 ,both enunciate the opinion that it is injudicious to cultivate or even to permit the existence of those affections which we have in common with the lower animals1 and that to attain perfection love and hatred must be trampled under foot4 ,we give the ,buddhist teaching priority1 as it was promulgated first3-- #baj4 ,let no man ever look for what is pleasant or what is unpleasant4 ,not to see what is pleasant is pain1 and it is pain to see what is unpleasant4 #baa4 ,let1 therefore1 no man love anything2 loss of the beloved is evil4 ,those who love nothing and hate nothing have no fetters4 #bab4 ,from pleasure comes grief1 from pleasure comes fear1 he who is free from pleasure knows neither grief nor fear4 #bac-f4 ,from affection comes grief and fear1 from lust comes grief and fear1 from love comes grief and fear1 from greed comes grief and fear4 ,he who is free from affection1 lust1 love1 and greed1 knows neither grief nor fear4 ,he that loveth either father or mother more than me is not worthy of me1 and he that loveth son or daughter better than me is not worthy of me1 and he that taketh not his cross and followeth after me is not worthy of me4 ,he that findeth his life shall lose it1 and he that loseth his life for my sake shall find it 7,matt4 x4 #cg-ci74 ,love not the world1 neither the things that are in the world4 ,if any man love the world1 the love of the ,father is not in him4 ,for all that is in the world1 the lust of the flesh1 and the lust of the eyes1 and the pride of life1 is not of the ,father1 but is of the world4 ,and the world passeth away and the lust thereof1 but he that doeth the will of ,god abideth for ever 7#a ,john ii4 #ae-ag74 ,then said ,jesus unto his disciples1 ,if any man will come after me1 let him deny himself1 and take up his cross and follow me4 ,for whosoever will save his life shall lose it1 and whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it2 for what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul8 or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul8 7,matt1 xvi4 #bd74 ,see also ,mark viii4 #cd1 x4 #ba1 and ,luke ix4 #bc-be1 in the last verse of which the saying is varied by the words being used what is a man advantaged if he gain the whole world and lose himself1 or be cast away8 ,we are by habit more familiar with the style in which the ,grecians wrote1 than with that adopted by ,sanscrit authors4 ,but in both sets of writers the main idea is made strikingly apparent--viz41 that to love anybody or anything on earth is prejudicial to our spiritual welfare1 and that to act piously1 it is necessary for the saint to free himself wholly from those instinctive affections which ,god has implanted in almost every one of his creatures4 ,it is strange that any two ministers could have excogitated so monstrous a proposition1 and that both should be called ,divine4 ,the effect of the teaching of ,buddha and of ,jesus was to draw many from their hearth whose duty1 in our estimation1 was clearly to remain at home1 and endeavour to cherish and support their family4 ,i enter my strong protest as an ,englishman1 as well as individual ,christian1 against the idea that a man who believes himself a disciple of the son of ,mary must go abroad to teach and preach1 or become an ascetic1 a hermit1 or a monk1 and leave his wife and children to be cared for by his friends or the parish4 ,i believe most strongly that our affections are implanted in us by our ,maker1 just as a mother's love exists alike in the tigress and the eagle1 and that any religion which teaches us that we must overcome these propensities1 is a false one4 ,it is strange1 to say the least of it1 that both the son of ,maya and of ,mary should have promulgated such a doctrine--i4e41 that religion is designed to make our pleasures less1 and our miseries greater4 ,it is perhaps too much to assert that no other form of faith1 besides those which have sprung from ,buddha and from ,jesus1 possesses such a tenet as that to which we refer2 but we can safely affirm that we do not know of any in which the natural affections existing between parents and children1 husband and wife1 brothers and sisters1 have not been cultivated as a portion of the duties to be fulfilled by the faithful4 ,it is scarcely necessary to call attention to the resemblance which the doctrine in question bears to that which was promulgated by the ,grecian ,stoics2 and the similitude is still farther increased by such a sentence as the following in the ,dhammapada3-- #bba4 ,let a man leave anger1 let him forsake pride1 let him overcome all bondage6 ,no sufferings befall the man who is not attached to either body or soul1 and who calls nothing his own4 ,once more we see a close resemblance between ,buddhism and the ,bible in #bbc4 ,let a man overcome anger by love1 let him overcome evil by good1 let him overcome the greedy by liberality1 the liar by truth4 ,if thine enemy be hungry give him bread to eat1 and if he be thirsty give him water to drink1 7,prov4 xxv4 #ba74 ,but the motive for this recommendation to the ,jews is a vindictive one1 for he is told that by so doing he will heap coals of fire upon his enemy's head1 whilst the ,lord will take care to reward the deed to the doer4 ,in the epistle to the ,romans this saying of the ,proverbs is endorsed1 and to it is added ,be not overcome with evil1 but overcome evil with good 7,rom4 xii4 #bj1 #ba74 #bbd4 ,speak the truth1 do not yield to anger2 give1 if thou art asked1 from the little thou hast--by those steps thou wilt go near the gods4 ,let not mercy and truth forsake thee1 bind them about thy neck2 write them upon the table of thine heart2 so shalt thou find favour and good understanding in the sight of ,god and man 7,prov4 iii4 #c-d72 ,wherefore1 putting away lying1 let every man speak the truth with his neighbour 7,eph4 iv4 #be74 ,we scarcely can find1 in the ,old ,testament1 a strict parallel with the ,buddhist precept1 do not yield to anger1 for the ,jewish scriptures1 without exception1 depict their ,god as giving way habitually to wrath1 anger1 and revenge--e4g41 in ,ps4 vii4 #aa1 we find it stated that ,elohim is angry with the wicked every day4 ,again1 in ,isaiah v4 #be1 we read1 for all this1 ,god's anger is not turned away1 but his hand is stretched out still2 ,job iv4 #i1 ,by ,god's anger they are consumed2 ,to pour out upon them my fierce anger1 7,zeph4 iii4 #h74 ,there are1 however1 a few passages which inculcate upon men the propriety of a command over their temper4 ,in ,ps4 xxxvii4 #h1 for example1 we read1 ,cease from anger1 and forsake wrath1 and in ,proverbs xxvii4 #d1 ,wrath is cruel1 and anger is outrageous1 whilst the ,preacher says1 ,eccles4 vii4 #i1 ,anger resteth in the bosom of fools1 and in xi4 #aj1 remove anger or sorrow from thy heart4 ,in the ,gospel we have a somewhat divided teaching4 ,for example1 we find1 from ,mark iii4 #e1 that ,jesus himself indulged in anger1 when he was vexed at what he thought the hardness of his hearers' hearts2 and from his saying1 in ,matt4 v4 #bb1 ,whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause1 shall be in danger of the judgment1 it is clear that the son of ,mary approved of anger which had a cause4 ,again1 we find1 in ,eph4 iv4 #bf1 ,be ye angry and sin not1 let not the sun go down upon your wrath1 as if anger were not a culpable weakness1 or passion1 if only indulged in during the daylight4 ,yet1 in the thirty-first verse of the same chapter we read1 ,let all bitterness1 and wrath1 and anger4444 be put away from you1 and in ,col4 iii4 #h1 the putting away of anger is spoken of as an evidence of being regenerated4 ,of the duty of almsgiving we find much in the ,bible1 but we will content ourselves with the following passages3--,charge them who are rich in this world that they be ready to give1 and glad to distribute1 laying up in store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come1 that they may attain eternal life 7#a ,tim4 vi4 #ag-ai74 ,quoted from the ,communion ,service in the ,prayer-book--,to do good1 and to distribute1 forget not2 for with such sacrifices ,god is well pleased4 ,be merciful after thy power4 ,if thou hast much1 give plenteously2 if thou hast little1 do thy diligence gladly to give of that little1 for so gatherest thou thyself a good reward in the day of necessity 7,prayer-book version of certain precepts in ,tobit1 chap4 iv4 #h1 #i74 ,if our readers will take the trouble to consult the entire chapter in ,tobit1 they will readily conceive that it was written by a ,buddhist sage1 instead of an ordinary ,jew4 ,once more we turn to the ,dhammapada1 and find-- #bca1 #bcd4 ,beware of bodily anger1 and control thy body4 ,leave the sins of the body1 and with thy body practise virtue2 control thy tongue2 leave the sins of the tongue1 and practise virtue with thy tongue2 leave the sins of the mind1 and practise virtue with thy mind4 ,this reference to the sins of the tongue1 and the necessity for its control1 recals to our mind the opinion expressed in the epistle of ,james1 ,if any one bridleth not his tongue1 this man's religion is vain 7chap1 i4 #bf72 ,the tongue is a fire1 a world of iniquity1 c42 the tongue can no man tame1 c4 7chap4 iii4 w4 #e-aj72 and the verse1 ,i said1 ,i will take heed io my ways1 that ,i sin not with my tongue2 ,i will keep my mouth with a bridle while the wicked is before me 7,ps4 xxxix4 #a74 ,the next maxim to which ,i would direct attention is one which should be pondered deeply by all those who desire to become thoroughly civilized4 ,so far as ,i know1 its like cannot be found in any part of the ,bible4 ,it runs thus-- #bdc4 ,there is a taint worse than all taints1 ignorance is the greatest taint4 ,if we search our own scriptures for a parallel passage1 we can only find that ignorance is inculcated1 and with the express intention of preventing the mind from departing from the old into some new track--see1 for example1 ,dent4 xii4 #cj1 where the ,jews are enjoined not to inquire after the gods of other nations1 lest they should adopt them3 again1 in ,deut4 iv4 #ai1 the ,hebrews are enjoined not to study or gain any information respecting the sun1 moon1 and stars1 lest they should worship them4 ,but ,paul1 the apostle of the ,gentiles1 is even a more conspicuous advocate of ignorance1 when he asserts that ,god hath chosen the foolish things --,greek-- of the world to confound the wise 7#a ,cor4 i4 vv4 #ai-bh74 ,o ,timothy1 keep that which is committed to thy trust1 avoiding4444 oppositions of science falsely so called1 which some professing have erred concerning the faith 7#a ,tim4 vi4 #bj1 #ba74 ,many1 indeed1 who call themselves civilized ,christians1 aver that1 where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise1 a tenet held strongly by ,mahometans1 ,papists1 and ,ritualists4 ,that the dictum of ,paul in the text last quoted has had a a most disastrous effect upon civilization1 no one who is conversant with history can fairly deny4 ,neither can it be shown that any known religion1 except ,buddhism1 has opposed itself to ignorance4 ,in every nation the rulers in general1 and the priesthood in particular1 have1 on the other hand1 encouraged indolence of mind1 lest the people should learn wisdom and shake off their thraldom4 ,we have seen1 in our own times1 hierarchs of every denomination oppose the spread of science1 not falsely so called1 with the avowed intention of endeavouring to bolster up doctrines1 dogmas1 and assertions1 which they feel sure true science will destroy1 although the same people declare their tenets indestructible1 and founded on truth4 ,nay1 we may go still further1 and assert that sciolism in religious matters is fostered by the clergy of all denominations1 both by the suppression of what they believe to be genuine1 and by the promulgation of what they know to be false4 ,in the place of knowledge they inculcate blind faith4 ,as one not wholly unknown to be an earnest and honest inquirer1 ,i have had extensive correspondence and personal intercourse with many preachers1 and with others whose opportunities for learning the clerical mind are more extensive than my own1 and ,i may divide the body of religious ministers1 and the laity as well1 into the following classes3--#a1 ,those who refuse to inquire1 examine1 and think about religious subjects1 except in a certain prescribed way2 #b1 ,those who will investigate into the grounds of their belief1 as they would into any doubtful assertion1 or into any science2 #c1 ,those who individually abandon the old faith and yet continue to preach it1 and profess to adhere to it as strongly as they did at first2 #d1 ,those who venture timidly to insinuate doubts into the minds of others1 whilst professing to be orthodox themselves2 #e1 ,those who are too noble to be hypocrites1 and boldly affirm that which their advance of knowledge has induced them to adopt as a belief4 ,yet these very men1 distinguished above their fellows for earnestness1 for science1 for honesty of purpose1 a religiously ignorant priesthood persecutes2 and ,englishmen1 who wish to be regarded as peculiarly enlightened1 stand by almost unmoved1 or1 as happens too frequently1 applauding4 ,when we endeavour to ascertain the reason why ignorance is so greatly cherished amongst mankind1 we can readily discover it in indolence on the part of one group of men1 and cupidity on the part of others4 ,there are many positions in life wherein ,sciolism seems to be more profitable than knowledge4 ,we may mention a few4 ,a solicitor who has an imperfect acquaintance with the law1 may induce his clients to bring cases before various legal courts1 in which they are certain to lose their cause and money1 but this solicitor gains large fees for his trouble4 ,a physician who does not know how to cure certain diseases may yet treat them for months1 pass for a devoted doctor and a clever friend1 and receive a large honorarium1 which is far beyond his merit1 though the patient may think it far too small4 ,the man1 on the other hand1 who can cure such complaints readily1 has to be content with a very slender fee1 as his attendance is only required for a few days4 ,the schemers1 who live upon the ignorance of dupes1 bear the name of legion4 ,we see one of the body as a promoter of all sorts of bubble companies1 and as secretary to such societies as banks1 trade unions1 burial clubs1 assurances1 c4 ,anon he takes the form of an adulterator of provisions1 of various drinkables1 of cloth1 silk1 linen1 c4 ,if ,sciolism were not common1 such charlatans as spiritualists1 clairvoyants1 mesmerists1 and the like1 could not thrive as they do1 nor quacks of all kinds flourish famously4 ,one medical pretender is indeed reported to have said to a regular doctor1 who lived in the same street with him1 but whose clients were few compared with those of the charlatan--the reason why you have so small1 and ,i have so large1 a number of patients is1 that the fools come to me1 the knowing ones to you4 ,what is true in the case of other professions is preeminently so in the clerical ,in religion1 such as it is professed in ,christendom1 ,sciolism1 or imperfect knowledge1 alone is lucrative4 ,real understanding1 diffused amongst the people1 would render every hierophant a beggar1 and thorough enlightenment amongst the priesthood would force them to allow that such should be their normal position4 ,for example1 if every layman1 in countries owning the spiritual headship of the ,pope of ,rome1 knew that all the stories of ,heaven1 ,purgatory1 ,hell1 ,angels1 ,saints1 ,confessors1 ,hermits1 and the like1 were absolutely baseless--if he knew that man has no power in the court of the ,almighty to influence ,his will in favour of a congener1 and that nothing whatever is known respecting the world beyond the grave--he would not order masses1 whether high or low1 and a host of other ceremonies1 each of which has to be paid for4 ,or1 if each ,protestant knew1 that every tenet preached to him from the pulpit is founded upon absolute ignorance of the ,almighty's operations1 that every doctrine1 every prayer1 and every ritual1 is based upon fantastic1 half savage1 or semicivilized human ideas1 he would recognize at once the total uselessness of the parson4 ,they that are whole need not the physician1 but they that are sick4 ,the doctor1 knowing this1 endeavours1 when he has a chance1 to induce a client to believe himself ill1 and that he and no other man can cure him--or1 if he should really be disordered1 these ideas will be kept up as long as possible4 ,so it is in religion1 it is only the culprit that wants the ,saviour1 but when he has a chance1 the soi disant saviour tries to persuade those who consult him1 that they are sinners1 yet that he can make them saints2 and having once implanted this belief1 he endeavours to sustain it4 ,to doctors and priests such as we here describe1 the ignorant credulity of their clients is a source of wealth4 ,so long as there are dupes there will be sharpers1 and so long as men are human1 there will be1 unconsciously very likely to themselves1 abundance of both fools and knaves4 ,from what has been already said1 our readers will have probably drawn the conclusion that we deny the existence of a thoroughly educated and honest hierarch1 who has become wealthy by the exercise of his profession in a perfectly conscientious manner4 ,exceptional circumstances prevent us saying exactly the same of a doctor1 but into these we need not enter1 as they have not their counterparts in divinity4 ,such being our belief1 we recognize the fact that poverty and knowledge must1 in an earnest priesthood1 be ever associated4 ,but the clergy of every denomination are loath to agree to this1 and endeavour1 by hook or by crook1 to acquire the means of living well4 ,hence ,buddha1 who was thoroughly honest himself1 and did not become a preacher for the sake of emolument or a livelihood1 adopted1 as part of his plan1 a systematic estrangement from every luxury of whatever sort1--or1 in other words1 the adoption of a poverty as great as exists in the lower animals4 ,he enjoined that the saintly teacher1 having food and raiment of the most homely kind1 ought therewith to be content4 ,this was ,paul's view also--see #a ,tim4 vi4 #h4 ,in this teaching the son of ,mary concurred2 like the son of ,maya1 he had not where to lay his head1 he had not even such a home as a fox or a bird 7,matt1 viii4 #bj71 and when he sent out his disciples to preach1 his direction to them was1 ,take nothing for your journey 7,luke ix4 #c1 see also ,matt1 vi4 #be-bh74 ,to sum up our remarks upon this particular command of ,buddha to avoid the taint of ignorance1 we may frame an axiom in political economy1 thus--,ignorance in the many ensures wealth in a few1 or1 ,a diffusion of sound knowledge amongst the ruled1 reduces the power and the emoluments of the rulers1 and compels them to work hard if they wish to retain their position4 ,to apply this idea still further1 ,i would add that a thoroughly educated people1 each one of whom feels that he must work out his own salvation 7,phil ii4 #ab71 does not require a priesthood4 ,consequently hierarchs1 whose sole business in this world seems to be to instil terror into young minds1 and to make rules for them to break1 that priests may be paid for showing how the imaginary results may be escaped1 would have no place if men were wise and thoughtful4 ,it is a curious1 though a certain fact1 that the depth of savagery and the height of civilization alike ignore the necessity of a hierarchy4 ,the first does so because it never thinks of ,god--the second1 because its conceptions of the ,almighty are such that it cannot believe ,him to be influenced by individuals who assume to be ,his earthly vicegerents1 or are elected to that pretentious situation by their fellow-men4 ,the ,god of the ,bible can only be adored by individuals whose minds are not emancipated wholly from the thraldom of barbarism1 and who regard ,jehovah as a man1 and not a good one either1 or1 as we have before remarked--a devil4 ,we may once more extract some sentences for comparison1 to show1 either that no inspiration was necessary to pen the ,bible1 or that the ,dhammapada has equal claims with the ,old ,testament-- #bdd4 ,life is easy to live for a man who is without shame1 a crow hero1 a mischief maker1 an insulting1 bold1 and wretched fellow4 ,but life is hard to live for a modest man1 who always looks for what is pure1 who is disinterested1 quiet1 spotless1 and intelligent4 ,o man1 know this1 that the unrestrained are in a bad state2 take care that greediness and vice do not bring thee to grief for a long time4 ,compare this with the ,psalmist's expression--,i was envious at the foolish when ,i saw the prosperity of the wicked1 for there are no bands in their death1 but their strength is firm2 they are not in trouble as other men1 neither are they plagued like other men2 therefore pride compasseth them about as a chain1 violence covereth them as a garment1 their eyes stand out with fatness1 they have more than heart could wish4444 these are the ungodly who prosper in the world1 they increase in riches4444 ,surely thou didst set them in slippery places3 thou castedst them down into destruction4 ,how are they brought into desolation1 as in a moment6 they are utterly consumed with terrors 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #c-ai47 ,i have seen the wicked in great power1 and spreading himself like a green tree that groweth in his own soil1 yet he passed away1 and lo6 he was not1 yea1 ,i sought him1 but he could not be found4 ,mark the perfect man1 and behold the upright1 for the end of that man is peace4 ,but the transgressors shall be destroyed together1 the end of the wicked shall be cut off4 ,fret not thyself because of evil-doers1 neither be thou envious against the workers of iniquity1 for they shall soon be cut down like the grass1 and wither as the green herb4 ,trust in the ,lord and do good1 so shalt thou dwell in the land1 and1 verily1 thou shalt be fed 7,ps4 xxxvii4 #ce-ch--a-c74 ,the class of sentiments is the same in both1 only they seem to differ because we are very familiar with the phraseology of the ,bible1 and the reverse with translations from the ,sanskrit4 ,at this point the philosopher may judiciously pause to inquire1 whether the sentiments expressed in the preceding biblical quotations are not incorrect1 and consequently whether they can be regarded as inspired2 and whether the ,buddhistic solution of the difficulty1 which points to a future state1 is not superior to the ,jewish one which treats of this world only4 ,experience abundantly shows that individuals practising what is called goodness find it no safeguard against misery1 starvation1 tortures1 and death4 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 his disciples1 and vast numbers of his followers1 have experienced from the dominant party in those states wherein they dwelled contumely1 reproach1 and hours of lingering torment4 ,louis the ,,xiv4 of ,france1 and the ,new ,englanders of ,america1 alike persecuted ,protestants and ,quakers4 ,in ,spain the reformers were successfully opposed by fire and sword1 and ,papal ,italy once extirpated from her midst the disciples of ,luther and ,calvin4 ,yet the so-called wrong-doers flourished1 and the unfortunate good people were run down or dragooned with a sudden and swift destruction4 ,if the dictum of the ,psalmist is right1 then ,admiral ,coligny1 who was killed in the ,bartholomew massacre1 at ,paris1 must have been a bad man put in a slippery place that he might fall1 for his destruction came suddenly1 in an instant4 ,but all history shows him to have been a worthy fellow1 who was punished for his virtues4 ,the observer of nature is driven to believe that the co-existence of powerful and bad men1 with feeble1 yet good men1 is a rule in creation for which no adequate explanation can be found4 ,he sees that in the domain of the air there are hawks and pigeons1 eagles and ostriches1 cuckoos and hedge-sparrows1 that on the land there are tigers and sheep1 lions and buffaloes1 wolves and deer1 that in the water there are perch and minnows1 pike and trout1 sharks and whales--in other words1 there is throughout the world a division of living creatures into those who live by destroying vegetables1 and those who subsist by the destruction of animals4 ,the cow1 sheep1 and deer are quite as ruthless1 in their noxiousness to the ornaments of the meadow1 as are foxes in a hen-roost to the beauties of the barn-door2 both alike mar the graceful features of creation4 ,yet it is clear that both the graminivora and the carnivora were made to effect this apparent wrong4 ,still further1 we see throughout creation1 that in almost every community of animals1 the strong ones dominate over the weak1 and endeavour1 far too frequently1 to deprive them of such pleasures as they and their females possess4 ,see1 for example1 a cock with a bevy of hens3 he will allow no other chanticleer to strut besides him on the dunghill of the yard2 he will not permit a rival to make love to anyone of his harem1 nor to feed upon any dainty morsel1 until his wives and himself have had enough4 ,the same may be said of stags1 of bulls1 of rams1 of horses1 and many other creatures whose habits are known4 ,the leader of a herd is a despot1 and when he is at length conquered by another1 those who are ruled have merely changed their masters4 ,young and weak cocks will never attain to power1 and must ever submit to be bullied4 ,we notice1 at the same time1 that each tyrant must in the end succumb2 with age comes infirmity and loss of strength1 in the last battle the old is beaten by the young4 ,just so it is with mankind2 in its comparative infancy monarchs rule1 and are at length deposed by others4 ,the ,babylonians conquered ,palestine1 the ,medes and ,persians vanquished the ,babylonians1 the ,greeks subjugated the ,persians1 the ,romans overcame the ,greeks1 and the ,goths destroyed the ,roman power2 yet under every regime the powerful could torment the weak4 ,the result in every case was brought about by the conqueror being strong and brutal--not by the immorality of the victims4 ,when a philosopher sees such things1 he very naturally endeavours to ascertain whether any design can be discovered in the events of the world1 and to this end he may be diligent in collecting facts1 or he may at once frame some theory1 and then cease to think about the matter4 ,oh1 such an one may say1 all that is wrong here will be righted in another world4 ,another1 who ponders more deeply1 may doubt whether it is proper to divide the phenomena of nature into right and wrong4 ,if1 he will say1 ,i believe with the ,jew that ,god is in the heavens1 and does whatsoever ,he pleases 7,ps4 cxv4 #c71 or that the ,lord hath made all for ,himself2 yea1 even the wicked for the day of evil 7,prov4 xvi4 #d7 ,i must allow that everything which emanates from the ,creator must be right4 ,speaking individually1 ,i prefer rather to examine into the ways of ,providence--i4e41 of the ,almighty1 without framing any theory of right and wrong1 than to dogmatize upon what ,he must intend by this or that4 ,who hath directed the ,spirit of the ,lord 7,jehovah71 or being his counsellor hath taught him8 7,is4 xl4 #ac7--see also the ,pauline version of this sentiment1 ,rom4 xi4 #cc1 #cd4 ,it is very questionable whether any human analogy will enable us1 even approximately1 to fathom what are designated the designs of ,providence4 ,every example that ,i can at the present remember given by theologians is bad4 ,take1 for example1 the most common one which draws a comparison between ,god and a father1 ,ps4 ciii4 #ac1 like as a father piti-eth his children1 so the ,lord pitieth them that fear him2 ,prov4 iii4 #ab1 ,whom the ,lord loveth he correcteth1 even as a father the son in whom he delighteth2 ,heb4 xii4 #f1 #g1 ,whom the ,lord loveth he chasteneth1 and scourgeth every son whom he receiveth4 ,if ye be without chastisement1 whereof all men 7are7 partakers1 then are ye bastards and not sons4 ,these enunciate the idea that ,god1 being the universal father1 treats mankind as a judicious parent treats his offspring1 and that as a child cannot at all times know why he is punished until many years have passed over his head1 so human beings cannot tell1 until they reach another world1 why they were punished in this4 ,to assist this assertion the text is quoted ,what ,i do thou knowest not now1 but thou shalt know hereafter 7,john xiii4 #g47 ,if there be any truth in the analogy1 it must follow that all who in this world endure grief1 suffering wrongfully 7#a ,pet4 ii4 #ai71 are children of ,god1 whom he is educating for a better world4 ,if that1 again1 be so1 then--when ,christians persecuted ,mahometans1 ,romanists burned ,protestants1 and ,spaniards slaughtered ,mexicans and ,peruvians--it follows that the vanquished1 and not the conquerors1 were the elect of the ,father4 ,but this deduction directly opposes those promises said to be made to the ,jews by ,jehovah1 viz41 that victory should be the reward of their piety4 ,as it is a poor system which declares that two opposite results come from the same cause1 we must refuse to believe that both victory and defeat are proofs of a ,father's love4 ,i am quite aware that some reader may retort that a kind parent may punish one child at the same time that he rewards another4 ,i grant it at once1 but that only demonstrates1 if it proves anything1 that all creatures must be regarded alike as the offspring of the ,creator1 and that none are favoured peculiarly on the one hand1 or are outcasts on the other4 ,as it is undesirable to mix political up with religious events1 ,i refrain from drawing from history such illustrations as have frequently been supposed to indicate the will of the ,almighty4 ,the fall from power of ,egypt1 ,tyre1 ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 ,persia1 ,greece1 ,carthage1 ,rome1 ,spain1 are all supposed to have been caused by some special providential design4 ,in like manner theologians draw certain deductions from the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and the slaughter of the majority of its aboriginal inhabitants2 from the ,crusades2 from the influx of the ,turks into ,christendom2 and of the ,moors into ,spain4 ,some1 whose imaginative powers overwhelm their reasoning faculties1 see in the wars of recent times that final shaking of the nations1 which some soi-disant prophet declares must precede the millennium1 and the battle of ,armageddon2 vaccinators1 and interpreters are as abundant and irrepressible now as ever they were4 ,their fundamental assumption is that ,god has acted as they would have done in ,his place4 ,now ,he is a sort of ,irish landlord1 a portion of whose property is overrun with pauper farmers1 and ,he clears them away to make room for more sensible and wealthier tenants1 as the ,canaanites were removed to give place to the ,hebrews4 ,now1 ,he is represented as a parent1 who hearing that a son has engaged in fight and been conquered1 merely remarks serves him right6--the kind of comfort given to the ,jews after they had been harried by the ,edomite confederacy1 and subsequently by the ,chaldeans4 ,again1 the same mighty ,jehovah is represented as a ,stoic1 who remarks1 when some mischance happens to those who are said to be his children1 ,never mind1 accidents will happen--through much tribulation you must enter into my rest1 or the kingdom of heaven4 ,i entirely decline to adopt the profession of prophet and interpreter1 contenting myself with increasing what knowledge ,i may have1 rather than endeavouring to deduce from it theories whose weakness an hour may demonstrate2 nor do ,i put faith in any one who adopts such a business4 ,for example1 let us assume that two savage tribes1 having gods of different names and shapes1 go to war on the bidding of their priests--one is conquered and the other is victorious4 ,the one attributes his reverse to the anger of his own deity1 not to the power of the god of his enemy4 ,the other imagines that he owes success to the influence of his protector and his superiority over his foe's fetish4 ,a civilized on-looker1 who believes that all the deities are devils and powerless1 attributes victory and defeat to perfectly natural causes1 e4g41 superiority in weapons1 tactics1 numbers1 or strength4 ,it is clear that neither the deductions of the first nor second men are right2 neither has read the mind of his fetish4 ,so it is with the half educated theologians of our own day1 who think and talk as glibly of ,god and ,satan1 as if they were personal acquaintances1 who make no secret either of their deeds or their motives of action4 ,once more we return to the ,dhammapada and find1 #bdh4 ,o1 man1 know this1 that the unrestrained are in a bad state2 take care that greediness and vice do not bring thee to grief for a long time4 ,we do not here seek to find any parallel passage in the bible1 but we turn to history1 remote and collateral1 and compare the priesthood of ,buddha with that of ,jesus4 ,does travel tell us of any set of teachers more self-denying than the individuals who devote themselves as religious ,buddhists8 ,can history1 on the other hand1 tell us of any hierarchy more greedy and vicious than the ,christian priesthood in the middle ages1 and down to a comparatively recent period8 ,we will not accuse them of vice1 but even now is there in the whole world a more grasping set of men than those who have received what they term holy orders from the descendants of ,jesus or of ,peter8 ,i trow not4 ,if1 therefore1 a doctrine is to be known by its fruits1 in one respect at least ,buddhism is superior to that which we call ,christianity1 by which term ,i do not mean the exceptional practice of a few1 but the general habits of the majority of the bishops1 priests1 c41 of ,christendom4 ,once more let us contrast the doctrine of ,buddha with the practice of ,christians4 ,he says-- ,da4 #bef1 #g4 ,a man is not a just judge if he carries a matter by violence2 no1 he who distinguishes both right and wrong1 who is learned1 and leads others1 not by violence1 but by law and equity1 he who is a guardian of the law and equity1 he who is a guardian of the law1 and intelligent1 he is called just4 ,our histories tell us of ,christians persecuting ,christians2 ,trinitarians endeavouring to extirpate ,arians2 ,franciscans torturing ,dominicans2 of ,jews slaughtered by those whose master said1 ,father1 forgive them2 we see brutal ,spaniards exterminating1 under the shadow of the cross1 whole nations in the new world who had never harmed them1 and in the old world we find ,crusaders1 under the guise of piety1 murdering and robbing the dwellers in ,palestine4 ,there is scarcely a large town in ,europe which has not witnessed the ferocious violence of ,papal1 yea1 and ,protestant1 hierarchs4 ,even in recent times we have seen bishops and their congeners1 in our so-called civilized nation1 oppose violence1 and the popgun thunder of excommunication1 to a learned prelate1 and to an humble priest4 ,judged by the standard of ,buddha1 our divines are unjust and unrighteous4 ,i cannot discover any standard by which they can be regarded as praiseworthy1 except that embodied in the two sayings1 ,get what you can1 and what you get hold2 ,where ignorance is bliss1 'tis folly to be wise4 ,we may say of such persecutors1 in the words of the ,dhammapada-- #bfj4 ,a man is not an elder because his head is grey2 his age may be ripe1 but he is called old in vain1 and many would at once be able1 if they tried1 to remember the names of some who1 in a ,christian community1 have abandoned their principles1 or their learning1 as soon as they became bishops or elders of the church4 ,i have no doubt ,popes have done so4 ,there is a saying1 that however clever a man is1 you make a fool of him by placing a mitre upon his head4 ,the following is1 perhaps1 more curious than our previous quotations1 as it tells of the pre-,christian antiquity of a common ,romish custom3-- #bfd4 ,not by tonsure does an undisciplined man1 who speaks falsehood1 become a ,sramana2 can a man be a ,sra-mana who is still held captive by desire and greediness8 ,the ,sramana is a word equivalent to our priest1 literally1 a man who performs hard penances 7see ,dhammapada1 ,note #bfe1 p4 cxxxii474 ,without copying any other texts from the ,dhammapada1 we may next inquire what there is to be found in the ,bible that is not to be found in the teaching of ,buddha4 ,we notice that the element of so-called prophecy is wholly wanting in the sayings of the ,indian sage4 ,i cannot remember that either ,sakya ,muni or any of his followers assumed the power to foretell the future4 ,there is1 it is true1 a vague threat of future misery to the wicked1 which was founded upon the prevalent idea of metempsychosis2 but there is no endeavour to pourtray the occurrences that are supposed to be impending over one or more sections of the human race4 ,there is not any attempt to induce individuals to join themselves to the son of ,maya1 by declarations that the world1 and all that it contains1 is about to be destroyed1 and that all who do not become disciples of the teacher1 and shelter themselves under his mantle1 will be miserably punished throughout eternity4 ,there is not any ,buddhist description in detail1 either of ,hell1 or ,heaven1 or ,nirvana2 there is no story of worms1 fires1 devils1 death1 and the like1 in the first4 ,the second is not depicted1 by the preacher himself1 as a sort of palace1 made gorgeous with gold and precious stones1 resounding in barbaric music1 and discordant chants1 where animals dwell1 and where horses are kept stabled1 to go throughout the world with messengers upon their backs 7see ,zechariah i4 #h1 #aj2 vi4 #b1 #g2 ,rev4 iv4 #f1 #g2 vi4 #b1 #d1 #h74 ,there are no denunciations of vengeance upon heretics1 nor is the god of ,buddha like the one described by ,hebrew writers1 who winks during times of ignorance upon earth 7,acts xvii4 #cj71 who requires to be reminded by prayer of the wants of men 7,exod4 iii4 #g71 and who comes down to earth to inquire if matters are according to the accounts which have reached his dwelling-place 7,gen4 xviii4 #ba74 ,in ,siddartha's teaching there is1 as we have seen1 an absence of the element of prayer4 ,according to his view1 each man is regarded1 to a certain extent1 as the author of his own destiny4 ,man1 in his opinion1 must ever be influenced by the actions of other men--he may1 for example either be caressed or tormented1 yet1 under both circumstances1 he is instructed to retain equanimity of mind4 ,he is not to pray for prosperity1 nor to supplicate that trials may be removed4 ,he is to face and overcome every trial by his resolute will1 and not to waste time in praying not to be led into temptation4 ,again1 in ,buddha's writings1 and in those of his followers1 there is an absence of those obscene tales with which the ,old ,testament abounds4 ,we seek in vain for counterparts of the story of ,lot and his daughters1 of ,onan1 of ,joseph and the wife of ,potiphar1 of ,judah and ,tamar1 ,david and ,bathsheba1 ,amnon and his sister1 ,zimri ,cozbi and ,phinehas1 and the like4 ,it is true1 that in some ,buddhist writings1 there is a cosmogony introduced more preposterous than that in the ,bible2 but there are no parallels to the tales of ,noah1 of ,moses1 and of ,israel in ,egypt1 the desert1 and ,palestine4 ,indeed1 when we remember that ,sakya ,muni was an ,oriental1 accustomed to inflated language1 we are struck by the plainness of his speech4 ,if we now ask ourselves1 as earnest practical ,christians--that is1 as men1 anxious and eager to attain to religious truth1 and desirous of teaching only those things which would tend towards sound edification and to a pure morality--what parts of the ,bible most offend sense of propriety1 we should answer1 that they are its untenable cosmogony2 its preposterous accounts of the longevity of the men reported as being the earliest formed2 the legend of the flood2 the origin of the rainbow2 the tales of ,moses1 ,pharaoh1 the plagues of ,egypt1 the sojourn in the desert1 the capture of ,canaan1 the miraculous battles1 in which each man of ,israel put a thousand enemies to flight4 ,we would wholly expunge the fabulous account of ,elijah and ,elisha2 the ravings after vengeance uttered by the prophets2 the apocryphal episodes described in the books of ,jonah and ,daniel1 every obscene story1 and disgusting speech and writing1 whether uttered as a threat against ,israel or his enemies4 ,in like manner we would wish to expunge1 from the teaching of ,jesus1 everything relating to the immediate destruction of the world--everything connected with community of goods1 the advantages of beggary1 and the potency of faith and prayer4 ,we would suppress every miracle1 and say nothing of a resurrection of the dead ,jesus4 ,we would equally abandon any attempt to describe ,heaven or ,hell1 or any intermediate state4 ,when all these were removed from the ,bible1 we positively should have very little left1 except a certain amount of morality which is sound1 and a large portion which is radically bad4 ,to make such an emendated book as perfect as possible1 we might1 with great advantage1 correct it from the teaching of ,buddha or from the sayings of ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,epic-tetus1 and even of ,confucius2 and when all was completed1 it would be found that all men1 everywhere1 have had instinctive notions1 more or less definite1 of morality1 but have allowed their animal passions to overcome their better feelings4 ,far too many of us know the good1 but yet the bad pursue4 ,this investigation would most distinctly disprove the assertion1 that ,god has selected a very small percentage of ,his creatures for objects of ,his care1 and those who have charity towards all men would greatly rejoice thereat4 ,individually we cannot bear to eat1 however hungry we may be1 whilst we see others near us without food--our pleasure is heightened when we divide our luxuries with others2 just so we believe it should be in religion--none should rejoice at the idea that he is one of the few that are to be saved1 nor should anyone repine1 as ,jonah did1 when he finds that the tender mercies of ,god are over all his works4 ,to simplify the matter as far as possible1 ,i have drawn up the following parallel between ,buddhism and ,christianity3-- ,illustration3 #bfc ,illustration3 #bfd ,illustration3 #bfe ,illustration3 #bff ,illustration3 #bfg ,in the next chapter ,i propose to examine1 as far as authorities will permit1 the religion of the ,persians--a nation intervening1 to a great degree1 between the old ,aryan and the ,shemitic races4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,medo-,persians and ,parsees4 ,artfulness of theologians4 ,they systematically break the ninth commandment4 ,frauds in orthodoxy4 ,a man may use false weights innocently1 but is punished1 nevertheless4 ,in theology ignorance does not justify deceit4 ,case in trade4 ,professional blindness4 ,a law for punishing adulteration of truth is wanted4 ,mosaism and ,zoroaster4 ,parsees and ,christians4 ,moses and ,zoroaster4 ,the ancient magi4 ,the ,persians4 ,conflicting ideas of ,god in ,bible4 ,the source of the ,biblical theology4 ,cyrus4 ,inquiry into the authenticity of the ,avesta4 ,the book condemned4 ,account of the ,medo-,persian faith from ,herodotus4 ,period of introduction of the ,devil to the ,bible4 ,summary4 ,comparison and contrast4 ,introduction to next chapter4 ,in every ancient1 and1 indeed1 in every modern1 faith which ,i have yet examined1 ,i have been shocked with the manner in which it has been represented by interested opponents4 ,whether they are ,romanists or ,protestants1 ,evangelicals or ,ritualists1 ,orthodox or ,non-conformists1 all our divines endeavour to prove their own tenets to be the best1 by blazoning everything which is good1 and veiling from sight everything which is doubtful4 ,this being so1 it is not at all surprising that ,christians generally should try to exalt the religion professed by themselves over that propounded by others1 whom they designate heathens4 ,but though it is not strange that very human partisans should act thus1 it is marvellous to find that all the ardent disciples of ,jesus1 without an exception1 that ,i know of1 should1 in their dealings with mankind1 systematically break the ninth of those commandments which they assert were given by ,god to man1 upon ,mount ,sinai ,all of them bear false witness against their neighbour1 and give incorrect accounts of themselves in addition4 ,they resemble1 indeed1 those ,dutch merchants whom ,washington ,irving describes1 so pleasantly1 in his history of ,new ,york1 who had two sets of weights1 a heavy lot by which to purchase1 and a light set by which to sell ,such traders we call fraudulent2 and ,i assert that every so-called orthodox polemic whose books ,i have read deserves the same epithet4 ,their fraud is shown by the misrepresentations that they make1 both of the creed which they uphold and the one which they oppose4 ,the heterodox and the so-called atheist may be trusted1 at least1 to tell the truth4 ,in saying this1 ,i do not assert that everyone gives false witness knowingly1 any more than ,i would blame a tradesman for using false scales1 or weights1 if he could demonstrate that he had purchased them as true1 and could show that he had never tampered with them4 ,yet the law would punish such a man for their use1 arguing that he ought to have made inquiry4 ,in one of the large towns of ,great ,britain1 on one occasion1 a merchant1 believed to be both religious and honest1 sold to a broker a cargo of stuff which had no existence1 and1 when the delivery had to be made1 the first destroyed himself1 and the second was adjudged to be a culpable bankrupt1 because he had taken the existence of the oil for granted1 without investigation4 ,just so it is with ordinary divines2 they assume certain statements in their own religious book to be true--they are taught to shut their eyes to the absurdities in the same volume1 and to explain away1 in one manner or another1 everything which militates against common sense4 ,by this plan they contrive to sell1 as sterling stuff1 something which is made of base material1 without knowingly being parties to a fraud4 ,in the same way a shopman may1 on the word of the manufacturer1 dispose of a piece of goods as wholly silk1 although he has a shrewd presumption that the fabric contains a large proportion of cotton4 ,for such individuals we have the proverb1 there are none so blind as those who will not see4 ,but these very theologians of whom we are speaking1 when they are dealing with the sacred books1 ordinary customs1 ritual1 and the like1 of other people1 having a different religion to their own1 are exact1 in the extreme--every absurdity is exhibited ruthlessly2 every legend is ridiculed2 every discrepancy is magnified2 and everything which betrays ignorance1 or want of scientific knowledge1 is paraded with inglorious ceremony4 ,on the other hand1 everything good which is to be found therein is1 if possible1 suppressed4 ,a book1 which was1 for a long time1 a standard one amongst our divines1 entitled1 ,christ and ,many ,masters1 is particularly open to this charge4 ,in it there is throughout a suppressio veri1 a suggestio falsi1 and scarcely a page that does not bear false witness4 ,if there were a law to punish those who adulterate or falsify truth1 our magistrates would be kept extremely busy4 ,as an inquiry into the realities of ,buddhism has led us to the belief that the origin of ,christianity may be found in the doctrines of the son of ,maya1 which were adopted with certain ,judaic modifications by the sons of ,elizabeth and ,mary--so it is highly probable that what is called ,mosaism has been built upon the teachings of the ,persian or ,median theology1 said to have been founded by ,zoroaster4 ,perhaps it would be difficult to find any modern evidence of the likelihood of this hypothesis more powerful than the fact that at the present day the ,jews and the ,parsees fraternize almost like brothers4 ,the latter in ,england1 and1 ,i understand1 elsewhere1 select1 when they can1 the house of a ,hebrew wherein to lodge1 rather than that of any man of another nation4 ,to this testimony1 such as it is1 we must add another which is very telling1 viz41 that almost every modern orthodox writer who has treated of ,zoroaster1 has declared that the prophet of ,persia drew his inspiration from the lawgiver of ,israel ,the priority of the latter being asserted1 and the second place having been given to the former1 the matter was supposed to be proved1 and the ,persian1 after having been regarded as a copy of the ,hebrew1 was consigned to oblivion4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that the teachings of ,zoroaster had more life in them than those either of the ,jew or the ,christian1 for the ,parsee always and even to the present day1 and in every position of life1 may lay claim to the title of nature's gentleman1 which very few of the disciples of ,jesus or of ,moses could pretend to until very recently4 ,the morality of these religionists is excellent4 ,in every relation of life they endeavour to be1 to do1 and to think that which is right--and though there may be black sheep amongst them1 the proportion of these to the main body is small ,in no period of their history1 so far as ,i can learn it1 have the ,zoroastrians been as brutal as the ,christians were so long as they had the power--nor have they ever introduced into their worship figures of men1 women1 or children with the apparent intention of honouring or adoring them1 or the assertion that such things assisted their devotions4 ,being strictly monotheists1 they have not split up the ,godhead into three males influenced by a female who is the spouse of one and mother of a second2 nor have asserted that the one great ,creator is compounded of a father1 a son1 and a pigeon1 with a woman for an intercessor with her celestial consort4 ,nor do the ,parsees build vast temples for the ,almighty to dwell in1 neither do they reduce any portion of the ,omnipotent to the necessity of residing in a bit of bread shut up for many a long day in a box4 ,on the contrary1 the modern followers of ,zoroaster worship the father in spirit and in truth--not with eye service as men-pleasers1 but with singleness of heart1 fearing ,god 7,col4 iii4 #bb471 thus being1 as we are told1 the very men whom the ,almighty seeketh 7,john iv4 #bc1 #bd74 ,the first resemblance between the ,persian and the ,jewish lawgiver to which we would call attention1 is the mythical nature of both4 ,the ,hebrew who believes in ,moses can show no other ground for his faith than a number of books which tell of ,moses1 his genealogy1 his acts1 his laws1 his character1 and his death4 ,yet when an independent inquirer subjects these books1 and the accounts which they contain1 to a rigid examination1 he finds evidence that the writings are fabrications of a period at least a full thousand years after the era of their supposed epoch--probably more2 and that all collateral testimony and all internal evidence drawn from the books themselves disprove the actual existence of ,moses4 ,to the scholar1 the ,hebrew lawgiver is as apocryphal or fictitious a being as ,hercules1 ,romulus1 and our own king ,arthur4 ,nor is this belief of the critic shaken when he finds that the history of ,moses is interwoven with miraculous legends--credit them he cannot2 but he may pause before he determines to see in them evidence of fabrication4 ,he cannot fairly deny the existence of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 because many marvellous stories were told of him1 nor would a similar cause alone lead him to assert that ,francis of ,assisi was a mythical individual4 ,but whichever way the careful philosophical inquirer may decide the questions at issue1 he will remember that many strange stories are told of the conception1 birth1 and life of ,zoroaster1 and that the critic must mete out equal justice1 both to the ,jew and to the ,persian4 ,again1 impartial inquirers find themselves unable to determine1 with anything approaching to accuracy1 either by internal evidence or contemporary remains--the positive epoch when the tale about ,moses was originated4 ,it is true that the ,bible seems to afford foundation for a chronology in a few parts1 as1 for example1 in the historical books2 but these are so completely contradicted by genealogies in other parts that we cannot trust them4 ,after stripping away every doubtful scrap from ,jewish history1 all we can find is1 that ,moses was first talked of1 familiarly1 after what maybe called the ,grecian ,captivity of ,jerusalem 7see ,obadiah1 ,ancient ,faiths1 c4t ,vol4 ii471 and that he was said to be the author of the ceremonial1 moral1 and political laws which were framed for the ,jewish nation1 and which were assiduously taught to the ,hebrews after the ,babylonish captivity4 ,the followers of ,zoroaster are equally ignorant of the real history of their prophet1 and are equally unable to demonstrate the claim of the ,zend ,avesta to be a true account of the teaching of the ,persian sage1 as are the ,jews to prove the antiquity of their laws and nation4 ,putting on one side all those which may be regarded as modern fancies1 the first mention made of the ,prophet is in the first ,alcibiades of ,plato1 which we may imagine was written shortly after ,b4c4 #dab1 in which year that distinguished ,greek citizen negociated a treaty between ,athens and ,persia4 ,plato1 when speaking of the education of the sons of the kings of ,persia1 says 7,bohn's edition1 ,vol4 iv41 p4 #cdd71 ,at fourteen years of age1 they who are called the royal preceptors1 take the boy under their care4 ,now these are chosen out from those who are deemed most excellent of the ,persians1 men in the prime of life1 four in number1 excelling 7severally7 in wisdom1 justice1 temperance1 and fortitude4 ,the first of these instructs the youth in the learning of the ,magi1 according to ,zoroaster1 the son of ,oromazes--now by this learning is meant the worship of the gods--and likewise in the art of kingly government4 ,but ,herodotus1 writing about ,b4c4 #dej1 when giving1 in ,book i1 c4 #aca1 an account of the religion of the ,persians1 makes not only no mention of ,zoroaster1 but attributes to that nation a form of worship differing from what is supposed to be pure ,zoroastrianism299 but he mentions--and it seems to be a significant fact1 that it is not lawful for a ,persian to sacrifice unless one of the ,magi is present1 who sings an ode concerning the original of the gods which1 they say1 is an incantation4 99 ,there is strong constructive evidence1 from the nature of the ,aryan ,mythology1 from the pages of the ,vedas1 from the anthropological resemblances between ,persians1 ,caucasians1 ,greeks1 ,latins1 ,germans1 ,british1 and others2 from the linguistic alliances between what have been called the ,indo- ,germanic races2 and from a variety of other sources1 each small in itself1 but strong in the aggregate1 for the belief that the origin of the ,aryan mythology1 or the ,vedic religion as it is otherwise called1 may be traced to ,bactria or to ,ancient ,persia4 ,persia is spoken of by ,plato as if her people carried the dynasties of their kings far back into eternity4 7,first ,alcibiades1 ,bohn's edition1 vol4 iv41 p4 #cdc74 ,herodotus again 7,book i41 c4 #aca7 tells us that the ,persians from the earliest times have sacrificed to the sun and moon1 to the earth1 fire1 water1 and the winds1 that they sacrifice on high places1 have no divine statues1 nor do they build temples4 ,now this is almost entirely a description of the old ,aryan religion4 ,the sun1 for example1 is ,surya1 ,aryama1 ,mitra1 ,vivaswat1 ,martunda1 ,savitor1 ,sura1 ,ravi1 ,varuna1 ,indra ,yama1 ,vishnu1 and ,krishna 7,moor's ,hindoo ,paillhcon1 p4 #bhg74 ,the moon is ,chandra and ,soma1 and the origin of these words is to be found in the ,persian as well as in the ,sanscrit writings 7,moor's ,h4 ,p41 p4 #bhd-e74 ,the ,earth is ,prit'hivi1 #aa;a1 ,lakshmi1 and ,vasta4 ,fire is the powerful ,agni4 ,the water is ,nara1 or ,narayana 7,moor's ,,jet4 ,p41 #gd71 from which all things came 7see ,water in ,ancient ,faiths71 and the ,winds are ,maruts and ,vaya4 ,to these deities1 individually or collectively1 the modern ,hindoo offers prayer and praise2 and the hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 such as we have them edited by ,max ,muller and ,wilson1 are copies probably of the same chants which accompanied the sacrifices of the ,ancient ,persians4 ,this seems to indicate that the ,persian religion was then undergoing some supervision by rulers who had a different faith to that held at a later period4 ,when we next turn to ,herodotus1 ,book ,l1 c4 #aja1 we find that the ,magi were one of the six tribes which composed the ,medes2 and we notice that ,phraortes1 the son of ,deioces1 reduced the ,persian kingdom under the dominion of the ,medes about ,b4c4 #fej4 ,if1 then1 we regard ,zoroaster as being the founder of the ,magi1 we must throw back his epoch considerably further than this date4 ,but even if we accept this conquest as the era of the ,parsee prophet1 we find that ,zoroaster preceded the first public promulgation of the ,mosaic law amongst the ,jews499 99 ,time of ,zoroaster4--,dr4 ,hang1 who is no mean authority in everything which concerns ,zoroastrianism1 states in an able resume of the evidence1 that we cannot assign a later date to the prophet than #bcjj years before ,christ4 ,he quotes from ,diogenes ,laertius who affirms that ,xanthos of ,lydia1 b4c4 #fjj-dej1 states1 that ,zoroaster lived #fjjj years before ,xerxes invaded ,greece2 from ,pliny who1 on the authority of ,aristotle1 says that the teacher preceded ,plato by #fjjj years2 from ,hermippus of ,smyrna1 who studied ,magism ,b4c4 #bej1 and averred that the founder of that sect lived #ejjj years before the ,trojan war2 and from ,pliny1 to show the general belief of ancient ,greek authors that ,zoroaster lived many thousand years before ,moses4 ,dr4 ,haug says 7,i am quoting from ,a ,lecture on an ,original ,speech of ,zoroaster1 with ,remarks on his ,age1 by ,dr ,haug ,london3 ,triibner ,co41 #ahfe71 that the traditional books of the ,parsees say ,zerdosht 7another form of the more familiar ,greek name7 lived #cjj years before ,alexander invaded ,persia4 ,our author adds that ,hermippus1 in #bej b4c41 speaks of two millions of verses of ,zoroastrian origin1 and infers that these would require #ajjj years for their growth4 ,he then points out the relationship between the ,iranian and the ,yedic religion1 and ,zoroaster's antagonism to the latter1 and argues that this must have happened ere the ,aryans invaded the ,punjaub1 #bjjj years ,b4c4 ,dr4 ,haug then inquires into the probable source whence the ,greeks drew their ideas respecting the antiquity of ,zerdosht1 and argues1 with great show of reason1 that they consulted the chronology of the ,babylonian priests4 ,he shows that a trustworthy record was kept which went back to #bbhd b4c41 this he concludes1 from data given by ,berosus1 was the year when ,babylon was conquered by the ,medes2--and from ,synkellos he shows that the founder of the dynasty of the eight ,median tyrants over ,babylon was called ,zoroaster4 ,but this word1 ,zarathustra1 in the original1 signifies a high priest1 and to distinguish him from other hierarchs the prophet is called ,zarathustra ,spitama1 in the ,zend ,avesta--hence this king is supposed not to be the prophet him self1 but a descendant from him1 and a priest in the order which was founded by the original ,zerdosht4 ,this again points to the fact that the ,babylonians could only know anything about the founder of ,magism from the ,medes themselves1 and they might1 from want of any accurate chronology1 assign to ,zoroaster any date they liked--just as1 with many a semi-civilized nation 'a long time may be converted into ten1 a hundred1 a thousand1 or a million years4' ,haug does not endeavour to assign any particular date to the era of ,zoroaster beyond expressing the opinion that he might have lived one or two hundred years before the ,median conquest of ,babylon1 and that this occurrence was probably one of the results of the ferment which his doctrines caused4 ,he preached1 like ,moses1 war and destruction to all idolaters and wicked men1 and said that he was commissioned by ,god to spread the religion of ,ahura ,mazda4 ,daring his life-time1 and shortly after his death1 his followers seem to have engaged in incessant wars with their religious antagonists1 the ,vedic ,indians1 which struggle is well known in the ,sanscrit writings as that between the ,asuras 7,ahura7 and ,devas 7the ,hindu gods74 ,but afterwards they spread westward and invaded the countries of other idol worshippers in order to uproot idolatry1 and establish everywhere the good ,mazdayan religion4 ,they really appear to have changed the order of things in ,babylon when they conquered it1 and spread a new creed1 for they are spoken of by ,berosus as tyrants4 ,zoroaster was the first prophet of truth who appeared in the world1 and kindled a fire which thousands of years could not entirely extinguish4 ,when ,moses was first talked about we know not1 but at the time of ,samuel1 ,david1 and ,josiah he was unknown4 ,we have no reason to believe that the ,hebrews ever came into contact with1 or ever heard of the ,persians1 until after the ,babylonish conquest1 followed by that of ,cyrus2 consequently1 if the ,jewish law first propounded contained nothing akin to the doctrines and laws of ,zoroaster1 and subsequent publications did so1 we should naturally conclude that the last were copied4 ,it is unnecessary to tell the student of biblical history that the ,jews were for many years under the dominion of the ,persians and ,medes1 and that ,nehemiah1 one of their great men1 after the ,babylonian captivity1 was a personal1 though humble1 friend1 of the king of ,persia--i4e41 if we take his account of himself for true4 ,of the fact of there being two distinct doctrines respecting the ,almighty in the ,old ,testament no scholar has a doubt4 ,in the one1 ,god is represented as the sole ,being who rules and influences the world3 whatsoever was done ,he was regarded as the doer of it4 ,he had no powerful enemy who could thwart ,his will1 no adversary who could withstand ,him successfully4 ,in the other the existence of two rival powers is distinctly recognised--,jehovah and ,satan--the ,aryan ,mara1 the tempter1 who plot and counterplot against each other1 and even condescend to personal wrangling4 ,the most conspicuous example which we can give of these two doctrines is to be found in #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a1 in which we are told that ,jehovah moved ,david to number ,israel1 whereas in #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a1 evidently written by a modern scribe1 we find that ,satan1 the adversary1 was he who incited the king to perform this deed4 ,we see the duality of persons conspicuously put forward in the first and second chapters of ,job1 in which ,satan is represented as being at large1 not being even under the surveillance of ,jehovah4 ,see also #a ,kings xxii4 #bj-bc1 wherein we find ,jehovah at a loss how to bring about a certain result1 and assisted out of a dilemma by a lying spirit--who can do what the ,lord could not effect6 ,we may say that the story is a fiction1 but no ,hebrew dare have spoken thus of ,jehovah had he ever heard of ,moses and his laws4 ,as we cannot imagine that a revelation from ,god to the ,hebrews would be thus changeable1 we can come to no other conclusion than that the ,jewish writings were of human origin1 and their first doctrines modified by those of other nations to whom the ,hebrews were subjects or enslaved4 ,to this consideration we may add1 that when the ,israelites came in contact with the ,medes and ,persians1 they were merely a 'posse' of slaves1 a crowd of prisoners removed from their own land without a shadow of power1 or any influence1 and only anxious to induce those who had conquered their late masters1 the ,babylonians1 to have pity on their misery1 and restore them to beggared ,jerusalem4 ,the idea of the ,hebrews gaining friends by endeavouring to induce the ,persian ,magi to change their faith and embrace that of the poor and probably despised ,jew is preposterous4 ,on the other hand1 there would be every possible inducement for the ,hebrews to study the faith of that people whose ,god had given them victory over the ,chaldeans4 ,see in corroboration of this ,ps4 cxxxvii41 especially the two last verses4 ,we may regard the question before us in yet another light1 ,if we are to allow that the words of ,isaiah are correct1 which describe ,cyrus as ,god's shepherd 7ch4 xliv4 #bh71 and as anointed by ,jehovah ,himself1 we cannot conceive that the religion which he professed was opposed to that entertained by the ,hebrew prophet4 ,as it is morally impossible that ,cyrus and his hierarchy were taught their religion by any ,jew1 it follows that the ,persian faith can lay the same claim to inspiration as the ,hebrew1 if the latter were not indeed almost identical with it4 ,if1 then1 we insist upon the latter being a true revelation1 we must concede the same to the former1 or if we pronounce the ,persian religion to be of human invention1 we must pass a similar verdict upon the ,jewish4 ,when we are upon the horns of such a great dilemma we may well pause4 ,it is indeed almost impossible for orthodox divines to make a selection which prong of the fork is the worst4 ,if we elect to say our belief is1 that the primitive teaching of the ,hebrew was ,god-given and a true revelation1 we cannot put faith in those scriptures which tell us of a devil who fights with ,jehovah1 and is generally victorious4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we hold that the ,christian notions of the ,creator and ,satan are true1 we must regard the ,zoroastrian teaching as inspired2 and the early ,jewish writings as unworthy of credit--of human invention and heterodox4 ,theologians will probably elect to remain in a state of uncertainty on this subject4 ,philosophers1 on the contrary1 will escape from it at once by asserting their conviction that both the ,hebrew and the ,magian religion are wholly of human invention499 99 ,when commencing this chapter1 it was my intention to amplify what ,i have already said in ,vol4 ,,ii4 respecting the ,magian religion1 by giving an analysis of the celebrated ,zend ,avesta1 a translation of which into ,french1 by ,anquetil du ,perron1 ,i had recently procured for the purpose4 ,as ,i was aware that ,dr ,haug1 a learned scholar1 believed the original to be trust-worthy1 ,i read the translation in good faith1 but ,i soon began to doubt whether the book was what it professed to be1 for to my mind it bore internal evidence of having been fabricated at a comparatively recent period by some one who was familiar both with the ,aryan and the ,mosaic1 if not the ,christian1 doctrines and literature4 ,i felt that ,i should not be acting honestly unless ,i took such steps as lay in my power to satisfy myself upon this point ,the essay was therefore laid aside for a considerable time1 until1 indeed1 every available source of information had been searched4 ,after my inquiry was over the text was resumed as above4 ,but in the middle1 or perhaps we might say upon the threshold of our inquiry1 we must pause to examine into the amount of confidence which can be given to those under whose guidance we are invited to place ourselves4 ,such investigations are too frequently omitted4 ,those who have faith in the ,bible usually decline to search into the grounds of their belief1 and1 in like manner1 those who have always heard the author of the ,zend ,avesta quoted as trustworthy are apt to take everything which it may say as correct4 ,to avoid this error1 ,i have consulted all the volumes of the transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,london1 and have found therein sufficient to throw the gravest doubts upon the great antiquity of the ,parsee religion4 ,it will be an useful task if ,i attempt to classify the evidence on each side1 and to draw an inference therefrom4 ,our knowledge respecting the ,magian religion which the ,bactrian99 prophet founded1 is built1 with the exception of the notices in ,greek and ,latin authors1 already quoted1 upon the work known as the ,avesta4 ,this is written in a language called ,zand19999 and there are within it parts1 which are written in another tongue1 to which the name of ,pahlavi has been given1 and from these the sacred books of the ,parsees have been translated into ,french by ,anquetil du ,perron1 into ,german by ,spiegel1 and into ,english by ,haug4 ,all these writers assume that the language referred to is ,ancient ,persian1 and closely allied to the ,sanscrit1 and ,haug especially endeavours to demonstrate that the ,avesta1 and the origin of the religion of the ,parsees1 must be as old as the time of the ,vedas1 inasmuch as the same sort of legends1 the same names1 and1 to a certain extent1 the same genii1 are to be found in both4 ,there is not absolute identity1 however1 for those which are spoken of as good by the ,vedas are treated as bad in the ,avesta4 ,viewed from this point1 ,haug assigns to the ,zand volumes an age of about four thousand years1 and he supports his belief by a reference to the length of time which would be required to make up the two million verses attributed to ,zoroaster by some ,greek author4 ,in the conclusion that both the ,zand and the ,pahlavi are very ancient ,persian tongues1 it is stated that the majority of ,german and ,french critics agree4 99 ,zoroaster is said by many early writers to have been a king in ,bactria4--,smith's ,dictionary1 s4v4 9999 ,the word ,zend is more familiar to many than the form ,zand2 but ,i have adopted the latter1 as also the spelling of ,pahlavi1 from an essay by ,mr ,romer1 with an introduction by ,professor ,wilson1 in ,vol4 ,,iv41 ,royal ,asiatic ,society's ,journal4 ,but on the other hand1 such orientalists as ,sir ,william ,jones1 ,colonel ,vans ,kennedy1 ,mr ,thomas1 and ,mr ,romer1 and indeed all ,british oriental scholars1 regard both the ,zand and the ,pahlavi as bastard languages1 never spoken1 and wholly fabricated by a comparatively modern priesthood1 for the express purpose of making the holy books which they wrote comprehensible only by themselves4 ,such scholars show that the ,zand and ,pahlavi are built upon a ,sanscrit1 ,arabic1 and modern ,persian model1 and that the ,parsee ,pahlavi is very different to the ,pehlevi of the ,sassanian coins1 and1 in ,vol4 ,,iv41 ,transactions of ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,mr ,romer supports this conclusion by a number of passages in the various languages referred to4 ,it is also asserted that many words in the ,avesta have been borrowed from the ,arabic1 and others from the ,sanscrit tongues1 possibly1 also1 from the ,greek4 ,being unable1 from my comparative ignorance of ,eastern language1 to form a decided opinion on independent grounds1 all that ,i can say is1 that it does really seem to be proved that the religious books of the ,par-sees are not so ancient as they have been by many supposed to be4 ,the question which next arises for our consideration is1 whether such volumes represent the tenets of an ancient faith1 or whether they are the fabrication of men who have1 possibly in the wreck of an old worship1 brought about by war or other calamity1 endeavoured to create a new religion out of the relics of one or more old ones4 ,in favour of the antiquity of the ,avesta are the facts that the great god1 ,ahura ,mazdao1 seems to be almost identical with the ,aura ,mazda of the ,persepolitan inscription of ,darius4 ,but in proof of its untruthfulness as a representative of pure ,persian tradition1 we find the book introducing ,devs and ,ahuras1--the counterpart of the ,devas and ,asuras of the ,vedas1 only reversing their character--we also see ,indra mentioned as a devil1 whilst ,siva and ,mitra are introduced as ,sharva and ,miltra4 7,haug's ,essays on the ,parsee1 ,bombay1 p4 #bcj1 #ahfb74 ,if1 therefore1 we allow that there is some of the old ,zoroastrian doctrine to be found in the ,avesta1 we must equally grant that such teaching has been modified by hatred of a rival faith4 ,yet herein is another question1 viz41 ,was the antagonism between the doctrines of the ,avesta and of the ,vedas contemporary with the origin of the two systems1 or was the teaching of the ,avesta the result of its author's coming into hostile conflict with ,vedic teachers1 as they possibly might have done after ,alexander had opened a highway for intercourse between ,persia and ,hindostan8 ,on weighing the subject as impartially as ,i can1 it seems to me that the ,avesta contains a great deal of the ,ancient ,persian faith1 but that it will be the safest plan for us to describe what is known of the ,persian and ,median faith from other sources1 rather than take our information mainly from this doubtful source4 ,herodotus tells us of his own knowledge 7,b4 i1 c4 #aca1 seq471 that the ,persians1 about b4c4 #dej1 did not erect statues1 temples1 or altars--that they sacrificed on lofty hills to high heaven1 the sun1 moon1 fire1 water1 and the winds1 and that this had been a custom from time immemorial ,sacrifice was attended by a priest or magus1 and prayer and praise were offered1 not for themselves alone1 but for all the ,persians1 and especially for the king4 ,in about the year #eba ,b4c41 ,darius1 king of the ,medes1 caused be made1 in three languages1 upon a rock at ,behistun1 an inscription of considerable length4 ,the one which is in the ,persian tongue has been translated by ,rawlinson 7,royal ,asiatic ,society ,journal1 vol #aj74 ,in it1 the king acknowledges ,auramazda as his god1 and speaks of him as the ,jews did of ,jehovah4 ,this epithet is explained by two ,sanscrit roots 7,op cit41 vol4 x41 p4 #fh71 and may be paraphrased as ,the ,lord or giver of life1 ,the great ,creator1 or ,the ,eternal1 and the king in a doubtful passage refers to the evil one 7871 who by lies deceived the rulers of certain states1 inducing them to rebel1 and then left them to be conquered by the ,ormazd-governed ,darius4 ,in the ,babylonian copy lies are as it were personified4 ,whilst in the ,scythian version1 translated by ,mr ,norris 7,op cit4 vol4 xv41 p4 #add71 we find the account run thus3 ,these are the provinces which became rebellious1 'the god of lies' made them rebel that they would subvert the state1 afterwards ,ormaza delivered them into my hand4 ,the lies1 or the god of lies1 we very naturally associate with the being whom we call in our time the devil1 who is spoken of 7,john viii4 #dd7 as a liar1 and the father of falsehood1 who was so from the beginning --,greek--1 and consequently regarded as coeval with the father of light4 ,we next turn to such evidence as is given us in the book of ,job4 ,we select this ancient writing in consequence of the strong internal evidence there is1 that it was written by some one about the period of the ,achaemenian dynasty living in ,persia 7see ,rawlinson in ,journal of ,b4 ,a4 ,soc41 vol4 #a1 new series1 p4 #bcj74 ,in ,job we find two distinct powers spoken of1 the one being the ,good ,god1 and the other ,satan the opposer4 ,the last is regularly described as if he had the power to cause war1 devastation1 tempest1 disease1 and death1 for ch4 ii41 v4 #f1 lets us infer that he might have killed ,job had he been so minded and ,god allowed the bargain1 and in verse #ai of the same chapter we find him killing all the sons and daughters of the patriarch4 ,job clearly recognised the necessity of sacrifice for purification1 for sanctification1 and he seems not to have offered this upon any altar1 in any temple1 or with the intervention of any priest4 ,it is clear that ,job had never heard of ,moses or the writings assigned to him4 ,the persecuted patriarch and his friends all believe that punishment in this life is the result of offences committed against the ,good ,god1 but all seem to be singularly free from the idea that ,satan is the cause of ,job's sufferings either directly or indirectly4 ,there is throughout the book no reference made to a preceding or a succeeding condition of man1 such as obtained amongst the ,brahmins1 and it is doubtful whether the ,persians believed in heaven or hell4 ,when man died he was supposed to perish4 ,hence we conclude that the doctrine of the resurrection was not prevalent at the time the story was written1 and in the country where the writer of the book of ,job resided4 ,equally unknown to that author1 whoever he was1 were the ideas about angels1 ministers of ,god1 or disembodied spirits4 ,these were of ,babylonian origin4 ,we must now1 to carry on the thread of the argument1 recal to mind the fact that ,babylon was taken by the ,medes and ,persians1 that the rulers of the united people often made that city their residence1 that ,herodotus tells us 7,b4 #a1 c4 #ace7 that the ,persians are of all nations most ready to adopt foreign customs1 and ,i may notice1 in passing1 that the same authority states that the two nations were scrupulously truthful1 ceremoniously cleanly1 and intolerant to leprosy4 ,it is well known1 moreover1 that even after the commencement of our era ,babylon was the chief seat of ,babbinic and ,talmudic lore4 ,when we examine into the religion of the ,babylonians we find that they believed in the existence of angels--minis-1 ters of the ,supreme--intelligences1--unseen by man1 yet powerful to act in his favour1 or against him4 ,if we rightly interpret many of the engraved gems which were executed by the ,chaldees1 we can only come to the conclusion that they believed in a ,devil1 a ,typhon1 or spirit of destruction4 ,we next must call attention to the fact that the ,jews were conquered by the ,babylonians1 and enslaved in ,mesopotamia for very many years--that they were subsequently emancipated by the ,medo-,persians1 and that the latter1 whom from the inscription of ,darius we believe to have been devout1 permitted and even encouraged the ,israelites to entertain the faith which they then held1 and even assisted them to rebuild their temple4 ,this permission1 and the friendliness of ,nehemiah with the ,median monarch1 seem to show a great similarity1 if not an identity1 between the ,persian and the ,jewish creeds4 ,if1 then1 we could frame any definite idea of the tenets held by the ,jews before they came into contact with the ,babylonians1 and those which they professed afterwards1 we might form a conception of what they got from the ,chaldees1 the ,medes1 and the ,persians respectively4 ,without going very deeply into the matter1 we may say that ,hebrew scholars generally allow that the ideas of ,satan--a power opposed to that of ,god1 and of angels or spirits1 were introduced between the captivity and the period when the scriptures were translated into ,greek1 and that the notion of a future life and the resurrection of the dead1 was developed after the time of the ,septuagint1 about b4c4 #bgg4 ,from the preceding considerations we draw the inference that the idea of the resurrection of the dead1 of a future state of existence1 in which each will be punished or rewarded for what had been done by him in his mortal condition1 was not a portion of the original ,median1 ,persian1 ,babylonian1 or ,jewish religion4 ,a mass of circumstantial evidence has led me to believe that the idea of a ,heaven for the good and a ,hell for the bad1 came from those who professed what we will call the ,vedic or the ,buddhist faith4 ,if1 in reply to this1 it is alleged that it may have come from the ,greeks directly1 the rejoinder is simply this--that the ,grecians1 as ,aryan colonists1 brought with them only a rude notion of a futurity1 which they were the medium of improving1 when1 through the influence of their arts and arms1 they opened a highway to ,india both by sea and land4 ,those who could import into their armies such huge beasts as elephants1 could far more readily import a new article of faith1 if it pleased the priests4 ,if our reasoning is sound1 we cannot1 ,i think1 regard the ,avesta as a trustworthy exposition of the ancient teaching of ,zoroaster4 ,on the other hand1 we must1 in my opinion1 consider it as a book fabricated to serve a particular purpose4 ,in this respect it resembles our own ,bible1 which was composed for the glorification of the ,hebrews when smarting under a series of ignominious defeats and enslavements2 and then enlarged1 contracted1 or altered1 to suit emergencies4 ,the following table will assist the reader to compare or contrast the religion of the ,medo-,persians with that of the ,hebrews in some matters3-- ,illustration3 #bhe ,illustration3 #bhf ,the ,hebrews first worshipped a calf1 and then a box2 they believed that their ,god taught them to build a tabernacle first1 then a temple1 and to ,it is not the practice of the ,perform altars for sacrifice4 ,the ,hebrews sians to erect statues1 or temples1 also believed that ,elohim had one or or altars1 and they charge with folly more human forms--see ,gen4 xviii4 #a1 those that do4 ,they do not think #b1 and the following chap4 xix4 #a--see the gods have human forms1 also ,gen4 xxxii4 #a and #bd-hj1 also ,josh4 v4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 ,jud4 ii4 #a-e4 ,the anthropomorphism of the ,jewish ,scriptures has already been referred to in ,vol4 ,i4 of ,ancient ,faiths4 ,the ,persians are accustomed to ascend the highest parts of the mountains1 and offer sacrifice to ,jupiter1 calling the whole circle of the heavens by that name4 ,the ,persians sacrificed to the son and moon1 to the earth1 fire1 water1 and the winds4 ,amongst the ,persians1 sacrifices were attended by invocations and prayers1 and were always offered up by a priest4 ,the ,persians1 next to bravery in battle1 considered the greatest proof of manliness was to be able to exhibit many children4 ,whoever has the leprosy or scrofula is not permitted to stay within a town1 nor have communication with other ,persians2 and it is supposed that the infliction is caused by some offence against the deity 7sun god74 ,herodotus1 book ,i41 chaps4 #aca1ach4 ,the eldest son of the ,persian king was instructed during youth in the learning of the ,magi according to ,zoroaster the son of ,oromazes--by this learning is meant the worship of the gods--and likewise in the art of kingly government4 ,plato1 in ,alcibiades4 ,the ,hebrews sacrificed on high places for a long period4 ,sacrifice in an enclosed place seems to have been adopted from the ,phoenicians by ,david and ,solomon1 but not to have been popular for some centuries4 ,the ,jewish people sacrificed to sun1 moon1 and some planets--had a sacred fire in the temple1 and regarded clouds and wind as the ministers of ,god4 ,the ,god that answered by fire was the one adopted by ,elyah4 ,the so-called orthodox ,jews only acknowledged one ,god1 and subsequently one devil4 ,the ,jews neither offered invocation nor prayer at their sacrifices1 and prophets and kings offered victims without priestly assistance4 ,in later times every sacrifice was offered by a priest4 ,the ,hebrews regarded a large family as a gift from ,jehovah4 ,the ,hebrews had the same practice2 and1 as we learn in the book of ,job1 and ,deuter4 xxviii1 notably in the #bgth verse1 they deemed that botch1 scab1 itch1 and emerods were punishments sent by ,jehovah4 ,the royal families of ,judah received no instruction1 either in political matters or in religion1 and were allowed to grow up and do much as they liked in regard to worship4 ,the only power which influenced them was that assumed by some man who professed to be divinely inspired4 ,in a chapter of ancient faiths and notice an allegation which has that ,parseeism or ,zoroastriamsm has been borrowed from ,jews and ,christians4 ,to this we wholly demur4 ,nowhere in the ,avesta do we find a reference to the imminent destruction of the world1 the resurrection of a dead man1 his subjugating all the powers of evil1 and reigning for a thousand years with his followers as kings and saints4 ,nowhere in the ,avesta do we discover such immoral notions of ,god as prevailed amongst the ancient ,jewish writers4 ,take these away from ,judaism and ,christianity1 and then the two resemble the religions which are held everywhere by the thoughtful and the good4 ,if there has really been any copying at all1 we do not see the imitators in ,central ,asia but on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,jews copied from ,tyre1 ,babylon1 and ,greece--,christians have taken as models ,egyptians1 ,grecians1 ,romans1 and even barbarians1 and they have denied a once pure faith by covering it over with the ordures of heathenism4 ,yet we talk of others imitating us6 ,i propose now to examine at some length into such of the developments as have taken place in certain religious systems1 for by so doing we shall be better able to judge what are those doctrines which ,christians hold1 in common with what they call ,pagan nations1 and how far those matters which are regarded as fundamental points of doctrine are in reality trustworthy4 ,we must ever bear in mind that if we find the same set of ideas entertained amongst peoples who by no possibility can have had any communication with each other1 it is only rational to believe that each race possesses those notions in virtue of their being human4 ,or1 if desirous of avoiding this admission1 the orthodox declares that every asserted fact is a copy of a precedent one1 then we ask them to reconcile the legend of ,hercules being begotten by ,jupiter1 and ,jesus by the ,holy ,ghost1 for unquestionably the story of ,alcmena's son preceded that told of ,mary's4 ,in the following chapter ,i shall avoid as far as possible any reference to the tales told of the conception of ,jesus1 for no man1 however subtle he may be1 can prove that the ,son of ,man had a certain mundane individual called ,joseph for a father2 all that ,i desire to show is1 that in every nation whose history has come down to us there have been persons whose mothers have declared themselves to have been pure virgins until adopted by some god as a temporal and temporary spouse1 or who1 being wives1 have asserted that a son who has distinguished himself in the world has been of divine procreation--an affirmation1 be it observed1 that can only be made in case the spouse has been manifestly unfaithful1 or by some fulsome historian desirous of exalting his hero to celestial rank4 ,there is scarcely a barbaric dynasty known1 indeed1 which does not claim an origin from some heavenly father1 mother1 or both4 ,there have been many hierarchs who1 having felt conscious of the absurdity of making1 by miraculous agency1 all wonderful beings come from woman only1 have consequently invented legends in which men have produced offspring without a consort4 ,some may be disposed to deride these tales1 who can readily credit the stories of virgin mothers2 but in reality there is no difference between the two sets of legends1 in probability1 wherever miracles are assumed4 ,it would have been quite as easy for the writer of ,genesis to have made ,isaac come from old ,abraham's bosom as from the womb of his hoary-headed wife4 ,but the ,jewish writers have never proved themselves as subtle as the ,hindoos and ,greeks4 ,instead of asserting that a man1 without a woman's assistance1 has borne a son--a matter capable of proof--they have declared that a woman has conceived1 without the assistance of a man2 an asseveration for which there cannot be any proof whatever1 no not even physical1 for accoucheurs know that many a female conceives by her lover's instrumentality1 and bears a child1 at whose birth1 or rather when parturition is imminent1 that part which is called the ,hymen1 and is the ,mosaical test of virginity1 is not only unbroken1 but so small in aperture1 and strong in flesh1 as to require operative or surgical interference before the child can come into the world4 ,according to ,mosaism these must be regarded as absolutely virgin mothers4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,supernatural generation4 ,what is meant by the term4 ,examples4 ,children given by the gods4 ,anecdote4 ,frequency of god-begotten children in ,ancient ,greece4 ,their general fate4 ,the stories not credited by the grandfathers of children1 nor apparently by the mothers4 ,the babies1 how treated4 ,foundlings and ,hospitals4 ,antiope4 ,leucothoee4 ,divinely conceived persons not necessarily great or good4 ,babylonian idea that a god came down to enjoy human women4 ,tale from ,herodotus4 ,jehovah as a man4 ,grecian idea attached to the expression ,son of ,god4 ,homer4 ,hebrew ideas4 ,roman notions4 ,romulus1 son of ,mars and a ,vestal ,augustus1 son of ,apollo4 ,modern ideas respecting ,incubi4 ,prevalence of the belief4 ,its suppression4 ,causes of its origin4 ,bible made to pander to priestly lust4 ,dictionnaire ,infernal4 ,history of incubi therefrom4 ,stories4 ,strange idea that the ,gods who made men out of nothing cannot as easily make babies4 ,divine ,androgynes4 ,strange stories of single gods having offspring4 ,narayana and the ,spirit of ,god of ,genesis4 ,chaos4 ,hindoo mythos of ,brahma4 ,birth from churning a dead man's left arm1 and again his right4 ,ayonyesvara1 his strange history4 ,similar ones referred to4 ,history of ,carticeya4 ,christian parallels4 ,immaculate conception a ,hindoo myth4 ,the dove in ,india and ,christendom4 ,agni and cloven fiery tongues4 ,penance and its powers4 ,miraculous conception by means' of a dove4 ,other myths from various sources4 ,it is a question which should1 in my opinion1 be asked by every individual in a rational community1 whether it is advisable to continue1 as a matter of faith1 a doctrine which must be repudiated1 as a matter of fact4 ,to this we may join1 as a rider1 can anyone who puts his credence in a legend because it is old1 claim to be superior to those who originally invented the tale1 in the darkness of antiquity8 ,when moderns smile at the stories told by the classic ,varro1 how certain mares in ,lusitania were impregnated by the wind on a certain mountain1 without any access to a horse1 and at the credence given to similar accounts by ,virgil1 ,pliny1 and even the ,christian bishop ,augustine2 and by some old ,scotch authority how a young woman became a mother through the intervention of the ashes of the dead3 and when they pity the benighted ,greeks who gave to ,hercules1 ,jupiter for a father2 and to ,mars1 ,juno for a mother1 without intercourse with her celestial spouse1 it behoves them to inquire whether each may not be addressed in the sentence1 ,mutato nomine1 de te fabula narratur--i4e41 change but the name of the believers from ,greeks and ,romans to modern ,christians1 and it will be found that ,popes1 priests1 and peoples believe as firmly now in supernatural generation as the most crass pagan of which history treats4 ,our classical reading tells us abundance of marvellous stories--how ,jupiter seduced ,danae in the form of a golden shower1 and yet had a common son by her1 who was not an aureous coin2 how ,leda received ,zeus as a swan1 and bore therefrom a couple of eggs2 how ,europa was tempted by him as a bull1 and yet did not bear a calf2 and how ,callisto1 a maiden of ,diana1 was debauched by the same god under the guise of her mistress1 and yet that from two maidens a boy was formed4 ,of the amours of ,apollo with a dozen and a half damsels1 and of the very numerous disguises which he assumed1 we find abundant details in our classical dictionaries4 ,mars1 though not so frequently adopted by human females as a lover1 had many children of whom he was the putative father4 ,jupiter had ,bacchus and ,minerva without ,juno's aid1 and ,juno retaliated by bearing ,ares without conversation with her consort4 ,we deride these tales1 and yet think1 that because we laugh at a hundred such we shall be pardoned for believing one4 ,how little we are justified in acting thus a few philosophical considerations will demonstrate4 ,there are few things in mythology that are more curious than the subject of the miraculous formation of certain individuals4 ,some of these have been regarded as the offspring of a celestial father and a mother of earthly mould2 others again1 as for example ,a,eneas1 were said to be the result of a union between a heavenly mother and a terrestrial father--e4g41 ,a,eneas was the son of ,anchises1 a handsome man1 and ,venus1 goddess of beauty and love4 ,some1 though these are few1 are said to be children of a virgin or deserted wife1 who has produced them without any extraneous assistance199 and others are declared to be descended from a father whom no consort could ever claim4 ,one individual1 indeed1 called ,orion1 is represented as having been wholly independent of both father and mother1 and the result of a strange form of development1 the like of which ,darwin never dreamed of as he came from a bladder into which three gods had micturated4 ,his name1 we are gravely assured1 came ab urina4 99 ,the following is a good case in corroboration of what is said in the text4 ,in the ,dictionnaire ,infernal1 to which more particular reference will be made shortly1 there is1 s4 v4 ,fecondite1 a report of a trial before the ,parliament of ,grenoble1 in which the question was1 whether a certain infant could be declared legitimate which was born after the husband had been absent from his wife four full years4 ,the wife asserted that the baby was the offspring of a dream1 in which she had a vivid idea that her wandering spouse had returned to love and duty4 ,midwives and physicians were consulted1 and reported on the subject4 ,as a result1 the ,parliament ordained that the infant should be adjudged legitimate1 and that its mother should be regarded as a true and honourable wife4 ,the judgment bears date #acth ,february #aecg4 ,the quaint ideas associated in mythology with the supernatural generation here referred to have been various4 ,in some instances they have been wholly poetical1 as when we are told that the ,supreme by his union with law and order 7,themis7 produced ,justice1 the ,hours1 ,good ,laws1 and ,peace 7,hesiod ,theogony1 #ijj71 and as when ,europa is said to have tempted ,jupiter to leave ,phoenicia1 and travel westward to ,crete as the first step towards the colonization of an unknown continent4 ,in other instances1 the ideas have been framed upon the very natural belief that anyone--whether existent in story only1 or in reality--who has greatly surpassed his fellows1 must have had a large element of the ,deity in his constitution4 ,in other instances1 the notion has been associated with the once prevalent belief1 that the ,creator had a sex1 to which we shall refer by and by2 and in other cases1 the fancy has clearly been mingled with the fact1 that many an unmarried woman has attributed to some god1 a pregnancy1 or baby1 which has been due1 in reality1 to a very mortal man4 ,here we may notice that the fecundity which damsels of old were wont to refer to a god or some inferior1 but yet beneficent1 deity1 more modern christian girls have associated with a demon4 ,jupiter and ,apollo being replaced by a special class of imps who were named incubi1 and of the particulars of whose embraces the strangest stories are told4 ,this small truth seems to be sufficient to demonstrate that the ,greeks were not familiar with the being to whom we give the name of ,satan and the ,devil1 and that their belief coincided in one respect with that of the older ,jews1 who considered that whatever occurrence happened in the world1 whether apparently for good or evil1 was done by ,jehovah1 or as the ,hellenic damsels reported by ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 or ,mars4 ,here1 too1 ,i may be permitted to introduce a remark suggested by a narrative1 told to me by a lady of high ,british rank4 ,she had been brought up in a foreign country under the eye of a sensible and pious1 we may add prudish1 mother1 who endeavoured to shield her daughter from all contact with external vicious influences1 and to prevent her ears or her mind from ever coming to the knowledge of those matters which are associated with love1 marriage1 and offspring4 ,when the young lady naturally inquired of mamma where the infants sprang from which came into the world and grew up around her1 she was told1 from ,god1 and she was referred to ,psalm cxxvii4 #c1 which declares that children are an heritage of the ,lord1 and the fruit of the womb is ,his reward4 ,after having attained adult age1 and being wholly imbued with this belief1 she1 on one occasion1 expressed her opinion that ,mademoiselle--who had recently been confined--must have been a peculiarly virtuous maiden1 to have received so great a present as a baby from the beneficent ,creator4 ,this speech fell like a bombshell amongst a mixed company1 but she knew not why4 ,it was not until her marriage some time subsequently1 that she learned that infants were said to come from ,god or the ,devil according to circumstances1 but that in reality they were always due to men and women4 ,the anecdote given above1 naturally enables us to call attention to the remarkable fact that though the ,grecian poets repeatedly spoke of maidens being fertilized by a divinity1 yet ,greek fathers never paid any heed to the power of that god1 whom their daughters asserted to have operated upon their femininity2 but always treated the earthly love of the alleged celestial spouse1 as if the latter was wholly powerless to punish the hard-hearted parent1 who had no scruples to turn his daughter from his door1 so that she might hide her shame in distant lands4 ,in those classic times1 procreation by a god upon a human being was the attempted cover for bastardy4 ,moreover1 even the woman herself1 to whom ,jupiter or ,apollo was alleged to have descended from heaven to honour1 felt herself so much injured by the visit1 that she either tried to destroy the resulting offspring with her own hands1 or exposed it upon a mountain to the tender mercies of dogs and vultures4 ,much in the same way many a modern maiden places her shame-covered infant in the turn-table of a foundling institution4 ,antiope1 for example1 the daughter of a king of ,thebes1 was1 according to her version1 beloved by ,jupiter1 who visited her in the form of a satyr and implanted twins4 ,when she discovered the coming event1 which casts its shadow before1 she left the paternal mansion1 to avoid her father's anger1 and fled to a mountain1 on which she left her hapless offspring4 ,they were found by shepherds and brought up4 ,the story of fair ,leucothoee is still more to the point4 ,she was sufficiently beautiful to attract ,apollo1 who seduced her under the form of her own mother--not a very likely story it is true1 but the two lived happily together until a rival told the loved one's father of the amour4 ,the incensed paterfamilias ordered his daughter to be buried alive1 and yet the god who could change her body after death into the frankincense tree1 and himself into a matronly looking woman and yet retain his sex1 could not prevent his earthly spouse from dying a cruel death4 ,in other words1 ,orchamus1 the parent of the damsel1 wholly disbelieved in the existence of a divine spark1 and felt assured that his daughter had disgraced herself with a man far below her in earthly rank4 ,from these1 and a number of other ,grecian anecdotes1 we can draw no other conclusions than that the sires in those days were as jealous of the honour of their daughters as we are of our own now2 that when that honour was in danger of being tarnished1 a god was alleged by the damsel to be the offender2 that the story was not believed2 and that the daughter fled1 was punished1 or was pardoned1 according to the sternness or credulity of the parents4 ,the idea that individuals who were the sons or daughters of a god1 must necessarily be great and good1 does not appear to have prevailed amongst the ancient ,greeks4 ,nay1 we may even doubt whether any of them really believed that ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 or ,neptune1 could1 or had ever become incarnate1 for the sole purpose of impregnating a human female4 ,that such an idea1 however1 prevailed amongst the ,babylonians we learn from ,herodotus1 who informs us1 book i4 c4 #aha1 that ,belus comes into a chamber at the summit of a sacred tower to meet therein a native woman1 chosen by the god from the whole nation2 and in the succeeding chapter he indicates that a similar occurrence takes place in ,egyptian ,thebes1 and in ,lycian ,patarae4 ,yet even whilst writing the tales1 the historian expresses his own incredulity of their value1 and we may well suppose that the thoughtful generally1 would only give such credence to the statements of the temple priests1 as was given to certain ,christian stories by a philosopher1 who said he believed them because they were impossible4 ,even if the common people credited the assertion that ,the ,supreme did elect a woman with whom to converse1 we must not despise them too lightly1 for we are distinctly told in our own scriptures that ,jehovah appeared as a man1 and as such1 ate1 drank1 and talked with ,abraham 7,gen4 ch4 xviii472 that ,elohim was in the habit of conversing face to face with ,moses 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #aa72 and that the same ,god wrestled with ,jacob as a man1 and could not prevail against the patriarch until he had lamed him4 ,we must also notice that myriads of ,christians have believed1 and many still do so1 that ,he in a certain form had commerce with a ,hebrew maiden 7,luke i4 #cd1 #ce71 and had by her a begotten son4 ,when civilization spread over ,greece1 there seems to have been a change of expression--which being at the first wholly metaphorical1 subsequently became realistic4 ,thus1 any man peculiarly characteristic amongst his fellows for strength1 knowledge1 or power1 was designated a son of ,god4 ,thus1 as ,grote remarks 7#ab vol4 edition71 vol4 ii4 p4 #acb1 note #a4 ,even ,aristotle ascribed to ,homer a divine parentage2 a damsel of the isle of ,ios1 pregnant by some god1 was carried off by pirates to ,smyrna at the time of the ,ionic emigration1 and there gave birth to the poet 7,aristotle ap4 ,plutarch ,vit4 ,homer1 p4 #ajei74 ,plato1 also by some1 called the divine1 was said by ,seusippus to be a son of ,apollo 7,smith's ,dictionary1 #h4 v47 ,the ,hebrews had a similar metaphorical expression1 and gave to everything supereminently good1 an epithet which we may paraphrase as divine4 ,some few writers used the title1 sons of ,god1 as for example1 ,job i4 #f1 and xxxviii4 #g1 and ,hosea i4 #aj2 an epithet adopted by ,john i4 #ab1 ,rom4 viii4 #ad1 #ai1 ,phil ii4 #ae1 #a ,john iii #a1 #b1 as if the same were applicable to all who are virtuous and good to an especial degree4 ,the ,hebrews even seem to have adopted the belief that ,elohim1 like the ,grecian ,zeus1 had many children1 could1 and did really1 associate with human beings1 for we can in no other way reasonably interpret the strange narrative in ,genesis vi1 wherein we are told that the sons of ,god came in unto the daughters of men1 who became the sires of mighty men of great renown4 ,amongst the ,romans1 similar ideas to those which we find amongst the ,greeks prevailed4 ,for example1 ,romulus was said to be the son of ,mars and a ,vestal virgin2 but so little did her relatives believe in the possibility of the occurrence1 or the divine nature of the maiden's offspring1 that the mother was buried alive1 and the twins which she bare were exposed1 much in the same way as modern foundlings are4 ,in this case1 as in many others1 it is probable that little notice would have been taken of such supernatural generation had the mother been of low origin--but when a god inveigles a king's daughter from her duty1 both the one and the other must be punished2 the one in her person1 the other in his child4 ,yet these very writers who told of the punishment of the ,vestal ,hia for her intrigue with ,mars1 took advantage of the story1 and spread a report that ,romulus1 the offspring of the two1 was1 after his death1 taken up to heaven to dwell there as a god4 ,at a subsequent period1 ,augustus ,caesar announced1 on his mother's authority1 that he was the son of ,apollo1 and claimed to be treated as a veritable scion of that venerable deity4 ,the account of the conception and birth of ,servius ,tullius is curious from its circumstantiality4 ,ovid tells us1 ,fasti1 vi41 #fbe-fei1 ,bonn's translation3 ,vulcan was the father of ,tullius2 ,ocrisia was his mother1 a woman of ,corniculum1 remarkable for her beauty4 ,her1 ,tanaquil1 having duly performed the sacred rites1 ordered1 in company with herself1 to pour some wine on the decorated altar4 ,here amongst the ashes1 either was1 or seemed to be1 a form of obscene shape2 but such it really was4 ,being ordered to do so1 the captive 7,ocrisia was a slave71 submits to its embraces2 conceived by her1 ,servius had the origin of his birth from heaven4 ,his father afforded a proof1 at the time when he touched his head with the gleaming fire1 and a flame rising to a point1 blazed upon his locks4 ,in some earlier lines1 the poet tells us that the goddess1 ,fortune1 was enamoured of this same ,roman king1 and visited him nightly--much as ,venus came to converse with ,anchises4 ,in this story1 we have an unusual ingredient1 inasmuch as there is a witness to that which we may call the immaculate conception1 and after birth1 a proof of the child's divine origin6 ,of course there are many irreverent people who declare that the story is untrue--that it is far more likely that the real father was ,tarquin1 who1 finding his consort's beautiful servant to be with child1 contrived a plan by which she would escape the vindictiveness of the mistress--one which1 if devotionally inclined1 she was bound to give credence to4 ,nor can devout ,christians altogether range themselves amongst the unbelievers in the miracle1 for the founder of their religion was borne by a woman of low condition1 and is said to have been begotten by an overshadowing spirit4 ,he assumed to be a king2 but the son of ,ocrisia became one in reality1 and instituted games in honour of his divine progenitor4 ,for some more modern poetical fictions of the same nature1 we may refer our readers to ,scott's ,lady of the ,lake1 where1 in the account of the ,highland seer1 ,brian1 they will find a parallel to the story promulgated by ,alexander the false prophet1 respecting his birth1 described by ,lucian4 ,the same ideas1 with which we are all of us so familiar in ,christendom1 that they form a portion of the creeds which the orthodox weekly rehearse1 have obtained in far ,ceylon4 ,thus1 for example1 we read in a ,buddhistic legend 7,kusa ,iatakaya1 translated by ,t4 ,steele1 ,truebner1 ,london1 #ahga1 small #hvo41 pp4 #bfj73-- ,as ,sakra991 with his thousand eyes gazed over every land1 ,the hapless queen1 with heart distraught1 he saw dejected stand2 ,his godlike eye revealed to him that to her blessed womb ,two radiant gods illustrious from ,heaven's high town should come4 ,then entering first the ,bodisat's blest skyey palace fair1 ,and next unto another god's1 did ,sakra straight repair3 ,benign he said3--,go to the world of men1 that distant scene1 ,and there be born from out the womb of yon delightful queen4 ,the saying of the king of gods unto their hearts they took2 ,then bathed they in his feet's bright rays that shone as shines a brook3 ',let us be so conceived1' they said1 when they the order heard1 ',within the womb of yonder queen1 even as the ,lord declared4' --,stanzas #abi-aca4 99 ,indra1 ,the ,supreme4 ,but the two children do not appear as twins1 like ,romulus and ,remus1 for we find in stanza #aee-- ,now when the darling little child1 the wisdom-gifted one1 ,began to lift his tiny foot1 and learn to walk alone1 ,another god from ,heaven's high town flashed down the sky serene1 ,and was conceived within the womb of that delightful queen4 ,i may notice in passing1 that the lady was married1 but had always been barren with her husband4 ,in the instances to which we have referred above1 there has been no very marked departure from the ordinary course of nature4 ,in all1 an union between a father and mother has occurred--in all1 the relation between each to the offspring has been maintained1 and the ordinary progress of gestation observed4 ,the main discrepancies which are to be noticed are1 that a divine is substituted for a human father1 or1 as in the case of ,a,eneas1 the sire has been a man1 and the mother a celestial4 ,but after birth1 instead of the child being cared for by its parents1 it very frequently happens that a goat1 wolf1 or other animal1 performs the mother's duty as a nurse4 ,the reader whose antiquarian lore is considerable1 will probably remember that ,christians in ,italy1 ,france1 and ,i dare not say in how many other ,catholic countries1 were implicit believers in the idea that spirits from the invisible world could assume a human form1 and under that1 have intercourse with youths of either sex4 ,the literature upon this subject was at one time very great1 but such pains have been taken to destroy it1 in order that so great a blot upon the infallibility of ,papal rulers should no longer be found1 that there are few books to which ,i can refer inquirers4 ,the first time ,i met with the subject was in a ,latin treatise by ,cardan1 a4d4 #addd-aebd199 being commentaries upon ,hippocrates4 ,in this1 many chapters are devoted to the possibility of intercourse between women and embodied spirits4 ,the ,mediaeval virgins1 unlike the ,greeks1 always attributed their pregnancy to demons and not to gods1 although on some occasions maidens were foolish enough1 like those of ancient ,babylon1 to believe that they were embraced1 by a divine being or angel4 ,into this matter the ,italian doctor enters folly1 and endeavours to establish some distinction how a woman could distinguish an incubus from a human being1 and if she became pregnant and brought forth1 how the devil's offspring could be told from an ordinary baby4 ,the particulars which are given to the learned in ,latin1 will not bear to be reproduced in the vernacular1 suffice it to say1 that they are such as would be given by silly women more or less conscious of having been guilty of impropriety1 and who were goaded by sanctimonious but ribald divines to enter into every detail of the devil's doings and the females' sensations4 99 ,it is more than thirty years since ,i read the book in question1 and ,i have long ago parted with it4 ,as ,i am unable now to lay my hands upon a copy ,i am not sure whether the author was ,facio ,cardan1 who flourished at the period given in the text1 or the more celebrated ,jerome ,cardan who lived ,a4,d4 #afja-aegf4 ,before saying more of the incubi1 we may bestow a passing glance upon the foundation of the idea of their existence4 ,in mediaeval times1 a large portion of the ,new ,testament was taken to be literally true1 and the people were instructed to believe that the devil went about like a roaring lion seeking whom he could devour4 ,the papal priests encouraged the idea1 for by frightening the ignorant1 they induced them to purchase sacerdotal insurance by paying for masses to protect themselves from the snares of ,satan4 ,for hierarchs who were obliged to live without wives1 it was easy in the first place to imbue the mind of a superstitious maiden with a horror of ,apollyon's power1 and then to take advantage of her fears by personifying the fiend4 ,in this manner the bible suggested the sin to the priest and made the maiden passive4 ,it would not be profitable to write a catalogue in detail of the authorities upon which ,i found these statements4 ,i will rather give a short resume of an article upon ,incubi1 which is to be found in a most curious book entitled ,dictionnaire ,infernal ou ,bibliotheque universelle sur les etres1 les personnages1 les livres1 les faits et les choses qui tiennent aux apparitions1 a la magie1 au commerce de ,venfer1 aux divinations1 aux sciences secretes1444 aux erreurs et aux prejuges1444 generalment a toutes les croyances mer-veilleuses1 surprenantes mysterieuses et surnaturelles4--,par ,m4 ,colin de ,plancy4 ,deuxieme edition entierement refondue 2 ,paris1 #ahbf4 ,the book is rare1 but most interesting to the philosopher who concerns himself about matters of faith1 for it shows1 clearly1 that there is no depth of human degradation into which people who are guided by blind trust in some fellow mortal1 unchecked by the exercise of reason1 will not enter1 and there reside permanently1 until stirred up by those whom they assert on the first blush to be infidels4 ,after a few preliminary remarks1 we are told that the ,french incubi did not attack virgins1 but in the next paragraph is an account of a maiden who was seduced by a demon in the form of her betrothed4 ,this was in ,sardinia4 ,an ,english fiend acted in a similar way1 and from the congress followed a frightful disease of which the poor girl died in three days4 ,this story is told by ,thomas ,walsingham1 b4 ,a4,d4 #adaj4 ,a ,scotch lass is the next victim reported1 and to her the unclean spirit came nightly under the guise of a fine young man4 ,she became pregnant1 and avowed all4 ,the parents then kept watch1 and saw the devil near her in a monstrous unhuman form4 ,he would not go away till a priest came1 then the incubus made a frightful noise1 burned the furniture1 and went off upwards1 carrying the roof with him4 ,three days after a queer form was born1 more horrible than had ever been seen1 so bad indeed1 that the midwives strangled it4 ,for the credulous1 what fact could be more strongly attested than this8 ,the reporter is ,hector ,boetius1 b4 #adgj4 ,the next tale1 having a locale in ,bonn1 occurred at a time when priests married and had a family4 ,the daughter of one who was closely watched and locked up when left by herself1 was found out by a demon1 who took upon him the form of a fine young man4 ,such an occurrence was thought nothing uncommon then1 inasmuch as ,paul had told the ,corinthians that ,satan himself is transformed into an angel of light 7#b ,cor4 xi4 #ad74 ,the poor victim became enceinte and confessed the whole to her father1 who1 fearing the devil1 and anxious not to make a scandal1 sent the daughter away from home4 ,the impudent fiend came to remonstrate1 and killed the wretched sire with a blow of his fist4--,quoted from ,caesarii ,heistere mirac41 lib4 iii41 c4 #h4 ,the next case occurs at ,schinin1 wherein we are told 7,hauppius ,biblioth portai1 pract41 p4 #ded7 that a woman produced a baby without head or feet1 with a mouth in the chest near to the left shoulder1 and an ear near the right one2 instead of fingers it had webs like frog's feet1 it was liver coloured1 and shaky as jelly1 it cried when the mother wanted to wash it1 but somebody stifled and then buried it4 ,the mother1 however1 wanted it be exhumed and burned1 for it was the offspring of a fiend who had counterfeited her husband4 ,the thing was taken up and given to the hangman for cremation1 but he could neither burn it nor the rags which enwrapped it until the day after the feast of ,ascension4 ,the following story is laid near ,nantes3--,therein a young girl baulked of her lover1 mutters something like a modern order to him to go to the foul fiend1 and remarks to herself that a demon would be a better friend4 ,she is betrayed in the usual manner1 and finds1 when too late1 that she is embracing a hairy incubus which has a long tail4 ,she exclaims fearfully4 ,the affreet blows in her face and leaves her4 ,she is found frightfully disfigured1 and is brought to bed seven days after of a black cat4 ,the remaining histories are of a similar nature1 all alike showing how completely the so-called ,christian people of ,modern ,europe believed that disembodied spirits could assume human form with such completeness as to be the father of offspring4 ,we may fairly compare these tales with that told by heathen ,greeks about ,jupiter and ,alcmena1 but when we place them side by side1 the ancients show a far superior fancy in their fables than do the comparative moderns4 ,i find from ,reville's ,history of the ,devil1 p4 #ed 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate1 #ahga71 that so late as a4d4 #agef1 at ,landshut1 in ,bavaria1 a young girl of thirteen years of age1 was convicted of impure intercourse with the devil1 and put to death4 ,it is a pity that no account of the trial is appended4 ,talboys ,wheeler1 in his ,history of ,india1 vol4 ,,il1 p4 #eae1 indicates that there is to this day1 in ,india1 a belief in incubi4 ,speaking of ,paisacha marriages1 in which a woman is united to a man without her knowledge or consent1 he remarks3--,the origin of the name is somewhat curious4 ,the ,paisachas were evil spirits or ghosts 7see ,lilith and ,satyr ,ancient ,faiths1 vol4 ii47 who were supposed to haunt the earth4444 ,if1 therefore1 a damsel found herself likely to become a mother without her being able to furnish a satisfactory reason for her maternity1 she would naturally plead that she had been victimized by a ,paisach4444 ,in modern times1 however1 the belief is still very general throughout the rural districts of ,india1 that wives1 as well as maidens1 may be occasionally victimized by such ghostly admirers4 ,every mythologist who has invented such stories as that of ,jupiter and ,alcmena1 and every woman who has ever attributed her pregnancy to a divine being1 call him what she may1 seems completely to ignore the idea that a god who deserves the name1 does not require human aid to produce a man or woman4 ,surely every profound thinker would say to himself1 ,the ,supreme1 who could by a word create full-grown creatures in the beginning1 has not lost the power now2 surely ,he1 who could make ,adam out of dust1 and ,eve out of a bone of man1 can produce in later days similar images of the godhead1 as we are told in ,genesis i4 #bf1 without accoupling with a descendant of the rib4 ,the mythological idea1 therefore1 of a divine child coming from a celestial father and a terrestrial mother1 has nothing profound therein1 for it is essentially a bungling contrivance of some stupid man4 ,on the other hand1 such a notion could only be entertained where a grovelling or anthropomorphic idea has prevailed1 or is cherished amongst a credulous people4 ,to put the subject into the fewest words possible1 a god has never--so far as thoughtful men can judge--been said to be the father in the flesh of a human being1 except by frail women1 or vain1 foolish1 or designing men4 ,we are fortified in this conclusion by the method in which nations or sects who have each their own favourite son of ,god1 treat each other4 ,none endeavour to prove that the mother of their own hero had no commerce with man1 for that is impossible--all1 on the other hand1 ridicule the idea of there being a child without a human father1 and insist that no woman's word countervails the laws of nature4 ,but this argument is only used against opposing religionists--it has no weight against their own divine leader4 ,the cases which we have described are wholly different from those mythological stories1 in which the union of the sexes is absolutely or relatively ignored4 ,they differ also from those in which the ,creator is represented as androgynous1 or being originally without sex1 becomes1 by an effort of will1 a bisexual being1 so as to bring about the creation of man and of the world4 ,for example1 when we find in the ,orphic ,hymns 7,cory's ,ancient ,fragments1 pp4 #bij1 seq471 ,zeus is male1 ,immortal ,zeus is female1 it is clear that there was in the writer an idea of an union of the sexes being necessary to creation4 ,but when we find ,chaos alone being the progenitor of ,erebus and ,black ,night1 from which again were born ,ether and ,bay1 and ,earth the parent of ,heaven and the ,sea 7,hesiod1 ,theogony1 #aaf-acj71 there is a total absence of a sexual notion4 ,this idea1 however1 appears in the subsequent lines which represent ,earth wedding with ,heaven4 ,the same sexual notion1 appears in another fragment from ,aristophanes1 7,cory1 ,a4 ,r1 p4 #bic71 which tells us that ,night with the black wings first produced an aerial egg1 which in its time gave rise to love1 whence sprung all creation4 ,yet the egg necessarily presupposes a being which formed it1 and another that fructified it1 so that the mythos is not wholly free from the intermixture of the sexual element4 ,when mythologists have been peculiarly anxious to shake off the somewhat grotesque doctrine that the celestial ,creator must be independent of any other power1 in the genesis of the world and heaven1 there has been a great variety of attempts to show how this has been brought about4 ,in one curious ,hindoo legend1 ,vishnu is represented sleeping on the bosom of ,devi1 at the bottom of the ocean which covered the world4 ,suddenly a lotus sprung from his navel1 and grew till it reached the surface of the flood4 ,from this wonderful flower ,brahma sprang1 and1 seeing nothing but water1 imagined himself the first-born of all creatures4 ,but ere he felt sure1 he descended the stalk and found ,vishnu at its root2 and then the two contested their respective claims1 but ,mahadeva interposed1 and1 by a curious contrivance1 stopped the quarrel1 demonstrating that before either came into existence there reigned an everlasting lingam4 ,another myth closely resembles one which is indicated in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 viz41 that ,narayana1 or the spirit of ,god1 a self-existent entity1 moved over the waters1 and made them bring forth all things living4 ,this ,narayana is identical with the yomer elohim--the spirit of ,god of the ,hebrew ,genesis i4 #b2 the --,greek----the spirit of ,god1 or ,holy ,ghost of the ,greeks4 ,it is the same as the breezes of thick air which hovered over chaos in the legend assigned to ,sanchoniathon 7,cory's ,fragments1 p4 #a71 and produced the slimy matter from which all beings sprung4 ,narayana is again the same as the ,night of the ,orphic fragment which hovered with her black wings over immensity--the same as the chakemah1 or wisdom of ,proverbs viii42 the ,greek sophia and the logos--the word of ,john i4 #a4 ,the ,buddha--or ,brahma of the ,hindoo4 ,from this mysterious source matter was formed into shape and all creatures sprang into life4 ,another ,indian mythos 7,moor's ,hindoo ,pantheon1 p4 #gh71 attributes even more than this to ,brahma4 ,he is said to have produced four beings who proved refractory1 and grieved their maker4 ,to comfort him1 ,siva issued from a fold in his forehead--then strengthened by ,siva1 he produced ,bhrigu and the seven ,rishis1 and after that1 ,narada1 from his thigh1 ,kardama from his shadow1 and ,dacsha from the forefinger of his right hand4 ,he had1 apparently1 without a consort1 sixty daughters1 and from these last proceeded all things divine1 human1 animal1 vegetable1 and mineral4 ,this is not altogether dissimilar from the ,hebrew idea of ,jehovah creating all things except woman from the dust199 and forming her mysteriously from a rib of the only existing man4 ,we may also compare it with the birth of ,minerva from ,jupiter's brain1 and ,bacchus from his thigh4 ,but the ,greek myth differs from the ,hindoo1 inasmuch as the deities referred to were originally conceived by human women1 and did not grow from ,the ,thunderer's body like branches from a tree4 99 ,in ,mythology1 things ever repeat themselves1 with very little alteration4 ,for example1 ,mahadeva is represented as fighting with ,dacsha1 and producing heroes from the dost by striking the ground with his hair4 7,see ,moor's ,h4 ,p41 p4 #ajg74 ,there is amongst the ,hindoos a goddess called ,prit'hvi1 who is said to personify the ,earth2 she had many names which we need not describe1 and she was also furnished with a consort1 whose birth is thus described 7,moor1 ,h4 ,p41 p4 #aaa47--,vena being an impious and tyrannical prince1 was cursed by the ,brahmans1 and1 in consequence1 died without issue4 ,to remedy this1 his left arm was opened1 and churned with a stick till it produced a son1 who1 proving as wicked as his father1 was set aside2 and the right arm99 was in like manner churned1 which also produced a boy1 who proved to be a form of ,vishnu1 under the name of ,prit'hu4 ,we may add that ,prit'hvi treated him badly1 and he had to beat and tear her before she would be comfortable with him4 ,hence the necessity for ploughing and digging before crops of cereals1 c41 will abound4 ,we can understand the last part of the legend better than the first4 ,in the ,vedic ,mythology1 we may say generally1 that the means of producing offspring are curiously numerous2 for example1 we find in ,goldstucker's ,sanscrit and ,english ,dictionary1 page #bj1 under the word angiras--a statement that an individual bearing this cognomen1 is named in the ,vaidik legends1 as one of the ',prajapatis'1 or progenitors of mankind1 engendered1 according to some1 by ,manu2 according to others1 by ,brahma himself1 either with the female half of his body1 or from his mouth1 or from the space between his eyebrows4 99 ,as these legends generally are based upon something which ,europeans would designate a vile pun1 ,i turned to the ,sanscrit ,lexicon 7,monier ,williams71 first to ascertain the names of the arm2 and1 secondly1 if there were any words allied to it1 however remotely1 which had a certain meaning4 ,amongst others1 ,i find that buja signifies an arm1 and bhaga is a name of ,siva--one of whose epithets1 bhagan- dara rending the vulva4 ,dosha also means the arm and night4 ,another word having the same meaning1 is praveshta1 and this not only signifies the arm1 but one who covers over4 ,we can then1 ,i think1 see why the device of the churning1 referred to in the text1 made a process available for the production of a child4 ,the legend is a clumsy one1 but not more so than that in ,exodus xxxiii4 #bc1 wherein we are told that ,jehovah showed to ,moses ,his back parts1--,vulgate1 posteriora mea--inasmuch as no one could see ,his face and live6 ,a still more curious story is related in the same dictionary1 p4 #dea1 under the word ayonijeswara4 ,this appellative is one belonging to a sacred place of pilgrimage sacred to ,ayonija1 whose miraculous birth was thus brought about4 ,a very learned ,muni1 though making a commendable use of the proper nasal way of reading sacred scripture in his own person1 yet associated with individuals who did not give the orthodox twang499 ,the good man remained1 in consequence of this1 in a sonless condition1 but the legend does not condescend to explain why toleration of tones in religious ceremony should make a husband infertile and his wife barren4 ,at any rate1 the ,muni1 named ,vidyananda1 feeling the punishment a great one1 travelled1 apparently alone1 from one holy place to another without being nearer paternity4 ,at length he met with a yogin or male anchoret1 hermit1 devotee1 or saint1 corresponding to the yoginis1 who are represented by ,moor 7,h4 ,p41 p4 #bce7 as being sometimes very lovely and alluring2 and he1 taking pity upon the ,muni1 gave him a wonderful fruit1 which1 he informed him1 if eaten by his wife1 would have the effect of procuring for ,vidyananda the birth of a son4 ,but the ,muni1 like many another character in mythological and fairy tales1 seems suddenly to have lost his sense of hope deferred and a certain prospect of relief1 for instead of hurrying home he sought repose under a tree on a river's brink1 and whilst there ate the fruit himself4 ,he at once became pregnant4 ,when the new state of things was evident1 he confessed all that had happened to the ,yogin1 and the latter1 by means of his supernatural power1 introduced a stick into the body of ,yidyananda1 and relieved him of the infant4 ,the creature was a beautiful boy1 radiant like the disc of the sun1 and endowed with divine lustre1 and on account of the mode in which he was born his father called him ,ayonija1 which signifies1 not born from the womb4 ,the account then goes on to state that this miraculous infant became a wonderfully good1 learned1 pious1 religious1 and fanatic man2 that the god1 delighted with his piety1 gave him sons and grandsons1 and after his death received him into his heaven4 ,any persons coming now to bake at the spot where these favours from ,siva were granted1 and duly performing the various duties of a pious pilgrim1 are rewarded1 according to their piety1 c41 with progeny1 worldly happiness1 freedom from transmigration1 and eternal bliss4 99 ,this reminds me of an anecdote which ,i once read of a devout ,scotch mother1 who1 on hearing her son read the ,bible in an ordinary tone of voice1 cuffed him violently because he presumed to read that ,holy ,book without the customary religious drawl4 ,under the word ,ayonija1 ,goldstucker gives the following examples of individuals not born from the yoni viz43--,drona1 the son of ,bharadwaja1 who was born in a bucket ,suyya1 whose origin was unknown4 ,draupadi1 who at a sacrifice of her father ,drupada1 arose out of the sacrificial ground4 ,sita1 who sprang into existence in the same manner as ,draupadi ,the same is also an epithet of ,vishnu or ,krishna4 ,these stories pale in interest before that of the origin of ,carticeya 7see ,moor's ,h4 ,p41 p4 #ea1 #hi71 and ,i give an account of this legend1 foolish though many conceive it to be1 for everything which is connected with a ,hindoo mythos is remarkable1 whenever it is found to be antecedently parallel with ,christian surroundings of a somewhat similar narrative4 ,we notice1 for example1 in the following tale1 that the ,indian idea of the power of penance and asceticism1 is1 that these doings or actions are so great1 that by their means alone man may compel the ,creator to do things against ,his design1 whilst in the ,papal tales of certain monks and nuns1 we find the doctrine asserted that by preeminent fastings1 scourgings and prayers1 people have acquired the power to sell salvation to their fellow men1 in a manner different to that which is appointed4 ,again1 the god when forced to obey the power of the devotee1 is represented as inventing a method by which he could1 as it were1 cheat himself1 just as ,jehovah or ,elohim is said to have contrived a plan by which ,he could circumvent ,himself for the vow which ,he had made to destroy all the men upon the earth by a flood of water4 ,again1 as the arrogance of the ascetic threatened to destroy the world and the heaven1 a deliverer or a saviour was promised1 who should be begotten by an incarnate god upon a goddess equally incarnate1 and save mankind from a terrible devil ,this is a counterpart of the ,papal theory1 which makes it appear that a portion of the godhead became incorporated with a dove1 and had union with a woman1 herself an immaculate manifestation of another portion of ,the ,supreme4 ,yet still more striking than this1 is the part which the dove plays in the ,indian mythos of the birth of the ,hindoo ,saviour4 ,in almost every mediaeval painting or etching of the miraculous conception of the ,virgin ,mary1 the dove takes the position of the divine father of ,jesus4 ,nay1 so distinct is the idea intended to be conveyed in one instance1 that a dove1 surrounded by a galaxy of angelic heads1 darts a ray from his body on high1 into the very part of the virgin1 proper to receive it4 ,the design of the artist is still farther heightened by the vesica piscis1 the emblem of woman being marked upon the appropriate part of the dress1 and a figure of an infant within it1 points unmistakeably to the belief that the ,holy ,ghost1 like a dove1 absolutely begot the ,jewish saviour as he did the ,hindoo deliverer of gods and men4 7,see ,ancient ,faiths1 vol ,,il1 p4 #fdh1 fig4 #dh74 ,but the parallel may even be carried farther1 for in the ,indian history it is ,agni1 the embodiment of fire or the fire or sun god1 who becomes the dove2 whilst in the ,christian history1 fire is one of the manifestations of the ,holy ,ghost 7,acts ii4 #c74 ,we conclude this from the fact1 that all devout churchmen believe that the ,holy ,ghost descended upon the day of ,pentecost with the sound of a rushing mighty wind1 as a multitude of cloven fiery tongues1 which again suggests to the recollection of those familiar with the ,vedic story1 that the ,maruts--rushing1 mighty1 stormy winds--were frequent attendants upon ,agni ,for example1 in one of the ,hymns 7p4 #ci7 of the ,rig ,veda ,sanhita 7translated by ,max ,mueller71 the burden or chorus of every verse is1 with the ,maruts come hither1 ,o ,agni4 ,here1 however1 the parallel between the two myths ceases1 for in the ,indian tale the saviour has no earthly mother4 ,we may really affirm that he has no mother at all1 being the offspring of the father alone1 whilst in the ,christian history1 the deliverer is represented as having no human sire4 ,the one story is just as likely to be true as the other1 or just as unlikely4 ,as a reasonable being ,i cannot believe the one without crediting the other1 or reject only one of the two4 ,with this preface1 we may proceed to relate the legend as recorded by ,moor4 ,a certain devil or ,daitya--for it must be remarked that the ,hindoos regard the devil as being composed of many individualities1 much in the same way as ,christians do--was extremely ambitious and oppressive1 as ,satan is said to have been in heaven499 ,to force ,brahma to promise him any boon he should require1 the ascetic went through the following penances1 persisting in each for a hundred years4 7#a7 ,he stood on one foot1 holding the other1 and both hands upwards1 and fixed his eyes on the sun4 7#b7 ,he stood on one great toe4 7#c7 ,he lived upon water alone4 7#d7 ,he lived on air4 7#e7 ,he immersed himself in water4 7#f7 ,he buried himself in the earth1 and yet continued as before in incessant adoration4 7#g7 ,he then did the same in fire4 7#h7 ,then he stood upon his head with his feet upwards4 7#i7 ,he then stood upon one hand4 7#aj7 ,he hung by his hands from a tree4 7#aa7 ,he hung on a tree with his head downwards4 99 ,i call attention to these parallels1 for they compel as either to accept the ,hindoo stories as true1 because they coincide with that which ,christians regard as revealed truth1 or they oblige as to distrust our current ideas as to the inspired verity of some biblical stories1 founded as they are upon the same1 or a similar1 basis to those of the ,brahmins4 ,the ,hindoo tale being founded in the ,sinpurana1 there can be no reasonable doubt that its fabrication preceded that of the ,hebrew or ,christian mythos4 ,the effect of these austerities alarmed all the gods1 and they went to ,brahma for consolation4 ,he answered that though he was bound to grant the boon desired by a man who became powerful by his austerities1 he would devise a method of rendering it inoffensive to the heavenly host4 ,tarika1 the name borne by the ,daitya1 asked for the gift of unrivalled strength1 and that no hand should slay him except a son of ,mahadeva4 ,this being acquired1 he plundered all the minor gods--the sun1 dreading him1 gave no heat2 and the moon1 in terror1 remained always at the full--in short1 the devil1 ,tarika1 usurped the entire management of the universe4 ,nareda--the personification of ,reason--,wisdom1 the ,logos1 or word1 now prophesied that the destined deliverer1 or saviour of the world1 would come from the union of ,mahadeva and ,parvati4 ,but the first was indisposed to marry1 and only consented to do so after being mollified by ardent devotions and great austerities enacted by the second4 ,to the horror1 however1 of the discomfited world1 ,parvati was barren2 and the gods deputed ,agni to try to produce the son whom all so earnestly desired4 ,he took the form of a dove1 and arrived in the presence of ,mahadeva just as he had risen from the arms of ,parvati1 and received from him1 in a manner not easy or necessary to describe minutely1 the germ of ,carticeya2 but1 unable to retain it1 the bird let it fall from his bill into the ,ganges4 ,on the banks of this river arose1 therefrom1 a boy1 beautiful as the moon1 and bright as the sun4 ,this was ,the ,saviour promised by the prophet4 ,when he attained to manhood1 he fought the devil in a terrific combat which lasted ten whole days2 but ,carticeya came off the conqueror1 and delivered the world4 ,i may notice in passing that as ,carticeya is represented to be the son of his father1 ,mahadeva alone--so ,ganesa1 who was born after the marriage above referred to1 is said to be solely the son of his mother1 ,parvati2 ,mahadeva not having anything to do with him4 ,it is still farther stated in the ,sin purana that the husband was jealous1 and displeased at this assumption of independent power by his spouse1 punished her in the person of this mysterious son 7,moor1 ,h4 ,p41 page #aga-b74 ,there is another ,hindoo story in which a father alone becomes the progenitor of twins--and it is remarkable1 not only for this1 but for the dread which a deity is said to feel from the austerities of a man4 ,wheeler 7,history of ,india1 vol4 i1 p4 #gh2 ,williams' ,sanscrit ,lexicon1 s4 v4 ,kripa71 regards this tale as ,brahmanical1 and1 accepting his authority1 we can see that the asceticism which is introduced into the story is intended to exalt the claims of that section of the priesthood who torture themselves4 ,it runs thus3--,saradvat1 by the magnitude of his penances1 frightened ,indra1 who sent a celestial nymph to tempt him4 ,he resisted all her wiles1 and refused all commerce with her2 but his excited imagination produced one of its common effects1 and from that which was spilled upon the ground a boy and girl arose1 ,drona and ,kripa4 ,in ,wheeler's sketch of the story1 two such miraculous events occur1 for a precisely similar occurrence took place with a certain ,raja--and the males sprung from this supernatural form of generation1 ,drona and ,drupada1 became cronies1 and were educated together4 ,in ,wheeler's account ,kripa becomes the wife of ,drona1 and not his twin sister4 ,she is represented to have been born from a ,brahmin named ,gautama1 in the same fashion as ,drona was4 ,certes1 the scribes who wrote the gospels1 and doubled wonders to make them more miraculous1 are far behind the ,hindoos in the unblushing effrontery of their conceptions4 ,a story somewhat analogous to that of the origin of ,carticeya--,drona and ,drupada1 is to be found in ,grecian mythology4 ,therein we read 7see ,lempriere's ,classical ,dictionary1 #h4,v41 ,minerva71 that ,jupiter promised to his daughter1 ,minerva1 that she should never be married--since that was her especial desire4 ,but1 unfortunately1 the ,thunderer had not a good memory1 and was unable to foresee the future2 he therefore promised to ,vulcan that he would--in return for a perfect suit of armour--give him whatsoever boon he asked4 ,the distorted god1 being a great admirer of the personification of wisdom1 demanded ,minerva in marriage4 ,zeus then granted his petition and gave ,minerva to him for a bride1 so that arts and arms should thenceforth be wedded together4 ,but the goddess disliked ,vulcan1 just as much as science and philosophy shun war and physical weapons4 ,jupiter then privately counselled his daughter to submit1 apparently1 but to contend1 actually1 whenever her husband should endeavour to caress her4 ,this advice the goddess very artfully and determinately carried out4 ,but ,vulcan's impetuosity was extreme1 and the contest between the spouses was prolonged4 ,though the promised wife was in the end victorious1 and retained her virginity1 the scene of the strife1 like many another battle-field1 required cleansing4 ,the material employed by the goddess in the process was thrown down to earth1 and from this stuff sprung ,ericthonius1 as the son of ,vulcan alone1 who1 on attaining man's estate1 became the fourth king of ,athens4 ,a somewhat similar story is told of ,jupiter 7,arnobius1 adv4 ,gentes1 ,b4 v471 who is represented as enamoured of ,themis1 who1 when lying on the rock ,agdus1 in ,phrygia1 and there surprised by the god1 resisted his desires1 as ,minerva had done those of ,vulcan1 and with a somewhat similar result4 ,but in this instance1 that which the author calls in another passage of his work1 the vis ,lucilii1 fell upon the hard rock4 ,this conceived1 and1 after ten months1 the stony soil brought forth a son1 called1 from his maternal parent1 ,agdistis4 ,his character1 and even his appearance1 were frightful and rugged in the extreme4 ,his strength1 recklessness1 and audacity frightened all the gods4 ,in their dilemma1 ,bacchus offered to give his aid1 and proceeded first to make the man drunk by substituting wine for the water of the fountain from which he habitually drank4 ,then1 by a curious contrivance1 he made the fierce hunter emasculate himself4 ,the earth swallows up the sanguinary ruins of his manhood1 and in their place comes up a pomegranate tree in full bearing4 ,this being seen by ,nana1 a king's daughter1 she plucks some of the fruit1 and lays it in her bosom4 ,by this she becomes pregnant1 and1 her story being disbelieved1 her father attempts to starve her4 ,but the mother of the gods sustains her with apples 7see ,canticles ii4 #e71 and berries1 or other food4 ,her baby1 when born1 is exposed as being illegitimate1 but found by a goatherd and brought up--becoming the all but deified ,atys4 ,in this legend1 we see one son born without a human mother1 and a second without any other father than ,rimmon1 or a pomegranate499 99 ,agdus1 ,agdistis1 c--,i am frequently tempted1 after reading a story like the preceding1 to search in the ,sanscrit lexicon to ascertain if there can be any esoteric signification in the legend that can be explained by that ancient language4 ,arnobius opens the story with a statement of the remote antiquity of the tale1 and how it is connected with the ,great ,mother4 ,he then tells of a wild district in ,phrygia1 called ,agdus4 ,stoaes taken from it1 as ,themis had enjoined1 were used by ,deucalion and ,pyrrha to repeople the world which had been destroyed by a flood4 ,the great mother was fashioned amongst the rest1 and animated by the deity2 then follows the story given in the text4 ,now1 in the ,sanscrit1 ,agadha signifies a hole or chasm1 and such things have from the earliest times typified the ,celestial ,mother4 ,agdistis ,i take to be a ,greek form of ,agasti--son both of ,mitra and ,varuna by ,urvasi1 said to have been born in a water-jar1 to have swallowed the ocean1 and compelled the ,vindhya mountains to prostrate themselves before him1 c4 7,monier ,williams' ,sanskrit ,english ,lexicon1 pp4 #d1 #f74 ,themis may be a corruption of ,dhamas--the moon1 an epithet of ,vishnu1 ,yama1 and ,brahma2 also the ,supreme ,spirit 7,m4 ,w4 op4 cit41 p4 #ddh74 ,deucalion seems readily to be resolved into the dyu or div--holy1 and ,kalam1 semen virile 7,m4 ,w41 p4 #baa74 ,pyrrha may apparently be derived from bdra--an opening or aperture 7,m4 ,w472 also bhdra--bearing1 carrying1 cherishing1 supporting 7,m4 ,w41 p4 #gjj74 ,atys1 described as of surpassing beauty1 may fairly be associated with atisi and atisaya--to surpass1 excel1 exceed2 and pre-eminence1 superiority 7,m4 ,w41 op4 cit41 p4 #ae74 ,liber1 again1 who is clever enough to outwit and conquer ,agdistis1 may1 without too strong a stretch of imagination1 come from ,idbha-- obtaining1 gaining1 getting2 capture1 conquest2 the rootword is labh--to seize1 to take hold of1 gain1 recover1 regain1 fcc4 7,m4 ,w41 p4 #hfa1 #b74 ,nana1 the mother of ,atys the beautiful1 has probably come from nanda--happiness1 pleasure1 joy1 felicity1 delight 7,m4 ,w41 op4 cit4 p4 #dfg74 ,in the previous volumes ,i have referred to the pomegranate-- ,hebrew1 ,rimmon--as an emblem4 ,in the legend which makes ,nana conceive by eating this fruit1 there are1 ,i fancy1 two ideas--one1 that the pomegranate is filled with seeds and pulp of a red colour2 the other1 that in the ,greek its name is rota1 or roa1 which has a close resemblance in sound with reo--to flow or gush4 ,of the word ,midas--the name of him who sought to bring about the union of the opposite sexes by marrying his daughter ,nana to ,attis or ,atys1 the most appropriate etymon which ,i can find in the ,sanscrit is in the root math1 which signifies to strike fire by rubbing wood together1 to churn or produce by churning4 ,if we allow that there is truth in these derivations1 we can then see how completely ,arnobius has been deceived by taking the legend au pied de la lettre4 ,he sees nothing but the exoteric side of the fable2 the more instructed philosopher sees in it nothing beyond an attempt to weave a story to account for ordinary men and women existing4 ,the ,earth1 from her deep womb produces stones which become male and female 7compare ,psalm cxxzix4 #ae--,when ,i was made in secret1 and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth4 ,but mycologists were not always content with giving precedence in creation to the ,great ,mother1 consequently the ,father of all comes upon the scene from no one knows where4 ,refusing to share with him her supremacy1 he1 like the ,hindoo ,mahadeva1 becomes a father in spite of her4 ,like his parent1 the son becomes raging mad1 like an elephant or a horse in spring4 ,he is tamed by castration1 but the parts he loses still bear a fructifying power1 and once more1 a maiden--type of the celestial virgin1 has offspring4 ,without going further into the tale1 the story teller endeavours again to introduce marriage1 but on the threshold arrests himself1 apparently under the idea that the wedded state takes away the pleasure of freedom from fine young men4 ,beyond this point it would be unprofitable to go1 since few of us can realize ,greek ideas on certain matters4 ,the origin of ,venus is told by ,hesiod in such a manner as to lead his readers to believe that1 not only was she the daughter of a father alone1 but of that particular part of his body which has been deified as a ,trinity4 ,after speaking 7,theogmy1 #agj-bjj71 of the cruelty of ,ouranos1 and how his wife inspirited ,cronos to punish his father by means of a sickle made of white iron extracted from her body 7t41 the earth71 we read--,then came vast ,heaven1 ,ouranos1 bringing ,night with him1 and eager for love1 brooded around ,earth 7,ge7 and lay stretched1 ,i wot1 on all sides2 but his son from out his ambush grasped at him with his left hand1 whilst in his right he took the huge sickle1 long and jagged-toothed1 and hastily mowed off the genitals of his sire1 and threw them1 to be carried away1 behind him4 ,these fell into the sea1 and kept drifting a long time up and down the deep1 and all around kept rising a white foam from the immortal flesh2 and in it a maiden was nourished4 ,first1 she drew nigh divine ,cythera1 and thence came next to wave-washed ,cyprus4 ,then forth stepped an awful1 beauteous goddess2 and beneath her delicate feet the verdure throve around2 her1 gods and men name ,aphrodite the foam-sprung goddess1 c4 7,bonn's ,translation1 p4 #aa1ab74 ,still further1 we find in the ,grecian mythology that ,minerva was the offspring of ,jupiter without a mother being in the case--unless we put faith in the tale1 that the god impregnated ,metis1 or wisdom1 and afterwards ate her up4 ,in this case the goddess ought1 however1 to have emerged from the abdomen1 and not from the head of her father4 ,vulcan1 moreover1 is said to have been the son of ,juno alone1 who in this wished to imitate ,jupiter1 who had produced ,minerva from his brains--a mythos which does not tally with the statement that ,zeus ordered ,vulcan to cleave his head open1 not the part corresponding to the yoni ,the tales certainly lack that evidence which the philosopher is bound to seek for2 but for those orthodox believers who are bound to credit every extraordinary event which is recorded in the books of the faithful1 no testimony is required4 ,those who feel assured that a serpent1 ox1 donkey1 tree1 bush1 and other things have spoken rationally1 can readily extend their trust and assure themselves that a female has had a child without a male1 and vice versa--especially when the individuals were divine4 ,as we have before remarked1 there is nothing in the mythological stories which we have just recounted that is either more or less miraculous than conception1 c41 by a virgin without the intervention of a human spouse4 ,there is1 whenever a miraculous agency is presumed1 no greater difficulty in believing that children may be produced without mothers1 than that they should be formed without the intervention of a father4 ,ere a tree can rise in the soil of a field1 a germ1 seed1 or cutting is as necessary as the existence of a moist mould1 or other ground4 ,there being then no greater probability that a crop will spring from a moist plain without seed1 than that an abundant harvest will come from dry seed alone1 we are necessarily thrown back upon testimony1 when we are asked to believe in the paternity of man and the maternity of woman without any association of the one with the other4 ,the mythologists who conceived1 or who recorded the fabulous history of ,orion1 evidently had some idea in their minds of the necessity of two elements in the formation and growth of a child1 when they told the tale of the generation of that giant2 and the myth connected with this individual is so curiously like one recorded in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 that it deserves full notice4 ,in ,genesis the narrative informs us that there was an old couple1 both beyond the age at which there is any probability of either party performing the part necessary for the production of offspring 7,gen4 xviii4 #ab71 both were desirous of having at least one son1 but though they had been long united in marriage1 their aspirations had been vain4 ,to this couple1 or rather to the husband1 ,jehovah is said to have appeared with two companions 7,gen4 xviii4 #a1 #b71 and as the man was hospitably disposed1 he ordered his wife to make some cakes1 whilst he went to fetch and kill a calf for his servant to dress and cook4 ,the visitors then partook1 alone1 of the good cheer1 and when they had made the repast they promised the husband that his long cherished desire should be fulfilled1 and that he should have a son4 ,there does not1 however1 appear to be anything supernatural in the generation of the infant1 except the mere facts that the father had been effete for some time1 and the mother had always been barren even when young1 so that conception was more surely miraculous by reason of her advanced age4 ,the probability of pregnancy at ,sarah's time of life was certainly small1 but she was reminded that nothing was too hard for ,jehovah to effect4 ,had not ,he already made man out of dust and woman out of man8 and surely after that it was easy to cause a man and woman to act their respective parts4 ,the reader must specially bear in mind this observation of the ,lord's when he reads the ,greek story following4 7,see ,ovid's ,fasti1 book #e74 ,jupiter1 his brother ,neptune1 and ,mercury1 were on their travels2 the day was far spent and evening approached4 ,they were spied by a venerable man1 an humble farmer1 who stood in the doorway of his small abode4 ,he accosts them with the words1 'long is the road and but little of the day remains1 my door too is ever open to the stranger1' and so earnest is his look of entreaty1 that the gods accept his invitation4 ,jupiter and the others1 however1 conceal their divine nature1 and eat and drink like common men4 ,but after a draught of wine1 ,neptune inadvertently names ,jupiter1 and the poor man who has thus entertained angels unawares1 is frightened at their presence4 ,after a few moments of natural embarrassment1 he goes to his field and kills his only ox--the drawer of his plough--then he cuts up the animal1 roasts it well1 produces his best wine1 and lays the feast1 when ready1 before his august guests4 ,then ,jove1 delighted with his hospitality and piety1 says to the farmer1 ',if thy inclination leads thee to desire anything1 wish for it1 and thou shalt receive it4' ,to which the old man answers1 ',i once had a dear wife1 known as the choice of my early youth1 yet she is now gone from me and an urn contains her ashes4 ,to her ,i vowed1 calling upon you my lord gods as witnesses to the oath1 that ,i would never wed me more4 ,i swore and will keep my word4 ,she and ,i longed for a son1 yet none came to bless our declining years4 ,i yearn for one now1 but will not endeavour to procure one1 ,i wish to be a father1 yet refuse to be a husband or enact his part4' ,to deities like ,jupiter1 such a request was by no means a difficult one to grant1 the gods could as readily form a boy as they could fabricate ,pandora--a lovely woman--and send her to ,prometheus1 with all the ills which flesh is heir to1 confined in an ark1 chest1 or coffer4 ,yet the process of what may be designated conception was a strange one4 ,the three simply relieved themselves of the wine which they had drunk1 using the skin of the slaughtered ox instead of a more commodious vessel4 ,the man was then ordered to bury the whole in the ground1 and wait according to the time of life4 ,the gestation of the earth was completed in ten months1 and at the end of that period the venerable farmer possessed a fine lad who grew up and became famous4 ,if1 now1 we substitute for the ,grecian name1 ,hyrieus1 the ,hebrew title ,abraham2 if for ,jupiter1 ,neptune1 and ,mercury1 we read1 ,jehovah and two angels2 if for the phrase1 they were on their travels1 we read1 they were going down to ,sodom to see if it was as bad a place as it was reported to be 7see ,gen4 xviii4 #ba72 if for the ox which was roasted1 we place1 a calf tender and good1 we see a wonderful resemblance between the stories of the conception of ,orion and ,isaac4 ,but there is this difference that in the ,hebrew tale the divine gift is brought about by a transient restoration of power to ,abraham and ,sarah2 whilst in the ,grecian mythos1 the old man is faithful to the memory of a beloved spouse1 and refuses to renew with another the pleasure which he had in her company4 ,we conceive that the exigency of the ,jewish account1 made it necessary that the son of ,abraham should be of his father begotten1 as well as a child of promise2 whereas no one can call ,orion the son of any one1 although he was as surely a child of promise granted by the gods1 as ,isaac was1 who was given by ,elohim 7or the gods7 of the ,hebrews4 ,we may enter now1 for a short time1 into a speculation whether the ,grecian story was borrowed from the ,hebrew or the contrary4 ,we are disposed to believe that the tale was adopted by the ,jews after they became acquainted with the ,greeks4 ,the following are our reasons3--,the conception of a godhead composed of three persons1 is foreign to the ,hebrew thoughts of the ,almighty4 ,still further was it from ,jewish belief to think1 that ,jehovah would come down upon earth to acquire information1 and when there1 eat and drink and talk like any ordinary man4 ,amongst the ,israelites it was generally held that no one could see the face of ,god and live1 ,on the other hand1 the ,greeks were familiar with tales which told of gods coming down to earth in the guise of men4 ,as an illustration of this1 we may point to ,acts xiv4 #aa-ac1 wherein we find that the people of ,lycaonia imagined that the gods ,jupiter and ,mercurius had come down to them in the likeness of men1 and prepared to sacrifice to them4 ,yet after all1 ,paul had simply cured a single paralytic4 ,on the other hand1 the ,jews regarded as rank blasphemy1 and a crime worthy of death1 that ,jesus should assert himself to be a son of ,god1 even although the miracles alleged in support of the assertion were as stupendous as they were numerous4 ,still1 further1 we cannot imagine that the degrading story of ,jehovah's feasting with ,abraham could have been composed1 except when the ,jews were no better than an untaught and grossly superstitious race4 ,we have already1 in ,ancient ,faiths1 c41 expressed our opinion that the ,israelites were at the very lowest period of their history at the time when ,isaiah began his exhortations4 ,there had been a confederacy between the men of ,edom1 of ,moab1 ,gebal1 ,amnion1 ,amalek1 ,tyre1 ,philistia1 and ,assyria1 the ,ismaelites and the ,hagarenes1 which had attacked ,jerusalem and ,judea1 and captured all the inhabitants1 many of whom they sold to the ,grecians 7see ,joel iii4 #e-g74 ,at1 and shortly after this time1 the ,jews were in a condition of abject misery 7see ,isaiah i4 #d-i71 and capable of believing any story told to them1 and would just as easily credit the mythology which the ,grecian captives told1 or their ,grecian masters taught1 as their successors do those which at a subsequent period filled the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,whilst then1 on the one hand1 there is a probability of the ,hebrews having borrowed the fable from ,hellenistic sources1 there is1 on the other1 the strongest objection to the supposition that the ,greeks should have borrowed from the ,jews4 ,everything which the latter say of themselves1 indicates that they were exclusive to an inordinate degree1 refusing to have intercourse on equal terms with any of their neighbours1 that they never sought to make their history1 laws1 and customs1 known to ,gentiles1 and especially those outside of ,judea1 and that their writings never assumed a ,grecian dress until the time of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 who ordered the ,septuagint translation to be made about ,b4c4 #bhe1 with the direct view of making the ,hebrew ,scriptures known to the ,greeks4 ,moreover1 we know from everything which was said of the ,jews by the ,gentiles1 that the latter treated the former with contempt and contumely1 and would no more dream of imitating any of their writings1 c41 than we should care to adopt the myths of ,abyssinian negroes as an integral part of ,christianity4 ,it will now be profitable if we examine the story of ,sanchoniathon and the statements of the ,orphic ,hymns4 ,we have1 in the course of this chapter and elsewhere1 so often referred to the ,grecian story of the ,creation as given by ,sanchoniathon and in the ,orphic hymns1 that ,i think my readers are entitled to receive some further account of them2 so ,i reproduce passages which bear upon supernatural generation1 and especially that of the world and its inhabitants--my main authority being ,ancient ,fragments1 c41 by ,j4 ,p4 ,cory 7,london1 #ahcb74 ,of ,sanchoniathon we know little2 our information may be summed up by saying that he is mentioned eulogistically by ,eusebius 7a4d4 #bgj-cch71 an historian whose veracity cannot be entirely depended on4 ,he says that ,sanchoniathon had1 ere his time1 been translated by a certain writer called ,philon ,byblius1 and it seems that ,porphyry is credited with having copied a great part of this translation into ,greek from the ,phoenician4 ,nothing1 however1 is actually known of the historian in question1 except from ,eusebius 7,smith's ,dictionary1 p4 #cjh1 vol4,,iii41 s4 v41 ,philon47 ,we may then assume1 according to our inclination1 either that the story is really a compendium of ,tyrian legendary lore1 or simply a representation of what the ,greeks imagined4 ,the way1 however1 in which the generation of beings is described1 well deserves attention from its similarity1 and its contrasts with the biblical story4 ,first1 there was a breeze of thick air and ,chaos4 ,these united and produced ,pothos4 ,this again united with the wind1 and ,mot was the result1 also called ,ilus2 from this sprung the seed of ,creation4 ,and there were certain animals without sensation1 from which intelligent animals were produced499 ,after this follows a quantity of stuff that is traceable to ,hesiod1 and a part of which may be considered a paraphrase of ,genesis4 ,then mention is made of ,elioun1 called ,hypsistus 7the most ,high71 and his wife ,beruth--as being the contemporaries of others2 but no indication is given from whence they came4 ,these produced ,ouranos 7,heaven7 and ,ge 7,earth74 ,their father was killed by wild beasts6 ,then ,ouranos married ,ge1 and had offspring by her4 ,but he had other women1 and ,ge was jealous4 ,ouranos1 however1 came to her when he listed and attempted to kill her children4 ,he had a son1 ,cronus1 who drove him from his kingdom4 ,this son turns out to be the original being called ,ilus1 and he contrived to emasculate his father1 and from the blood which flowed sprang rivers and fountains4 ,the remainder of this story scarcely deserves notice4 99 ,the author of the tale evidently had something in common with our modern ,darwin4 ,ere we turn our attention to the compositions known as the ,orphic ,hymns1 it will be interesting to inquire whether the preceding account of ,creation had a ,phoenician origin1 or may more fairly be traced to an ,indian source flowing through a ,greek channel ,after a diligent search in the ,hebrew ,lexicon--and it is to be noticed that the ,hebrew is all but identical with the ,tyrian and ,carthaginian1 ,i cannot find any words or roots from which the proper names in the opening paragraph of ,sanchoniathon can by any ingenuity be derived4 ,nor can ,i discover in the ,greek anything which explains the esoteric signification of the story4 ,but1 on reference to the ,sanscrit1 there is a curious identity apparent between the second verse in ,genesis and a ,hindoo idea4 ,the former runs3--,the earth was without form and void 7tohu ve bohu71 and darkness was upon the face of the deep1 and the spirit of ,god moved on the face of the waters4 ,the ,indian interpretation of the myth is this3--,air in motion1 vahu1 ruffled the inexplicable1 or empty space1 ka1 has1 or ,icha1 ,icham1 a word also signifying 'nothing4' ,thence proceeded the earth1 ,ua1 or ,mot 7,sans72 ,math 7,sans7 making fire by rubbing sticks 7coitus87 ,mada1 mdda1 and moda1 pleasure1 delight1 gladnesslove1 ,eros4 ,this is almost the same idea that ,hesiod propounds4 ,in the ,orphic ,hymns we find much more clearly than in any other writing amongst the ancient ,greeks the early ,hellenic notion of the generation of the worlds and of mankind4 ,respecting the value of the fragments there may be some difference of opinion4 ,the curious and doubtful may be referred to ,smith's ,dictionary 7s4v4 ,orpheus72 for me it will be sufficient to state that both ,aristophanes and ,plato refer to the presumed author as a religious teacher and a preacher against murder1 and ,euripides frequently mentions him4 ,this will place ,orpheus at least before b4c4 #dhj4 ,if1 however1 we consider him as identical with the oft-sung husband of ,eurydice1 we must place him ,b4c4 #fej 7,smith1 s4v474 ,in quoting from ,cory's translation1 ,i shall not scruple to make the sense of more importance than literality3 ,zeus is the first--he1 the thunderer1 is the last2 he is the head and the middle1 he fabricated all things4 ,zeus is male2 he1 the immortal1 is also female2 he founded the earth and the starry heaven2 he is the breath of all things1 the rushing of indefatigable fire4 ,zeus is the root of the sea1 the sun and moon1 the king1 the author of universal life2 one power1 one demon1 the mighty prince of all things2 one kingly frame1 in which this universe revolves--fire and water1 earth and ether1 night and day1 and ,metis 7counsel72 the primeval father and all delightful ,eros 7love74 ,all these things are united in the vast body of ,zeus4 ,would you behold his head and his fair face8 ,it is the resplendent heaven1 round which his golden locks of glittering stars are beautifully exalted in the air4 ,on each side are the two golden taurine horns1 the risings and settings1 the tracks of the celestial gods3 his eyes are the sun and opposing moon2 his unfallacious mind the royal incorruptible ,ether4 ,the next fragment has been filched by the author of ,sanchoniathon1 and we must not quote it4 ,after a recapitulation about ,chaos1 ,cronos1 ,ether1 and ,eros1 he proceeds3--,i have sung the illustrious father of night existing from eternity1 whom men call ,phanes1 for he first appeared4 ,i have sung the birth of powerful ,brimo 7,hecate71 and the unhallowed deeds of the earth-born giants who showered down from heaven their blood--the lamentable seed of generation1 from whence sprung the race of mortals who inhabit the boundless earth for ever4 ,chaos was generated first1 and then the wide-bosomed ,earth--the ever stable seat of all the ,immortals that inhabit the snowy peaks of ,olympus and the dark dim ,tartarus in the depths of the broad-wayed earth1 and ,eros--the fairest of the immortal gods1 that relaxes the strength of all1 both gods and men1 and subjugates the mind and the sage will in their breasts4 ,from ,chaos were generated ,erebus and black ,night2 and from ,night again were generated ,ether and day1 whom she brought forth1 having conceived from the embrace of ,erebus2 and ,earth first produced the starry heaven1 equal to herself1 that it might inclose all things around herself4 ,the preceding is given by ,hesiod 7#ijj ,b4c474 ,the following is the version given by ,aristophanes3--,first were ,chaos and ,night1 and black ,erebus and vast ,tartarus2 and there was neither ,earth nor ,air nor ,heaven3 but in the boundless bosoms of ,erebus1 ,night with her black wings first produced an aerial egg1 from which at the completed time sprang forth the lovely ,eros1 glittering with golden wings upon his back like the swift whirlwinds4 ,but embracing the dark-winged ,chaos in the vast ,tartarus he begot our race 7the birds74 ,the race of the ,immortals was not till ,eros mingled all things together2 but when the elements were mixed one with another1 ,heaven was produced1 and ,ocean and ,earth and the imperishable race of all the blessed gods4 ,maia1 supreme of gods1 ,immortal ,night1 tell me1 c4 ,the next invocation is to the double-natured ,protogonus--the bull coming from the egg1 the renowned light1 the ineffable strength1 ,priapus the king1 c4--,metis 7wisdom7 bearing the seed of the gods1 whom the blessed inhabitants of ,olympus call ,phanes ,protogonus4 ,metis the first father and all-delightful ,eros4 ,again1 in allusion to ,phanes1-- ,therefore the first god bears with himself the heads of animals--many and single--of a bull1 of a serpent1 and of a fierce lion1 and they sprung from the primeval egg in which the animal is seminally contained4 ,the theologist places around him the heads of a ram1 a bull1 a lion1 and a dragon1 and assigns him first both the male and female sex4 ,female and ,father is the mighty god ,ericapeus2 to him also the wings are first given4 ,the ,japanese account of the creation is of sufficient interest to be noticed here4 ,i quote it from a translation of the ,annals of the ,emperors of ,japan1 by ,mons4 ,titsingh1 assisted by interpreters of the ,dutch ,factory at ,nagasaki1 and rendered into ,french1 after being duly compared with the original by ,m4 ,j4 ,klapworth--7printed for the ,oriental ,translation ,fund of ,great ,britain and ,ireland2 ,london1 #ahcd74 ,in the account of the seven generations of the heavenly bodies1 we are told that anciently the heaven and the earth were not distinct1 nor was the female principle then separated from the male4 ,the chaos1 having the form of an egg1 moved about like the waves of an agitated sea4 ,the germs of everything were there1 and these ultimately divided1 the pure and transparent ones going upward to form heaven1 whilst the dull and opaque ones coagulated and formed the earth4 ,between the two a divine being sprang up2 he was followed by two others in succession4 ,all these were pure males1 and engendered without consorts4 ,after them came a male and a female deity1 but they had no intercourse with each other4 ,these and three other divine couples1 who followed them1 reproduced their like by mutual contemplation4 ,the last couple directed the celestial spear made of a red precious stone--said by ,japanese commentators to be the phallus--into the world below1 and stirred it up to the bottom4 ,on withdrawing the lance some drops fell from it and produced an island1 upon which the celestial couple descended4 ,each one then began to walk in opposite directions around the isle1 and when they met the feminine spirit sang joyously--,i am delighted to find so handsome a young man4 ,but this vexed the male spirit1 who1 being a man1 asserted that he ought to have been allowed to speak the first4 ,so they parted once more on their solitary walk2 and when they met the second time1 the woman waited to be spoken to4 ,then followed a conversation somewhat too coarse for repetition1 which was followed by corporeal union4 ,from the intercourse of these divine beings all creation sprang4 ,but1 after a time1 the partners reflected that there was still wanting a governor for the world which they had engendered4 ,so they again accoupled1 and produced a daughter so lovely1 that her parents thought her too good for earth2 gave her the name of the precious wisdom of the heavenly sun1 and sent her to heaven1 there to assume the universal government of all things4 ,the parents once again united1 and produced the moon1 who was sent to heaven to assist her sister4 ,a terrible fellow was then born from them1 who represents the ,devil1 or those tempests which seem to oppose the beneficent action of the sun upon the soil4 ,the parents returned to heaven1 and there are constant contentions between the brother and sister4 ,the former is described as being furious under attempts at control2 generally1 he was quiet1 and always had tears in his eyes 7dew and rain71 but sometimes1 when provoked1 he broke every thing1 uprooted trees1 and set the mountain forests on fire4 ,we need not pursue the story further than to say that the celestial beings created a terrestrial couple1 whose children bear considerable resemblance to the ,greek ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 ,neptune1 and others1 and from them came the first ,emperors of ,japan4 ,in the matter of evidence upon such a point as the conception of a man without a woman1 or a woman without a man1 it is clear that unsupported assertion is wholly valueless4 ,for example1 ,i may for a time absent myself from general society1 and return to it again after a certain interval1 having with me a child1 whom ,i assert to be my very own1 produced by my own inherent power1 just as a tree produces a leaf which grows1 matures1 and falls4 ,i may frame a romantic account of a dream1 in which ,i was told that if ,i planted myself in the central bed of a certain garden1 and contrived an apparatus for daily watering my buried legs1 that a child would sprout from my right side1 who should be to me as a daughter4 ,yet1 however ingenious my tale1 there is not any one possessing sound sense and knowledge who would believe me4 ,in like manner1 if a woman should tell a story analogous1 though not identical1 she is certain to be discredited2 even the assertion of the existence of a divine father would not1 if the woman were unmated1 save her character from a stain4 ,we may next refer to the legend of ,prometheus1 inasmuch as in many points it resembles the ,hebrew mythos so greatly1 that we must imagine they both have a common origin1 or that the one is a copy--though an indifferent one1 of the other4 ,prometheus1 or forethought1 was represented to be the first who made an ordinary man--he formed him of clay1 and then animated him with fire from heaven4 ,the ,jewish tale asserts that it was ,jehovah who made the first man4 ,that man was first formed like a statue out of clay or dust1 and had no life until breath was infused into his nostrils4 ,in both stories man alone is formed first4 ,in the ,grecian fable ,prometheus does not make a consort for his man2 nay1 he refuses to receive one for himself when the gods send to him ,pandora--a paragon of loveliness4 ,instead of this he gives the damsel to ,epimetheus--or after-thought--who takes her carelessly1 and finds that even a charming woman is not a guarantee against cares and woes4 ,some accounts1 however1 say that ,prometheus made both man and woman out of clay4 ,the discrepancy does not signify much1 for we see the same in ,genesis1 wherein we are told in one place that man and woman were made together1 whilst in another the story runs that ,adam preceded ,eve1 and that1 instead of being formed of dust or clay1 the latter was formed of bone4 ,we may now refer to the story of ,apollonius ,tyaneus1 whose history has interest for us1 inasmuch as it illustrates three important points1 upon which much stress has been1 and may still be1 laid by inquiring minds4 ,the most conspicuous is the propensity of historians1 or1 to speak more correctly1 of a biographer1 to record wonderful things about an extraordinary man2 next the ridicule cast upon the tale by those who have circulated stories equally improbable1 and the indication that travel to ,hindostan was apparently common1 prior to and during his time4 ,in sketching the life of the philosopher1 ,i quote something from ,le ,dictionnaire ,infernal1 and the rest from ,smith's ,biographical ,dictionary4 ,the philosopher in question was born about #d years ,b4,c4 ,his history was written by ,philostratus1 about #ajj years after the hero's death1 and is ostensibly founded upon memoirs left by his secretary1 ,damis1 an ,assyrian1 who accompanied ,apollonius during his travels1 and recorded his discourses and prophecies1 and acted much as ,luke did with ,paul4 ,amongst the proofs which ,damis gives of his veracity1 he tells us that when he and his master traversed the ,caucasus1 they saw the chains which bound ,prometheus1 still fixed to the rocks4 ,this bit of verification is now derided1 but in my school-days ,i recollect having an account put into my hands1 written by some author1 stating that the remains of the ark were still to be seen upon ,mount ,ararat499 99 ,on the day before this was written there appeared in ,the ,telegraph a paragraph1 to the effect that an ,assyrian slab had been translated by ,mr4 ,smith of the ,british ,museum4 ,the record is said to give an account of the deluge1 and it tallies nearly with that given by ,berosus1 recorded in my second volume4 ,it adds1 however1 that the ark was at that period in existence1 and its wood and bitumen used as amulets4 ,singularly enough1 the tale is supposed to confirm the bible legend1 the writer of the paragraph never dreaming that it more certainly confirms the ,babylonian or ,assyrian origin of the book of ,genesis4 ,the other parts of this slab1 which were wanting1 have more recently been found4 ,but there is no necessity for me to change the wording of the note4 ,there was also current a ,joe ,miller about some old woman1 who would not believe in flying-fish1 which her sailor-boy had seen1 but who readily believed his tale of hooking up a chariot wheel on an anchor fluke from the bottom of the ,red ,sea6 ,dr4 ,smith1 or ,mr4 ,jowett1 the author of the article1 very judiciously says--,we have purposely omitted the wonders with which ,philostratus has garnished his narrative4444 ,many of these are curiously coincident with the ,christian miracles--7the italics are our own74 ,the proclamation of the birth of ,apollonius to his mother by ,proteus1 and the incarnation of ,proteus himself2 the chorus of swans which sung for joy on the occasion1 the casting out of devils1 the raising the dead and healing the sick1 the sudden disappearances and reappearances of ,apollonius2 his adventures in the cave of ,trophonius1 and the sacred voice which called him at his death--to which may be added his claim as a teacher1 having authority to reform the world--cannot fail to suggest the parallel passages in the ,gospel history4 ,we learn1 moreover1 that the biographer was high in favour with ,alexander ,severus1 and that ,eusebius of ,caesarea naively allows the truth of ,philostratus' narrative in the main1 with the exception of what is miraculous4 ,none of the authors quoted seem to think of the adage--,change but the names1 and the same classes of wonders are a matter of faith to you4 ,surely it is as easy to credit the strange deeds of ,proteus as those of ,gabriel4 ,whether we choose to adopt the hypothesis that ,apollonius was a rival of ,jesus1 that the ,nazarene and ,tyanean were independent of each other1 that the evangelists took a hint from ,damis1 or ,philostratus imitated ,luke in more ways than one1 we have still the fact that two different biographers1 giving a history of the life of two contemporary individuals1 assert that the birth of their respective heroes was announced by a divine being1 who himself brought about the conception of the infant that1 on arriving at maturity1 was held to be divine4 ,in writing thus1 it will be distinctly understood that we draw no comparison between ,jesus and ,apollonius1 but only between the authors who have undertaken their respective biography4 ,leaving this curious point1 the next noteworthy one is that ,philostratus records1 that the ,tyanean went through ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 and ,bactria1 to ,india1 where he met ,jarchus1 the chief of the ,brahmins1 and disputed with ,indian gymnosophists already versed in ,alexandrian philosophy4 ,i have placed these last words in italics1 to call attention to the apparent belief of the historian1 that prior to his day there had been extensive religious communication between ,india and ,greece--a point on which ,i have much insisted in a previous chapter4 ,the ,tyanean is said to have been five years upon his eastern journey4 ,we have no idea where the ,nazarene was during his youth and before he began his public career1 and we cannot help regarding the omission to notice this part of his life as being blameworthy in the evangelists4 ,those who knew so much of ,jesus at his conception1 and about his birth and infancy1 could surely1 if they would1 have informed us of his adult years4 ,nor1 a propos to this short account of the biography of ,apollonius1 by ,damis and ,philostratus1 must we omit to notice the conceits of those who have assumed that the ,tyanean was set up as a counterfoil to1 or an imitator of1 ,jesus of ,nazareth2 for1 just as the ,christians may1 with some show of reason1 affirm that the miracles recorded in their writings have been filched by others2 so may the ,buddhist1 with still greater plausibility1 declare that the greatest part of the life of the ,nazarene1 as given in the ,gospels1 has been copied almost verbatim from the biographers or evangelists of the ,indian saga ,for myself1 ,i consider that the miraculous parts of the history of all the three conspicuous men which have been named are equally true or--false4 ,the idea of attributing to the ,supreme ,god the birth1 or1 rather1 the procreation1 of an extraordinary man1 seems1 so far as we can judge1 to have existed in the ,western ,hemisphere as well as in the ,eastern4 ,for example1 in an interesting book1 entitled ,new ,tracks in ,north ,america1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,bell1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,b41 ,cantab2 ,london1 #ahfi1 we find the following legend respecting ,montezuma1 the most popular ruler of the ancient ,mexicans4 ,the legend is intended to explain the occurrence of vast ruins amongst the ,pima ,indians1 of which other history is silent1 and runs thus3 ,long ago a woman of exquisite beauty ruled over the valleys and the region south of them4 ,many suitors came from far to woo her1 and brought presents innumerable of corn1 skins1 and cattle to lay at her feet4 ,her virtue and determination to continue unmarried remained alike unshaken1 and her store of worldly possessions so greatly increased1 that1 when drought and desolation came upon her land1 she fed her people out of her great abundance1 and did not miss it1 there was so much left4 ,one night1 as she lay asleep1 her garment was blown from off her breast1 and a dew drop from the ,great ,spirit fell upon her bosom1 entered her blood1 and caused her to conceive4 ,in time she bore a child1 who was none other than ,montezuma1 who built the large ',casas1' and all the other ruins which are scattered through the land 7vol4 i4 p4 #aii74 ,it is allowable for the reader to doubt whether there ever was a ,mexican ,queen whose renown was spread far and wide1 who preferred celibacy to marriage1 and who1 being rich1 was not plundered by the chiefs whose alliance was rejected4 ,we may equally doubt the efficacy of a drop of water1 even though it came from the ,great ,celestial ,spirit2 but1 notwithstanding every objection which the most sceptical can advance1 the legend is quite as probable as those current amongst the ancient ,greeks1 the religious ,hindoos1 and a large portion of modern ,christians4 ,a miracle1 always improbable1 is not necessarily true because it is said to have occurred in the old world1 or indubitably false because it is reported to have happened in the new4 ,nor can one who regards faith as superior to reason1 refuse to believe or to question the truth of any supernatural story simply because he was not told it during his childhood or youth4 ,when the philosophical inquirer finds that in every country1 with whose literature we are familiar1 there are1 not only abundance of tales about supernatural generation before the world was formed1 but from the earliest periods of history to our own day1 he may well pause and inquire into the intrinsic value of a religion or a faith that is founded mainly1 if not wholly1 upon the assertion that a certain person was the son of the ,supreme ,creator1 and being so1 has the qualities of his sire as well as those of his human mother4 ,the orthodox in ,britain do not believe in ,cristna1 ,krishna1 or ,vishnu1 because the ,hindoo sacred books declare that he has appeared repeatedly as an incarnation of the ,creator--nor do they credit the tales told of the supernatural generation of ,bacchus or ,hercules--yet1 when they are asked what stronger evidence they have for the truth of their own story1 they are unable to give more than affirmations1 strong1 perhaps1 but not more so than those of ancient ,hellenic priests4 ,it is out of my province1 now1 to enter into every thing connected with the doctrine held by those who are known as ,trinitarians4 ,my main endeavour in this part of my subject is to clear the way for reconstruction4 ,it is my desire to give to those who have not the leisure1 or1 perhaps1 the inclination1 to wade through the dull tomes of theological1 mythological1 and similar books1 an account of what is and has been entertained as religious belief by others1 with whom1 or with whose opinions1 they have not come in contact4 ,i have no special wish to prove that my opinions are right and the prevailing ones wrong2 my chief aim is to give data by which others may form a judgment for themselves4 ,with this view ,i have systematically endeavoured to satisfy myself of the trustworthiness of the witnesses whom ,i call upon to testify to facts2 to my knowledge1 nothing has been suppressed which seems to me to bear upon my subject1 nor is aught set down in malice4 ,in my next chapter ,i shall institute an inquiry into another important doctrine1 held by ,christians from their first existence until the present day1 namely1 the ,existence and ,ministration of ,angels4 ,since the chapter was originally written1 ,dr4 ,kalisch has published an essay upon the same subject in the second part of his commentary upon ,leviticus4 ,i shall probably take the liberty of quoting from his pages2 but1 as we treat the matter from different points of view1 ,i do not feel called upon to suppress my own work because he has preceded me4 ,it gives me pleasure to feel and to know that fellow-workers in the same toilsome task1 not only may help each other1 but rejoice in the opportunity of so doing4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,angels4 ,the ideas associated therewith4 ,why winged4 ,wishing- caps4 ,jehovah and ,his ,angels made to walk by the historian4 ,the belief in ,angels incompatible with that of an omnipresent and omniscient ,god4 ,pictorial representations4 ,absurd conceptions of angelic wings4 ,angela want birds' tails4 ,men have tried to fly4 ,difference between birds and men4 ,arms and wings4 ,a writer at fault about this world is not to be trusted in his accounts of another4 ,bats and similar mammals4 ,the ,devil better winged than ,michael--,yet ,satan1 a roaring lion1 goes about as a bull with bat's wings4 ,angels and beetles4 ,harmony in creation4 ,strange idea of spirits4 ,spiritualism4 ,varieties of angelic forms4 ,not the products of lunacy4 ,angels and demigods4 ,egyptian ideas4 ,assyrian notions4 ,christian fancies4 ,birds and ,men united in human celestialism4 ,persian ,angels4 ,mithra winged4 ,angels in ,persia twelve in number4 ,job1 the work of a ,persian ,jew4 ,angels referred to therein4 ,darius had a consecrated table4 ,babylonian belief4 ,daniel4 ,greece and ,rome4 ,gods1 ,demigods1 ,angels1 and ,saints4 ,christian demigods4 ,angels' duties4 ,book-keeping1 clerks of wind and weather2--police-agents4 ,the inventor of ,heaven admired centralization4 ,babylonian tutelary ,angels4 ,christian ones4 ,christian saintly imagery4 ,the bleeding heart of ,mary4 ,a funny ,chaldean goddess to match4 ,popish saints have an aureole1 but no wings4 ,francis of ,assisi could make stigmata but could not change his arms into pinions4 ,babylonian and ,papal emblems identical ,development of ,angels amongst the ,jews in ,babylon4 ,angelic mythology founded upon ,astronomy and ,astrology4 ,planets are ,archangels4 ,angels and ,devils mentioned on bowls found in ,mesopotamia by ,layard4 ,the probable meaning of their names4 ,hebrews adopted ,chaldee beliefs3 evidence4 ,juvenal4 ,jews and ,chaldeans4 ,sadducees and ,pharisees4 ,sadducees and our ,reformers compared4 ,a legal anecdote4 ,angels in ,ancient ,italy4 ,our angelic forms are of ,etruscan origin4 ,some such beings had three pairs of wings4 ,etruscans had guardian angels for infants and children4 ,angels carry various matters4 ,angels of marriage4 ,angels for heirs of salvation4 ,etruscan angel of marriage4 ,jewish match-maker4 ,raphael4 ,description of an ,etruscan painting in tomb of ,tarquin4 ,the angel of death4 ,the ,greek theology4 ,the ,greeks taught the ,jews4 ,the ,jews never taught other nations4 ,greeks had a supreme god and a host of inferior deities4 ,war in heaven4 ,titans--giants4 ,children of the sons of ,god and daughters of men4 ,greek origin of ,christian and ,miltonian angelic mythology4 ,the begotten ,son of ,god 7,hercules born to ,jupiter by ,alcmena74 ,restores the kingdom to his father4 ,greek ideas of demons4 ,hebrew and ,christian ideas of good and bad spirits4 ,the recording angel4 ,demigods and archangels4 ,greek deities not winged except ,mercury4 ,some minor gods have pinions4--,pegasus has wings4 ,hymen1 the angel of the covenant of marriage4 ,genius loci and cherubim4 ,alcmena and ,mary4 ,jupiter and the power of the ,highest ,roman mythology4 ,romans adopted the ,etruscan form of angels4 ,christians adopted it from ,romans4 ,the ,christian crozier is the ,etruscan and ,roman lituus1 or divining staff4 ,rome and ,london both avid of religious novelty4 ,instability in religion a proof of infidelity in the old4 ,hence a desire for infallibility1 to crush doubt4 ,angelic mythology of the ,bible4 ,christians use words in parrot fashion4 ,words ought not to stand for ideas4 ,prayer-cylinder in ,thibet4 ,contradictions4 ,figures and metaphors are theologian cities of refuge4 ,prophet who says that he converses with an angel- -is he to be credited8 ,a spirit without flesh and bones1 cannot move his tongue to utter words4 ,drunkards see blue devils--they are unreal ,if the appearance of a man in a dream is an illusion1 his words are so too4 ,absurd ideas about phantoms4 ,notice of the deeds of a few ,hebrew angels4 ,a resume of their history4 ,inspiration did not reveal angels4 ,human fancy did4 ,conspiracy in ,heaven6 ,the ,genesis of ,hell4 ,what sort of a place it is supposed to be4 ,god made the ,devil1 so man must multiply his imps6 ,lucifer taught ,elohim6 ,old ,testament less knowing than the ,new4 ,the ,devil not a fallen angel4 ,the book of ,enoch4 ,deductions drawn4 ,there is scarcely a single article in our current belief which does not prove1 on examination1 to have descended to us from ,pagan sources1 or to be identical with heathen beliefs older than the ,hebrew4 ,the idea of a personal ,god dwelling in some locality1 vaguely described as ,heaven1 in which ,he reigns1 and rules1 like a modern emperor1 has been found to exist in almost every nation whose language we know1 and whose history has descended to us4 ,human weakness makes it so4 ,such a ruler has been called ,brahma1 ,siva1 ,vishnu1 ,mahadeva1 ,bel or ,baal1 ,melech or ,moloch1 ,ormazd1 ,elohim1 ,jah1 ,jehovah1 ,jupiter1 ,yahu1 ,god1 and a variety of other names2 but ,he has always been hailed as king1 and lord of all creation1 having a throne beside which attend a number of servitors1 standing before and around him1 all ready to do his bidding and to go wherever they are sent4 ,as a potentate rules on earth over provinces far distant from the central government1 so the heavenly monarch was1 and is yet1 supposed to have viceroys1 lieutenants1 or vicars1 who have authority delegated to them1 and exercise it under his superintendence4 ,a scheme such as we have described does not seem to have existed from the first amongst the ,jews2 for1 when men of reasoning powers conceived the idea of a ,creator1 ,he was regarded as omnipotent1 omniscient1 and omnipresent4 ,it became gradually interwoven with theology2 for when men of limited capacity thought of such a vast empire as the universe1 they1 under the influence of a grovelling anthropomorphism1 recognized1 as they imagined1 the necessity of furnishing it with a system of acquiring intelligence1 and promulgating decrees which should be far superior to any postal plan devised by human kings4 ,amongst the ,kaffirs1 men with missives race against time1 and by means of relays1 messages are sent to vast distances in a comparatively short period4 ,by means of horses1 skilfully engaged beforehand1 an ancient ,persian tyrant could make his commands known all over his vast empire in the course of a few days1 and moderns1 by means of railways and the electric wire1 can forward information at a still more rapid rate4 ,yet1 to old theologians1 and even to observant men of the present day1 all these means of communication between ,god and his subjects seemed to be slow4 ,we may1 for example1 notice a fly buzzing round the head of the running ,kaffir1 or the ears of the fleetest of ,persian steeds1 and a swallow on the wing outstrips a railway express4 ,the velocity of the carrier-pigeon has long been known4 ,all these were1 therefore1 regarded as swift-winged creatures1 and fit for message bearers4 ,as then1 it was observed1 that of all beings who could move1 the bird is the swiftest in its movement from place to place1 it was very natural that dogmatists should represent the messengers of the great king with powerful pinions1 like those of the eagle or the albatross4 ,in this manner the addition of wings to any mythological character sufficed to show that he who bore them was a celestial being2 one who stood before the supreme ruler1 and received from him delegated power--either as vicar1 viceroy1 or messenger4 ,thus the ,greeks depicted ,mercury with wings on his legs and elsewhere1 and the ,hebrews gave large pinions to their seraphim--sometimes as many as six being used by each 7,isa4 vi4 #b47 ,the ,etruscans pictured their angels with two wings only1 and we have followed1 implicitly1 their lead4 ,but the ,hindoos did not in early times adopt ideas such as this4 ,they noticed the speed of the sunbeam1 the velocity of the hurricane1 and the rapidity of thought2 and since they saw many birds borne away by the wind1 they imagined that celestial messengers must travel in a corresponding fashion4 ,for one who rode upon the clouds of the typhoon1 pinions were useless4 ,i have in my possession a plate199 in which the celestial attendants on the god are all wingless1 but have sex4 ,the name given to the attendants referred to is ,apsaras1 who are described as having been produced in myriads when the ocean was churned4 ,they are said to reside between the waters above the firmament and those below it1 and are represented as being of consummate beauty and elegance of form1 their business being to attend upon the gods and give them pleasure1 by singing1 music1 dancing1 and in every possible way4 ,they are sometimes represented as being of both sexes1 all having the power to change their gender4 ,generally1 they are described as females1 and take the business of ,venus in the ,greek heaven1 and of the ,houris in that provided by ,mahomet and his followers4 ,the ,hindoos have in their theology an abode of bliss1 in which the pleasures are wholly sensual4 ,in this they do not differ from the ,christians1 except that the latter only expect to indulge in music and a sanctified vengeance4 99 ,plate x41 vol4 #a1 ,recherches sur l'origine1 c41 des ,arts de la ,grece1 ,d',harcanville1 ,london1 #aghe4 ,the author states that the plate is copied from ,le ,voyage de ,niebuhr1 ,t4 #a1 ,tab4 vi4 ,with great ingenuity the ,hebrews conceived that the will of ,god must be equivalent to ,his wish--that ,his wish must be the same as a command1 and1 consequently1 that ,he could send ,his messenger from one spot to another in an instant2 or1 if ,he chose1 ,he could go ,himself and communicate personally1 as ,he did with ,abraham1 ,jacob1 and ,moses1 and ,joshua4 ,for such a ,being even light would be too slow 7see ,psalm xviii4 #aj2 civ4 #c1 #d74 ,from a similar thought arose the stories which have found their way into our fairy mythology of wishing caps which would enable the bearer to pass in an instant of time1 and wholly invisibly1 from one part of the world to another4 ,in oriental countries1 a carpet or a coat was the carrying agent1 whilst amongst the more clumsy story-tellers of ,europe1 a pair of boots was furnished1 whose wearer could cover twenty miles at a stride4 ,in the plenitude of our prejudice we may smile at the caprice which invented the wishing cap2 but if we reflect calmly upon the matter1 we discover more depth of thought in this than has been shown in the formation of tales in which winged angels are introduced4 ,the contrast will readily be recognized if we take a scene from ,fortunatus1 and another from the ,old ,testament ,the former1 by putting on a cap1 could transport himself in a moment from ,formosa to ,great ,britain4 ,whereas we learn1 from ,genesis xviii1 that three angelic men took a walk from somewhere to ,sodom1 that they might see what sort of a place it really was4 ,the hero in the fairy tale was not fatigued2 the angels of the ,hebrew mythology were glad to wash their feet1 and to eat and drink1 so as to recruit their energies 7v4 #h2 ,ps4 lxxviii4 #be47 ,a mythical tale like this demonstrates incontestably the mean condition of the story-teller1 who does not furnish ,jehovah even with a mule or ass1 but makes ,him go afoot4 ,we must1 therefore1 regard the theological contrivance which furnished angels with wings1 as being a clumsy one2 indicating superficiality1 rather than profound thought1 and emanating from human infirmity rather than divine inspiration or direct revelation4 ,we shall see this more distinctly if we inquire into the ideas necessarily associated with wings4 ,the theologians who have furnished their ideal messengers with wings show1 in the first place1 that they have the idea of an air upon which the sails can strike--of muscular structures to move the pinions1 and of the necessity for food to enable the motive power to be kept up4 ,the idea of a winged angel1 therefore1 necessarily implies a belief in the presence of a solid material body moving through an aeriform fluid1 resembling the atmosphere just above the earth's surface4 ,that there really was this belief associated with celestial messengers we find in the ,jewish scriptures1 wherein it is stated1 as if it were a common occurrence1 that angels came to talk familiarly with men2 as1 for example1 ,gen4 xviii1 xix41 xxxii42 and ,judges i41 where we are told that an angel came from ,gilgal to ,bochim1 to deliver a statement1 to the ,hebrews1 such as a silly girl at ,lourdes asserted the ,virgin ,mary had come from ,heaven to make to her2 see also ,judges xiii41 and the book of ,tobit4 ,that angels were1 moreover1 supposed to possess thews and sinews1 we find from ,gen4 xxxii4 #bd-cj1 wherein we are told that some celestial being wrestled with ,jacob1 but could not prevail against him4 ,in a previous chapter1 although it is only in a dream1 ,jacob saw them mount and descend a ladder as if their wings--if they then had them--were useless4 ,we shall not now be far from the truth1 if we affirm that winged messengers1 envoys1 or angels1 can only be supposed to exist by individuals whose god is nothing more than a man without universal power and knowledge4 ,to any one who believes ,god to be omnipresent1 the idea of ,his having ambassadors1 or vicars upon earth1 is blasphemous4 ,the comparative coarseness of those minds which fabricated the notion of winged men1 as celestial messengers1 will be the more certainly recognised1 if we examine into the pictorial conception which they have permitted1 and still allow1 to pass1 for the embodiment of their idea4 ,let me1 for example1 invite the reader to cast his mental eye over the winged men-like bulls1 c41 of ,assyria and ,babylonia2 the winged genii of the ancient ,egyptians2 the winged soul and angel of ,death of the ,etruscans2 the angels of ancient and modern ,christian painters2 and the pinioned heads which came from the walls to listen to the music of ,saint ,cecilia--according to ,papal legends--and then to try to discover the locality of the muscular organs which are necessary to give movement to the wings4 ,everybody who has ever carved1 at his dinner-table1 a grouse1 partridge1 pheasant1 duck1 or other fowl1 must be aware of the enormous mass of flesh which is associated with the wings4 ,if we bare the breast and remove the pinion bones from any bird which flies--7it is necessary to make this proviso1 for such as the dodo1 the apteryx1 the ostrich1 emu1 and others1 have wings which are only rudimentary1 and not used for flight7--we find but a very meagre body remaining behind4 ,hence we see the necessity of furnishing an imaginary angel which has wings with muscles that will enable the pinions to be used2 but in no pictorial representation of an angelic messenger do we ever find the ordinary figure of a man departed from1 or any provision made for muscles to move the feathered organs4 ,and we must notice1 in passing1 that it is monstrous to suppose that a man must become1 in part1 a bird ere he can be useful to a god6 ,again1 we recognize in the conventional form of angels a total absence of knowledge of natural history1 of gravity1 of force1 c4 ,let us1 for example1 imagine for a moment that the metaphorical wings are real ones used in flight4 ,we see directly that they will only raise the individual perpendicularly into the air4 ,the angelic human creature1 even if his wings were--as they ought to do--to replace his arms1 would still lack a tail1 to use as a rudder to direct his flight4 ,it is clear1 then1 that no one has seen an angel1 and that those who have pretended to have done so1 were deeply ignorant men4 ,to make our observations upon this point somewhat more comprehensible1 we may just refer to the fact that many individuals1 misled apparently by the mass of ideal celestial men--or angels--which are to be seen in almost every cathedral or parish church in ,europe1 have conceived the idea that they could fly1 if only they could contrive the necessary apparatus to append to their arms1 legs1 or both2 in other words1 many men have fancied that they could do better for themselves than nature has done for them4 ,but a few minutes' calm thought would teach any one familiar with the composition of forces1 that an attempt at the imitation of a bird's flight must be a failure in man4 ,let me show this by a simple observation3 ,a bird extends its wings1 and by a strong stroke towards its own body1 rises into the air1 though neither solid nor rigid1 both wings and air have apparently been so4 ,in imitation of this bird1 we will now suppose that a man places himself1 with arms outspread1 like the letter ,t between two uprights1 forming something like the letter ,u4 ,the individual would then be represented thus ,j--unlike the bird1 his point d' appui would be solid1 and his arms would be far more unyielding than feathers4 ,yet not one athlete in a million could spring upwards1 so as to stand upon the summit of the ,u4 ,man's pectoral muscles--as physiologists call the mass of flesh below the collar bone and above the nipple--are intended to move the arm2 the bird's pectoral muscles are intended to move the body4 ,cut off a man's arms and pectorals--the counterpart of the bird's wings and fleshy breast--and he has barely lost a tenth part of his weight2 on the other hand1 cut off the corresponding parts of a bird1 i4e4t the pinions and the muscles which move them1 and not a tenth part of the original weight is left behind4 ,speaking coarsely1 we may then affirm that man's body is relatively about a hundred times heavier--air being the standard--than that of a bird1 and his pectoral muscles1 relatively to his body1 a hundred times less in bulk4 ,consequently1 even if a human being could1 by muscular action1 develop the bulk of his pectorals1 so that they should be relatively to the rest of his frame1 equal to those of a bird1 still his bulk would be so much more solid than that of the bird's bones1 flesh1 and feathers1 that his power of flight would be a hundred times less4 ,a man1 with the exception of his lungs1 is in health1 solid or fluid1 in every part of him2 a bird's bones1 on the contrary1 are everywhere permeated by air cavities1 which make them as light as pith or cotton wool4 ,a pound of lead and a pound of feathers are certainly equal in weight1 yet1 if both are allowed to drop from a balloon1 the first will reach the ground a long time before the second4 ,in like manner1 by contrivance1 ,i could with my breath sustain an ounce of eiderdown in the air1 although ,i am quite powerless to sustain1 by like means1 the same quantity of solid meat4 ,i say nothing of the relative position of the shoulder-joint in man and birds--although the point is physiologically important4 ,again1 we may assert that the originators of the angelic mythology were absolutely ignorant of that which is called comparative anatomy4 ,we have already expressed our belief that no one has a right to expect that people will believe in the reality of a man's knowledge respecting the unseen world1 so long as he is palpably at fault in his notions respecting the visible creation4 ,consequently we assert that one who is careless as regards actual phenomena and ignorant of common truths1 cannot be trusted in metaphorical1 mythological1 or divine lore4 ,a comparatively small amount of observation proves to us that amongst the highest classes of animal life1 the wing is the counterpart of the arm or of the fore-leg4 ,in the creature called the flying squirrel1 there is no pinion as there is in the condor1--there is simply an unusual development of skin which unites the fore and hind limbs much in the same way as the web unites together the toes of the goose or duck4 ,in the bat1 which1 though a mammal1 is allied1 as regards its power of flight1 to the birds1 we find that the fore-leg is developed so as to make a bony frame on which a thin skin may be stretched1 which is still farther strengthened by being attached to the hind leg4 ,in the ordinary bird1 the skin which we see in the bat and flying squirrel is replaced by feathers1 which are longer1 broader1 and lighter than a fold of skin4 ,the ordinary method1 therefore1 in which angelic beings are depicted does not associate them with the highest classes of animal life4 ,our modern artists are much more skilful in depicting ,satan than in pourtraying ,raphael1 ,gabriel1 or ,michael4 ,our last remarks would be comparatively unimportant1 were it not that the close observation which the moderns have given1 to every thing connected with natural history1 has shown us that there is a harmony throughout creation4 ,no animals have noses on their backs1 nor eyes in their hind legs4 ,no insect--so far as ,i can remember--has a thick neck2 nor has any mammal or bird a thin one1 like the wasp1 bee1 or fly4 ,as we imagine that it is proper to extend our knowledge rather by the lights which we have already attained1 than by silly or hap-hazard guessing1 so we think that it is better to investigate the subject of angelic forms by comparative anatomy1 than by the dreams of divines1 who probably have never studied any other subject than the best means of gaining influence over their fellow-mortals4 ,we assert that there is not in all the creation1 known to man1 any creature with arms and legs--or their equivalents1 legs and wings1 or fore-legs and hind legs--which has1 in addition1 wings upon arms1 legs1 head1 or back4 ,in such a combination there is something monstrous4 ,i confess that ,i could1 if satisfactory evidence were given1 credit the occurrence of a devil with a tail--of a centaur with a horse's body and a human head--but ,i could not possibly believe that ,satan went about as a roaring lion1 seeking whom he could devour in the dress of a bull with bat-like wings1 as well as horns and hoofs2 or that an angel of ,god approaches us in a form nearer to the scarabseus of ,egypt than to the human form divine4 ,yet when we say that a pictorial angel approaches nearer to a beetle that revels in filth1 than to an etherial essence which ought to be very close upon perfection1 we are still far from precision4 ,ladybirds1 cockchafers1 and others of the class allied to the scarabseus that was almost deified in ,egypt1 have six legs1 two wings1 and two wing cases--ten means of locomotion in all4 ,butterflies1 moths1 and the like1 have six legs and two wings4 ,consequently1 if there be any design in creation1 and angels have been created1 they can only be regarded as the connecting link between the highest and the lowest classes of animal life4 ,if then1 there be such a thing as harmony of design in ,creation--if the ,creator be not the author of confusion 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #cc7--;if matter be material1 and imponderable forces cannot be weighed or made otherwise recognisable by the senses1 except by their effects--if the ,almighty be omnipresent and omniscient1 it is absolutely impossible for a thoughtful mind to believe in the existence of angels in any shape--whether material1 immaterial1 or essential4 ,but this consideration forces us still further1 and we feel compelled to ask ourselves1 whether1 with our minds constituted as they are1 we can believe in1 or understand any thing wholly immaterial8 ,whether we can imagine the existence1 for1 example1 of force without matter8--a shape which is formless8--a form visible to the eye1 yet wholly immaterial8 ,it seems to me to be desirable1 at the present day1 to call attention to this point in a particular manner1 inasmuch as there are vast numbers1 both in ,europe and ,america1 who believe in what is called ,spiritualism1 and are1 in reality1 as greatly the dupes of charlatans as were the disciples of ,alexander the false prophet1 whose history we gave in vol4 ,,ii4 ,the jargon of these pretenders is based upon the assertion in the ,bible that there are spirits--the accounts of certain of these returning to the earth which they have quitted1 or conversing with human beings in dreams1 or in reality4 ,but both they and their victims fail to see that a spirit1 being without a material existence1 cannot put matter into motion--it cannot produce the waves in the ether that cause those impressions on eye and ear which give the idea of sight and sound4 ,we may best give our reader a glimpse of our meaning1 if we compare a spirit to a picture projected on a sheet by a magic lantern4 ,it is true that we can see it--yet we know that it is powerless to hear1 to speak1 to move2 it cannot of itself even vanish4 ,yet there are many onlookers who1 by a ventriloquist1 can be made to believe that the picture speaks4 ,after prolonged observation1 ,i believe that spirits1 angels1 demons1 c41 have no reality except in the delusions of individuals whose diseased brains induce them to believe that they see apparitions and hear them speak4 ,to this matter we shall probably return by and by4 ,we may now revert to a subject which we mentioned incidentally a few pages back--viz41 the ideas which induced priestly inventors to depict the angels of their imagination in a particular form4 ,those who are familiar with the ,bible1 and not with any other book1 and who decline to examine into the ways of ,god in the universe generally1 will naturally reply to our strictures that the angels of the ,jews were described in a particular fashion1 because they were seen in the visions of ,elohim 7,ezek4 i4 #a2 ,dan4 x4 #e1 #f2 and ,rev4 i4 #aj-bj74 ,but this observation involves the idea that the angels which have appeared are so various in shape1 that an individual who had seen and described one1 could not enable another man to recognize a similar messenger when seen under another form4 ,in ,genesis xviii1 xix41 xxxii41 and ,judges xiii1 angels assume the form of men2 in ,isaiah vi4 they have six wings--one pair being used to cover the face1 another to cover the feet1 and another to fly with4 ,to this it may be objected that what ,isaiah described were seraphim2 yet verse #f shows that one of these1 at least1 was a messenger or envoy4 ,in ,ezekiel i4 we find an apparent description of angels1 or an envoy1 which is so involved that it is most difficult to understand it4 ,in ,daniel x4 an archangel is described as a brilliant man whose body was like the beryl--tarshish--a stone of a sea-green colour probably2 or1 possibly1 a topaz1 whose eyes were like lightning1 and whose arms and feet were like polished brass1 and whose loins were girded with fine gold--as if to conceal his sex--a characteristic which we find1 from ,matt4 xxii4 #cj1 angels do not possess4 ,the writer's description must1 therefore1 be classed with that of afreets1 genii1 and the like1 in the ,arabian ,nights tales4 ,in ,zechariah1 again1 we find an angel or envoys described 7ch4 i47--7a71 as a man riding upon a red horse1 having behind him red horses1 speckled and white 7v4 #h72 7#f71 as four horns 7vv4 #ah1ai72 7c71 as four carpenters 7w4 #bj1 #ba47 ,again1 in chap1 v41 we find an angel in a flying roll2 another in an ephah2 another in a big piece of lead1 and another in a woman1 and still another in two beings of the same nature4 ,we can readily understand that some who are unacquainted with lunatics1 would describe these portraitures as the result of insanity or hallucination2 but those who are more conversant with persons of unsound mind will doubt whether any ordinary insane persons ever see or describe things which they have never met with4 ,one or two1 certainly1 have wonderful flights of imagination1 but these have been highly educated men of extensive reading1 c4 ,in mania1 when visions are seen1 some person or other whose description has been read by the lunatic1 or who has really been observed1 appears--or something which the individual has seen depicted1 or otherwise been told of1 presents itself1 or there is a strange jumble of reality and possibility--just as in dreams1 comical1 grotesque1 or horrible combinations are common1 and cause us no surprise4 ,there is1 however1 too much consistency in the method in which angels are depicted1 to enable us to believe that their form was decided by any lunatic or dreamer4 ,we scarcely can form an idea whether the ,egyptians had a definite belief in angels1 as the word is understood by moderns4 ,with them1 as it was with the ,greeks1 it is most probable that all beings which ,jews and ,christians alike would call angels1 were designated gods or demigods4 ,be this as it may1 we find that the ,mizraim had deities who wore wings4 ,a round disc1 apparently intended to represent the sun1 two erected serpents to support it1 and a long broad pinion on each side of the body1 was symbolic of the ,supreme4 ,the same may be said to be true of ,assyria and ,persia--only that in the symbolism of the two last1 the serpents did not1 generally1 appear4 ,in plate #cj;a1 of ,wilkinson's ,ancient ,egyptians1 #b;d series1 a human figure is represented as winged1 and before him is a five-rayed star4 ,in plate #ce of the same book1 ,isis is represented as a nude woman1 winged2 the position of one pinion being such that it serves to conceal the body from the waist almost to the knees4 ,in plate #cf1 ,athor is depicted as being attended by a human-headed bird4 ,on the other hand1 in plate #ci1 where the gods are instructing the king in the use of the bow1 the former are bird-headed men without wings4 ,whilst in plate #dd1 the soul of a dying man is represented as a human-headed bird with wings1 arms1 and legs4 ,in plates #eb1 #ec of the same work1 we notice specimens of winged serpents4 ,in plate #fc1 ,isis again appears as a wing bearer1 and in this figure we find1 as we ought to do1 that the feathers of the pinions are attached to the arms of the goddess4 ,in ,assyria1 we may gather from the sculptures which have been preserved1 that there was not any idea of angels being essentially different to gods4 ,indeed1 it is very difficult wherever there is a polytheism in any form1 to understand the distinction between a god and an angel ,even in the religion which passes current as the ,christian1 which acknowledges three gods as coeternal together and coequal1 we are distinctly told that one of the three proceeds from the father and the son 7,athanasian ,creed74 ,the ,new ,testament1 again1 repeatedly informs us that the son was sent into this world by his father to effect a special purpose--e4g4t ,god sent his only begotten son into the world1 that we might live through him 7#a ,john iv4 #i2 see also ,john iii4 #af1 #ag2 ,matt4 xxi4 #cg2 ,mark xii4 #d2 ,john v4 #ch2 vi4 #bi2 vii4 #bh1 #bi2 and compare with ,john i4 #cc and ,mal4iii4 #a-c74 ,if1 therefore1 we regard the bearer of a message or an order from the supreme king as an angel1 ,jesus of ,nazareth was certainly one1 inasmuch as he said that he was sent hither by the father of all2 and the ,holy ,ghost was another1 for we find ,john 7xv4 #bf7 stating that ,jesus would send him to the earth--an assertion repeated in chap1 xvi4 #g--whilst in the fourteenth chapter of the same book we observe that the father was to send this comforter1 who was to abide in this world for ever 7v4 #af74 ,indeed1 the presumed identification of ,jesus with the promised ,messiah1 the prince of ,dan4 ix4 #be1 shows the belief that he was one who was as much appointed to do a certain duty as was that angel of death which went out to destroy the ,assyrian army 7#b ,kin4 xix4 #ce74 ,with such indicated reservation1 we notice that the angel which the gods sent to watch over various ,assyrian kings is depicted almost invariably with wings4 ,now he is an archer1 standing in a disc representing the sun1 having wings below him2 now he stands in front of the circle1 the pinions and sometimes his body terminating in feathers resembling a bird's expanded tail4 ,then1 again1 the minor divinities bear wings1 some of them no less than four 7,bonomi's ,nineveh1 #b;d ed4 p4 #aeg74 ,it would be superfluous to linger over a description of the winged bulls with human heads1 and the winged men with eagle or hawks' faces1 which are so familiar to us in consequence of the researches of ,layard and others4 ,all alike bear testimony to the connection1 in human celestialism1 between birds and men4 ,nor can we reasonably doubt1 that the idea intended to be conveyed by the inventor of the ,assyrian composition which we refer to was1 that the being1 thus symbolized1 was famous for strength like the bull2 for rapidity of movement1 like the eagle2 and for wisdom1 like a man4 ,there is to be found amongst the relics of the ancient ,persians a symbol of an angel who was supposed specially to guard the king4 ,this somewhat resembles that used at ,nineveh4 ,there are1 however1 many forms of it4 ,for example1 we find in ,hyde's ,de ,religione veterum ,persarum 7,table #f7 a figure of a ,persepolitan king1 above whom1 in the air1 and quite distinct from the sun1 stands a venerable man fully draped1 standing upon what seems to be a large pine cone reversed1 which is surrounded by clouds instead of being furnished with wings4 ,the man thus depicted extends the forefinger of one hand to the sun1 whilst with the other he holds a ring4 ,in ,table #f ,mithra is represented as winged1 after the modern fashion of angels4 ,hyde assures us1 in chapter twelve1 that twelve angels were recognized by the ancient ,persians1 in addition to those who presided over the months and days4 ,one of these appears to be the same as the ,greek ,rhadamanthus1 who sat as supreme judge in the invisible world1 and apportioned to the dead their rewards or punishments4 ,a second was equivalent to ,neptune and ruled the sea1 but he had also under his charge everything which related to generation1 or production generally4 ,the third was much the same as the more modern ,lares and ,penates1 and superintended dwelling-houses and families4 ,the fourth had a somewhat similar and subordinate office4 ,the fifth was named after the stars1 and had his kingdom in the south heavens4 ,the sixth the learned author does not describe4 ,the seventh really seems to be a sort of duplicate angel1 called ,haruts and ,maruts1 who were two naughty ones that rebelled1 and are1 according to some1 imprisoned still in ,babylon1 being hung up by the heels4 ,the eighth1 ,hyde is himself doubtful about1 and does not describe4 ,the ninth is the same as the ,german storm-king4 ,the tenth may fairly be styled the angel of the victualling department4 ,the eleventh is the giver of life1 the opponent of ,azrael1 the minister of death2 and the twelfth angel is one which we may call either by the name of conscience or judgment for he it is who approves or reprobates the works of man4 ,though ,i quote from ,hyde1 ,i am somewhat doubtful of the value of his authority4 ,he relies to a considerable extent upon the work known as the ,zend ,avesta1 and supposed to represent the tenets of ,zoroaster and his followers4 ,this book is1 as ,i have mentioned1 generally believed to be a genuine relic of antiquity by ,continental scholars1 though it is mistrusted by ,british orientalists1 who regard it as a modern production founded upon ,aryanism1 ,christianity1 and ,maho-metanism4 ,in my judgment1 my compatriots are right2 and if it be proper to trust such a man as ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson in the matter of the ,avesta1 one may be pardoned for believing with him that the book of ,job was written by a ,persian ,jew1 or translated by a ,hebrew from a work in the time of ,darius1 or some other of the ,achoemenidae4 ,in ,job angels are only once mentioned--viz41 in chap4 iv4 #ah1 and then they are spoken of in such a way1 that we are doubtful whether or not to regard the verse simply as a poetic metaphor4 ,the idea which runs through the part of the chapter in which the passage occurs is this3 ,job1 you are suffering2 the innocent do not perish2 the righteous are not cut off2 you have been very proper2 man has nothing to say against you2 but you are not right in accusing ,god of injustice2 you doubtless have done some wrong1 for even ,god's servants are not wholly trusted2 they sometimes misbehave unknowingly1 and his own angels are called perverse by him 7,job iv4 #ah72 you cannot expect to be better than they1 and it is no shame to you to be in the same category as they are4 ,but it must be allowed that the words of the story--,there was a day when the sons of ,god came to present themselves before the ,lord1 and ,satan came also among them2 and the ,lord said unto ,satan1 ,whence comest thou8 ,then ,satan answered the ,lord1 and said1 ,from going to and fro in the earth1 and from walking up and down in it--do really intimate a full belief in good angels and bad1 who were not so much angels1 messengers1 or envoys1 as subordinate powers resembling the barons of ancient ,england1 the ,paladins of ,charlemagne1 or the kings created by ,buonaparte2 amongst whom all were1 so to speak1 good angels1 except ,bernadotte1 of ,sweden1 who rebelled against the imperial thraldom1 and became to his late master a modern satan4 ,in whichever way we regard the subject of angels1 amongst the ,persians there is little doubt that the ,iranian conception of ,god was wholly anthropomorphic1 and that the ,medians and their magi1 as well as their ,persian neighbours1 acknowledged a father of lies1 who was antagonistic to the deity499 99 ,quintus ,curtius informs us 7,life of ,alexander the ,great1 b4 v4 a ii47 that ,darius had in ,babylon a consecrated table1 from which he used to eat2 that ,alexander began to be ashamed of his sacrilege in treading upon it--7it had been placed as a footstool for his imperial chair7--the sacrilege being against the gods presiding over hospitality1 carved upon the table4 ,these may be regarded as angels or otherwise1 according to fancy4 ,our knowledge of the angelic mythology of ,babylonia is comparatively slight4 ,the main thing which shrouds the subject in darkness is the difficulty which exists to distinguish between god1 gods1 and angels4 ,if we could put any confidence in the book of ,daniel1 we should recognize therefrom that his ,nebuchadnezzar most distinctly believed in the existence of angels1 for in chap4 iii4 #be he believes that he sees the son of ,god 7bar elohim71 and in verse #bh of the same chap4 he remarks that ,god hath sent his angel 7malachah71 and delivered his servants that trusted in him4 ,again1 in the fourth chapter1 in which he recounts a dream1 he declares that he saw a watcher and a holy one 7geer and kadesk7 come down from heaven with a message to him4 ,but ,daniel is not an adequate authority upon ancient ,babylonian beliefs4 ,we are1 in the absence of direct testimony upon this subject driven to such evidence as is drawn from sculptured or other remains in ruins and on gems1 and to cuneiform and other writings4 ,george ,rawlinson sums up his account thus--7,ancient ,monarchies1 vol4 ,i1 ch4 vii41 pp4 #ach1 #i73 ,various deities1 whom it was not considered at all necessary to trace to a single stock1 divided the allegiance of the people1 and even of the kings1 who regarded with equal respect1 and glorified with exalted epithets1 some fifteen or sixteen personages4 ,next to these principal gods were a far more numerous assemblage of inferior or secondary divinities1 less often mentioned1 and regarded as less worthy of honour1 but still recognized generally through the country4 ,finally1 the ,pantheon contained a host of mere local gods or genii1 every town and almost every village in ,babylonia being under the protection of its own particular divinity4 ,the passage above quoted1 which represents very fairly our existent knowledge1 suggests to the thoughtful mind a comparison with other religions4 ,in ,greece there were many great gods and goddesses1 and other divinities of less renown4 ,in ,rome there were gods for almost everything4 ,but what these nations called gods the ,hebrews called angels1 as we shall see shortly4 ,in ,christendom angels and gods have1 as a general rule1 been deposed1 and saints have taken their places4 ,not only has every town a cathedral which is dedicated to some particular name--said to have been borne by a holy man or woman1 whose aid in heaven is thus secured by his votaries upon earth--but every church in every parish1 and every chapel in every church is set apart to a particular saint4 ,still farther1 every trade and every position in life has its tutelary patron in heaven1 and secondary gods are as common in ,papal districts as they were in the land of the ,chaldeans4 ,the philosopher cannot find a valid distinction between ,ishtar1 ,venus1 and ,mary1 ,dionysus and ,denis1 and a host of other gods1 saints1 or angels4 ,assuming that the minor gods of ,greece and ,rome1 and those essences generally called angels are substantially the same order of beings1 we find that the ,babylonians had a great number of celestial envoys1 viceroys1 or messengers who ruled over the land and sea1 the sky and storms1 the thunder and the rain1 crops1 men1 war1 buildings--everything1 indeed1 was superintended by some one on behalf of the ,supreme ,ruler4 ,we might pause here to speculate upon the question whether there is any difference in kind between such a kingdom as ,babylonia or ,russia and the heaven believed in by the ancient ,jews and the modern ,christians4 ,in all there is an autocratic sovereign who has a prime minister and secretaries of state1 who keep his books and perform his will according to his bidding2 under these again there are private clerks1 who superintend wind and weather1 rain and hail1 snow and frost2 governors of provinces1 mayors1 or prefects of cities2 police1 and so large a host of subordinates1 that nothing1 great or small1 can be done which escapes the notice of one of the imperial envoys or ministers4 ,the inventor of heaven1 such as we know it1 was certainly an admirer of 'centralization'4 ,those who desire to see the description of the unseen world modified are those who are opposed to an absolute monarchy1 and who see in everything1 everybody1 and in all the world a proof of the presence of a supreme1 omniscient1 omnipresent1 ,creator1 ,ruler1 or ,governor4 ,without going into an account of the ,chaldean mythology1 we may say that there is strong reason to believe1 both from the nomenclature which has survived1 and from such gems as are preserved from destruction1 that every ,babylonian1 whether bond or free1 was called after some deity1 who was supposed ever afterwards to be his tutelary angel ,in modern times ,roman ,catholics hold a similar belief1 and each parent imagines that by making selection1 for his offspring1 of the name of a particular saint1 the latter can be induced to take the child under its special care4 ,the learned in papal mythology know that every saint is depicted in such a manner that none shall be mistaken4 ,to such an extent indeed is pictorial contrivance carried1 that the art of recognising a particular saint demands a special study4 ,it is all but certain that the same custom prevailed in ,babylon2 but1 as all the professors which taught the means of identification have passed away1 we can only guess at the name or nature of the angel4 ,let us imagine1 for example1 what an archaeologist could make of the figure of ,mary--of the bleeding or burning heart1 two thousand years after all history of the mother of ,jesus has passed away1 like that of ,ishtar has done4 ,a curious figure1 called heart-shaped1 but really not so1 is found placed on the central part of a woman's breast2 from it flames appear to arise and blood to drop1 and through it is a dagger1 and this mass of imagery is put outside the body1 and the dress is held open to enable any one to see it4 ,without a key to the enigma1 this is a mystery2 but when the key is given1 and the inquirer hears the explanation1 he finds it so absurd that it is difficult to believe it4 ,in like manner1 when ,i see upon a ,babylonian gem1 copied as a vignette on the title-page of ,landseer's ,sabean ,researches1 a woman who has a beard1 a necklace1 two small breasts1 from each of which she squeezes apparently a river of milk2 over whose breastbone there is one large globe and two small ones1 placed perpendicularly2 who has a spider waist1 and wears a skirt covered with pistol-shaped ornaments1 ,i1 not knowing whether the ,chaldeans adored our lady of the flowing bosom1 cannot frame an idea as to the name of the saint1 angel1 virgin1 or martyr which is depicted1 or what may have been her peculiar duties1 who she was1 and what trade she patronised4 ,whatever idea the ,papal ,church entertains respecting her canonised saints1 one thing is remarkable1 viz41 that they are not portrayed as having wings4 ,each has an aureole of some sort round his or her head--a painter's contrivance for saying ,this individual1 who seems like a man or woman1 is not a common but a divine creature4 ,francis of ,assisi is1 in addition1 depicted with stigmata1 or marks on his hands1 feet1 and side1 which1 though they resemble those made with nails in the case of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 were doubtless1 in the case of the saint1 made with the strong caustic called spirit of salt or other escharotic4 ,we might speculate upon the state of mind which sees in the assumption of stigmata a greater evidence of faith than would be offered by the conversion of the arms into the pinions of ,michael the archangel2 but1 as it is so much easier for even the most potent saint to make breaches in his skin1 than to persuade feathers to grow on his arms1 we do not think the task worthy of our care4 ,the ,babylonians in this respect were predecessors of papal pagans4 ,it is a rare thing to find on any of their gems a winged angel or genius4 ,one such is depicted on the frontispiece of ,landseer's ,sabean ,researches1 which is birdlike both as regards the head and pinions2 and four other winged creatures are given in ,lajard's ,culte de ,venus4 ,in two the figures are human headed1 and combined with the body of a quadruped4 ,at a later period of ,babylonian mythology grotesques were introduced1 apparently from ,egypt4 ,it is not to be lightly passed by1 that the symbol which represented the presence of the deity--which1 if we may adopt a phrase1 we should call the angel of his presence 7see ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ad1ae2 ,isa1 lxiii4 #i71 is almost identical in the ,chaldean and the papal religions1 viz41 a circle containing a cross1 an emblem as common in our churchyards as in the capital of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,the resemblance between papal and ,chaldean emblems and doctrines have repeatedly attracted the attention of theologians2 and ,i am not far wrong in asserting that ,protestants generally have identified the woman of ,revelation xvii41 spoken of as ,mystery1 ,babylon the ,great1 the mother of harlots and abominations of the earth1 with ,rome under the popes4 ,for myself ,i do not care to express any opinion on the point1 beyond a general dissent from the popular estimation of the dictum and its interpretation4 ,at the same time ,i must declare that every year1 over which my inquiries have extended1 has imbued me more and more with wonder at the similarity between the ancient ,babylonian and the modern papal religion4 ,the two resemble children of the same parents1 only that one is older than the other2 and it requires but little penetration in an observer to trace in both1 the lineaments of a grovelling superstition1 united with a base priestly cunning4 ,in our own estimation the strongest evidence in favour of a belief in angels1 of every degree1 amongst the ,chaldeans and ,babylonians is the enormous development of angelic mythology amongst the ,jews1 who lived in the city of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and in those who migrated thence into ,palestine subsequent to the period of the captivity4 ,from indications1 which are necessarily imperfect1 we have formed the opinion that the ,babylonians were astronomical students of great proficiency1 from a very remote antiquity2 that many of these professors turned their attention to what is called judicial astrology--i4e41 they attempted to judge of future events by certain phenomena occurring in the heavens1 and especially in the relationship between different planets and the various constellations4 ,as the planets wander through the sky1 naturally they were regarded as the messengers of ,el--the ,supreme1 who sent them to investigate the condition of groups of stars1 many of which formed a sort of community that was unvisited by the ,great ,king1 for months together1 and1 in many instances1 not at all4,as the heliacal rising of one star seemed generally to be followed by good weather1 and the corresponding rise of another intimated the reverse1 it was natural that one should be regarded as an angel of happiness1 the other as a harbinger of misery or death4 ,so strongly rooted is this belief amongst some1 that it even holds its own in educated ,england4 ,the astronomer ,royal is often asked to cast a nativity2 and a living merchant of ,liverpool does so yet1 having confidence that his deductions suffice to prove their value4 ,the formula is ,astra regunt homines1 sed regit astra ,deus--,the stars rule men1 but ,god rules the stars4 ,a guardian star1 then1 that is to say1 the particular planet or other conspicuous celestial body which was in the ascendant at the period of the birth of each individual1 was regarded in the same light as ,christians esteem protective angels and ,romanists estimate patron saints4 ,there can be1 we think1 little doubt that the seven archangels are the seven planets known to the ancients1 each of which had a day dedicated to it1 and who thus originated the week of seven days4 ,these amongst the ,phoenicians were called the ,cabeiri1 or the powerful ones4 ,in the conclusion at which we have arrived we are greatly strengthened by the discovery in ,babylonian ruins of certain bowls2 facsimiles and descriptions of which are given in ,layard's ,nineveh and ,babylon1 pp4 #eaj-ebf4 ,the inscriptions which have been translated appear to be forms of exorcism1 or amulets1 by which evil spirits are to be driven away2 and reference is made in these writings to the devil1 for example1 under the name shida2 and to ,satan under the cognomen ,satanah1 evidently the same as the ,satanas habitually used in the ,new ,testament2 also to ,nirich1 probably from a root like the ,hebrew narag1 a noise maker or screamer4 ,this creature1 as ,i think1 is the same as the ,satyr of ,isaiah xiii4 #ba1 and xxxiv4 #ad1 and represents or personifies those unseen but howling maniacs who wandered about at night 7see ,lilith and ,satyr in my second volume74 ,another demon is called ,zachiah1 a cognomen which ,i cannot satisfactorily explain unless it is allied to ,zachar1 and indicates the power which1 as the ,french would say1 can tie a knot in the needle 7nouer l'aiguilette7 or a levin brand4 ,another of the devils is called ,abitur of the ,mountain1 whose name resembling1 as it does1 the ,jewish ,abiathar1 is more likely to belong to the good than the bad angels4 ,lilith is another demon still feared by the ,jews1 who employ charms against her to this day4 ,she is supposed to be a sort of spiritual vampyre1 and to suck the life out of infants and young people4 ,these names of angels occur in the first inscription given by ,layard2 in the second we find ,satan1 associated with idolatry1 curses1 vows1 whisperings1 witchcraft1 and ,zevatta--a concealer1 rider1 or enchanter from root like this and answering to the fairy which steals away4 ,it was between the night and day ,when the fairy king has power1 ,that ,i sank down in a sinful fray1 ,and 'twixt life and death was snatcht away ,to the joyless ,elfin bower4 --,lady of the ,lake1 canto iv41 stanza xv4 ,another is named ,nidra1 which ,i take to signify vows made by supposed sorcerers4 ,this demon is associated in the same line with ,zevatta above described4 ,patiki is another bad influence1 probably now1 a sword1 for the charm has reference to freedom from captivity4 ,another devil is called ,isarta1 which ,i take to be a leader of banditti or marauders1 from the ,assyrian word 7,furst's lexicon s4v4 asar71 a leader1 head or commander1 and a word from a root like ta1 to drive1 to push forward1 to sweep away4 ,we should call such an one the demon of destruction4 ,in this same inscription two good angels are named1 ,batiel or ,bethiail1 probably a variant of ,bethuel1 the residence of ,el1 and ,katuel or ,kathuail1 the executioner or sword of ,el1 from katal1 to kill2 compare this with the expression1 ,or if ,i bring a sword upon that land1 and say1 sword1 go through that land1 so that ,i put off man and beast from it 7,ezek4 xiv4 #ag74 ,in addition to these two angels another is mentioned who has eleven names1 not one of which is written in full--e4g4 ,,ss4 ,,bb4 ,,ccc4 ,in a third inscription a devil is named ,abdi1 which may be derived from the root abad1 and be regarded as the same as the ,new ,testament ,abaddon 7,rev4 ix4 #aj7--the king of the slaughterers1 bucaneers1 rovers1 c4 ,we can fancy that ,negroes who are captured and sold in droves to foreigners1 might imagine that ,abdi was the devil which ruled the ,african slave drivers and ,christian purchasers4 ,this demon is associated with ,levatta1--with tribulations1 the machinations of the ,assyrians1 misery1 treachery1 rebellion2 ,nidra1 with sorrows generally2 and ,shoq1 which ,i take to be from a root like shuq1 or shaqaq--i4e41 enemies thirsting for booty1 rangers1 bands of robbers4 ,compare--,and the spoilers came out of the camp of the ,philistines in three companies 7#a ,sam4 xiii4 #ag74 ,see also--,he delivered them into the hand of the spoilers 7,jud4 ii4 #ad2 #b ,kin4 xvii4 #bj74 ,amongst the devils must1 ,i think1 also be classed ,asdarta1 which is clearly the same as the goddess ,astarte1 and she is closely associated with the machinations of the ,assyrians4 ,the good angels of this inscription are ,barakiel1 ,ramiel1 ,raamiel1 ,nahabiel1 and ,sharmiel1 over whose names we will not now linger1 except to notice that the devils have names compounded with jah1 whilst the good ones are derived from ,,el4 ,in the fifth inscription1 amongst the bad things are mentioned evil spirits1 both male and female1 the evil eye1 sorcery1 and enchantments both from men and women1 along with ,nidra and ,levatta4 ,the good angels are called ,babnaa1 ,ninikia1 and ,umanel1 which ,i take to be intended for ,wu1 banahel,el builds1 or the strong one who establishes us2 nachaghel4 ,el is powerful1 or the ,angel of ,strength2 and amanel1 or the fostering angel4 ,in some fragments the names of good angels found have been ,nadkiel1 ,ramiel1 ,damael1 ,hachael1 and ,sharmiel1 which we shall probably notice again subsequently4 ,we do not lay any particular stress upon the fact of the bowls1 on which these inscriptions were found1 having been dug up amongst ,babylonian ruins2 nor do we care to prove either that they were of ,jewish or ,chaldean origin4 ,what we here desire to show is1 that there existed in ,babylon a full belief in the existence of evil and good influences which were invisible2 that some individuals had1 or were thought to possess1 supernatural powers for harm1 which could be counteracted by those who placed themselves under the protection of potencies supposed to be holier1 wiser1 or stronger than the evil genii ,from the method in which everything connected with witchcraft1 magic1 astrology1 and the like1 is spoken of in the ,old ,testament1 and from the fact that slaves are much more likely to imitate their masters than conquerors to become pupils of the vanquished1 we conclude that it was not the ,hebrews who taught the ,chaldees1 but that the contrary was the case4 ,in the view thus enunciated we are confirmed by the manner in which old ,jewish writers spoke of the nation that enslaved them--e4g41 ,babylon1 the beauty of the ,chaldees' excellency 7,isa4 xiii4 #ai72 ,all of them princes to look at after the manner of the ,babylonians of ,chaldea4444 ,and she 7,jerusalem7 doted upon them1 and sent messengers unto them into ,chaldea2 and444 she was polluted with them1 and her mind was alienated from 7or by7 them 7,ezek4 xxiii4 #ae-ag72 ,it is a mighty nation1 it is an ancient nation1 a nation whose language thou knowest not 7,jerem4 v4 #ae7--;,jeremiah knew more about the people than ,isaiah 7see ,isa4 xxiii4 #ac74 ,habakkuk1 again1 speaking of the same people1 says 7chap1 i4 #f-aj7--,the ,chaldeans1 that bitter and hasty nation444 terrible and dreadful3444 they shall scoff at the kings1 and the princes shall be a scorn unto them4 ,such being the estimation of the ,babylonians by ,hebrew prophets1 it is morally certain that the ,jews would regard them with respect1 admire1 study1 and copy them4 ,to what extent the imitation went it is difficult to say4 ,when1 therefore1 we find that the descendants of ,abraham1 a patriarch whom a veneration for the ancient ,babylonians induced the ,israelite mythologists to represent as being a ,chaldee2 and those who were taught on the banks of the ,euphrates1 were spoken of in ,rome about the time of our era1 and shortly afterwards1 as being almost synonymous epithets for sorcerers1 astrologers1 charmers1 c41 we must conclude that the ,mesopotamian was the master1 the ,palestinian the pupil4 ,that the two were regarded as relatives we infer from ,juvenal 7sat4 vi4 #edd-eeb7--;,for a small piece of money the ,jews sell whatever dreams you may choose1 but an ,armenian or ,commagenian soothsayer promises a tender love2444 but her 7i4e41 the lady who consults such folk7 confidence in ,chaldeans will be the greater4 ,but1 ere we leave this portion of our ,essay1 we must notice one other piece of evidence of considerable value which is drawn from the ,new ,testament4 ,we find1 for example1 in ,acts xxiii4 #h1 ,the ,sadducees say that there is no resurrection1 neither angel nor spirit1 but the ,pharisees confess both4 ,if we inquire into the origin of these sects--and we shall be greatly assisted in doing so by two very elaborate articles by the erudite ,dr4 ,ginsburg1 in ,kitto's ,cyclopaedia of ,biblical ,knowledge--we shall see reason to believe that the ,sadducees were a sect who considered that they were not bound to believe any tenet as necessary unless they could find it distinctly enunciated in the ,pentateuch4 ,they resolutely declined1 therefore1 to accept as revelation such stories as had been adopted by the ,hebrews from ,babylonians1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 and possibly from the ,romans4 ,we might institute a comparison between the ,sadducees and those whom we know as reformers4 ,the first acknowledged the authority of ,moses alone1 such as they found it in the five books2 the second acknowledged the authority of ,jesus and his apostles1 such as they found it in the ,new ,testament3 the first rejected the commentaries of ,rabbis2 the second those of the fathers4 ,both appealed to antiquity1 and both traced to what we may designate paganism1 heathenism1 or foreign sources generally1 a large portion of the current faith which they saw around them4 ,the ,sadducees regarded the doctrine of seraphic interference1 and all the angelic mythology common in their time1 as the fond fancy of those who desired to harmonize ,judaism with ,gentilism4 ,the ,reformers1 in their turn1 rejected all the fables of ,papal anchorites1 c42 denied the power of any martyr to influence the condition of the living after their death2 and generally opposed the saintly1 as the ,sadducees opposed the angelic1 hierarchy4 ,individuals who sympathize with ,luther1 ,calvin1 and those of a similar way of thinking1 may readily understand the ,sadducees1 whereas1 those of what is called the ,high ,church1 will give their interest to the ,pharisees1 who upheld the then mediaeval customs1 c4 ,it is probable that some will say1 that ,jesus of ,nazareth1 being the son of ,god1 a deity incarnate1 and consequently familiar with everything which goes on in the court of heaven2 having adopted the angelic mythology2 having conversed familiarly with the devil2 having sent1 at least1 two thousand devils out of one man into a herd of swine2 having gone down to hell1 wherever that may be2 and having preached to the spirits imprisoned there1 whoever they may be or have been2 having1 still further1 had an angel to comfort him2 having had a conference with ,moses and ,elijah on a certain hill2 having asserted that he had only to pray to his father to obtain the assistance of twelve legions of angels2 and having also told us that every child has an angel who stands before the face of ,god--seeing these things1 ,i say1 one can imagine persons asseverating that all our current notions of angels1 which are built upon the ,new ,testament1 must be true4 ,to this we rejoin1 that these assertions beg the question4 ,the philosopher affirms that the idea of angels is incompatible with that of an omnipresent ,god--that the belief of ,jesus in an angelic mythology proves him to have had an anthropomorphic notion of the ,supreme1 and1 as a consequence1 it follows that ,jesus was nothing more than a ,jew1 although very superior to the generality of his countrymen1 having possibly been taught by some ,buddhist499 ,the bigot1 on the other hand1 can only scream out the formularies which the so-called orthodox provide for him4 ,johanna ,southcote once made some folks believe that she was pregnant with a ,messiah1 and she had most enthusiastic followers2 but neither argument nor rhetoric sufficed to beget the promised baby and1 in like manner1 no amount of declamation can convert an assumption into a fact4 ,but of this truth most of our theologians appear to be ignorant1 and1 like the heathen with their litanies1 they think that they will obtain their will by much speaking4 99 ,it will be noticed by the reader1 that the remarks in the text have reference to the supernatural stories which were interwoven into the biography of ,jesus by those whom we call ,evangelists4 ,the bibliolaters must1 however1 stand or fall by the many legendary tales which pass current for truth4 ,if ,jesus1 as an ordinary ,jew1 believed in angels--just as our king1 ,james ,i41 believed in the existence of modern witches --we cannot use his evidence to prove the existence of angels and devils1 any more than the ,christian laws against witchcraft demonstrate that old women and men sold their souls and bodies to ,satan4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we allow that the spiritual mythology of the ,new ,testament is due to ,pharasaic influence1 all the testimony propounded in favour of the assertion1 that ,jesus was1 in reality1 a son of ,jehovah1 crumbles away4 ,when summoned1 a long time ago1 to give evidence in a court of justice1 the question was put to me--,now1 doctor1 you have heard the symptoms from which the deceased suffered2 do you believe that they were produced by arsenic8 ,being doubtful about the propriety of the query in a court of law so prudish as ours is1 ,i remained silent1 and in an instant the judge1 ,baron ,alderson1 said--,i won't allow that question to be put or answered2 you want the witness to take the place of the jury1 and it shall not be done4 ,you may ask the doctor1 if you will1 what are the symptoms produced by arsenic1 when taken in a poisonous dose1 and then it is the business of the jury to compare those1 with such as have already been sworn to as occurring in the man before he died4 ,this anecdote is frequently in my mind when ,i am composing an essay like the present4 ,if ,i wish to convince the jury who reads my papers of the truth of a particular conclusion to which ,i have arrived1 it is not enough for me to express my own opinions4 ,i may assert1 in the matter in question1 that ,i am a skilled witness1 and have closely investigated the subject1 but it is open to any one to doubt my industry and to distrust my judgment2 consequently1 it is necessary for me to adduce evidence1 as well as to draw deductions therefrom4 ,the hypothesis which ,i have formed1 after a pretty extensive reading1 is1 that the belief in the mythology of angels which is current amongst ,christians at the present time1 and which is based upon a series of pretended revelations1 said to have been made exclusively to ,jews of ancient times1 is1 in reality1 founded upon fancies of pagan priests or poets2 and1 as a corollary1 ,i infer1 either that our celestial mythology must be given up to oblivion1 as being heathenish1 or that we must abandon those claims to an exclusive inspiration which have been made for1 and accorded by many to1 the ,bible4 ,i have already described the ideas associated with angels in some ancient peoples1 and ,i now propose to examine those of other nations with whom the ,jews and ,christians1 directly or indirectly1 came in contact4 ,the reader of ancient ,roman history cannot doubt that the city on the ,tiber was indebted to the ,etruscans for all1 or nearly all1 of its early knowledge4 ,it is probable that the original gods and goddesses of ,rome were those of their northern neighbours1 and everything which the ,romans knew of augury was due to the priests of ,etruria2 consequently it is not unprofitable to inquire1 as far as we can1 whether these had any idea of beings such as we call angels4 ,as we have not many available written remains of the remarkable people to whom we refer1 we are obliged to be satisfied with pictorial and other relics which have survived until our days4 ,some of the scenes depicted on urns1 vases1 and walls1 in tombs and elsewhere1 are sufficiently explanatory of the subjects which the artist has desired to pourtray2 others1 on the contrary1 can be interpreted in a variety of ways4 ,paying no attention to the latter1 we may safely affirm1 that the ,etruscans had ideas upon the subject of angels very similar to our own4 ,the form which their artists gave to them is precisely that which is current at the present day1 except that1 unlike the ,christian1 the ,etruscan angels were of different sexes4 ,sometimes both males and females were draped from the neck to the feet1 in other drawings they were partially or wholly nude4 ,in the vast majority of cases each one possessed two wings that were attached to the back1 behind the arms1 precisely as they are in modern pictures2 but in one very remarkable instance 7plate #g1 ,description de quelques ,vases ,etrusques1 par ,h4 ,d4 de ,luynes--folio1 ,paris1 #ahdj7 the beings to whom we refer had each three pairs of pinions1 the one attached to the shoulder blades1 a second to the loins1 and a third to the calves of the legs4 ,these creatures correspond to our demons or imps of ,satan1 or the devils of the ,new ,testament which were sent into a herd of swine4 ,some of the winged ,etruscan demons must be regarded as angels of death1 for they are represented as hovering in the air over individuals1 such as ,cassandra and ,polynices1 who are about to be sacrificed4 ,one angel1 who1 as usual1 ,diaitized bv is spoken of by the ,christian describer thereof as a goddess1 is designated ,cunina4 ,her business was to look after and take charge of infants in their cradle4 ,a being such as this1 by whatever name we may designate her1 cannot fail to remind us of the expression in the ,new ,testament--,take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones2 for ,i say unto you that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my father which is in heaven 7,matt1 xviii4 #aj74 ,in another ,etruscan painting we find two angelic beings1 fully draped1 carrying a nude corpse apparently to the future or invisible state4 ,these naturally remind us of the passage in ,rev4 xx4 #a--;,i saw an angel come down from heaven1 having the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain in his hand4 ,in some ,etruscan paintings we have scenes which are supposed to indicate the preparation of a bride for the wedding ceremony4 ,in these there are diminutive angels introduced1 which are sometimes hovering in the air and sometimes seated on the edge of the bath2 these are by the learned supposed to represent ,cupid1 ,eros1 ,hymen1 or ,love1 and they indicate the devout feeling1 that an angel watches over those who contract marriage in an orthodox manner499 99 ,whether the ,romans obtained all their inferior deities from the ,etruscans1 or whether the priests of the ,eternal ,city in ancient times improved upon the mythology which came to them from their predecessors1 just as the priests of modern ,rome have expanded1 without improving1 the ,christianised paganism which came to them1 is a matter difficult to decide4 ,but it is certain that the old ,romans multiplied their gods1 as the modern ones have multiplied their saints4 ,amongst the former were many curious deities1 who presided at the wedding of young people1 some at the public ceremony1 and others at the private rites4 ,p,rema was the angel of quietness1 whose business it was to see ne subacta virgo se ultra modum commovens semen a vulva ejiceret4 ,subigus was another angel or demigod1 whose duty it was to see that the consummation should take place in an appropriate manner--lovingly1 pleasantly1 and peacefully4 ,there was another--,pertunda--of whom ,augustine 7,civ4 ,dei1 vol4 #i7 remarks--,si adest dea ,prema ut subacta se non commoveat quum prematur1 dea ,pertunda quid ea facit8 ,in modern times the ,papal saints1 ,cosmo1 ,damian1 ,foutin1 and sundry others1 have had the special duty assigned to them to make the husband fit for his marital duties4 ,that the absence of such a spirit was looked upon as unlucky we gather from an expression in ,propertius 7b4 v4 el4 #c7 in which a wife1 whose husband has been obliged to leave her1 and go to a distant war1 when bewailing her destiny1 amongst other references says--,i wedded without a god to accompany me4 ,this calls to memory the statement in ,hebrews i4 #ad1 wherein1 after speaking of angels1 the writer asks--,are they not all ministering spirits1 sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation8--a sentence which implies the idea that those who are not heirs of salvation have not angels which minister for them4 ,the doctrine was certainly not exclusively ,christian4 ,of this any one may assure himself by referring to ,eccles4 v4 #f--,neither say thou before the angel that it was an error2 wherefore444 should ,god destroy the works of thine hands8 ,again1 we find an angel seated between two young folk of opposite sexes1 and archaeologists tell us that the winged creature thus figured is a nuptial god--one whose business is to induce appropriate couples to meet1 to love1 and to marry4 ,such a celestial match-maker was the ,jewish ,raphael1 who1 though one of the seven holy angels1 which present the prayers of the saints1 and which go in and out before the glory of the ,holy ,one 7,tobit xii4 #ae7--yet condescended to conduct ,tobias a long way to meet ,sara1 and instructed him how he could marry her with safety1 and defeat a devil4 ,amongst other individuals1 in the ,etruscan mythological paintings who are winged1 are the following1 which are named thus by the authors who describe the vases1 c41 whether rightly or wrongly it is not necessary for me to prove3--,janus2 ,furina1 the goddess of thieves2 ,mercury1 the messenger of ,jupiter and the patron of robbers2 ,vacuna1 or ,desideria1 or ,venus1 the goddess of indolence1 desire1 or love2 ,hymen1 the angel or god of marriage2 ,cupid1 the god of love2 ,victory1 ,bacchus1 ,silenus1 ,dryads1 ,calliope1 ,tempest1 ,fame1 ,proserpine2 ,iibitina1 the goddess of funerals2 ,venus1 infera1 ,nemesis1 or fate2 ,death1 life1 ,charybdis1 ,the ,furies1 ,geryon1 ,justice1 ,peace1 ,iris1 and ,diana4 ,on such a subject the reader may consult with advantage ,augustine 7de ,civitate ,dei1 b4 vl4 c4 #i72 ,arnobius 7,adversus ,gentes1 b4 iv4 c4 #g72 and ,tertullian 7,ad ,nationes1 b4 ii4 c4 #aa74 ,we may now refer to a remarkable series of drawings1 representing the funeral of ,patroclus1 described by ,homer1 which were discovered in the ,etruscan sepulchre of the ,tarquinii near what once was ,vulci and is now ,ponte della ,badia1 in the year #aheg1 and which is described in ,noel des ,vergers ,l',etrurie et les ,etrusques1 and in ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,italicarum 7,turin #ahfg71 the latter of which ,i use as my authority4 ,in one of the scenes we find depicted the sacrifice of the ,trojan youths at the grave of ,patroclus4 ,the artist has not left to the fancy of the observer the identification of his figures1 but has written in ,etruscan letters the modified names of the actors4 ,beginning from the right hand1 we find ,ajax ,oileus1 and next to him a naked ,trojan youth1 whose hands are bound behind his back1 and who is guarded by ,telamonian ,ajax4 ,behind and besides him is ,charon1 and in front of the latter is another ,trojan youth1 nude1 seated on the ground1 and receiving his death-wound from ,achilles4 ,behind the latter stands a winged1 draped1 tall female figure1 whom at one time ,i took to be the glorified soul of ,patroclus2 but1 having seen a similar figure on other ,etruscan designs depicting human sacrifice or death1 and finding over the head of this one the word fanth1 vanth1 or fano--according to the value which we assign to the digamma or ,f and ,o--which is1 ,i think1 equivalent to the ,latin ,fatum1 fate1 c41 we must regard the figure as resembling ,azrael--the angel of death4 ,besides and behind her stands a draped man unarmed1 having a fixed countenance of settled melancholy1 and regarding without a shade of exultation the death of the young ,trojan whom ,achilles slaughters4 ,over his head are the words hinthial patrucles1 which is believed to signify the shade of ,patroclus4 ,the last figure in the group is ,agamemnon4 ,this and the other sculptures in the tomb are extremely interesting to the archaeologists1 firstly1 because they bear evidence of a very superior style of art2 secondly1 because they testify to the antiquity of ,homer's ,iliad1 and its popularity in other nations than the ,greek4 ,they show1 moreover1 that the wealthy men amongst the ,etrurians were not ignorant of the ,grecian language1 or rather literature1 although they had difficulty in adapting the ,hellenic words to their own alphabet2 lastly1 they ought to be especially valuable to us inasmuch as they demonstrate the existence of a belief in ancient ,italy of the resurrection of the body1 and of the existence of angels precisely the same in shape as those which pious ,christians delight to see in their churches1 and in their manuals of devotion4 ,it is worthy of notice that upon some ,etruscan vases in the museum at ,munich there are angelic warriors covered with armour--a winged female carrying a caduceus1 and winged horses--like ,pegasus1 and probably like those seen by ,zechariah1 the ,hebrew vaticinator4 ,we consider it best to omit making any remarks respecting the ideas entertained about angels by the ,phoenicians1 for we have scarcely any information about their mythology beyond the names of certain gods and goddesses4 ,it will be more profitable to pass on to the ,greeks1 and inquire into the general system of their theological belief4 ,this is1 we think1 a matter of some importance1 for this people1 as victors and masters1 came into contact with the ,jews in the time of ,joel1 about b4c4 #hjj2 and if any captive ,hebrews came back from ,grecia 7see ,joel iii4 #f71 we believe that they would naturally bring back with them much of the ,hellenic lore of their conquerors4 ,the reader must not be carried away here with the once popular notion that everything which was found in heathendom1 which resembled something biblical or ,jewish1 came of necessity from scriptural or ,israelitish sources4 ,the reverse is much more likely1 for the ,hebrews in old times are described by their historians and preachers as hankering after novelty--going whoring after other gods1 as the ,bible has it4 ,they1 on the other hand1 were encouraged to keep themselves aloof from others1 and were never a missionary nation2 nor1 had they been so1 were they sufficiently honourable or wealthy1 as a race1 ever to command respect4 ,they were1 indeed1 generally despised by the people round about them1 who would no more think of adopting ,jewish fables than we should care to learn theology and cosmogony from ,african negroes4 ,if we endeavour to reduce ,grecian mythology to its simplest expression1 we find that it consisted of a belief in a creator--grand beyond conception1 and one whom the mind could not conceive1 nor pencil nor the chisel depict4 ,under him there was thought to be a host of minor deities1 who agreed1 more or less1 amongst themselves1 each having a particular department of creation to preside over1 or a definite function to perform4 ,jupiter1 for example1 had the air and the heavens generally under his management2 ,neptune superintended the sea2 ,rhea1 or ,gaia1 or ,gee1 was the goddess of the surface of the earth2 and ,pluto had the management of the interior of the globe and of those who were buried therein4 ,if corpses were unburied1 they did not come under his immediate cognizance4 ,then1 as it was quite possible that one deity might be counteracting another1 as1 indeed1 they are represented to have done during the ,trojan war1 another god was necessary to be a medium of communication between the others1 and ,mercury became the messenger1 or go-between4 ,below the major gods was an infinity of smaller ones1 who presided over physical and moral matters4 ,there were1 for example1 wood and tree nymphs2 ,dryads and hamadryads--gods of rivers1 such as ,simois and ,scamander4 ,pan presided over husbandmen2 ,hermes1 over thieves1 c4 ,others1 like ,eros1 fulfilled the duty of bringing the sexes together4 ,hymen secured them in marriage1 and ,venus had the duty of insuring connubial happiness1 whilst ,lucina's business was to bring the offspring of the marriage into the world--with as little pain or danger as possible4 ,then1 again1 ,fortune brought good luck4 ,the furies brought evil1 and the fates ruled the destiny of mortals4 ,against some of these gods others rebelled4 ,for example1 there were the ,titans1 the sons of ,heaven and ,earth 7,caelus et ,terra71 who were all of gigantic stature1 and may be said to be identical with the giants spoken of in ,gen4 vi4 #b-d1 as being the offspring of the sons of ,god and the daughters of men4 ,these ,titans were much disliked by their father1 and confined in the bowels of the earth1 or1 as we should say1 in ,hell2 but their mother relieved them1 and they in turn revenged themselves upon their progenitor4 ,when ,jupiter succeeded to ,cronos or ,saturn1 the giants1 the sons of ,tartarus and ,terra1 or ,hell and ,earth1 united with their half-brothers1 the ,titans1 and attacked ,olympus1 and its gods1 in dismay1 assumed disguises and fled into ,egypt--a rare spot1 whence also came as history tells us1 the founder of ,christianity and the doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,to regain his position1 ,jupiter found a man--a son of his own--whom he had begotten by lying three nights in the heart of the earth1 or1 as the fable has it1 in the arms of ,alcmena--,hercules by name1 to attack the allied monsters1 and thus with the aid of a mortal the gods became victorious4 ,just as in more modern days the divine mission and position of ,jesus of ,nazareth and ,mahomet of ,mecca1 have been determined by the arms of human warriors4 ,the power of men in heaven is wonderful1 considering how great is their weakness upon earth6 ,it is probable1 that to the ,greeks1 ,milton owed his ideas of ,paradise ,lost4 ,according to the ordinary ideas of angels1 the gods1 demigods1 goddesses1 genii1 and the like1 were essentially the same amongst the ,hebrews as the archangels and inferior hierarchy are in modern christian mythology4 ,we shall the more readily see this if we inquire into the ideas of the ,greeks respecting demons4 ,the latter were regarded as spirits which presided over the actions of mankind1 and watched over their secret intentions4 ,many ,greek theologians thought that each man had two1 the one good1 the other bad4 ,these sprites could change themselves into any form1 and at death the individual was delivered up to judgment by these companions1 who testified to his actions during life4 ,socrates often spoke of his own peculiar spirit4 ,not only were these creatures supposed to influence men1 but they were also believed to guard places1 and a genius loci was the same as the ,god of ,ekron1 or any other locality4 ,it is almost impossible for a thoughtful man not to compare with the ,greek ideas those held by moderns4 ,we hear in familiar discourse1 and read in popular books1 about a good angel and a bad one4 ,god is said to use both 7see ,ps4 lxxviii4 #di1 and #a ,kings xxii4 #ba1 #bb47 ,many1 too1 of the readers of ,sterne will remember the remarks which he makes about a recording angel who was obliged to register an oath1 but who contrived to blot out the entry with a tear 7com4 ,mal4 iii4 #af47 ,as we have already adverted to the belief of ,jesus that every child had an angel1 who is always in the presence of4 ,god1 we need not remark again upon the matter4 ,but though the ,grecian gods and demigods were the counterparts of the archangels and lesser powers of the ,jews and ,christians1 they were not pictorially depicted1 as they were in other places1 like winged men or other creatures4 ,arnobius1 for example1 in ,advenus genies1 when writing about the divinities of the heathen1 remarks1 that they are so like ordinary men and women1 that the artist has to resort to some contrivance to show that any offspring of his brush1 or of his chisel1 is a god or goddess4 ,a painter1 he observes1 will select the finest young women he can discover--or the handsomest prostitute in his country1 and from one maiden1 or from the collective charms of many1 will paint a lovely woman and style her ,venus2 yet she is only a courtezan after all4 ,his remark is a certainly true one4 ,jupiter is never represented otherwise than as a man1 nor does ,minerva ever figure except as a woman4 ,none of the greater gods of ,hellas are winged like the tutelar gods of the ,assyrians and ,persians were4 ,even ,hermes1 though he does bear pinions1 does not carry them in the usual form4 ,instead of having powerful wings behind his arms1 like the ,gabriel or ,michael of ,christian mythology1 he has little nippers attached to each side of a cap1 of a pair of socks1 and of a curiously-shaped wand--all of which he can put off when he pleases1 or don when he is sent with a message4 ,jupiter's thunders bear similar wings4 ,but such minor deities1 or devils1 as ,eros or love2 ,hymen or marriage2 ,fame1 or victory2 ,aurora1 or day-break2 the winds1 the ,genii1 the ,gorgons1 the ,furies1 the ,harpies1 ,iris1 ,isis1 ,hebe1 ,psyche1 and even ,pegasus--a wondrous horse1 are winged with pinions which resemble those of the eagle4 ,if we now pause for a moment to compare one thing with another1 we readily see that ,hymen may fairly be described as the angel of the covenant of marriage1 and that ,mercury is identical with ,raphael4 ,the genius loci1 the dryad or hamadryad1 is the counterpart of the cherubim guarding the ark and the mercyseat of the ,jewish temple4 ,apollo is the angel in the sun 7,rev4 xix4 #ag47 ,neptune is the angel of the waters 7,rev4 xvi4 #e47 ,nay1 we may--indeed we must go further1 and affirm that either the angel ,gabriel1 or the power of the ,highest1 which1 we are told in ,luke i4 #bf1 #ce1 overshadowed ,mary1 the espoused wife of ,joseph1 is a perfect counterpart of the ,hellenic ,jupiter who overshadowed ,alcmena4 ,both produced a being equally celebrated--for we may fairly assert that ,hercules was believed in by as many individuals as have faith in ,jesus4 ,for ourselves1 we do not credit the myth of the ,hellenists2 of the very existence of a ,hercules we are profoundly incredulous4 ,yet we do not doubt for a moment that ,jesus of ,nazareth lived as a man upon this earth1 and founded1 with the subsequent assistance of ,paul1 the religion which is called ,christian4 ,but of the supernatural conception of ,mary and of her impregnation by a deity we are intensely sceptical4 ,of the theology of the ,romans in the times prior to1 and somewhat subsequent to1 our era1 we need say little4 ,it resembled both the ,etruscan and the ,greek at the first1 and subsequently it was modified by the ,egyptian and by the ,persian4 ,but it was in ,rome1 whilst pagan1 that the present pictorial type of angels was perfected 7see ,plates ix4 to xiii1 ,lajard's ,culte de ,venus71 in which allegorical figures1 from old ,roman bas-reliefs1 precisely like modern angels1 are represented killing the ,mithraic bull4 ,i may also add1 in passing1 that the crozier borne by ,romanist bishops is a reproduction of the ,etruscan lituus1 the augurs' or diviners' staff of office4 ,the ,roman nation1 like the ,papist and ,peruvian religions1 was omnivorous1 and not only venerated the old gods of the soil1 but adopted new divinities eagerly4 ,whoever chose to import a new deity1 and a novel style of worship was hailed1 patronized and enriched1 much in the same way as at ,london during recent times1 ,mesmerists1 spirit rappers1 cord-conjurors1 clairvoyants1 male and female1 spiritualists like ,home1 very ,high ,churchmen1 and many other classes of a similar stamp have been encouraged4 ,as in ,athens1 we are told that the ,athenians and strangers which were there spent their time in nothing else but either to tell or to hear some new thing 7,acts xvii71 no matter whether the novelty was religious or otherwise1 so it has been elsewhere4 ,london really1 and ,rome metaphorically are constantly adopting new ideas1 some highly commendable and philosophical1 others quite the reverse4 ,amongst the latter1 we may mention that which professes that a certain man can1 like ,jesus is said to have done1 heal by a touch4 ,this assertion1 however1 is only sparsely credited on the ,thames4 ,far more general is the belief which professes1 that an ,ecumenical ,council can by a vote make one man and his official successors infallible4 ,we cannot pass by this subject without remarking that instability in religion is evidence of infidelity2 and the adoption of new tenets is a proof of the low estimation in which old ones have been held4 ,even the new1 or ,christian dispensation1 as it is called1 is founded upon the insufficiency of the old or ,jewish covenant1 which1 by those who adopt the one1 is a confession that they believe the other was imperfect and therefore not of ,god4 ,consequently1 when we find a church1 like the ,roman1 habitually patching its old clothes1 we conclude that its leaders are dissatisfied with them and desire better4 ,a lover who finds his mistress perfect neither seeks nor wishes to change her for another2 nor endeavours to induce her to modify her attire until he is dissatisfied therewith4 ,when he insists upon an alteration it is because his ardent love has faded4 ,the philosopher may see clearly why certain prelates desire to have some infallible man to appeal to--for it is easier to find out the opinion of one individual than to harmonize the contradictory hypotheses of fifty dogmatical or authoritative writers4 ,yet the same man will not fail to see that such a proceeding1 whilst it strengthens the hold of the church upon the weak-minded1 cuts it adrift from the strong4 ,the policy is not altogether bad1 for it seeks to bind closer those who1 whilst wearing the chains of captivity1 regard them as ornaments4 ,but all those who adopt such tactics ought1 boldly and unequivocally1 to withdraw from the rank of truth-seekers1 and of envoys of that ,god who is not the author of confusion but of peace4 ,we may now proceed to the consideration of the angelic mythology of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,in our inquiry we shall endeavour to arrive at the ideas contained in the words which are used1 and not content ourselves with simple quotation4 ,there is strong reason to believe that ,christians in general rarely examine into the real signification of words which they are taught to use1 or which1 from some fancy or other1 they commit to memory4 ,they imagine--if they think on the subject at all--that to repeat a text or a creed is to perform an act of faith1 which1 in itself1 is praiseworthy and a good work4 ,such do not1 in any appreciable degree1 differ from the ,thibetans1 described by the ,abbe ,hue1 who perform their devotions by turning round upon their axles certain cylinders1 upon which some prayers are engraved4 ,not only these ,asiatics1 but ,europeans of large mental calibre are often contented with vague ideas2 and when they are challenged to support the faith which is in them1 show that they have never yet examined it4 ,if1 for example1 they are asked how they can believe in the truth of such passages1 ,i have seen ,god 7,kohim7 face to face 7,gen4 xxxii4 #cj72 ,the ,lord 7,jehovah7 spake unto ,moses face to face as a man speaketh unto his friend 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #aa72 ,moses whom the ,lord knew face to face 7,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj71 and the opposite one1 ,thou canst not see my face1 for there shall no man see me and live 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bj7--the sole reply rendered is that the first passages are figurative1 passing by entirely the comparison in the second1 which asserts that ,god talked with ,moses as one friend with another4 ,as a farther illustration of my meaning1 ,i may point to the glibness with which ,christians talk1 sing1 and listen to discourses about blood4 ,if people really gave heed to what they chant1 and to the words of their ministers1 they would really be puzzled to find a distinction between the god whom they worship and that idol deity of ,mexico1 which called constantly for the hearts and the blood of his worshippers4 ,without shedding of blood is no remission 7,heb4 ix4 #bb7 is a dogma that puts the ,europeans' ,god on the same level as the deities worshipped in pagan ,africa1 ,new ,zealand1 and by the ,anthropophagi generally4 ,in like manner1 if ordinary people are asked to reconcile such passages as the following--,who maketh his angels spirits2 ,a spirit hath not flesh and bones as ye see me have 7,luke xxiv4 #ci7--with a host of others1 in which angels are said to have appeared1 talked1 and acted like men1 they allege that much of the phraseology of the ,bible is metaphorical4 ,but if it be granted that the language is metaphorical1 must we not equally believe that the facts referred to are mythical2 and if so1 how much of the so-called inspired book can we trust8 ,if metaphor and figure-imagery are cities of refuge for theologians1 those who fly to them must remember1 that there they must remain and live therein all their days2 they cannot be citizens of the world1 and yet never leave their asylum3 if1 for them1 facts are fictions1 by parity of reason fictions are facts4 ,if1 when an individual1 said to be a prophet1 and1 as such1 the mouthpiece of the ,holy ,ghost or of ,jehovah1 tells us that he saw and talked with an angel1 who imparted to him such and such information1 we are bound either to believe the whole statement or to reject it as valueless1 quoad revelation4 ,if the man did see an angel1 and that angel spoke1 it must have been material2 and if material1 it could not be a spirit1 and if not a spirit1 it was not an angel499 ,if to this it be answered that individuals do see what they deem to be spirits--just as many a drunken man avers that he sees blue devils1 we grant it at once4 ,we go still farther1 and state that we know individuals in full possession1 apparently1 of all their senses1 who see1 occasionally1 men1 women1 horses1 dogs1 and other things1 which have no more existence than the figures which appear to us in dreams4 ,such men not only see imaginary beings1 but they hear conversations or speeches which have no reality in them4 ,but we cannot for a moment allow that such delusions of the senses are sterling1 and such utterances1 messages from the ,almighty delivered by angels4 ,to be logical1 therefore1 the theologian must either accept the stories told in the ,bible about angelic beings as literally true1 to the exclusion of all metaphor1 or believe that every thing tainted by such celestial mythology is entirely of human invention4 99 ,the authority for this is ,ps4 civ4 #d2 ,heb4 ,l #g1 #ad1--,who maketh his angels spirits2 ,are they not all ministering spirits8 ,as an illustration1 let us consider two episodes in the history of ,elisha4 ,we find in #b ,kings ii4 #aa1 that a chariot of fire and horses of fire1 appeared to this prophet1 and parted him from ,elijah1 with whom he was walking1 and carried the latter away into heaven2 and we see in #b ,kings vi4 #ag1 that ,elisha's servant could really see a multitude of chariots and horses of fire round about his master4 ,we must also remember that the chariots of the ,lord are thousands of angels 7,ps4 lxviii4 #ag2 see also ,ps4 xxxiv4 #g47 ,now these were1 or were not1 realities--if the chariots and horsemen existed1 then we infer that some sort of stables and ostlers exist in heaven2 if none such exist1 then the chariots and horses could neither have been seen1 nor have separated the two prophets4 ,it may be urged that supernatural beings do exist for those who can see them1 and for no other2 just as the angel was seen by ,balaam's ass thrice 7see ,numbers xxii4 #bb-cc7 before he was recognized by her master4 ,but this observation is worthless1 for it amounts to nothing more than this--viz41 that the persons seen in dreams exist for the dreamers and for no one else2 but it in no way proves the reality of the asserted apparition4 ,it would be as useless to discuss1 at this point1 the actuality of what are called spectres1 as of other things named fairies1 pixies1 gnomes1 or sprites4 ,of the existence of such there is abundance of evidence2 and for hundreds of years there was not a human being who did not believe in them4 ,but there was even stronger proof that the world stood still1 and the sun went round it1 and during untold centuries all who thought on the matter believed the statement4 ,yet in these days all the testimony is regarded as worthless in the presence of the stern facts of science2 and ghosts are only believed in by such as write treatises upon squaring the circle1 perpetual motion1 and the plane figure of the earth4 ,we shall take up the subject at length in our next chapter4 ,if we were to follow the bent of our inclination1 we should now endeavour to prove that the ,jews had no idea of an angelic mythology prior to the ,babylonian captivity1 and that they had no distinct literature prior to the ,grecian and ,edomite captivity referred to in ,joel1 ,amos1 ,obadiah1 and ,micah1 except possibly such records and written laws as may be styled annals or year-books2 and1 as a consequence1 that all parts of the ,old ,testament in which angelic beings figure are comparatively modern1 having been fabricated after the long sojourn of the ,jews in ,babylon4 ,but to carry out this intention would require a treatise rather than an essay1 and ,i must content myself with saying that ,i believe it to be affirmed by all ,hebrew scholars1 that up to the time of ,nebuchadnezzar--or ,hezekiah--the sole unseen power recognized by the ,jews was ,jehovah alone4 ,they did not believe either in angel or devil ,what their ideas were we may shortly describe993-- 99 ,long after the remark in the text was written1 and long before it was in type1 ,dr4 ,kalisch1 in his second part of a commentary on ,leviticus1 published his views upon the point referred to4 ,when ,i can refer my readers to so masterly a composition as his essay upon ,angels in the ,jewish theology1 it is seedless for me to say much on the subject4 ,i may also refer those who are interested in the matter to a work entitled ,the ,devil3 his ,origin1 ,greatness1 and ,decadence 7,williams ,norgate1 ,london1 #ahga--small #hvo41 pp4 #gb74 ,my essay supplements these1 and in no way clash therewith4 #a4 ,angels were spirits1 being also ministers 7,heb4 ,l #g47 ,they were a flaming fire 7,ps4 civ4 #d72 compare ,jud4 xiii4 #bj1 and ,acts vii4 #ce--that is1 spirits are made of a combustible material which is1 however1 incombustible6 #b4 ,they could assume the form of men1 and were identical with ,god 7see ,gen4 xviii4 #ai2 ,tobit1 and ,luke i473 that is to say1 they were masters1 yet servants--the sender and the sent at the same time6 #c4 ,their faces were terrible 7,jud4 xiii4 #f72 but they also shone 7,acts vi4 #ae7 and yet they were so good-looking and handsome that the ,sodomites fell in love with them as ,jupiter did with ,ganymede 7,gen4 xix74 #d ,one was the superintendent of destruction1 and was visible on one occasion to ,david 7#b ,sam4 xxiv4 #af1 #ag71 to ,oman1 his sons1 and to the elders of ,israel 7#a ,chron4 xxi4 #af-bj47 ,his weapon was a sword 7ibid47 ,he certainly must have had flesh and bones4 ,it would be an interesting matter to inquire whether the sword was as spiritual as the angel was4 #e4 ,one angel was outwitted by a donkey 7see ,numb4 xxii4 #bb-cc47 ,yet this angel was ,god 7comp4 ,numb4 xxii4 #ce1 and xxiv4 #d1 #ae1af74 ,it is marvellous to me how any one can read this history of ,balaam and his ass1 and notice how the animal turned ,god from ,his purpose 7see chap1 xxii4 #cc71 and yet believe the story to be of divine origin6 #f4 ,they are made of light 7,luke ii4 #i71 yet can talk the vernacular1 and can be counterfeited by ,satan 7#b ,cor4 xi4 #ad72 but how he manages it1 and whether he then ceases to be a roaring lion or a fallen angel reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day 7,jude #f71 is a matter for surmise4 #g4 ,one of them fought with the ,devil1 and kept his temper 7,jude #i47 ,of the language used in the disputation we do not know2 nor can we tell how the two recognized each other4 #h4 ,some of them are guilty of folly 7,job4 iv4 #ah71 and some sinned--how1 one does not know--and were cast down to hell1 and delivered into chains of darkness4 ,it is fitting that beings who have no flesh and bones should be bound by fetters that have no reality 7#b ,peter ii4 #d74 #i4 ,some were discontented with their home and were punished 7,jude #f72 but where their original habitation was1 or why it was regarded as so miserable that another place was desired1 is a mystery4 #aj4 ,they have food provided for them 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #be71 and they eat like men 7,gen4 xviii4 #h2 and xix4 #c71 consequently angels must have flesh1 blood1 and a stomach to digest victuals4 ,sometimes instead of eating food they order it to be burned1 and the smoke from the viands serves as a vehicle to heaven 7,jud4 xiii4 #ai1 #bj74 #aa4 ,their number is twenty thousand 7,ps4 lxviii4 #ag74 #ab4 ,they are chariots 7ibid71 yet they walk and get their feet dusty 7,gen4 xviii4 and xix4 #b2 compare ,jud4 ii4 #a2 vi4 #ab72 the chariots are of fire1 and so are the horses 7#b ,kings vi4 #ag72 but they are also clouds 7,ps4 civ4 #c74 #ac4 ,they are taught military discipline and arranged in legions 7,matt xxvi4 #ec74 #ad4 ,they are sexless 7,mark xii4 #be71 yet were men when they appeared to ,abraham1 ,sarah1 and the ,sodomites 7,gen4 xviii1 xix474 #ae4 ,they are liable to do wrong1 and will be judged by men1 some time or other 7#a ,oor4 vi4 #b1 #c74 ,as in this passage the angels are put below the saints1 and in ,gen4 xviii4 and xix41 it is clear that ,elohim and ,jehovah were angels1 it follows that holy men1 when raised1 will be superior to the power that gave them heaven6 #af4 ,though sexless1 the angels1 or sons of ,god1 may be captivated by the beauty of woman1 and engender giants with them in a very human fashion 7,gen4 vi74 #ag4 ,they are very sensitive respecting the hair of women1 and require it to be covered in worship--at other times they probably are not so particular4 ,although they minister upon those who are heirs of salvation 7,heb4 i4 #ad71 they might be tempted from their business1 if they were to see a pretty snood in golden tresses hid 7#a ,cor4 xi4 #aj74 #ah4 ,every child has an angel1 or rather angels1 to look after it 7,matt1 xviii4 #aj71 which leads to the belief that the number of angels has increased since the sixty-eighth ,psalm was written1 when there were only #bj1jjj1 and perhaps a few more499 99 ,the words of the christian father1 ,tertullian1 upon this subject are so very apposite to our subject of angels1 that ,i am tempted to quote them--,clark's edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhg- #h4 ,speaking to the heathens1 he says--,and you are not content to assert the divinity of such as were once known to you1 whom you heard and handled1 and whose portraits have been painted1 and actions recounted1 and memory retained amongst you2 but men insist upon consecrating with a heavenly life1 i4e4t they insist on deifying1 ,i know not what incorporeal inanimate shadows and the names of things1 dividing man's entire existence amongst separate powers1 even from his conception in the womb1 so that there is a god 7read angel7 ,consevius1 to preside over concubital generation1 and ,fluviona to preserve the infant in the womb2 after these come ,vitumnus and ,sentinus through whom the babe begins to have life and its earliest sensation2 then ,diespiter1 by whose office the child accomplishes its birth4 ,but when women begin their parturition ,candelifera also comes in aid1 since child-bearing requires the light of the candle2 and other goddesses there are 7such as ,lucina1 ,partula1 ,nona1 ,decima1 and ,alemona7 who get their names from the parts they bear in the stages of travail ,there were two ,carmentas likewise1 according to the general view4 ,to one of them1 called ,postverta1 belonged the function of assisting the birth of the malpresented child2 whilst the other1 ,prosa or ,prorso1 executed the like office for the rightly born4 ,the god ,farinus was so called from his inspiring the first utterance1 whilst others believed in ,locutius from his gift of speech4 ,cunina is present as the protector of the child's deep slumber1 and supplies to it refreshing rest4 ,to lift them when fallen there is ,levana1 and along with her ,rumina 7from the old word ruma1 a teat74 ,it is a wonderful oversight that no gods were appointed for clearing up the filth of children4 ,then to preside over their first pap and earliest drink you have ,potina and ,edula2 to teach the child to stand erect is the work of ,statina 7or ,statilinus71 whilst ,adeona helps him to come to dear mamma-1 and ,abeona to toddle back again4 ,then there is ,domiduca1 to bring home the bride1 and the goddess ,mens1 to influence the mind to either good or evil4 ,they have likewise ,volumnus and ,voleta1 to control the will2 ,paventina1 the goddess of fear2 ,venilia1 of hope2 ,volnpia1 of pleasure2 ,praastitia1 of beauty4 ,then1 again1 they give his name to ,peragenor1 from his teaching men to go through their work2 to ,consus1 from his suggesting to them counsel4 ,juventa is their guide on assuming the manly gown1 and 'bearded ,fortune1' when they come to full manhood4 ,if ,i must touch on their nuptial duties1 there is ,afferenda1 whose appointed function is to see to the offering of the dower4 ,but fie on you--you have your ,mutunus1 and ,tutunus1 and ,pertunda1 and ,subigus1 and the goddess ,prema1 and likewise ,perfica4 ,o spare yourselves1 ye impudent gods4 #ai4 ,some angels are evil1 but are much the same as the good 7,ps4 lxxviii #di71 in their power of doing mischief4 #bj4 ,every heir of salvation has an angel to minister to him in some way or other 7,heb4 i4 #ad72 so have ,roman babies--see note4 #ba4 ,the angels are only a trifle superior to men 7,ps4 viii4 #e71 and in the invisible world will be inferior to them if the latter be saints 7#a ,cor4 vi4 #c2 ,heb4 ii4 #e74 #bb4 ,they can speak all sorts of languages 7#a ,cor4 xiii4 #a72 that which ,michael and the devil used 7,jude #i7 has not been revealed to us4 #bc4 ,they use a trumpet1 probably as immaterial as themselves1 and make a great noise thereby 7,matt xxiv4 #ca72 and horses 7,zech4 i4 and ,rev4 vi74 #bd4 ,they have wings and can fly 7,rev4 viii4 #ac2 xiv4 #f71 although they are chariots4 #be4 ,when on earth they are clothed with a long white garment1 have a face like lightning1 and one can appear to be two1 or not appear at all to some1 though very distinctly seen by others 7see ,matt xxviii4 #b1 #c2 ,mark xvi4 #e2 ,luke xxiv4 #d2 ,john xx4 #ab74 ,of all the angels mentioned in the ,apocalypse we need not write4 ,one of the best accounts ,i have met with of the angelic mythology of the ,hebrews is in ,coheleth1 or ,the ,book of ,ecclesiastes1 by ,rev4 ,dr4 ,ginsburg 7,longman1 ,london1 #ahfa74 ,it is written in explanation of ,ch4 v4 #e1 wherein is the expression1 ,do not say before the angel that it was error 7page #cdj71 and the following remarks are condensed therefrom3-- ,the angels occupy different rank and offices--seven of them as the highest functionaries2 princes or archangels surround the throne of ,god and form the cabinet--7#a7 ,michael1 the prime minister1 the guardian of the ,jewish nation1 the opponent of ,satan 7,zech4 iii4 #a1 #b71 of the prince of ,persia 7,dan4 x4 #ac1 #bj71 the conservator of the corpse of ,moses 7,jude #i71 and the dragon 7,rev4 xii72 7#b7 ,raphael1 who presides over the sanitary affairs 7,tobit iii4 #ag1 xii4 #ae7--',when ,god would cure any sick person1' says ,st4 ,jerome1 'he sends the archangel ,raphael1 one of the seven spirits before his throne1 to accomplish the cure4' ,there can be little doubt that this was the angel who went down at certain seasons to move the waters of the pool to cure the impotent people 7,john v4 #d72 7#c7 ,gabriel1 the messenger to announce or to effect deliverance1 also a presence angel 7,luke i4 #aa-bj1 #bf-ce72 7#d7 ,uriel1 mentioned in ,esdras 7#b b41 ch4 iv41 w4 #a and #bj74 ,in ,targums these four are represented as surrounding the throne of the divine majesty1 but all do not agree2 ,jonathan's arrangement is--,michael at the right1 ,uriel at the left1 ,gabriel before1 and ,raphael behind499 ,the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh archangels are ,phaniel1 ,raguel1 and ,sarakiel4 99 ,an observation such as this distinctly shows how completely the ideas of angels are associated with gross anthropomorphism4 ,next to the cabinet comes the privy council1 composed of four and twenty crowned elders 7#a ,kings xxii4 #ai2 ,rev4 iv4 #d2 vii4 #ac2 viii4 #c71 who surround the throne1 before whom ,christ will confess those who confessed him4 ,then comes the council1 consisting of the seventy angel princes--the provincial governors presiding over the affairs of the seventy nations into which the human family is divided4 ,hence the ,targumic paraphrase on ,gen4 xi4 #g1 #h--,the ,lord said to the seventy presence angels1 ,come now and let us go down1 and there let us confound their language1 so that one may not understand the language of the other4 ,and the ,lord manifested himself against that city1 and with him were the seventy angels according to the seventy nations4 ,hence the ,septuagint translation of ,deut xxxii4 #h--,when the ,most ,high divided the nations444 he set the boundaries444 according to the number of the angels4 ,the doctor also notices the four angels mentioned in ,zech4 vi1 who seem to have the management of four great monarchies1 but he does not advert to the angels of the seven churches spoken of in the ,apocalypse4 ,he then proceeds--,then comes the innumerable company of presence angels1 since every individual has a guardian angel as well as every nation444 ,st ,jerome1 remarking upon ,matt1 xviii4 #aj1 says1--,great is the dignity of these little ones1 for every one of them has from his very birth an angel dedicated to guard him499 ,when ,st4 ,peter was chained in his prison1 his angel released him 7,acts xiii4 #g1aa71 and the damsel who opened a house door for him was told that he who was knocking was ,peter's angel4 99 ,we have never been able to see the force of this remark1 unless the idea of children having guardian angels was associated with the belief that these beings left them when they grew up4 ,if the adults standing round ,jesus had each an individual warden1 there would be nothing peculiar in the warning given in the verse referred to4 ,it is1 however1 just possible that the notion existed that it was to adults only that tutelary spirits were assigned1 and that the prophet of ,nazareth declared that each infant had a protecting genius as well as every man4 ,then there are angels who preside over all the phenomena of nature4 ,one presides over the sun 7,eev4 xix4 #ag72 angels guard the storm and lightning 7,ps4 civ4 #d72 four angels have charge over the four winds 7,rev4 vii4 #a1 #b72 an angel presides over the waters 7,rev4 xvi4 #e72 and another over the temple altar 7,rev4 xiv4 #ah74 ,we need not pursue this subject further2 enough has been said to show that the ,hebrew ideas of angels differ in no essential respect from those of other nations1 who1 if not older than the ,jews1 were certainly never influenced by the ,hebrews4 ,from the evidence before us1 we are constrained to believe that the knowledge which we assume to possess of the celestial court has descended to us from heathen or pagan sources1 and that the pictorial designs which pass current for likenesses of angels or archangels have descended from ,egyptians1 ,assyrians1 ,persians1 ,grecians1 ,etruscans1 and ,romans1 and cannot pretend to anything approaching to a revelation from ,god4 ,we have already remarked that the ,hebrew notions of the heavenly hierarchy are evidence of a gross anthropomorphism2 they indicate a belief in the existence of a monarch having a face and back1 a right hand and a left1 ears and a mouth1 and a wherewithal for sitting upon a throne--the part which was shown1 as we are told1 to ,moses2 they tell of a theology that recognizes places in the universe where ,god is not1 and of which ,he has no cognizance save through messengers4 ,if this be so1 what shall we say of the hagiology which tells us that there was on one occasion a conspiracy amongst the courtiers of the celestial ruler1 a discovery of treason1 and a punishment of the offenders as dire as the most malignant man could invent8 ,we have often thought that no human being1 unless he were vile1 brutal1 sensual1 clever1 disappointed1 and revengeful1 could have invented the idea of hell1 and that none would ever have believed in it unless he was both timid1 thoughtless1 and malignant ,the dormant hate of the orthodox against opponents is an awful quantity4 ,the expression of fallen angels is a pregnant text2 it recalls to our mind the passage--,yea1 mine own familiar friend1 in whom ,i trusted1 which did eat of my bread1 hath lifted up his heel against me 7,ps4 xli4 #i74 ,it reminds us of ,david1 ,absalom and ,ahitophel1 of ,solomon and ,jeroboam1 of ,joram and ,jehu1 ,benhadad and ,hazael1 ,louis ,,xviii4 and ,marshal ,ney4 ,we feel sure that an individual who could write the words--,if we sin wilfully after that we have received the knowledge of the truth1 there remaineth no more sacrifice for sins1 but a certain fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation1 which shall devour the adversaries 7,heb4 x4 #bf1 #bg71 could readily have invented a hell1 if he had not found one already made to his hand4 ,the sentence just quoted bears evidence of intense theological spitefulness1 and a petty meanness that neither ,sakya nor ,jesus would have shown4 ,such thoughts are womanish1 not manly1 although apostolic4 ,we can fancy it having been penned by ,james or ,john1 who once asked ,jesus whether they should not call down fire from heaven to consume the ,samaritans1 simply because the latter were not polite to the master--because he seemed to be going to ,jerusalem 7,luke ix4 #ec1 #ed74 ,but if so1 those disciples must have forgotten the rebuke of ,jesus--,ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of4 ,here we must pause awhile1 and consider the idea of various peoples about ,hell4 ,some1 perhaps we ought to say1 many1 earthly potentates have encouraged the belief that there is a place in which evildoers1 who have escaped punishment for crime in this world will1 after their death here1 receive their deserts4 ,a place of torment which no man has seen1 or can see in life1 and which1 consequently1 anyone can describe1 is a wonderful supplement to imperfect police arrangements1 and as such1 has been fabricated or adopted in various nations4 ,but in all the nations of antiquity1 and those which we call pagan1 ,hell has been assigned to those who have committed crimes upon earth1 such as murder1 theft1 and the like1 and whose evil deeds have outnumbered their good ones4 ,the idea of a torture vault for heretics has1 so far as ,i can learn1 been reserved for ,christian times1 and for nations who punish ecclesiastical offences more severely than the most atrocious crimes4 ,the papal church1 wherever she has had power1 has punished rejection of her communion far more cruelly than she has dealt with rape1 robbery1 and murder2 and all1 who think with her1 draw their arguments for so doing from what is said to be ,god's method of dealing with ,his rebellious angels4 ,surely1 the idea runs1 if the ,almighty1 who cannot do wrong1 has punished with fire and everlasting torment the ministers who stood in ,his presence and around ,his throne1 simply because they kept not their position1 or did not watch over their principality--for both meanings may be assigned to the original words--surely man must treat his heretic fellow on a similar plan4 ,god1 runs the argument1 made the ,devil1 and man must multiply his imps4 ,it is true1 according to ,hebrew and ,christian mythology1 that the idea of a ,devil was not originally in the mind of ,jehovah4 ,but when ,satan rebelled he was immediately invested with power6 ,in other words1 ,lucifer taught ,elohim1 and thoughtful ,christians believe this66 ,if we now attempt to frame a history of the modern ,hell1 its rulers1 its angels1 or its devils1 we find1 in the first place1 that the ,old ,testament contains no idea whatever of ,satan being an angel originally bright and fair1 but subsequently disobedient1 rebellious1 conquered1 and punished4 ,nor is the ,new ,testament much more communicative--we find the arch-fiend described as a murderer and as a liar2 he also is associated with angels1 as in the words1 the ,devil and his angels4 ,he is described as the ,prince of the power of the air1--as a roaring lion1 seeking whom he may devour4 ,he is the spirit which worketh in the children of disobedience4 ,he is also represented as telling ,jesus1 that he is able to dispose of all the kingdoms of the globe1 and to give their glory to whom he will4 ,yet nowhere is a hint breathed that he was once an angel in heaven4 ,the only verse in the whole ,bible which is supposed to bear upon this matter1 shows that the devil and his imps are not identical with the fallen angels1 for ,jude distinctly declares 7verse #f7 that the latter are reserved in everlasting chains1 under darkness1 unto the judgment of the great day1 a condition quite incompatible with their identity with ,satan1 who is represented as telling ,god that he had been going to and fro through the earth1 and walking up and down in it 7,job ch4 i41 v4 #g74 ,a conversation then follows the question1 which must have been quite impossible had ,god recognized him as an escaped convict4 ,again1 if we turn to the book of ,enoch 7an apocryphal production1 supposed for ages to have been lost1 but discovered at the close of the last century in ,abyssinia1 now first translated from an ,ethiopian ,,ms4 in the ,bodleian ,library1 by ,richard ,laurence1 ,,ll4,d41 ,archbishop of ,cashel2 #c;d edition1 #hvo4 ,oxford1 #ahch71--which is1 and ,i think justly1 believed to be the authority quoted by ,jude1 we find a full confirmation of our view of the independence of the ,devil or ,satan1 and the fallen angels4 ,the foundation of the work is the story-told in the sixth chapter of ,genesis4 ,in that work1 the angels which kept not their first estate are described as those who preferred intercourse with human females to a celestial celibacy1 for in those days there were sons of ,god and daughters of men4 ,nay1 in one verse 7chap1 liii4 #f7 it is distinctly declared that one cause why the wrath of ,god came upon them was that they became ministers of ,satan1 and seduced those who dwell upon the earth4 ,in many places a reference is made to the close imprisonment of the angels who had been polluted with women2 one such will suffice1 7chap1 xxi4 #f71 where1 on seeing a terrific place1 ,enoch is told by ,uriel this is the prison of the angels1 and here are they kept for ever4 ,it is not even ,satan who tempts the angels1 for chapter lxviii4 tells us that it was ,yekun and ,kesabel1 two of themselves1 who gave evil counsel1 and induced their fellows to corrupt their bodies by generating mankind4 ,it is clear that such a writer does not conceive the possible existence of angelic women4 ,the nearest approach to evidence of identification is the statement made in the same chapter 7w4 #f1 #g71 that ,gradrel was the name of one of the leaders of the fallen1 and that he seduced ,eve4 ,but this testimony is wholly worthless in the face of the fact that he1 like all his company1 are kept chained up1 which ,satan certainly is not4 ,from the foregoing facts and considerations1 we can come to no other conclusion than that there is no truth in the angelic mythology current amongst ourselves--for which ,milton and his ,paradise ,lost are mainly responsible4 ,we may1 indeed1 affirm that a belief in angelic mythology is wholly incompatible with an enlightened religion4 ,if we regard the ,almighty as omnipresent and omniscient1 we cannot imagine that ,he can require messengers1 or organize an intelligence department in ,heaven4 ,a man who is present with his family requires no servant to tell him what each is doing1 or to deliver his orders to one or other4 ,so1 if ,god be always with us1 it is downright blasphemy to say that ,he requires a go-between to let ,him know what we are doing1 or what ,he wishes us to do4 ,in our next chapter we shall enter upon the consideration of a subject closely allied to that of ,angels--namely1 that of ,ghosts1 ,apparitions1 ,disembodied ,spirits1 or by whatever name they are called4 ,these mainly differ from the beings of whom we have treated in the fact that1 whereas an angel is a messenger--one sent to do certain duties--a ghost is a being who comes upon the scene1 which he or she has quitted1 to do or to persuade somebody else to perform something that has been omitted to be done during the life-time of the deceased4 ,in nine-tenths of the stories which we read of revenans1 the returned one is not sent as a messenger1 nor does he come for any definite purpose4 ,a man or woman barbarously murdered is painted as haunting the scene where the violence was committed1 as flies flit over a carcase4 ,misers come to brood over their hoards1 not to use them4 ,in no case which ,i can remember do the tales represent the ghosts as being sent from either of the two powers--,god and ,satan2 and to fancy that a deceased man or woman is a free agent after death is1 to say the least of it1 a proof that the believers in the doctrine do not believe the biblical text--,as the tree falleth so it must lie4 ,the ideas of ,angels and of ,ghosts have their origin in what may be called a superstitious education2 and credence in the latter is an almost necessary pendant to a belief in the former4 ,indeed1 if we put ourselves into the position of ,manoah's wife1 ,zacharias 7,luke i71 and ,mary1 we feel sure that we should not have known whether the being who appeared was an angel or a ghost4 ,note4--,the reader interested in the subject of this chapter1 will find additional information thereupon in ,records of the ,past 7,bag-ster1 ,london1 #ahgc-gd2 vol4 i4 #aca-ace1 and vol4 iii4#aci-aed74 ,the volumes are inexpensive1 and extremely valuable to the student of ,assyrian1 ,babylonian1 and ,egyptian mythology4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,the inexorable logic of facts4 ,saul and the witch of ,endor4 ,influence of ,elisha's bones4 ,the widow's son4 ,ideas about ghosts--about their power4 ,papal belief in ghosts4 ,ritual for exorcisms4 ,st4 ,dunstan and ,st4 ,anthony4 ,the ,bible and ghosts4 ,scriptural ghosts4 ,ghosts independent of ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,japanese story4 ,buddhist priests1 like ,papalists1 exorcise ghosts professionally4 ,ancient ,grecian ghosts4 ,stories from ,homer1 ,herodotus1 ,iamblichus4 ,modern ,french ghosts4 ,latin ghosts4 ,ghosts and lunacy4 ,ghosts and spiritualism4 ,mistakes of clairvoyantes4 ,it is not until we systematically inquire into certain tenets of our own belief1 and compare or contrast them with those of other people far removed from us1 that we are able to form an opinion about how much we owe to what we call our peculiar religion1 and how much we hold in common with other distant members of the human family4 ,it is probable that there is scarcely a ,bible ,christian in ,great ,britain who is not impressed with the truth of the statement made in #b ,tim4 i4 #aj--viz41 that ,christ abolished death1 and brought life and immortality to light by the ,gospel4 ,but the inexorable logic of facts proves to us that the idea of a life after death existed even amongst some ancient ,jews--a people to whom it was certainly not revealed by ,god--and amongst nations who have not to this day become acquainted with ,jesus1 or what we call the ,gospel1 and who are mainly influenced by the doctrines of ,buddha4 ,to give examples3 no one can read the very fabulous story of the ,witch of ,endor and ,saul without recognizing the fact1 that both the one and the other are represented by the historian to have believed1 that1 though the body of the prophet ,samuel had been rotting for a long period in its tomb1 the spirit of the man was yet existent4 ,nor does a ,bible ,christian see anything peculiar in the miracle of the restoration of the dead man mentioned in #b ,kings xiii4 #ba1 who1 when he touched the mouldy bones of ,elisha1 which represented all that was left1 on earth1 of that distinguished wonder-worker1 at once revived1 and stood upon his feet4 ,but the story forces us to believe that the ,hebrew writer1 who had no revelation from ,jehovah about a future life1 was1 from some cause or other1 obliged to allow that the prophet had some sort of existence after his decease4 ,a similar remark may be made respecting the story of the widow's son1 given in #a ,kings xvii4 #ag-bc1 in which it is clear that both the mother of the child and the prophet believed it to be dead1 although the latter acted as if there was yet its living spirit existing somewhere1 and capable of being recalled4 ,no simple figure of speech will explain away the doctrine referred to1 for there is reference distinctly made to the idea of a life independent of that of the body4 ,it may well be supposed1 that the very extraordinary tales spoken of were introduced into the ancient books by modern ,pharisees1 as proofs of their faith being superior to that of the ,sadducees--it is1 indeed1 probable that they were so2 but into this point we will not enter4 ,we pass by1 in like manner1 the real signification of the ,english word ghost1 and make no reference to the idea of there being a ,holy1 in contradistinction to a profane1 vulgar1 and unholy1 ghost ,we may also omit anything more than a bare allusion to the fact that the third member of the ,trinity1 as it is called1 appeared in forms recognizable by the eye2 and that when it assumed an overshadowing condition 7,luke i4 #ce71 it acted as a male human body would have done1 and impregnated ,mary1 as ,jupiter did ,leda4 ,it is rather my desire to call attention to the ideas actually existing1 probably in all ,christendom1 and certainly in ,great ,britain1 respecting ghosts4 ,they may be thus described4 ,it is believed by many that certain individuals have1 during their lifetime1 a power of determining that some immaterial part of their living body shall1 after death1 assume the figure and proportions possessed by the person during life1 as well as his clothes1 c41 and act as if this second self had a real existence1 recognizable by men1 animals1 and even candles199 and a definite worldly purpose4 ,in other cases it is assumed1 that the defunct has not had any particular desire to return to life until after his death has taken place2 but that his spirit1 having as much power to think without its brains as with them1 makes itself apparent with a distinct object1 formed1 not in the living body1 but in the corpse4 ,the purposes generally attributed to ghosts are1 to give information about murder or money1 to compel religious rites over their dead body1 or to punish a relentless oppressor with daily horror4 ,still further1 some suppose that ghosts are doomed for a certain time to walk the earth1 and suffer during the day in fires perpetual1 till1 in some unknown way1 the sins of their bodies have been purged away1 or until some one1 living1 has made an atonement for sins committed and unpardoned during the lifetime of the revenant 7,shakespeare in ,hamlet74 ,the so-called disembodied spirits are supposed to be able to operate upon matter1 to throw our atmosphere into waves1 producing vision and hearing1 and to move from one spot to another4 ,they have1 still farther1 the power of making and emitting light1 and are so partial to using the faculty1 that they prefer appearing by night1 and in darkness4 99 ,and the lights in the chamber burnt blue4 --,alonzo the ,brave4--,lewis4 ,of the real existence of such ghostly beings no devout ,romanist can fail to convince himself2 for his ,church1 which claims to be infallible1 has provided special services for combating them1 and a ,papal priest has1 many a time1 claimed1 and attempted to exercise1 the power to drive what the ,french call revenans1 from the earth into the ,red ,sea4 ,the saintly annals of the ,church of ,rome are filled with stories of angels1 gods1 and devils1 who have appeared to holy men of old1 either to applaud their conduct1 or to try their faith ,the legends about ,saint ,dunstan and ,saint ,anthony are too well known to require repetition here1 and it would be idle to refer to some particularly good ghost story1 when everybody knows so many4 ,the general credit obtained by the tales referred to has been attributed by many to the teaching of the ,bible4 ,the apparition of ,samuel to ,saul2 the intercourse between the angel ,raphael and ,tobit2 the manifestation of some celestial beings to ,zacharias 7,luke i4 #aa72 to ,mary 7v4 #bh72 to certain shepherds 7,luke ii4 #i72 the statement that some men have entertained angels unawares 7,heb4 xiii4 #b72 the transfiguration scene1 described in ,matt1 xvii4 and ,mark ix41 in which ,moses and ,elias are said to have returned from heaven to earth1 with the design of comforting ,jesus2 and the story of ,peter and the angel1 told in ,acts xii4 #f-ae--;all indicate a firm belief in the existence of ghosts1 and form the ,christian's warrant for believing in them4 ,but an extended knowledge of the belief entertained by people other than the followers of ,jesus shows that the idea in question is wholly independent of both ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,a credence in ghosts is profound in ,japan1 and it resembles1 in every respect1 that which has been so long current in ,europe4 ,if any one1 for example1 will read a story in ,a ,b4 ,mitford's ,tales of ,old ,japan 7,macmillan2 ,london1 #ahga71 entitled1 ,the ,ghost of ,sakura1 a village1 he will scarcely be able to divest himself of the idea that the legend is of ,british origin4 ,without going into the reasons which have convinced me that the writer has fairly given a purely ,japanese tale1 and one wholly untainted by ,popish legends1 ,i may shortly indicate the main points in the narrative1 which purports to be a true one4 ,a certain lord behaved very badly to his tenants1 increasing the imposts upon them until life became a burden4 ,by ordinary petitions he was unmoved1 and it was necessary to have recourse to unusual means4 ,the adoption of a promising plan was1 in the mind of its proposer1 a positive passport to a cruel death1 by crucifixion4 ,in a touching leave-taking of his wife1 he ends his speech with the words--,i give my life to allay the misery of the people of this estate 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ab74 ,his proceedings save the poor peasants1 for whom he sacrifices himself1 from utter ruin--every grievance which they have is redressed2 but their saviour is condemned to be crucified1 in which punishment his wife is included1 and his sons are to be beheaded before his face4 ,unable to save the man1 his nearest male friends become priests1 and end their days praying and making offerings on behalf of their friends' souls1 and those of the wife and offspring 7p4 #be71 and they collect money enough to erect six bronze memorial ,buddhas4 ,thus1 the tale goes on to say1 did these men1 for the sake of ,sogoro and his family1 give themselves up to works of devotion2 and the other villagers also brought food to soothe the spirits of the dead1 and prayed for their entry into ,paradise2 and1 as litanies were repeated without intermission1 there can be no doubt that ,sogoro attained salvation4 ,the next sentence is a ,buddhist text1 viz43-- ,in ,paradise1 where the blessings of ,god are distributed without favour1 the soul learns its faults by the measure of the rewards given4 ,the lusts of the flesh are abandoned1 and the soul1 purified1 attains to the glory of ,buddha4 ,i scarcely need mention1 to those interested in ,buddhism1 that this conception of ,paradise is very different to that which many persons uphold to be nothingness4 ,the ,japanese ,nirvana is evidently not annihilation4 ,when ,sogoro was to die1 the friendly priests entreated the authorities that they might have his body1 so as to be able to bury it decently2 but the request was only granted after the corpse had been exposed three days and three nights4 ,at the time appointed1 ,sogoro and his wife are tied to two crosses1 and their children brought out for decapitation4 ,the utterance of the eldest son 7aet4 #ac7 is very touching--,oh my father and mother1 ,i am going before you to ,paradise1 that happy country1 to wait for you4 ,my little brothers and ,i will be on the banks of the river ,sandzu199 and stretch out our hands1 and help you across4 ,farewell1 all you who have come to see us die2 and now1 please cut off my head at once4 ,with this he stretched out his neck1 murmuring a last prayer 7p4 #bh74 99 ,the ,buddhist ,styx1 which separates ,paradise from ,hell1 across which the dead are ferried by an old woman1 for whom a small piece of money is buried with them4 ,i may add that such a custom obtains amongst the lower orders in ,ireland to this day4 ,at length it is the parents turn to die1 and thus speaks the wife--,remember1 my husband1 that from the first you had made up your mind to this fate4 ,what though our bodies be disgracefully exposed on these crosses8 7compare ,gal4 iii4 #ac74 ,we have the promises of the ,gods before us2 therefore1 mourn not4 ,let us fix our minds upon death2 we are drawing near to ,paradise1 and shall soon be with the saints4 ,be calm1 my husband4 ,let us cheerfully lay down our lives for the good of many4 ,man lives but for one generation1 his name for many4 ,a good name is more to be prized than life4 ,well said wife2 what though we are punished for the many8 our petition was successful1 and there is nothing left to wish for44444 ,for myself1 ,i care not2 but that my wife and children should be punished also is too much4444 ,let my lord fence himself in with iron walls1 yet shall my spirit burst through them1 and crush his bones1 as a return for this deed4 ,as he said this1 he looked like the demon ,razetsu 7p4 #cj74 ,the execution is completed by thrusting a spear into the side until it comes out at the opposite shoulder1 and as it is withdrawn1 the blood streams out like a fountain4 ,ere ,sogoro dies1 he again threatens his lord to revenge himself upon him in a manner never to be forgotten1 and adds--,as a sign1 when ,i am dead1 my head shall turn and face towards the castle4 ,when you see this1 doubt not that my words shall come true 7p4 #ca74 ,as ,sogoro laid down his life for a noble cause1 he was canonized1 and became a tutelar deity of his lord's family4 ,after the execution1 those subordinates of the lord of the land were dismissed from their office1 who1 by their culpable and vile conduct1 had made such a catastrophe necessary--a retribution that reminds the reader of that which is said to have fallen on the ,jews1 because of a death by crucifixion which they brought about4 ,the ,japanese historian then goes on 7p4 #cd7--;,in the history of the world1 from the dark ages down to the present time1 there are few instances of one man laying down his life for the many1 as ,sogoro did2 noble and peasant praise him alike4 ,four years after this the ghosts of ,sogoro and of his wife and family begin to torment their late cruel lord4 ,his lady is gradually frightened to death2 the crucified couple appear to her and to her husband in a far more fearful form than ,jesus is said to have appeared to ,constantine4 ,they threaten both with the pains of ,hell1 and declare that they have come to take them there2 and with them come other ghosts1 who hoot1 yell1 laugh1 and come and go at pleasure4 ,no one1 not even priests1 could quiet the frightful sounds1 or get rid of the horrible sights4 ,violence was wholly unavailing2 mystic rites1 incantations1 and prayers were alike useless4 ,the visions appeared at first by day1 but subsequently by night4 ,they were visible to everybody4 ,but1 after a long consultation1 the once brutal1 but now humbled1 nobleman agrees to erect a shrine to the crucified man1 and to pay him divine honours4 ,this was done3 ,sogoro became a saint1 under the name of ,sogo ,daimiyo1 and the ghosts appeared no more4 ,but terrible misfortunes fall upon the ,lord ,kotsuke1 and he began to feel that the death of his wife1 and his own present misfortunes1 were a just retribution for the death of ,sogoro and his wife and children1 and he was as one awakened from a dream4 ,then1 night and morning1 in his repentance1 he offered up prayers to the sainted spirit of the dead farmer1 acknowledged and bewailed his crime1 vowing that1 if his own family were spared from ruin1 and re-established1 intercession should be made at the court of the ,mikado on behalf of the spirit of ,sogoro1 so that1 being worshipped with even greater honours than before1 his name should be handed down to all generations 7p4 #dc74 ,in a foot note we learn that the ,mikado of ,japan could1 like the ,pope of ,rome1 confer posthumous divine honours upon whom he pleased4 ,the tale tells us that1 by the means just before alluded to1 the spirit of ,sogoro was appeased1 and then positively became his quondam enemy's patron saint1 and was universally respected in all that part of the country4 ,his shrine was made beautiful as a gem1 and night and day the devout worshipped at it ,mitford adds 7p4 #dg7--,the belief in ghosts appears to be as universal as that of the immortality of the soul upon which it depends4 ,both in ,china and ,japan the departed spirit is invested with the power of revisiting the earth1 and1 in a visible form1 tormenting its enemies1 and haunting those places where the perishable part of it mourned and suffered4 ,haunted houses are slow to find tenants1 for ghosts almost always come with revengeful intent2 indeed1 the owners of such houses will almost pay men to live in them1 such is the dread which they inspire1 and the anxiety to blot out the stigma4 ,the parallel between an episode in ,palestine1 and that herein described as having occurred in ,japan1 will be completed if the reader remembers the passage in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 wherein ,paul1 after speaking of the fall of the ,jews1 subsequent to the death of ,jesus--who gave his life for others--remarks1 if the casting away of them be the reconciling of the world1 what shall the receiving of them be but life from the dead 7,rom4 xi4 #ae74 ,in addition to the ghost story above described1 many others are detailed by ,mr ,mitford that are exact counterparts of some of those most firmly believed by orthodox ,christians1 and most commonly met with in novelettes and magazines4 ,we give a digest of them-- ,a paterfamilias is thrown into prison for gambling4 ,after being confined some time1 he returns home one night pale and thin1 and1 after receiving congratulations1 he tells the friends assembled that he is permitted to leave the prison that evening by the jailers1 for that he is to be returned to them the next day publicly4 ,when the time arrives1 they are summoned to remove his corpse--he had died the night before1 and it was his ghost which had appeared4 ,compare ,acts v4 #ai1 and xii4 #g-ad4 ,the next runs thus--,a cruel policeman had a housemaid1 who broke one of ten plates which he valued--she confessed the accident to the mistress4 ,when the master came to hear of the loss1 he tied the girl to a cupboard1 and cut off one of her fingers daily4 ,she managed to escape1 and drowned herself in the garden well4 ,every night afterwards there was a noise from the well1 counting up to nine1 and then came a burst of grief4 ,all the retainers left the place2 the magistrate could not perform his duties1 and was dismissed4 ,the ghost was ultimately laid by a priest4 ,after recounting this story1 ,mitford remarks--,the laying of disturbed spirits appears to form one of the regular functions of the ,buddhist priests2 at least1 we find them playing a conspicuous part in every ghost story 7p4 #ej74 ,the next tale is one of a haunted house4 ,no paying tenant will live there1 but a poor fencing master takes it for nothing4 ,he first hears a terrific noise in the garden pond1 and1 on looking1 sees a dark cloud enshrining a bald head4 ,he inquires1 and discovers that a former tenant1 ten years ago1 murdered a money-lender1 and threw his head into the water4 ,the actual tenant now drains the pond1 finds the skull1 takes it for burial to a temple1 causing prayers to be offered up for the repose of the murdered man's soul4 ,thus the ghost was laid1 and appeared no more4 ,this tale serves as an additional means of recognizing the descent of ,papism from ,buddhism4 ,returning once again to ,europe1 we find that the ancient ,greeks had not only an idea of the resurrection of the dead1 and life after death1 but that departed spirits could be summoned to appear by the living4 ,for example1 at the opening of the eleventh book of the ,odyssey1 ,ulysses recounts how-he offered a certain sacrifice1 and tells us that1 after it1 the souls of the perished dead came forth from ,erebus--betrothed girls and youths--much enduring old men1 and tender virgins having a newly grieved mind--and many ,mars-renowned men1 wounded with brass-tipped spears1 possessing gore-smeared arms1 who in great numbers were wandering about the trench1 on different sides1 with a divine clamour1 and pale fear seized upon me4444 ,at first the soul of my companion1 ,elpenor1 came1 for he was not yet buried4444 ,the shade addressed the hero1 and1 after telling the manner of his own death1 entreats to have his corpse burned1 and a tomb to be placed over it ,after this shade1 appears ,ulysses' mother1 then ,theban ,tiresias1 having a golden sceptre 7,bohn's translation1 pp4 #adg1 #h74 ,the rest of the book is made up of a number of dialogues between the traveller and the illustrious dead4 ,the following1 from ,herodotus 7vi4 #fh1 #fi71 might have been introduced into chapter viii1 for it is not only an example of a ghost1 but of supernatural generation--but it is most appropriate here4 ,demaratus1 having been twitted by certain persons that he was not the son of his putative father1 who was known to be impotent1 and that he was begotten by a mean man--a feeder of asses--adjures his mother1 by a most solemn oath1 to tell the truth4 ,she replies--,when ,ariston had taken me to his own house1 on the third night from the first a spectre1 resembling ,ariston1 came to me1 and having lain with me1 put on me a crown that it had1 it departed1 and afterwards ,ariston came2 but when he saw me with the crown1 he asked who it was that gave it me4 ,i said1 he did2 but he would not admit it4444 ,ariston1 seeing that ,i affirmed with an oath1 discovered that the event was superhuman2 and1 in the first place1 the crown proved to have come from the shrine444 situate near the palace gates1 which they call ,astrabacus's2 and1 in the next place1 the seers pronounced that it was the hero himself4 ,we need not dwell upon the miracle1 being only desirous to show that1 in the time of ,herodotus1 ideas of the return of departed spirits to earth were common--had it not been so1 the story would not have been conceived4 ,see also ,herod iv4 #ad1 #ae2 ,a,esch ,theb4 #gaj2 cf4 ,porson on ,eur4 ,or4 #dja2 ,a,esch ,ag4 #dae4 ,perhaps the most striking example of a phantom is given in ,herodotus viii4 #hd1 where a spectre1 in a woman's form1 appeared1 and cheered the ,greeks on shipboard to a battle1 saying1 so that all the warriors heard her--,dastards1 how long will you back water8 ,in more recent times1 ,iamblicus 7on the ,mysteries1 section ii1 chap1 iv471 speaking of different celestial and ordinarily invisible powers1 observes--,in the motions of the heroic phasmata 7or apparitions--phantoms or ghosts7 a certain magnificence presents itself to the view4 ,in the phasmata of the ,archons the first energies appear to be most excellent and authoritative1 and the phasmata of souls are seen to be the more moveable1 yet are more imbecile1 than those of heroes4444 ,the magnitude of the epiphanies 7or manifestations7 in the gods1 indeed1 is so great1 as sometimes to conceal all heaven4#a' ,then the author describes how this brilliancy is less in each inferior order of spirits1 and is smallest in those souls below the grade of heroes 7,taylor's translation1 pp4 #hi1 #ij74 ,in sect iii41 chap1 iii41 the same writer remarks--,the soul has a twofold life1 one being in conjunction with the body1 the other being separated from all body4 ,again1 in chap4 xxxi4--,still worse is the explanation of sacred operations1 which assigns1 as the cause of divination1 a certain genus of daemons1 which is naturally fraudulent1 omniform1 and various1 and which assumes the appearance of gods and daemons1 and the souls of the deceased 7,taylor's ed41 p4 #aii74 ,le ,dictionnaire ,infernal1 which ,i have previously described1 gives two very modern-like histories from the ,greeks1 under the names ,philinnion and ,polycritus2 but1 as ,i cannot verify them by reference1 ,i shall say no more of them4 ,when we come to speak about the ,romans1 the first history which occurs to my mind is the well-known statement1 that the ghost of ,caesar appeared to ,brutus before the battle in which the latter met with his death4 ,the narrator of the story dwells somewhat upon the coolness with which the living hero encounters the shade of the dead1 as if it were strange for people1 when they saw ghosts1 not to be terrified4 ,i think that we may believe in the ,etruscans having an idea of invisible spirits becoming occasionally apparent1 inasmuch as in a sepulchral painting1 in the tomb of the ,tarquinii1 the shade of ,patroclus is represented as standing over ,achilles as he kills the ,trojan captives in sacrifice4 ,in later times1 ,otho declared that ,galba's ghost had appeared to him1 and had tumbled him out of bed 7,suetonius' ,lives of the ,caesars1 ,otho1 vii74 ,we may take our next illustration from ,cicero upon the nature of the gods4 ,in book #b1 ch4 ii41--,who now1 he makes ,lucilius say1 believes in ,hippocentaurs and ,chimeras8 or what old woman is now to be found so weak and ignorant as to stand in fear of those infernal monsters which once so terrified mankind8 ,for time destroys the fictions of error and opinion1 whilst it confirms the determinations of nature and truth4 ,and therefore it is that1 both amongst us and amongst other nations1 sacred institutions and the divine worship of the gods have been strengthened and improved from time to time2 and this is not to be imputed to chance alone1 but to the frequent appearance of the gods themselves4 ,in the war with the ,latins444 ,castor and ,pollux were seen fighting with our army on horseback444 and as ,p4 ,vatienus444 was coming in the night to ,rome444 two young men on white horses appeared to him1 and told him that king ,perses was that day taken prisoner4 ,he told the news and was imprisoned as a liar2 but further information confirmed the ghost's story1 and he was liberated and rewarded4444 ,the voices of the ,fauns have been often heard1 and deities have appeared in forms so visible that they have compelled everyone1 who is not senseless or hardened in impiety1 to confess the presence of the gods 7,bohn's translation1 p4 #df74 ,in page #ahf of the same edition1 two remarkable instances are given wherein supernatural voices told of approaching trouble1 and how it was to be avoided4 ,no notice was taken of the warning1 and the misfortunes which had been foretold occurred4 ,the second miracle very closely resembled the modern voice of the ,virgin at ,lourdes4 ,whilst ,i was writing the preceding remarks1 my attention was called by a friend to the following remarks in ,the ,examiner1 which seem to me so appropriate to this chapter and the preceding one1 that ,i gladly quote them3--,if there is anything more striking than the thoughtless credulity with which men accept statements agreeing with their preconceptions1 it is the stubborn incredulity with which they receive statements at variance with those preconceptions4 ,the devotees of each religion1 and even of each sect into which a religion is so commonly split up1 accept and even adore the absurdities of their own belief1 while they scan1 with a sceptical severity that cannot be surpassed1 the not greater follies of other systems of belief4 ,in no respect is this fact more glaring than in the case of miracles4 ,each ,church has its own special miracles1 devoutly believed in1 but repels with contempt or horror the alleged miracles of other religions4 ,happy that it is so4 ,were superstition not in its essence and nature a dividing folly1 could it but muster in one herd all its votaries1 common sense and truth would have a hard battle for existence4 ,at this point of my subject1 ,i feel the natural inclination of a physician to enter upon those changes in the nervous centres which induce individuals to hear1 feel1 and see1 noises1 sensations1 and spectra1 which have no real existence4 ,but with the majority of experienced medical men1 the matter is so well known that it would be idle for me to dwell upon it1 further than to say1 that it is a matter of fact that many an individual who hears and sees words and beings which are illusions1 acts upon them as if they were real4 ,many an assault upon some quiet citizen1 many an instance of wilful mischief1 and even of murder1 is due to a communication made1 apparently by a supernatural visitor1 to a person who has fully believed it4 ,to a man in his perfect senses the delusive character of a spectre1 or a message given in an audible voice may be readily recognized2 but when an individual has a diseased brain1 all delusions seem real1 and it is a part of the affection that they are not only recognized1 but acted on4 ,the question has often suggested itself to my own mind1 ,how much has insanity of mind had to do with religion8 ,in modern times1 the psychologist can readily see how far ,swedenborg1 ,johanna ,southcote1 and many others1 were influenced by a diseased condition of the brain2 he can also see indications of lunacy in ,ezekiel and the author of ,daniel4 ,but he is unable to prosecute the subject far without discovering that mental weakness is often bolstered up by fraud4 ,nothing is more easy than for an intelligent physician to understand the physical causes of such visions as certain religionists have talked of4 ,but when a spurious miracle1 like that of the apparition of a talking1 immaculately-conceived ,virgin at ,lourdes1 is traded on1 the occurrence leaves the region of folly1 and enters that of fraud4 ,into that it is injudicious to enter here4 ,i may1 however1 advert to the current belief that certain individuals in the same family have1 for many succeeding generations1 their death foretold by some wraith or phantom appearing to them4 ,this story is probably founded upon the fact that hereditary brain disease exists in the constitution of all such persons1 and that its occurrence in each victim is marked by an ocular1 and1 perhaps1 some aural delusion4 ,the apparition may seem real to the diseased nervous system1 though it has no absolute existence4 ,we are then constrained to believe that the idea of ghosts has not arisen1 in the first place1 from any peculiar form of religious belief1 but from the fact that in all inhabitants of the world there has existed that form of insanity which consists in the victim believing that he hears and sees individuals1 inaudible and unseen by others4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary that there shall be insanity with the hallucinations referred to2 for ,i am personally acquainted with many individuals who have both seen and heard1 as they imagine1 persons and voices1 but of whose sanity ,i have no doubt4 ,such delusions often come from overstudy1 or too great mental emotion2 and the medical worker in his closet and the ,roman general in his tent may equally see a spirit4 ,but it must be understood that to all classes the hallucination has the effect of reality1 until1 by the exercise of an active will1 inquiry proves that both sounds and sights thus noticed are illusions4 ,if1 therefore1 persons who have visions1 c41 have not intellects which are cultivated1 the spectres will pass for realities1 and1 as such1 will be described4 ,if we endeavour to apply this observation to certain cases1 we shall see how far the deductions are vraisemblable4 ,of all the causes which produce atrocious crimes1 insanity of mind is the most common4 ,but this cause is rarely recognized at the time1 even in a country like our own4 ,murder1 rape1 arson1 and a host of other atrocities are often the first evidence of a diseased brain4 ,the doctor is assured of this long before an ignorant public1 and he traces without surprise the course of a malady which is not seen by the vulgar1 until its culmination in some better known form of lunacy4 ,these mental sufferers are exactly those to whom visions are most common1 and who are most unable to test the reality of their hallucinations4 ,if1 then1 they are integers of a people to whom insanity is unknown1 it is natural that their narratives will be listened to with awe4 ,the ,japanese tyrant1 whose case we have given1 was probably brutal from impending brain disease1 and the visions which appeared to him were caused by an increase of his malady4 ,shakespeare has evidently taken this view of the question1 for1 in ,macbeth1 he makes that hero 7act ii41 scene #a71 soliloquise with a dagger which he sees1 but cannot clutch--,art thou not1 fatal vision1 sensible to feeling1 as to sight1 or art thou but a dagger of the mind2 a false creation1 proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain8 ,conscious of the illusion1 ,macbeth recognizes the probable cause2 but1 at a later period1 when the diseased brain is worse than it was before1 the unfortunate man is quite unable to reason1 and we find him in act iii41 scene #d1 affrighted by the ghost of ,banquo--whose appearance he believes to be real1 even although his wife recalls to his mind the dagger scene1 and reasons upon his weakness4 ,i do not think that we shall be far wrong if we assume that many nations1 who were not far advanced in mental speculation1 obtained their first ideas of the resurrection of the body from the hallucinations of approaching or actual insanity4 ,christian divines unquestionably endeavour to demonstrate the truth of the dogma referred to1 by the frequent appearance of ,jesus to his disciples after his crucifixion4 ,but the manifestation of ,jesus differed wholly from that of ,moses and ,elias who once came to talk to him4 ,he takes particular pains to demonstrate to ,thomas that he has flesh and blood and a hole in his side1 as well as in his hands and feet4 ,this indicates that ,jesus did not die upon the cross1 but that he fainted and came back to life4 ,to insist for a moment upon the lessons taught by the narrative in the gospels1 let us inquire what is the value of the argument which proves the resurrection of the body1 either by the appearance to some one of a departed friend or enemy1 or the visits of ,jesus to his disciples4 ,if it is demonstrated thus that the body is eternal and will rise again1 it is equally certain that its garments1 whether cloth1 linen1 or calico1 will be resuscitated also6 ,the subject1 however1 is not yet exhausted1 for we have now to remark1 that no one has ever been known to see a spectre which does not represent some one whom he has seen1 or whose picture he has noticed2 nor does he ever hear a voice in a tongue unknown to himself4 ,consequently1 when we find individuals recognizing some one whose portrait they have seen1 but who talks in the mother tongue of the visionary1 we are forced to conclude that the matter is unreal4 ,if a ,french girl--or several of them1 see the ,virgin ,mary1 and hear her talk ,french1 it is evident to every thinking mind1 either that there is mental disorder or priestly craft4 ,in like manner1 when individuals1 calling themselves mediums1 declare their power to call before them the ghosts of ,homer and ,hero1 ,leander and ,alexander1 and assert that they can distinguish ,plato from ,socrates1 and ,seneca from ,xenophon1 and can converse with all in pure ,english1 it is clear that such people are not insane1 and that their pretended skill has no existence4 ,that which goes by the names of clairvoyance and spiritualism is based solely upon an unreasoning credulity4 ,in speaking of a belief in spiritualism as being analogous to implicit credence in ghosts--and both as being founded upon imperfection in judgment1 it is right that ,i should give some reasons for what ,i say4 ,more than thirty years have elapsed since ,i attended my first seance with a clairvoyant4 ,she had then been in ,liverpool some time1 and not only came to us from ,america with a wonderful renown1 but soon attached to her triumphal car some of the most conspicuous of our local savans4 ,having read much upon the subject of ,mesmerism--the ,od or ,odyllic force1 animal magnetism1 c41 ,i was desirous of gaining some personal experience1 and gladly accepted an invitation to see the lady referred to1 at the house of a near relative4 ,there were many present1 and before the meeting formally began1 ,i obtained permission to take notes in writing of what passed4 ,the first undertaking was that we should be told what two of our number were doing in a dark room below stairs4 ,i was one of the two1 and we stood with one hand upon the other's shoulder1 and the loose hands were held out horizontally4 ,one leg of each was resting on the tabla ,the lady reported us as sitting together on a sofa4 ,her husband explained away the failure by saying that there was a mirror in the room6 ,as there was a looking-glass in every apartment in the house1 my friend and ,i took our position on the stairs2 and on this occasion we lay down at full length heads downwards4 ,the clairvoyant said that we were arm in arm talking4 ,after this second failure1 ,i was asked to take the lady's hand in mine1 and think deeply of some place which she would then describe to me4 ,i must here pause to notice the condition referred to4 ,my mind was to be absorbed in what ,i required to be described--if ,i allowed my thoughts to wander1 ,i was told that the woman would be confused1 and her performance a failure4 ,this involved the idea that ,i was not to criticise1 as the affair proceeded1 but to make one thing square with another1 if ,i could4 ,my part was carefully pointed out1 but nothing came of it4 ,i then gave a possible clue1 which was followed up1 and with some surprise ,i found the woman describe what ,i was really thinking about4 ,but the repetition of a phrase struck upon my ear--it was this1 ,i see a lot of things going back and for'rads1 and ,i found that ,i had interpreted this as men1 women1 schoolboys1 horses1 palisades1 trees1 cloisters1 houses1 and coaches6 ,after my retirement an elderly man grasped the hand1 and ,i with pencil took down the words the woman used1 with the intention of asking certain outsiders next day if the terms conveyed to them any distinct idea4 ,i found the favourite sentence referred to came so often1 that ,i merely left for the words a space with t4 b4 f41 to show where the phrase occurred4 ,there were far more spaces in my manuscript than words4 ,but the old gentleman was satisfied1 and so was his son who was present4 ,it had been agreed between them that the clairvoyant was to describe their house--both were satisfied that she had2 but one was thinking of the town and the other of the country house6 ,during the talk1 the woman1 every time she uttered a sentence1 said1 ,am ,i right8 and when told that she was wrong1 she adroitly changed her statement4 ,every experiment that night was a failure1 and to some of us who were sceptics our host remarked--,how is it that when you expect the most1 everything goes wrong8 ,to this my reply was--,when doubters are present you scan evidence closer than when you are all believers together4 ,when once ,i was known as a pyrrhonist1 ,i was invited to see everybody who was regarded by others as extraordinarily perfect in clairvoyance2 and was astonished to find out how ignorant the believers were of the laws of evidence4 ,after a time clairvoyance was replaced by spiritualism1 and ,i was again challenged to test the virtue of mediums4 ,as my avocations wholly prevented my personal attendance1 ,i challenged certain of the faithful to describe my library1 saying that ,i should not be content with being told that there were windows and a door1 a fireplace and a chair1 a table and an inkstand1 c41 but that ,i had something very peculiar in it1 the like of which ,i had never seen before--if this were described1 ,i should fancy that the spirits knew something4 ,but ,i added1 so long as spirits only did things which conjurors1 prestidigitateurs1 et hoc genus omne1 did1 ,i should decline to believe that spirits were corporeal1 and that ,grecian statesmen1 ,latin orators1 and ,sanscrit theologians were familiar with the ,english language4 ,it must be emphatically stated that a man must not attribute everything1 of which he knows little1 to a power of which he knows less4 ,no one can tell why an ordinary tree grows upwards1 whilst a few peculiar ones grow1 after a certain period of their life1 downwards2 and if any one were to declare that the first were influenced by the spirit of an unicorn1 and the second by the spirit of a cow's tail1 he would be regarded as a fool4 ,not much wiser would he be1 who1 when he heard a knock of some kind or other1 asserted or believed that it came from the angel of night--the well-known ,nox4 ,the untutored savage1 when first he sees a watch1 cannot tell how it goes--if he says that he is ignorant1 we may respect him2 but if he declares that a spirit moves it1 we despise his credulity4 ,the polite circles of civilized cities who attribute the absurd capers of tambourines1 concertinas1 tables1 and the like to the vivacity of the ghosts of defunct philosophers1 and who think that it requires the shade of ,venus to tell us1 that feminine women are more graceful than masculine hoydens1 are not much superior to the natural savage4 ,these remarks may be supplemented by the experiences imparted to me by several personal friends2 for1 as it seems to me1 each one has his own way in looking at things1 and has1 so to speak1 an idiosyncrasy in belief and scepticism4 ,one man1 for example1 inquires ,how is it that if ,i propound to a spiritualist1 to an artist with 'planchette1' or any other person who professes clairvoyance--a question1 through a friend who does not know the answer1 ,i never get a correct reply2 but if ,i propound the same question the response is always right8 ,in this case it is clear that the inquirer answers himself--not wittingly1 it is true2 but1 by means of a slight hesitation under certain circumstances1 he gives to the adroit professor the needful clue4 ,how far this is true has been repeatedly proved by those who have made the spirits say anything--,where is my sister8 such an one asks1 and by the alphabet and raps he hears that she is in ,munich2 but as the inquirer never had a sister1 the spirits have clearly been duped4 ,one of my friends1 ordinarily a thorough sceptic1 was converted to the belief that one of his hands was positively and the other negatively magnetic1 and he showed me how he turned1 by their means1 a book suspended between us upon a door key finely tied within the leaves4 ,but when ,i showed him that this was done by a movement of the body1 and could not be done if both hands employed were fixed upon anything--he was convinced that what seemed due to one thing depended1 in reality1 upon another4 ,yet that man was an acute and able chemical analyst4 ,how the late ,dr ,faraday convinced table turners that they did1 unconsciously1 that which they wished1 but determined not to do1 will long be remembered as a marvel of philosophical induction4 ,we all have not the faculty of analyzing evidence1 and it would be well if those who are deficient in that power would be less bigoted than they are4 ,we can scarcely expect it1 however1 for ignorance and arrogance usually walk together2 and no man is more convinced of his knowledge than the one who takes it at second hand1 and believes what he is told4 ,the faithful swallow squid1 and become a mass of blubber2 the sceptics feed on solid flesh1 and are thin as tigers4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,reconstructive4 ,faith and reason4 ,result of previous investigations4 ,value of morality4 ,morality and ,romanism4 ,vice encouraged by priests--end in view4 ,submission to priests more valuable than virtue4 ,vice better than scepticism4 ,theological false witness4 ,compulsory faith4 ,supply without demand--in theology4 ,correctness of doctrine proved by the sword4 ,church and state in modern times4 ,nerve required to change a belief4 ,moral courage4 ,what is faith8 ,absurd definition given by ,paul4 ,faith must be uncompromising4 ,why faith signifies blind confidence4 ,faith and folly go hand in hand4 ,faith makes fools4 ,jesuits and faith4 ,popery and faith4 ,faith persecutes reason4 ,all religious teachers uphold faith--the reason why4 ,quiet after activity4 ,the one who partly abjures faith resembles a mariner at sea4 ,faith and reason incompatible4 ,the author's personal belief3 ,negative--positive4 ,opinions on various received dogmas4 ,laws of ,nature4 ,providence4 ,the ,book of ,god in the universe4 ,sin--the ideas connected with children and whelps4 ,human and animal instincts4 ,religious laws against ,god's4 ,pious murder4 ,when crimes are praiseworthy4 ,human laws and ecclesiastical4 ,effect on common law of priestly legislation4 ,ecclesiastical laws generally bad ones4 ,the ,church makes sins2 so does society4 ,a case supposed4 ,society contravenes the laws of ,nature4 ,the proper basis of legislation4 ,personal impressions4 ,duty the guide of conduct4 ,conclusions4 ,importance of them4 ,reason gives peace of mind4 ,fears of the orthodox4 ,reason may regenerate the world2 ,faith does not4 ,another way of treating the subject ,mr ,gladstone upon education4 ,opposes dread of results to desire of learning4 ,gladstone and ,strauss4 ,various oracles4 ,oxford graduates rarely philosophic4 ,lord ,bacon's aphorisms4 ,science obstructed by human weaknesses4 ,progress of science barred by ecclesiastics4 ,religion and despotism4 ,the man who scouts induction is a bigot4 ,revelation requires exposition4 ,three sets of expounders--all differ4 ,which must the faithful follow8 ,popish miracles claim credence from the faithful4 ,he who argues must be logical4 ,can a bigot be a liberal8 ,if learning is valuable1 it must have free scope4 ,choice proposed--faith or reason8 ,men of mark who shun religious inquiry4 ,faraday and ,gladstone4 ,influence of faith1 or reason1 on the clergy4 ,examples4 ,an objection noticed4 ,reason useless in matters of faith--its absurdity demonstrated4 ,it is now time to enter upon what has1 throughout the composition of the preceding essays1 been constantly present to my mind1 viz41 reconstruction4 ,in the two larger volumes1 and in this small one1 it has been my aim to clear away the foul rags which have1 for many thousand years1 been heaped upon the lovely figure of truth--to endeavour to remove the meretricious1 or rubbishy1 constructions that designing men have builded round the magnificent structure of ,god's universe4 ,i have1 in my own opinion1 demonstrated that the ,jews have no real claim to be regarded as ,jehovah's chosen people1 and that their writings present no marks of having been inspired or revealed--that1 on the contrary1 there are proofs to show that a large portion of their ,scriptures are worthless fabrications1 contrived by imperfectly educated men1 for a political purpose1 or to foster vanity4 ,in our examination into the character of the ,hebrew ,god1 and of those individuals said to be his special friends and messengers1 as given in the ,bible1 we found evidence to show that the historians were a semi-civilized1 sensual1 and malignant race1 whose ignorance was only surpassed by their arrogance4 ,it has been further shown1 that every portion of the ,jewish ,scriptures which modern ,christians have adopted into their own religion1 came to the so-called chosen people from those whom they1 and many amongst ourselves1 designate heathen4 ,we have1 still further1 shown the almost absolute identity between the current ,christian faith and that originated by ,sakya ,muni1 which still reigns in ,thibet1 ,tartary1 ,china1 ,ceylon1 ,japan1 and elsewhere4 ,we have demonstrated that a high grade of civilization1 and a form of government more paternal and provident than any which the old world knew1 existed in ,peru1 without the smallest evidence of ,christianity or ,mosaism having ever existed there4 ,we have1 in addition1 shown that the miraculous conception of the ,virgin ,mary is not1 by any means1 as great a marvel as it is generally supposed to be1 such an occurrence being as common to-day as it was from the beginning1 and as it probably ever will be4 ,by a similar inquiry we could readily have proved that the ascension of ,jesus was not at all unique1 inasmuch as great men of old were in the habit of rising after their decease1 and making their dwelling in the heaven above--e4g41 ,romulus4 ,we have1 still further1 demonstrated that the modern belief in an angelic host has nothing in it peculiar to ,bible ,christians and modern ,jews1 and that our notion of a resurrection of the body is not exclusively a portion of the ,christian's creed1 but that it was held1 in one form or another1 more or less distinct1 by the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and the distant ,japanese4 ,in fine1 we have done much to sweep away the major part of the religious doctrines and dogmas which are prevalent in the ,christian world44 ,our writing hitherto has been essentially iconoclastic4 ,but1 amongst all the idols which we have attempted to throw down1 we have not1 in any instance1 threatened morality4 ,we take no credit for forbearance1 but we point to the fact1 inasmuch as whenever opposite religionists contend about their tenets1 they never lay violent hands upon morality4 ,they may abuse the practice of their opponents1 and hold up the imaginary vices of their enemy to execration1 but real goodness in the work of life is ever respected499 99 ,i am1 however1 somewhat in doubt whether the ,roman ,church deserves the eulogy here given to other bodies4 ,in my reading of history1 especially in what are called the ,dark ,ages of ,christianity1 the ,papal authorities winked at crimes against morality1 so long as the sinners paid due deference to ecclesiastical authority1 and bled freely1 by pouring lands1 treasures1 and wealth of all kinds into the priestly treasury4 ,the history of the ,popes is written almost everywhere in blood4 ,murder1 assassination1 and spoliation were common weapons in their hands1 and rape and robbery were condoned easily to those who were powerful and active slaves of the ,church4 ,as soon as the ,popes of ,rome were free from persecution and danger1 they1 in their turn1 used the arts of the tyrants of old1 and sought for political supremacy by pandering to all the passions of kings and great men--if1 by that means1 they could make them friendly4 ,up to within a very short period there has not been a ,christian despot1 or a ,pope1 who has not punished political crimes more severely than offences against morality4 ,yet1 with all the fearful practices adopted by ,romanists1 they have ever had in their months exhortations to propriety and personal purity--their words have been peaceful1 whilst war of the most malignant type has been in their hearts4 ,what they have practised1 however1 they have accused their adversaries of having preached4 ,it may also be objected that some small sects in modern days have really preached the doctrines of free love1 and license in sensuality2 but of these it would be unprofitable to discourse4 ,the people who join in promulgating such doctrines are below contempt4 ,when controversialists find that they have one subject upon which they can all of them cordially unite1 the philosopher would expect that they would study to develope it1 and1 for that purpose1 place it in the foreground4 ,but this is far from their practice4 ,the ministers of every denomination1 on the contrary1 place morality far behind doctrine--those of the ,protestant sect1 for example1 declare good works to be essentially valueless without faith1 and our pulpits teem with discourses which demonstrate the enormous superiority of a blind belief1 in doctrine and dogma1 over an intelligent morality1 irrespective of creed4 ,in this propensity our preachers do not stand alone1 for1 in every instance where history has led us to inquire into this point1 we find that submission to priestly rule has been regarded as more praiseworthy than virtue4 ,when ,israel slew the ,midianites there was no apparent difference between the morals of the two people4 ,both were equally bad or good2 but such as they were1 their deeds were sanctioned by different gods2 and whilst the ,jews were right1 their opponents were wrong4 ,when the ,crusaders attacked the ,saracens1 there can be little1 if any1 doubt that the worth of the latter far exceeded that of the former2 but as their faith differed1 the practice was of no consequence in the eyes of the invaders1 and he who died in fighting for his country was execrated by the robbers1 who desired to steal it4 ,if1 from a comparatively distant past1 we approach nearer to our own times1 there is abundance of testimony to prove that the excellence of the ,french ,protestants was superior to that of the ,papal priests and their followers in the time of ,louis ,,xiv42 but this was of no avail--the good were persecuted by the bad1 because they were good only in deeds and not in doctrine--the last being upheld by the bigots who persecuted them4 ,we may all see precisely the same phenomenon in our own day4 ,those who are called ,unitarians1 and the vast majority of those who are designated atheists are1 in proportion to their numbers1 far more moral than those who are generically described as ,christians2 but their integrity in every relation of life does not prevent their being abused and persecuted1 by parsons in the establishment1 by every means available in a free country1 and amongst the weapons used1 the most common are slander and false witness4 ,on inquiry into its origin1 we find at the root of this aversion to recognize probity as the most important item of religion1 the undoubted fact that the upright1 thoughtful man requires no other person to help him as a priest or a mediator between him and the ,creator4 ,to possess a doctrine there must be some one to teach it1 and the demand begets a supply4 ,but though the last aphorism is true in commerce1 it is not by any means universally so1 for many an inventor of goods has to force a supply1 ere any demand for his article can arise4 ,it is certainly so in ,ethics4 ,the ,jews made no request to ,moses for a new religion when he offered to lead them2 they soon became weary of him1 and wanted to go back to ,egypt4 ,jesus constrained his first followers to accept a salvation of which they did not feel the need1 and ,mahomet compelled1 at the sword's point1 his victims to accept that which they detested4 ,in these instances there was no want to be met1 except on the part of individuals who desired to obtain personal influence4 ,in religion the laws of supply and demand have only exceptional sway1 for each individual priest or minister may1 according as he pleases1 elect to provide for known desires1 or to inaugurate a new set of requirements4 ,but whether he does one or the other he is clearly an opponent to1 and frequently disliked by1 any one who refuses all manner of traffic in spiritual affairs4 ,he is then practically in the same condition as the ,english government was in when the ,chinamen refused to take the opium which they had been receiving for many years before2 and1 like it1 he must endeavour to enforce his wishes by war4 ,but the parson does not fight with cannon and gunpowder1 for he assumes the power to wield weapons of far greater importance--viz41 the power to torture after death all his adversaries4 ,believe me1 run his words1 and you shall be saved from hell fire2 reject my message1 and you shall be burned in everlasting flames6 ,when belligerent kings go to battle1 they do not go alone and fight single-handed for their cause2 on the contrary1 they enlist upon their side every man whom they can influence or compel2 nor do they care1 so long as the troops obey orders1 what their private thoughts are2 probably few ,chinese who fought the ,british were not opium consumers1 and few ,english cared for the drug at all4 ,in like manner1 when priests differ among themselves1 they do not meet in wordy tournaments1 but they enlist on their respective sides everybody whom similarity in superstition1 interest1 or any other motive induces to join their standard4 ,when an issue is joined1 the result is governed by force of arms1 arts1 or numbers1 as the case maybe4 ,thus1 in the last resort1 the correctness of a doctrine is1 as we have frequently remarked in previous pages1 proved by thews and sinews--not by brains4 ,so long as the ,pagans were numerically superior to ,christians1 the latter were heretics and victims2 but when the disciples of ,jesus were actually the strongest1 they became suddenly the orthodox1 and the poor ,pagans the damned4 ,in later times ,protestantism asserted its faith by the prowess of ,cromwell's ironsides in ,england and ,ireland2 in like manner the ,covenanters of ,scotland proved1 by the might of their swords1 ,presbyterianism to be superior to ,episcopal government4 ,by dint of ,saxon might1 ,ireland was long politically at one with ,great ,britain2 now by her numbers she is allied to the ,vatican4 ,the well-read politician will see that a contest similar to those thus indicated is going on almost all over ,europe4 ,in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 in ,france1 ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,italy--even in the once bigoted ,spain1 priestly parties are striving for supremacy over the party of rational order and philosophical government4 ,the question at issue is by no means doubtful--it is one which has been agitated for thousands of years1 but that has never assumed large proportions in consequence of general ignorance and consequent apathy4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 innumerable champions on the one side have risen1 fought1 and died1 overpowered by the numbers-ranged against them2 but1 as persecution is said to be the seed of orthodoxy1 so these men and their writings have1 by dissemination through the press1 and the effect of increased education in the languages of ,europe1 gradually raised so large a party1 as to be able to contend with some chances of success4 ,it will be seen that the question to which ,i refer is this--,shall men and states be governed by faith8 in other words1 by the hierarchy of the most numerous section of the community--or by reason--i4e41 by the good sense of the majority8 ,in ,austria and in ,italy this issue has clearly been tried1 and in both instances the priesthood has been obliged to accept a secondary position4 ,in ,prussia the same momentous point is being tried with every chance of the sacerdotal party being worsted4 ,in the ,british kingdom religion has long been regarded as subordinate to state policy2 nevertheless there is yet a strong party who desires to reduce her inhabitants to clerical bondage4 ,if all the individuals composing this section of the community were united1 they would prevail by their numbers2 but1 as the aggressive army is composed of troops who bear an almost deadly hate against each other1 small danger is to be anticipated from them4 ,the ,ritualist and ,roman ,catholic might unite together2 but these would not stand shoulder to shoulder with the ,wesleyan1 ,baptist1 and ,low ,churchman4 ,although all equally detest those who say parsons are not wanted1 sects will not ally themselves1 lest1 if every one were to be compelled to select a form of faith1 the compulsory decree might augment the numbers following some adversary4 ,we have thus placed before our readers what we believe is the first article which has to be considered in ,reconstruction4 ,we have to ask ourselves whether we should enlist ourselves under the banner of faith1 and endeavour to add one form of religion to those already existing2 or1 whether we should join the banner of reason1 and repudiate all doctrines1 dogmas1 credences1 and the like1 which are offensive to common sense4 ,we may fairly parody the words of the mythical ,elisha1 and say to ourselves--,choose ye this day whom ye will serve2 if faith suits your indolence1 then hug your chains2 if you prefer reason1 gird up the loins of your mind1 and metaphorically kill the priests of ,rite4 ,ere1 however1 we can reasonably expect those who have hitherto been inconsiderate to make their selection of standard bearers1 it is desirable to say something of the two4 ,in limine we must observe that we do not believe that the choice will be determined by the head alone1 for there are many whose arms are1 so to speak1 paralyzed by a constitutional peculiarity4 ,a hero in his study has often proved a poltroon in the field of battle4 ,i may point the moral by quoting from memory a story in ,addison's ,spectator--,a ,b is a hen-pecked husband2 he knows it1 and bewails his thraldom2 he consults ,c ,d1 who sympathises with his case1 increases his detestation for the home tyranny1 and tells him how to break the chains4 ,a ,b1 full of resolution1 tries the plan recommended1 but breaks down at once4 ,the moral is1 that those who are born to serve1 or are too weak-minded to assert their independence1 had better submit to be ruled--even if the tyrant be a woman1 than try to gain peace by conflict4 ,into this story ,i fully enter1 for ,i know1 from experience1 how much nerve is required for any one to change his or her relative position4 ,the moral courage of which ,i speak1 is one that dominates over constitutional shyness and fear2 it differs from the boldness of a soldier1 and the dash of the beast of prey2 it is not a simple mental assent2 but it is a motive which1 after being once placed1 becomes a mainspring of life4 ,to adopt ,faith as a guide1 is to go through life easily--so long as thought can be sent to sleep4 ,to adopt ,reason1 is to prevent thought ever slumbering1 and to live the happier the more steadily that the mind is watchful ,in few words1 ,faith is a quack doctor1 ,reason a physician4 ,the first will always have the most admirers4 ,without further preface1 let us inquire what ,faith really is8 ,this is a question with which ,i have been familiar since my childhood1 and the answer offered to me for adoption was--,it is the substance of things hoped for1 the evidence of things not seen 7,heb4 xi4 #a74 ,this reply has never suggested any distinct idea to me1 and ,i am confident that the author of ,hebrews had not a definite meaning in his own mind when he wrote the words4 ,the context shows that the word --,greek-- is used to signify distinct states of mind1 and one example1 which is given frequently1 indicates a different signification from another that precedes or follows4 ,for example1 in v4 #e we are told that ,enoch was translated by faith2 but the only evidence for this is1 that he pleased ,god2 whereas1 in verse #aa1 we are told that ,sarah1 who laughed at the idea of having offspring1 and disbelieved the promise which said that she should have a son1 conceived through faith4 ,still further1 the false history of the chapter disgusted me--e4g41 we read in w4 #bd1 #be1 #bg1 that ,moses by faith elected to bear affliction with the people of ,god1 and from the same cause forsook ,egypt1 not fearing the wrath of the king1 c4--both of which statements are untrue1 for he ran away both from the afflictions of the ,hebrews and the wrath of the monarch1 and required pressing before he would leave his retreat in ,midian4 ,i regard the chapter thus referred to as one of the great stumbling blocks of ,christianity4 ,its logic is contemptible2 yet it must pass for truth1 because ,paul is thought to have written it4 ,being now thrown back upon our own resources for a definition of faith1 we affirm that it signifies uncompromising belief in what one is told4 ,every religious book which occupies itself with this subject illustrates the word in question by affirming that it resembles the motive which actuates a child who1 at a father's bidding2 leaps from a height upon the promise that papa will catch him in his arms4 ,though1 as a rule1 ,i am disinclined to use adjectives1 ,i have added the word in italics1 because it is a material part of the definition1 and involves more than at first sight appears4 ,peter tried to walk upon the water--he doubted1 and began to sink4 ,he has been imitated by others2 they have all failed4 ,doctor1 a man may say1 can ,i swallow this without being choked8 ,yes1 if you think you can4 ,he tries to swallow the morsel1 and is choked4 ,the result in every case is attributed to a want of faith4 ,in other words1 hesitation cannot effect what confidence can4 ,consequently we are justified in asserting that faith and doubt are absolutely incompatible4 ,faith implies an absolute and perfect confidence4 ,this faith may be compulsory--as when a shipmaster is obliged by local law to give up the management of his ship to a pilot2 or it may be spontaneous1 as when a patient trusts himself to a surgeon4 ,for a man only to give a half confidence1 is to cripple to that extent the capacity of the one who is responsible4 ,religious faith1 then1 involves the necessity of an absolute and blind confidence in the priestly pilot selected as a conductor through life to eternity2 it precludes inquiry1 discourages thought upon the most important matter which every man has to consider1 and makes of a rational being an intellectual slave4 ,in few words1 it reduces its votary to the position of a tool1 and renders him1 so far as religion is concerned1 mentally blind4 ,we recognize the accuracy of our deductions when we find that the aim of the ,roman church has been to reduce men to the condition here described1 and then to use them as carpenters do planes1 chisels1 and axes4 ,it is probable that there never existed in the world an order of men who have so completely reduced themselves1 and voluntarily too1 it must be borne in mind1 to the position of a machine1 as the ,jesuits have done4 ,they are an instrument in the hands of their superiors1 and they blindly obey4 ,whether the order exists for good or harm1 it is not my purpose to discuss4 ,next in order to the society of ,jesus comes the gigantic society known as the ,papacy1 or ,roman ,catholicism4 ,i place this as second to ,jesuitry1 because1 for a long period1 there was a certain freedom of opinion allowed to the superior clergy4 ,but now1 when it has become a tenet of the church of ,rome1 that its head is absolutely infallible in all matters of dogma and doctrine1 it is probable that the demand of faith from the laity may equal1 if not exceed1 that made upon professed ,jesuits4 ,in religion1 the only place in which uncompromising faith finds its home1 is the ,papal4 ,that demands unlimited belief in everything ecclesiastically promulgated1 hatred of everything dogmatically condemned1 and acquiescence in every sacerdotal command4 ,amongst that sect1 doubting is an offence1 and opposition is a crime4 ,we have seen this illustrated in the person of the learned ,bishop ,doellinger1 who has been excommunicated simply because he refused to accept the new fangled notions of an almost effete old pope4 ,he cannot see anything in a modern council to supersede apostolic traditions2 he doubts2 therefore the ,papalists do everything in their power to damn him4 ,in like manner1 although prior in time to the declaration of the ,pope's infallibility1 we have seen the present king of ,italy excommunicated2 because he1 as the head of his own dominions1 ordered a decree to be carried into effect which1 whilst it was good for the people generally1 was regarded as hostile to the church4 ,the observer need not1 however1 go far from home in search of illustrations1 for every year sees one or another ,protestant minister leaving the ,anglican for the ,roman communion1 on the sole ground that in the latter there is no room for doctrinal doubts and contests4 ,to the laity1 the very repose of the religious mind is held out as a bait by ,papal missionaries1 and it is probably one of the most successful which the fishers of men employ4 ,i once heard a brother physician express his opinion on this point4 ,conversation had turned upon a confrere who had been in religious matters everything by turns1 and nothing long4 ,ah1 said the ,romanist1 he'll be tired of roaming some day1 and find repose at last in the bosom of the church2 his soul will then be at rest1 and will wander no more4 ,the possibility of ,protestants entertaining a doubt upon the power of the ,church to demand unlimited belief and obedience from the faithful1 is a sore thorn in the side of many dignitaries of the national creed4 ,as this propensity to inquiry is an essential part of the legacy bequeathed to ,englishmen by the reformation1 this last movement has been execrated by some of our ,high ,churchmen4 ,it is asserted1 that1 as the taking of the ,bible for the sole rule of faith has been followed by a great splitting up of the so-called ,church of ,christ1 so it is advisable to change the standard1 and to adopt that of ,ecclesiastics personally or collectively4 ,in any case1 such advocates desire to re-establish the reign of faith4 ,what the ,reign of ,faith has been in ,europe1 it would be idle to describe4 ,as soon as the mind of an individual revolts from giving implicit faith to any creed1 doctrine1 or dogma1 he must be regarded as a mariner who1 being not quite contented with his own country1 endeavours to find a better4 ,in his voyage he first leaves the shore as a fledgling does the nest--he goes a short excursion1 and returns2 after a time he becomes more brave1 and puts off more boldly4 ,at first he probably finds a number of other barques as venturous as his own1 and he becomes emboldened2 it may be his arms are strong1 his head clear1 and his boat good2 and he steers into the offing4 ,no sooner does he leave the herd1 however1 than he is chased1 and if he refuses to put back1 curses follow him2 and the friends whom once he had are condoled with4 ,such is the position of a ,protestant who departs seriously from the religion of the majority4 ,with or amongst the ,romanists to leave the shore is an act of disbelief which must be atoned for by penance or punishment4 ,it is clear that every such individual who1 like a chick1 leaves the shelter of the maternal wings1 must be more or less at sea4 ,he or she may have no idea of going very far1 yet may be compelled to sail on until he has reached the other side of ,doubting ,straits1 and has landed in the realm of ,reason4 ,we can well conceive the waters to be covered by small craft1 which keep together for company's sake1 or who boldly sail out and solicit followers--some cluster1 it may be1 round a stately galleon1 others sail with a dashing cruiser1 some come into collision or hostile contact with their neighbours1 and try to damage each others' barques4 ,but all are at sea--driven hither and thither by breezes which spring up1 no one knows how1 and drop down again as swiftly as they rose4 ,the mariners1 however1 seem to enjoy the excitement1 and refuse to return to their own land4 ,the individuals whom we here describe are the ordinary ,protestant sects 7not including the ,unitarians1 who have long reached a comparatively stable ground74 ,these1 by whatever name they are called1 refuse to give implicit faith to the ,pope2 they will1 however1 accord1 in some degree1 to some pet parson1 the management of their conscience2 they dread what is called free-thinking1 as a mariner does a lee shore4 ,they put up with every accident which arises from mingling faith with reason1 and are1 on the whole1 contented1 as long as too much pressure is not put upon them1 to steer in a definite direction4 ,of these it may be said1 ,thou art neither cold nor hot2 ,i would thou wert cold or hot4 ,so then1 because thou art lukewarm1 and neither cold nor hot1 ,i will spue thee out4 of my mouth 7,rev4 iii4 #ae1af74 ,the endeavour to make reason subservient to faith1 must ever be a failure as complete as would be the endeavour to weld iron with water1 or to heat an anchor shaft by surrounding it with cold coals and wood1 then blowing a blast of air upon the whole4 ,he who is determined to use reason1 must drop faith2 and he who clings to faith1 must drop reason4 ,the conclusions drawn by all who attempt the combination will always be lame and impotent4 ,if1 in the stead of faith1 an individual takes reason for his guide through this world to the next1 he incurs the wrath and malignancy of the many1 and the respect of the few4 ,he comes in for far harder names than ,pagans gave to ,christians1 and ,papalists gave to ,huguenots4 ,if1 unfortunately1 he should live in a country where priests rule1 he may be burned1 as ,savonarola was at ,florence1 ,latimer and ,ridley at ,oxford1 and ,servetus at ,geneva4 ,luther was said to be a devil--a so-called ,atheist is believed to be something worse4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all the obloquy thrown upon ,freethinkers by the orthodox1 they steadily have increased in numbers1 ever since the spread of education and the cheapness of books have enabled men to study in retirement ,when there was little instruction and few books1 people gained what knowledge they had from their spiritual guides4 ,this power of the pulpit enabled the hierarchy to set up and substantiate any claims which they chose4 ,but1 since the power of the printing press has risen1 the influence of the priesthood has diminished4 ,with all this tendency to so-called ,atheism1 there has been no loss of propriety2 on the contrary1 the probity of the few exceeds that of the many1 and in all there is a great improvement4 ,the present times in ,italy are far superior to those when the ,borgias and their religion were supreme4 ,when we inquire what the ,freethinkers1 or ,rationalists1 are1 it is readily seen that they have been maligned by the faithful4 ,there is little difficulty in summing up their tenets3 it is ,reverence1 without servility4 ,they draw their views from the book of creation1 and hold it infamous to fight for supremacy where facts and logic can decide4 ,this1 however1 is by far too meagre to satisfy either a friend1 an inquirer1 or an opponent2 it is1 therefore1 desirable to go into the matter more fully4 ,in doing so1 ,i make no pretence to be the mouthpiece of a party1 nor even to give a digested account of what those who have written and published before me have enunciated2 my sole aim is to give1 in as plain terms as ,i can command1 the opinions which inquiry has forced upon my mind4 ,my first confession of faith must be negative1 for1 until the ground has been cleared1 it is not advisable either to plant or construct3 #a4 ,i do not believe in the authority of any written book as being an inspired production1 or as containing a revelation from ,god to man4 ,in my estimation1 the ,bible is not in any way superior to the ,koran1 to the ,dhammapada1 the ,puranas1 the ,main-yo-,khard1 the ,avesta1 or any other collection of scriptures held sacred4 #b4 ,i do not believe the story given in ,genesis of the creation1 of the formation of human beings1 and what is ordinarily called the temptation and the fall4 #c4 ,i do not believe in the existence of what is technically designated original sin1 nor that the human race is a fallen one2 consequently1 ,i do not believe in the necessity for salvation4 ,i do not believe that death came into the world by sin4 #d ,i do not believe in the existence of sin1 in the ordinary acceptation of the word2 nor do ,i believe that man requires the intervention of any fellow mortal1 either to reconcile or embroil him with an unseen power4 #e4 ,i do not believe in the existence of a ,devil1 or of any other power in the whole universe1 than that of the ,supreme ,maker of all4 #f4 ,i do not believe in any description which has yet been given of ,hell or ,heaven4 #g4 ,i do not believe that ,god has ever directly spoken to man4 #h4 ,i do not believe that ,god has ever become incarnate1 or that he has a celestial spouse1 or a son4 #i4 ,i do not believe in the existence of truth-speaking prophets1 in the existence of angels1 or ghosts1 or in the supernatural birth of any one4 #aj4 ,i do not believe that ,god has now1 or ever has had1 a separate and chosen people1 peculiarly ,his own1 and1 consequently1 that there are none to whom the term the elect can apply4 #aa4 ,i do not believe that what is generally designated religion is necessary to the existence of law and order in a state or in a family4 #ab4 ,i do not believe that ,god requires the assistance of man1 here or elsewhere1 to enable ,him to find1 or to keep1 or to punish1 ,his subjects4 ,these negatives might be multiplied1 but ,i doubt whether profitably so1 inasmuch as the more we dilute important points1 the less readily are they recognized4 ,we may now proceed to affirmations3-- #a4 ,i do believe in the existence of a distinct ,power in creation--great beyond conception1 which pervades all space--which is everywhere present in the earth1 the sea1 the air1 and in every conceivable part of the ,universe--which made all things1 and gave to them properties1 powers1 and laws4 ,a power to which it were blasphemy to assign ears1 eyes1 hands1 or human parts1 and an evidence of a grovelling mind to suppose it capable of human passions1 such as love1 hate1 jealousy1 and merriment1 and to describe it as ignorant1 vacillating1 and grieved at its own work4 ,that ,power ,i cannot conceive as having either an origin or an end4 ,into the designs of such a power1 man cannot enter1 nor can he even seem to approach them1 except by noticing the works of creation1 and studying the laws which apparently govern it ,by the term1 laws of nature1 ,i understand the laws of the power of which ,i speak4 ,i cannot conceive how man can form an idea of a state of spiritual existence of which he can neither see1 observe1 or notice anything4 ,it is1 in my opinion1 unnecessary here to enter into the vexed question of the continued interference of this ,power with its works1 for where we have only human analogies to guide us1 it is undesirable to argue upon them in the attempt to discover the superhuman4 ,as we shall have occasion shortly to indicate our views upon a matter analogous to this1 we will postpone anything which we may have to say4 ,i believe that the ,power has never made1 nor can ever make1 a mistake2 that all its works are perfect1 and that where they seem to us to be otherwise1 it is from our ignorance of their design4 ,it seems to me that lions and lambs1 sharks and gudgeons1 that hawks and chickens1 form a portion of a grand scheme3 that the distinct classes of animals were originally perfect2 that they may deteriorate1 yet never advance beyond perfection4 ,i do not believe that a lion could become1 under any circumstances1 a bull2 a bear a camel1 or a pig an elephant4 #b4 ,the belief that the ,creator made each creature originally perfect1 and with certain well defined propensities1 involves the further confidence that the indulgence in those propensities is a necessary part of the scheme of creation2 consequently1 ,i believe that the tiger eats flesh because it is a law of his existence1 and that in doing so he commits no sin4 ,i believe1 still further1 that a close observation of nature gives us some apparent insight into the plan of creation ,for example1 ,i think the existence of gills in a fish leads us fairly to the conclusion that it was intended to live in the water2 that the existence of teeth implies that they were to be used in eating1 wings in flying1 legs in walking4 ,still further1 when we notice that vegetables can assimilate mineral matter1 which animals1 as a rule1 cannot1 ,i believe that the vegetable kingdom has its special place in the world2 and when1 moreover1 we find creatures who can eat and digest vegetables1 and have a special apparatus for the purpose1 it is fair to conclude that they too have their station assigned4 ,a corresponding remark applies to the carnivora4 ,once again1--when an extended observation shows us that the beasts and birds of prey select for their victims the young of animals which their parents are unable to protect1 the aged1 who are too infirm to fight for themselves1 or the sickly1 which are quite unfit to live3 when1 moreover1 we find these carnivorous creatures die when age or accident deprives them of the power of getting food2 nay1 when we see large numbers of all animals die from want of food1 of air1 of warmth1 or from accidents--,i believe that we are justified in deducing the idea that it is a design of the ,power1 that those which cannot live shall die2 ,i believe that death is as essential a necessity to every creature as is its birth1 and that its many forms have a definite purpose4 ,let us now1 for a moment1 turn our attention to the very commencement of life4 ,if from any cause the new being is seriously malformed or diseased1 it is a common thing for the dam to miscarry4 ,if a mother1 say a pig1 rat1 or bird1 brings forth a larger brood than she can nourish1 she commonly kills the smallest1 and allows only those to survive which she can find food for--the bird that lays more eggs than her nest will hold1 turns the overplus out2 and if1 when the fledglings grow up1 they are too bulky1 one of them will be discarded4 ,the cuckoo's chick has a special provision made for helping it to turn out the young of another bird1 and its mother has also a special instinct to lay its eggs in the nest of the hedge-sparrow4 ,the life of one involves the death of three or more4 ,again1 in the aquatic world1 one fish makes no scruple to feed on its own young ones or those of its neighbours1 and the old crocodile seeks out its offspring as a favourite luxury4 ,we find1 moreover1 that where these creatures abound there may often be found a small animal--the ichneumon--whose instinct teaches it to seek for and destroy the eggs of the saurian4 ,in like manner crows1 rats1 cuckoos1 and probably many other creatures1 have a propensity to feed upon the eggs of various birds4 ,in few words1 we recognize throughout creation an apparent design to prevent a superabundance of life4 ,this remarkable provision1 working1 as it does1 through laws which seem to be fixed and established1 prevents our belief in the interference of the ,creator4 ,when an animal has reached the period of nearly adult age1 there is in many instances a considerable amount of instruction given to it1 sometimes by the sire1 but mostly by the dam4 ,when that has been imparted1 parents and offspring seem to be like strangers to each other4 ,it is probable that1 if we could observe all animals1 we should find some system of training of the family4 ,as it is1 we can only speak of domestic fowls1 and notice the order which the hen keeps up amongst her brood of chickens2 they are taught to live peaceably4 ,her punishments are never lenient2 they are1 indeed1 necessarily severe4 ,we may next proceed to inquire into the animal instincts which exist in adult life1 at a period when every creature is supposed to be in its perfection4 ,at a certain time of the year there is a propensity for the male and female to unite4 ,there is not anything in creation which affords a more attractive study than this1 for every class of creatures has a practice peculiar to itself4 ,one might fancy that in an act so necessary and so simple there would be little cause for interest2 yet1 in reality1 the prodigality of design--a term which we hope to explain fully hereafter--is more largely shown in this process than in any other4 ,it is1 however1 a subject upon which one cannot descant before the general public4 ,so far as we are able to observe animals1 we find that at this period there is1 amongst a great number of classes1 a power amongst the males to discover the most perfect amongst the females1 and to fight for them4 ,by this means the young are certain to be the offspring of perfection of grace and beauty in the dam1 and strength and size in the sire4 ,we can readily understand that1 if the loveliest hind were to pair with the weakliest stag1 the breed would degenerate1 and probably die out4 ,but the conqueror can hold his place only so long as he has vigour2 when age has weakened him1 the youthful successor practically prevents the old buck from being a father4 ,in some exceptional cases 7apparently so at least7 the number of males exceeds that of the females1 and1 as a result of the instinct before alluded to1 the fight ends in the majority of the males being destroyed4 ,the survivor then has one spouse only1 and not a seraglio4 ,this is said to obtain amongst rats and lions4 ,as yet1 there is not a sufficient amount of observation available to enable us to affirm what is the general cause of exit from life1 when no death by violence occurs4 ,we do not know the end of old buffaloes1 elephants1 rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 whales1 and other monsters4 ,tales are told of decrepit lions being occasionally seen tottering to their fall2 and gossip says that ancient cats know when they are about to die1 and retire to some secluded nook1 where they give up the ghost quietly4 ,i cannot charge my memory with a single anecdote in which the youthful animal endeavours to sustain the old one1 by feeding it during its decrepitude4 ,throughout creation parental affection signifies solicitude for offspring4 ,we do not anywhere discover a love towards a parent after the younger creature has reached adult age4 ,in all the cases to which ,i have referred1 and1 were ,i a naturalist1 they might be greatly multiplied1 there is no pretence1 even amongst the orthodox1 that any of the creatures have committed sin against the ,almighty1 or against the community of which they form a part4 ,on the contrary1 what is done1 even though it amounts to murder1 is regarded as a necessity2 and we admire the laws of nature which bring about such results4 ,we do not stop to inquire whether any contrivance would prevent birds from laying too many eggs1 and cuckoos from dropping theirs into the nests of other birds2 we content ourselves with saying1 such is the will of ,providence4 ,it is easy to come to such a conclusion as regards what we are pleased to call the lower animals1 but as soon as we inquire whether similar laws or instincts are implanted in us1 we are generally met with a howl of repugnance4 ,but ,i believe that we shall never understand our true position in life and in nature until we deliberately investigate that which we have in common with other animals1 and wherein we are different--probably superior4 ,i use the word probably1 because1 in the estimation of higher beings than ourselves--if such there be--the horse and the elephant may be regarded as being far above us in the scale which those beings have framed for themselves4 ,i have never yet seen any deliberate attempt to work out the problem referred to4 ,every one1 or nearly so1 who if orthodox1 assumes that it is absolutely wicked to compare the beasts which perish1 to man who has a soul ,as ,i have1 in a previous volume1 shown that the evidence for the immortality of the horse is equal to that for the human race1 ,i will not stay to point out the absurdity of building an important argument upon a baseless assumption1 but simply express my belief that man has very much in common with other mammals2 but that he is in possession of something superadded1 which1 at first sight--though not in reality--takes him out of the trammels of the ordinary laws of nature that operate in the brutes4 ,no one can doubt that man has as strong a propensity to unite with woman1 as bulls and stags have with the females of their kind4 ,he has1 even in civilized societies1 a propensity to fight with one or more of his fellows for a female of surpassing beauty4 ,men will combat about a disputed field or country as fiercely as dogs over a bone1 or hermit crabs over a shell4 ,as a rule1 man detests to be taught1 quite as much as does the whelp2 yet1 when he has gained an art1 he is as proud of it as a highly trained spaniel4 ,men are gregarious as horses in a field1 and quite as intolerant as they1 of an interloper4 ,like the wild wolves1 men will unite together to capture and prey upon creatures of each of whom individually he stands in fear4 ,like a set of wild bulls or buffaloes1 men will1 for a time1 agree to obey a leader1 and1 when the object is gained1 break loose4 ,like a cat1 man will steal1 when he can1 his neighbours' goods1 like a crow1 he will pay no attention to his parents1 nor to a ,sunday4 ,without entering into farther particulars1 we may affirm that some highly trained elephants1 dogs1 and horses1 are superior to many human beings in every point upon which an impartial judge can determine4 ,it is my belief that1 for a man to obey an instinct which is implanted in his nature1 is not a sin against ,god4 ,to see this in a fair light1 let us assume1 as we have a right to do1 that it is an instinct in the nature of all known creatures1 to increase and multiply their like4 ,to avoid doing so intentionally1 is a contravention of one of the ,creator's laws4 ,if this be so1 then celibacy is a sin1 as great1 indeed1 as if one were to refrain from food of all kinds2 and no one can be considered as worthy of the name of good1 who remains unpaired without just cause4 ,in like manner1 it is not an offence against the laws of ,god for any man and woman to unite1 for it is as much a law of nature that they shall do so1 as that they must eat and drink4 ,the plea of religion cannot make that wrong1 which is by nature right4 ,in like manner1 if in a limited community--say upon an island1 the number of men exceeds that of the women1 ,i believe that a fight amongst the males for the possession of mates1 would not be sin against the ,omnipotent even though many combatants died during the contest4 ,nay1 so common upon many points is the agreement2 amongst even the most orthodox1 that none would say that a man commits a crime when he steals the store of honey laid up by bees1 kills animals for food or for their fur1 or covets and appropriates the prairies hitherto occupied by herds of deer and bison4 ,even the commandments said to be delivered by ,god ,himself are held not to be literally binding upon man1 except in relation to his friends4 ,he may1 for example1 by the laws of war1 murder his enemies1 fornicate with their wives1 steal their property1 and deceive them in every way4 ,abraham1 the so-called friend of ,god1 murdered many ,orientals1 and plundered them2 not because he had any quarrel with them1 but simply because they had murdered and plundered some of his friends4 ,david again1 a man after ,god's own heart1 with his dying breath1 gave his son instructions to put individuals to death in cold blood1 superseding the law of ,sinai1 by a heritage of hate4 ,when1 therefore1 common consent takes certain actions out of the list of crimes or sins1 provided that the deeds are done against enemies1 we have to seek for the origin of those ideas which make murder1 theft1 robbery1 rape1 and false-witness crimes in the abstract4 ,to understand this point1 we have really to start from the bestial basis1 and aver that what is not sin in them1 is not sin in savage man4 ,no one of any intelligence would say that a ,briton would be justified in shooting an ,ashantee because the latter had killed and eaten an enemy1 or an aged parent2 nor would any one of us sentence a ,hindoo to death because he had killed a dozen ,thugs4 ,even in comparatively civilized ,american backwoods1 a person who has killed a bully has been thought a public benefactor4 ,again1 when we cast our eyes upon ,australia1 and learn the brutal way in which the black native virgins are violently carried away from their relatives and married1 and how again they are repeatedly carried off as wives by other men1 we feel ourselves justified in leaving the ravishers without punishment1 for there is no violation of law1 or1 if there be1 ,englishmen have no right to interfere4 ,but what we tolerate in uncivilized lands1 even where we are ostensibly rulers1 we will not suffer in our own4 ,the reason of this is1 that we have banded ourselves into a society in which the laws1 once settled and determined by the majority1 supersede1 in certain cases1 individual action4 ,to make our meaning clear1 let us imagine that amongst some nation or people there is one man more astute and powerful than his fellows2 still further1 we assume that he has fought1 or is desirous to fight1 a neighbour of nearly equal force4 ,it is clear that if his people murder each other from any cause he will lose warriors2 consequently1 he will let his tribe understand that he will punish homicide1 on a plan which he thinks will be deterrent4 ,still further1 as he requires soldiers of strong limbs and sturdy constitution1 he declares that no woman shall many without his consent1 so that he may prevent any one selling herself1 or being sold1 to a weak or old man for mere pelf4 ,as1 in a savage state1 most possessions are those which are useful in war1 he would prohibit theft4 ,as a consequence1 he1 and all who respected his power to punish1 would regard murder1 theft1 rape1 and unauthorized wife-selling as crimes--offences1 that is to say1 against the ruler of the state1 and not against the ,creator of mankind4 ,it signifies little to my argument1 whether society is governed1 as the early ,aryans were1 by warriors1 or1 as the later ones were1 by ,brahmans4 ,in either case the leaders make laws1 and declare a violation of them to be punishable4 ,when communities are small in size1 and extend over a small area1 few rules of life are necessary2 but when a nation increases in size1 and especially when it consiste of many tribes or class which have voluntarily united together1 legislation is far more complicated1 inasmuch as the ideas of right and wrong in each section may1 from long custom1 vary from each other4 ,for example1 in most of the ,united ,states of ,america bigamy1 or the possession of two wives at a time1 is a crime2 whereas1 in ,salt ,lake city1 its rulers have twenty1 and its men a dozen1 if they like1 and yet are esteemed saints1 and really conduct themselves as if they had a clear claim to the title4 ,the greatest complication is when the laws of a community have been framed1 partly by soldiers1 partly by ecclesiastics1 and partly by mercantile men1 for each party has a different creed4 ,the first makes no scruple to fight at the command of the second1 whilst the third endeavours to prevent all war whatever4 ,the second set intrigue to have the supreme power2 the first and third often endeavour to suppress the second1 knowing its aggressiveness and lust of supremacy4 ,when a nation is under what is grandiloquently called a ,theocracy1 every offence against a command given ex cathedra is regarded as a sin2 not simply a disregard of the law1 but a defiance of the ,god who is said to have ordained it4 ,thus1 according to what is known as the ,mosaic law1 it was a crime punishable by a lingering death to gather sticks on a ,sabbath day 7,num4 xv4 #cb-cf72 but it was no crime to kill all the males and women of a whole nation1 and retain the maidens for private prostitution and for the use of the priest 7,num4 xxxi4 #ag1 #ah1 #dj1 #da74 ,in such a nation it was no crime to commit forgery--and of all the bearers of false witness1 none exceeded in ancient times the ,jewish writers in the ,bible--but in mercantile ,england1 the former has been at one time punished with death1 and the latter by ignominious penalties4 ,in modern ,theocracies1 such as once existed in ,austria1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,england1 and elsewhere1 it was considered criminal to think differently1 upon any religious point1 from the authorized standard4 ,in those kingdoms many a person was doomed to die a painful death1 and thereafter sent--as it was supposed1 to ,hell--whom we now regard as a virtuous1 brave1 and noble individual4 ,the common sense of mankind induces all citizens to buy what they have need of1 at the smallest possible price2 but a mercantile government says to its people--,you shall not buy anything from anybody who has not first paid us for the privilege of trading1 and something more for every ware which he offers for sale1 and every one contravening this order shall be seriously punished4 ,here1 again1 an artificial offence is manufactured that has no origin in nature4 ,when a people has succeeded in throwing off publicly the trammels of ,ecclesiastical legislation1 as ,england1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 and other nations have done1 they by no means shake off their private shackles4 ,the only difference between ,spain1 ,austria1 and other places1 now and formerly1 is1 that the priesthood are seeking to attain by subtlety what they could previously command by their state power4 ,at one period in the history of modern ,rome1 it was a crime not to kneel on the bare ground when certain priests passed with a bit of wafer surrounded by gorgeous trappings4 ,this is a crime no longer against the state1 but for all who believe the ,papal hierarchy it is yet a sin4 ,at one time in ,england1 it was a crime not to go to church on ,sunday2 it was equally punishable to carry on any business4 ,the laws respecting these matters have not yet been repealed1 and they have been put recently into operation1 although the good sense of the majority has made them practically obsolete4 ,yet1 though this is the case1 and the law no longer punishes ,sabbath-breaking1 the priestly body continue to launch their thunders against all who regard every day alike4 ,it is1 indeed1 doubtful if1 in the eyes of our parsons1 there is any sin so great as enjoying one's self on a ,sunday4 ,the law of our country does not make it a crime for a woman to prostitute her body1 or for a man to have a concubine of greater or less permanency1 but the hierarchs denounce the arrangement as criminal in the sight of ,god4 ,we need not multiply our illustrations farther4 ,sufficient has been advanced to show that there are two distinct classes of sins--one1 those made by ,ecclesiastics1 or by those legislators passing under the name ,society2 the other1 those which are against the laws of nature--e4g41 an enforced celibacy1 such as that to which ,romish priests are doomed4 ,in saying this1 we readily allow that what is right1 according to the laws of ,god1 as set forth in the universe1 is wrong according to the code made by the legally constituted authorities of the state in which an individual lives4 ,we grant1 moreover1 that1 if a government is strong enough1 the laws of man should be enforced by human means4 ,but we do not believe that mortals should be compelled to carry out that which priests tell them is the justice of the ,immortal1 of which they know absolutely nothing4 ,i hold that no state can fairly claim to take cognizance of1 or to punish1 thoughts1 or any private indulgence which creates no public scandal4 ,if we endeavour to reduce our views to a still clearer issue1 the difference between divine and human laws will be the more readily understood4 ,let us assume that ,miss ,kallistee is the most perfect woman in a district4 ,for her contend with their natural weapons ,messrs4 ,dunamis1 ,kratos1 ,kalos1 ,sophos1 and ,mathesis2 and the conqueror1 having killed his adversaries1 takes the lady to wife4 ,the law of man or of society now steps in and kills off the survivor2 or1 if it should know beforehand of the coming contest1 will prevent it4 ,as a consequence1 the lady must be contended for peaceably1 and may become the bride of impotent old age or wealthy disease4 ,as a result1 the healthy offspring1 which nature would have reared1 are either absent1 sickly1 diseased1 or idiotic4 ,here1 then1 ,i affirm that a law of society is a sin against ,god4 ,i would wish my readers to ponder over this matter1 which gives much food for thought4 ,i do not think that such contests as ,i have described can be tolerated in any society of civilized beings1 for1 in proportion to our emergence from barbarism1 we do not seek mere strength and beauty of form in our population4 ,we desire to cultivate the intellectual rather than the animal in man4 ,but experience has shown that1 as a rule1 the further man departs from the latter1 and the nearer he approaches to the former1 the more does his progeny deteriorate physically4 ,it is a problem whether1 by any available contrivance short of that which was adopted by the ,incas of ,peru1 man can uniformly develope upwards4 ,the physiologist can readily see how the matter might be effected1 but in republican or constitutional kingdoms1 the means will never be adopted4 ,we have now come to a point when it is necessary for me1 as an individual1 to express an opinion as to the selection which a philosopher1 living in a comparatively civilized community1 should make between a promulgation of the so-called laws of ,god--an instruction respecting the laws of nature--or an utterance of the laws of society1 with the enforcement of them4 ,ere forming a decision1 let us endeavour to ascertain what each alternative involves4 ,if a state1 acting through its executive government1 decides to make what are called the laws of ,god the basis of legislation1 it must first decide what those laws are4 ,in the endeavour to do so1 every thoughtful man will recognize the impossibility of verifying a single one4 ,the whole must1 therefore1 be promulgated on assumption2 and if so1 the legislators will be conscious that they have no valid authority4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they assume the laws of nature to be a safe guide1 they must allow proceedings which are opposed to the feelings of the majority of civilized mortals4 ,being1 then1 averse to elect either of these codes as a sole basis1 the statesman will endeavour1 as far as in him lies1 to make or adapt laws for the society in which he lives4 ,when the well-being of the community becomes the basis of its legislation1 the idea of sin vanishes from the statute book1 and the stern realities of life have to be envisaged with firmness and decision4 ,so also when religion has merged into common sense1 and facts are appealed to rather than fancies1 policy takes the place of dogma1 and the voice of a majority overcomes that of any priesthood4 ,into political economy1 however1 it is not my desire to enter1 further than may be necessary to illustrate my own opinions upon religion4 ,having emancipated myself from the thraldom of bibliolatry and priestcraft generally1 it is my aim to examine what seems to be my duty as a man and an integer of society4 ,i conceive that1 although ,i have no certain knowledge thereof1 ,i am one of the myriads of instruments by which the ,almighty works out ,his designs4 ,my appreciation may be imperfect1 but still it seems to me a duty1 always to be a good husband1 father1 friend1 and citizen--to act ever towards others as ,i should desire myself to be treated under the same circumstances--to improve such talents as ,i am conscious of possessing2 and1 in a general way1 to do as much good as ,i can during my lifetime--taking care1 if possible1 to leave after my death no mischievous agency set on foot by me4 ,in few words1 ,i believe that the only true religion consists in a constant steady performance of duty--a duty discovered and determined by the individual1 and not one prescribed by any set of men4 ,the conclusion thus arrived at1 appears at first sight1 to be meagre in the extreme1 but when it is fully examined1 it is found to involve important consequences4 ,the faithful1 for example1 or1 as they style themselves1 the orthodox1 live1 when they pay any attention to such matters1 in a state of perpetual fear of ,god and eternity2 some1 indeed we may say many1 go mad from the oppression which they feel from having committed an unpardonable sin2 some pass through life weighted by the dread of not being finally saved2 all1 with rare exceptions1 have a horror of death and of the results of the judgment4 ,feeling assured that few will be saved1 and the many will be damned1 they have a dreadful feeling of certainty that either they or some of their dearest relatives or friends will be amongst the majority4 ,some go through life sinning and repenting--in dust and ashes1 as the technical phrase runs--until they are ashamed of their own vacillation1 or go on sinning1 without any qualms of conscience1 until it is too late to mend2 and they recognize before them a fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation4 ,these fantastic terrors are far more deeply rooted in the ,protestants than in the ,papists1 who have so completely become imbued with the belief that their priests have almost unlimited power in the unseen world1 that the dying folk become easy in their minds1 by a full assurance of hope that friends1 hierarchs1 and masses will make purgatory bearable and heaven certain4 ,of fear about eternity ,i know nothing2 feeling confident that the ,god who made me--directly or indirectly it would be a waste of time to discuss--had some work for me to do here4 ,i am quite content with whatever may be assigned to me hereafter by the same ,power4 ,of a future state ,i am wholly ignorant4 ,as an integer1 ,i feel a sort of instinct that death is not absolute annihilation2 but beyond that ,i do not now seek to know1 for every source of intelligence is absent4 ,to some inconsiderate enthusiasts this may seem a cold belief1 but in reality it is anything but that1 for my days and nights are freed from that wet blanket of vague dread which makes so many mentally shiver2 and my time is passed pleasantly in the alternate labour required by duty1 and the repose necessary to recruit one's energies4 ,let us1 for a moment1 consider what would be the condition of the world1 if each individual conducted himself according to the dictates of a pure and enlightened morality1 instead of according to the direction of a body of ,ecclesiastics4 ,we may1 ,i think1 fearlessly assert that there would be no wars1 no murders1 thefts1 adulteries1 libels1 violations of female purity2 in short1 every one would do as he wished to be done by4 ,in such a people persecution would find no place1 ignorance would not be permitted1 and law would be unnecessary4 ,other desirable things would also take place1 to which it is unnecessary to refer at large4 ,when all are strictly proper in every relation of life1 ,i cannot believe that anything more would be wanting to make the human family as happy as it can be here4 ,what1 let us ask1 would the orthodox declare was amissing8 ,the reply is1 to my mind1 awful3 ,there would be1 first1 the want of hatred and malice2 then would be added the want of ,hell-to which enemies could be sent1 and of a ,heaven1 in which the faithful could feed their malignancy by watching the tortures of those whom they detested on earth4 ,in fine1 ,i beg to express my own deliberate opinion1 which has been growing stronger monthly since ,i first began to collect materials for this work1 that those who can find nerve to sweep from their minds the trammels which have been woven around them by hundreds of generations of hierarchs1 and adopt the simple faith which ,i have above indicated1 will be far happier and better than ever they were before4 ,no man will stand between them and ,god1 and they will find ,him infinitely more good and merciful than any of those who profess to be ,his agents4 ,there is yet another way by which the subject of faith and reason may be approached1 and their antagonism tested4 ,this is by considering how far the former is essentially human1 and the latter divine--by which we mean1 superior to the propensity which all mankind has in common4 ,we recognize the importance of the inquiry1 when we find ,mr ,gladstone1 a ,prime ,minister of ,england1 discouraging the action resulting from philosophical thought1 because a man named ,paul1 some #ahjj years ago1 recommended his friends to hold fast that which he1 and they1 under his teaching1 believed to be good4 ,the speech of the ,premier1 which was delivered at a large ,liverpool ,school1 and was written with unusual care1 held up1 to a lot of schoolboys1 the propositions of ,strauss as something which were so bad1 that the enunciation of them carried with it their refutation4 ,yet1 at the same time1 the speaker allowed that the ,german thinker was conspicuous for intellectual attainments1 powers of thought beyond the ordinary run of mortals1 sobriety in mental culture1 and boldness in the enunciation of the conclusions to which his reason compelled him4 ,in ,mr ,gladstone's opinion1 such a man's doctrines deserved to be withered2 not because they were opposed to reason1 to logic1 to the stern reality of facts1 but because they opposed the prejudices of certain persons educated in a different style of faith4 ,if we inquire in what way the ,german philosopher and the ,english bigot differ1 we can come to no other conclusion than that the one has used his intellect upon the dogmas which have been presented to his mind1 from his infancy upwards1 until they have been mistaken for fundamental truths1 whilst the other has exercised his mental powers upon something beyond the doctrinal grounds on which his early education has been framed4 ,the then ,english ,premier1 who had to direct the state1 allowed himself to be guided by defunct men1 precisely in the same way as ,pyrrhus1 ,croesus1 and others1 were governed by the pretended oracles at ,delphi1 ,dodona1 and elsewhere4 ,the man1 in other words1 who once wielded the might of ,england1 and is conspicuous for his classical acquirements1 is as much the slave of superstition as any ancient ,egyptian or ,grecian monarch1 only his oracles are not the same as theirs4 ,it is clear1 that when the speech1 to which reference has been made1 was composed1 ,mr ,gladstone was under the influence of the belief1 that what he had been taught1 and had adopted1 must necessarily be the only truth which can be relied on1 at least1 in its fundamental points4 ,it is this very presumption1 this lazy habit of mind1 that was long ago pointed out by ,bacon as being the most fertile cause of the retardation of science1 and it is remarkable that ,oxford1 as an ,university1 and most of its alumni1 are still victims to the weakness referred to4 ,it naturally follows in the train of what is called classical learning1 when the mind is taught to remember rather than to think2 and one easily believes that he can recognize in the late ,premier the gradual development of thought1 and can tell the epochs when cherished idols have been thrown aside1 with the energy of one who is suddenly roused to exercise a powerful mind in an independent manner4 ,it would be useless to copy all the aphorisms by which ,lord ,bacon attempted to destroy the old philosophy1 which1 in his time1 was most universally adopted1 and to build up a new state of things1 in which science should advance1 but a few of them are of such value that they deserve recording4 ,in ,novum ,organum1 aph4 #bc we read--,there is no small difference between the fancies --,greek-- of the human mind and the ideas of the divine mind--that is1 between certain notions that please us1 and the real stamp and impression made by created objects as they are found in nature4 ,that is to say1 man commonly imagines things to be what he fancies they ought to be1 and neglects what they really are4 ,the learned aphorist then points out certain peculiarities of men1 by which they are induced to cleave to the bad1 and neglect the good4 ,aph4 #df---,the human understanding1 when any proposition has once been laid down 7either from general admission and belief1 or from the pleasure which it affords71 forces everything to add to it support and confirmation4 ,but this evil insinuates itself still more craftily in philosophy and in the sciences1 in which a settled maxim vitiates and governs every other circumstance1 although the latter be much more worthy of confidence4 ,aph4 #dg--,the human understanding is most excited by that which strikes and enters the mind at once and suddenly1 and by which the imagination is immediately filled and inflated4 ,it then begins1 almost imperceptibly1 to conceive and suppose that everything is similar to the few objects which have taken possession of the mind1 whilst it is very slow and unfit for the transition to the remote and heterogeneous instances by which axioms are tried1 as by fire1 unless the office be imposed upon it by severe regulations1 and a powerful authority4 ,we may paraphrase the preceding axiom thus3--,those who1 from personal preaching1 or by parental influence1 have adopted a certain belief in the truth of that which has been taught to them as a revelation1 no matter who the individuals are1 or may have been1 who propound it1 are loth1 ever1 to inquire into the real nature of the matter4 ,hence it is that clairvoyance and spiritualism have so many staunch adherents4 ,aph4 #ef--,some dispositions evince an unbounded admiration of antiquity1 others eagerly embrace novelty1 and but few can preserve the just medium1 so as neither to bear up what the ancients have correctly laid down1 nor to despise the just innovations of the moderns4 ,this is very prejudicial to the sciences and philosophy1 and1 instead of a correct judgment1 we have but the factions of the ancients and the moderns4 ,there are other aphorisms following1 which point out the mischief of following certain theories1 simply because they have been long accepted1 and are generally supposed to be correct4 ,at the period when ,bacon wrote1 there was the same conservatism in science and philosophy as there had been in the ,roman ,church for ages1 and very few1 if any1 had ventured to suggest the necessity for a radical change4 ,in ,england the reformation of church and state preceded the reformation of philosophy2 yet1 there are many amongst us yet who regard all such changes as a mistake4 ,we constantly find individuals who hanker after a despotic rule1 by king or emperor1 who cannot endure a church in which there is no tyrannical head1 nor a science which only professes to advance1 and refuses to be stationary4 ,yet the thoughtful know how much the world would have lost1 had it yet been prostrate at the feet of ,aristotle and of barbaric ,popes2 and there is not a ,christian who does not rejoice that ,jesus prevented mankind from worshipping ,moses1 and adhering to ,hebraic notions4 ,when1 therefore1 an individual1 professing to be learned1 scouts the propositions of a careful inductive and rigidly reasoning philosopher1 simply because they violate generally believed notions2 and when1 in addition1 he appeals to the ignorance and impressionability of schoolboys rather than to the mature judgment of adults1 he proclaims himself1 in that respect1 at least1 a bigot--of a dye as deep as those fanatics who urged on their fellows to suppress the discoveries of ,galileo4 ,but the matter does not end here4 ,we recognize the necessity for a public man1 who has once proclaimed his adherence to the doctrines of ,revelation1 and has preached the necessity for faith1 and its superiority over reason--however calm and rigid1 to go further1 and to proclaim that which he regards as ,revelation1 and who are the individuals he will receive as the interpreters of that so-called communication from ,god to man4 ,it is clear that the words which have been uttered by man require a human expounder2 equally clear is it that1 if the original sayings are regarded as being inspired1 but1 nevertheless1 of doubtful meaning1 they can only be cleared up by other men1 who are1 like the original oracles--inspired4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 there are in our own times three distinct sets of individuals who lay claim to the faculty of interpretation2 and these differ so amongst themselves1 that certainly1 at least1 two1 and very probably all1 are wrong4 ,the man1 then1 who is disposed to make faith his guide must1 in so far as ,christianity is concerned1 join himself either to the ,greek or ,roman ,church1 whose pretensions to a divine presence in their midst have been of the longest2 or to the ,protestant ,church1 which endeavours to oust the other two upon the plea that they cannot be under divine teaching1 because they have become corrupt2 and then1 on the plea of having discovered the alleged faults1 it assumes to have the authority which its predecessors have forfeited4 ,thus1 as we have frequently remarked before1 man sits in judgment upon ,him whom he calls his maker4 ,the ,protestant ,churches1 however1 are the only ones who do not formally lay claim to having the divine presence amongst them in a conspicuous degree2 they do not pretend to the performance of miracles1 and they scout the idea that any modern representative of ,jesus can do any wonders like those that teacher did4 ,the ,roman ,church proves to the satisfaction of its votaries that the ,lord is still with them1 inasmuch as the presence of the ,virgin1 in a visible form1 occurs to cheer her servants that trust in her intercession1 and even pictures of her become instinct with life4 ,if1 then1 an individual is resolved to walk by faith alone in matters of religion1 he is bound to join himself to that church wherein the divine founder is habitually and visibly present2 to whose saints the saviour has appeared1 and given stigmata like those which were produced in the original by the barbarous nails and spear of the ,roman soldiers4 ,for the votaries of faith--pure and unadulterated belief in things divine--the only legitimate home is the bosom of the ,papal ,church4 ,why1 then1 do not men1 like ,mr ,gladstone1 join it8 ,simply because their faith is not a pure and confiding one4 ,it is tainted by the doubt whether the pretensions of the ,roman ,see are sustainable1 or by the certainty that ,popish miracles are contemptible shams4 ,they believe that ,francis of ,assisi made the stigmata1 which he professed to receive from his crucified ,saviour1 by burning his hands1 feet1 and side1 with some strong caustic1 or by a heated iron4 ,by these doubts1 or certainties1 individuals demonstrate that they are not in the list of the faithful2 for doubt implies unbelief1 and both are incompatible with faith pure and simple4 ,whenever1 then1 a person confesses1 by his words or actions1 that he does examine into the grounds of his belief1 he is logically bound to continue those inquiries into everything wherein there is a possibility of human error creeping4 ,when we pursue our observations further1 and inquire into the reasons why a ,papist believes certain things which a ,protestant rejects1 and vice versa1 we find that1 in the first place1 each believes what he has been taught2 he--to speak figuratively--imbibes his dogmas and belief with his mother's milk2 and when he advances in age1 is taught and imagines that he has mastered the stock arguments which are relied upon by the opposite parties4 ,there is1 therefore1 on first sight1 a reasoning power exercised by each2 but it is not so1 for the arguments themselves1 and their force1 are regarded as matters of faith--as weapons with which a warfare may be waged1 but which1 in no sense1 are to be tested by those who use them4 ,as far as the common run of religionists are concerned1 they are all in this fool's paradise2 they fancy that they are secure1 invincible1 and mighty1 because they take their own prowess and their opponents weakness as matters of faith4 ,but when one of these comes into collision with another whose reason is exercised upon facts and the deductions to be drawn from them1 the questions occur1 possibly for the first time1 ,are the grounds of my belief tenable8 am ,i justified in using my reason only in one direction8 if ,i profess to argue1 am ,i not bound to be logical8 and if what has been given to me as sound meat1 is rotten in reality1 am ,i bound to eat it8 can it do me good in any way8 ,when a thoughtful man has arrived at this point1 he has to elect between ,faith and ,reason4 ,then1 if1 like ,mr ,gladstone1 he foresees to what his inquiries will probably lead1 and is disinclined to pull down a cherished edifice1 even to erect a better1 he will naturally cling to the old belief1 saying--,with all thy faults1 ,i love thee still4 ,with his eyes wide open he hails the banner of bigotry1 no matter what may be the scutcheon which it bears4 ,then come the important questions--,what right has any religious bigot to profess himself a liberal8 and1 ,with what face can a man1 who refuses to exercise his understanding upon what he calls the most important part of life1 i4e41 the preparation for eternity1 proclaim himself a friend of education8 ,to insist upon the value of learning in forming the mind1 and then to set the example of recoiling from the knowledge which intellectual efforts bring1 is1 in a statesman1 a mean vacillation4 ,mr ,gladstone ought either to proclaim that his ideas are those of the ,jesuits1 or to pronounce in favour of education1 to whatever goal it legitimately tends4 ,to say to boys--or men--you must learn to think2 but you must only come to the same conclusions as myself1 would disgrace a statesman of a free country1 though such a proclamation would seem natural to a pope1 or any other tyrant ,i do not1 for a moment1 assert that the then ,premier of ,england did1 in a written1 and1 therefore1 a deliberate speech1 to a large and influential school of boys1 utter the words which ,i have used2 on the contrary1 he employed his rhetorical powers to express the idea1 without either clearly understanding it himself1 or giving the lads a clue to it4 ,had the meaning of the discourse been put into a few pregnant sentences1 it may be doubted whether it would ever have been uttered4 ,if ,mr ,gladstone1 like the mythical ,elijah1 had placed before his auditors1 in naked words1 the proposition--,choose ye this day whom ye will serve1 ,faith or ,reason1 his discourse would have been clear4 ,even his own mind could not have painted the two as being the same thing2 nor would a school-boy have failed to see that1 in the future1 he must elect between indefinitely expanding his intelligence1 and materially contracting his intellect to the narrow limits prescribed by the faith of his parents4 ,to my mind it is sad to witness men of great general capacity1 like the late ,dr ,faraday1 and the past ,prime ,minister of ,great ,britain1 shunning1 in every way1 an inquiry into the basis of their belief4 ,we cannot regard this as a result of simple intellectual indolence1 or ignorance4 ,the only cause to which we can attribute it1 is that weakness which1 by most people1 is called moral cowardice2 a fear1 not so much of ,mrs ,grundy--the world and its dread laugh--but the fear of some unseen1 unknown1 incomprehensible danger to themselves--of dangers that have no reality1 except in an imagination which has been moulded long before the mind was capable of thought1 but whose hold upon the individual is such1 that he shrinks from the mental effort necessary to efface its impressions4 ,there is yet another phase of faith1 which deserves a passing mention4 ,it is that which declines to see or to hear a proof or an argument1 lest it should be convinced against its will4 ,there are many men amongst us who1 in ,scripture phrase1 refuse to hear the voice of the charmer1 charm he never so wisely4 ,this obstinacy1 stupidity1 dogged-ness1 or firmness1 is quite compatible with a partially cultivated intellect1 and is in itself a measure of intellectual capacity4 ,i have heard1 for example1 a learned divine1 but one whose writings are often so bemuddled1 that the ideas which they contain are as difficult to discover as a needle in a bottle of hay1 declare that he would no more listen to an argument against the existence of the trinity1 than he would open his ears to hear evidence that his wife or mother was adulterous4 ,such strong asseverations we may sympathize with1 and even admire2 but they prove nothing beyond the impracticability of an individual mind1 or what1 in some cases1 takes its place--viz41 the injudiciousness of acknowledging a truth1 when the enunciation of a belief in it would be followed by unpleasant consequences4 ,again1 ,i know of another divine1 who has steadily refused to inquire into the value of what are called the ,christian evidences1 his reason being1 that he is conscious that inquiry would shake his confidence in the doctrines which he teaches4 ,he clings to what he feels to be a sham1 lest others should1 by his means1 regard it in its proper light4 ,another divine1 who has not feared to be an inquirer1 is incessantly persecuted by his brethren1 not because he has asserted his intellectual freedom1 but because1 by having done so1 he has1 by implication1 cast a sort of odium upon those who hug their mental darkness4 ,his argument is--,can a man who hates the light be worthy to speak of the ,sun of ,righteousness8 ,their reasoning is based upon the assertion1 that those who live in darkness1 and like it1 need not be told about a luminary4 ,if people chose to believe that the moon is made of green cheese1 it is more profitable to talk to them about its connection with the milky way1 than to say that the notion is absurd4 ,faith teaches that1 where ignorance is bliss1 'tis folly to be wise2 whilst reason only impels one to habitual thought or mental worry4 ,other divines of my acquaintance have used their reason in a twofold way3 they have ceased to hold their first faith1 yet they hold their livings1 as they have no other means of subsistence2 whilst a few have1 with their advancement in knowledge1 paid for their knowledge by embracing poverty4 ,the world treats those who walk upon the ground with a far greater injustice than it treats those who lie beneath its surface4 ,for a man who disturbs us in our fool's paradise1 more feet than hands are used2 but to him who only disturbed the father's complacency1 and taught the son in youth1 we erect memorial statues4 ,jesus was crucified when he was alive1 and deified when dead4 ,his apostles were persecuted when living2 now that they are deceased1 they are called saints4 ,savonarola was burnt alive at ,florence2 now his memory is cherished1 and his worth fully known4 ,luther was detested when he was able to thunder in men's ears2 now he is regarded as a son of light4 ,the present ,pope1 ,pio ,nono1 has found an obsequious council1 whose voices have declared him to be infallible--a god upon earth2 the time will come when that ,pope1 and that council1 will be regarded as the personification of blasphemy and folly4 ,the days of ,faith will be everlasting2 but her power to act wickedly will be curtailed more and more4 ,the reign of ,reason advances every year1 for it is allied to thought and knowledge2 and we may fairly hope that the old adage will be true--,magna est ,veritas et praevalebit4 ,it may be said that1 in the preceding parts of this essay1 ,i have wholly lost sight of1 or1 at least1 have not referred to the argument--or the statement1 made by the upholders of faith1 as a rule of life--that reason has nothing to do with things divine1 and that where ,god has made a direct revelation of ,his will to man1 no human being has a right to criticise or object to it4 ,this kind of remark is in the mouth of every preacher1 and each minister who utters it imagines that he deals a blow so very heavy that nothing can stand against it4 ,but in reality it is only a big bubble1 which collapses when it is touched4 ,how1 for example1 we may ask1 can anything be recognized as divine1 unless human judgment is passed upon it8 or1 ,how can any revelation be accepted1 unless the mind has examined the messenger and the message8 ,who would believe the ravings of a lunatic1 even though he told us that ,god had sent him with a message to man8 ,why do ,christians1 as a body1 reject the revelation made to ,mahomet1 and the frequent inspirations which give laws to the latter-day saints8 ,to these queries the reply is--,because we know that ,god does not speak to man now1 and that when the bible was closed all revelation ceased4 ,but when we inquire into the reason for this belief we can find not one4 ,every theologian must allow that the ,god who spoke once to ,moses spoke again2 that ,he supplanted one dispensation by a second1 and has promised a third4 ,thus we see1 that by their own books1 the orthodox are bound to believe that supplementary communications must be made to the human race2 consequently1 when any one asserts that he is a divine prophet1 his pretensions are examined4 ,the faithful ,christian disbelieved in ,mahomet2 the trusting ,arabs believed in his mission1 and fought for their creed4 ,they1 like orthodox divines of to-day1 refused to use their reason in things divine1 and to cavil at a revelation1 ,unable to agree1 the followers of ,jesus1 and those of ,mohammed1 fought1 the latter almost annihilating the former for a time1 thus proving the value of their faith4 ,both parties had a firm belief--the one in the prophet of ,nazareth1 the other in the prophet of ,arabia2 and no reasoning could have convinced either that his trust was misplaced2 nor1 to this day1 has reason convinced the ,mahometans that ,jesus was superior to ,mahomet1 or the ,christian that the ,arab sectarian was a prophet at all2 and it is singular that both parties call in reason in attestation of their respective creeds4 ,is1 then1 the sturdy ,english theologian to be content to leave the followers of ,islam alone1 because they have faith8 or1 must he still endeavour to convert them by the use of reason8 ,can the ,christian adopt the belief that ,mahometan and ,mormon are both orthodox because they have faith8 and that the ,jew must still be dear to ,jehovah1 inasmuch as he still clings closely by faith to the revelation given to ,moses and the prophets8 ,if this cannot be done1 how can the follower of ,jesus hope to convert others to his belief1 unless by the use of reason8 ,if1 then1 the theologian uses reason as a weapon against heterodoxy1 upon what ground can he object to its being employed by another8 ,latter-day saints have made many proselytes in ,christendom1 and a ,mahometan floored in debate the late pious ,missionary1 ,henry ,martyn1 whose propositions were met by counter ones1 and every one of whose arguments was taken up and retorted1 the names only of the persons spoken of being changed4 ,i know1 said the one1 that ,god spoke to us by ,christ ,jesus--,i know1 said the other1 that ,allah spoke to us by ,mahomet ,you are wrong1 my friend1 said one1 ,allah has not spoken to man since the last ,apostle died4 ,you are wrong1 said the other1 ,god has spoken to us long after that4 ,you may call ,mahomet an apostle1 if you like2 we call him a prophet of ,allah1 and know that he was one4 ,and so controversy goes on now where there is faith without reason4 ,it is clear1 then1 that truth cannot be established by any number of people thundering out ,i believe it1 and by their victoriously fighting for it4 ,the argument1 therefore1 which ,i may be accused of omitting1 is of no value at all2 it is sheer nonsense--a windbag1 or1 perhaps1 it may best be compared to a boomerang1 which1 when badly used1 recoils upon the person of him who threw it4 ,of such arguments theology is builded up4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,honesty4 ,a question propounded4 ,are divines honest8 ,meaning of the word4 ,learners and teachers--their relations to each other4 ,honesty expected in a professor4 ,teachers of religion are trusted--they are bound to be faithful4 ,political rights of men in respect of the clergy of the ,established ,church4 ,right to see that religion is not adulterated4 ,man's right to truth4 ,what truth is not4 ,assertions required at ordination4 ,canonical ,scriptures4 ,verbal inspiration4 ,doubts of laity4 ,two schools--those who will and those who will not inquire4 ,rev4 ,dr ,colenso4 ,rev4 ,dr ,browne4 ,precious stones and paste4 ,how should a doubt be tackled--by inquiry1 or by ignoring it8 ,an analogy4 ,compass and bible4 ,if compass wrong1 why steer by it8 ,passenger and captain--one appeals to stars1 the other to his owners and the seamen under him4 ,precision of ,colenso--his words falsified so as to be confuted3 this is not honesty4 ,is ,bishop ,browne honest in controversy8 ,tabernacle1 temple1 doors1 c4 ,the ,speaker's ,commentary not an honest book4 ,papal falsehoods2 false decretals2 false letter from ,prester ,john4 ,pious frauds4 ,influence of dishonest teaching on education4 ,the point involved in sectarian discussions4 ,lying miracles--are they promulgated honestly8 ,is it honest in religion to promulgate that which we knew to be wrong1 or which we dare not inquire into for fear of consequences8 ,do ,papal authorities believe in the annual miracle at ,naples8 ,the ,protestant ,church judged by a ruler of ,siam4 ,bigotry1 by not inquiring1 does not establish truth4 ,each man who is deceived has a propensity to deceive others4 ,the masses agree to be deceived4 ,mr ,gladstone on education4 ,his proposition that inquiry is bad if it leads to change of religious opinions4 ,anecdotes of stupidity4 ,sailing in search of truth4 ,captains who avoid the right course4 ,the condition of society when the schoolmaster overrides the ecclesiastic4 ,reason and education ought to precede faith4 ,result of honesty4 ,divines recoil from the honest truth4 ,parsons in their pulpit preach what their week-day precepts oppose4 ,honesty in ecclesiastical matters is not the best policy4 ,divines and the silversmiths of ,ephesus4 ,examples4 ,an honest parson is persecuted by his fellows3 this insures mediocrity and bigotry4 ,if an author cannot be persecuted he is avoided4 ,ecclesiastics persecute their colleagues1 but do not prove them wrong4 ,excommunication easier than refutation4 ,what an honest merchant and divine should do when they discover a diamond to be paste4 ,ought the divine to be less honest than the merchant8 ,the ,author's challenge4 ,conclusion4 ,i am now about to propound a question which ,i have heard mooted in quiet by many1 but for which publicity seems to be dreaded by all--viz41 ,is there honesty amongst ,christians1 and especially amongst the hierarchy of the ,churches of ,england and ,rome8 ,no one can doubt the importance of the subject2 there is not a thoughtful person who does not1 in words at least1 scorn to build up his everlasting belief upon a fable1 and who does not affect to be disgusted with everyone who is deliberately untruthful ,i speak not now of those time-servers who regard every artifice to be fair in love1 war1 and theology2 but only of those earnest minds who are anxious to seek out and to hold fast that which is true1 and who1 under all circumstances1 resolve to be honest with themselves4 ,that there may be no doubt as to the sense in which ,i use the word1 the following may be regarded as1 in my opinion1 the synonyms which are properly given in ,webster's ,dictionary--,integrity1 probity1 uprightness1 trustiness1 faithfulness1 honour1 justice1 equity1 fairness1 candour1 plain dealing1 veracity4 ,to this may be added--not bearing false witness4 ,presuming that ,english scholars agree in this definition1 let me now inquire whether we--by which term ,i mean the non-theological class by profession--have a right to expect honesty amongst our teachers--be they ,roman1 ,anglican1 ,hibernian1 ,scottish1 ,unitarian1 ,wesleyan1 or of any other body8 and1 in the next place1 whether we get that to which we are entitled8 ,presuming that it is necessary to begin with the foundation1 let us first inquire into our rights1 and whence they are supposed to be derived4 ,the positions of a learner and a teacher--or a disciple and a master--are1 in some cases1 different to what they are in others2 for example1 ,i need not1 unless ,i think it desirable1 learn astronomy1 chemistry1 the art of telegraphing1 or that of ship-building2 but if ,i do elect to learn any of these matters1 and engage a man to instruct me1 ,i have a legal claim upon him for his services4 ,there is1 indeed1 a contract between us--he engaging to teach me1 and ,i agreeing to pay him for his labour4 ,in my selection of a professor1 it is quite possible that ,i have not chosen the best2 nay1 seeing that ,i require to be taught1 it is nearly certain that ,i cannot assume the position of a judge as regards the superiority of one teacher over another4 ,but when the agreement is once entered into1 each of the parties is bound to perform his part of the contract to the best of his ability4 ,if1 for example1 ,i bargain with a master to teach me ,spanish1 and ,i1 being wholly ignorant thereof1 am instructed in ,portuguese1 ,i have a definite legal claim for redress4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the law1 or the custom of the country1 compels me to take a certain class of teachers1 whether they are competent or worthless1 ,i1 as one of the community1 am justified in investigating the intellectual power of the professors1 individually and collectively1 in every way in my power4 ,at one period1 when autocracy1 or tyranny1 was supreme1 this right was denied1 and the legislators made it a criminal matter for any one to call in question the nature of the instruction which was given to the people in matters of politics1 religion1 and other things1 wherein the government was concerned4 ,at the present time there are few1 if any1 states whose ruling powers demand from the people such an abject submission4 ,but1 although a republic may allow unlimited latitude of opinion in matters of political economy1 there may be a religious section within it1 which consists of those who consent to be led1 in matters of faith1 by certain individuals1 who1 on their parts1 are declared to be1 by some power that the laity are disposed to submit to1 the only persons competent to conduct persons to a happy eternity4 ,every individual in such a family is associated with the rest by voluntary ties4 ,he may1 if he chooses1 inquire into the capacity of his guide2 he is at perfect liberty to analyse his arguments1 to inquire into his allegations1 and1 speaking generally1 to test his truth4 ,if1 as a result of the investigation1 any one is satisfied that the teacher is incompetent1 the two are perfectly clear to make new engagements4 ,there has been no definite contract1 nor can there be any legal claim for a presumed breach thereof4 ,when1 on the other hand1 there is a ,state ,religion1 supported by ,parliamentary authority1 and to which1 in one way or another1 the majority of the people must subscribe1 each man has as perfect a right to see that he gets what he pays for1 as he has to see that the member of parliament for whom he votes1 does not neglect the interests of the town which he represents4 ,as an ,englishman1 ,i have no right to call in question the power of the ,pope of ,rome1 the ,patriarch of the ,greek ,church1 the ,elder of the ,mormon ,communion1 the ,arch-,pneuma of the ,spiritualists1 or any other religious head1 to teach his followers any doctrine that he may please4 ,i may laugh at the false decretals of the papacy1 and the charlatanerie of the clairvoyants2 but no political right supports me in my calling them to account for their stewardship4 ,on the other hand1 when ,i know that the bishops of the ,church of ,england are parties to the formation of our laws1 and ,i find myself called upon to pay tithes or dues to individuals of the same establishment1 ,i have a political right to ascertain1 that the persons actually do what they profess to do for their money or position4 ,if1 for example1 ,i live in a sparsely populated district1 ,i and all my family are dependent upon the parson of the parish for instruction how to get to heaven2 or1 as an alternative1 if ,i do not agree with his doctrine1 ,i may abstain from being instructed at all4 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,i inhabit a large town1 still ,i am dependent for religious teaching upon the state clergyman1 unless ,i elect to do without him1 and any one else of the same persuasion1 or select some non-conformist preacher who is to me no less offensive than the parliamentary parson4 ,when a confraternity has obtained1 no matter how1 or by what means1 a definite prescriptive right to sell a certain material to the community at large1 the latter have certainly a legal power to see that the stuff given is according to contract4 ,if a company of millers engage1 for certain privileges1 to sell good wheat flour to all comers1 the last can deprive them of their exclusive right1 provided that it can be proved either that the flour is bad1 or that it comes from barley1 rye1 oats1 or potatoes1 or is adulterated with gypsum1 c4 ,presuming that this argument is tenable1 our next inquiry is into that which our national church professes to sell1 or to impart1 in return for its privileges4 ,in the fewest possible words we may say1 that its duty is to impart truth1 or to teach what is1 in its learned and educated opinion1 the true religion for life and eternity4 ,the word truth is one which lies at the root of our question respecting honesty4 ,pilate is reported to have said--,what is truth8 ,we may put the same question now4 ,without saying what truth is1 we can readily declare what is untruth4 ,it is not truth if we1 in argument1 misrepresent an adversary2 affirm that he made a certain statement1 and then oppose--not the thing said--but some other matter which was not spoken of at all1 and then assert that we have confuted him4 ,it is not truth to affirm1 that observations recently made have been oftentimes presented before1 and always successfully refuted1 when the remarks in question are novel1 never have been controverted1 and apparently1 are not capable of being disproved4 ,it is not truth to affirm1 that human authority1 which1 has been long acknowledged1 can falsify a fact1 or make an unfounded assertion equal to a reality2 or to declare1 that one religion is good and another bad1 simply because the speaker believes the matter to be so4 ,it is not truth to assert1 that a certain book1 and every part of it1 is the revealed word of ,god1 when it is known to be contradicted by science--i4e4t by a knowledge of the laws imposed on creation by its ,maker1 to be inconsistent with itself1 and to contain internal evidence that it was composed by men of small knowledge and of grovelling disposition4 ,it is not truth to affirm1 that if ,god's world proves what is called ,god's ,book to be wrong1 science must be neglected and the ,bible upheld4 ,it is not truth to affirm that ,god spoke exclusively to one people1 when it is known that the race in question drew nearly1 if not quite1 all their religious beliefs1 from the neighbours amongst whom they were thrown4 ,it is not honest to propound in the pulpit the propriety of examining the ,scriptures daily1 and yet to persecute any one who by doing so becomes convinced of their human origin4 ,it would be honest1 and prove the existence of a love of truth1 if every preacher of every denomination spent as much time in trying the value of his text-book1 as he does now in expounding it and explaining it away4 ,we should imagine that a minister loved truth1 if he were first to ask himself how he treats the ,vedas and ,puranas1 the ,avesta1 the ,koran1 the ,apocryphal ,gospels1 the ,apocrypha1 the ,book of ,mormon1 the visions and prophecies of ,latter-day saints1 ,friends1 ,roman visionaries1 and the oracles delivered at ,delphi and elsewhere1 and then to treat his own book with the same measure as he used with the others4 ,on the other hand1 we should regard him as untruthful and dishonest1 if he weighed the books and belief of others with weights and scales different to those with which he tried his own4 ,from each minister of religion the people have a right to demand an impartial inquiry into the absolute value of the doctrines which he teaches1 and an investigation into the foundation1 as well as the superstructure2 and they may require1 still further1 that he1 like ,great-heart in ,bunyan's story1 shall do battle with assailants4 ,when such a leader professes to fight1 but always avoids the shock of battle1 he cannot be regarded either as honest1 or as comparable with ,valiant-for-truth in the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,we are then1 as laymen1 justified in requiring that our spiritual leaders shall take a conspicuous part in examining the grounds of the faith which they teach1 and that the leaders of the ,established ,church shall seek to establish its doctrine upon as firm basis as it is possible to obtain4 ,this certainly involves inquiry and discussion upon those points which modern criticism has prominently advanced4 ,when we turn to the ,prayer ,book1 we find that ,deacons are required to say1 that they unfeignedly believe all the ,canonical ,scriptures4 ,priests are obliged to affirm that the ,holy ,scriptures contain sufficiently all doctrine required of necessity for eternal salvation1 through faith in ,jesus ,christ1 c4 ,in the consecration of bishops the same1 or nearly the same1 formula is gone through4 ,thus1 at the outset of their career1 the ministers of the ,church of ,england commit themselves to1 or are required by law to make1 a declaration which will preclude inquiry into the value of the book on which their teaching is founded2 their first step in the ministry puts it out of their power to be honest1 if experience should teach them more than they knew when young4 ,the bishops and priests1 however1 when they subscribe to the opinion that the ,bible contains all things necessary for salvation1 do not pledge themselves to the belief that every sentence1 part1 division1 book1 or arrangement of the ,canonical ,scriptures is1 and must of necessity be1 true4 ,even in the dawn of ecclesiastical information in ,england1 there was not a belief in the verbal inspiration of the ,bible4 ,of late years1 when habits of thought and the art of printing have increased1 the knowledge1 and consequently1 the power of the laity disproportionally to the advance made by clerics--a strong propensity to accumulate facts1 and to argue thereupon has been very generally developed1 and the increased information obtained has induced steadily increasing numbers to doubt1 not only the verbal inspiration1 but even the historical truth of the ,scriptures4 ,when this difficulty occurred1 or rather1 when it became recognized1 scholars1 no matter whether they were professional or amateur ecclesiastics1 divided themselves involuntarily 7we may fairly say1 unknowingly1 inasmuch as each individual worked quite independently1 in the first place1 of another7 into those who believed that1 if the ,holy ,spirit dictated the ,scriptures1 he must have seen that his amanuensis wrote correctly2 those who imagined that the ,bible was to be taken in the lump2 and those who considered that the ,scriptures are entirely of human origin1 and absolutely valueless as a guide of faith4 ,consequently1 three schools have arisen1 two of which are essentially ecclesiastic4 ,of these1 one regards all inquiry into the accepted text as improper1 the other considers that everything should be done to verify the value of the so-called original ,scripture4 ,amongst the latter1 ,dr ,colenso1 ,bishop of ,natal1 stands out conspicuously4 ,of the highest intellectual attainments1 trained to close and scientific inquiry2 able1 far better than men of meaner capacity1 to weigh the value of evidence1 whether ancient or modern1 he has drawn the conclusion that the ,bible is not what it is generally supposed to be2 in other words1 that its historical portions are not trustworthy1 and that there is grave reason to believe its writings to have been produced for a purpose1 which involved dishonesty in the scribe1 and in the promulgator of his writings4 ,the learned doctor was honest in his investigation1 and fearless in announcing his conclusions4 ,as an upright man1 the ,bishop of ,natal is as completely justified in his inquiry into the validity or importance of an ancient book1 alleged to be a pearl of great price1 a gem or diamond of the first water1 as the official curator of a museum would be1 in determining whether a certain ruby1 given into his charge1 were real or artificial4 ,of the necessity of such an inquiry1 the following anecdote1 which was told me by the gentleman concerned1 will convince the reader3-- ,a wealthy lady1 of high position in life1 sent to a museum1 for exhibition1 a number of precious stones4 ,if they were really what they were supposed and stated to be1 their value would have been reckoned by thousands of pounds sterling4 ,if accepted as genuine1 and found1 upon their restoration to the depositor1 to be imitation jewels1 the curator would be liable1 not only for their value1 but his character for honesty would be gone2 consequently1 ere he gave a receipt for the lot1 he tested each4 ,not one was real6 ,this man was in the position which ,dr ,colenso occupies now4 ,the owner of the jewels was indignant at the idea that the stones were false1 and the apparent insinuation that imitations were being foisted on the public as realities2 but her fury did not alter the fact4 ,if she were artful1 her plan was detected2 if she had been deceived1 her anger1 though useless1 was justified4 ,on the other hand1 there are many ,bishops who uphold the verbal inspiration of the ,bible1 and will not inquire if the gem be real1 or only test it by plans known to be valueless for the purpose4 ,some do not go altogether so far as this1 ,they consider it obligatory upon them to examine just a little bit1 but not to go too deeply1 lest they should be forced to believe that there never was such a man as ,moses--a man who is commonly reported to have written certain books at a distant period4 ,some persons seem to think that their hope of happiness in this1 as well as in another world1 and not only their own1 but that of everybody who is under their instruction1 depends upon their feeling sure that ,israel was once in ,egypt--that ,abraham begat ,isaac1 and became the progenitor of an innumerable offspring1 exceeding in number the ,indians of ,hindostan1 the ,assyrians of ,mesopotamia1 the ,egyptians of the ,nile1 and the ,romans of ,italy4 ,between these two inquirers1 if the latter class can fairly be called such1 the issue is distinct4 ,there can be no difficulty amongst scholars as to the means by which the question ought to be settled4 ,an appeal to hard and dry facts is the plan adopted by philosophers4 ,for men1 who have a single eye to discover the truth1 it matters little in what direction their inquiries lead them4 ,metaphorically speaking1 they may begin a series of investigations1 expecting that everything will lead them northwards1 and they end by reaching the south2 just as many an enthusiastic1 but little instructed1 man has accumulated pyrites1 under the impression that it was an ore of gold1 and found1 on inquiry1 that the material was a sulphuret of iron1 and of small commercial value4 ,but it is this very possibility of research bringing them to an undesirable goal1 which deters so many of our divines from making any inquiry4 ,outwardly1 they allow that it is their duty1 as leaders1 to examine1 not only the condition of their own forces1 but the position and power of those who assail the army which they profess to guide4 ,inwardly they find reasons for remaining quiet1 and excuse themselves to their followers in some plausible fashion4 ,why1 however1 should any goal be undesirable which leads us nearer to truth8 ,why should any body of professedly learned-men run the risk of being considered wanting in honesty1 or candour1 by avoiding their opponents1 whom they are in honour bound to encounter8 ,the reply to these questions generally runs thus3--,we1 as ministers of the ,established ,church of ,england1 are bound to be faithful to the ,bible1 and to it we must adhere1 whatever our own private judgment may be4 ,we did not make the law2 we simply take it as we find it1 and1 having sworn to obey it1 we do so4 ,this answer would be exhaustive1 if it were the fact that the laity made the law for the theologians4 ,but1 as we know1 that the ecclesiastics have1 in the last resort always made laws for themselves1 the rejoinder is not conclusive ,history tells us how ministers of religion have instructed the people1 and how these1 again1 have legislated under the tuition of their advisers4 ,when ,paganism was supplanted by ,christianity1 the change was effected by preachers1 who taught the populace to believe the new doctrine1 and who influenced the minds of the lawmakers4 ,in like manner1 when ,popery in ,england was put down by the ,protestants1 each party was headed by its priests4 ,many a minister1 at that period1 felt bound to follow what he believed to be truth1 rather than to abide by a vow made in youth2 and they who had upheld the authenticity of ,popish miracles1 and of ,apocryphal ,scriptures1 ceased to give credence to them1 or to use them as authorities in matters of religion4 ,these men were honest4 ,that which has been done by men aforetime1 may be done or imitated in our own day2 and our divines have as great a power to examine into the value of the ,bible now1 as they had at the ,reformation4 ,if they refuse to make the inquest suggested--in what way1 may we ask1 do they differ from the ,romanists in the time of ,luther1 who would not inquire into the truth of his arguments lest they should be convinced8 ,can any one who professes to be a ,protestant--a child of the ,reformation--honestly refuse to investigate the grounds of the faith which is in him1 and shelter himself1 as ,bonner and others did1 under the pretext of a declaration or vow made at ordination8 ,if those who make the excuse just referred to1 are honest1 they are bound to reject every doctrine which they1 or their predecessors1 have received from ,romish priests1 who propounded in adult life1 doctrines different to those which they professed when yet almost children4 ,to illustrate the tendency of our remarks still further1 let us1 for a moment1 suppose that the captain of a ship has1 from any cause whatever1 adopted a particular compass by which he directs his course1 and which perhaps he calls by the name of ,faith4 ,all in the vessel are1 to a great extent1 dependent upon him for a successful voyage1 and a safe arrival at the desired haven4 ,seeing how the master-mariner honours the magnetic needle1 every thoughtful passenger will probably consult it in like manner4 ,one more advanced in knowledge than the rest may desire to test the instrument by the position of the pole star1 and thinking that he could recognize the latter1 might infer that the magnet did not point truly4 ,this doubt1 we will imagine still further1 he imparts to the captain1 who1 disinclined to distrust his compass1 endeavours to demonstrate that the position of the pole star is doubtful4 ,in the place of the mariners' compass let us read the ,bible1 and1 instead of the pole star1 let us substitute science4 ,we shall then recognize the position of such men as the ,bishop of ,winchester and ,dr ,colenso--the latter endeavours to test the value of the instrument which is most used by churchmen by certain well-known means2 the former1 on the contrary1 aims to demonstrate that what he regards as a true indicator is so in spite of all which the planets prove to the contrary4 ,to carry on our metaphor a point further1 let us imagine that the captain and the doubting passenger appeal to the seamen and the other people on board the barque--the latter telling in simple terms the grounds of his belief1 whilst the former appeals to the passions of those who have long trusted him1 and only notices the arguments of his opponent to misrepresent them4 ,this is what was done by the ,papists1 in every country1 at the time of the ,reformation1 and which more recently has been done by the ,bishops and ,archbishops of the ,church of ,england1 when in controversy with the ,bishop of ,natal ,dr ,colenso has in voluminous works1 and with a precision which every scholar must admire1 shown that the ,old ,testament--the compass of churchmen--is not what it is supposed to be4 ,against his views a new ,bible commentary has been issued1 with the sanction of the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries2 and in it the authors stoop to misrepresentation6 ,if there were no pretence of joint authorship1 one might imagine that each writer was responsible only for his own shortcomings2 but when there is a parade of great names1 which is intended to demonstrate the almost infallible truth of everything 7except typographical errors71 one is bound to treat the contributors as being on a level with each other1 and all hierarchical coadjutors4 ,how can any one1 with a tendency towards fair dealing1 characterize but with the epithet contemptible dishonesty1 a deliberate quotation from ,dr ,colenso1 which is falsified1 that the fabrication may be refuted8 ,the ,bishop of ,natal's argument is a just one1 and1 although it is only contained in a note and not in the text itself1 is of great weight4 ,it runs thus 7,part v41 p4 #ig7--,of course the fact that the tabernacle at ,shiloh had doors 7#a ,sam4 iii4 #ae7-- that the lamp was allowed regularly to go out in it 7#a ,sam4 iii4 #c71 and that ,samuel slept in it1 and apparently ,eli also 7#a ,sam4 iii4 #b1 #c71 are sufficient to show that this could not have been the ',mosaic ,tabernacle4' ,this is a fair and scholarly statement2 the layman recognizes it as such1 and looks to his ecclesiastical superior for an honest opinion on its value4 ,what does he find8 ,simply this--,bishop ,browne answers3 ,the objection 7,colenso1 ,part v41 p4 #ig7 that the ,tabernacle 7at ,shiloh7 could not be the tabernacle1 in the wilderness1 because it had a 'door' 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #bb7 is rather singular1 if we observe that the words in ,samuel1 on which the objection is founded-- ',the women that assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation'--are literally a quotation from ,exod4 xxxviii4 #h--',the women assembling1 which assembled at the door of the tabernacle of congregation4' ,of course the word door1 fine pethah1 is as applicable to a tent door as to a house door1 and is constantly used of the door of the ,tabernacle in the ,pentateuch4 ,in this observation of the ,bishop of ,winchester a false issue is deliberately raised2 the quotation given by ,colenso is not touched1 and for it another1 wide of the mark1 is substituted6 ,in the verse referred to by the ,bishop of ,natal the words are--,and ,samuel lay until the morning1 and opened the doors of the house of the ,lord1 c4--doors being in the original1 dalethoth--a different word altogether to pethah1 and certainly in the plural number4 ,in other language1 we may say that in the ,speaker's ,bible1 almost every argument and criticism of ,colenso and his ,german authorities are left unnoticed and unanswered2 and this1 almost the only quotation made1 is not a true one6 ,is this honest8 ,so gross1 in my opinion1 is the want of candour shown in this case1 that ,i1 for one1 cannot trust a single assertion of the ,bishop of ,ely1 now translated to ,winchester1 even when he quotes chapter and verse1 until ,i have verified the extract4 ,but the flagrancy of the proceeding is1 if it can be1 heightened by a reference to the subject ,dr ,colenso was endeavouring to show1 by those undesigned coincidences1 that hierarchs profess to love so much1 and which they parade with great earnestness when it suits their purpose1 that the tabernacle at ,shiloh was not that described in the ,pentateuch4 ,it was perfectly open to ,dr ,browne to adduce evidence that it was the same4 ,this he does not do--the scholar can well understand the reason why1 viz41 that a close inquiry supports the ,bishop of ,natal's view4 ,for example1 in #a ,sam4 ,l #i1 we find that ,eli is sitting upon a seat by a post of the temple of the ,lord4 ,this sentence is significant in ,english1 it is much more so in ,hebrew4 ,the words post and temple certainly are quite incompatible with a tent or tabernacle4 ,in the ,hebrew1 the tabernacle is generally spoken of as ohel1 whilst temple is heckal4 ,still further1 the expression1 post of the temple1 is peculiar1 because a corresponding one is found only once in the ,old ,testament--viz41 in ,ezek4 xli4 #ba1 where the ,english version has the posts of the temple1 whilst the marginal reading has post ,the word heckal is in constant use throughout the later ,jewish books1 but does not occur once in the ,pentateuch2 and it is a significant fact that1 in #a ,kings xxi4 #a1 #b ,kings xx4 #ah1 ,ps4 xlv4 #h1 cxliv4 #ab1 ,pro4 xxx4 #bh1 ,is4 xiii4 #bb1 xxxix4 #g1 ,dan4 i4 #d1 the word in question is translated in our authorized version palace4 ,as the idea of a palace--a royal residence1 is totally distinct from a tent or tabernacle1 it is clear that the narrative about ,eli1 ,hannah1 and ,samuel1 was written by some one to whom the story told in the ,pentateuch was quite unknown4 ,the dishonesty--we speak thus1 controversially--of the bishops concerned in the new commentary is not only shown in the suggestio falsi1 but in the suppressio veri2 and no amount of skill in argument or of book-learning can1 amongst those who are aware of the fraud1 get over the effect which is produced by the cheat4 ,it is evident1 that the questions which the ,bishops ask themselves are--,since there are so many who are wholly ignorant of this matter1 shall we not do more to uphold current ideas by fraud than by truth8 and1 ,is it not right for us to risk our own souls in support of a faith which we do not1 but which the people do1 believe8 ,in a time when all men are ignorant enough not to understand what is history and what pure fable2 when they are so careless as not to examine quotations1 made from authorities1 in confirmation of opinions1 or so credulous as to believe anything which a churchman1 and1 par-excellence1 a ,bishop1 may affirm1 it may be regarded by ecclesiastical writers as a pardonable sin1 if not1 indeed1 a tactical master stroke1 to misrepresent an adversary4 ,but in the present day1 when all educated ,englishmen have heard of the false decretals on which the ,popes have founded their claims to superiority1 and the astute legend of ,prester ,john1 it is bad policy for a ,bishop to found an argument upon a wrong quotation1 or to imagine that a glaring untruth can by any possibility support his position4 ,for myself1 ,i confess that ,i began to read the ,speaker's ,commentary with interest1 inasmuch as it purported to be an exposition and refutation of the arguments against the authenticity of certain ,biblical writings2 but when ,i found an ,english hierarch could so forget his duty to the truth as to misquote such a man as his episcopal brother1 the ,bishop of ,natal1 ,i abstained from a farther perusal1 for ,i found the necessity of verifying quotations involved more time than ,i could afford4 ,dr ,colenso has1 however1 sufficiently shown the viciousness of the new commentary1 and there is no necessity for a second investigator4 ,from what has been said1 we have shown that the members of the ,church of ,england1 and all ,protestant dissenters1 have a right to expect from their teachers an opinion1 founded upon learned inquiry1 whether the objections made by scholarly critics against the inspiration of the ,bible are well founded1 and that ministers of all denominations1 as a body1 not only shirk the duty1 but persecute such of their fraternity as venture to do so4 ,when an individual in the community accepts a trust and does not fulfil it1 he is amenable to the law2 and if it can be proved that there has been wilful negligence1 the trustee may be punished4 ,this does not1 however1 apply directly to the clergy1 for the trust which is confided to them is to preach and teach from the ,bible4 ,that1 certainly1 is what they engage to do before the law1 but the very essence of their existence as ministers of religion is1 that they shall instruct men in the way of salvation4 ,this trust1 which is never put into legal phraseology1 is proclaimed to be in existence by every preacher2 and each minister1 by implication or assertion1 declares that he is desirous of exercising this trust to the best of his ability4 ,if1 then1 the real value of his leadership is challenged1 he ought1 as a champion1 to defend it4 ,he does so in every point1 except that which is most essential ,he will discuss circumcision with a ,jew1 infant christening with a baptist1 purgatory with a popish priest1 bishops with a presbyterian1 confession with a ritualist1 and the like4 ,there must1 then1 be some cause why ,revelation should not be treated of4 ,if we consult human nature1 the only causes to which we can assign this reticence are1 conscientious cowardice and dishonesty4 ,the first is1 by many persons1 regarded as a duty--they are taught that it is sin to doubt2 the second is not called by its right name4 ,yet1 as we have said elsewhere1 our religious societies are founded upon the principle of sowing doubt broadcast2 and we denounce the pious frauds which invented winking virgins and bleeding nuns4 ,surely1 if there be any truth in the line--,an honest man's the noblest work of ,god1 it is most essential that they1 who style themselves ,his ministers1 ought to be conspicuously honourable1 candid1 and thoroughly trustworthy in matters of doctrine as well as of morality4 ,the subject on which we are now treating has ramifications so wide1 that it is difficult to see the end of the branches4 ,amongst the most obvious is the influence which it has upon the matter of public education--one which occupies a large portion of the interest of our nation at the present time4 ,in our preceding vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aac1 we have a note to the effect that there is much doubt upon the subject whether faith ought to be drilled into the minds of our youth prior to an acquisition of1 or the power of using1 their reasoning faculty1 and we remarked that the question is far too extended to be treated in a casual note4 ,the matter was shortly afterwards discussed in parliament1 but not one of the orators ventured to touch upon the point involved4 ,if we ask ourselves the reason why1 it is probable that the answer would run--because all the interlocutors did not venture to be honest2 by which ,i mean1 did not wish to utter1 in distinct language1 the opinions that they held1 and the end which they sought4 ,there are some legislators who regard moral cowardice as a virtue1 and political dishonesty as a desirable kingcraft4 ,if an observer of the parliamentary debates1 to which we refer1 was also a diligent and thoughtful reader of orations made in country towns and metropolitan districts1 by preachers and teachers of all our various religious denominations1 he would readily come to the conclusion that there was something underlying every speech1 which was never allowed to come to the surface--a something which each was perfectly cognizant of1 but which it would be unmannerly to name1 or even to hint at strongly4 ,it is not1 in public meetings1 or in parliament1 permitted to any speaker to accuse an adversary of falsehood or dishonesty4 ,yet1 what an orator may not judiciously say of particular individuals1 a writer may assert of a class1 or of a single person1 if he is a representative of a body4 ,i may1 for example1 accuse the ,pope of dishonesty in misrepresenting certain well-known facts4 ,i may equally charge controversial writers with fraud1 when they falsify the words or arguments of an opponent4 ,whoever frames such an indictment is1 however1 bound to take into consideration the possibility of there being an unintentional error4 ,it may1 for example1 be true that ,popes never see newspapers which tell the truth1 and that divines may quote without ever reading the book which they profess to criticise4 ,in both cases the critic acquits them of malice1 but only to convict them of culpable ignorance4 ,when we investigate how this bears upon education1 we ask ourselves--,do we1 as historians1 or in our capacity of reading men1 know that the pretensions of the ,church of ,rome are founded upon1 or are bolstered up by1 assertions which every learned man knows1 or ought to know1 are unworthy of belief8 ,to be more particular1 let us propound the question--,does any ,papal hierarch believe that ,francis of ,assisi received certain bodily marks on his hands and feet direct from ,jesus8 or that any portion of the blood of a man has been preserved for ages in the ,cathedral of ,naples1 as having once belonged to a person who is called by the same name as the first month in our year8 ,we might readily increase our queries by remarking about ,st4 ,dennis1 ,st4 ,george1 ,st ,fou-tin1 and a variety of others who appear in the ,roman heaven4 ,our purpose1 however1 will be answered if we ask1 whether the thoughtful amongst us do not object to the ,papal faith1 because those who proclaim it are not to be trusted8 ,if we listen to energetic ,protestant divines1 we hear much of lying wonders1 wrought by ,antichrist1 which are calculated even to deceive the very elect4 ,these men frequently quote such passages as the following3--,trust ye not in lying words1 saying1 ,the temple of the ,lord1 the temple of the ,lord1 the temple of the ,lord1 are these 7,jer4 vii4 #d72 ,they have committed villany in ,israel1 and have spoken lying words in my name1 which ,i have not commanded them 7,jer4 xxix4 #bc72 ,have ye not spoken a lying divination1 c4 7,ezek4 xiii4 #g1 #h1 #i72 ,then shall that ,wicked be revealed1 whose coming is with lying wonders1 and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness2 and for this cause ,god shall send them strong delusions1 that they should believe a lie1 c4 7#b ,thess4 ii4 #h-ab74 ,indeed1 the main objection to the ,roman ,church1 amongst all those who are acquainted with its secret history1 is that it is founded1 and still exists1 upon a foundation of fraud4 ,there are many who consider that the ,churches of ,england and of ,scotland have not a better basis2 but both have so many friends in ,great ,britain1 that the sins of neither are closely examined1 except by their adversaries4 ,each sectarian is fully alive to the want of good faith shown by every other division of the ,church of ,christ2 and not only so1 but we have seen1 in our own times1 a ruler in ,siam who knows about them too 7see ,wheel of the ,law1 by ,h4 ,alabaster2 ,triibner ,co41 ,london1 #ahga71 and is perfectly alive to the fact that we deceive ourselves4 ,it is a part of human nature that each individual has a propensity to deceive himself or herself4 ,a child1 who has been told that ,old ,bogy lives in a certain cupboard1 will not go and look therein2 a man who adores a lovely wife will not believe in her frailty2 and a fond woman will not credit even her father1 when he tells her that her admirer is a worthless scoundrel4 ,we grant this readily1 but we add the proviso1 that we only allow ourselves to be deceived by our own friends4 ,it would be1 to all of us1 a frightful infliction if our sons or daughters were to tell us that we were under strong delusions1 and believing in lies4 ,consequently1 everyone desires that his family shall have a similar faith with his own4 ,at the present time1 however1 more conspicuously than at any other since printing was invented1 there is1 in society1 a vast number of men who believe1 from their critical inquiries1 that all religionists trust in lying vanities which do not profit4 ,these individuals have become sceptics1 in consequence of education having led them to think for themselves4 ,being opposed to all1 they are friendly with none2 and although they are not aggressive1 as a rule1 they are vigorously attacked by every sect which steadily refuses to come to the light4 ,under these circumstances every hierarch argues3 ,the education which frees the mind from all the shackles of superstition is prejudicial to us1 who earn our living hy making fetters1 fixing them1 and relaxing them when duly paid to do so4 ,a sound teaching--a style of instruction that will induce the rising generation to examine into our pretensions will cut the ground from under our feet4 ,we must1 therefore1 endeavour to limit1 in some considerable degree1 our tuition4 ,like the ,jesuits in ,austria and of to-day1 they will cram the memory1 but not exercise the understanding2 they will crowd the mind with lying statements1 and prohibit all inquiry4 ,sectarians1 therefore1 as a rule1 object to education1 unless it has a religious element in it4 ,they agree in this point1 but differ as to the style of faith which is to be taught ,hence all the difference of opinion1 for as the sectarians cannot decide upon what faith is to be taught1 they object to all instruction whatever4 ,are they honest8 ,if1 instead of nursing a private idea1 each legislator were boldly to say what he desired to obtain and to avoid1 there might be some chance of united action4 ,but when all pretend to work in common1 yet not one is absolutely in earnest1 and all1 more or less1 play at make believe1 no valuable end will be obtained4 ,one politician1 whose memory is tenacious1 and his temerity great1 cannot bear the idea that the ,british mind should approximate to that of the ,germans2 and1 whilst he eulogizes education1 he denounces ,strauss4 ,not because the latter is not a man of profound learning1 but because the cultivation of his intellect has led him to certain conclusions which are distasteful to an ,english politician4 ,this is not honesty4 ,again1 our bishops and the priesthood generally say1 ,education is a desirable thing2 it is wrong for man1 who has a soul to be saved1 not to seek out the way of salvation4 ,but if1 in the course of inquiry1 a scholar imagines that their way is incorrect1 he is anathematized1 and his fellows are instructed to believe that no one can find comfort for the soul except in the way patronized by the ,church4 ,this1 again1 is not honest4 ,but--and the word is of mighty import--if1 instead of saying this distinctly1 a few individuals of high standing in the ,protestant community deliberately1 and with the intention to deceive--or to retain people in the bonds which astute predecessors have thrown around the laity1 state1 as their belief1 that which their critical knowledge tells them is untrue1 or withhold knowledge of importance1 because they deem its publication detrimental to ecclesiastical institutions1 they are not simply dishonest--they are culpable1 and guilty of spiritual murder4 ,my meaning may be illustrated by one or two pertinent anecdotes3 ,the captain of a man-of-war was doubtful of the existence of a rock laid down upon a chart4 ,one day at dinner he announced to his company the disbelief which he had1 adding1 that if the spot were truly described1 the ship would strike directly4 ,it did so1 and few survivors were left to tell the tale4 ,the commander judiciously elected to perish with his vessel4 ,had he told his officers1 and the distinguished passengers whom he was carrying1 what he was doing1 it is certain that the danger would have been avoided4 ,another ship captain was addressed by a civilian who was on board1 and told that a hurricane was approaching1 which might be avoided by steering in a certain direction2 but1 metaphorically speaking1 the bishop would not listen to the layman4 ,the typhoon came1 the vessel was partially dismasted2 then the passenger was consulted1 and by his aid the ship got out of the danger4 ,the civilian was well read1 not in ancient books1 but in modern science2 the master mariner knew only his log-book1 compass1 and the rule of thumb4 ,a person who loses his ship because he is too stupid to believe a chart1 or the rules of a science1 which every scholar may test1 deserves the name of an imbecile1 and our ,board of ,trade would deprive him of the power to do any more mischief as a captain2 but bishops and priests may pilot their vessel wrongly1 for none have any jurisdiction over them1 provided always that they steer in the old channels4 ,it matters not how far the way may be shifted1 all is supposed to be right1 if the old landmarks are still used4 ,to make our meaning still more clear1 let us imagine ourselves a nation of mariners1 and of ocean-travellers4 ,we go to school1 and learn astronomy1 trigonometry1 geography1 physics1 and the like2 yet1 when we are at sea in any ship whatever1 we must neglect our knowledge1 and trust implicitly to the captain of our ship4 ,we know that we are1 in reality1 going southwards1 when our proper destination lies to the north3 for us it is easy to read the stars1 and thus to test both the chronometer and the compass2 must we1 then1 be quiet because we have embarked in a vessel belonging to a certain line1 which is commanded by a master appointed by the firm or company to which the barque belongs4 ,what is the value of education unless it enables us1 when necessary1 to find whether we are in the right way or not8 ,let us1 still further1 suppose that we remonstrate with the captain1 and that he1 in place of arguing the matter fairly1 endeavours to override our objections by quoting from ancient geographers1 to demonstrate that what we believe to be the wrong is1 in reality1 the only true way to go2 we may be silenced1 probably until we accidently discover in the ship's library1 a dissertation proving that the old traveller's charts are worthless4 ,when we find out that1 what will be our opinion of the captain8 ,can we believe him to be honest8 ,if we now were to remonstrate with our naval dictator1 and he were to rejoin--,my worthy brothers1 ,i know that you are right1 and that ,i have been wrong4 ,i have1 indeed1 known it from the time ,i began to be commander1 but my living depends upon my belief in old charts and ancient compasses4 ,i dare not change my plan1 for my masters would dismiss me4 ,they know--at least ,i feel convinced that they are aware1 that the old sailing directions are wrong2 but they have not the courage to say so1 or to alter them--and if ,i do so1 they will cashier me4 ,is the firm or company honest8 and if we are to mete out degrees of culpability1 to whom must the severest punishment be awarded8 ,surely1 in the case of the ,church of ,england1 to her ,bishops1 who1 knowing1 as scholars1 that their compass and charts are incorrect1 yet oblige those under their command to steer by them--thus compelling the men who ought to be standard-bearers in the forefront of intellectual work1 either to be silent1 or to fight at a disadvantage4 ,it is the knowledge of the duplicity of a vast number of intelligent divines1 which has induced laymen to take the business of education out of the hands of the clergy as a body4 ,the ,protestant believes that a ,jesuit will not teach correct history2 the ,romanist feels certain that1 even in biography1 evangelical narratives cannot be trusted2 and ,nonconformists generally feel that they cannot rely upon the instruction given by those of a different sect4 ,it is desirable to sketch1 if possible1 what would be the condition of society if1 in the place of the clergy1 there was a set of men trained to the office of instructor1 and that all individuals in the kingdom were compelled to attend school for a definite period in their youth4 ,in the first place1 nothing would be taught which is not known to be true4 ,after having mastered the rudiments of knowledge1 the art of reading1 writing1 and ciphering1 the students would be taught to train their minds in drawing inferences from facts1 and the art of passing from imperfect knowledge to certainty4 ,they would be schooled into habits of exactness1 and the necessity for careful inquiry before they believed an assertion to have the same power as a fact ,those whose inclination led them to study one or more of the arts or sciences1 drawing1 painting1 sculpture1 designing1 weaving1 chemistry1 engineering1 building1 and a host of others1 would learn that in every one of them knowledge and precision are required to ensure success4 ,when the instructor found that his pupils were sufficiently trained to the exercise of reasoning1 he would then proceed to explain the ideas which have been entertained by various people about the existence of beings1 other than those which can be recognized by the senses4 ,he would lead his class through the geological history of our planet1 and point out the sequence of events from the latest formation1 to the primary rocks2 on his way he would linger on the nature of ancient plants and animals2 from our earth he would lead them to a study of the stars1 and then point out how very natural is the opinion that all the universe had a designer4 ,then1 after giving a history of the belief in ancient times1 he would gradually descend to our own4 ,he would critically examine the pretensions of any person who had1 in former ages1 asserted1 or who proclaimed now1 that he or she knew all about this presumed ,creator1 and was charged to communicate that knowledge to mankind4 ,after explaining the critical test by which such an assumed mission might be examined--viz41 by accurate knowledge of the earth and of mankind1 he would apply this trial to all known pretenders to inspiration4 ,as a result1 his pupils might prefer one to another1 or refuse to believe in all which have hitherto appeared4 ,in any case1 each individual would enter upon the form of faith which he selected with full knowledge of the facts in favour of it4 ,he would1 therefore1 be a disciple worth having4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he disbelieved all pretenders to inspiration1 his condition would be the result of deliberate reasoning upon ascertained facts1 and not built1 as all religion now is1 upon parrot lore1 taught in childhood1 ere thoughtfulness has begun to grow4 ,assuming that men were thus trained by honest and able instructors1 all those people who live upon the weaknesses and the ignorance of the multitude would cease their endeavours to prey upon mankind1 and to get a living by playing upon the fears which so many persons have of the unknown4 ,there would then be no religious wars or contests--no popes1 prelates1 priests1 nor deacons4 ,quackery of all kinds would cease1 and statesmen would all agree in endeavouring to procure for mankind the greatest amount of available happiness4 ,this would be the result of honesty4 ,but from such a picture many men absolutely recoil ,as the effect of training has been to make them believe that unsubstantial things are of sovereign importance1 they cannot endure the idea of man being wholly rational2 and they insist1 as does the late ,premier of ,england1 that1 if scientific schooling of the mind leads men to neglect what some call ,revelation1 the plan must be radically bad and worthless4 ,but to eulogise education and to deprecate its results is dishonest4 ,this political tenet or practice resembles that of many a parson1 who tells his hearers from the pulpit that they are to take no thought for the morrow1 for the morrow will take thought for the things of itself2 they are not to take thought for life1 for food1 for raiment2 nor to lay up for themselves treasures upon earth 7,matt vi4 #ai1 #be1 #cd71 and on the week-day urges them to lay by a store against the time of sickness or old age4 ,such double-dealing is dishonest1 and is unworthy of a thoughtful man4 ,if ,jesus was right1 why not enforce his teaching8 if he was wrong1 why not say so8 ,is it possible that any minister in politics1 or religion1 can believe that ,honesty is the best policy1 and yet act with double-dealing8 ,can any person1 who has power to think1 believe that he will be respected when he1 on a ,sunday1 preaches improvidence as being taught by the ,almighty1 and on a ,monday proclaims that men are wicked who do not make a provision for the future8 ,if such people were honest with themselves1 they would soon discover that the doctrine propounded from the pulpit is a ,buddhistic one1 acted upon by all the early disciples of ,sakya ,muni1 and in a conspicuous manner by himself4 ,yet1 if a parson were to be candid thus far to himself1 he would probably say--,i cannot afford to be honest in this matter openly1 and ,i must keep this knowledge to myself4 ,interest1 unfortunately1 determines the actions1 even of our divines1 more than a rigid uprightness4 ,we are thus at the foundation of those causes which are in operation to make the thoughtful laity distrustful of the clergy--it is1 that the latter are not honourable or strictly veracious--they preach one doctrine1 and act upon another4 ,honesty is on their lips1 but self-interest in their hearts4 ,from the ,pope to the humblest deacon1 there is a conscious reticence in every mind--an inner belief that their pretensions are not tenable1 yet an outward determination to proclaim them at all hazards2 like the silversmiths of ,ephesus1 they all unite in the belief that their craft is in danger when the apostles of reason appear4 ,far be it from me to assert that all the clergy are dishonest in the full meaning of the word4 ,i believe that many of them have such undeveloped minds1 or such mean intellectual capacities1 that they are absolutely unable to think upon any subject which has not been drilled into them when their brains were childish and ductile4 ,others1 again1 have been schooled into the belief that doubt and the devil are identical1 and who pray to be defended from both--with them1 to inquire is a temptation of ,satan1 and so is to be manfully resisted2 others1 again1 say to themselves1 and sometimes even to their friends--,i know what will follow if ,i go into 'the evidences'--,i dare not do it1 and prefer to remain in my present condition4 ,others1 again1 say to their conscience--,i am paid to expound a certain book1 in a certain way2 ,i cannot afford to give up my position2 consequently ,i will neither hear of nor argue upon either the volume or the doctrine4 ,there are1 again1 some few religionists who1 by constantly encouraging a blind faith1 and repressing all intellectual doubts1 come at length to believe their position impregnable1 and who trust it because it is1 as it were1 always kept under a glass-case4 ,some such ,i know1 or have known1 personally2 and have heard from their own lips how their very accurate knowledge of the ,bible has made them doubt its inspiration1 and how they have wrestled with ,god in prayer--to use their own expression--until the temptation to distrust has been changed into a childlike confidence4 ,men like these are not dishonest to the world1 they are only so to themselves4 ,the career of one of my acquaintances has been so striking1 that it deserves a record4 ,the man of whom ,i speak was one of powerful intellect1 and of an inquiring turn of mind2 but he was in holy orders1 and had schooled himself never to investigate the ,bible's claim to inspiration1 or anything connected with religion4 ,he faithfully did the ordinary duties of a minister according to his lights2 but throughout his ministrations1 in the composition and delivery of every sermon1 there was a powerful undercurrent of the mind which was constantly saying1 without using words--,you know that you are not honest4 ,prayer did not subdue this mental conflict1 and day by day the undercurrent grew stronger4 ,it was1 however1 resolutely opposed1 and an outward orthodoxy rigidly kept up4 ,of the throes of such a man1 when he was quietly alone1 few but those who have felt them can have an idea4 ,under their influence the brain gave way1 and insanity was the reward of a resolute determination to be orthodox against personal conviction4 ,similar cases are not uncommon1 when faith opposes reason4 ,it is very doubtful whether ordinary laymen have an adequate idea of the extent of clerical dishonesty existing amongst us1 not only in the seats of learning1 but in our towns1 cities1 and villages4 ,as ,i have had much correspondence and conversation with many ministers of religion1 ,i have formed the opinion that parsons of all denominations regard themselves much in the same light as trade unionists and non-union men1 the two parties look upon each other as hostile4 ,the former1 who call themselves the orthodox1 keep up a sort of spy system upon those whose opinions they fear1 because they are not in the union4 ,such men1 if they had a chance1 would not scruple to ratten an adversary4 ,they judge of a man by the books which they chance to see in his library1 book-cases1 or upon his table2 and1 without the manliness to confront1 they have the weakness to backbite those whose mind is more robust than their own4 ,as a physician1 ,i have been consulted by a ,church of ,england minister1 who was suspected by the rest of the ministers in his town of being a non-union man4 ,of strong mind1 he did not preach the usual jargon which the pulpit delights in4 ,irons upon ,prophecy and ,inman's ,ancient ,faiths had been seen in his study1 and he spoke approvingly of ,colenso4 ,as a consequence1 he was watched in the pulpit and in the street4 ,he was followed to the homes of poverty1 and sick folk were visited1 that the nature of his ministrations might be searched out4 ,he was visited by persons of all classes1 who1 taking their cue from the ,new ,testament1 strove to entangle him in his talk4 ,being married1 and having a family1 and no means of subsistence1 save his church living1 this trade union persecution made him miserable1 and seriously injured his health4 ,but he was resolute not to be dishonest1 and held on his way4 ,i was1 he assured me1 the only person whom he knew that could appreciate his condition1 and he was most thankful for my sympathy and advice4 ,he left my house already improved in health2 and the feeling that he had a friend to whom he might always apply1 enabled him to bear his persecution manfully4 ,he still retains his position1 notwithstanding all the wiles and picketings of the trade unionists4 ,this spy system1 mentioned in the above example1 is associated with an attempt to discover and apply backstairs influence--those who have the power of making appointments in the church1 the chapel1 or the meeting-house1 are studied1 and their opportunities to remove a non-unionist taken advantage of by clerical ,by-ends1 who endeavour to shape their judgment according to that of their patrons4 ,this dishonesty reacts upon itself4 ,men who preach habitually one set of doctrines to a congregation1 tie themselves and their understanding down to the low level of the majority of mediocrities2 and as this level has1 under such circumstances1 a tendency to lower itself1 the clergy have been compelled to fall1 with their patrons1 far down in the intellectual scale1 and the intelligence and educational status of ministers of all denominations sinks annually lower4 ,the proprieties of society prevent me from repeating what has come to my ears from the lips or pens of distinguished clerics4 ,it will be enough if ,i utter my belief that one or more outspoken laymen will do more good to religion1 and advance the interests of society more1 than all ecclesiastical unionists4 ,in this and the preceding volumes it has been my aim to be thoroughly honest4 ,in some things of small moment1 such as ,greek accents1 ,hebrew points1 c41 it is probable ,i have been faulty4 ,i will even allow1 willingly1 that a more perfect ,hebrew scholar than myself may esteem my etymons fanciful and incorrect4 ,my work having been done in the midst of constant interruptions1 ,i concede that1 to accomplished bookworms1 it must appear disjointed4 ,but1 with all its faults1 it is honest2 and1 being so1 ,i claim the right to challenge any one who chooses to enter the lists1 and encounter me honourably1 to a knightly combat4 ,i am sure that my aim has been1 and is yet1 to elicit truth4 ,to me vituperation1 because ,i have run foul of what are called established doctrines1 has no more influence than it had upon the prime movers of any revolution4 ,a foul blow1 such as iniquitous misrepresentation1 would probably anger me for a moment1 yet it would nerve me1 in the course of a few hours1 to make an onslaught more furious than ever4 ,with a literary rascal one cannot observe the strict laws of knighthood1 except indeed1 those which govern the relations of the noble and the varlet4 ,i make this challenge the more boldly1 because the so-called orthodox cannot persecute me by those meannesses which they employ against each other4 ,having no ecclesiastical status1 ,i have no penalty to dread from frightened bishops or malignant priests4 ,in the face of such a defiance the clerical party must fight fairly1 or slink away as cravens4 ,one condition1 however1 ,i must make with any one who enters the lists--viz41 that any misrepresentation1 such as that made about ,bishop ,colenso by ,dr ,browne of the ,see of ,winchester1 shall be regarded as ipso facto--a signal of defeat4 ,to return to the idea which is enunciated at the early part of this essay1 let us contemplate what would be1 or rather1 what ought to be1 the duty of an honest man1 whose aim is to defend the faith which he professes1 and to prove that the book which he reveres is deserving of his confidence4 ,it is probable that1 if a merchant had in his possession a bill1 or promissory note1 which some person had examined carefully1 and pronounced to be a forgery1 he would never think of parading it before his customers as a valid asset4 ,yet1 as ,i write the sentence1 memory recalls to my mind that traders have done this very thing1 and have counted what they ought to have known were bad debts1 or fraudulent bills of exchange1 amongst their securities for money2 and that1 when the parties so acting have become bankrupt1 their proceedings have been severely punished by the authorities1 as being dishonest and fraudulent4 ,the analogy is an useful one1 inasmuch as it enables me to ask the question--,ought the morality of a 'divine' to be inferior to that practised by a merchant or banker8 ,still further1 let us inquire whether we should have a high opinion of a trader1 who endeavoured to palm off upon us1 as a genuine diamond1 an article which had been publicly declared to be a bit of paste1 and whether we should be satisfied with his excuse--,i believe everything is a gem that goes by the name of a precious stone4 ,in the course of this and our preceding volumes we have1 as plainly as words could express our meaning1 enunciated our conclusions upon certain ,biblical difficulties4 ,we have1 at least1 endeavoured to be honest2 we have not misrepresented those with whose opinions we differ1 nor have we tried to shirk any question1 however difficult it may have been4 ,we claim a corresponding degree of honesty from those who profess to be authorised guides--and certainly are in the position at present of national leaders in religion4 ,we are not like an unfortunate clerk in holy orders1 who can be silenced by law4 ,we are1 on the contrary1 a stranger knight who comes to a tourney1 and claims the right to combat with the most redoubtable of the champions of their court and kingdom4 ,still further1 we assume the power to write those down as cowards who1 upon any pretence whatever1 decline to compete in the lists with us4 ,in the days of chivalry there was not a knight who would not have been regarded as craven1 if he declined a combat because his challenger did not speak or write ,french correctly1 or had a speck of rust on his armour1 a dint in his shield1 or a hole in his breastplate4 ,yet1 in these degenerate days1 we see that poltroons refuse to entertain the arguments of a writer who1 from any cause whatever1 appears to be inaccurate in ,hebrew points1 or consonants1 or ,greek accents1 or transliteration4 ,for ourselves1 we regard every excuse which is framed to avoid meeting a fairly stated argument as a proof of weakness1 and when it is uttered by a professional champion1 as an act of cowardice4 ,when such champions are paid by a state to uphold the honour of their country1 to avoid a challenge by evasion is dishonesty4 ,there was1 however1 in knightly days1 some established law of chivalry that no champion need fight a squire or varlet2 but1 on the other hand1 no nobleman could refuse to enter the lists on the plea that his challenger had a different faith to his own4 ,combats between ,christians and ,paynim were common4 ,consequently1 we cannot regard a bishop justified in declining a fair challenge1 because he is invited to enter the lists by an ,infidel4 ,considering myself as an university graduate and an ,english gentleman1 entitled to give a literary challenge1 ,i make no scruple to enter the lists1 and invite champions to break a lance with me in favour of their patron saint or lady4 ,i assert that their tutelary saints--,adam1 ,abraham1 ,david1 ,moses1 ,solomon1 and the prophets1 are imaginary beings1 or1 where real1 were not as worthy as they are supposed to have been4 ,i defy scholars to prove that the ,israelites were ever1 as a body1 in ,egypt2 that they were delivered therefrom by ,moses2 that the people wandered during forty years in the desert2 received a code of laws from ,jehovah on ,sinai2 and were1 in any sense whatever of the words1 the chosen people of ,god4 ,i assert that the whole history of the ,old ,testament is untrue1 with the exception of a few parts which tell of unimportant events--e4g41 it is probable that the ,jews fought with their neighbours1 as the ,swiss have done in modern days--but ,i do not believe the tale about ,samson any more than that of ,william ,tell4 ,i assert that there is not a single true prophecy in the whole ,bible1 which can be proved to have been written before the event to which it is assumed to point1 or which is superior1 in any way1 to the oracles delivered in various ancient lands4 ,i assert that the whole of what1 is called the ,mosaic law had no existence in the days of ,david1 ,solomon1 and the early ,hebrew chieftains--or kings--if they are thought to deserve the title4 ,here there is no room for evasion--the issue is clear2 the cause to be adjudged by combat is unmistakable4 ,as the weapons on both sides must necessarily be literary--the pen1 and not lance or spear1 it is advisable to say a few words thereupon4 ,in argument ,i do not recognize that style of logic which considers that the words it may be are equal to it is4 ,i am induced to make this remark1 because in theological works1 the two forms are constantly used as if they were identical4 ,many years ago1 a near relative1 staying in my house1 was preparing for ordination in the ,church of ,england1 and amongst other hooks1 had a certain work of the late ,cardinal ,wiseman1 for perusal--with the intention of collecting materials for refuting it4 ,he told me that the ,papal ,archbishop was too strong for him1 and requested my aid4 ,as a result1 ,i became familiar1 not only with many dogmatic writings of the ,roman1 but also of the ,anglican1 ,church4 ,all of them had1 in my estimation1 the same logical fault4 ,their authors imagined that any given point is proved when it can be shown that the occurrence in question may have happened4 ,at a subsequent period ,i discovered that this was the prevalent argument amongst writers in my own profession4 ,it has1 indeed1 been supposed generally1 that success in proving an opponent to be wrong1 is the same as demonstrating your own propositions to be right4 ,the writers in the ,speaker's ,commentary upon the ,bible have not advanced beyond this4 ,a thousand such commonplaces as fill its pages1 are worthless to the philosophical inquirer1 and ,i no more regard them1 than a knight would a targe and lance made of barley-sugar4 ,my challenge1 however1 is not confined to the subject of the ,old ,testament2 ,i affirm that the ,new ,testament is equally untrue--although not to the same degree4 ,yet1 as in the latter1 there are not so many asserted facts1 there cannot be so many points for cavil4 ,to be more specific3 ,i assert that the history of ,jesus was framed upon that of ,sakya ,muni1 and very probably at ,alexandria1 long after the death of the son of ,mary4 ,i do not deny the existence of ,jesus2 but ,i assert that every miracle which is told respecting him--and the narrative of his miraculous conception1 and of the marvels occurring at his birth1 have no foundation in fact4 ,it is unnecessary to repeat what ,i have already said upon such points as original sin1 the fall of man1 and the need of a ,saviour4 ,in what ,i now say or write1 ,i am perfectly honest4 ,i have not been paid to preach a certain doctrine1 whether my understanding assents to it or not ,i affirm1 moreover1 that the comfort in which ,i live1 is wholly unbroken by any fears for the future2 and that ,i look back upon the period when my days and nights were made wretched by superstition1 and rejoice that ,i am emancipated from the shackles of ,ecclesiastics4 ,the ,church1 and every sect of it1 which is known in ,christendom1 is1 in my opinion1 unfit to be trusted by thoughtful human beings4 ,its votaries are only happy in proportion to their power of forgetting its doctrines1 or explaining them away4 ,yet all1 as ,i said in the first chapter of my second volume1 agree to make believe1 and by dint of persistently doing so1 end in persuading themselves that they are clothed with lovely garments--which have no existence1 save in the opinion of the wearer4 ,my whole life has been passed amongst religionists of more or less piety4 ,i have known them in public and in private1 in their connection with the world1 and their relations with wife1 children1 and servants4 ,i am also familiar with some who are avowed free-thinkers4 ,as an impartial judge1 and certainly having the desire to be an honest one1 ,i declare that the so-called irreligion or infidelity of the latter makes them better citizens of the world1 better fathers of a family1 and better priests to those who are struggling with misfortune1 than the religion--orthodox or non-conformist--of the former induces them to become4 ,if there were in reality1 as there was once in fable1 a domain in which every one was constrained to speak the truth2 and if1 still farther1 one could carry thereto every religionist1 and inquire into his belief1 ,i feel sure that those whom the professed ,christians affect to despise as infidels1 would be the only ones who would be found faithful in private1 to the principles which they profess in public4 ,if1 for an example1 the question were put to both ,what is honesty8 the answer of the free-thinkers would be--,doing to others1 in every position of life1 that which you would wish others to do to you2 the reply of the dogmatic would be the same1 with the important addition--,except in matters of faith4 ,my readers must not imagine that ,i am hasty or unscrupulous in what is passing from my mind to my pen4 ,there never was a time in which ,i have felt more deeply that my duty1 as an independent man1 is to speak plainly4 ,on the other hand1 there is not one single religionist of my acquaintance1 to whom the words--,ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of 7,luke ix4 #ee7--;do not apply4 ,on the shelves of my library are books written by almost all classes of authors1 and in many different languages4 ,it has been a self-enforced duty to compare their contents1 and to endeavour1 still further1 to elicit from those who are not writers1 information which may assist me in forming a correct idea upon any particular point4 ,up to the present time ,i have not found one single work1 which has relation to the religion of opponents1 and is written by a parson1 thoroughly trustworthy or honest ,everyone is guilty1 either of the suppressio veri or suggestio falsi--generally of both4 ,a book emanating from a priest is bad1 that from a bishop is worse4 ,colenso1 whom ,i regard as the only thoroughly truthful member of the episcopal hierarchy1 is the one who is more foully treated by religionists than any other minister has ever been--,tis true1 'tis pity1 and pity 'tis1 'tis true4 ,we may be pardoned1 if we close this chapter by the expression of our views as to the religion which will prevail when men have thought as much upon their future life as upon their present1 and are honest with themselves3 #a4 ,they will try to form some distinct idea of what would be to them a heaven2 but1 as they will be wholly unsuccessful1 they will cease to speculate upon it4 #b4 ,they will cease to fear a hell1 knowing that1 if there be any immortal part of man1 it must be immaterial2 they will not believe that it can be tormented by material fires1 forks1 and furies4 #c4 ,they will cease to pay any attention to men who call themselves prophets1 divine messengers1 or vicars of ,god on earth1 whether they use lying wonders or not4 #d4 ,instead of constantly cogitating how much they can sin against1 and yet get pardon from1 some unknown deity1 they will recognize the laws of nature for their guide1 and live in communities as their reason dictates4 ,the future will be left wholly in the power of the ,creator4 #e4 ,there will be no belief in a trinity1 in a virgin mother of ,god1 in intercessors of any kind whatever between human beings and the invisible ,god2 each man and woman will be independent and alone in the presence of the ,supreme4 #f4 ,man will no longer try to usurp the place of ,god1 and persecute his fellow mortal on religious grounds4 #g4 ,there will be no priests or ministers of religion2 but there will be instructors in science1 in the laws of life1 and moral order2 there will be magistrates to enforce social propriety1 and establishments where the insane and the criminal can be secluded4 #h4 ,there will be no strife about religion1 for each will attend to his own personal concerns4 #i4 ,the laws of nature will be studied as regards marriage and family2 the infected will not be allowed to perpetuate a feeble race1 nor the diseased infant be pampered1 that it may live to a sickly and useless maturity499 99 ,we may add1 that there will then be neither silly women nor crotchety men1 who will encourage free trade in fornication1 and the diffusion of loathsome diseases1 and endeavour to promote unnecessary suffering by their opposition to the methods of avoidance4 #aj4 ,no law will be made but that which is drawn from a study of the ways of the ,creator1 and the proper requirements of ,his creatures4 #aa4 ,every pretender to revelation1 or inspiration1 will be incarcerated as a rogue or a lunatic4 #ab4 ,the aim of all will be individual and general comfort1 and as much happiness as is compatible with humanity4 ,when each does to others as he would be done by1 the millennium1 so much talked of1 will have come4 ,,appendix4 #bgth ,march1 #ahge4 ,dear ,dr ,inman1 ,at pp4 #aa and #ha of your new volume1 the proof-sheets of which you were good enough to show me1 you intimate that an earlier origin can be found for all ,hebrew feasts and observances excepting the ,sabbath4 ,it would appear1 from discoveries made and works published since you began to write1 that you need not make even this exception4 ,there are1 ,i think1 plain indications of a ,sabbath among the ,egyptians1 and proofs of its observance by the ,assyrians4 ,dr ,g4 ,g4 ,zerffi1 in a note appended to ,mr ,tyssen's ,origin of the ,week99 says--,judging from the ,egyptian mythology1 we are justified in assuming that they had some correct notions of the division of time4 ,their eight gods of the first order point to an incarnation of the cosmical forces1 or the planetary system4 ,the twelve gods of the second order undoubtedly presided over the twelve months of the year2 whilst the seven gods of the third order were to watch over the seven days of the week44444 ,the ,teutons have inherited the division1 not only of the week in seven days1 but also the names by which these days are called1 from the ,indians44444 7,bohlen's ,das alte ,indien2 ,toth1 by ,dr ,uhlemann2 and ,bunsen's ,egypt's ,place in ,history2 ,tacitus1 ,suidas1 ,pliny1 and ,amosis74 99 ,the ,origin of the ,week ,explained1 by ,a4 ,d4 ,tyasen1 ,b4,c4,l41 ,m4,a42 ,williams ,noigate1 #ahge4 ,these1 perhaps1 are only what ,i have called them1 indications of a ,sabbath1 since it is conceivable that a week of seven days might exist without one day being more sacred than another4 ,a plainer indication may be found in the ,hymn to ,amen-,ka1 which exists upon a hieratic papyrus1 judged to be of the fourteenth century1 ,b4,c41 and purporting to be only a copy of an earlier writing4 ,i quote four lines1 and call attention to the fourth3-- ,o6 ,ra adored in ,aptu ,thebes3 ,high-crowned in the house of the obelisk ,heliopolis3 ,king 7,ani7 ,lord of the ,new-moon festival3 ,to whom the sixth and seventh days are sacred499 ,when we leave ,egypt for ,assyria1 we pass from indication to proof4 ,at p4 #ab of ,george ,smith's ,assyrian ,discoveries19999 the author says--,in the year #ahfi ,i discovered1 among other things1 a curious religious calendar of the ,assyrians1 in which every month is divided into four weeks1 and the seventh days1 or ',sabbaths' are marked out as days on which no work should be undertaken4 ,more precise information as to these ,sabbath-days is given by ,rev4 ,a4 ,h ,sayce1 ,m4,a41 in ,records of the ,past1 vol4 ,i41 p4 #afd1 where the following words occur3--,the ,babylonian year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each1 with an intercalary month every six years4444 ,according to the lunar division1 the seventh1 fourteenth1 nineteenth1 twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth days were days of 'rest' on which certain works were forbidden4 99 ,translated by ,c4 ,w4 ,goodwin1 ,m4,a41 in ,records of the ,past1 vol4 ,,ii ,bagster ,sons4 9999 ,sampson ,low1 ,co41 #ahge4 ,the ,assyrian legends tell of seven evil spirits who rebelled against the gods2 of the goddess ,ishtar descending to ,hades1 and passing through seven gates2 of a deluge1 the duration of which was seven days1 c41 c4 ,mr ,h4 ,f4 ,talbot1 ,f4,r4,s41 speaks of the great degree of holiness which the ,assyrians attributed to the number seven1 and where that number was sacred1 the seventh day could scarcely escape special honours4 ,why the number seven was sacred1 or whether the ,babylonian ,sabbath was at first any more than an unlucky day1 like the sailor's ,friday1 when it was sowing for the whirlwind to begin any enterprise1 are other questions4 ,i am1 yours faithfully1 ,,george ,,st4 ,,clair4 ,these observations of ,mr ,st ,clair deserve attention1 for they show that1 from an ancient period1 a sixth and seventh day were holy in ,egypt1 although we cannot discover from the context whether they were reckoned after the first day of a year1 a month1 or a week4 ,but this is of small importance1 as ,i do not find evidence that the ,jews borrowed any ,egyptian ideas1 even if they ever knew any4 ,it is far more important to know1 that in the ,assyrian calendar the seventh1 fourteenth1 nineteenth1 twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth days of the month were days of rest1 for all ,biblical testimony points to the adoption of the ,jewish ,sabbath in the time of the second ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel--i4e41 not very long after the ,assyrians made their power felt in ,palestine4 ,when we consider the propensity which the ,hebrews had to copy parts of the religion of those who conquered them1 it is highly probable that some astute priest of the ,jews adopted the idea of consecrating a seventh day1 as their ,mesopotamian adversaries had done1 to the most high god ,saturn2 and as it was desirable to have some pretence for the introduction of the ,sabbath1 it was natural that it should be put under the same head as the new moon1 and that stories should be invented1 and gradually circulated1 of the vast antiquity of the new institution4 ,it is clear1 from the ,jewish history1 that the ,sabbath was not generally known amongst the common people until long after the return from ,babylon4 ,had it been so1 ,ezra would not have thundered so energetically in its favour4 ,the same remark applies to ,nehemiah4 ,i have elsewhere remarked that the ,sabbath was unknown to ,david and ,solomon1 and may now add that any one who will read the episode in the history of ,elijah1 recorded #a ,kings xix4 #g1 #h1 will see that this prophet could have known nothing1 and the angel who spoke to him could have known no more1 of the ,mosaic ,sabbath1 inasmuch as the latter directs1 and the former obeys1 an order which must have involved a breaking of the rest of at least five1 and possibly six1 ,sabbaths4 ,the whole life1 indeed1 of ,elijah shows a perfect ignorance of this so-called ,mosaic institution4